2022 Research Grantee Dialogue

Tuesday, May 17 – Thursday, May 19, 2022

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Embracing the Diversity of Civic 

Engagement: Opportunities for 

National Service
2

Katy Hussey-Sloniker, MBA, MSW, LGSW,

Learning Officer, 

AmeriCorps Office of Research and Evaluation

2022 Research Grantee Dialogue: 

Embracing the Diversity of Civic Engagement
3

Welcome!

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submit any questions throughout 

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Introductory Remark

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Mary Hyde, Ph.D.

Director, 

AmeriCorps Office of Research and Evaluation

2022 Research Grantee Dialogue: 

Embracing the Diversity of Civic Engagement
5

2022 Research Grantee Dialogue: 

Embracing the Diversity of Civic Engagement

Keynote from 

AmeriCorps CEO

Michael D. Smith 
2022 Research Grantee Dialogue:

Embracing the Diversity of Civic Engagement

May 17, 2022

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Volunteering among Senior and Volunteering 

across Rural/Urban Spaces 
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Panel Moderators

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 

Andrea Robles, Ph.D.,

Research and Evaluation 

Manager, 

AmeriCorps Office of Research and Evaluation

Shane Dermanjian 

Research Assistant, 

AmeriCorps Office of 

Research and Evaluation
8

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: 

A Role Intersection Perspective

Jennifer Crittenden, Ph.D., MSW

Assistant Professor

University of Maine, School of Social Work 

2017 Grantee

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
9

Description of Study

Identify the extent to which formal volunteering is 

impacted by caregiving, working, and informal helping 

roles along with the attending programmatic strategies 

that support role intersections. 

Challenges: Older Adult Volunteer Recruitment and 

Retention

Who does this affect? Older adults, Volunteer programs, 

Communities

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: 

A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
10

Study Design

Three-Phase Study, Role Theory Framework of 

Inquiry

1) Survey of 1,697 active RSVP volunteers ages 55+

• Quantitative, Multiple regression analysis 

looking at role conflict, satisfaction, intent 

to stay, and time commitment 

2) Survey of RSVP program sites (N=21)

• Qualitative and exploratory in nature

3) Follow-up qualitative interviews with 11 RSVP 

program sites

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: 

A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
11

Findings-Phase I 

Average hours in formal volunteering (RSVP)

22.6 hours/month

M = 53.17 hours/month M = 42 hours/month 

M = 19.41 hours/month 

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
12

Role Conflict 

For those who had additional roles: 

Average conflict score: 7.49 (SD=5.05) 

Range from 5-35 (35 poss. Points)

There are sig. differences in conflict scores between caregivers and 

non-caregivers 

There are sig. differences between workers and non-workers with regard 

to conflict scores

Findings-Phase I 

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
13

Role Conflict 

• A higher number of roles held outside of RSVP was 

associated with lower RSVP participation. 

• Higher levels of role conflict were associated with 

lower levels of satisfaction with RSVP volunteering. 

• Health is an important intervening factor that is also 

related to participation and satisfaction.

• Poorer self-rated health was associated with lower 

reported levels of participation in and satisfaction 

with RSVP. 

Findings-Phase I 

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
14

Role Enhancement

Communication 

Social Skills

Organization 

Time 

Management

Fundraising

Exercise 

Instruction 

Tax Prep

Care 

Approaches

Meal 

Preparation
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Phase III 

• 11 RSVP sites recruited

• 7 States 

• Program sizes ranged 

from 50 volunteers to 

650 volunteers 

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
16

Phase III Findings: Practices and Themes
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Intake procedures (subtheme)

• Identify caregiving or working 

volunteers, scheduling 

considerations 

• Volunteer placement considers 

interest to transition to paid 

employment. 

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
18

Training (subtheme) 

• Offering training beyond that required 

for the volunteer role enhances skills that 

can be used in other roles. 

• Example: RSVP of Northern Arizona offers 

additional professional development 

trainings to give volunteers the 

opportunity to build their skill set beyond 

those required for the volunteer role

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
19

• Breaks were viewed as a method for 

preventing burnout and increasing 

retention. 

• Flexibility in schedule and hours is critical

• Conversations during initial intake can 

identify scheduling needs. 

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
20

• Flexibility and lack of a major time commitment 

viewed as helpful to some volunteers

• Offered during non-workday hours 

• One-time opportunities, lasting a few hours in 

duration

Staff perspectives

• Viewed as time-consuming for RSVP staff

• Opportunities get ”volunteers through the 

door”

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
21

• Flexibility to take time away from volunteering to 

attend to other roles. 

• Trained for multiple volunteer opportunities, some 

specific to a given program

• Allows participants ability to volunteer more often 

outside of short-term opportunities, a “per diem” 

type role

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
22

• Volunteering from home seen as a feasible 

way to engage more volunteers, 

especially during COVID

• The ability to volunteer from home while 

simultaneously caring for a loved one was 

noted as an advantage of remote and 

home-based volunteering 

• Such opportunities provide more flexibility 

in volunteering after typical work day 

hours. 

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
23

Provision of supports to volunteers around 

personal wellness and well-being, not 

related to their volunteer work specifically. 

• Caregiver information and support 

groups

• Available services 

• Supports offered both formally and 

informally

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
24

A means for programs to provide 

resources and trainings to volunteers. 

• Examples: 

• Workshops on Alzheimer’s 

disease with a local Cooperative 

Extension

• Partnerships with Area Agencies 

on Aging to connect volunteers 

with services 
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Volunteering Accrues Benefits 

Across Roles 

Volunteers & Programs Can 

Work Together To Manage Role 

Conflict

Roles & Health Matter Big Picture 

Takeaways

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
26

mainecenteronaging.umaine.edu/older Participating Programs: -adult-volunteer-study/

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
27

mainecenteronaging.umaine.edu/older Participating Programs: -adult-volunteer-study/

Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
28

Participating Programs: 

Phase III Sites
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Acknowledgements

Co-PI: Sandra Butler, Ph.D., UMaine School of Social Work 

Graduate Assistants: Leah Kravette (‘19 MSW), Abbie 

Hartford (‘21 MSW), Nicholas Silver (‘20 MSW), and Rachel 

Coleman (‘22 Ph.D.)
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Engaging and Retaining Older Adult Volunteers: 

A Role Intersection Perspective

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 

Laurie Paarlberg, Ph.D.

Charles Stewart Mott Chair on Community 

Foundations and Professor of Philanthropic Studies

Indiana University, Lily School of Philanthropy 
Laurie E. Paarlberg, Ph.D

lpaarlbe@iu.edu

Rebecca Nesbit, Ph.D

nesbit7@uga.edu

Where have all the volunteers gone? 

This material is based upon work funded by the Office of 

Research and Evaluation at the Corporation for National and 

Community Service (CNCS) under Grant No. 18RE207108 

through the National Service and Civic Engagement research 

grant competition. Opinion or points of view expressed in 

this document are those of the authors and do not 

necessarily reflect the official position of, or a position that is 

endorsed by, CNCS.

Volunteering Cliff in the US Rural Communities: Why Rural 

Residents Volunteer Less than Before (and what we still don’t know...) 
Ba Background
Volunteering Rates(%)

Paarlberg, et. al (2021). Source: CPS Volunteering Supplement 
34

Why is this important? 

Communities increasingly rely upon private efforts to respond to 

complex social issues. 

• Changes in the social and economic structure of local communities may be 

eroding civic capacity. 

• And civic engagement and community development are productive cycles. 

The rural/urban divide appears more pronounced than ever (economically, 

socially, economically)

• Much of what we know about volunteering is based on studies of urban 

respondents or assumes that rural/urban doesn’t matter. 
Two 

questions 

1. What explains the “historical 

differences” between urban and 

rural volunteering rates? 

2. What factors might explain the 

persistent decline in 

volunteering rates, specifically 

what might be behind the rural 

volunteering cliff? 
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Study Design: 

Quantitative Study of Census Data 

• Current Population Survey (CPS) Volunteering Supplement

• Added to the basic monthly CPS survey (labor force data) every September

• Representative of the US public 

• Asks about the incidence and intensity of volunteering

• Years 2002 through 2015 (we are eager to dig into more current data...) 

• N = 1,072,000 individuals, which is about 90,000 per year

• Data Limitation: In the publicly available CPS data, the county identifier is masked for about 

59 percent of the respondents (for confidentiality reasons). A high proportion of individuals with 

masked county codes are in rural communities. 

• We have permission to access the confidential-level CPS volunteering data in a secure U.S. 

Census Bureau research data center (RDC). This means that we can merge in county-level 

contextual data for ALL respondents, thus overcoming that major data limitation. 

• WARNING: We don’t have rural residents in all these results. 
Findings

(across several studies) 
38

What explains the rural/urban divide? 

• Rurality by itself is not significant— “there isn’t something in the water in 

rural places.” 

• Individual resources provide a small advantage to urban residents (.o11 of the 

gap). 

• Much of the difference results from differences in the characteristics of 

community that favor residents of rural communities (.064) 

• Congregational density 

• Racial homogeneity 

• Lower community wealth (hmmm....) 

• And differences in the size of the effects of community characteristics (.092) 

• Religiosity (density of adherents) and density of nonprofits has a stronger 

effect in rural places 
39

What explains the rural/urban divide? 

• Rurality by itself is not significant— “there isn’t something in the water in 

rural places.” 

• Individual resources provide a small advantage to urban residents (.o11 of the 

gap). 

• Much of the difference results from differences in the characteristics of 

community that favor residents of rural communities (.064) 

• Congregational density 

• Racial homogeneity 

• Lower community wealth (hmmm....) 

• And differences in the size of the effects of community characteristics (.092) 

• Religiosity (density of adherents) and density of nonprofits has a stronger 

effect in rural places 
40

Ongoing efforts to understand what’s behind the decline? 

Recession and associated economic changes? 

Changing social connections? 

“Graying” of rural places
41

Examination of Economic Factors 

• The recession, even when controlling for other economic factors, 

has a negative effect on volunteering rates 

• Economic growth in the 1990’s seems to have a long-term positive effect on 

volunteering, especially among the communities of winners! 

• Changes in community income and growing income inequality are not likely 

drivers of the decline in volunteering 

• Next Steps

• Release the results of the rural analysis from analysis in the Census lab 

• Investigate the interaction between rurality and the economic variables 
42

A Social Explanation 

Perhaps rural residents get involved in volunteering in different ways ? And maybe these pathways are changing 

over time? 

Voluntary : you approach the 

organization or your own involvement 

Social obligation: asked by a friend, 

relative or co-worker 

Recruitment: asked by someone at 

organization, public appeal 

Coercive: mandate through school, 

public housing or court 

Key Finding: # 2

Small differences in pathways 

to volunteering 

*All differences are statistically significant 
43

Declines in recruitment? 

More research is needed 

to understand the 

changes in the capacity 

of organizations 

(government/nonprofit 

/religious) in rural 

places to engage and 

support volunteers 
Next steps 

Research and Implications for Practice
45

Ongoing Research 

# 1. Is changing age structure of rural places dampening volunteering rates? 

 

# 2. Has increasing secularization in rural places dampened 

rural volunteering? 

#3. Are we experiencing “hollowing out” of our civic 

institutions in rural places? (churches and other nonprofits?) 

Need to consider rural context in studies of 

volunteering.

-Importance of the CPS data to track volunteerism

-Support access to the restricted data through the RDC 

Building multidisciplinary teams. 
46

Implications for practice 

Much of the attention on bolstering volunteerism has often 

focused on the individual attributes of volunteers and “teaching 

people” to be volunteers (school service programs etc.).

Our research suggests that volunteerism needs to be a continued 

focus for community development efforts. 

• The importance of strong organizations—what happens when we lose local 

organizations? Schools, youth associations, places of worship? 

• The consequences of “gentrification” of rural places. 

• The “graying of communities.” 
Questions and Comments 

Laurie E. Paarlberg, Ph.D

lpaarlbe@iu.edu

Rebecca Nesbit, Ph.D

nesbit7@uga.edu

Laurie E. Paarlberg, Ph.D

lpaarlbe@iu.edu

Rebecca Nesbit, Ph.D

nesbit7@uga.edu
Appendix of more detailed 

statistical results
49

Economic Explanations

(largely drawn from economic and political science theories—”sociotropic approach” ) 

• Economic distress: 

• Economically distressed communities have lower levels of trust, greater competition for 

resources, less incentive to invest in the long term, fewer civically engaged role models 

(Grueter et al., 2020; Lettinga et al., 2020; Letki, 2008 Parboteeah et al., 2004)

• Economic inequity: 

• Increasing social distance and less community solidarity (Collins & Guidry, 2018; Fateh 

Ahmad & Majid, 2021) 

• Economic decline: 

• Dampens collective self-efficacy 

• Creates long-term public disinvestment in building human and social capital 

• Interterritorial inequality: Long-term decline creates a sense of segregation from 

the broader society that fuels anger and resentment that their community has been left 

behind and “doesn’t matter” to the larger society –”the fly over effect” (Rodríguez-Pose, 

2018). 
50

Results of the Oaxaca Blinder Decomposition 

-0.200

-0.150

-0.100

-0.050

0.000

0.050

0.100

0.150

0.200

0.250

0.300

Endowments Coefficients

Total individual Median income County education Population homogeniety

Adherent rate Nonprofit density Congregational density
51

Probit Results 

(Community Variables) 

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Median income NS NS NS

Income Inequality NS

Recession -.155*** -.150*** -.136***

Percent change in median household income (standard deviations): 1990-

2000

3+ SD below NS

2 SD below NS

1 SD below NS

1 SD above .156 *

2 SD above .209**

3+ SD above .283**

Warning:

The effects of many 

community variables vary 

across rural/urban 

The interaction between economic 

variables and the recession is not 

significant. 
52

 

 

 

 
53

 

 

Is the changing 

age structure of 

rural places 

dampening 

volunteering? ? 

Next steps: Release the data on 

rurality, age structure, and 

volunteerism. This is complex 

because the effect of individual age 

changes across the age structure of 

place. 
54

Has secularization dampened rural volunteering? 

Faith congregations are a traditional source of entry into volunteerism 

and a source of resources for local organizations. 

Congregations directly provide services. 

Congregational structures are “anchor institutions” 

Median weekly worship attendance:

2000: 137

2020: 65

65% of congregations average less than 100 people 

attending worship (vs. 45% on 2000) 

Next steps: Partner with religious study colleagues 

to examine the unique effects of religious 

community on volunteering 

https://faithcommunitiestoday.org/fact-2020-survey/. https://www.pewforum.org/2021/12/14/about-three-in-ten-u-s-adults-are-now-religiouslyunaffiliated/
55

Best Practices: Engaging Seniors, Urban, and Rural populations

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 

Jennifer 

Crittenden, 

Ph.D.

Assistant Professor

University of Maine, 

School of Social 

Work 

Annie Georges, 

Ph.D.

Principal/Senior 

Research Associate

JBS International

Emily Zimmerman, Ph.D.

Associate Professor

Virginia Commonwealth 

University, Health 

Penn Loh, M.Sc.

Senior Lecturer and 

Director of Community 

Practice

Tufts University
56

Encouraging older adults to participate 

in volunteer work in addition to other life 

role responsibilities through: 

Recruitment: 

• Articulating role-related benefits

• New recruitment avenues

• Employers

• Caregiver organizations

• Other civic organizations

Older Adult Volunteer Best Practices

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
57

Retention 

• Create Role Enhancement Opportunities 

(Holistic Approach)

• Integrating supportive practices

• Support Health and Well-Being 

• Reduce isolation 

• Build volunteer infrastructure

• Volunteer job flexibility/scheduling

• Volunteer assignment matches that 

will create role-related benefits

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 

Older Adult Volunteer Best Practices
Processes and impact of volunteering in an 

under-resourced Virginia neighborhood

Emily Zimmerman, Ph.D., M.S., M.P.H.
Best practices for volunteering in under-resourced neighborhoods

 Employ a community liaison, with good rapport with and connections to 

community residents, to create ongoing dialog/navigation/translation

 Have structures in place that allow feedback from the community to ‘move up the 

ladder’ in the organization to have an impact on planning and service provision. 

 Foster transparent communication and report back to communities

 Have a community engagement strategy in place

 Build community and resident capacity

 Carefully investigate community and residents’ needs and strengths before 

offering help or starting a program and include community voice throughout

o Consider unintended consequences during assessment and planning 

 Approach planning services and programs as a conversation with the community

 Consider the historical and cultural context of communities, including institutional 

racism, before starting work there. Make sure that managers, coordinators, and 

when possible, volunteers, have opportunities to learn about the historical and 

cultural context.
60

Reflections: Turning Research to Action

Ken Goodson

Director

AmeriCorps National 

Civilian Community 

Corps (NCCC)

Atalaya Sergi, 

MSW

Director

AmeriCorps Seniors

Jackie Dulude, 

MPA

Public Affairs Manager 

(Recruitment & Outreach)

AmeriCorps Office of 

Regional Operations

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 
61

Panelist Discussion and Q&A

Ken Goodson

Director

AmeriCorps National 

Civilian Community Corps (NCCC)

Jennifer 

Crittenden, Ph.D.

University of Maine

Shane Dermanjian 

Research Assistant

AmeriCorps Office of 

Research and Evaluation

Laurie 

Paarlberg, Ph.D.

Associate Professor

Lily School of 

Philanthropy, 

Indiana University

Andrea Robles, Ph.D.

Research and Evaluation 

Manager, 

AmeriCorps Office of 

Research and Evaluation

Atalaya Sergi, MSW

Director

AmeriCorps Seniors

Jackie Dulude, 

MPA

Public Affairs Manager 

(Recruitment & 

Outreach)

AmeriCorps Office of 

Regional Operations

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 

Annie Georges, 

Ph.D., 

Principal/Senior 

Research Associate

JBS International

Emily Zimmerman, 

Ph.D.

Associate Professor

Virginia Commonwealth 

University, Health 

Penn Loh, M.Sc.

Senior Lecturer and 

Director of 

Community Practice

Tufts University
Closing Remarks

62

Katy Hussey-Sloniker, MBA, MSW, LGSW

Learning Officer, 

AmeriCorps Office of Research and Evaluation

Volunteering among Senior and 

Volunteering across Rural/Urban Spaces 

2022 Research Grantee Dialogue:

Tuesday, May 17, 2022