SRB 11-01

February 2011 

United States 

Department of 

Agriculture

Agricultural 

Research 

Service

National 

Agricultural 

Library

Animal Welfare 

Information 

Center

AWIC Special Reference Brief:

Swine Anesthesia and 

Analgesia, 2000-2010 

Photo courtesy USDA, Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Image Gallery

AWIC Special Reference Brief :

Swine Anesthesia and 

Analgesia, 2000-2010

SRB 11-01

February 2011

Compiled by:

Cynthia Smith, M.S.

Animal Welfare Information Center

National Agricultural Library

U.S. Department of Agriculture

Beltsville, Maryland 20705

E-mail: awic@ars.usda.gov

Web site: http://awic.nal.usda.gov

Available online: http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/pubs/SwineAnesth.pdf

United States 

Department of 

Agriculture

Agricultural 

Research 

Service

National 

Agricultural 

Library

Animal Welfare 

Information 

Center

Published in cooperation with the Virginia-Maryland Regional College of 

Veterinary Medicine
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Materials appearing in this publication do not necessarily represent positions or policies of 

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Acknowledgement

The author wishes to thank Kristina Adams for her help in the final editing and design of 

this document.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •i

About this Document

This bibliography updates and revises the Anesthesia chapter in AWIC’s “Information Resources on 

Swine in Biomedical Resesarch 1990-2000,” AWIC Resource Series No. 11, February 2000 (online: 

http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/pubs/swine/swine.htm).

Citations in this chapter were selected from a variety of medical, agricultural, and biological 

databases. They include articles primarily from peer reviewed journals, proceedings, and book 

chapters. Documents were published between the years of 2001 to 2010. 

Citations that include NAL call numbers may be available at the National Agricultural Library 

(NAL). Guidelines and information on how to request materials that are included in the 

collection of the National Agricultural Library (NAL) may be found on the Request Library 

Materials page at http://www.nal.usda.gov/services/request.shtml. 

A few citations include a DOI, or Digital Object Identifier. The Digital Object Identifier (DOI®) 

System provides a persistent identification number for a digital document so that it can be found 

on the internet even if it is moved. For more information on DOI, see http://www.doi.org.

This document represents only one chapter in our extensive series on Swine in Biomedical 

Research. More chapter revisions are currently underway and will be released when completed. 

It was felt that with the increased depth of coverage on swine and the importance of this large 

model, information should be released in chapters as completed and not withheld as a final 

product. The next chapter will cover the use of swine as cardiovascular models, another important 

area of current research.
ii• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •iii

Introduction: 

Anesthesia and Analgesia Selection

M. Michael Swindle, DVM, Diplomate ACLAM & ECLAM

Professor and Chairman

Department of Comparative Medicine

Medical University of South Carolina

Charleston, South Carolina USA

Selection of a proper anesthetic and analgesic regimen for swine used in biomedical research 

is one of the most important aspects of the experimental procedure. One key issue is ensuring 

that pain and distress associated with an experimental procedure, such as surgery, is adequately 

controlled. For example, the use of preemptive analgesia in surgical protocols has been shown 

to reduce the length of the postoperative recovery and the number of postoperative analgesic 

administrations that have to be performed in swine. But of equal importance is ensuring that 

the agents selected do not interfere with the goals of the research. Veterinarians and research 

personnel should consider the physiologic effects of the anesthetics and analgesics when designing 

the experimental protocol. An educated team based approach to the design of invasive research 

projects is a good way to ensure success. Ensuring that the protocol is adequate to control pain 

and distress and that a research complication does not occur requires knowledge of the effects of 

these agents within the porcine species. In many cases the effects of these pharmacologic agents 

will be different in other species when making comparisons. The selection of manuscripts in this 

section will provide guidance in adhering to these humane and scientific principles. 
iv• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •1

Anesthesia and Analgesia

Aagaard, S., J.R. Larsen, J.S. Berg, E. Sloth, and J.M. Hasenkam (2007). Does the pre-ischaemic administration of sevoflurane reduce myocardial stunning? A porcine experimental model. Acta 

Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 51(5): 577-81. ISSN: 0001-5172.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: In a porcine model, the cardioprotective effect of sevoflurane was 

studied with regard to the preservation of myocardial contractility (myocardial stunning) after a 

myocardial ischaemic insult. METHODS: Twenty-seven pigs were randomized to receive either a 

dual 4% sevoflurane inhalation period as a supplement to pentobarbital anaesthesia or pentobarbital anaesthesia only before a 15-min ischaemic insult on the left anterior descending coronary 

artery. The ischaemic period was followed by 180 min of reperfusion. Myocardial contractility was assessed by myocardial sonomicrometry. RESULTS: A significant difference was found 

between the sevoflurane group and the control group at 5 min of reperfusion. However, subsequently, there was no overall difference between the two groups. CONCLUSION: Sevoflurane 

administered as a pre-ischaemic bolus does not provide long-term improvement of the myocardial 

contractility. However, it can be speculated that sevoflurane may induce an early improvement in 

contractility.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation administration and dosage, methyl ethers administration 

and dosage, myocardial contraction drug effects, myocardial stunning prevention and control, 

hypnotics and sedatives administration and dosage, models, animal, monitoring, physiologic, 

pentobarbital administration and dosage, random allocation, sus scrofa, time factors.

Abu Huwaij, R., S. Assaf, M. Salem, and A. Sallam (2007). Potential mucoadhesive dosage form of 

lidocaine hydrochloride: II. In vitro and in vivo evaluation. Drug Development and Industrial 

Pharmacy 33(4): 437-48. ISSN: 0363-9045.

Abstract: The aim of this study was to develop a controlled release buccal mucoadhesive delivery system for systemic delivery of lidocaine hydrochloride as a model drug. In vitro release and 

buccal permeation as well as in vivo permeation of LDHCL patches were evaluated. The drug 

release and the permeability of the drug through porcine buccal mucosa were evaluated using 

Franz diffusion cell. In vivo evaluation of patches was carried out on rabbits as an animal model. 

Patches were designed in two fashions, bi-layer (BLP; LDHCL, carbopol, glycerin, pentration 

enhancer, and Tween 20 as the first layer; and EVA as the second layer) and triple layer (TLP; 

LDHCL, carbopol and glycerin as the first layer; carbopol, glycerin, pentration enhancer and 

pluronic F-127 as the middle layer; and EVA as the third layer) patches, respectively. Presence of 

oleic acid as PE in the formulation significantly enhanced the in vitro permeability of LDHCL 

(p<0.05), while propylene glycol monolaurate as PE suppressed it (p<0.05). The in vivo evaluation in rabbits showed that TLP had significantly higher Cmax and AUC0-8 (p<0.05) than BLP. 

Furthermore, TLP showed a well-controlled drug plasma concentration over 6 hr which was significantly longer than BLP (p<0.05). Patches were well adhered to buccal mucosa of the rabbits 

over the 8-hr study period. It was postulated that the hypothetical release mechanism of the drug 

and oleic acid from TLP was controlled by their diffusion through the swollen polymer network 

and micelled gel.

Descriptors: anesthetics, local pharmacokinetics, drug carriers chemistry, excipients chemistry, 

lidocaine pharmacokinetics, mouth mucosa drug effects, acrylates, adhesiveness, administration, 

buccal, anesthetics, local chemistry, area under curve, biological availability, delayed action preparations, diffusion, excipients pharmacology, glycerol, laurates pharmacology, lidocaine chemistry, 
2• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

mouth mucosa metabolism, oleic acid pharmacology, permeability, polysorbates, polyvinyls, propylene glycols pharmacology, rabbits, swine.

Adetunji, A. and A. Ajao (2001). Comparison of extradural injections of lignocaine and xylazine in 

azaperone-sedated pigs. Veterinary Journal 161(1): 98-99 . ISSN: 1090-0233.

NAL Call Number: SF601.V484

Descriptors: swine, lidocaine, injection, xylazine, azaperone, anesthesia, heart rate, body temperature, efficacy, respiration rate.

Ajadi, A.R., T.A. Olusa, O.F. Smith, E.S. Ajibola, O.E. Adeleye, O.T. Adenubi, and F.A. Makinde (2009). 

Tramadol improved the efficacy of ketamine-xylazine anaesthesia in young pigs. Veterinary 

Anaesthesia and Analgesia 36(6): 562-566. ISSN: 1467-2987.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-2995.2009.00496.x

NAL Call Number: SF914 .V47

Abstract: To evaluate the influence of premedication with tramadol on xylazine -ketamine anaesthesia in young pigs. Prospective, randomized, blinded cross -over study. Ten young Niger hybrid 

pigs: mean weight 6.1 pl 0.6 kg. Pigs were anaesthetized twice. Xylazine (2.5 mg kgp#), ketamine 

(25 mg kgp#) and atropine (0.04 mg kgp#) were administered by intramuscular (IM) injection, 

5 minutes after either tramadol (5 mg kgp#) (treatment XKT) or saline (treatment XKS). Time 

to loss of righting reflex (TLRR), duration of antinociception, duration of recumbency (DR) 

and recovery times (RCT) were recorded. Quality of induction of anaesthesia including ease 

of endotracheal intubation was assessed using a subjective ordinal rating score of 1 (worst) to 4 

(best). Heart, pulse and respiratory rates, arterial oxygen saturations and rectal temperatures were 

determined over 60 minutes. Antinociception was assessed by the pigs’ response to artery forceps 

applied at the interdigital space. Data were compared with Student’s t-test, Mann-Whitney’s test 

or analysis of variance ( anova) for repeated measures as appropriate and are presented as mean pl 

standard deviation. The quality of anaesthetic induction was significantly better and duration of 

antinociception significantly longer (p < 0.05) in treatment XKT (3.1 pl 0.7 score; 43.7 pl 15.5 

minutes) than in treatment XKS (2.8 pl 0.6 score; 32.0 pl 13.3 minutes). TLRR, DR and RCT 

did not differ significantly (p > 0.05) between treatment XKT (2.1 pl 0.8, 65.8 pl 17.0 and 13.2 

pl 6.7 minutes) and treatment XKS (2.1 pl 1.3, 58.0 pl 14.8 and 10.3 pl 5.6 minutes). Physiological measurements did not differ between the treatments. Tramadol improved the quality of 

anaesthetic induction and increased the duration of antinociception in xylazine-ketamine anaesthetized young pigs without increasing duration of anaesthesia, nor causing additional depression 

of the physiological parameters measured.

Descriptors: ketamine, swine, xylazine, piglets, anesthesia , analgesia, veterinary drugs, general 

anesthetics, analgesics, preanesthetic medication, opium alkaloids, drug evaluation, combination drug therapy, drug synergism, intramuscular injection, depth of anesthesia, analgesic effect, 

biomarkers, hemodynamics, breathing, thermoregulation, reflexes, tramadol-, endotracheal-intubation, Internet-resource.

Alexander, K., J.R. Del Castillo, N. Ybarra, V. Morin, D. Gauvin, S. Authier, P. Vinay, and E. Troncy 

(2007). Single-slice dynamic computed tomographic determination of glomerular filtration 

rate by use of Patlak plot analysis in anesthetized pigs. American Journal of Veterinary Research

68(3): 297-304. ISSN: 0002-9645.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 Am3A 

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To compare glomerular filtration rate (GFR) as estimated from Patlak 

plot analysis by use of single-slice computed tomography (CT) with that obtained from clearance of plasma inulin in pigs. ANIMALS: 8 healthy anesthetized juvenile pigs. PROCEDURES: 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •3

All pigs underwent precontrast, whole-kidney, helical CT; postcontrast single-slice dynamic CT; 

and postcontrast, whole-kidney CT for volume determination. On dynamic images, corrected 

Hounsfield unit values were determined for each kidney and the aorta. A Patlak plot for each 

kidney was generated, and plasma clearance per unit volume was multiplied by renal volume to 

obtain whole-animal contrast clearance. Mean GFR determined via inulin clearance (Inu-GFR) 

was measured from each kidney and correlated to mean GFR determined via CT (CT-GFR) 

for the left kidney, right kidney, and both kidneys by use of linear regression and Bland-Altman 

analyses. RESULTS: CT-GFR results from 7 pigs were valid. Total and right kidney Inu-GFR 

were correlated with total and right kidney CT-GFR (total, R(2) = 0.85; right kidney, R(2) = 

0.86). However, left kidney CT-GFR was poorly correlated with left kidney Inu-GFR (R(2) = 

0.47). Bland-Altman analysis revealed no significant bias between Inu-GFR and CT-GFR for the 

left kidney, right kidney, or both kidneys. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: 

CT-GFR as determined by use of a single-slice acquisition technique, low-dose of iohexol, and 

Patlak plot analysis correlated without bias with Inu-GFR for the right kidney and both kidneys 

(combined). This technique has promise as an accurate CT-GFR method that can be combined 

with renal morphologic evaluation.

Descriptors: anesthesia, general veterinary, glomerular filtration rate veterinary, swine physiology, tomography, spiral computed veterinary, contrast media pharmacokinetics, glomerular 

filtration rate physiology, inulin metabolism, iohexol pharmacokinetics, kidney physiology, 

kidney radiography, reproducibility of results, tomography, spiral computed methods.

Alexson, S.E., M. Diczfalusy, M. Halldin, and S. Swedmark (2002). Involvement of liver carboxylesterases in the in vitro metabolism of lidocaine. Drug Metabolism and Disposition the Biological 

Fate of Chemicals 30(6): 643-7. ISSN: 0090-9556.

NAL Call Number: RM300.A1D7

Abstract: Although lidocaine has been used clinically for more than half a century, the metabolism has still not been fully elucidated. In the present study we have addressed the involvement of 

hydroxylations, deethylations, and ester hydrolysis in the metabolism of lidocaine to 2,6-xylidine. 

Using microsomes isolated from male rat liver, we found that lidocaine is mainly metabolized 

by deethylation to N-(N-ethylglycyl)-2,6-xylidine, and N-(N-ethylglycyl)-2,6-xylidine is mainly 

metabolized to N-glycyl-2,6-xylidine, also by deethylation. However, 2,6-xylidine can be formed 

both from lidocaine and N-(N-ethylglycyl)-2,6-xylidine, but not from N-glycyl-2,6-xylidine, 

in an NADPH-independent reaction, suggesting that the amido bond in these compounds 

can be directly hydrolyzed by esterases. To test this hypothesis, we incubated lidocaine, N-(Nethylglycyl)-2,6-xylidine, and N-glycyl-2,6-xylidine with purified liver carboxylesterases. Rat 

liver microsomal carboxylesterase ES-10, but not carboxylesterase ES-4, hydrolyzed lidocaine and 

N-(N-ethylglycyl)-2,6-xylidine to 2,6-xylidine, identifying this esterase as a candidate enzyme in 

the metabolism of lidocaine.

Descriptors: anesthetics, local metabolism, carboxylic ester hydrolases metabolism, lidocaine 

analogs and derivatives, lidocaine metabolism, microsomes, liver metabolism, carboxylesterase, 

hydrolysis, hydroxylation, microsomes, liver enzymology, rabbits, rats, species specificity, swine.

Allaouchiche, B., R. Debon, J. Goudable, D. Chassard, and F. Duflo (2001). Oxidative stress status 

during exposure to propofol, sevoflurane and desflurane. Anesthesia and Analgesia 93(4): 

981-5. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: We evaluated the circulating and lung oxidative status during general anesthesia established with propofol, sevoflurane, or desflurane in mechanically ventilated swine. Blood samples 

and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BAL) specimens were respectively performed via an internal 

jugular vein catheter and a nonbronchoscopic BAL for baseline oxidative activity measurements: 
4• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GPX). A 

4-h general anesthesia was then performed in the three groups of 10 swine: the Propofol group 

received 8 mg x kg(-1) x h(-1) of IV propofol as the sole anesthetic; the Desflurane group received 

1.0 minimum alveolar concentration of desflurane; and the Sevoflurane group received 1.0 

minimum alveolar concentration of sevoflurane. We observed significantly larger levels of MDA 

in plasma and BAL during desflurane exposure than with the other anesthetics. We also observed 

smaller concentrations of circulating GPX and alveolar GPX. We found a significant decrease for 

MDA measurements in the plasma and the pulmonary lavage during propofol anesthesia. We also 

found larger values of GPX measurements in the serum and the pulmonary lavage. No significant 

changes were observed when animals were exposed to sevoflurane. No significant changes were 

found for circulating concentrations of SOD during exposure to all anesthetics. In this mechanically ventilated swine model, desflurane seemed to induce a local and systemic oxidative stress, 

whereas propofol and sevoflurane were more likely to have antioxidant properties. IMPLICATIONS: Superoxide is an unavoidable byproduct of oxygen metabolism that occurs in various 

inflammatory reactions. Inhalation of volatile anesthetics under mechanical ventilation induces an 

inflammatory response. We evaluated the bronchoalveolar and systemic oxidative stress in swine 

during exposure to propofol and newer volatile anesthetics. Desflurane induces more lipid peroxidation than do the other anesthetics.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, 

bronchoalveolar lavage fluid chemistry, isoflurane pharmacology, methyl ethers pharmacology, oxidative stress drug effects, propofol pharmacology, antioxidants metabolism, glutathione 

peroxidase metabolism, isoflurane analogs and derivatives, lipid peroxidation drug effects, malondialdehyde blood, pulmonary alveoli drug effects, pulmonary alveoli metabolism, superoxide 

dismutase blood, swine.

Allaouchiche, B., F. Duflo, R. Debon, J.P. Tournadre, and D. Chassard (2001). Influence of sepsis on 

minimum alveolar concentration of desflurane in a porcine model. British Journal of Anaesthesia 87(2): 280-3. ISSN: 0007-0912.

Abstract: The effect of sepsis on the minimum alveolar concentration of desflurane 

(MAC(DES)) in humans and other animals has not been reported previously. The aim of this 

study was to test the hypothesis that sepsis might alter MAC(DES) in a normotensive septic 

porcine model. Twenty-four young healthy pigs were premedicated with ketamine 10 mg kg(-1 

)i.m and then anaesthesia was established with propofol 3 mg kg(-1) and the trachea was intubated. Baseline MAC(DES) in each pig was evaluated by pinching with a haemostat applied for 

1 min to a rear dewclaw. MAC(DES) was determined by changing desflurane concentrations 

stepwise until purposeful movement appeared. Pigs were randomly assigned to two groups of 

12 animals: the saline group received a 1 h i.v. infusion of saline solution while the sepsis group 

received a 1 h i.v. infusion of live Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Epinephrine and hydroxyethylstarch 

were used to maintain normotensive and normovolaemic haemodynamic status. In both groups, 

MAC(DES) was evaluated 5 h after infusion. Significant increases in heart rate, cardiac output, 

mean pulmonary artery pressure and pulmonary vascular resistance occurred in the sepsis group. 

MAC(DES) was 9.2% (95% confidence interval (CI) 6.8-10.6%) for the saline group and 6.7% 

(95% CI: 4.7-10.4) for the sepsis group (P<0.05). These data indicate that MAC(DES) is significantly decreased in this normotensive hyperkinetic septic porcine model.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacokinetics, bacteremia metabolism, isoflurane 

pharmacokinetics, pulmonary alveoli metabolism, bacteremia physiopathology, disease models, 

animal, hemodynamic processes drug effects, isoflurane analogs and derivatives, swine.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •5

Allaouchiche, B., F. Duflo, J.P. Tournadre, R. Debon, and D. Chassard (2001). Influence of sepsis on 

sevoflurane minimum alveolar concentration in a porcine model. British Journal of Anaesthesia

86(6): 832-6. ISSN: 0007-0912.

Abstract: Sevoflurane is widely used in anaesthetic protocols for patients undergoing surgical 

procedures. However, there are no reports on the influence of sepsis on minimum alveolar concentration of sevoflurane (MAC(SEV)) in animals or in humans. The aim of this study was to test 

the hypothesis that sepsis could alter the MAC(SEV) in a normotensive septic pig model. Twenty 

young, healthy pigs were used. After they had received 10 mg kg(-1) of ketamine i.m. for premedication, anaesthesia was established with propofol 3 mg kg(-1) and the trachea was intubated. 

Sevoflurane was used as the sole anaesthetic agent. Baseline haemodynamic recording included 

electrocardiography, carotid artery blood pressure and a pulmonary thermodilution catheter. 

Baseline MAC(SEV) in each pig was evaluated by pinching with a haemostat applied for 1 min to 

a rear dewclaw. MAC(SEV) was determined using incremental changes in sevoflurane concentration until purposeful movement appeared. Pigs were assigned randomly to two groups: the saline 

group (n = 10) received a 1-h i.v. infusion of sterile saline solution while the sepsis group (n = 10) 

received a 1-h i.v. infusion of live Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Epinephrine and hydroxyethylstarch 

were used to maintain normotensive and normovolemic haemodynamic status. In both groups, 

MAC(SEV) was evaluated 5 h after infusion. Significant increases in mean artery pulmonary 

pressure, filling, epinephrine and vascular pulmonary resistances occurred in the sepsis group. 

MAC(SEV) for the saline group was 2.4% [95% confidence interval (CI) 2.1-2.55%] and the 

MAC(SEV) for the sepsis group was 1.35% (95% CI 1.2-1.45%, P<0.05). These data indicate 

that MAC(SEV) is significantly decreased in this normotensive septic pig model.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacokinetics, methyl ethers pharmacokinetics, pulmonary alveoli metabolism, sepsis metabolism, swine metabolism, analgesics, anesthetics, 

intravenous, ketamine, models, animal, premedication, propofol.

Notes: Comment In: Br J Anaesth. 2001 Jun;86(6):746-9.

Allison, C.P., R.C. Johnson, and M.E. Doumit (2005). The effects of halothane sensitivity on carcass 

composition and meat quality in HAL-1843-normal pigs. Journal of Animal Science 83(3): 

671-678. ISSN: 0021-8812.

NAL Call Number: 49 J82

Abstract: Objectives of this study were to determine the incidence of halothane sensitivity in 

pigs that are homozygous normal at the ryanodine receptor nucleotide 1843 (HAL-1843-normal) 

and the relationships between halothane sensitivity and carcass composition or meat quality. In 

Exp. 1, piglets (Lines A, B, C, and D; n = 168, 170, 168, and 169, respectively) were obtained 

from mating a HAL-1843-normal sire line to four HAL-1843-normal dam lines. In Exp. 2, 

piglets from Lines A and B (n = 87 and 90, respectively) were included with piglets (Lines E, F, 

G, and H; n = 94, 92, 89, and 89, respectively) obtained from mating four HAL-1843-normal 

sire lines to a single HAL-1843-normal dam line. Pigs were subjected to 3% halothane at approximately 9 wk of age. In Exp. 1, limb rigidity, blotching of the skin, and muscle tremors were 

visually assessed, and based on these criteria, halothane sensitivity (HS) was observed in 48% of 

the pigs. To better characterize this response, a scoring system was developed and used in Exp. 2. 

Using this system, 25, 42, and 33% of the pigs in E and 40, 33, and 27% of the pigs in Line G 

were categorized as HS-low (HS-L), HS-intermediate (HS-I), and HS-high (HS-H), respectively. 

In Lines F and H, 13 and 18% of the pigs were HS-I, and 0 and 2% were HS-H, respectively. No 

consistent effects due to HS were observed in carcass composition or meat quality; however, when 

a subset of pigs from Exp. 2 were subjected to more extensive handling and transportation before 

slaughter, ultimate pH was lower and drip loss was higher in LM from HS-H compared with 

HS-L pigs (P < 0.05; n = 71). These results demonstrate that some pigs are sensitive to halothane 
6• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

anesthesia even in the absence of the known HAL-1843 polymorphism. Additionally, halothane 

sensitivity may be associated with inferior pork quality under adverse antemortem conditions.

Descriptors: pig carcasses, pork, meat quality, carcass composition, halothane, ryanodine receptors, piglets, homozygosity, anesthesia, genetic polymorphism, stress tolerance, abiotic stress, 

malignant hyperthermia.

Allison, C.P., A.L. Marr, N.L. Berry, D.B. Anderson, D.J. Ivers, L.F. Richardson, K. Keffaber, R.C. 

Johnson, and M.E. Doumit (2006). Effects of halothane sensitivity on mobility status and 

blood metabolites of HAL-1843-normal pigs after rigorous handling. Journal of Animal 

Science 84(4): 1015-1021. ISSN: 0021-8812.

NAL Call Number: 49 J82

Abstract: The objective of this study was to determine if HAL-1843-normal pigs that respond 

abnormally to halothane anesthesia were more likely to become nonambulatory (NA) when 

subjected to rigorous handling than pigs that exhibit a normal response to halothane. After a 

1,100-km transport, pigs exhibiting low (HS-L; n = 33), intermediate (HS-I; n = 10), and high 

(HS-H; n = 47) sensitivity to halothane were moved through a 36.6-m long aisle that was 2.1 m 

wide at each end and 0.6 m wide in the middle 18.3 m. Ten groups of 8 pigs were briskly moved 

down the aisle and back 4 times, receiving a minimum of 1 electrical prod per pass (8 prods/pig). 

Before testing, rectal temperature was measured, open-mouth breathing and skin discoloration 

were visually evaluated, and a blood sample was collected from each pig. After the test, the pigs 

were returned to their pens, and the same measurements were taken immediately posttest and 

1 h posttest (no blood at 1 h posttest). Pigs that were HS-H were more prone to becoming NA 

compared with HS-L pigs (P < 0.02). Regardless of halothane status, a greater number of pigs 

exhibited open-mouth breathing and skin discolorations immediately posttest than at the pretest 

or 1 h posttest times (P < 0.05). No differences were observed in blood metabolites between the 

different halothane sensitivity categories. However, pigs that became NA had elevated blood levels 

of creatine phosphokinase, lactate, glycerol, nonesterified fatty acids, ammonia, and urea nitrogen before testing (P < 0.05). Collectively, these data suggest HS-H pigs are more susceptible to 

becoming NA than HS-L. The elevated pretest blood metabolites of NA pigs suggest that they 

were in a hypermetabolic state that predisposed them to becoming NA.

Descriptors: swine, blood chemistry, animal handling, malignant hyperthermia, halothane, anesthesia, genotype, genetic variation, animal transport, body temperature , breathing, skin, color, 

downer animals, urea nitrogen, glycerol, lactic acid, ammonia, free fatty acids, creatine kinase.

Almubarak, A., K. Clarke, and T.L. Jackson (2005). Comparison of the Bain system and Uniflow 

universal anaesthetic breathing systems in spontaneously breathing young pigs. Veterinary 

Anaesthesia and Analgesia 32(5): 314-21. ISSN: 1467-2987.

NAL Call Number: SF914 .V47

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To compare minimum fresh gas flow (V(min)) requirements and respiratory resistance in the Uniflow and Bain anaesthetic breathing systems used in the Mapleson D 

mode. Animals Seven pigs, aged 8-12 weeks, anaesthetized for ophthalmic surgery. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Anaesthesia was maintained with halothane delivered in oxygen using 

a (Mapleson D) Bain breathing system. The V(min) that prevented re-breathing was found, 

and peak inspiratory (PIP) and peak expiratory (PEP) pressures measured. The fresh gas flow 

(V(f)) was then increased to V(min) + 50%, then V(min) + 100%, and respiratory pressures remeasured. A heat and moisture exchanger (HME) was inserted at the endotracheal tube and the 

procedure repeated. The breathing system was then exchanged for a Uniflow and the protocol 

repeated. After final disconnection from the breathing system, the animals’ peak inspiratory and 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •7

expiratory flows, tidal, and minute volumes (Vm) were measured over five respiratory cycles. 

RESULTS: The V(min) (L minute(-1); mL kg(-1) minute(-1)) required to prevent rebreathing in 

the Uniflow system [8.1(mean) +/-1.7 (SD); 332 +/- 94] was significantly greater than the Bain 

system (6.5 +/- 1.1; 256 +/- 64). At V(min), PEP with the Uniflow (3.5 +/- 0.1 cm H(2)O) was 

significantly higher than the Bain system (2 +/- 0.7 cm H(2)O), but PIP values did not differ 

(Uniflow -0.6 +/- 2.1 cm H(2)O; Bain system -0.2 +/- 0.6 cm H(2)O). With both systems, PEP 

increased significantly (p < 0.001) with each increase in V(f): Uniflow system 4.2 +/- 0.4 (V(min) 

+ 50%) and 5.5 +/- 0.5 cm H(2)O (V(min) + 100%); Bain system 2.8 +/- 0.7 (V(min) + 50%) 

and 3.5 +/- 0.7 cm H(2)O (V(min) + 100%). Insertion of the HME did not alter pressures. The 

mean tidal volume was 6.4 +/- 1.6 mL kg(-1); mean Vm was 184.9 +/- 69.8 mL kg(-1) and mean 

respiratory rate was 28 +/- 5 breaths minute(-1). In one pig breathing with the Uniflow system 

PEP rose sharply; respiratory and heart rates increased, and ventricular dysrhythmias occurred. 

When the system was changed and V(f) reduced, physiological variables became normal. CONCLUSION: The study discredited the hypothesis that the two breathing systems behave similarly. 

Values for V(min) and PEP were higher with the Uniflow system. Increasing V(f) increased 

PEP with both systems. Insertion of an HME did not affect respiratory pressures. CLINICAL 

RELEVANCE: The Uniflow used in Mapleson D mode is not suitable for anaesthesia in young 

spontaneously breathing pigs.

Descriptors: anesthesia, inhalation veterinary, laboratory physiology, respiration, artificial veterinary, swine physiology, anesthetics, inhalation administration and dosage, newborn physiology, 

equipment design, halothane administration and dosage, pulmonary gas exchange, respiration, 

artificial instrumentation, swine surgery.

Ansley, D.M. (2006). Is anesthesia good for you? Timing is everything! Canadian Journal of Anaesthesia; 

Journal Canadien D’Anesthesie 53(7): 643-5. ISSN: 0832-610X.

NAL Call Number: RD78.68.C4

Descriptors: anesthesia adverse effects, swine, time factors.

Language of Text: French.

Arulmani, U., S. Gupta, A.M. VanDenBrink, D. Centurion, C.M. Villalon, and P.R. Saxena (2006). 

Experimental migraine models and their relevance in migraine therapy. Cephalalgia an International Journal of Headache 26(6): 642-59. ISSN: 0333-1024.

Abstract: Although the understanding of migraine pathophysiology is incomplete, it is now well 

accepted that this neurovascular syndrome is mainly due to a cranial vasodilation with activation 

of the trigeminal system. Several experimental migraine models, based on vascular and neuronal 

involvement, have been developed. Obviously, the migraine models do not entail all facets of this 

clinically heterogeneous disorder, but their contribution at several levels (molecular, in vitro, in 

vivo) has been crucial in the development of novel antimigraine drugs and in the understanding 

of migraine pathophysiology. One important vascular in vivo model, based on an assumption 

that migraine headache involves cranial vasodilation, determines porcine arteriovenous anastomotic blood flow. Other models utilize electrical stimulation of the trigeminal ganglion/nerve to 

study neurogenic dural inflammation, while the superior sagittal sinus stimulation model takes 

into account the transmission of trigeminal nociceptive input in the brainstem. More recently, 

the introduction of integrated models, namely electrical stimulation of the trigeminal ganglion 

or systemic administration of capsaicin, allows studying the activation of the trigeminal system 

and its effect on the cranial vasculature. Studies using in vitro models have contributed enormously during the preclinical stage to characterizing the receptors in cranial blood vessels and to 

studying the effects of several putative antimigraine agents. The aforementioned migraine models 

have advantages as well as some limitations. The present review is devoted to discussing various 
8• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

migraine models and their relevance to antimigraine therapy.

Descriptors: analgesics administration and dosage, disease models, animal, migraine disorders 

drug therapy, migraine disorders physiopathology, serotonin agonists administration and dosage, 

vasodilator agents administration and dosage, treatment outcome.

Ashley, Z., B. Jugg, R.F. Brown, C.E. Kenward, J. Platt, P. Rice, and F.M. Harban (2002 ). Effects of 

inhaled nitric oxide on the anesthetized, mechanically ventilated, large white pig. Inhalation 

Toxicology 14(11): 1175-85. ISSN: 0895-8378.

NAL Call Number: RA1199.4.A54I53

Abstract: Inhalation of nitric oxide (NO) results in selective pulmonary vasodilation, which 

may be beneficial in the treatment of acute lung injury. However, NO has toxic effects, and it is 

important to monitor the effects and fate of inhaled NO. Under intravenous general anesthesia, 

large white female pigs were instrumented, ventilated with intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV, FiO(2) 0.3; TV 10 ml kg(-1); RR 20 bpm; PEEP 3 cm H(2)O) and monitored for 

24 h. Following a period of stabilization, groups were exposed to air (control), or to 10, 40, or 

80 ppm NO, delivered via the endotracheal tube in each inspiratory breath. At regular intervals throughout the 24-h period, physiological measurements and arterial blood, plasma, and 

urine samples were collected. Inhalation of NO acted specifically on the pulmonary vasculature, 

as no alterations in systemic blood pressure were observed. Administration of NO at 80 ppm 

resulted in a decreased mean pulmonary artery pressure, decreased pulmonary wedge pressure, 

and increased methemoglobin and plasma/urine nitrate levels. At post mortem, congestion of 

the alveolar capillary network was noted in this group. In addition increases in plasma/urine 

nitrate levels were also observed in the 40 ppm group. In contrast, no significant alterations were 

observed in the 10 ppm group, compared to the control group. Therefore, 10 ppm inhaled NO 

is a dose that induced no pathological changes in normal healthy lungs and may be of use as a 

therapeutic adjunct in the management of acute lung injury.

Descriptors: anesthesia, general, disease models, animal, nitric oxide toxicity, swine, vasodilator agents toxicity, administration, inhalation, capillaries drug effects, capillaries pathology, dose 

response relationship, drug, hemodynamic processes drug effects, nitric oxide administration and 

dosage, no observed adverse effect level, pulmonary alveoli blood supply, pulmonary alveoli drug 

effects, pulmonary alveoli pathology, respiration, artificial, vasodilator agents administration and 

dosage.

Baker, T.F., M. Torabinejad, S.F. Schwartz, and D. Wolf (2009). Effect of intraosseous anesthesia on 

control of hemostasis in pigs. Journal of Endodontics 35(11): 1543-1545. ISSN: 0099-2399.

Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joen.2009.07.017

NAL Call Number: RK351

Abstract: Introduction: Intraosseous anesthesia is used to deliver anesthetic into cancellous 

bone adjacent to the root apices. No study has assessed the effect of this anesthetic technique on 

hemostasis. The purpose of this study was to compare the amount of bleeding from soft tissue 

and bone in pig jaws after preoperative intraosseous or infiltration anesthesia with 2% lidocaine 

containing 1:50,000 epinephrine. Methods: Twelve pigs were divided into 3 groups. The first 

group received infiltration anesthesia on one half of the jaw and no anesthesia on the other half. 

The second group received intraosseous anesthesia on one half of the jaw and no anesthesia on the 

other half. The third group received infiltration anesthesia on one half of the jaw and intraosseous 

anesthesia on the second half. Blood was collected during flap reflection to measure the volume of 

soft tissue bleeding. Osteotomies were then prepared with blood collected from the surgical site 

to measure the volume of osseous bleeding. Results: The median soft tissue blood loss observed in 

animals receiving infiltration anesthesia (1.14 mL) was significantly less as compared with animals 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •9

that received no anesthesia (4.49 mL) or intraosseous anesthesia (2.45 mL). Compared with 

median hard tissue blood loss observed in animals without anesthesia (1.51 mL), significantly less 

blood loss was observed in animals receiving either infiltration anesthesia (0.67 mL) or intraosseous anesthesia (0.76 mL). Conclusions: Infiltration anesthesia resulted in significantly less soft 

tissue bleeding (p=.004) as compared with no anesthesia. Infiltration and intraosseous anesthesia 

resulted in significantly less osseous bleeding than the use of no anesthetic (p<.001). The volume 

of blood loss for each animal was shown to be below the maximum safe volume of blood loss for 

a single procedure.

Descriptors: anesthesia, anesthetics, epinephrine, hemorrhage, hemostasis, jaws, lidocaine, pharmacodynamics, surgery, techniques, teeth, pigs.

Bako, A. and G. Bilkei (2004). A clinical trial on the effects of a neuroleptic analgesia in piglet castration [Tierschutzgerechte Ferkelkastration in Neuroleptanalgesie. Tierarztliche Umschau 59(6): 

340-344. ISSN: 0049-3864.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 T445

Descriptors: stress, body weight, castration, ketamine, liveweight gain, neuroleptics, ketamine, 

acepromazine, piglets, pigs.

Language of Text: German, Summary in English.

Banaszczyk, M.G., A.T. Carlo, V. Millan, A. Lindsey, R. Moss, D.J. Carlo, and S.S. Hendler (2002). 

Propofol phosphate, a water-soluble propofol prodrug: in vivo evaluation. Anesthesia and 

Analgesia 95(5): 1285-92, Table of Contents. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: After a single IV injection of the water-soluble propofol prodrug propofol phosphate 

(PP) in mice, rats, rabbits, and pigs, propofol was produced rapidly (1-15 min), inducing dosedependent sedative effects. In mice, the hypnotic dose (HD(50)), lethal dose (LD(50)), and safety 

index (defined as a ratio: LD(50)/HD(50)) were 165.4 mg/kg, 600.6 mg/kg, and 3.6, respectively. Propofol was produced with half-lives of 5.3 +/- 0.6 min in rats, 2.1 +/- 0.6 min in rabbits, 

and 4.4 +/- 2.4 min in pigs. The maximal concentration was dose and species dependent. The 

elimination half-life was 24 +/- 12 min in rats, 21 +/- 16 min in rabbits, and 225 +/- 56 min in 

pigs. Propofol generated from PP produced pharmacological effects similar to those described in 

the literature. We found a correlation between PP dose and duration of sedation with propofol 

concentrations larger than 1.0 microg/mL, which produced somnolence and sedation in rats and 

pigs. Adequate sedation and, at large enough doses, anesthetic-level sedation were produced after 

the administration of PP. Overall, PP, the water-soluble prodrug of propofol, seems to be a viable 

development candidate for sedative and anesthetic applications. IMPLICATIONS: Propofol 

phosphate, a water-soluble prodrug of the widely used IV anesthetic propofol, was developed 

and evaluated in mice, rats, rabbits, and pigs after IV injection. The results of the study clearly 

demonstrate the feasibility of the prodrug approach to achieve sedative and anesthetic levels of 

propofol in laboratory animals; this warrants further evaluation in humans.

Descriptors: anesthetics, intravenous pharmacokinetics, prodrugs pharmacokinetics, propofol 

pharmacokinetics, anesthetics, intravenous administration and dosage, anesthetics, intravenous toxicity, dose response relationship, drug, half life, lethal dose 50, mice, musculoskeletal 

equilibrium, pain measurement drug effects, prodrugs administration and dosage, propofol 

administration and dosage, propofol toxicity, rabbits, rats, rats, sprague dawley, swine.

Barel, C., M. Belkhiria, B. Bui Xuan, J. Descotes, P. Chevalier, M.C. Gagnieu, F. Arnal, P. Tsibiribi, and 

Q. Timour (2003). Ropivacaine combined with various anti-arrhythmic drugs results in mild 

alterations in myocardial contractility in pigs. Canadian Journal of Anaesthesia; Journal Canadien D’Anesthesie 50(10): 1031-4. ISSN: 0832-610X.
10• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

NAL Call Number: RD78.68.C4

Abstract: PURPOSE: The present study was undertaken following the observation of a marked 

decrease in myocardial contractility after ropivacaine in a patient on amiodarone, in order to 

investigate the cardiovascular effects of combining ropivacaine with anti-arrhythmic drugs 

(AARD). METHODS: Anesthetized domestic pigs were treated with disopyramide, flecainide, 

atenolol, amiodarone, diltiazem or nicardipine at a dose leading to blood levels obtained in 

treated patients, then received 1 mg*kg(-1) ropivacaine. Blood pressure (BP), left venticular 

(LV) dP/dt max, sinus heart rate, and intraventricular conduction time were measured before 

and following the administration of AARD, and following ropivacaine at different time points. 

RESULTS: All tested AARD induced the expected hemodynamic and electrophysiologic 

effects. Following ropivacaine, a 20 to 35% decrease in LV dP/dt max of prolonged duration 

was observed with amiodarone only. A brief 10 to 20% decrease in mean BP was observed in 

all animals, except those treated with nicardipine who sustained an important and prolonged 

decrease in BP. All other variables were not significantly affected. DISCUSSION: The combination of ropivacaine with AARD was always associated with a slight drop in LV dP/dt max. The 

effect on mean BP was slight, except with nicardipine. Clinicians should be aware of the interactions of ropivacaine with AARD, especially amiodarone and nicardipine.

Descriptors: amides pharmacology, anesthetics, local pharmacology, myocardial contraction 

drug effects, amiodarone pharmacology, analysis of variance, anti arrhythmia agents pharmacology, disopyramide pharmacology, drug interactions, heart rate drug effects, hemodynamic 

processes drug effects, prospective studies, random allocation, swine.

Basu, S., D.K. Mutschler, A.O. Larsson, R. Kiiski, A. Nordgren, and M.B. Eriksson (2001). Propofol 

(Diprivan-EDTA) counteracts oxidative injury and deterioration of the arterial oxygen 

tension during experimental septic shock. Resuscitation 50(3): 341-8. ISSN: 0300-9572.

NAL Call Number: RC86 

Abstract: PURPOSE: Human septic shock can be replicated in the endotoxaemic pig. Endotoxaemia causes a multitude of events, including reduced PaO(2) and increased lipid peroxidation. 

This study was designed to evaluate the possible effects of a commonly used anaesthetic drug 

with known antioxidant properties (propofol) during porcine endotoxaemia. METHODS: Ten 

pigs were anaesthetised and given a 6 h E. coli endotoxin infusion. The animals received, randomly, a supplementary continuous infusion of propofol emulsion (containing 0.005% EDTA) 

or the corresponding volume of vehicle (controls). Pathophysiologic responses were determined. 

Non-enzymatic (by measuring plasma 8-iso-PGF(2 alpha) and enzymatic (by measuring plasma 

15-keto-dihydro-PGF(2 alpha)) lipid peroxidations were evaluated. Plasma levels of the endogenous antioxidants alpha- and gamma-tocopherols, were also analysed. RESULTS: Endotoxaemia 

increased plasma levels of 8-iso-PGF(2 alpha) (1st-4th h) and 15-keto-dihydro-PGF(2 alpha) 

(1st-4th h) significantly more in controls than in the propofol+endotoxin group. PaO(2) was 

significantly less affected by endotoxin in the propofol treated animals (2nd-4th h). Mean arterial pressure (4th-6th h) and systemic vascular resistance (6th h) were reduced significantly more 

by endotoxin among the propofol-treated animals. Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) increased in 

all animals, significantly more in the propofol+endotoxin group (1/2-6th h) than in the control 

group. CONCLUSIONS: Propofol reduced endotoxin-induced free radical mediated and cyclooxygenase catalysed lipid peroxidation significantly. The implication is that propofol counteracts 

endotoxin-induced deterioration of PaO(2).

Descriptors: anesthetics, intravenous therapeutic use, dinoprost analogs and derivatives, endotoxemia physiopathology, escherichia coli infections physiopathology, lipid peroxidation drug 

effects, oxidative stress drug effects, propofol analogs and derivatives, propofol therapeutic use, 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •11

shock, septic blood, shock, septic drug therapy, vitamin e physiology, dinoprost blood, f2 isoprostanes blood, inflammation therapy, radioimmunoassay, swine, vitamin e blood.

Bataille, G., B. Minvielle, J. Boulard, M. Bouyssiere, and P. Chevillon (2002). Evaluation of the welfare 

of pigs during carbon dioxide anaesthesia [Evaluation du bien-etre des porcs, lors de 

l’anesthesie au CO2. Techni Porc 25(5): 31-36. ISSN: 0181-6764.

NAL Call Number: SF391.T4

Descriptors: abattoirs, anesthesia, animal behaviour, carbon dioxide, EU regulations, heart rate, 

slaughter, distress, welfare.

Language of Text: French, Summary in English.

Bauer, A., H. Baschnegger, V. Renz, U. Brandl, P. Brenner, E. Thein, B. Reichart, M. Schmoeckel, and 

F. Christ (2007). Comparison of propofol and isoflurane anesthesia in orthotopic pig-tobaboon cardiac xenotransplantation. Xenotransplantation 14(3): 249-54. ISSN: 0908-665X.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Orthotopic pig-to-baboon xenogeneic heart transplantation 

(oXHTx) is the only accepted preclinical animal model for cardiac xenotransplantation. We compared the hemodynamic stability of a propofol- and isoflurane-based anesthetic regimen during 

oXHTx. METHODS: Hearts from 12 hDAF or hCD46 transgenic pigs (Sus scrofa; body weight 

7 to 32 kg) were transplanted into baboons (Papio anubis and Papio hamadryas; body weight 9 

to 26 kg) in the orthotopic life-supporting position. Animals received a propofol-based intravenous regimen or inhalation anesthesia with isoflurane. Analgesia was achieved with fentanyl in 

both groups. Systemic hemodynamic variables were measured before, during and after cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and the need for inotropic or vasoactive pharmacological support was 

compared before and after CPB. RESULTS: Global hemodynamic variables [i.e. heart rate, mean 

arterial pressure (MAP) and cardiac output] were not significantly different in propofol-anesthetized baboons compared to baboons anesthetized with isoflurane. Baboons anesthetized with 

isoflurane showed a trend towards less pharmacological support required to achieve an adequate 

MAP of >60 mmHg after CPB (propofol: epinephrine 0.13 [0.05; 0.16] and norepinephrine 

0.15 [0.02; 0.16] microg/kg/min vs. isoflurane: epinephrine 0.05 [0.02; 0.08] and norepinephrine 0.06 [0.02; 0.19] microg/kg/min; no significant difference). CONCLUSIONS: Propofol and 

isoflurane appear to provide equal hemodynamic stability in orthotopic cardiac pig-to-baboon 

xenotransplantation prior to the start of CPB. The trend of a reduced catecholamine support 

needed after CPB, however, suggests that isoflurane may be the preferred drug for maintenance of 

anesthesia in this primate model.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, heart 

transplantation methods, isoflurane pharmacology, propofol pharmacology, transplantation, heterologous methods, anesthesia, general methods, anesthesia, general veterinary, blood pressure 

drug effects, central venous pressure drug effects, disease models, animal, heart rate drug effects, 

papio, sus scrofa.

Baumann, B. and G. Bilkei (2002). Castration of piglets under general anaesthesia [Saugferkelkastration in Narkose. Agrarforschung 9(1): 8-13. ISSN: 1022-663X.

NAL Call Number: S469.S9A37

Descriptors: acepromazine, anesthesia, castration, ketamine, liveweight gain, piglets, surgery, 

pigs.

Language of Text: German, Summary in English; French.
12• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Baumert, J.H., K.E. Hecker, M. Hein, M. Reyle Hahn, N.A. Horn, and R. Rossaint (2005). Effects of 

xenon anaesthesia on the circulatory response to hypoventilation. British Journal of Anaesthesia 95(2): 166-71. ISSN: 0007-0912.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Circulatory response to hypoventilation is aimed at eliminating 

carbon dioxide and maintaining oxygen delivery (DO(2)) by increasing cardiac output (CO). 

The hypothesis that this increase is more pronounced with xenon than with isoflurane anaesthesia was tested in pigs. METHODS: Twenty pigs received anaesthesia with xenon 0.55 MAC/

remifentanil 0.5 microg kg(-1) min(-1) (group X, n=10) or isoflurane 0.55 MAC/remifentanil 

0.5 microg kg(-1)min(-1) (group I, n=10). CO, heart rate (HR), mean arterial pressure (MAP) 

and left ventricular fractional area change (FAC) were measured at baseline, after 5 and 15 min 

of hypoventilation and after 5, 15 and 30 min of restored ventilation. RESULTS: CO increased 

by 10-20% with both anaesthetics, with an equivalent rise in HR, maintaining DO(2) in spite 

of a 20% reduction in arterial oxygen content. Decreased left ventricular (LV) afterload during 

hypoventilation increased FAC, and this was more marked with xenon (0.60-0.66, P<0.05 compared with baseline and isoflurane). This difference is attributed to negative inotropic effects 

of isoflurane. Increased pulmonary vascular resistance during hypoventilation was found with 

both anaesthetics. CONCLUSION: The cardiovascular effects observed in this model of moderate hypoventilation were sufficient to maintain DO(2). Although the haemodynamic response 

appeared more pronounced with xenon, differences were not clinically relevant. An increase in 

FAC with xenon is attributed to its lack of negative inotropic effects.

Descriptors: anesthesia methods, anesthetics, inhalation, cardiac output drug effects, hypoventilation physiopathology, xenon, analysis of variance, echocardiography, transesophageal, isoflurane, 

models, animal, random allocation, swine.

Baumert, J.H., K.E. Hecker, M. Hein, S.M. Reyle Hahn, N.A. Horn, and R. Rossaint (2005). Haemodynamic effects of haemorrhage during xenon anaesthesia in pigs. British Journal of Anaesthesia

94(6): 727-32. ISSN: 0007-0912.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: It was hypothesized that xenon would stabilize mean arterial pressure (MAP) in haemorrhagic shock, recovery, and volume resuscitation, because a higher MAP 

has been observed with xenon, when compared with isoflurane anaesthesia. The responses to 

haemorrhage and subsequent volume replacement were therefore compared between xenon and 

isoflurane anaesthesia, in pigs. METHODS: Pigs were randomized to anaesthesia with xenon 

0.55 MAC (group Xe, n=9) or isoflurane 0.55 MAC (group Iso, n=9), each with remifentanil 0.5 

microg kg(-1) min(-1). MAP, heart rate, cardiac output (CO), and left ventricular fractional area 

change (FAC) were collected at control (1), after haemorrhage (20 ml kg(-1)) (2), after 10 min of 

recovery (3), after volume replacement (4), and 30 min later (5). Data were analysed by two-way 

repeated measures anova. RESULTS: Blood loss decreased MAP (Xe: 103 [21] to 53 [24] mm 

Hg; Iso: 92 [18] to 55 [14] mm Hg) and CO (Xe: 4.1 [0.8] to 2.6 [0.5] litre min(-1); Iso: 5.1 

[1.1] to 3.8 [1.2] litre min(-1)), in spite of significant tachycardia. MAP and CO recovered to 

about 75% of control, and subsequent volume replacement completely reversed symptoms in 

both groups, but increased FAC only with xenon. CONCLUSION: Haemodynamic response 

to acute haemorrhage appeared faster with xenon/remifentanil than with isoflurane/remifentanil 

anaesthesia. In particular MAP decrease and short-term recovery were more marked with xenon 

(P<0.02). In the xenon group, volume replacement increased FAC compared with control and 

isoflurane (P<0.02).

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, blood loss, surgical physiopathology, hemodynamic processes drug effects, xenon pharmacology, blood pressure drug effects, hypovolemia 

etiology, hypovolemia physiopathology, isoflurane pharmacology, swine.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •13

Baumert, J.H., M. Reyle Hahn, K. Hecker, R. Tenbrinck, R. Kuhlen, and R. Rossaint (2002). Increased 

airway resistance during xenon anaesthesia in pigs is attributed to physical properties of the 

gas. British Journal of Anaesthesia 88(4): 540-5. ISSN: 0007-0912.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: In this study we investigated the effects of the physical properties of xenon on respiratory mechanisms in pigs. METHODS: With institutional approval, 10 

female pigs (mean 25.2 (SD 2.5) kg) were anaesthetized with thiopental, remifentanil, and pancuronium. Gas flow and pressure were recorded continuously at the proximal end of the tracheal 

tube during constant flow ventilation for control, with 100% oxygen (control), followed by 1.5% 

isoflurane in 70/30% nitrogen/oxygen, 1.0% isoflurane in 70/30% nitrous oxide/oxygen, and 

70/30% xenon/oxygen in random order. Compliance (C) and resistance (R) were calculated using 

a single compartment model. Resistance was corrected for gas viscosities eta and also for densities 

pho and viscosities eta as (pho*eta)(1/2) to compare assumptions of laminar and mixed flow in 

the airways. RESULTS: With constant flow ventilation, xenon increases inspiratory pressure compared with other gas mixtures. There were no significant differences in resistance, corrected for 

laminar or mixed flow, between the gas mixtures. Xenon anaesthesia did not affect compliance. 

CONCLUSIONS: The increase in airway pressure observed with xenon anaesthesia is attributed 

completely to its higher density and viscosity. Therefore, determination of airway resistance must 

take into account the physical properties of the gas. Xenon does not exert any major effect on 

airway diameter.

Descriptors: airway resistance drug effects, anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, xenon pharmacology, anesthetics, combined pharmacology, anesthetics, inhalation chemistry, isoflurane 

pharmacology, nitrogen pharmacology, nitrous oxide pharmacology, respiratory mechanics drug 

effects, swine, viscosity, xenon chemistry.

Bein, B., E. Cavus, V. Doerges, K.H. Stadlbauer, P.H. Tonner, M. Steinfath, and J. Scholz (2005). Arginine vasopressin reduces cerebral oxygenation and cerebral blood volume during intact 

circulation in swine a near infrared spectroscopy study. European Journal of Anaesthesiology

22(1): 62-66. ISSN: 0265-0215.

Descriptors: arginine vasopressin (AVP), pharmacology, cardiovascular system: transport and 

circulation, nervous system: neural coordination, methods and techniques, near ir spectroscopy, 

laboratory techniques, spectrum analysis techniques, cerebral blood volume, cerebral oxygenation.

Belanger, M.P., N. Askin, K. Bandali, W.J. Wallen, and C. Wittnich (2003). Circulating awareness of 

adverse effects of propofol. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 223(6): 781-2. 

ISSN: 0003-1488.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 Am3 

Descriptors: anesthetics, intravenous adverse effects, animals, newborn physiology, propofol 

adverse effects, respiration drug effects, swine physiology, acidosis chemically induced, acidosis 

veterinary, blood gas analysis veterinary, fatal outcome, hemodynamic processes drug effects, 

safety, swine diseases chemically induced.

Belliotti, T.R., T. Capiris, I.V. Ekhato, J.J. Kinsora, M.J. Field, T.G. Heffner, L.T. Meltzer, J.B. Schwarz, 

C.P. Taylor, A.J. Thorpe, M.G. Vartanian, L.D. Wise, T. Zhi Su, M.L. Weber, and D.J. Wustrow 

(2005). Structure-activity relationships of pregabalin and analogues that target the alpha(2)-

delta protein. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 48(7): 2294-307. ISSN: 0022-2623.

NAL Call Number: RS403.A1J6

Abstract: Pregabalin exhibits robust activity in preclinical assays indicative of potential antiepileptic, anxiolytic, and antihyperalgesic clinical efficacy. It binds with high affinity to the 

alpha(2)-delta subunit of voltage-gated calcium channels and is a substrate of the system L neutral 
14• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

amino acid transporter. A series of pregabalin analogues were prepared and evaluated for their 

alpha(2)-delta binding affinity as demonstrated by their ability to inhibit binding of [(3)H]gabapentin to pig brain membranes and for their potency to inhibit the uptake of [(3)H]leucine into 

CHO cells, a measure of their ability to compete with the endogenous substrate at the system L 

transporter. Compounds were also assessed in vivo for their ability to promote anxiolytic, analgesic, and anticonvulsant actions. These studies suggest that distinct structure activity relationships 

exist for alpha(2)-delta binding and system L transport inhibition. However, both interactions 

appear to play an important role in the in vivo profile of these compounds.

Descriptors: amino acid transport system l metabolism, analgesics chemical synthesis, anti 

anxiety agents chemical synthesis, anticonvulsants chemical synthesis, calcium channels metabolism, gamma aminobutyric acid analogs and derivatives, gamma aminobutyric acid chemical 

synthesis, amines antagonists and inhibitors, amines metabolism, analgesics chemistry, analgesics 

pharmacology, anti anxiety agents chemistry , anti anxiety agents pharmacology, anticonvulsants 

chemistry, anticonvulsants pharmacology, brain metabolism, cho cells, cricetinae, cricetulus, 

cyclohexanecarboxylic acids antagonists and inhibitors, cyclohexanecarboxylic acids metabolism, 

leucine antagonists and inhibitors, leucine metabolism , mice, mice, inbred dba, protein binding, 

protein subunits metabolism, rats, structure activity relationship, swine, gamma aminobutyric 

acid chemistry, gamma aminobutyric acid metabolism, gamma aminobutyric acid pharmacology.

Bernards, C.M., D.D. Shen, E.S. Sterling, J.E. Adkins, L. Risler, B. Phillips, and W. Ummenhofer (2003). 

Epidural, cerebrospinal fluid, and plasma pharmacokinetics of epidural opioids (part 1): differences among opioids. Anesthesiology 99(2): 455-65. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The pharmacokinetics of epidurally administered drugs has been 

the subject of many studies, yet drug concentration in the epidural space has never been measured. This study was undertaken to characterize the epidural, cerebrospinal fluid, and plasma 

pharmacokinetics of epidurally administered opioids on the basis of measurement of drug concentration in each of these compartments after epidural administration. METHODS: Morphine 

plus alfentanil, fentanyl, or sufentanil were administered epidurally in anesthetized pigs. Microdialysis was used to sample the epidural space and the cerebrospinal fluid for measurement of 

opioid concentration over time. Plasma samples were obtained from the central venous plasma 

and the epidural venous plasma. These data were used to calculate relevant pharmacokinetic 

parameters, including mean residence time, elimination half-lives, areas under the concentration 

versus time curves, clearance, and volume of distribution for each opioid in each compartment. 

RESULTS: Some of the more important findings were that the cerebrospinal fluid and plasma 

pharmacokinetics of the opioids did not parallel their epidural pharmacokinetics and that their 

hydrophobic character governed multiple aspects of their lumbar epidural pharmacokinetics. 

CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that the spinal pharmacokinetics of these drugs are 

complex and, in some ways, counterintuitive. Also, the bioavailability of opioids in the cerebrospinal fluid and epidural space is determined primarily by their hydrophobicity, with less 

hydrophobic drugs having greater bioavailability.

Descriptors: analgesia, epidural, analgesics, opioid pharmacokinetics, adipose tissue metabolism, 

analgesics, opioid blood, analgesics, opioid cerebrospinal fluid, chemistry, physical, dose response 

relationship, drug, gas chromatography mass spectrometry, injections, intravenous, injections, 

spinal, molecular weight, regional blood flow physiology, solubility, solvents, spinal cord blood 

supply, swine, tissue distribution.

Bernards, C.M., D.D. Shen, E.S. Sterling, J.E. Adkins, L. Risler, B. Phillips, and W. Ummenhofer (2003). 

Epidural, cerebrospinal fluid, and plasma pharmacokinetics of epidural opioids (part 2): 

effect of epinephrine. Anesthesiology 99(2): 466-75. ISSN: 0003-3022.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •15

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The ability of epinephrine to improve the efficacy of epidurally 

administered drugs is assumed to result from local vasoconstriction and a consequent decrease in 

drug clearance. However, because drug concentration in the epidural space has never been measured, our understanding of the effect of epinephrine on epidural pharmacokinetics is incomplete. 

This study was designed to characterize the effect of epinephrine on the epidural, cerebrospinal 

fluid, and plasma pharmacokinetics of epidurally administered opioids. METHODS: Morphine 

plus alfentanil, fentanyl, or sufentanil was administered epidurally with and without epinephrine 

(1:200,000) to pigs. Opioid concentration was subsequently measured in the epidural space, 

central venous plasma, and epidural venous plasma, and these data were used to calculate relevant 

pharmacokinetic parameters. RESULTS: The pharmacokinetic effects of epinephrine varied by 

opioid and by sampling site. For example, in the lumbar epidural space, epinephrine increased the 

mean residence time of morphine but decreased that of fentanyl and sufentanil. Epinephrine had 

no effect on the terminal elimination half-life of morphine in the epidural space, but it decreased 

that of fentanyl and sufentanil. In contrast, in the lumbar intrathecal space, epinephrine had 

no effect on the pharmacokinetics of alfentanil, fentanyl, or sufentanil, but it increased the area 

under the concentration-time curve of morphine and decreased its elimination half-life. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that the effects of epinephrine on the spinal pharmacokinetics 

of these opioids are complex and often antithetical across compartments and opioids. In addition, 

the data clearly indicate that the pharmacokinetic effects of epinephrine in spinal “compartments” 

cannot be predicted from measurements of drug concentration in plasma, as has been assumed 

for decades.

Descriptors: adrenergic alpha agonists pharmacology, analgesia, epidural, analgesics, opioid 

pharmacokinetics, epinephrine pharmacology, vasoconstrictor agents pharmacology, analgesics, 

opioid blood, analgesics, opioid cerebrospinal fluid, anesthetics, local pharmacology, area under 

curve, epidural space metabolism, injections, intravenous, injections, spinal, microdialysis, posterior horn cells drug effects, receptors, adrenergic, alpha 2 agonists, spinal cord metabolism, swine.

Bethune, C.R., C.M. Bernards, T. Bui Nguyen, D.D. Shen, and R.J. Ho (2001). The role of drug-lipid 

interactions on the disposition of liposome-formulated opioid analgesics in vitro and in 

vivo. Anesthesia and Analgesia 93(4): 928-33. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: Although liposome encapsulation prolongs the duration of action of epidurally 

administered drugs, little is known about how liposome encapsulation affects opioids differently, 

or about how lipid content of liposomes alters the bioavailability of epidurally-administered 

opioids. To address these issues, morphine, alfentanil, fentanyl, and sufentanil were loaded into 

D-alpha-dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine multilamellar liposomes, and incorporation efficiency 

and in vitro release rates were determined. We then determined epidural morphine and sufentanil liposomes, at two different lipid/opioid ratios, in vivo in a pig model in which epidural and 

intrathecal spaces were continuously sampled via microdialysis. Liposome encapsulation efficiency 

was significantly more for sufentanil (100%) than for the other opioids (25%-30%). The in vitro 

release rate was slowest for morphine, intermediate for fentanyl and alfentanil, and fastest for sufentanil. In vivo, morphine was released more slowly than sufentanil. It is most important to note 

that increasing the lipid content of morphine liposomes increased the proportion of drug reaching the intrathecal space. In contrast, increasing the lipid content of sufentanil liposomes did not 

alter intrathecal movement but did decrease movement into plasma. Therefore, increasing drug 

hydrophobicity and lipid content of the liposomes modulates drug distribution in vivo. IMPLICATIONS: The degree of interaction between opioids and lipid bilayers in liposome-formulated 

opioids dictates the rates at which epidurally-administered drugs distribute into the intrathecal 

compartment and blood in potentiating analgesic effects.

Descriptors: analgesics, opioids, administration and dosage , pharmacokinetics, chemistry, area 
16• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

under curve, drug carriers, kinetics, lipids, liposomes chemistry, microdialysis, models, chemical, 

morphine, sufentanil, swine.

Bina, S., G. Cowan, J. Karaian, S. Muldoon, P. Mongan, and R. Bunger (2006). Effects of caffeine, 

halothane, and 4-chloro-m-cresol on skeletal muscle lactate and pyruvate in malignant 

hyperthermia-susceptible and normal swine as assessed by microdialysis. Anesthesiology 

104(1): 90-100. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Skeletal muscle fibers from malignant hyperthermia (MH)-susceptible humans and swine are markedly more sensitive to ryanodine receptor (RyR1) agonists 

than those from normal individuals. Reproducible shifts in the dose-response of skeletal muscle 

to caffeine and halothane are the basis of the current in vitro diagnostic caffeine-halothane contracture test. In an attempt to develop a less invasive MH diagnostic test, the authors determined 

the effects of RyR1 agonists (caffeine, 4-chloro-m-cresol [4CmC], and halothane) on the adductor muscle with respect to the lactate-pyruvate (L/P) system that was percutaneously dialyzed 

using a microdialysis technique in homozygous MH-susceptible compared with normal swine. 

METHODS: Animals were anesthetized (ketamine-propofol) and artificially ventilated. Sets of 

six CMA/20 microdialysis catheters were implanted; each catheter was perfused with different 

RyR1 agonist concentrations. After a 30-min equilibration after implantation, one of the catheters was perfused (2 microl/min) with vehicle (0.9% saline or lipid emulsion), and the other 

five were perfused with caffeine (1-64 mM), 4CmC (0.1-8 mM), or halothane (prepared in lipid 

emulsion; 10-500 mM). Outflow dialysate fractions collected at 10-min intervals and L/P parameters were measured enzymatically. RESULTS: Only in the MH-susceptible group did all RyR1 

agonists increase dialysate L/P in a dose-dependent manner. The dose-effect relations were most 

prominent with 4CmC. With the halothane lipid emulsion, data scatter was high compared with 

that of the caffeine group and especially the 4CmC group. There were no signs of global muscle 

rigidity, systemic hypermetabolism, or a clinical MH episode during microdialysis RyR1 perfusion. CONCLUSIONS: The authors data demonstrate that the in vivo muscle microdialysis of 

the porcine L/P system reveals distinct differences between MH-susceptible and MH-normal 

muscle, especially in response to highly specific RyR1 agonists such as 4CmC. The microdialysis 

L/P technique seems to have an MH diagnostic potential in the clinical setting.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, caffeine pharmacology, central nervous 

system stimulants pharmacology, cresols pharmacology, halothane pharmacology, lactic acid 

metabolism, malignant hyperthermia metabolism, muscle, skeletal metabolism, pyruvic acid 

metabolism, anesthesia, general, anesthetics, dissociative, anesthetics, intravenous, blood gas 

analysis, creatine kinase blood, dose response relationship, drug, electrolytes metabolism, glucose 

metabolism, ketamine, malignant hyperthermia genetics, microdialysis, muscle, skeletal drug 

effects, propofol, ryanodine receptor calcium release channel drug effects, swine.

Bina, S., S.M. Karan, E.W. Lojeski, P.D. Mongan, and S.M. Muldoon (2001). Prolonging viability of 

swine muscle biopsy specimens in malignant hyperthermia testing. Anesthesia and Analgesia

93(3): 781-786 . ISSN: 0003-2999.

Descriptors: animal care, methods and techniques, muscular system: movement and support, 

physiology, caffeine halothane contracture test, diagnostic method, malignant hyperthermia 

testing, skeletal muscle viability.

Binder, R., W. Hagmuller, P. Hofbauer, C. Iben, U.S. Scala, C. Winckler, and J. Baumgartner (2004). 

Castration of male piglets (1): aspects of animal welfare and methods of anaesthesia [Aktuelle Aspekte der Kastration mannlicher Ferkel 1. Mitteilung: tierschutzrechtliche Aspekte 

der Ferkelkastration sowie Verfahren zur Schmerzausschaltung bei der chirurgischen Kastra-
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •17

tion. Wiener Tierarztliche Monatsschrift 91(7): 178-183. ISSN: 0043-535X.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 T345 

Descriptors: anesthesia, animal welfare, boar taint, castration, European Union, piglets, 

regulations, surgery, pain, distress, alternative methods.

Language of Text: German, Summary in English.

Bird, A.P., J.R. Faltinek, and A.H. Shojaei (2001). Transbuccal peptide delivery: stability and in 

vitro permeation studies on endomorphin-1. Journal of Controlled Release Official Journal 

of the Controlled Release Society 73(1): 31-6. ISSN: 0168-3659.

NAL Call Number: RS201.C64J68

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the feasibility of buccal delivery of a 

model peptide, endomorphin-1 (ENI), using stability and in vitro permeation studies. ENI 

is a recently isolated mu-opiate receptor agonist with high selectivity and specificity for this 

receptor subtype. Stability studies were conducted in various buffers and the drug was shown 

to be stable in both acidic and basic buffer systems. In the presence of full thickness porcine 

buccal epithelium, ENI was unstable with only 23.4+/-15.7% intact drug present after 6 

h. The region responsible for this degradation was found to coincide with the major barrier 

region of the buccal epithelium as delineated through stability experiments in the presence 

of partial thickness buccal epithelium. Various peptidase inhibitors were used to isolate the 

enzyme(s) responsible for this degradation. Diprotin-A, a potent inhibitor of dipeptidyl peptidase IV, provided significant inhibition of the degradation of ENI in the presence of buccal 

epithelium. In vitro permeation studies revealed that the permeability coefficient of ENI 

across porcine buccal epithelium was 5.67+/-4.74x10(-7) cm/s. The enzymatic degradation 

of ENI was found not to be rate limiting to the drug’s permeation across buccal epithelium, 

as diprotin-A did not increase the permeation of ENI. Sodium glycocholate as well as sodium 

taurocholate were also ineffective in enhancing the permeation of ENI across porcine buccal 

epithelium.

Descriptors: analgesics, opioid administration and dosage, oligopeptides administration and 

dosage, administration, buccal, algorithms, analgesics, opioid chemistry, analgesics, opioid 

pharmacokinetics, buffers, chromatography, high pressure liquid, drug delivery systems, 

drug stability, endopeptidases metabolism, mouth mucosa drug effects, mouth mucosa enzymology, oligopeptides chemistry, oligopeptides pharmacokinetics, permeability, protease 

inhibitors pharmacology, solutions, swine.

Birtoiu, I.A., R. Badea, P.M. Sirbu Boeti, and C. Efrimescu (2008). Different anesthesia protocols 

used for experimental swine surgery. Lucrari Stiintifice Universitatea De Stiinte Agricole a 

Banatului Timisoara, Medicina Veterinara 41: 526-529. ISSN: 1221-5295.

Descriptors: anesthesia, experimental surgery, surgery, surgical operations, pigs.

Blaze, C.A. and M.M. Glowaski (2004). Veterinary Anesthesia Drug Quick Reference, London, 

UK: W.B. Saunders\Elsevier Science., x + 324 p. ISBN: 0721602606.

Descriptors: anesthesia, case studies, diagnosis, dosage, drugs, electrocardiograms, pharmacology, resuscitation, cats, cattle, dogs, ferrets, goats, horses, pigs, rabbits, sheep.

Boccara, G., J. Eliet, Y. Pouzeratte, C. Mann, and P. Colson (2003). Pre-emptive lidocaine inhibits 

arterial vasoconstriction but not vasopressin release induced by a carbon dioxide pneumoperitoneum in pigs. British Journal of Anaesthesia 90(3): 343-8. ISSN: 0007-0912.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: We assessed the preventive effects of i.v. or i.p. lidocaine 
18• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

administration on increases in vascular resistance produced by carbon dioxide pneumoperitoneum and related this to vasopressin release. METHODS: Carbon dioxide 

pneumoperitoneum (14 mm Hg intra-abdominal pressure) was performed in 32 anaesthetized young pigs and monitored using a pulmonary artery catheter. Animals received 

lidocaine 0.5% (0.5 mg kg(-1)) i.v. (n=9) or 2 ml kg(-1) i.p. (n=9) or saline (n=5) 15 min 

before the pneumoperitoneum and were compared with a control group (n=9). RESULTS: 

I.V. and i.p. lidocaine inhibited increases in mean systemic vascular resistance induced by the 

pneumoperitoneum [2109 (SD 935) and 2282 (895), respectively, vs 3013 (1067) dyne s(-1) 

cm(-5) in the control group]. Cardiac output was increased. Plasma lidocaine concentrations 

were threefold higher after i.p. administration than after i.v. administration. After pneumoperitoneum insufflation, plasma lysine-vasopressin concentrations increased in all groups 

(control 74%, saline 65%, i.p. lidocaine 57%, i.v. lidocaine 74%). CONCLUSIONS: I.V. 

and i.p. lidocaine blunted systemic vascular responses to carbon dioxide pneumoperitoneum 

in pigs, but without influencing vasopressin release.

Descriptors: anesthetics, local administration and dosage, carbon dioxide physiology, lidocaine administration and dosage, lysine vasopressin blood, pneumoperitoneum, artificial 

methods, vascular resistance drug effects, vasoconstrictor agents blood, arteries physiology, 

blood pressure drug effects, cardiac output drug effects, heart rate drug effects, injections, 

intraperitoneal, injections, intravenous, lidocaine blood, pneumoperitoneum, artificial 

adverse effects, swine, vasoconstriction drug effects.

Bogdanski, R., M. Blobner, H. Fink, and E. Kochs (2003). Effects of xenon on mesenteric blood 

flow. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 20(2): 98-103. ISSN: 0265-0215.

Abstract: BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The effects of xenon on mesenteric vascular resistance have not been investigated. Because human beings anaesthetized with xenon 

show good cardiovascular stability, we believed that the agent would have little or no effect 

on vascular resistance in the splanchnic bed. We determined the effects of different inhaled 

xenon concentrations on mesenteric blood flow and mesenteric oxygen consumption in pigs 

sedated with intravenous propofol. METHODS: Twenty-three minipigs were instrumented 

with transit time flow probes around the pulmonary and superior mesenteric arteries as well 

as with pulmonary artery and portal venous catheters. A 14 h recovery was allowed followed 

by recordings of baseline values. Xenon was then randomly administered in 0.30, 0.50, and 

0.70 end-tidal fractions. RESULTS: The administration of xenon resulted in an 8% (not 

dose dependent) decrease in mean arterial pressure (from 99 +/- 15 to 91 +/- 19 mmHg; P 

< 0.05), a 20% decrease in calculated systemic oxygen consumption (from 0.23 +/- 0.07 to 

0.19 +/- 0.04L min(-1); P < 0.01), a 20% reduction in mesenteric oxygen delivery (from 

41 +/- 12 to 33 +/- 11 mL min; P < 0.001), a 37% reduction in mesentericmetabolic rate 

of oxygen (from 11.3 +/- 3.6 to 7.1 +/- 3.2 mL min(-1); P < 0.01) and an 8% decrease 

in mesenteric artery blood flow (0.22 +/- 0.07 to 0.20 +/- 0.07 L min(-1); P < 0.05) in a 

dose-dependent fashion. Heart rate, cardiac output, systemic vascular resistance, mesenteric 

vascular resistance, mesenteric oxygen extraction fraction and portal lactate concentration 

were not significantly altered by xenon. CONCLUSIONS: Xenon inhalation in the propofol-sedated pig had no measurable effects on mesenteric vascular resistance. This finding 

may partly explain the well-known cardiovascular stability observed in patients anaesthetized 

with xenon. Although mesenteric artery blood flow and mesenteric oxygen delivery decreased 

during xenon administration, unchanged mesenteric oxygen extraction fraction and portal 

lactate suggest that metabolic regulation of the splanchnic circulation remained unaltered.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •19

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, splanchnic circulation drug effects, 

xenon pharmacology, anesthetics, intravenous therapeutic use, blood pressure drug effects, 

cardiac output drug effects, central venous pressure drug effects, heart rate drug effects, 

oxygen consumption drug effects, propofol therapeutic use, swine, swine, miniature blood, 

vascular resistance drug effects.

Boissevain, I. and H. Vrieselaar (2006). Gillen als een... [Screaming like a......]. Tijdschrift Voor 

Diergeneeskunde 131(24): 925. ISSN: 0040-7453.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 T431

Descriptors: anesthesia veterinary, clinical competence, pain veterinary, swine physiology, 

vocalization, animal, anesthesia contraindications, Netherlands, pain etiology, pain prevention and control, vaccination adverse effects, vaccination veterinary.

Language of Text: Dutch.

Bollen, P.J.A., A.K. Hansen and A.K.O. Alstrup (2010). The Laboratory Swine., 2nd edition, 

:CRC Press/Taylor & Francis: Boca Raton, FL, xiii, 124 p.: col. ill.; 24 cm. p. ISBN: 

9781439815281.

NAL Call Number: SF407.S97.B66 2010

Descriptors: handbooks, manuals, inhalation anesthesia, injectable anesthesia, monitoring, 

neuromuscular blocking agents, postoperative pain, euthanasia.

Notes: Laboratory animal pocket reference series.

Bonome Gonzalez, C., F. Alvarez Refojo, C. Fernandez Goti, B. Fernandez Rosado, H. Aymerich, 

and J. Belda Nacher (2001). Hipertermia maligna en un cerdo anestesiado con desflurano. [Malignant hyperthermia in a pig anesthesized with desflurane]. Revista Espanola 

De Anestesiologia y Reanimacion 48(2): 81-4. ISSN: 0034-9356.

Abstract: A large-white pig that had not been genetically selected to develop malignant 

hyperthermia (MH) during anesthesia nevertheless suffered an episode of severe MH after 

repeated exposure to increasing concentrations of desflurane. MH is a hypermetabolic alteration that may develop in susceptible patients who have inhaled certain drugs or agents that 

act as triggers. Early identification and appropriate treatment are essential to reduce the likelihood of death associated with this severe alteration. We report a case of late-developing MH 

triggered by low concentrations of inhaled desflurane.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation adverse effects, isoflurane administration and dosage, 

isoflurane analogs and derivatives, malignant hyperthermia veterinary, malignant hyperthermia etiology, swine.

Language of Text: Spanish.

Bose, S., W.R. Ravis, Y.J. Lin, L. Zhang, G.A. Hofmann, and A.K. Banga (2001). Electricallyassisted transdermal delivery of buprenorphine. Journal of Controlled Release Official 

Journal of the Controlled Release Society 73(2-3): 197-203. ISSN: 0168-3659.

NAL Call Number: RS201.C64J68

Abstract: The objective of this study was to explore the electrically assisted transdermal 

delivery of buprenorphine. Oral delivery of buprenorphine, a synthetic opiate analgesic, 

is less efficient due to low absorption and large first-pass metabolism. While transdermal 

delivery of buprenorphine is expected to avoid the first-pass effect and thereby be more bioavailable, use of electrical enhancement techniques (iontophoresis and/or electroporation) 

could provide better programmability. Another use of buprenorphine is for opiate addiction 
20• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

therapy. However, a patch type device is subject to potential abuse as it could be removed by 

the addict. This abuse can be prevented if drug particles are embedded in the skin. The feasibility of doing so was investigated by electro-incorporation. Buprenorphine HCl (1 mg/ml) 

in citrate buffer (pH 4.0) was delivered in vitro across human epidermis via iontophoresis 

using a current density of 0.5 mA/cm(2) and silver-silver chloride electrodes. Electroporation 

pulses were also applied in some experiments. For electro-incorporation, drug microspheres 

or particles were driven into full thickness human skin by electroporation. It was observed 

that the passive transdermal flux of buprenorphine HCl was significantly enhanced by 

iontophoresis under anodic polarity. The effectiveness of electro-incorporation seemed 

inconclusive, with pressure also playing a potential role. Delivery was observed with electroincorporation, but the results were statistically not different from the corresponding controls.

Descriptors: analgesics, opioid administration and dosage, buprenorphine administration 

and dosage, electroporation, iontophoresis, skin metabolism, administration, cutaneous, biological transport, buprenorphine pharmacokinetics, swine.

Boyd, J.J., J.V. Kytta, J.V. Aittomaki, P.H. Rosenberg, T.A. Seppala, and T.T. Randell (2006). Cardiovascular changes after naloxone administration in propofol-sedated piglets during 

opioid overdose. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 50(10): 1271-6. ISSN: 0001-5172.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Naloxone is an opioid receptor antagonist. Even when used in 

modest doses, it has been associated with serious cardiopulmonary side-effects. In this experimental porcine study, we examined the cardiac effects of naloxone during an opioid overdose. 

METHODS: Cardiac parameters, changes in the left ventricular compliance and the magnitude of catecholamine release were evaluated in eight spontaneously breathing piglets under 

propofol sedation. Cardiac parameters were recorded every 30 s and transthoracic echocardiography was used for the continuous assessment of cardiac performance. Respiratory arrest 

was induced by morphine (8 mg/kg). Ten minutes after morphine administration, naloxone 

(80 microg/kg) was injected intravenously. Every 5 min, arterial blood gases were measured 

and, every 10 min, a sample for the analysis of plasma catecholamines was drawn. RESULTS: 

There were no statistically significant changes in left ventricular ejection fraction and no signs 

of pulmonary hypertension. There was a statistically significant increase in the mean arterial 

pressure immediately after naloxone administration and in norepinephrine concentration 

before naloxone administration. After naloxone administration, the plasma catecholamine 

levels decreased in all but one animal. Two animals developed cardiac arrest (pulseless electrical activity and ventricular fibrillation) shortly after receiving naloxone. Although they were 

both administered naloxone prematurely due to hypoxic bradycardia, naloxone could have 

contributed to the development of ventricular fibrillation. CONCLUSION: Naloxone did 

not cause changes in ejection fraction or mean pulmonary artery pressure in hypoxic and 

hypercarbic conditions. After naloxone administration, the plasma catecholamine levels 

returned to baseline in all but one animal, and two animals developed cardiac arrest.

Descriptors: analgesics, opioid toxicity, cardiovascular physiology drug effects, naloxone 

pharmacology, overdose, propofol pharmacology, carbon dioxide blood, catecholamines 

blood, disease models, animal, electrocardiography drug effects, hydrogen ion concentration, 

partial pressure, swine.

Bozeman, W.P. and A.H. Idris (2005). Intracranial pressure changes during rapid sequence intubation: a swine model. Journal of Trauma Injury Infection and Critical Care 58(2): 278-283. 

ISSN: 1079-6061 .
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •21

Descriptors: methods and techniques, nervous system: neural coordination, pharmacology, 

head injury, craniocerebral trauma, injury, paralysis, nervous system disease, arterial pressure monitor, laboratory equipment, intracranial pressure monitor, laboratory equipment, 

rapid sequence intubation, laboratory techniques, animal model, cerebral metabolism, drug 

regimen, hemodynamic parameters, intracranial pressure.

Brull, R., V.W. Chan, C.J. McCartney, A. Perlas, and D. Xu (2007). Ultrasound detects intraneural 

injection. Anesthesiology 106(6): 1244; Author Reply 1247. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Descriptors: anesthetics, local administration and dosage, nerve block adverse effects, 

peripheral nerves injuries, peripheral nerves ultrasonography, swine.

Notes: Comment On: Anesthesiology. 2006 Oct;105(4):779-83.

Buehner, E., U.C. Pietsch, A. Bringmann, C. Foja, P. Wiedemann, and S. Uhlmann (2010). Effects 

of propofol and isoflurane anesthesia on the intraocular pressure and hemodynamics of pigs. Ophthalmic Research 45(1): 42-46. ISSN: 1423-0259 (Electronic). 0030-3747 

(Linking).

DOI: 10.1159/000317060

Abstract: To determine the conditions under which anesthetized pigs can be used in acute 

noninvasive investigations of ocular hydro- and hemodynamics, the intraocular pressure 

(IOP) of adult pigs was recorded under the following conditions: (1) after intravenous injection of propofol plus ketamine; (2) during inhalation of isoflurane, and (3) 2 h after topical 

administration of bimatoprost or (4) timolol. Propofol/ketamine and isoflurane induced 

significant decreases in the IOP. The pulsation of the ophthalmic artery appeared at a significantly higher IOP in animals anesthetized with isoflurane than in those anesthetized with 

propofol/ketamine. Bimatoprost and timolol did not significantly decrease the IOP within 2 

h after topical administration. It is concluded that different techniques for the acute noninvasive investigation of ocular hydro- and hemodynamics are applicable in anesthetized pigs. 

To test the effects of antiglaucoma agents, investigation periods longer than 2 h are required. 

We recommend the use of intravenous propofol/ketamine anesthesia rather than isoflurane 

anesthesia in future experiments using pigs.

Descriptors: adult pigs, noninvasive investigations, ocular hydro- and hemodynamics, intraocular pressure, propofol, ketamine, isoflurane, topical administration,bimatoprost, timolol.

Cai, W.Z., Y.J. Li, B.T. Cai, C.H. Zeng, Y. Wang, and B.D. Luo (2003). Effect of occlusive wound 

dressing supplemented with antiphlogistic and analgesic agents on plasma beta-endorphin in hot and humid environments: a study in pigs. Di Yi Jun Yi Da Xue Xue Bao; 

Academic Journal of the First Medical College of PLA 23(7): 699-701. ISSN: 1000-2588.

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To study the changes of plasma beta-endorphin (beta-EP) in pigs 

with traumatic injury after occlusive wound dressing supplemented with antiphlogistic and 

analgesic agents in hot and humid environments (HHE). METHODS: Traumatic models 

were established in 10 pigs, 5 of which received antiphlogistic- and analgesic-supplemented 

occlusive dressings of the wounds (experiment group, EG), while the rest pigs were assigned 

to control group (CG) to receive routine wound management. The pigs in both groups were 

then exposed to artificial HHE and at different time points during the exposure, the plasma 

beta-EP level, respiratory frequency and heart rates were measured respectively. RESULTS: 

The plasma beta-EP concentration of EG was significantly lower than that of CG (P <0.01) 

after the injury, but in both groups, the levels before the injury were similar to those mea-
22• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

sured at hour 8 during HHE exposure and at hour 24 following the injury. The variation 

range of the respiratory frequency and heart rates during HHE exposure were significantly 

smaller in EG than CG (P <0.01). CONCLUSION: This supplemented occlusive wound 

dressing can help restrain the peak of plasma beta-EP level and the variation range of respiratory frequency and heart rates of pigs exposed to HHE.

Descriptors: analgesics administration and dosage, occlusive dressings, beta endorphin 

blood, heart rate, heat, humidity, respiration, swine.

Carvalho, A.R., F.C. Jandre, A.V. Pino, F.A. Bozza, J.I. Saluh, R. Rodrigues, J.H. Soares, and A. 

Giannella Neto (2006). Effects of descending positive end-expiratory pressure on lung 

mechanics and aeration in healthy anaesthetized piglets. Critical Care London, England

10(4): R122.

Abstract: INTRODUCTION: Atelectasis and distal airway closure are common clinical 

entities of general anaesthesia. These two phenomena are expected to reduce the ventilation 

of dependent lung regions and represent major causes of arterial oxygenation impairment 

in anaesthetic conditions. In the present study, the behavior of the elastance of the respiratory system (Ers), as well as the lung aeration assessed by CT-scan, was evaluated during a 

descendent positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) titration. This work sought to evaluate the potential usefulness of the Ers monitoring to set the PEEP in order to prevent tidal 

recruitment and hyperinflation of healthy lungs under general anaesthesia. METHODS: 

PEEP titration (from 16 to 0 cmH2O, with a tidal volume of 8 ml/kg) was performed, and 

at each PEEP, helical CT-scans were obtained during end-expiratory and end-inspiratory 

pauses in six healthy, anaesthetized and paralyzed piglets. The distribution of lung compartments (hyperinflated (HA), normally- (NA), poorly- (PA), and non-aerated areas (N)) was 

determined and the tidal re-aeration was calculated as the difference between end-expiratory 

and end-inspiratory PA and NA areas. Similarly, the tidal hyperinflation was obtained as 

the difference between end-inspiratory and end-expiratory HA. The Ers was estimated on 

a breath-by-breath basis from the equation of motion of the respiratory system during all 

PEEP titration with the least squares method. RESULTS: HA decreased throughout PEEP 

descent from PEEP 16 cmH2O to ZEEP (ranges from 24-62% to 1-7% at end-expiratory 

and from 44-73% to 4-17% at end-inspiratory pauses) whereas NA areas increased (30-66% 

to 72-83% at end-expiratory and from 19-48% to 73-77% at end-inspiratory pauses). From 

16 to 8 cmH2O, Ers decreased with a correspondent reduction in tidal hyperinflation. A 

flat minimum of Ers was observed from 8 to 4 cmH2O. For PEEP below 4 cmH2O, Ers 

increased associated with a rise in tidal re-aeration and a flat maximum of the NA areas. 

CONCLUSION: In healthy piglets under a descending PEEP protocol, the PEEP at 

minimum Ers presented a compromise between maximizing NA areas and minimizing tidal 

re-aeration and hyperinflation. High levels of PEEP, greater than 8 cmH2O, reduced tidal reaeration but enlarged hyperinflation with a concomitant decrease in normally aerated areas.

Descriptors: anesthesia, general, lung physiology, positive pressure respiration methods, pulmonary gas exchange physiology, respiratory mechanics physiology, animals, newborn, lung 

compliance physiology, swine.

Chen, X., M. Yamakage, and A. Namiki (2002). Inhibitory effects of volatile anesthetics on K+ 

and Cl- channel currents in porcine tracheal and bronchial smooth muscle. Anesthesiology 

96( 2): 458-66. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: K+ and Ca2+-activated Cl- (ClCa) channel currents have 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •23

been shown to contribute to the alteration of membrane electrical activity in airway smooth 

muscle. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of volatile anesthetics, which are 

potent bronchodilators, on the activities of these channels in porcine tracheal and bronchial 

smooth muscles. METHODS: Whole-cell patch clamp recording techniques were used to 

investigate the effects of superfused isoflurane (0-1.5 minimum alveolar concentration) or 

sevoflurane (0-1.5 minimum alveolar concentration) on K+ and ClCa channel currents in 

dispersed smooth muscle cells. RESULTS: Isoflurane and sevoflurane inhibited whole-cell 

K+ currents to a greater degree in tracheal versus bronchial smooth muscle cells. More than 

60% of the total K+ currents in tracheal smooth muscle appeared to be mediated through 

delayed rectifier K+ channels compared with less than 40% in bronchial smooth muscle. The 

inhibitory effects of the anesthetics were greater on the delayed rectifier K+ channels than on 

the remaining K+ channels. Cl- currents through ClCa channels were significantly inhibited 

by the anesthetics. The inhibitory potencies of the anesthetics on the ClCa channels were not 

different in tracheal and bronchial smooth muscle cells. CONCLUSIONS: Volatile anesthetics isoflurane and sevoflurane significantly inhibited Cl- currents through ClCa channels, 

and the inhibitory effect is consistent with the relaxant effect of volatile anesthetics in airway 

smooth muscle. Different distributions and different anesthetic sensitivities of K+ channel 

subtypes could play a role in the different inhibitory effects of the anesthetics on tracheal and 

bronchial smooth muscle contractions.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, bronchi drug effects, chloride channels drug effects, muscle, smooth drug effects, potassium channels drug effects, trachea drug 

effects, 4 aminopyridine pharmacology, charybdotoxin pharmacology, electrophysiology, 

isoflurane pharmacology, methyl ethers pharmacology, muscle, smooth cytology, patch clamp 

techniques, swine.

Chini, E.N., T.F. Keller, Y.S. Prakash, C.M. Pabelick, and G. Sieck (2002). Effect of halothane on 

cADP-ribose-induced Ca(2+) release system in tracheal smooth muscle. Anesthesiology 

97( 4): 1022-4. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Descriptors: adenosine diphosphate ribose pharmacology, anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, calcium metabolism, halothane pharmacology, muscle, smooth metabolism, trachea 

metabolism, 8 bromo cyclic adenosine monophosphate pharmacology, aniline compounds, 

fluorescent dyes, heparin pharmacology, microsomes drug effects, microsomes metabolism, 

muscle, smooth drug effects, ruthenium red pharmacology, signal transduction drug effects, 

swine, trachea drug effects, xanthenes.

Cohen, S., N. Parvizi, E.J. Mulder, H.A. Van Oord, F.H. Jonker, G.C. Van Der Weijden, and M.A. 

Taverne (2001). Effects of morphine and naloxone on fetal heart rate and movement in 

the pig. Journal of Applied Physiology 90(4): 1577-83. ISSN: 8750-7587.

NAL Call Number: 447.8 J825

Abstract: To test the hypothesis that an increasing opioid tonus is involved in decreases in 

fetal heart rate (FHR) and movement (FM) during late gestation, we studied the effects of 

intravenous bolus injections of morphine (1 mg) and naloxone (1 mg) on FHR and FM in 

the fetal pig. Twenty-one fetuses (1 per sow) were catheterized at 90-104 days of gestation 

(median 100 days). Recordings of FHR (electrocardiograph or Doppler-derived signals) and 

FM (ultrasonography) were made from 15 min before to 45 min after treatment. Morphine 

administration significantly decreased FHR, but it increased FHR variation and forelimb 

movements (LM). LM were clustered, and this stereotyped behavior has never before been 
24• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

observed in any mammalian fetus. Naloxone administration increased gross body movements and FHR without significant changes in FHR variation. It is concluded that FHR and 

motility are under opioidergic control in the pig fetus. Both morphine and naloxone induce 

hypermotility, suggesting that naloxone does not act as a pure opioid antagonist in the fetal 

pig.

Descriptors: analgesics, opioid pharmacology, fetal movement drug effects, heart rate, fetal 

drug effects, morphine pharmacology, naloxone pharmacology, narcotic antagonists pharmacology, analgesics, opioid administration and dosage, injections, intravenous, morphine 

administration and dosage, naloxone administration and dosage, narcotic antagonists administration and dosage, swine.

Coppens, M.J., L.F. Versichelen, G. Rolly, E.P. Mortier, and M.M. Struys (2006). The mechanisms 

of carbon monoxide production by inhalational agents. Anaesthesia 61(5): 462-8. ISSN: 

0003-2409.

Abstract: Carbon monoxide can be formed when volatile anaesthetic agents such as desflurane and sevoflurane are used with anaesthetic breathing systems containing carbon dioxide 

absorbents. This review describes the possible chemical processes involved and summarises 

the experimental and clinical evidence for the generation of carbon monoxide. We emphasise 

the different conditions that were used in the experimental work, and explain some of the 

features of the clinical reports. Finally, we provide guidelines for the prevention and detection 

of this complication.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation chemistry, carbon monoxide chemistry, absorption, 

adolescent, anesthesia, closed circuit, calcium compounds chemistry, child, preschool, gas 

scavengers, isoflurane analogs and derivatives, isoflurane chemistry, methyl ethers chemistry, 

middle aged, oxides chemistry, sodium hydroxide chemistry, swine.

Cornick Seahorn, J.L. (2001). Veterinary Anesthesia, Woburn, USA: Butterworth-Heinemann., x + 

318 p. ISBN: 0750672277.

Descriptors: anesthesia, anesthetics, dosage, equipment, inhaled anesthetics, injectable 

anesthetics, local anesthesia, monitoring, pain, patient care, pharmacology, preanesthetic medication, resuscitation, veterinary products, birds, Camelidae, cats, dogs, horses, 

mammals, pigs, reptiles, ruminants.

Notes: The Practical Veterinarian .

Costea, R., A. Tanase, L. Ionita, C. Copaescu, I. Girjoaba, J. Mocanu, and D.S. Drugociu (2009). 

Inhalatory anaesthesia in pigs for laparascopic surgery [Anestezia inhalatorie la porc 

in interventiile chirurgicale laparoscopice. Lucrari Stiintifice Medicina Veterinara, Universitatea De Stiinte Agricole Si Medicina Veterinara “Ion Ionescu De La Brad” Iasi 52(11(1)): 

503-505. ISSN: 1454-7406.

Descriptors: anesthesia, inhalation, laparoscopy, pigs.

Language of Text: Romanian, Summary in English.

Court, M.H. (2001). Acetaminophen UDP-glucuronosyltransferase in ferrets: species and gender 

differences, and sequence analysis of ferret UGT1A6. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology 

and Therapeutics 24 (6): 415-22. ISSN: 0140-7783.

NAL Call Number: SF915.J63

Abstract: The principal objective of this study was to determine whether ferrets glucuronidate acetaminophen more slowly compared with other species, and if so investigate the 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •25

molecular basis for the difference. Acetaminophen-UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) 

activities were measured using hepatic microsomes from eight ferrets, four humans, four 

cats, four dogs, rat, mouse, cow, horse, monkey, pig and rabbit. Gender differences between 

male and female ferret livers were explored using enzyme kinetic analysis. Immunoblotting 

of microsomal proteins was also performed using UGT-specific antibodies. Finally, the exon 

1 region of UGT1A6, a major acetaminophen-UGT, was sequenced. Glucuronidation of 

acetaminophen was relatively slow in ferret livers compared with livers from all other species 

except cat. Gender differences were also apparent, with intrinsic clearance (Vmax/Km) values 

significantly higher in male compared with female ferret livers. Furthermore, Vmax values 

correlated with densitometric measurements of two protein bands identified with a UGT1A 

subfamily-specific antibody. No deleterious mutations were identified in the exon 1 or flanking regions of the ferret UGT1A6 gene. In conclusion, like cats, ferret livers glucuronidate 

acetaminophen relatively slowly. However, unlike cats, in which UGT1A6 is encoded by a 

pseudogene and dysfunctional, there are no defects in the ferret UGT1A6 gene which could 

account for the low activity.

Descriptors: acetaminophen pharmacokinetics, analgesics, non narcotic pharmacokinetics, ferrets metabolism, glucuronosyltransferase metabolism, microsomes, liver enzymology, 

amino acid sequence, cattle metabolism, dna primers, dogs metabolism, glucuronosyltransferase genetics, glucuronosyltransferase immunology, haplorhini metabolism, horses 

metabolism, immunoblotting veterinary, mice metabolism, microsomes, liver immunology, 

molecular sequence data, polymerase chain reaction veterinary, rabbits metabolism, rats 

metabolism, species specificity, swine metabolism.

Crandall, C.S., S. Kerrigan, R.L. Aguero, J. Lavalley, and P.E. McKinney (2006). The influence 

of collection site and methods on postmortem morphine concentrations in a porcine 

model. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 30(9): 651-8. ISSN: 0146-4760.

NAL Call Number: RA1221.J6

Abstract: This study was to determine the relationship of antemortem to postmortem 

morphine concentrations in heart and femoral blood in a porcine model following acute 

intravenous opiate overdose. The study involved 20 swine; each was sacrificed 10 min after 

injection of 2 mg/kg body weight of morphine. Drug concentrations were assayed from 

vitreous humor and blood isolated from the femoral vein and artery and left and right ventricles at various times postmortem. Comparisons were made between antemortem and 

postmortem values to determine agreement and reliability. Both free and total postmortem 

values varied significantly among animals, sampling sites, and over time. Free postmortem 

values were generally higher in comparison with antemortem values, whereas postmortem 

total morphine values were similar to or slightly lower than antemortem values. The effect 

of time on postmortem values was small. These results demonstrate a significant amount of 

variability in free and total morphine measurements both over time and within and between 

sites. Furthermore, a comparison of antemortem to postmortem values demonstrates a lack 

of consistency relative to the dose of morphine administered. Concentrations of morphine in 

the femoral vein were typically the lowest observed. This observation is not surprising given 

the transformation that occurs prior to the drug reaching the femoral vein. Values associated 

with diffuse tissues, relative to femoral veins, demonstrate more stochastic variation.

Descriptors: analgesics, opioid blood, blood specimen collection methods, morphine blood, 

narcotics blood, postmortem changes, analgesics, opioid pharmacokinetics, femoral artery, 
26• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

femoral vein, forensic medicine, heart ventricles, morphine pharmacokinetics, narcotics pharmacokinetics, research design, swine.

Crystal, G.J. and M.R. Salem (2003). Isoflurane causes vasodilation in the coronary circulation.

Anesthesiology 98(4): 1030. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation adverse effects, coronary circulation drug effects, isoflurane adverse effects, vasodilation drug effects, swine.

Notes: Comment On: Anesthesiology. 2002 Jun;96(6):1465-71.

Dahse, T., J. Wennek Klose, M. Listing, C. Fleck, and H. Oelschlager (2006). In-vitroUntersuchungen zum Phase-1-Metabolismus des Fomocain-Derivats Oe 9000 mit 

Schweineleberhomogenaten. [In vitro investigations of phase I metabolism of the fomocaine derivative Oe 9000 with pig liver homogenates]. Pharmazie, Die 61(11): 943-51. 

ISSN: 0031-7144.

Abstract: 2,2’-[4-(4-Phenoxymethylphenyl)butylimino]diethanol (Oe 9000) is a new, highly 

potent local anaesthetic related to fomocaine. It displays a long duration of action, low toxicity and is superior to fomocaine with regard to aqueous solubility and efficacy. In view of the 

development of new application forms, e.g. for the treatment of postoperative pain, the elucidation of the biotransformation of the drug is required. Therefore, experiments with 10000 

x g supernatants and microsomes from pig liver homogenates were conducted. Using specifically synthesized reference compounds six phase I metabolites could be identified by LC-MS. 

Apart from the predominating oxidative desamination of the compound, that led after redox 

reactions to the corresponding butyric acid and butanol derivatives, oxygenation of the exocycle, oxidative N-desalkylation, and N-oxidation were observed. Thus, with the exception of 

one compound only metabolites are generated, that are expected to have no local anaesthetic 

activity due to their reduced basicity.

Descriptors: anesthetics, local metabolism, ethanolamines metabolism, liver metabolism, 

phenyl ethers metabolism, biotransformation, chromatography, gas, indicators and reagents, 

mass spectrometry, nitric oxide chemistry, spectrophotometry, ultraviolet, swine.

Language of Text: German.

de Groot, H. (2007). Onderzoek naar verdoofd castreren van biggen van start. [Swine castration 

with anesthesia investigation begins]. Tijdschrift Voor Diergeneeskunde 132(11): 446-7. 

ISSN: 0040-7453.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 T431

Descriptors: anesthesia veterinary, legislation, veterinary, orchiectomy veterinary, swine 

surgery, netherlands, orchiectomy methods.

Language of Text: Dutch.

Deacon, C.F., A. Plamboeck, S. Moller, and J.J. Holst (2002). GLP-1-(9-36) amide reduces blood 

glucose in anesthetized pigs by a mechanism that does not involve insulin secretion.

American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism 282(4 ): E873-9. ISSN: 0193-

1849.

Abstract: Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) is a potent anti-hyperglycemic hormone currently under investigation for its therapeutic potential. However, due to rapid degradation 

by dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV), which limits its metabolic stability and eliminates its 

insulinotropic activity, it has been impossible to assess its true efficacy in vivo. In chloraloseanesthetized pigs given valine-pyrrolidide (to block endogenous DPP IV activity), the 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •27

independent effects of GLP-1-(7-36) amide on glucose and insulin responses to intravenous 

glucose were assessed, and the metabolite generated by DPP IV, GLP-1-(9-36) amide, was 

investigated for any ability to influence these responses. GLP-1-(7-36) amide enhanced 

insulin secretion (P < 0.03 vs. vehicle), but GLP-1-(9-36) amide was without effect, either 

alone or when coinfused with GLP-1-(7-36) amide. In contrast, GLP-1-(9-36) amide did 

affect glucose responses (P < 0.03). Glucose excursions were greater after saline (121 +/- 17 

mmol x l(-1) x min) than after GLP-1-(9-36) amide (73 +/- 19 mmol x l(-1) x min; P < 

0.05), GLP-1-(7-36) amide (62 +/- 13 mmol x l(-1) x min; P < 0.02) or GLP-1-(7-36) amide 

+ GLP-1-(9-36) amide (50 +/-13 mmol x l(-1) x min; P < 0.005). Glucose elimination rates 

were faster after GLP-1-(7-36) amide + (9-36) amide (10.3 +/- 1.2%/min) than after GLP1-(7-36) amide (7.0 +/- 0.9%/min; P < 0.04), GLP-1-(9-36) amide (6.8 +/- 1.0%/min; P < 

0.03), or saline (5.4 +/- 1.2%/min; P < 0.005). Glucagon concentrations were unaffected. 

These results demonstrate that GLP-1-(9-36) amide neither stimulates insulin secretion nor 

antagonizes the insulinotropic effect of GLP-1-(7-36) amide in vivo. Moreover, the metabolite itself possesses anti-hyperglycemic effects, supporting the hypothesis that selective DPP 

IV action is important in glucose homeostasis.

Descriptors: anesthesia, blood glucose metabolism, insulin secretion, peptides pharmacology, antigens, cd26 metabolism, chloralose, glucagon blood, glucagon like peptide 1, 

glucagon like peptides, infusions, intravenous, kinetics, metabolic clearance rate, peptide 

fragments administration and dosage, peptide fragments blood, peptide fragments pharmacology, peptides administration and dosage, peptides pharmacokinetics, protease inhibitors 

pharmacology, protein precursors blood, pyrroles pharmacology, swine, valine pharmacology.

del Castillo, J.R., V. Laroute, P. Pommier, C. Zemirline, A. Keita, D. Concordet, and P.L. Toutain 

(2006). Interindividual variability in plasma concentrations after systemic exposure of 

swine to dietary doxycycline supplied with and without paracetamol: a population pharmacokinetic approach. Journal of Animal Science 84(11): 3155-66.

NAL Call Number: 49 J82

Abstract: Anorexigenic substances released during infection may hinder the therapeutic 

efficacy of in-feed antibiotics. Paracetamol (acetaminophen; PARA) inhibits the anorexia of 

infection and seems to improve the clinical efficacy of doxycycline (DOX) against bacterial 

respiratory disease in swine herds. In order to verify whether PARA selectively stimulates 

intake of DOX-medicated feed in diseased pigs, we documented the pharmacokinetics (PK) 

of DOX when coadministered with PARA and examined the effect of in-feed PARA on the 

interindividual variability in plasma concentrations after systemic exposure to in-feed DOX 

in swine herds with respiratory disease. Systemic exposure to DOX was measured with the 

area under the curve (AUC) of its plasma concentrations over time. First, a rich-sampling 

PK study of in-feed and i.v. DOX (10 mg/kg of BW) and PARA (30 and 10 mg/kg of BW, 

respectively) was performed on 5 pigs. The PK profiles of in-feed DOX were used in mathematical simulations to determine 5 optimal sampling times for the farm-based population 

PK study. A randomized, blind, parallel PK study was performed in 2 herds with bacterial 

respiratory disease, where liquid feed was fortified with DOX alone (5 mg x kg of BW(-1) 

x meal(-1)) or combined with PARA (15 mg x kg of BW(-1) x meal(-1)). Medicated meals 

were given twice, 12 h apart, to group-housed growing pigs (n > 50 pigs x treatment(-1) 

x herd(-1), totaling 215 pigs). Plasma concentrations of DOX and PARA were measured 

with HPLC. At variance with our expectations, PARA decreased (P = 0.069) mean AUC of 

in-feed DOX and did not decrease its variability (P > 0.34). Mean AUC of DOX increased 
28• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

with feed intake and with initial exposure to DOX, and was greater in sick animals. Therefore, symptomatic PARA-induced improvement in bacterial respiratory disease control with 

DOX is more likely caused by its analgesic/antipyretic effects than by its orexigenic effect. 

Interindividual variation in the AUC of DOX was large in pigs given group medication, 

even when sufficient feeding space was allowed and the amount of feed offered was greater 

than their requirements. Therefore, future studies to improve the efficacy of group antibiotic 

therapy should focus on feeding behavior characteristics as well as biopharmaceutical properties of medicated feeds.

Descriptors: acetaminophen pharmacokinetics, analgesics pharmacokinetics, anti bacterial 

agents pharmacokinetics, doxycycline pharmacokinetics, swine metabolism, acetaminophen 

blood, acetaminophen pharmacology, analgesics blood, anti bacterial agents blood, anti 

bacterial agents pharmacology, appetite drug effects, area under curve, doxycycline blood, 

doxycycline pharmacology, drug interactions, feeding behavior drug effects, respiratory tract 

infections drug therapy, respiratory tract infections microbiology, respiratory tract infections 

veterinary, swine diseases drug therapy.

Delahaut, P., P. Brasseur, and M. Dubois (2004). Multiresidue method for the detection of 

tranquillisers, xylazine, and a b-blocker in animal production by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography A 1054(1-2): 373-378. ISSN: 

0021-9673.

NAL Call Number: QD272.C4J68

Descriptors: drug residues, tranquilizers, anesthetics, beta adrenergic antagonists, high performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, swine, liver, kidneys, skeletal muscle, 

pork, food contamination, xylazine.

Notes: In the special issue: Food science / edited by M. Careri and K. Robards.

Demestiha, T.D., I.N. Pantazopoulos, I. Dontas, N.A. Valsamakis, P.P. Lelovas, and T.T. Xanthos 

(2010). Refined induction of anesthesia with remifentanil after bolus propofol administration in Landrace/Large White swine. Lab Animal 39(10): 319-24. ISSN: 0093-7355 

(Print). 0093-7355 (Linking).

NAL Call Number: QL55.A1L33

Abstract: The authors report a prospective randomized blind study in which they used a 

refined anesthetic technique in male Landrace/Large White swine (n = 125 pigs, 19 +/- 2 

kg, 10-15 weeks old). The animals were first premedicated with ketamine, midazolam and 

atropine and then given a dose of 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 mug remifentanil per kg body weight (dose 

amounts were randomly assigned) after a bolus dose of propofol. The authors assessed the 

intubation conditions (e.g., jaw relaxation and other parameters) 20 min after premedication 

and then 5 min after anesthesia induction. All animals that received each of the different 

remifentanil dose amounts were successfully intubated in less than 30 s. No animal developed apnea during intubation or experienced substantial reductions in heart rate or blood 

pressure (> 25%) between the two time points (20 min after premedication and 5 min after 

anesthesia induction). Overall intubation conditions were significantly better in animals that 

received 5 mug remifentanil per kg body weight than in animals that received other dose 

amounts (P < 0.001). The average time to intubation was significantly shorter for animals 

that received 5 mug remifentanil per kg body weight than for animals that received any of 

the other dose amounts (P < 0.001). The authors concluded that for this study, 5 mug remifentanil per kg body weight resulted in excellent intubating conditions in this swine breed.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •29

Descriptors: male Landrace, refined anesthetic technique, ketamine, midazolam, atropine, 

intubation .

Di Stasi, S.M., A. Giannantoni, P. Navarra, R. Massoud, D. Zavaglia, P. Bertucci, G. Vespasiani, and 

R.L. Stephen (2003). The stability of lidocaine and epinephrine solutions exposed to 

electric current and comparative administration rates of the two drugs into pig bladder 

wall. Urological Research 31(3): 169-76. ISSN: 0300-5623.

NAL Call Number: RC870 .U76 

Abstract: Intravesical electromotive administration of local anesthetics is clinically successful 

but electrochemistry, cost and effectiveness limit the choice of drugs to diluted lidocaine HCl 

4% mixed with epinephrine. These studies address the stability of lidocaine and epinephrine 

both over time and when exposed to electric current, i.e. transport rates with passive diffusion and electromotive administration. The drug mixture used was 50 ml lidocaine 4%, 50 

ml H2O and 1 ml epinephrine 1/1000. For stability, the solution was placed either in bowls 

for 7 days or in a two chamber cell with the donor compartment (drugs) separated from the 

receptor compartment (NaCl solution) by a viable pig bladder wall. This was subjected to 

30 mA for 45 min. Stability was measured with mass spectrometry. The cell was also used 

to determine transport rates with passive diffusion and currents of 20 mA and 30 mA, over 

20, 30 and 45 min. Drug measurements in both compartments and bladder were made with 

HPLC. Lidocaine remained stable throughout the 7 days, epinephrine on day 1 only and 

both drugs were stable with 30 mA for 45 min. Comparing 20 mA and 30 mA with passive 

diffusion, there were significant differences in 6/6 donor compartment lidocaine levels, 4/6 

receptor compartment levels and 6/6 bladder tissue levels and also in 6/6 epinephrine donor 

levels and 6/6 tissue levels. The combination lidocaine and epinephrine remains stable for 

1 day and when exposed to 30 mA for 45 min. Electric current accelerates the transport of 

lidocaine and epinephrine.

Descriptors: anesthetics, local administration and dosage, anesthetics, local chemistry, epinephrine administration and dosage, epinephrine chemistry, lidocaine administration and 

dosage, lidocaine chemistry, urinary bladder metabolism, anesthetics, local pharmacokinetics, biological transport, diffusion, drug combinations, drug stability, electricity, epinephrine 

pharmacokinetics, lidocaine pharmacokinetics, solutions, swine.

Diaz Del Consuelo, I., F. Falson, R.H. Guy, and Y. Jacques (2005). Transport of fentanyl through 

pig buccal and esophageal epithelia in vitro: influence of concentration and vehicle pH.

Pharmaceutical Research 22(9): 1525-9. ISSN: 0724-8741.

NAL Call Number: RS1

Abstract: PURPOSE: To validate pig esophageal epithelium as a model for the permeability 

barrier of the buccal mucosa, the transport of fentanyl across the two tissues was compared 

in vivo. METHODS: The epithelia were separated by immersing the excised mucosae into 

an isotonic saline solution at 60--65 degrees C. Fentanyl was delivered as the citrate salt at 

a concentration of 1 or 2 mg/mL buffered at one of four pH values (between 6.0 and 7.4). 

RESULTS: Across both barriers, drug transport increased proportionally with concentration as expected. However, drug flux was not linearly related to the unionized fraction of 

the drug; indeed, fentanyl delivery was significant even when 98.5% of the drug was in the 

ionized form. CONCLUSIONS: Buccal and esophageal fluxes were very similar under all 

conditions suggesting that the esophageal epithelium is a representative tool for buccal transport studies in vitro.
30• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Descriptors: analgesics, opioid pharmacokinetics, esophagus metabolism, fentanyl pharmacokinetics, mouth mucosa metabolism, cheek, hydrogen ion concentration, swine.

Diaz del Consuelo, I., F. Falson, R.H. Guy, and Y. Jacques (2007). Ex vivo evaluation of bioadhesive films for buccal delivery of fentanyl. Journal of Controlled Release Official Journal of the 

Controlled Release Society 122(2): 135-40.

NAL Call Number: RS201.C64J68

Abstract: The goals of this work were (i) to develop bioadhesive films for the buccal delivery 

of fentanyl, and (ii) to evaluate their performance in vitro using the pig esophageal model. 

Films were made with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) of two different molecular weights: PVP 

K30 and PVP K90. Delivery of fentanyl was determined across full-thickness mucosa and 

across heat-separated epithelium (where the permeability barrier was shown to be located). 

The influence of film pH was investigated, and it was found that fentanyl permeation 

increased with increasing pH (i.e., when a higher percentage of the unionized fraction of 

drug was present). However, at the pH values studied, fentanyl was predominantly ionized 

suggesting that transport pathways offering a hydrophilic, or polar, environment across the 

mucosa were available. The transport rates achieved from the PVP films providing the highest 

delivery suggest that a buccal system of only 1-2 cm(2) in surface area could achieve a therapeutic effect equivalent to a 10 cm(2) transdermal patch, with a much shorter lag-time.

Descriptors: analgesics, opioid chemistry, drug carriers, fentanyl chemistry, povidone chemistry, adhesiveness, administration, buccal, analgesics, opioid administration and dosage, 

analgesics, opioid metabolism, chemistry, pharmaceutical, diffusion chambers, culture, drug 

compounding, esophagus metabolism, fentanyl administration and dosage, hydrogen ion 

concentration, kinetics, molecular weight, mucous membrane metabolism, permeability, 

solubility, swine.

Diemunsch, P.A., T. Van Dorsselaer, K.D. Torp, R. Schaeffer, and B. Geny (2002). Calibrated pneumoperitoneal venting to prevent N2O accumulation in the CO2 pneumoperitoneum 

during laparoscopy with inhaled anesthesia: an experimental study in pigs. Anesthesia 

and Analgesia 94(4): 1014-8, Table of Contents. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: Nitrous oxide (N2O) accumulates in the CO2 pneumoperitoneum during laparoscopy when N2O is used as an adjuvant for inhaled anesthesia. This may worsen the 

consequences of gas embolism and introduce a fire risk. In this study, we quantified the 

pneumoperitoneal gas venting necessary to prevent significant contamination by inhaled 

N2O. Four domestic pigs (26-30 kg) were anesthetized and ventilated with 66% N2O in 

oxygen. A CO2 pneumoperitoneum was insufflated and maintained at a pressure of 12 mm 

Hg. Each animal underwent three experimental conditions, in random sequence, for 70 min 

each: 1) no pneumoperitoneal leak, 2) leak of 2 L every 10 min (12 L/h), and 3) leak of 4 L 

every 10 min (24 L/h). Every 10 min, pneumoperitoneal gas samples were analyzed for fractions (FPn) of N2O and CO2. Without leaks, FPnN2O increased continually and reached 

29.58% +/- 3.15% at 70 min. With leaks of 2 and 4 L every 10 min (12 and 24 L/h), 

FPnN2O reached a plateau of <10% after 30 min. We conclude that calibrated pneumoperitoneal venting of 12 or 24 L/h is enough to prevent the constitution of potentially dangerous 

pneumoperitoneal gas mixtures if venting is constant. IMPLICATIONS: External venting 

calibrated at four or eight initial pneumoperitoneal volumes per hour with compensation by 

fresh CO2 is sufficient to prevent nitrous oxide buildup of more than 10% in the pneumoperitoneum during laparoscopy with inhaled general anesthesia if venting is constant.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •31

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacokinetics, carbon dioxide administration and 

dosage, laparoscopy, nitrous oxide pharmacokinetics, pneumoperitoneum, artificial methods, 

anesthesia, inhalation, diffusion, swine.

Dingley, J., G.P. Findlay, B.A. Foex, J. Mecklenburgh, M. Esmail, and R.A. Little (2001). A closed 

xenon anesthesia delivery system. Anesthesiology 94(1): 173-6. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Descriptors: anesthesia, closed circuit instrumentation, anesthetics, inhalation administration and dosage, xenon administration and dosage, equipment design, swine.

Duke, A.M., P.M. Hopkins, J.P. Halsal, and D.S. Steele (2004). Mg2+ dependence of halothaneinduced Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in skeletal muscle from humans 

susceptible to malignant hyperthermia. Anesthesiology 101(6): 1339-46. ISSN: 0003-

3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Recent work suggests that impaired Mg(2+) regulation of 

the ryanodine receptor is a common feature of both pig and human malignant hyperthermia. Therefore, the influence of [Mg(2+)] on halothane-induced Ca(2+) release from the 

sarcoplasmic reticulum was studied in malignant hyperthermia-susceptible (MHS) or -nonsusceptible (MHN) muscle. METHODS: Vastus medialis fibers were mechanically skinned 

and perfused with solutions containing physiologic (1 mm) or reduced concentrations of 

free [Mg(2+)]. Sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) release was detected using fura-2 or fluo-3. 

RESULTS: In MHN fibers, 1 mm halothane consistently did not induce sarcoplasmic 

reticulum Ca(2+) release in the presence of 1 mm Mg(2+). It was necessary to increase the 

halothane concentration to 20 mm or greater before Ca release occurred. However, when 

[Mg(2+)] was reduced below 1 mm, halothane became an increasingly effective stimulus 

for Ca(2+) release; e.g., at 0.4 mm Mg(2+), 58% of MHN fibers responded to halothane. 

In MHS fibers, 1 mm halothane induced Ca(2+) release in 57% of MHS fibers at 1 mm 

Mg(2+). Reducing [Mg(2+)] increased the proportion of MHS fibers that responded to 1 

mm halothane. Further experiments revealed differences in the characteristics of halothaneinduced Ca(2+) release in MHS and MHN fibers: In MHN fibers, at 1 mm Mg(2+), 

halothane induced a diffuse increase in [Ca(2+)], which began at the periphery of the fiber 

and spread slowly inward. In MHS fibers, halothane induced a localized C(2+)a release, 

which then propagated along the fiber. However, propagated Ca(2+) release was observed 

in MHN fibers when halothane was applied at an Mg(2+) concentration of 0.4 mm or less. 

CONCLUSIONS: When Mg(2+) inhibition of the ryanodine receptor is reduced, the halothane sensitivity of MHN fibers and the characteristics of the Ca release process approach 

that of the MHS phenotype. In MHS fibers, reduced Mg(2+) inhibition of the ryanodine 

receptor would be expected to have a major influence on halothane sensitivity. The Mg 

dependence of the halothane response in MHN and MHS may have important clinical 

implications in circumstances where intracellular [Mg(2+)] deviates from normal physiologic 

concentrations.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, calcium metabolism, halothane pharmacology, magnesium physiology, malignant hyperthermia metabolism, muscle, skeletal 

metabolism, sarcoplasmic reticulum metabolism, caffeine pharmacology, central nervous 

system stimulants pharmacology, cytosol metabolism, magnesium metabolism, muscle fibers 

drug effects, muscle fibers metabolism, muscle, skeletal drug effects, ryanodine pharmacology, sarcoplasmic reticulum drug effects.
32• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Egan, T.D., S.E. Kern, K.B. Johnson, and N.L. Pace (2003). The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of propofol in a modified cyclodextrin formulation (Captisol) versus propofol 

in a lipid formulation (Diprivan): an electroencephalographic and hemodynamic study 

in a porcine model. Anesthesia and Analgesia 97(1): 72-9, Table of Contents. ISSN: 0003-

2999.

Abstract: The currently marketed propofol formulation has a number of undesirable 

properties that are in part a function of the lipid emulsion formulation, including pain 

on injection, serious allergic reactions, and the support of microbial growth. A modified 

cyclodextrin-based formulation of propofol (sulfobutyl ether-beta-cyclodextrin) has been 

developed that may mitigate some of these formulation-dependent problems. However, 

reformulation may alter propofol’s pharmacologic behavior. Our aim in this study was to 

compare the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of propofol in the currently marketed 

lipid-based formulation with those of the novel cyclodextrin formulation. We hypothesized 

that the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the propofol in cyclodextrin would 

be substantially similar to those of the propofol in lipid. Thirty-two isoflurane-anesthetized 

animals were instrumented with pulmonary artery, arterial, and IV catheters and were 

randomly assigned to receive either propofol in lipid or propofol in cyclodextrin by continuous infusion. Arterial blood samples for propofol assay were collected. The processed 

electroencephalogram, heart rate, mean arterial blood pressure, and cardiac output were 

measured continuously. The propofol formulations were compared by using model-independent analysis techniques. Combined kinetic/dynamic models were also constructed for 

simulation purposes. There were no significant differences in the pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics of the two propofol formulations. The simulations based on the combined 

pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic models confirmed the substantial similarity of the two 

formulations. The hypothesis that the propofol-in-cyclodextrin formulation would exhibit 

pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic behavior that was substantially similar to the propofol-in-lipid formulation was confirmed. IMPLICATIONS: A modified cyclodextrin-based 

formulation of propofol has been developed that may mitigate some of the problems associated with propofol in lipid emulsion. However, reformulation of propofol may change its 

clinical characteristics. This study in a pig model showed that the novel propofol formulation 

was substantially similar to the lipid emulsion propofol formulation.

Descriptors: anesthetics, intravenous pharmacokinetics, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, electroencephalography drug effects, hemodynamic processes drug effects, propofol 

pharmacokinetics, propofol pharmacology, anesthetics, intravenous administration and 

dosage, blood pressure drug effects, cardiac output drug effects, chromatography, gas, 

cyclodextrins, excipients, heart rate drug effects, infusions, intravenous, lipids, propofol 

administration and dosage, swine.

Eijck, I., C. van der Peet Schwering, M. Kiezebrink, and A. Vink (2007). Effect van verdoofd 

castreren van biologische biggen op de dieren- artskosten en arbeidsbelasting van de 

varkenshouder. [Effect of castration of organic swine with anesthesia on the veterinary 

cost and physical work load of the pig farmer]. Tijdschrift Voor Diergeneeskunde 132(12): 

476-9. ISSN: 0040-7453.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 T431

Abstract: We studied the costs of the veterinarian and physical work load for the farmer of 

anaesthetizing piglets before surgical castration compared with castration without anaesthesia 

on seven organic pig farms . Based on experiences from farmers and veterinarians in Norway 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •33

a protocol ‘Castration with anaesthesia’ was formulated. This protocol was tested on the 

Experimental Farm at Raalte and then applied on six organic pig farms. By means of video 

recording it was measured how much time it takes to castrate and anaesthetize the piglets. 

The veterinarian anaesthetized the piglets with lidocaine. The work load for the farmer was 

measured by scoring the physical load for the back and the upper limbs. It took 142 and 

81 seconds per litter, respectively, to castrate and anaesthetize the piglets. The waiting time 

between anaesthesia and castration varied from 10 to 20 minutes on the six farms. Based on 

these measurements, it was calculated that the costs of the veterinarian (excluding call out 

fee) of anaesthetizing piglets are Euro 1.73 per litter with five boars. The costs of lidocaine are 

Euro 0.25 per litter with five boars. The costs per kg organic pig meat are Euro 0.012. The 

farmers and their veterinarians were asked to react on some theses. They all agreed that the 

pig farmer should perform the anaesthesia with lidocaine. Anaesthetizing piglets before castration did not affect the physical load for the back and the upper limbs of the pig farmer.

Descriptors: anesthesia, local veterinary, anesthetics, local administration and dosage, 

animal husbandry economics, animal husbandry methods, lidocaine administration and 

dosage, orchiectomy veterinary, swine surgery, anesthesia, local economics, anesthesia , local 

methods, norway, orchiectomy economics , orchiectomy methods, swine physiology, time 

factors.

Language of Text: Dutch.

Eleveld, D.J., A. De Haes, J.H. Proost, and J.M. Wierda (2003). A pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model for neuromuscular blocking agents to predict train-of-four twitches.

Journal of Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics 30(2): 105-18. ISSN: 1567-567X.

NAL Call Number: RM1

Abstract: The train-of-four (TOF) stimulation pattern consists of 4 stimuli (T1, T2, T3, 

and T4) at 2 Hz, and is used in daily anesthesiological practice to determine the degree 

of relaxation caused by muscle relaxants. At a surgical levels of relaxation the degree of 

relaxation can be estimated by counting the number of “measurable” or “visible” muscular 

reactions to the 4 stimuli in the TOF stimulation pattern (TOF count). During recovery 

relaxation can be estimated by calculating the TOF ratio (T4/T1). Bartkowski and Epstein 

described a pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) model to predict TOF ratio by 

modifying and extending the PK-PD model as described by Sheiner to use a hypothetical 

distributed effect compartment described by a median equilibration rate constant and a dispersion parameter. We extended the Bartkowski and Epstein PK-PD model to simulate all 

four TOF twitches by including EC50 terms for T2 and T3. We fit this model to data from 

the pig and compared the results to fitted models using separate PD models for each TOF 

twitch (extended Sheiner model). The extended Bartkowski and Epstein model fit the twitch 

height data from all four TOF twitches better than the extended Sheiner model and has 

fewer parameters.

Descriptors: anesthesia, models, biological, neuromuscular blocking agents pharmacokinetics, neuromuscular blocking agents pharmacology, computer simulation, reproducibility of 

results, sensitivity and specificity, time factors.

Elowsson, P., K. Norlen, and S. Jakobson (2001). Continuous positive pressure ventilation during 

epidural blockade--effects on cardiac output distribution. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 45(1): 95-103. ISSN: 0001-5172.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: It has been shown that when cardiac output (CO) decreases 
34• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

during continuous positive pressure ventilation (CPPV), its regional distribution adapts with 

a favouring of vital organs. Does epidural blockade modify this adaptation? METHODS: 

Regional blood flows were assessed by the microsphere technique (15 microm) in 17 anaesthetised pigs during spontaneous breathing and CPPV with 8 cm H2O end-expiratory 

pressure (CPPV8) before and after epidural blockade. The block was induced at either the 

Th6-7 (Thep) or the L6-S1 (Lep) level with 1 ml of lidocaine 40 mg x ml(-1). RESULTS: 

When Lep was combined with CPPV8, mean arterial pressure and CO decreased significantly, and they decreased even more when combined with Thep. In contrast, the relative 

perfusion of the central nervous system, heart and kidneys remained stable during the four 

conditions studied. The adrenal perfusion during CPPV8 was obviated by epidural blockade. 

The absolute and relative perfusion of the skeletal muscle decreased during epidural blockade. 

The administered doses of epidural lidocaine did not affect blood flow in the spinal cord. 

CONCLUSIONS: The locally mediated nutritive vasoregulation of vital organs outweighed 

the sympathetic blockade induced by epidural blockade. During Thep blockade the animals 

were less capable of responding to the haemodynamic changes induced by CPPV8, probably 

due to the blockade of the cardiac part of the sympathetic nervous system.

Descriptors: analgesia, epidural, cardiac output physiology, positive pressure respiration, 

adrenal glands blood supply, blood cell count, blood gas analysis, hemodynamic processes 

physiology, microspheres, regional blood flow physiology, respiratory mechanics, swine.

Emmerich, I.U. and F.R. Ungemach (2003). Arzneimittel zur Allgemeinanasthesie des Schweines. 

[Drugs for general anaesthesia in pigs.]. Tierarztliche Praxis Ausgabe G, Grosstiere/Nutztiere

31(6): 352-355. ISSN: 1434-1220.

NAL Call Number: SF603.V43

Descriptors: anesthesia, azaperone, drug residues, ketamine, legislation, metomidate, thiopental, pigs.

Language of Text: German.

Ennis, M., E. Nehring, and C. Schneider (2004). Adverse reactions to drugs: in vitro studies with 

isolated cells. Inflammation Research Official Journal of the European Histamine Research 

Society [Et Al.] 53(Suppl 2): S105-8. ISSN: 1023-3830.

NAL Call Number: RS122.A3

Abstract: OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN: Drug-induced adverse reactions can be allergic 

or pseudoallergic in nature, in this study the histamine releasing ability of 4 radiographic 

contrast media and 2 opioid analgesics was tested on a variety of mast cell containing cell 

suspensions. MATERIAL: Mast cell containing cell suspensions were obtained from porcine 

lung, liver, kidneys and heart, as well as rat lung and rat peritoneal lavage. TREATMENT: 

Cells were incubated for 10 min with Angiographin (amidotrizoate), Hexabrix (ioxaglate), 

Rayvist (ioglycate) or Telebrix (ioxithalamate) all 10-500 microl/ml or with levomethadone 

(0.1-5 mM) or pethidine (0-10 mM). METHODS: Histamine was measured using an 

automated fluorometric method and percentage histamine release calculated. RESULTS: All 

agents caused histamine release from porcine cells and rat lung cells. However, rat peritoneal 

mast cells were refractory to the action of pethidine. Cardiac cells were the most sensitive 

to the radiographic contrast media but the least sensitive to the opioid analgesics. CONCLUSIONS: The data indicate that mast cells isolated from animal models can provide an 

indication of those agents likely to induce an adverse pseudoallergic reaction. However, these 

data should be used together with those obtained from human mast cells, in vivo animal 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •35

experiments as well as studies using human volunteers and clinical trials as advocated in the 

Marburg Model. Copyright 2004 Birkhauser Verlag, Basel

Descriptors: analgesics, opioid adverse effects, contrast media adverse effects, hypersensitivity pathology, liver cytology, mast cells drug effects, analgesics, opioid immunology, 

analgesics, opioid pharmacology, bronchoalveolar lavage, cell line, contrast media pharmacology, histamine release drug effects, histamine release immunology, hypersensitivity 

immunology, kidney cytology, lung cytology, mast cells immunology, mast cells secretion, 

myocardium cytology, peritoneal lavage, radiography instrumentation, rats, rats, sprague 

dawley, swine.

Errando, C.L., C. Sifre, S. Moliner, D. Lopez Alarcon, J.C. Valia, F. Gil, and C.M. Peiro (2004). 

Utilizacion de ketamina para anestesia subaracnoidea durante hipovolemia. Estudio 

experimental preliminar en cerdos. Revista Espanola De Anestesiologia y Reanimacion 51(1): 

3-11. ISSN: 0034-9356.

Abstract: OBJECTIVES: To assess whether subarachnoid ketamine has fewer hemodynamic 

effects than lidocaine in normal and hypovolemic pigs and to determine whether or not the 

effects of ketamine are dose-dependent. METHODS: Thirty pigs were randomly allocated 

to receive subarachnoid administration of lidocaine 2 mg x kg(-1), ketamine 1 mg x kg(-1) 

or ketamine 2 mg x kg(-1), in a situation of either normal or reduced blood volume. The 

pigs were assigned to six groups: group L2 (2% lidocaine 2 mg x kg(-1), normovolemia), 

group L2H (2% lidocaine 2 mg x kg(-1), hypovolemia), group K1 (ketamine 1 mg x kg(-1), 

normovolemia), group K1H (ketamine 1 mg x kg(-1), hypovolemia), group K2 (ketamine 

2 mg.kg(-’, normovolemia), and group K2H (ketamine 2 mg x kg(-1), hypovolemia). To 

induce hypovolemia 30% of the calculated blood volume was withdrawn from each pig. 

The subarachnoid space was catheterized, and invasive measurements of hemodynamic variables (derived from arterial, central venous and pulmonary artery catheter monitoring) were 

obtained. Variables were recorded at baseline and 5 and 15 min after drug injection in the 

normovolemic groups, and at baseline after inducing hypovolemia and 5 and 15 min after 

drug injection in the hypovolemic groups. RESULTS: In the normovolemic pigs no significant differences were detected between groups. In hypovolemic pigs differences were observed 

in heart rate and arterial pressure between the ketamine 1 mg x kg(-1) and lidocaine 2 mg x 

kg(-1) groups (P < 0.05). The decreases in heart rate and arterial pressure were less marked 

in the ketamine group. Mixed venous oxygen saturation and cardiac index deteriorated to a 

lesser degree in both ketamine groups than in the lidocaine groups (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Racemic ketamine administered by subarachnoid injection in hypovolemic pigs 

produces less deterioration in hemodynamic variables than does lidocaine. Hemodynamic 

changes caused by ketamine were not dose-dependent. These findings may be of interest, 

given the increased use of ketamine in neuroaxial anesthesia and analgesia and perhaps the 

possible use of neuroaxial ketamine in hypovolemic patients.

Descriptors: anesthesia, spinal, anesthetics, dissociative administration and dosage, hypovolemia physiopathology, ketamine administration and dosage, hemodynamic processes, 

random allocation, risk factors, swine.

Language of Text: Spanish.

Notes: Comment In: Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim. 2004 Jan;51(1):1-2.
36• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Fahlman, A., E.J. Bosi, and G. Nyman (2006). Reversible anesthesia of Southeast Asian primates 

with medetomidine, zolazepam, and tiletamine. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 

Official Publication of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 37(4): 558-61. ISSN: 

1042-7260.

NAL Call Number: SF601.J6

Abstract: Medetomidine (0.02-0.06 mg/kg) in combination with zolazepam-tiletamine 

(0.8-2.3 mg/kg) were evaluated for reversible anesthesia in four species of Southeast Asian 

primates: Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus), Bornean gibbon (Hylobates 

muelleri), long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis), and pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina). Twenty-three anesthetic procedures of captive-held and free-ranging primates were 

studied in Sabah, Malaysia. The induction was smooth and rapid. Respiratory and heart 

rates were stable throughout anesthesia, whereas body temperature and systolic arterial blood 

pressure decreased significantly. Atipamezole at five times the medetomidine dose effectively 

reversed anesthesia, with first signs of recovery within 3-27 min.

Descriptors: anesthetics, combined administration and dosage, hylobates physiology, 

macaca fascicularis physiology, macaca nemestrina physiology, pongo pygmaeus physiology, adrenergic alpha agonists administration and dosage, adrenergic alpha antagonists 

administration and dosage, anesthesia recovery period, anesthetics, combined adverse effects, 

animals, wild, heart rate drug effects, imidazoles administration and dosage, medetomidine 

administration and dosage, respiration drug effects, species specificity, tiletamine administration and dosage, time factors, zolazepam administration and dosage.

Fannelop, T., G.O. Dahle, K. Matre, L. Segadal, and K. Grong (2004). An anaesthetic protocol in 

the young domestic pig allowing neuromuscular blockade for studies of cardiac function 

following cardioplegic arrest and cardiopulmonary bypass. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 48(9): 1144-54. ISSN: 0001-5172.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Neuromuscular blockade should, for ethical reasons, not 

be allowed in animal experiments unless the use is strongly motivated. Beforehand, the 

anaesthetic protocol must be documented without muscle relaxation in the species studied. 

Documentation is difficult to obtain from the scientific literature. When focusing on cardiac 

function over time, in particular, the ideal anaesthetic protocol should cause no or minor 

alterations in cardiac variables. METHODS: We intended to document an anaesthetic protocol involving ventilation with N(2)O combined with loading doses and continuous infusions 

of pentobarbital, fentanyl and midazolam in seven pigs by applying potentially painful 

stimuli every 15 min for 7 h. Subsequently, left ventricular global and regional function was 

studied with conductance catheter and strain rate imaging by echocardiography in eight 

pigs with pancuronium included. RESULTS: Pigs without pancuronium were completely 

immobilized and unresponsive to potentially painful stimuli and sternotomy, with no accumulation or degradation of anaesthetic agents. With pancuronium included, left ventricular 

preload gradually decreased together with reduction of cardiac index from 3.52 +/- 0.14 at 

2 h to 2.84 +/- 0.11 L min(-1). m(-2) (+/-SEM) after 7 h of observation. Preload recruitable 

stroke work decreased after 7 h, whereas peak systolic strain in the anterior left ventricular 

wall and load-independent indices of diastolic function were not significantly altered. CONCLUSION: In specific experimental protocols, the anaesthetic protocol described could 

allow the use of muscular paralysis in young domestic pigs, for instance when involving 

hypothermic cardiopulmonary bypass, cardioplegic arrest and reperfusion.

Descriptors: anesthesia, cardiopulmonary bypass, heart physiopathology, heart arrest, 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •37

induced, neuromuscular blockade, adjuvants, anesthesia, anesthesia, inhalation, anesthetics, 

intravenous, cardioplegic solutions, fentanyl, hemodynamic processes drug effects, hydrocortisone blood, midazolam, monitoring, intraoperative, myocardial contraction drug effects, 

myocardial reperfusion, nitrous oxide, pentobarbital, research design, swine, ventricular function, left drug effects.

Fedder, A., R. Dall, S. Laurberg, and S.A. Rodt (2004). Epidural anaesthesia with bupivacaine 

does not cause increased oedema in small gut anatomoses in pigs. European Journal of 

Anaesthesiology 21(11): 864-70 . ISSN: 0265-0215.

Abstract: BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Epidural analgesia is widely used for 

abdominal surgery due to the properties of ‘stress-free’ anaesthesia and superior pain control. 

Nevertheless, sympathomimetics are known to antagonize inflammation. The present study 

was performed to investigate if epidural local anaesthetics caused increased local oedema 

formation. METHODS: Thirty Dansk Landrace pigs were randomized into three groups: 

epidural bupivacaine, epidural morphine or intravenous (i.v.) fentanyl. All animals were 

anaesthetized with isoflurane and i.v. midazolam and received an identical fluid regimen. 

Six small bowel resections were performed over a 3-h period and during the following 3 h 

the anastomoses were resected. Primary end-points were water content in small bowel and 

mesentery samples before and after gut anastomosis, lymph flow and urine production. 

RESULTS: The water content in the small bowel samples was not changed by surgery or by 

the different anaesthetic protocols. In the mesenteric tissue, there was a highly significant 

increase in water content of the postanastomotic samples compared to pre-anastomotic 

samples (P < 0.001) and a significant time treatment interaction was revealed (P < 0.05) suggesting an increase in oedema formation in the epidural local anaesthetic group. Lymph flow 

did not change during the experiments and there were no significant differences between the 

groups (P = 0.80). The mean total urine output was 44% higher in the epidural morphine 

group compared to the local anaesthetic group (P = 0.17). CONCLUSIONS: Surgery did 

not increase gut wall water content, but acute oedema formation resulted in the peri-resectional mesenterial tissue, more prominently so in the bupivacaine group.

Descriptors: anesthesia, epidural methods, anesthetics, local adverse effects, bupivacaine 

adverse effects, edema etiology, intestine, small surgery, mesentery drug effects, analgesics, 

opioid administration and dosage, analysis of variance, anastomosis, surgical methods, anesthetics, intravenous administration and dosage, anesthetics, local administration and dosage, 

body fluids drug effects, bupivacaine administration and dosage, edema chemically induced, 

fentanyl administration and dosage, hemodynamic processes drug effects, mesentery surgery, 

morphine administration and dosage, swine, time factors, urine.

Fiege, M., F. Wappler, R. Weisshorn, M.U. Gerbershagen, K. Kolodzie, and J.S. Am Esch (2005). 

Phosphodiesterase-iii-inhibition with amrinone leads to contracture development in 

skeletal muscle preparations of malignant hyperthermia susceptible swine. European 

Journal of Anaesthesiology 22(4): 283-288. ISSN: 0265-0215.

Descriptors: pharmacology, tumor biology, biochemistry and molecular biophysics, muscular system: movement and support, malignant hyperthermia, neoplastic disease, general 

anesthesia, clinical techniques, contracture development, bath concentration.
38• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Fiege, M., F. Wappler, R. Weisshorn, M.U. Gerbershagen, and J.S. Am Esch (2002). Dibucaine is 

not a trigger of malignant hyperthermia in anesthetized susceptible swine. Anesthesiology 

Abstracts of Scientific Papers Annual Meeting(2001): Abstract No. A-1016.

Descriptors: metabolism, muscular system: movement and support, pharmacology, dibucaine, Malignant hyperthermia (MH), hyperthermia, metabolic disease, body temperature, 

hemodynamics .

Notes: Meeting Information: 2001 Annual Meeting of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, New Orleans, LA, USA; October 13-17, 2001.

Fiege, M., F. Wappler, R. Weisshorn, M.U. Gerbershagen, and J.S. Am Esch (2002). Effects of 

theophylline on anesthetized swine susceptible for malignant hyperthermia in-vivo.

Anesthesiology Abstracts of Scientific Papers Annual Meeting(2001): Abstract No. A-1015.

Descriptors: metabolism, pharmacology, theophylline, hyperthermia, metabolic disease, 

anesthesia, clinical techniques, body temperature, hemodynamics, abstract.

Notes: Meeting Information: 2001 Annual Meeting of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, New Orleans, LA, USA; October 13-17, 2001.

Field, M.J., P.J. Cox, E. Stott, H. Melrose, J. Offord, T.Z. Su, S. Bramwell, L. Corradini, S. England, 

J. Winks, R.A. Kinloch, J. Hendrich, A.C. Dolphin, T. Webb, and D. Williams (2006). 

Identification of the alpha2-delta-1 subunit of voltage-dependent calcium channels as a 

molecular target for pain mediating the analgesic actions of pregabalin. Proceedings of the 

National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103(46): 17537-42. ISSN: 0027-

8424.

NAL Call Number: 500 N21P

Abstract: Neuropathic pain is a debilitating condition affecting millions of people around 

the world and is defined as pain that follows a lesion or dysfunction of the nervous system. 

This type of pain is difficult to treat, but the novel compounds pregabalin (Lyrica) and 

gabapentin (Neurontin) have proven clinical efficacy. Unlike traditional analgesics such as 

nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs or narcotics, these agents have no frank antiinflammatory actions and no effect on physiological pain. Although extensive preclinical studies have 

led to a number of suggestions, until recently their mechanism of action has not been clearly 

defined. Here, we describe studies on the analgesic effects of pregabalin in a mutant mouse 

containing a single-point mutation within the gene encoding a specific auxiliary subunit 

protein (alpha2-delta-1) of voltage-dependent calcium channels. The mice demonstrate 

normal pain phenotypes and typical responses to other analgesic drugs. We show that the 

mutation leads to a significant reduction in the binding affinity of pregabalin in the brain 

and spinal cord and the loss of its analgesic efficacy. These studies show conclusively that the 

analgesic actions of pregabalin are mediated through the alpha2-delta-1 subunit of voltagegated calcium channels and establish this subunit as a therapeutic target for pain control.

Descriptors: analgesics therapeutic use, calcium channels metabolism, pain drug therapy, 

pain metabolism, gamma aminobutyric acid analogs and derivatives, amino acid sequence, 

arginine genetics, arginine metabolism, autoradiography, base sequence, calcium channels 

chemistry, calcium channels genetics, calcium channels, n type metabolism, cell line, cercopithecus aethiops, constriction, pathologic, formaldehyde, ion channel gating drug effects, 

mice, mice, transgenic, mutation genetics, pain genetics, protein binding, protein subunits 

chemistry, protein subunits genetics, protein subunits metabolism, swine, gamma aminobutyric acid metabolism, gamma aminobutyric acid therapeutic use.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •39

Fischer, S., D. Renz, J. Kleinstuck, W. Schaper, and G.F. Karliczek (2004). In-vitro-Effekte von 

Anasthetika auf die Blut-Hirn-Schranke. [In vitro effects of anaesthetic agents on the 

blood-brain barrier]. Anaesthesist, Der 53(12): 1177-84. ISSN: 0003-2417.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The blood-brain barrier (BBB) forms a selective barrier 

between blood and brain and regulates the passage of most molecules. Pathological conditions such as ischemia lead to breakdown of the BBB. Vascular endothelial growth factor 

(VEGF) has been shown to be responsible for hypoxia-induced hyperpermeability of the 

BBB in vivo as well as in vitro. To eliminate factors which alter the permeability of the BBB 

in vivo, an in vitro model was used to test the effects of intravenous and volatile anesthetics 

on the permeability and on VEGF expression during normoxia and hypoxia. METHODS: 

The in vitro model of the BBB consisted of primary cultures of porcine brain microvascular 

endothelial cells (BMEC). The permeability was measured by the paracellular passage of 

[3H]inulin across the BMEC monolayer and the expression of VEGF was determined by 

northern blot analysis. RESULTS: All intravenous and volatile anesthetics tested (etomidate, 

ketamine, fentanyl, propofol, midazolam, sodium-gamma-hydroxybutyrate as well as halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, sevoflurane, desflurane) did not alter the permeability of the 

BBB or the expression of VEGF in vitro. Hypoxia (2 vol%) increased the permeability and 

the VEGF expression significantly which was not altered in the presence of the anesthetics. 

CONCLUSION: The in vitro model represents a suitable model of the BBB to investigate 

direct effects of anesthetics on functions of the BBB independent of hemodynamic factors.

Descriptors: anesthetics pharmacology, blood brain barrier drug effects, anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, anoxia metabolism, blotting, 

northern, cell membrane permeability drug effects, cell survival drug effects, cells, cultured, 

endothelial cells drug effects, endothelial cells metabolism, swine, vascular endothelial growth 

factor a biosynthesis.

Language of Text: German.

Fredriksen, B. and O. Nafstad (2006). Surveyed attitudes, perceptions and practices in Norway 

regarding the use of local anaesthesia in piglet castration. Research in Veterinary Science

81(2): 293-295. ISSN: 0034-5288.

DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2005.11.003

NAL Call Number: 41.8 R312

Abstract: The last two years piglet castration in Norway has been performed by veterinarians and with the use of anaesthesia. In order to evaluate this new policy, veterinarians and 

pig producers were asked to fill out a questionnaire regarding their experiences with the new 

castration practices. The answers showed that the piglets were most often castrated using a 

combination of subcutaneous and intratesticular administration of lidocaine with adrenaline 

at an average age of 10 days. The effect of the anaesthesia was regarded as good by 54% of the 

veterinarians and 19% of the producers. Post-operative complications were rare. The overall 

evaluation showed that two-thirds of the veterinarians, but only one-third of the pig producers were satisfied or very satisfied with the implemented policy. However, while two-thirds of 

the pig producer had a negative attitude to the policy before it was implemented, only onethird were dissatisfied after two years experience.

Descriptors: piglets, castration, national surveys, farmers’ attitudes, farmers, veterinarians, 

anesthesia, questionnaires, lidocaine, epinephrine, postoperative complications, livestock production, Norway.
40• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Friton, G.M., H. Philipp, T. Schneider, and R. Kleemann (2003). Investigation on the clinical 

efficacy and safety of meloxicam (Metacam) in the treatment of non-infectious locomotor disorders in pigs. Berliner Und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 116(9-10): 421-6. 

ISSN: 0005-9366.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 B45

Abstract: The clinical efficacy and safety of meloxicam (Metacam 20 mg/ml) in the treatment of non-infectious locomotor disorders in pigs was investigated in a randomised 

double-blind, placebo controlled, multi-centre field study. A total of 220 pigs were examined, 

211 pigs were suitable for evaluation. Treatment was performed on Day 1 with meloxicam 

(0.4 mg meloxicam/kg) or placebo by intramuscular injection. If necessary, treatment was 

optionally repeated on Day 2. Clinical examinations were conducted daily from Day 1 

(immediately prior to initiation of therapy) to Day 4. The primary parameter, mean “Clinical 

Lameness Score” (CLS, a sum of the scores of “Lameness at Rest” and “Lameness at Walk”; 

range 2 to 11) improved from 6.8 and 6.3 on Day 1, to 3.5 and 4.7 on Day 4 in the meloxicam and placebo groups respectively (p < 0.001). At the final examination mean changes 

from baseline for CLS (Day 1) were 3.25 for meloxicam treated animals and 1.7 for placebo 

treated animals (p < 0.001). Behaviour score and feed intake improved during the study 

period with statistically significant differences in favour of meloxicam at all time points after 

initiation of therapy. Significantly fewer pigs received a second treatment in the meloxicam 

group than in the placebo group, 46% versus 73% (p < 0.001). A ‘very good’ or ‘good’ clinical efficacy assessment was recorded in 83% of the meloxicam cases compared to 42% of the 

placebo controls at the final examination (p < 0.001). No adverse events were reported due to 

the use of meloxicam. Furthermore safety of meloxicam in pregnant sows was demonstrated. 

It is concluded that intramuscular injection of meloxicam (Metacam) at a dosage of 0.4 mg/

kg is efficacious and safe for the treatment of non-infectious locomotor disorders in pigs.

Descriptors: analgesics, non narcotic therapeutic use, lameness, animal drug therapy, pain 

veterinary, swine diseases drug therapy, thiazines therapeutic use, thiazoles therapeutic use, 

analgesics, non narcotic adverse effects, double blind method, injections, intramuscular veterinary, pain drug therapy, safety, thiazines adverse effects, thiazoles adverse effects, treatment 

outcome.

Fritz, H.G., M. Holzmayr, B. Walter, K.U. Moeritz, A. Lupp, and R. Bauer (2005). The effect of 

mild hypothermia on plasma fentanyl concentration and biotransformation in juvenile 

pigs. Anesthesia and Analgesia 100(4): 996-1002. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: Therapeutic hypothermia may alter the required dosage of analgesics and sedatives, 

but no data are available on the effects of mild hypothermia on plasma fentanyl concentration during continuous, long-term administration. We therefore assessed in a porcine 

model the effect of prolonged hypothermia on plasma fentanyl concentration during 33 h of 

continuous fentanyl administration. Seven female piglets (weight: 11.8 +/- 1.1 kg) were anesthetized by IV fentanyl (15 microg . kg(-1) . h(-1)) and midazolam (1.0 mg . kg(-1) . h(-1)). 

After preparation and stabilization (12 h), the animals were cooled to a core temperature of 

31.6 degrees +/- 0.2 degrees C for 6 h and were then rewarmed and kept normothermic at 

37.7 degrees +/- 0.3 degrees C for 6 more hours. Plasma fentanyl concentrations were measured by radioimmunoassay, cardiac index by thermodilution, and blood flows of the kidney, 

spleen, pancreas, stomach, gut, and hepatic artery by a colored microspheres technique. 

Furthermore, in an additional 4 pigs, temperature dependency of hepatic microsomal cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) was determined in vitro by ethylmorphine N-demethylation. 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •41

Plasma fentanyl concentration increased by 25% +/- 11% (P < 0.05) during hypothermia 

and remained increased for at least 6 h after rewarming. Hypothermia reduced the cardiac 

index (41% +/- 15%, P < 0.05), as well as all organ blood flows except the hepatic artery. 

A strong temperature dependency of CYP3A4 was found (P < 0.01). Mild hypothermia 

induced a distribution and/or elimination-dependent increase in plasma fentanyl concentration which remained increased for several hours after rewarming. Consequently, a prolonged 

increase of the plasma fentanyl concentration should be anticipated for appropriate control 

of the analgesia/sedatives during and early after therapeutic hypothermia.

Descriptors: analgesics, opioid pharmacokinetics, fentanyl pharmacokinetics, hypothermia 

metabolism, analgesics, opioid blood, biotransformation, blood gas analysis, blood glucose 

metabolism, blood pressure drug effects, cytochrome p 450 enzyme system metabolism, electrocardiography drug effects, fentanyl blood, hemodynamic processes drug effects, lactic acid 

blood, liver metabolism, microsomes, liver drug effects, microsomes, liver enzymology, mixed 

function oxygenases metabolism, oxygen blood, swine.

Fudge, M., R. Coleman, and S. Parker (2002). A minimally invasive percutaneous technique for 

jugular vein catheterization in pigs. Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal Science

41(1): 38-42. ISSN: 1060-0558.

NAL Call Number: SF405.5.A23

Descriptors: swine, jugular vein, blood sampling, animal anatomy, anesthesia, animal 

welfare, laboratory techniques, animal use refinement, propofol, cannulation, laboratory 

mammals.

Galagudza, M., J. Vaage, and G. Valen (2006). Isoflurane and other commonly used anaesthetics do not protect the isolated buffer perfused mouse heart from ischemia-reperfusion 

injury. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology 33(4): 315-9. ISSN: 0305-

1870.

NAL Call Number: QP1.C55

Abstract: 1. Some anaesthetic agents such as barbiturates and opioids possess cardioprotective properties in rats, rabbits, dogs and pigs. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the 

effects of some commonly used anaesthetic agents (pentobarbital, isoflurane and a mixture 

of midazolam, fentanyl and fluanisone) on the tolerance of the isolated mouse heart to ischaemia-reperfusion injury. 2. The isolated, Langendorff-perfused hearts were subjected to 45 

min of global ischaemia followed by 60 min of reperfusion. Left ventricular pressures, heart 

rate and coronary flow were measured and infarct size was determined using triphenyltetrazolium staining. 3. There were no differences in haemodynamic variables during reperfusion 

between groups. Infarct size was not influenced by the choice of anaesthesia. 4. None of 

the anaesthesia protocols exerted significant protective effects on the ischaemic-reperfused 

isolated mouse heart performance. In mice, isoflurane as well as pentobarbital, opioids and 

benzodiazepines may be safely used for anaesthesia without a risk of protective side-effects in 

isolated mouse heart studies.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, isoflurane pharmacology, myocardial 

reperfusion injury prevention and control, anticoagulants pharmacology, heart function tests, 

heparin pharmacology, mice, mice, inbred c57bl, myocardial infarction pathology, myocardial reperfusion injury pathology, myocardium pathology.
42• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Gamperl, A.K., T.W. Hein, L. Kuo, and B.A. Cason (2002). Isoflurane-induced dilation of porcine 

coronary microvessels is endothelium dependent and inhibited by glibenclamide. Anesthesiology 96(6): 1465-71. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Isoflurane has been reported to cause dose-dependent constriction in isolated coronary microvessels. However, these results are inconsistent with data 

from in situ and in vivo heart preparations which show that isoflurane dilates the coronary 

vasculature. To clarify the direct effects of isoflurane on coronary tone, we measured the 

response of isolated porcine resistance arterioles (ID, 75 +/- 4.0 microm; range, 41-108 

microm) to isoflurane in the presence and absence of adenosine triphosphate-sensitive and 

Ca2+-activated potassium channel blockers and also after endothelial removal. METHODS: 

Subepicardial arterioles were isolated, cannulated, and pressurized to 45 mmHg without 

flow in a 37 degrees C vessel chamber filled with MOPS buffer (pH = 7.4). After all vessels 

developed spontaneous (intrinsic) tone, dose-dependent (0.17-0.84 mm; approximately 

0.5-2.5 minimum alveolar concentration) isoflurane-mediated effects on vessel ID were 

studied in the presence and absence of extraluminal glibenclamide (1 microm; an adenosine 

triphosphate-sensitive channel blocker) or iberiotoxin (100 nm; a Ca2+-activated potassium 

channel blocker) or before and after endothelial denudation using the nonionic detergent 

CHAPS (0.4%). Vessel ID was measured using an inverted microscope and videomicrometer, 

and vasomotor responses were analyzed by normalizing changes in arteriole ID to the dilation observed after exposure to 10-4 m sodium nitroprusside, which causes maximal dilation. 

RESULTS: Isoflurane caused dose-dependent dilation of all coronary arterioles. This vasodilation was 6.0 +/- 0.7 microm at an isoflurane concentration of 0.16 mm (approximately 0.5 

minimum alveolar concentration) and 25.3 +/- 2.1 microm at 0.75 mm (approximately 2.5 

minimum alveolar concentration). These values represent 18.1 +/- 1.7% and 74.1 +/- 3.3%, 

respectively, of that observed with 10-4 sodium nitroprusside (34 +/- 3 microm). Glibenclamide, but not iberiotoxin, exposure affected arteriolar dilation in response to isoflurane. 

Glibenclamide caused a downward displacement of the isoflurane dose-response curve, 

reducing isoflurane-mediated dilation by an average of 36%. Denuded arterioles showed a 

marked (approximately 70%) reduction in their ability to dilate in response to isoflurane. 

CONCLUSIONS: The authors conclude that isoflurane dilates coronary resistance arterioles in a dose-dependent manner, and that this dilation is partially mediated by adenosine 

triphosphate-sensitive channels and is highly dependent on the presence of a functioning 

endothelium.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, coronary vessels drug effects, endothelium, vascular physiology, glyburide pharmacology, isoflurane pharmacology, potassium 

channels physiology, vasodilation drug effects, adenosine triphosphate pharmacology, coronary vessels physiology, dose response relationship, drug, microcirculation drug effects, swine.

 Notes: Comment In: Anesthesiology. 2003 Apr;98(4):1030.

Garcia Aguado, R., F. Gil, J.a. Barcia, J. Aznar, F. Hostalet, J. Barbera, and F. Grau (2000). Prophylactic percutaneous sealing of lumbar postdural puncture hole with fibrin glue to 

prevent cerebrospinal fluid leakage in swine. Anesthesia and Analgesia 90(4): 894-898. 

ISSN: 0003-2999.

Descriptors: methods and techniques, headache, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leakage, percutaneous lumbar postdural puncture hole sealing, alternative to an epidural blood patch.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •43

Gerbershagen, M.U., F. Wappler, M. Fiege, R. Weisshorn, P.a. Alberts, F. Von Breunig, and J.S. Am 

Esch (2002). In vitro effects of 4-chloro-3-ethylphenol in skeletal muscle preparations 

from malignant hyperthermia susceptible and normal swine. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 19(2): 135-140. ISSN: 0265-0215.

Descriptors: pharmacology, 4-chloro-3-ethylphenol, diagnosis, malignant hyperthermia, 

(Malignant Hyperthermia (MeSH)), genetic disease, muscle disease, muscle biopsy, examination method.

Gerritzen, M., M. Kluivers Poodt, H. Reimert, V. Hindle, and E. Lambooij (2008). Castration of 

piglets under CO2-gas anaesthesia. Animal an International Journal of Animal Bioscience

2(11): 1666-1673. ISSN: 1751-7311.

DOI: 10.1017/S1751731108002887

NAL Call Number: SF1 .A45

Abstract: It has become common practice in pig fattening production systems to castrate 

young boar piglets without the use of anaesthesia. In this study, we examined whether or not 

CO2 gas is capable of inducing an acceptable anaesthetic state during which castration can 

be performed. The first step was to identify the most promising CO2/O2 mixture. Based 

on the results from this first experiment, a mixture of 70% CO2 + 30% O2 was chosen 

for further investigation as a potential anaesthetic during the castration of young piglets. 

Thereby, it was established whether the duration and depth of anaesthesia were acceptable for 

castration where the animal has to be insensible and unconscious. Physiological effects were 

assessed based on electroencephalogram (EEG) and electrocardiogram (ECG) measurements, 

blood gas values and behavioural responses. During the induction phase, the only typical 

behaviour the piglets exhibited when exposed to the 70/30 gas mixture was heavy breathing. All piglets (n = 25) lost consciousness after approximately 30 s according to the EEG. 

Heart rate decreased slowly during the induction phase, a serious drop occurred when piglets 

lost their posture. Immediately after this drop, the heart rate neared zero or showed a very 

irregular pattern. Shortly after loss of posture, most animals showed a few convulsions. None 

of the animals showed any reaction to castration in behaviour and/or on the EEG and ECG. 

On average, the piglets recovered within 59 s, i.e. EEG returned to its pre-induction pattern 

and piglets were able to regain a standing position. After 120 s, heart rate returned to preinduction levels. In order to explore the usage range of CO2 concentration, 24 piglets were 

exposed to 60% CO2 + 20% O2 + 20% N2 for up to 30 s after loss of consciousness (as 

registered on EEG), and castrated after removal from the chamber. Sixteen of the 24 animals 

showed a reaction to the castration on the EEG. To establish the maximum time piglets 

survive in 70% CO2 + 30% O2, five piglets were placed in this mixture for 3 min. Two of 

them died. After that, four piglets were placed in this mixture for 2 min after unconsciousness, one died after 2 min. It was concluded from this study that it is possible to anaesthetise 

piglets with a mixture of 70% CO2 + 30% O2, but that there are limits to its safety in terms 

of CO2 concentration and duration of exposure. Before implementation for practical use, 

further research is essential to assess the limits of gas concentration and exposure times.

Descriptors: piglets, males, castration, methodology, anesthesia, general anesthetics, carbon 

dioxide, drug formulations, oxygen, intranasal administration, depth of anesthesia, unconsciousness, adverse effects, biomarkers, heart rate, breathing, arrhythmia, seizures, death, 

animal welfare.
44• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Giorgi, M., S. Bertini, G. Soldani, and M. Giusiani (2001). Comparison of HPLC and GC-MS 

methods for determination of embutramide (a component of Tanax or T-61) in biological specimens. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 25(5): 323-7. ISSN: 0146-4760.

NAL Call Number: RA1221.J6 

Abstract: Tanax or T-61, a euthanasia solution commonly used in veterinary medicine, has 

been often involved in suicide attempts (humans) and malicious intoxications (animals). 

For forensic reasons, the identification of one or more of the three components (embutramide, mebenzonium iodide, and tetracaine hydrochloride) of Tanax is needed to confirm 

the hypothesis of intoxication. This study was performed with new high-performance liquid 

chromatographic and gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric methods to identify embutramide in biological matrices (blood, liver, kidney) from different animal species. The good 

sensitivity and specificity of both methods recommend their use in toxicological analysis in 

both human and veterinary medicine.

Descriptors: amides blood, anesthetics blood, chromatography, high pressure liquid 

methods, gas chromatography mass spectrometry methods, substance abuse detection 

methods, amides administration and dosage, cats, drug administration routes, drug combinations, euthanasia, active veterinary, horses, kidney chemistry, liver chemistry, quaternary 

ammonium compounds administration and dosage, rabbits, rats, reproducibility of results, 

sensitivity and specificity, sheep, species specificity, swine, tetracaine administration and 

dosage.

Goldmann, K., M. Kalinowski, and S. Kraft (2005). Airway management under general anaesthesia in pigs using the LMA-ProSeal: a pilot study. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia

32(5): 308-13. ISSN: 1467-2987.

NAL Call Number: SF914 .V47

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: Evaluation of the LMA-ProSeal for positive pressure ventilation 

(PPV) in the pig. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective observational study. ANIMALS: Twelve 

German country pigs, weighing 25-62 kg. METHOD: Lungs of pigs were mechanically 

ventilated under general anaesthesia using the LMA-ProSeal. The ease of insertion, number 

of attempts and total time until placement of the LMA-ProSeal and gastric tube were 

recorded. Bronchoscopy was performed to determine the position of the LMA-ProSeal and 

to detect signs of aspiration. Ventilation variables and the leak airway pressure (P(leak)) were 

measured. An arterial blood gas sample was taken to determine the adequacy of ventilation. 

RESULTS: The airway was secured in all pigs within 39 +/- 19 seconds (27-51). Different 

sizes of LMA-ProSeal were used; up to 30 kg: size 3, up to 43 kg: size 4; and above 43 kg: 

size 5. In all but one animal the P-LMA and gastric tube were inserted at the first attempt. 

In nine animals gastric fluid was drained through the gastric tube. There was no evidence of 

aspiration in any animal. The mean [+/-SD (95%CI)]P(leak) was 28.8 +/- 7.5 cm H(2)O 

(24.06-33.60) and normal ventilation was achieved in all animals. CONCLUSIONS: The 

results of this study indicate that the airway of pigs weighing 25-62 kg can be secured safely 

and reliably with the sizes 3, 4 and 5 LMA-ProSeal. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Endotracheal intubation in pigs can be difficult so there is a risk of hypoxemia in the apnoeic animal. 

With the LMA-ProSeal the airway can be secured rapidly, safely and reliably. Use of the 

Standard-LMA under PPV can be associated with gas leakage into the stomach and the subsequent risk of gastric distension and regurgitation. Both the ability to drain the stomach and 

the high P(leak) of the LMA-ProSeal could contribute to improved protection against aspiration under PPV.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •45

Descriptors: anesthesia, general veterinary, animals, laboratory physiology, laryngeal masks 

veterinary, respiration, artificial veterinary, swine physiology, equipment design, pilot projects, prospective studies , respiration, artificial instrumentation.

Gonzalez, A. (2004). Anaesthesia in pigs for procedures in farming [Anestesia del cerdo para procedimientos en la granja.]. SUIS(3): 32-34.

Descriptors: anesthesia, pig farming, pigs, equipment, methods.

Language of Text: Spanish.

Gonzalez, A. and I. Cruz (2005). Anaesthesia of pigs in hospital conditions [Anestesia del cerdo 

en condiciones de hospital.]. SUIS(16): 34-37.

Descriptors: anesthesia, surgical operations, techniques, induction, maintenance, postoperative anesthesia.

Language of Text: Spanish.

Gopalakrishnan, N.A., D.J. Sakata, J.A. Orr, S. McJames, and D.R. Westenskow (2007). Hypercapnia shortens emergence time from inhaled anesthesia in pigs. Anesthesia and Analgesia

104(4): 815-21.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Anesthetic clearance from the lungs and the circle rebreathing system can be maximized using hyperventilation and high fresh gas flows. However, 

the concomitant clearance of CO2 decreases PAco2, thereby decreasing cerebral blood flow 

and slowing the clearance of anesthetic from the brain. This study shows that in addition 

to hyperventilation, hypercapnia (CO2 infusion or rebreathing) is a significant factor in 

decreasing emergence time from inhaled anesthesia. METHODS: We anesthetized seven pigs 

with 2 MACPIG of isoflurane and four with 2 MACPIG of sevoflurane. After 2 h, anesthesia 

was discontinued, and the animals were hyperventilated. The time to movement of multiple 

limbs was measured under hypocapnic (end-tidal CO2 = 22 mm Hg) and hypercapnic (endtidal CO2 = 55 mm Hg) conditions. RESULTS: The time between turning off the vaporizer 

and to movement of multiple limbs was faster with hypercapnia during hyperventilation. 

Emergence time from isoflurane and sevoflurane anesthesia was shortened by an average of 

65% with rebreathing or with the use of a CO2 controller (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: 

Hypercapnia, along with hyperventilation, may be used clinically to decrease emergence time 

from inhaled anesthesia. These time savings might reduce drug costs. In addition, higher 

PAco2 during emergence may enhance respiratory drive and airway protection after tracheal 

extubation.

Descriptors: anesthesia recovery period, anesthesia, inhalation instrumentation, hypercapnia physiopathology, anesthetics, inhalation, carbon dioxide metabolism, equipment design, 

hypercapnia metabolism, hyperventilation metabolism, hyperventilation physiopathology, 

isoflurane, methyl ethers, swine, time factors.

Graham, J.S., F.M. Reid, N.A. Niemuth, S.M. Shumaker, and J.D. Waugh (2004). Effects of three 

anesthetic regimens on bioengineering methods conducted on ventral abdominal skin 

of weanling swine. Journal of Toxicology Cutaneous and Ocular Toxicology 23(2): 105-118. 

ISSN: 0731-3829 .

NAL Call Number: RL803.J67

Descriptors: swine model, anesthesiology, methods and techniques, pharmacology, toxicology, blister, integumentary system disease, therapy, anesthesia treatment, clinical techniques, 

therapeutic and prophylactic techniques, laser doppler perfusion imaging, clinical techniques, 
46• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

diagnostic techniques, imaging and microscopy techniques, laboratory techniques, reflectance colorimetry, laboratory techniques.

Greene, S., G. Benson, W. Tranquilli, and K. Grimm (2004). Effect of isoflurane, atracurium, fentanyl, and noxious stimulation on bispectral index in pigs. Comparative Medicine 54(4): 

397-403. ISSN: 1532-0820.

NAL Call Number: SF77 .C65

Abstract: The study reported here was done to determine the relationship between anesthesia depth and bispectral index (BIS) in stimulated pigs. Isoflurane minimal alveolar 

concentration (MAC) was determined using the tail-clamp method in 16 Yorkshire/Landrace-cross pigs with mean +/- SEM weight of 27.7 +/- 1.76 kg. One week later, BIS, ECG, 

heart rate, arterial blood pressure, esophageal temperature, end-tidal CO2 tension and isoflurane concentration, arterial pH, PaO2, PaCO2, plasma bicarbonate concentration, and base 

excess were determined at each of five isoflurane MAC-multiples: 0.8, 1.0, 1.3, 1.6, and 2.0. 

Six treatments were studied: isoflurane; isoflurane and atracurium; isoflurane, atracurium, 

and fentanyl; isoflurane with noxious stimulation; isoflurane and atracurium with noxious 

stimulation; and isoflurane, atracurium, and fentanyl with noxious stimulation. The noxious 

stimulus during BIS measurement was the same as that for MAC determination. Each pig 

was studied three times (n = 8), and order of MAC-multiples and treatments was randomized. Data were evaluated by use of general linear model analysis of variance and linear 

regression analysis, with statistical significance set at P < 0.05. Significant differences in BIS 

values were identified between MAC-multiples within each treatment and between treatment 

3 compared with treatments 2 and 4. Significant differences also were observed within and 

between treatments for heart rate, arterial blood pressure, and PaO2. Use of BIS appears reliable for identification of light versus deep anesthesia, but is of limited use for discrimination 

between isoflurane MAC-multiples of 1 and 1.6. We conclude that, compared with other 

treatments, atracurium and noxious stimulation had no significant effect on BIS.

Descriptors: swine, depth of anesthesia, anesthetics, isoflurane, atracurium, fentanyl, laboratory equipment.

Grossherr, M., A. Hengstenberg, T. Meier, L. Dibbelt, K. Gerlach, and H. Gehring (2006 ). Discontinuous monitoring of propofol concentrations in expired alveolar gas and in arterial 

and venous plasma during artificial ventilation. Anesthesiology 104(4): 786-90. ISSN: 

0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Analyzing propofol concentration in expired alveolar gas (cPA) 

may be considered as a convenient, noninvasive method to follow the propofol concentration in plasma (cPPL). In the current study, the authors established procedures to measure 

cPA and cPPL for the assessment of their relation in two animal models during anesthesia. 

METHODS: Expired alveolar gas and mixed venous and arterial blood were simultaneously 

sampled during continuous application of propofol for general anesthesia to three goats 

and three pigs. Propofol infusion rates were varied to modify plasma concentrations. cPA, 

sampled cumulatively over several respiratory cycles, was quantified by thermal desorption 

gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. cPPL was determined using reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. RESULTS: cPA ranged from 

0 to 1.4 and from 0 to 22 parts per billion in goats and pigs, respectively, at cPPL of 0-8 

microg/ml. The relation between cPA and cPPL was linear; however, the slopes of the regression lines varied between animals. CONCLUSION: Propofol can be quantified in expired 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •47

alveolar gas. The results stress the role of marked species-specific variability.

Descriptors: propofol pharmacokinetics, pulmonary alveoli metabolism, respiration, artificial, breath tests, goats, lung metabolism, species specificity, swine.

Grossini, E., C. Molinari, A. Battaglia, D.A. Mary, F. Ribichini, N. Surico, and G. Vacca (2006). 

Human placental lactogen decreases regional blood flow in anesthetized pigs. Journal of 

Vascular Research 43(2): 205-13. ISSN: 1018-1172.

Abstract: In 22 pigs anesthetized with sodium pentobarbitone, changes in blood flow 

caused by infusion of human placental lactogen into the left renal, external iliac, and anterior descending coronary arteries were assessed using electromagnetic flowmeters. In 17 

pigs, infusion of human placental lactogen whilst keeping the heart rate and arterial pressure 

constant decreased coronary, renal and iliac flow. In 5 additional pigs, increasing the dose 

of human placental lactogen produced a dose-related decrease in regional blood flow. The 

mechanisms of the above response were studied in 15 of the 17 pigs by repeating the experiment of infusion. The human placental lactogen-induced decrease in regional blood flow was 

not affected by blockade of cholinergic receptors (5 pigs) or of alpha-adrenergic receptors (5 

pigs), but it was abolished by blockade of beta2-adrenergic receptors (5 pigs). The present 

study showed that intra-arterial infusion of human placental lactogen primarily decreased 

coronary, renal and iliac blood flow. The mechanism of this response was shown to be due to 

the inhibition of a vasodilatory beta2-adrenergic receptor-mediated effect.

Descriptors: anesthesia veterinary, placental lactogen pharmacology, regional blood flow 

drug effects, adrenergic alpha antagonists pharmacology, adrenergic beta antagonists pharmacology, atropine pharmacology, butoxamine pharmacology, cholinergic antagonists 

pharmacology, coronary circulation drug effects, hemodynamic processes drug effects, iliac 

artery drug effects, kidney blood supply, pentobarbital, phentolamine pharmacology, swine.

Grund, F., O. Tjomsland, I. Sjaastad, A. Ilebekk, and K.A. Kirkeboen (2004). Pentobarbital versus 

medetomidine-ketamine-fentanyl anaesthesia: effects on haemodynamics and the incidence of ischaemia-induced ventricular fibrillation in swine. Laboratory Animals 38(1): 

70-8. ISSN: 0023-6772.

NAL Call Number: QL55.A1L3

Abstract: The present study was performed to compare haemodynamic variables at baseline 

and the incidence of ventricular fibrillation during the early phase of ischaemia in swine 

during pentobarbital or medetomidine-ketamine-fentanyl anaesthesia. Twenty-two swine 

(mean +/- SD: 29+/- 3 kg) were anaesthetized with sodium pentobarbital (induction with 

36 mg/kg intraperitoneally, and maintenance with 5-20 mg/kg/h intravenously [i.v.]) and 

6 swine (27+/- 3 kg) were anaesthetized with ketamine and fentanyl (premedicated with 

medetomidine 0.1 mg/kg and ketamine 10 mg/kg intramuscularly, induction with ketamine 

20 mg/kg and fentanyl 0.025 mg/kg i.v., and maintenance with ketamine 20 mg/kg/h and 

fentanyl 0.025 mg/kg/h i.v.). After a stabilization period of 30 min, the left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD) was occluded for 10 min. Haemodynamic data and occurrence of 

ventricular fibrillation were recorded. The ischaemic area was measured by fluorescing microspheres. Swine anaesthetized with medetomidine-ketamine-fentanyl had significantly lower 

heart rate, myocardial contractility, peak left ventricular pressure, arterial blood pressure, 

aortic blood flow, myocardial blood flow and cardiac index at baseline, than swine anaesthetized with pentobarbital. Whereas none of the swine anaesthetized with pentobarbital 

fibrillated during the LAD occlusion, ventricular fibrillation occurred in 83% of the animals 
48• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

anaesthetized with medetomidine-ketamine-fentanyl (P< 0.001). No significant difference 

was found in size of ischaemic area between the two groups. Thus, we show a depression in 

haemodynamic variables at baseline and a higher incidence of ventricular fibrillation during 

the early phase of ischaemia in swine anaesthetized with medetomidine-ketamine-fentanyl 

compared to swine anaesthetized with pentobarbital.

Descriptors: anesthesia adverse effects, anesthesia veterinary, anesthetics adverse effects, 

hemodynamic phenomena drug effects, swine diseases chemically induced, ventricular 

fibrillation veterinary, constriction, coronary vessels, fentanyl adverse effects, ischemia complications, ketamine adverse effects, medetomidine adverse effects, pentobarbital adverse 

effects, swine, ventricular fibrillation chemically induced.

Gucbrin, C., F. Bayle, S. Debord, J.C. Poupelin, M. Badet, S. Lemasson, and J.C. Richard (2007). 

Viscoelastic properties of lungs and thoracic wall of anesthetized mechanically ventilated piglets. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 34(5): 331-338. ISSN: 1467-2987.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-2995.2006.00336.x

NAL Call Number: SF914 .V47

Abstract: To investigate the viscoelastic properties of lungs and thoracic wall in piglets. 

Prospective experimental study. Six piglets weighting 30 kg. Animals were tracheotomized, 

anesthetized and mechanically ventilated under controlled conditions. After control measurements of the mechanical properties of the lung of the pigs had been taken, acute lung 

injury (ALI) was induced by saline lavage. Lung and thoracic wall tissue resistance (R), which 

reflects viscoelastic properties and/or time constant inequalities, were determined by using 

a rapid airway occlusion technique during constant flow inflation ( [graphic removed] ), at 

constant tidal volume. [graphic removed] was varied from 0.1-0.2 to 1.2 L secondp# on a 

single breath. Multiple data sets of R of lung (RL) and thoracic wall (Rw) to inspiratory time 

(TI = VT/ [graphic removed] ) were fitted to a model whose prediction equation was R = 

R[1 -exp(-TI/s)], where R and s are the ‘viscoelastic’ resistance and time constant, respectively. Subscripts L and W are used to represent lung and theracic wall, respectively (RL, RW, 

sL, sW). Two more sets of physiological measurements were then taken - the first under zero 

end-expiratory pressure (ZEEP) and the second under a positive end-expiratory pressure 

(PEEP) of 10 cmHO. Data of R adequately fitted to the prediction equation in all instances. 

In control, R,L was 15.3 (10.7-22.6) cmHO Lp# secondp# (median, interquartile range), 

s,L 3.3 (1.9-5.5) seconds, R,w 6.5 (2.2-10.3) cmHO Lp# secondp# and s,w 2.9 (1.1-4.3) 

seconds. In ALI, R,L significantly increased to 129.6 (105.9-171.3) cmHO Lp# secondp# 

on ZEEP but not significantly decreased to 48.9 (17.8-109.6) cmHO Lp# secondp# with 

PEEP. The corresponding values of s,L were 7.1 (5.1-11.6) and 4.4 (3.1-5.5) seconds. The 

values pertaining to thoracic wall did not change significantly among conditions. Viscoelastic 

properties of the lung and thoracic wall in piglets can be described by a viscoelastic model. 

Values of parameters of this model were markedly increased in ALI and decreased with PEEP. 

AGRICOLA

Descriptors: piglets, acute lung injury, mechanical ventilation, modeling respiratory system, 

viscoelastic behavior.

Gutzwiller, A. (2003). Castration of piglets under local anaesthesia [Castration de porcelets sous 

anesthesie locale.]. Revue Suisse D’ Agriculture 35(2): 65-67. ISSN: 0375-1325.

Descriptors: animal welfare, castration, lidocaine, local anesthesia, local anesthetics, pain, 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •49

piglets, potency, restraint of animals, surgery.

Language of Text: French, Summary in German; English.

Gutzwiller, A. (2003). Castration of piglets under local anaesthesia [Kastration von Ferkeln unter 

Lokalanasthesie.]. Agrarforschung 10(1): 10-13. ISSN: 1022-663X.

NAL Call Number: S469.S9A37 

Descriptors: adverse effects, animal welfare, castration, local anesthesia, local anesthetics, 

pain, piglets, testes, vocalization, pigs.

Language of Text: German, Summary in English; French.

Haga, H.A. and B. Ranheim (2005). Castration of piglets: the analgesic effects of intratesticular 

and intrafunicular lidocaine injection. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 32(1): 1-9. 

ISSN: 1467-2987.

NAL Call Number: SF914 .V47

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the analgesic effect of intratesticular and intrafunicular lidocaine for the surgical castration of piglets and to investigate 

the degree of nociception induced by lidocaine injection. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective 

controlled experimental study. ANIMALS: Forty-seven male Norwegian landrace piglets with 

normal testicular anatomy, aged 22 (+/-2.6 SD) days and weighing 7.4 +/- 1.4 kg. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Anaesthesia was induced and maintained using halothane delivered 

in oxygen. End-tidal halothane was stabilized at 1.3% for 20 minutes before mean arterial 

blood pressure (MAP) pulse rate and electroencephalography (EEG) monitoring began. After 

5 minutes of data collection, scrotal skin was desensitized with lidocaine before either an 

intrafunicular (IF) (n = 15) or an intratesticular (IT) (n = 16) lidocaine injection was made. 

Pigs in the control group (n = 16) did not receive lidocaine. Ten minutes later, a scalpel and 

an emasculator were used to cut the funiculus spermaticus. The MAP, pulse rate and EEG 

were monitored continuously for 5 minutes after castration. RESULTS: During castration, 

MAP increased significantly, while pulse rate and EEG theta power fell significantly more in 

control, compared with the IT or IF groups. EEG alpha power fell more in the control group 

than in the IF group. No significant differences were found between the IF and IT groups. 

EEG, MAP and pulse rate responses to castration in the control group were significantly 

larger than the response to lidocaine injection. CONCLUSION/CLINICAL RELEVANCE: 

Injecting lidocaine into the funiculus spermaticus or into the testes is effective in reducing 

signs of nociception caused by castration. Lidocaine injection is less noxious than castration 

without local anaesthetic.

Descriptors: anesthetics, local administration and dosage, castration veterinary, lidocaine administration and dosage, swine physiology, anesthesia, general veterinary, animals, 

newborn, castration methods, electroencephalography veterinary, heart rate, injections, pain 

measurement veterinary, prospective studies, swine surgery, testis, treatment outcome.

Haga, H.A., B. Ranheim, and T. Framstad (2002). Sedation, anaesthesia and analgesia of pigs 

[Sedasjon, anestesi og smertebehandling av gris.]. Norsk Veterinaertidsskrift 114(2): 254-

259. ISSN: 0332-5741.

Descriptors: anesthesia, analgesics, caesarean section, castration, drug residues, hysterectomy, neuroleptics, ovariectomy, regulations, postoperative pain control.

Language of Text: Norwegian.
50• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Haga, H.A., A. Tevik, and H. Moerch (2001). Electroencephalographic and cardiovascular indicators of nociception during isoflurane anaesthesia in pigs. Veterinary Anaesthesia and 

Analgesia 28(3): 126-131. ISSN: 1467-2987.

NAL Call Number: SF914 .V47

Descriptors: anesthesia, anesthetics, isoflurane, blood pressure, electroencephalograms, isoflurane, pulse rate, nociception .

Haga, H.A., A. Tevik, and H. Moerch (2002). Motor responses to stimulation during isoflurane 

anaesthesia in pigs. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 29(2): 69-75. ISSN: 1467-2987.

NAL Call Number: SF914 .V47

Descriptors: anesthesia, anesthetics, isoflurane, pharmacodynamics, reflexes, stimulation, 

stimuli, breed, Norwegian Landrace, male, female.

Halloy, D., C. Cambier, N. Kirschvink, and P. Gustin (2004). Evaluation experimentale de la fonction pulmonaire chez le porc experimental assessment of pulmonary function in pigs. 

Annales De Medecine Veterinaire 148(2): 91-96. ISSN: 0003-4118.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 An78

Descriptors: respiratory system, respiration, systematic anesthesia, esophageal balloon, 

laboratory techniques, impulse oscillometry, laboratory techniques, pulmonary function, 

experimental assessment, blood partial pressure.

Language of Text: French.

Haney, M.F., G. Johansson, S. Haggmark, and B. Biber (2002). Method of preload reduction 

during LVPVR analysis of systolic function: airway pressure elevation and vena cava 

occlusion. Anesthesiology 97(2): 436-46. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: A graded preload reduction during analysis of the left ventricular pressure-volume relationship (LVPVR) is required for derivation of end-systolic elastance 

(Ees) and preload recruitable stroke work (PRSW). The authors aimed to measure serial 

changes in these systolic function parameters before and during planned circulatory interventions using two different methods of preload alteration: a positive airway pressure plateau 

(APP) and inferior vena cava occlusion (IVCO). METHODS: In eight animals, measurements were made at 38 degrees, 30 degrees, 32 degrees, 34 degrees, and posthypothermia 38 

degrees C. In an additional eight animals, isoflurane, adrenaline, and aorta occlusion (balloon 

catheter occluder) were administered in series, each with a preintervention control measurement. Left ventricular volume was measured by conductance. Paired measurements of the 

systolic function parameters Ees and PRSW, each derived with two preload methods, were 

analyzed for bias. RESULTS: Circulatory alterations were achieved with the temperature, isoflurane, adrenaline, and aorta occlusion interventions. Measured changes in Ees and PRSW 

from control to intervention showed a strong correlation and no significant bias for APP in 

relation to IVCO. The APP-derived absolute values for Ees and PRSW demonstrated a consistent positive bias compared with IVCO. CONCLUSION: The APP method for preload 

reduction during LVPVR analysis detected changes in Ees and PRSW during the circulatory 

interventions in this model that were not different than those detected using another preload 

reduction method, IVCO. APP and IVCO are not interchangeable methods for preload 

reductions during LVPVR absolute quantitation of systolic function, and each needs to be 

used serially.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, isoflurane pharmacology, stroke volume 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •51

drug effects, systole drug effects, analysis of variance, hemodynamic processes drug effects, 

swine.

Harikrishnan, V.S., S.J. Shenoy, and P.R. Umashankar (2006). Anaesthetic regimen for coronary 

stenting in porcine model . Indian Veterinary Journal 83(5): 486-489. ISSN: 0019-6479.

NAL Call Number: SF604.I45

Descriptors: pharmacology, cardiovascular system: transport and circulation, methods and 

techniques, coronary stenting, laboratory techniques, experimental surgical techniques, blood 

pressure, heart rate, temperature range, anesthetic regimen.

Harikrishnan, V.S. and P.R. Umashankar (2006). Long duration anaesthesia for experimental surgical procedures in pigs. Indian Veterinary Journal 83(11): 1173-1175. ISSN: 0019-6479.

NAL Call Number: SF604.I45 

Descriptors: anesthesia, drug effects, inhaled anesthetics, injectable anesthetics, pharmacodynamics, preanesthetic medication, surgery, pigs.

Hart, L.A., M.W. Wood, and H.Y. Weng (2005). Effective searching of the scientific literature for 

alternatives: search grids for appropriate databases. Animal Welfare 14(4): 287-289. ISSN: 

0962-7286.

NAL Call Number: HV4701.A557

Descriptors: information studies, veterinary medicine: medical sciences, animal care, 

animal welfare, scientific literature, biomedical research, compliance, animal testing, database 

resource, alternatives, laboratory animal information, analgesia, anesthesia, animal models.

Harvey Clark, C.J., K. Gilespie, and K.W. Riggs (2000). Transdermal fentanyl compared with parenteral buprenorphine in post-surgical pain in swine: a case study. Laboratory Animals 

(London) 34(4): 386-398. ISSN: 0023-6772.

NAL Call Number: QL55.A1L3

Descriptors: animal care, behavior, nervous system: neural coordination, pharmacology, 

buprenorphine hydrochloride, fentanyl hydrochloride, transdermal, cost effective method, 

analgesiometry, pain assessment, detection method , analgesia, animal welfare, post surgical 

pain, thoracotomy .

Hayashi, M., S.G. Penheiter, T. Nakayama, A.R. Penheiter, D.O. Warner, and K.A. Jones (2006). 

Halothane does not inhibit the functional coupling between the beta2-adrenergic receptor and the Galphas heterotrimeric G protein. Anesthesiology 104(4): 754-62. ISSN: 

0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: This study investigated whether halothane affects the functional coupling between the beta2 adrenergic receptor and the alpha subunit of its cognate 

stimulatory heterotrimeric guanosine-5’-triphosphate (GTP)-binding protein (Galphas). 

The authors hypothesized that halothane does not affect isoproterenol-promoted guanosine 

nucleotide exchange at Galphas and hence would not affect isoproterenol-induced relaxation of airway smooth muscle. METHODS: Halothane effects on isoproterenol-induced 

inhibition of calcium sensitivity were measured in permeabilized porcine airway smooth 

muscle. Galphas nucleotide exchange was measured in crude membranes prepared from 

COS-7 cells transfected to transiently coexpress the human beta1 or beta2 receptor each 

with human short Galphas. A radioactive, nonhydrolyzable analog of GTP, [S]GTPgammaS, was used as the reporter for nucleotide exchange at Galphas. RESULTS: Halothane 
52• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

(0.75 mm, approximately 2.8 minimum alveolar concentration [MAC] in pigs) did not affect 

isoproterenol-induced inhibition of calcium sensitivity. Isoproterenol caused a time- and 

concentration-dependent increase in Galphas nucleotide exchange. Halothane, even at concentrations of 1.5 mm (approximately 5.6 MAC), had no effect on basal Galphas nucleotide 

exchange in the absence of isoproterenol, whereas halothane inhibited isoproterenol-promoted Galphas nucleotide exchange in both the beta1-Galphas and beta2-Galphas expressing 

membranes. However, the effect was significantly greater on beta1-Galphas coupling compared with beta2-Galphas coupling, with no effect on beta2-Galphas coupling at 2.8 MAC 

halothane. CONCLUSION: Halothane does not inhibit the biochemical coupling between 

the beta2 receptor and Galphas and hence does not affect the inhibition of calcium sensitivity induced by isoproterenol. Therefore, halothane should not affect the efficacy of beta2 

agonists, as suggested by studies of in vivo animal models of asthma.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, gtp binding protein alpha subunits, gs 

drug effects, halothane pharmacology, receptors, adrenergic, beta 2 drug effects, cos cells, 

calcium metabolism, cercopithecus aethiops, dose response relationship, drug, gtp binding 

protein alpha subunits, gs physiology, guanosine 5’ o 3 thiotriphosphate metabolism, guanosine diphosphate metabolism, isoproterenol pharmacology, receptors, adrenergic, beta 2 

physiology, swine.

He, F., H.L. Jia, G. Liu, Y.P. Wang, J. Feng, and R.X. Zhuo (2006). Enzymatic synthesis and characterization of novel biodegradable copolymers of 5-benzyloxy-trimethylene carbonate 

with 1,4-dioxan-2-one. Biomacromolecules 7( 8): 2269-73. ISSN: 1525-7797.

NAL Call Number: QD380

Abstract: Enzymatic ring-opening copolymerization of 5-benzyloxy-trimethylene carbonate (BTMC) and 1,4-dioxan-2-one (DON) was investigated for the first time. Immobilized 

porcine pancreas lipase (IPPL) on silica particles was selected to perform the copolymerization. A series of novel biodegradable copolymers with different compositions were 

characterized by (1)H NMR, (13)C NMR, and GPC. The influences of reaction conditions 

such as polymerization time and catalyst concentration on the yield and molecular weight of 

the copolymers were also studied. The copolymerizations of different monomer feed ratios 

were carried out in bulk at 150 degrees C with 4.5 wt per thousand IPPL as a catalyst for 

24 h. With the increase of the BTMC molar feed ratio from 20% to 79%, the M(n) of the 

resulting copolymers increased from 5600 to 63400. Water uptake and static contact angle 

experiments showed that the hydrophilicity of copolymers could be improved with increasing 

DON content in the copolymers. Moreover, the in vitro drug release rate (ibuprofen as the 

model drug) of the resulting copolymers also increased along with the DON content in the 

copolymers.

Descriptors: analgesics, non narcotic chemistry, dioxanes chemistry, ibuprofen chemistry, 

lipase chemistry, polymers chemical synthesis, biocompatible materials, biodegradation, 

environmental, delayed action preparations chemical synthesis, delayed action preparations 

chemistry, magnetic resonance spectroscopy, polymers chemistry, swine.

Heavner, J.E. (2001). Local anesthetic toxicity and milrinone. Canadian Journal of Anaesthesia; 

Journal Canadien D’Anesthesie 48(5): 512-3. ISSN: 0832-610X.

NAL Call Number: RD78.68.C4

Descriptors: anesthetics, local antagonists and inhibitors, anesthetics, local toxicity, milri-
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •53

none pharmacology, swine.

Notes: Comment On: Can J Anaesth. 2000 Nov;47(11):1114-8.

Heavner, J.E. (2002). Cardiac toxicity of local anesthetics in the intact isolated heart model: a 

review. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 27(6): 545-55. ISSN: 1098-7339 .

Abstract: An editorial in 1979 by George Albright about sudden cardiac arrest after regional 

anesthesia spawned an era of intense research focusing on what local anesthetics do to the 

heart and how they do it. The ultimate goal of the research was to bring to the clinician longacting local anesthetics that are less cardiotoxic than ones available before 1979, bupivacaine 

and etidocaine, in particular. In this article, I will review results of studies of local anesthetic 

cardiotoxicity using the intact mammalian heart in vitro published after the Albright editorial through 2001.

Descriptors: amides adverse effects, anesthetics, local adverse effects, arrhythmia chemically induced, bupivacaine adverse effects, lidocaine adverse effects, amides pharmacology, 

anesthetics, local pharmacology, bupivacaine pharmacology, calcium channels drug effects, 

electrocardiography, heart conduction system drug effects, lidocaine pharmacology, potassium channels drug effects, rabbits, rats, stereoisomerism, swine.

Hecker, K.E., J.H. Baumert, N. Horn, M. Reyle Hahn, N. Heussen, and R. Rossaint (2003). 

Minimum anesthetic concentration of sevoflurane with different xenon concentrations 

in swine. Anesthesia and Analgesia 97(5): 1364-9. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: In a previous study, we described a partial antagonism of xenon (Xe) in combination with isoflurane. One hypothetical explanation suggested that Xe and isoflurane probably 

induced anesthesia via different pathways at the neuronal level. This warranted investigating 

the combination of Xe with other inhaled anesthetics to examine the relationship between 

Xe and volatile anesthetics in general. We therefore investigated the influence of Xe on the 

minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of sevoflurane. The study was performed in 10 

swine (weight 30.8 kg +/- 2.6, mean +/- SD) ventilated with xenon 0%, 15%, 30%, 40%, 

50%, and 65% in oxygen. At each Xe concentration, various concentrations of sevoflurane 

were administered in a stepwise design. For each a supramaximal pain stimulus (claw clamp) 

was applied. The appearance of a withdrawal reaction was recorded. The sevoflurane MAC 

was defined as the end-tidal concentration required to produce a 50% response rate. At each 

Xe concentration, the animals’ responses to the pain stimulus were categorized and a logistic regression model was fitted to the results to determine sevoflurane MAC. Sevoflurane 

MAC was decreased by inhalation of Xe in a linear manner from 2.53 with 0% Xe to 1.54 

with 65% Xe. In contrast to Xe and isoflurane, the anesthetic effects of Xe and sevoflurane 

appear to be simply linear. IMPLICATIONS: We investigated the influence of the anesthetic gas, xenon, on the minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) for the volatile anesthetic 

sevoflurane. The study was performed in 10 swine ventilated with fixed xenon and various 

concentrations of isoflurane. The sevoflurane MAC is decreased by inhalation of xenon in a 

linear relationship.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation administration and dosage, methyl ethers administration and dosage, xenon administration and dosage, algorithms, blood gas analysis, drug 

interactions, hemodynamic processes drug effects, logistic models, potassium blood, pulmonary alveoli metabolism, pulmonary gas exchange drug effects, respiration, artificial, sodium 

blood, swine.
54• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Hecker, K.E., N. Horn, J.H. Baumert, S.M. Reyle Hahn, N. Heussen, and R. Rossaint (2004). 

Minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of xenon in intubated swine. British Journal of 

Anaesthesia 92(3): 421-4. ISSN: 0007-0912.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) is a traditional 

index of the hypnotic potency of an inhalational anaesthetic. To investigate the anaesthetic as 

well as the unwanted effects of xenon (Xe) in a swine model, it is useful to know MAC(Xe). 

METHODS: The study was performed using ten swine (weight 27.8-35.4 kg) anaesthetized 

with halothane and Xe 0, 15, 30, 40, 50 and 65% in oxygen. With each Xe concentration, 

various concentrations of halothane were administered in a step-by-step design. For each 

combination, a supramaximal pain stimulus (claw clamp) was applied and the appearance 

of a withdrawal reaction was recorded. The MAC(Xe) with halothane was calculated using 

a logistic regression model. RESULTS: During stable ventilation, haemodynamics and temperature, MAC(Xe) value was determined as 119 vol. % (95% confidence limits 103-135). 

CONCLUSION: MAC(Xe) in swine was calculated by extrapolation of a logistic regression 

model. Its theoretical value is 119 vol. %.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacokinetics, xenon pharmacokinetics, anesthesia, 

closed circuit, anesthetics, combined pharmacology, dose response relationship, drug, halothane pharmacology, intubation, intratracheal, logistic models, pain threshold drug effects, 

swine.

Hecker, K.E., M. Reyle Hahn, J.H. Baumert, N. Horn, N. Heussen, and R. Rossaint (2003). 

Minimum alveolar anesthetic concentration of isoflurane with different xenon concentrations in Swine. Anesthesia and Analgesia 96(1): 119-24, Table of Contents. ISSN: 

0003-2999.

Abstract: For patients requiring a fraction of inspired oxygen more than 0.3, the use of 

xenon (Xe) as the sole anesthetic is limited because of its large minimum alveolar anesthetic 

concentration (MAC) of 71%. This warrants investigating the combination of Xe with other 

inhaled anesthetics. We therefore investigated the influence of Xe on the MAC of isoflurane. The study was performed in 10 swine (weight, 28-35 kg) ventilated with Xe 0%, 15%, 

30%, 40%, 50%, and 65% in oxygen. For each Xe concentration, various concentrations 

of isoflurane were administered in a step-wise design. For each combination, a supramaximal pain stimulus (claw-clamp) was applied, and the appearance of a withdrawal reaction 

was recorded. The isoflurane MAC was defined as the end-tidal concentration required to 

produce a 50% response rate. At each Xe concentration, the responses to the pain stimulus 

were categorized, and a logistic regression model was fitted to the results to determine isoflurane MAC. Isoflurane MAC was decreased by inhalation of Xe in a nonlinear manner from 

1.92% (95% confidence interval, 1.70%-2.15%) with 0% Xe to 1.17% (95% confidence 

interval, 0.75%-1.59%) with 65% Xe. Although this indicates partial antagonism of the two 

anesthetics, a combination of Xe with isoflurane may prove valuable for patients requiring 

a fraction of inspired oxygen more than 0.3. IMPLICATIONS: We investigated the influence of the anesthetic gas xenon on the minimum alveolar anesthetic concentration (MAC) 

for isoflurane (another anesthetic gas). The study was performed in 10 swine ventilated with 

fixed xenon and various concentrations of isoflurane. The isoflurane MAC is decreased by 

inhalation of xenon in a nonlinear relationship.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, isoflurane pharmacology, pulmonary 

alveoli metabolism, xenon pharmacology, anesthetics, inhalation metabolism, blood gas anal-
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •55

ysis, drug interactions, hemodynamic processes drug effects, isoflurane metabolism, logistic 

models, pain measurement drug effects, pulmonary gas exchange drug effects, swine.

Heid, A. and U. Hamm (2009). [Alternativen zur betaubungslosen Ferkelkastration: Stand der 

Forschung zur Verbraucherakzeptanz der Alternativen.] Consumer acceptance of alternatives to piglet castration without anaesthesia. Fleischwirtschaft 89(12): 93-98. ISSN: 

0015-363X.

NAL Call Number: 280.38 F62 

Descriptors: anesthesia, animal welfare, boar taint, castration, consumer attitudes, consumers, piglets, pigs, immunocastration.

Language of Text: German, Summary in English.

Heim, K., J. Morrell, A. Ronan, and A. Tagliaferro (2002). Effects of ketamine-xylazine and isoflurane on insulin sensitivity in dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate-treated minipigs (Sus 

scrofa domestica). Comparative Medicine 52(3): 233-237. ISSN: 1532-0820.

Online: http://openurl.ingenta.com/content?genre=article&issn=1532-0820&volume=52&

issue=3&spage=233&epage=237

NAL Call Number: SF77 .C65

Abstract: Isoflurane and ketamine-xylazine (KX) combinations are widely used veterinary 

anesthetics, KX being the particularly common agent for immobilizing swine. Results of previous studies indicate that KX and xylazine suppress insulin release. The steroid hormones, 

dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfated form, dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate 

(DHEAS), have variable effects on insulin sensitivity in animals. We evaluated the effect of 

DHEAS on plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in female Yucatan swine under KX 

and isoflurane anesthesia. A 2 x 2 factorial design was used. Twenty-four 17-week-old gilts 

were randomly assigned to receive vehicle (placebo) or DHEAS as part of an ongoing study. 

The KX was given intramuscularly to all animals prior to blood sample collection at weeks 

two and four. At week three, all animals received isoflurane by inhalation. During KX anesthesia, mean insulin concentration in DHEAS-treated and control groups approximated 

half the postisoflurane values (P < 0.001). While under isoflurane, the DHEAS group had 

significantly higher mean plasma insulin concentration and mean insulin-to-glucose ratio, 

compared with values for controls (P < 0.05). These findings are consistent with changes in 

insulin values following DHEAS treatment observed previously in nonanesthetized swine. 

The effect of DHEAS treatment was absent in animals under KX anesthesia. These results 

suggest that KX significantly decreases plasma insulin concentration and blunts DHEASassociated insulin resistance in female minipigs.

Descriptors: miniature swine, anesthesia, isoflurane, ketamine, xylazine, blood glucose, 

insulin, blood plasma, metabolic diseases, androsterone, lipid metabolism, laboratory 

mammals.

Heinritzi, K., M. Ritzmann, and W. Otten (2006). Alternativen zur Kastration von Saugferkeln, 

Bestimmung von Katecholaminen sowie Wundheilung nach Kastration von Saugferkeln zu unterschiedlichen Zeitpunkten. [Alternatives for castration of suckling piglets, 

determination of catecholamines and wound healing after castration of suckling piglets 

at different points of time]. DTW. Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 113(3): 94-7. ISSN: 

0341-6593.

NAL Call Number: RM300.A1D7
56• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Abstract: According to the applicable animal welfare legislation, the surgical castration of 

pigs is allowed up until the age of 4 weeks, without anaesthesia. According to the european 

guideline (2001/93/EG) it is only permitted in the first week after birth. The investigation 

should show, whether the castration of young piglets takes a milder course and to what extent 

stress reactions occur in different age groups. The healing process of castration wounds in 

piglets that were castrated at the age of four days progressed more rapidly and with less complications than those piglets that were castrated at 28 days of age. The catecholamine levels 

in younger piglets rose significantly after the operation, while these levels virtually stayed the 

same in piglets castrated at 28 days. As alternatives to castration without anaesthesia, several 

methods are in discussion: (1) Castration under general anaesthesia can only be practiced 

by a veterinary surgeon. The sole use of Azaperon and Ketamine has insufficient pain sedating effect. Isofluran anaesthesia is apparatively extravagant. (2) CO2-Anaesthesia in piglets 

leads to high strain. (3) Castration under local anaesthesia must be practiced by a veterinary 

surgeon. The application and the pain after the castration are not taken into consideration. 

(4) Jung boar fattening up until the slaughtering weight of 80 kg is not transformable, 

because of boar taste. (5) The breeding of slaughter pigs with little boar taint is not yet transformable. (6) Sperm sexing is not and will not, in the near future, be mature for practice. (7) 

Immunocastration is an active immunisation against GnRH. The immunological elimination of GnRH suppresses the development of sex hormones, such as testosterone, as well as 

the substance responsible for boar taint, Androstenone. To consider is the acceptance of the 

consumer. The preparation has the same effect in humans as it has in swine. “Self injections” 

have the same effect in humans as it has in swine. “Self injections” are therefore risky.

Descriptors: anesthesia veterinary, animal welfare, catecholamines blood, orchiectomy veterinary, swine surgery, wound healing physiology, age factors, animals, newborn, animals, 

suckling surgery, orchiectomy methods, pain prevention and control, pain veterinary, pain 

measurement veterinary, swine blood, swine physiology.

Language of Text: German.

Hellebrekers, L.J. and A. van Nes (2004). Castratie van biggen onder verdoving? [Castration of 

swine with anesthetics?]. Tijdschrift Voor Diergeneeskunde 129(14-15): 491. ISSN: 0040-

7453.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 T431

Descriptors: anesthetics, local administration and dosage, castration veterinary, pain veterinary, swine surgery, animal welfare, castration methods, odors prevention and control, pain 

prevention and control.

Language of Text: Dutch.

Heltne, J., M. Farstad, T. Lund, M. Koller, K. Matre , S. Rynning, and P. Husby (2002). Determination of plasma volume in anaesthetized piglets using the carbon monoxide (CO) 

method. Laboratory Animals 36(3): 344-350. ISSN: 0023-6772.

NAL Call Number: QL55.A1L3

Abstract: Based on measurements of the circulating red blood cell volume (VRBC) in seven 

anaesthetized piglets using carbon monoxide (CO) as a label, plasma volume (PV) was calculated for each animal. The increase in carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb) concentration following 

administration of a known amount of CO into a closed circuit re-breathing system was 

determined by diodearray spectrophotometry. Simultaneously measured haematocrit (HCT) 

and haemoglobin (Hb) values were used for PV calculation. The PV values were compared 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •57

with simultaneously measured PVs determined using the Evans blue technique. Mean values 

(SD) for PV were 1708.6 (287.3) ml and 1738.7 (412.4) ml with the CO method and the 

Evans blue technique, respectively. Comparison of PVs determined with the two techniques 

demonstrated good correlation (r=0.995). The mean difference between PV measurements 

was -29.9 ml and the limits of agreement (mean difference +/- 2SD) were -289.1 ml and 

229.3 ml. In conclusion, the CO method can be applied easily under general anaesthesia 

and controlled ventilation with a simple administration system. The agreement between the 

compared methods was satisfactory. Plasma volume determined with the CO method is safe, 

accurate and has no signs of major side effects.

Descriptors: piglets, anesthesia, blood volume, blood plasma, carbon monoxide, 

hemoglobin, biomarkers, dyes, adverse effects, hematocrit, dilution, hemoglobin value, spectrophotometry, volume determination, carboxyhemoglobin, Evans blue.

Hewson, C.J., I.R. Dohoo, K.A. Lemke, and H.W. Barkema (2007). Canadian veterinarians’ use of 

analgesics in cattle, pigs, and horses in 2004 and 2005. Canadian Veterinary Journal, The; 

Revue Veterinaire Canadienne, La 48(2): 155-64. ISSN: 0008-5286.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 R3224

Abstract: Anecdotal evidence suggests that many veterinarians may not use analgesics in 

livestock for routine surgical procedures or painful disease states. To investigate this, we conducted a national mail survey of a random sample of 1431 Canadian veterinarians (response 

rate, 50.1%). Questions primarily concerned veterinarians’ analgesic usage for common surgeries and medical conditions in beef and dairy cattle, pigs, and horses, and attitudes toward 

pain management. More than 90% of veterinarians used analgesic drugs for equine surgeries, 

for cesarean section in sows and cows, and for bovine claw amputation and omentopexy. 

However, in these and other categories, the analgesics used were often inadequate, and many 

veterinarians did not give analgesics to young animals. When castrated, < 0.001% of piglets 

received analgesia, compared with 6.9% of beef calves and 18.7% of dairy calves < or = 6 mo 

of age, 19.9% of beef calves and 33.2% of dairy calves > 6 mo of age, and 95.8% of horses. 

Respondents largely agreed that there are no long-acting, cost-effective analgesics available for use in livestock (median rating 8/10; interquartile range 4-9), and that the long or 

unknown withdrawal periods of some drugs outweighed the benefits of using them (median 

rating 7/10; interquartile range 4-9). The results indicate an urgent need for veterinarians to 

manage pain in livestock better. Continuing education would help, as would an increase in 

the number of approved, cost-effective analgesic drugs with known withdrawal periods.

Descriptors: analgesics therapeutic use, pain, postoperative veterinary, perioperative care 

veterinary, veterinarians psychology, veterinary medicine statistics and numerical data, adult, 

cattle surgery, horses surgery, middle aged, pain, postoperative prevention and control, perioperative care methods, perioperative care statistics and numerical data, questionnaires, swine 

surgery, veterinary medicine methods.

Hiltebrand, L.B., V. Krejci, and G.H. Sigurdsson (2004). Effects of dopamine, dobutamine, and 

dopexamine on microcirculatory blood flow in the gastrointestinal tract during sepsis 

and anesthesia. Anesthesiology Philadelphia 100(5): 1188-1197. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Descriptors: anesthesia, animal models, blood flow, cardiac output, digestive tract, dopamine, sepsis, septic shock model, pigs.
58• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Hirabayashi, G., T. Mitsui, T. Kakinuma, Y. Ogihara, S. Matsumoto, A. Isshiki, and W. Yasuo 

(2003). Novel radiator for carbon dioxide absorbents in low-flow anesthesia. Annals of 

Clinical and Laboratory Science 33(3): 313-9. ISSN: 0091-7370.

NAL Call Number: RB37.A1A5

Abstract: During long-term low-flow sevoflurane anesthesia, dew formation and the generation of compound A are increased in the anesthesia circuit because of elevated soda lime 

temperature. The object of this study was to develop a novel radiator for carbon dioxide 

absorbents used for long durations of low-flow sevoflurane anesthesia. Eleven female swine 

were divided into two groups comprising a “radiator” group (n = 5) that used a novel radiator 

for carbon dioxide absorbents and a “control” group (n = 6) that used a conventional canister. Anesthesia was maintained with N2O, O2, and sevoflurane, and low-flow anesthesia was 

performed with fresh gas flow at 0.6 L/min for 12 hr. In the “control” group, the soda lime 

temperature reached more than 40 degrees C and soda lime dried up with severe dew formation in the inspiratory valve. In the “radiator” group, the temperature of soda lime stayed 

at 30 degrees C, and the water content of soda lime was retained with no dew formation in 

the inspiratory valve. In addition, compound A concentration was reduced. In conclusion, 

radiation of soda lime reduced the amounts of condensation formed and the concentration 

of compound A in the anesthetic circuit, and allowed long term low-flow anesthesia without 

equipment malfunction.

Descriptors: anesthesia, closed circuit instrumentation, anesthesia, inhalation, anesthetics, 

inhalation, carbon dioxide analysis, water, absorption, body temperature, calcium compounds, chromatography, gas , ethers analysis, ethers metabolism, hydrocarbons, fluorinated 

analysis, hydrocarbons, fluorinated metabolism, methyl ethers, oxides, sodium hydroxide, 

swine, temperature.

Hodgkinson, O. (2007). Practical sedation and anaesthesia in pigs. In Practice 29(1): 34-39. ISSN: 

0263-841X.

NAL Call Number: SF601.I4

Descriptors: swine, sedation, sedatives, anesthesia, anesthetics.

Hodgson, D.S. (2007). Comparison of isoflurane and sevoflurane for short-term anesthesia in 

piglets. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 34(2): 117-24. ISSN: 1467-2987.

NAL Call Number: SF914 .V47

Abstract: OBJECTIVES: To compare isoflurane (ISO) and sevoflurane (SEVO) shortterm anesthesia in piglets during castration. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, randomized 

study. ANIMALS: A total of 114 male piglets aged 6-10 days, body weight 1.3-5.0 kg. 

METHODS: Piglets were randomly selected from multiple litters and randomly assigned 

to being anesthetized with ISO or SEVO prior to castration. To calculate appropriate doses 

for induction and maintenance of anesthesia, a square root of time model was used, with 

calculations based on metabolic size and attainment of 1.3x minimum alveolar concentration. The equipotent target alveolar concentration of ISO was 1.82% and for SEVO 

4.03%. After doses were calculated, a table listing piglet weights and agent requirements was 

produced. Anesthetics were delivered via liquid anesthetic injection into a previously developed rebreathing inhaler that was filled with oxygen prior to use. Piglets were anesthetized, 

castrated and allowed to recover prior to return to the sow. Times for induction, recovery 

and total time to standing were recorded, and end-tidal carbon dioxide (Pe’CO2) tensions 

were measured by capnography immediately after mask removal. Each response variable was 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •59

analyzed in sas using the Proc Mixed procedure, with piglet weight and days of age as covariates. Castration problems and mortality were assessed relative to unanesthetized littermates. 

RESULTS: There were no statistically significant differences in age, weight or total anesthetic 

time between the anesthetics. Induction time was shorter, recovery time longer, and Pe’CO2 

lower with ISO. No morbidity or mortality was associated with either group. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Isoflurane and SEVO, delivered in a novel inhaler, 

provided economical, safe, rapid anesthetic induction and maintenance. Optimal conditions 

were provided for castration and recoveries were brief and smooth. Statistically significant 

differences in times would be of minor clinical importance. The cost of anesthesia was much 

less with ISO than with SEVO.

 Descriptors: anesthesia, inhalation veterinary, anesthetics, inhalation administration and 

dosage, isoflurane administration and dosage, methyl ethers administration and dosage, nebulizers and vaporizers veterinary, swine physiology, anesthesia, inhalation instrumentation, 

animals, newborn physiology, animals, newborn surgery, orchiectomy veterinary, postoperative complications, prospective studies, pulmonary alveoli metabolism, swine surgery, 

treatment outcome.

Hodgson, D.S. (2006). An inhaler device using liquid injection of isoflurane for short term anesthesia in piglets. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 33(4): 207-213. ISSN: 1467-2987.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-2995.2005.00258.x

NAL Call Number: SF914 .V47

Abstract: To test a novel inhaler for administering isoflurane (ISO) anesthesia to piglets 

during castration and other surgical procedures of short duration. Prospective, randomized study. Fifty-seven male piglets aged 6-10 days, body weight 1.1-3.5 kg. An inhaler 

was developed which consisted of a mask, center body with open-close valve, vaporization 

chamber with wick and injection port, and a rebreathing bag. Liquid ISO required for 

induction of anesthesia and surgery was calculated, based on a desired alveolar ISO concentration of 1.82%. Dose was calculated using a square root of time model and metabolic size 

(B.W.[superscript 0].[superscript 75]). For practical use the calculated dose was expressed in 

relation to scale weight (kg). Isoflurane was delivered into the liquid injection port, followed 

by oxygen to fill the rebreathing bag and initiate vaporization. After the mask was fitted over 

the piglet’s nose, the sliding open-close valve was opened to allow respiratory flow to move 

gases in and out of the inhaler and rebreathing bag. Fifty-seven male piglets received anesthesia prior to castration. Morbidity and mortality were assessed relative to unanesthetized litter 

mates. Induction, recovery and total anesthetic times were measured. End-tidal CO[subscript 

2] was measured immediately after mask removal by capnography. Costs of equipment and 

anesthetic agent were calculated. Mean induction time was rapid, 47.5 * left-pointing-double-angle *8.7 seconds, generally with minimal or no struggling. Surgery usually lasted less 

than 30 seconds and was always completed prior to the 120 seconds allotted for induction 

and surgery. Anesthesia was adequate and recovery time was 122 * left-pointing-doubleangle * 44 seconds. Total time from start to standing was 260 * left-pointing-double-angle 

* 51 seconds. The end-tidal CO[subscript 2] was 5.2 * left-pointing-double-angle * 1.1 kPa 

(39.4 * left-pointing-double-angle * 8.4 mmHg). No morbidity or mortality was associated 

with either group. Inhaler construction costs were below $100, and liquid ISO cost ranged 

between $0.02 and $0.03 per piglet. Isoflurane delivered in a novel inhaler has the potential 

to provide economical, safe, rapid anesthetic induction and safe, smooth recovery in piglets.

Descriptors: anesthesia, castration, isoflurane, novel inhaler, piglets, surgery.
60• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Holmstrom, A. and J. Akeson (2003). Cerebral blood flow at 0.5 and 1.0 minimal alveolar concentrations of desflurane or sevoflurane compared with isoflurane in normoventilated 

pigs. Journal of Neurosurgical Anesthesiology 15(2): 90-7. ISSN: 0898-4921.

Abstract: Whether desflurane and sevoflurane have clinical advantages over isoflurane in 

neuroanesthesia is much debated. A porcine model was used for comparison of desflurane 

and sevoflurane with isoflurane with respect to their cerebrovascular effects. The minimal 

alveolar concentration (MAC) of each of the three agents was first determined in a standardized manner in six domestic juvenile pigs to enhance comparison reliability. Six other pigs 

were then anesthetized with isoflurane, desflurane, and sevoflurane, given in sequence to each 

pig in an even crosswise order with the first agent also used to maintain anesthesia during 

surgical preparation. Cerebral blood flow (CBF) was calculated from the clearance curve of 

intraarterially injected 133Xe. The mean arterial pressure (MAP) was invasively monitored. 

The estimated cerebrovascular resistance (CVRe) was calculated by dividing MAP with CBF, 

thereby approximating the cerebral perfusion pressure with MAP. For both MAC levels, the 

trend for CBF was desflurane > isoflurane > sevoflurane, and the trend for MAP and CVRe 

was sevoflurane > isoflurane > desflurane. Statistical comparison of desflurane and sevoflurane with isoflurane with respect to CBF and MAP revealed two statistically significant 

differences-namely, that CBF at 1.0 MAC desflurane was 17% higher than CBF at 1.0 MAC 

isoflurane (P =.0025) and that MAP at 1.0 MAC sevoflurane was 16% higher than MAP at 

1.0 MAC isoflurane (P =.011). Consequently, in this study at normocapnia, these agents did 

not seem to differ much in their cerebral vasodilating effects at lower doses. At higher doses, 

however, desflurane, in contrast to sevoflurane, was found to induce more cerebral vasodilation than isoflurane.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, cerebrovascular circulation drug effects, 

isoflurane analogs and derivatives, isoflurane pharmacology, methyl ethers pharmacology, 

pulmonary alveoli metabolism, anesthetics, inhalation administration and dosage, anesthetics, inhalation pharmacokinetics, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, blood gas analysis, 

dose response relationship, drug, hemodynamic processes drug effects, intracranial hypertension physiopathology, isoflurane administration and dosage, isoflurane pharmacokinetics, 

methyl ethers administration and dosage, methyl ethers pharmacokinetics, propofol pharmacology, swine, vascular resistance drug effects.

Holmstrom, A. and J. Akeson (2004). Desflurane increases intracranial pressure more and sevoflurane less than isoflurane in pigs subjected to intracranial hypertension. Journal of 

Neurosurgical Anesthesiology 16(2): 136-43. ISSN: 0898-4921.

Abstract: Desflurane and sevoflurane may have advantages over isoflurane in neuroanesthesia, but this is still under debate. A porcine model with experimental intracranial 

hypertension was used for paired comparison of desflurane, sevoflurane, and isoflurane with 

respect to the effects on cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebrovascular resistance (CVR), and 

intracranial pressure (ICP). The agents, given in sequence to each of six pigs, were compared 

at 0.5 and 1.0 minimal alveolar concentrations (MAC) and three mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) levels (50, 70, and 90 mm Hg) at normocapnia and one MAP level (70 mm 

Hg) at hypocapnia. MAC for each agent had been previously determined in a standardized manner for comparison reliability. CBF was measured with Xe. MAP was lowered by 

inflation of a balloon catheter in the inferior caval vein and raised by inflation of a balloon 

catheter in the descending aorta. ICP was measured intraparenchymally. Two Fogarty catheters positioned extradurally were inflated to a baseline ICP of 20 to 22 mm Hg at 0.2 MAC 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •61

of each agent. CBF and ICP with the three agents at normocapnia and MAP 70 and 90 mm 

Hg at both 0.5 and 1.0 MAC were as follows (P < 0.05): desflurane > isoflurane > sevoflurane. None of the agents abolished CO2 reactivity. High-dose desflurane resulted in a higher 

CBF at hypocapnia than corresponding doses of sevoflurane or isoflurane, but there were no 

significant differences between the agents in ICP at hypocapnia. The present study showed 

that desflurane increased ICP more and sevoflurane less than isoflurane during normoventilation, but the differences disappeared with hyperventilation.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, intracranial hypertension physiopathology, intracranial pressure drug effects, isoflurane analogs and derivatives, isoflurane 

pharmacology, methyl ethers pharmacology, anesthetics, inhalation administration and 

dosage, blood gas analysis, blood loss, surgical, cerebrovascular circulation drug effects, dose 

response relationship, drug, heart rate drug effects, hemoglobins metabolism, intracranial 

hypertension chemically induced, isoflurane administration and dosage, methyl ethers 

administration and dosage, pulmonary alveoli metabolism, swine, xenon radioisotopes diagnostic use.

Holmstrom, A. and J. Akeson (2003). Sevoflurane increases intracranial pressure less and desflurane more than isoflurane at experimentally raised intracranial pressure in pigs. 

Anesthesiology Abstracts of Scientific Papers Annual Meeting(2003): Abstract No. A-271.

Descriptors: neuroanesthesia, cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebrovascular resistance, hypocapnia, intracranial pressure, minimal alveolar concentration, normocapnia, hypcapnia, 

comparison study, desflurane, sevoflurane, isoflurane.

Notes: Meeting Information: 2003 Annual Meeting of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, San Francisco, CA, USA; October 11-15, 2003.

Horn, N.A., K.E. Hecker, B. Bongers, H.J. Baumert, S.M. Reyle Hahn, and R. Rossaint (2001). 

Coagulation assessment in healthy pigs undergoing single xenon anaesthesia and combinations with isoflurane and sevoflurane. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 45(5): 634-8. 

ISSN: 0001-5172.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: With the introduction of new anaesthetics into clinical practice possible side effects of these novel anaesthetics have to be evaluated. This study was 

performed to clarify whether xenon or combinations of xenon with isoflurane or sevoflurane 

modify blood coagulation. METHODS: The study was performed in 20 healthy pigs which 

first underwent xenon anaesthesia (65 Vol%) and were then randomly assigned to combinations of xenon and isoflurane or sevoflurane at varying concentrations. During anaesthesia 

the following parameters were controlled: aPTT, PT, fibrinogen concentrations and thrombelastographic measurements. RESULTS: Xenon monoanaesthesia did not alter significantly 

any coagulation parameter. When isoflurane was introduced the aPTT showed a significant 

increase while fibrinogen concentration decreased. The introduction of sevoflurane led also 

to a decrease in fibrinogen concentration, while the aPTT was unchanged. These decreases 

in fibrinogen concentration were not accompanied by reduced maximal clot strength or 

elevated fibrinolysis evaluated by thrombelastography. Although the above-described changes 

were statistically significant, none of the parameters throughout the experiment exceeded the 

limits of normal values. CONCLUSION: In our study, xenon monoanaesthesia and combinations of xenon with isoflurane and sevoflurane did not lead to pathologic alterations in the 

measured coagulation parameters.

Descriptors: anesthesia, inhalation, anesthetics, inhalation, blood coagulation drug effects, 
62• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

isoflurane, methyl ethers, xenon, blood pressure drug effects, platelet function tests, swine, 

thrombelastography.

Hurnik, D. (2006). The Canadian Quality Assurance drug use policy does not specifically ban 

the use of general anesthesia in swine. Canadian Veterinary Journal, The; Revue Veterinaire 

Canadienne, La 47(1): 7; Author Reply 8. ISSN: 0008-5286.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 R3224

Descriptors: anesthesia, general veterinary, pain veterinary, veterinary medicine ethics, anesthesia, general ethics, animal welfare, pain prevention and control, quality control, swine.

Notes: Comment On: Can Vet J. 2005 Jul;46(7):579.

Ivany, J.M. and W.W. Muir (2004). Farm animal anesthesia. In: S.L. Fubini and N.G. Ducharme 

(Editors), Farm Animal Surgery, Saunders, An Imprint of Elsevier: St. Louis, USA, p. 97-112. 

ISBN: 0721690629. 

Descriptors: acepromazine, anesthesia, anesthetics, antagonists, calves, conduction anesthesia, detomidine, diazepam, domestic animals, drug delivery systems , eyes, feet, guaifenesin, 

horns, inhaled anesthetics, injection, ketamine, livestock , medetomidine, neuroleptics, 

pentobarbital, pharmacodynamics, preanesthetic medication, propofol, regulations, safety, 

surgery, surgical operations, thiopental, udders, xylazine, yohimbine, cattle, goats, pigs, 

sheep.

Jaggin, N., I. Kohler, J. Blum, and U. Schatzmann (2001). Castration of newborn piglets under 

inhalation anesthesia with halothane [Die Kastration von neugeborenen Ferkeln unter 

Halothananasthesie.]. Praktische Tierarzt 82(12): 1054-1054...1061. ISSN: 0032-681X.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 P882

Descriptors: age differences, anesthesia, blood plasma, castration, halothane, beta -endorphin, piglets, surgery, pigs.

Language of Text: German, Summary in English.

Jaynski, M., W. Brzeski, M. Chyczewski, M. Lew, and A. Rychlik (2004). Propofol general anaesthesia in laparoscopic hernia treatment in pigs [Znieczulenie ogolne propofolem w 

leczeniu przepuklin swin metoda laparoskopowa.]. Medycyna Weterynaryjna 60(2): 196-

198. ISSN: 0025-8628.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 M463

Descriptors: anesthesia, anesthetics, atropine, azaperone, hernia, laparoscopy, pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, pharmacology, piglets, propofol, surgery, surgical operations, pigs.

Language of Text: Polish, Summary in English.

Jennings, P., C. Koppelstaetter, W. Pfaller, J.P. Morin, T. Hartung, and M.P. Ryan (2004). Assessment of a new cell culture perfusion apparatus for in vitro chronic toxicity testing. Part 

2: toxicological evaluation. ALTEX Alternativen Zu Tierexperimenten 21(2): 61-6. ISSN: 

0946-7785.

Abstract: The goal of replacement, refinement and reduction of animal testing is critically 

dependent on the development and assessment of novel in vitro methodologies and the 

further development of existing methodologies. Here, we evaluated the use of a modified 

perfusion cell culture apparatus for application to chronic in vitro nephrotoxicity testing 

using DMSO, SDS, paracetamol and cyclosporine A as test compounds. Renal epithelial 

monolayers were cultured on microporous growth supports and exposed to test compounds 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •63

under static or perfusion conditions. Alamar Blue reduction, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase activity (GGT), lactate dehydrogenase activity (LDH) and remnant protein were used 

to assay cell toxicity. There was no significant difference in IC(50) values between static and 

perfusion cultures up to 72 hours exposure. However, the perfusion system allowed continuous real-time monitoring of plasma membrane damage, which gives important information 

of time, duration and scale of toxicity. The complexity of the system restrains its use to lowthroughput analysis. However, the real and theoretical advantages of this and similar systems 

merit further investigations.

Descriptors: acetaminophen toxicity, analgesics, non narcotic toxicity, animal testing alternatives, cell culture techniques methods, oxazines, toxicity tests, chronic methods, xanthenes, 

cell culture techniques instrumentation, coloring agents diagnostic use, cyclosporine toxicity, dimethyl sulfoxide toxicity, dose response relationship, drug, immunosuppressive agents 

toxicity, inhibitory concentration 50, kidney diseases chemically induced, l lactate dehydrogenase metabolism, llc pk1 cells, perfusion, sodium dodecyl sulfate toxicity, surface active 

agents toxicity, swine, time factors, toxicity tests, chronic instrumentation, gamma glutamyltransferase metabolism.

Johansson, J.S., G.A. Manderson, R. Ramoni, S. Grolli, and R.G. Eckenhoff (2005). Binding of 

the volatile general anesthetics halothane and isoflurane to a mammalian beta-barrel 

protein. FEBS Journal, The 272(2): 573-81. ISSN: 1742-464X.

NAL Call Number: QP501 .E8

Abstract: A molecular understanding of volatile anesthetic mechanisms of action will require 

structural descriptions of anesthetic-protein complexes. Porcine odorant binding protein is 

a 157 residue member of the lipocalin family that features a large beta-barrel internal cavity 

(515 +/- 30 angstroms(3)) lined predominantly by aromatic and aliphatic residues. Halothane binding to the beta-barrel cavity was determined using fluorescence quenching of 

Trp16, and a competitive binding assay with 1-aminoanthracene. In addition, the binding 

of halothane and isoflurane were characterized thermodynamically using isothermal titration calorimetry. Hydrogen exchange was used to evaluate the effects of bound halothane 

and isoflurane on global protein dynamics. Halothane bound to the cavity in the beta-barrel 

of porcine odorant binding protein with dissociation constants of 0.46 +/- 0.10 mM and 

0.43 +/- 0.12 mM determined using fluorescence quenching and competitive binding with 

1-aminoanthracene, respectively. Isothermal titration calorimetry revealed that halothane 

and isoflurane bound with K(d) values of 80 +/- 10 microM and 100 +/- 10 microM, respectively. Halothane and isoflurane binding resulted in an overall stabilization of the folded 

conformation of the protein by -0.9 +/- 0.1 kcal.mol(-1). In addition to indicating specific 

binding to the native protein conformation, such stabilization may represent a fundamental 

mechanism whereby anesthetics reversibly alter protein function. Because porcine odorant 

binding protein has been successfully analyzed by X-ray diffraction to 2.25 angstroms resolution [1], this represents an attractive system for atomic-level structural studies in the presence 

of bound anesthetic. Such studies will provide much needed insight into how volatile anesthetics interact with biological macromolecules.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation metabolism, halothane metabolism, isoflurane metabolism, receptors, odorant chemistry, calorimetry, protein binding, protein folding, receptors, 

odorant metabolism, swine, x ray diffraction.
64• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Johnson, K.B., T.D. Egan, S.E. Kern, S.W. McJames, M.L. Cluff, and N.L. Pace (2004). Influence of 

hemorrhagic shock followed by crystalloid resuscitation on propofol: a pharmacokinetic 

and pharmacodynamic analysis. Anesthesiology 101(3): 647-59. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Previous work has demonstrated that ongoing hemorrhagic 

shock dramatically alters the distribution, clearance, and potency of propofol. Whether 

volume resuscitation after hemorrhagic shock restores drug behavior to baseline pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics remains unclear. This is particularly relevant because patients 

suffering from hemorrhagic shock are typically resuscitated before surgery. To investigate this, 

the authors studied the influence of an isobaric bleed followed by crystalloid resuscitation on 

the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of propofol in a swine model. The hypothesis 

was that hemorrhagic shock followed by resuscitation would not significantly alter the pharmacokinetics but would influence the pharmacodynamics of propofol. METHODS: After 

approval from the Animal Care Committee, 16 swine were randomly assigned to control and 

shock-resuscitation groups. Swine randomized to the shock-resuscitation group were bled to 

a mean arterial blood pressure of 40 mm Hg over a 20-min period and held there by further 

blood removal until 42 ml/kg of blood had been removed. Subsequently, animals were resuscitated with lactated Ringer’s solution to maintain a mean arterial blood pressure of 70 mm 

Hg for 60 min. After resuscitation, propofol (750 microg x kg(-1) x min(-1)) was infused 

for 10 min. The control group underwent a sham hemorrhage and resuscitation and received 

propofol at the same dose and approximate time as the shock-resuscitation group. Arterial samples (20 from each animal) were collected at frequent intervals until 180 min after 

the infusion began and were analyzed to determine drug concentrations. Pharmacokinetic 

parameters for each group were estimated using a three-compartment model. The electroencephalogram Bispectral Index Scale was used as a measure of drug effect. Pharmacodynamics 

were characterized using a sigmoid inhibitory maximal effect model. RESULTS: The raw 

data demonstrated minimal differences in the mean plasma propofol concentrations between 

groups. The compartment analysis revealed some subtle differences between groups in the 

central and slow equilibrating volumes, but the differences were not significant. Hemorrhagic shock followed by resuscitation shifted the concentration effect relationship to the left, 

demonstrating a 1.5-fold decrease in the effect-site concentration required to achieve 50% of 

the maximal effect in the Bispectral Index Scale. CONCLUSIONS: Hemorrhagic shock followed by resuscitation with lactated Ringer’s solution did not alter the pharmacokinetics but 

did increase the potency of propofol. These results demonstrate that alterations in propofol 

pharmacokinetics observed in moderate to severe blood loss can be reversed with resuscitation. These results suggest that a modest reduction in propofol is prudent to achieve a desired 

drug effect after resuscitation from severe hemorrhagic shock.

Descriptors: anesthetics, intravenous pharmacokinetics, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, propofol pharmacokinetics, propofol pharmacology, 

shock, hemorrhagic metabolism, algorithms, anesthesia, cardiac output drug effects, cardiac 

output physiology, computer simulation, electroencephalography drug effects, hemodynamic 

processes drug effects, hemodynamic processes physiology, nonlinear dynamics, respiration, 

artificial, swine.

Notes: Comment In: Anesthesiology. 2004 Sep;101(3):567-8.

Johnson, K.B., T.D. Egan, S.E. Kern, J.L. White, S.W. McJames, N. Syroid, D. Whiddon, and T. 

Church (2003). The influence of hemorrhagic shock on propofol: a pharmacokinetic and 

pharmacodynamic analysis. Anesthesiology 99(2): 409-20. ISSN: 0003-3022.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •65

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Propofol is a common sedative hypnotic for the induction 

and maintenance of anesthesia. Clinicians typically moderate the dose of propofol or choose 

a different sedative hypnotic in the setting of severe intravascular volume depletion. Previous work has established that hemorrhagic shock influences both the pharmacokinetics and 

pharmacodynamics of propofol in the rat. To investigate this further, the authors studied the 

influence of hemorrhagic shock on the pharmacology of propofol in a swine isobaric hemorrhage model. METHODS: After approval from the Animal Care Committee, 16 swine were 

randomly assigned to control and shock groups. The shock group was bled to a mean arterial 

blood pressure of 50 mmHg over a 20-min period and held there by further blood removal 

until 30 ml/kg of blood was removed. Propofol 200 microg. kg(-1). min(-1) was infused for 

10 min to both groups. Arterial samples (15 from each animal) were collected at frequent 

intervals until 180 min after the infusion began and analyzed to determine drug concentration. Pharmacokinetic parameters for each group were estimated using a three-compartment 

model. The electroencephalogram Bispectral Index Scale was used as a measure of drug effect. 

The pharmacodynamics were characterized using a sigmoid inhibitory maximal effect model. 

RESULTS: The raw data demonstrated higher plasma propofol levels in the shock group. The 

pharmacokinetic analysis revealed slower intercompartmental clearances in the shock group. 

Hemorrhagic shock shifted the concentration effect relationship to the left, demonstrating 

a 2.7-fold decrease in the effect site concentration required to achieve 50% of the maximal 

effect in the Bispectral Index Scale. CONCLUSIONS: Hemorrhagic shock altered the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of propofol. Changes in intercompartmental clearances 

and an increase in the potency of propofol suggest that less propofol would be required to 

achieve a desired drug effect during hemorrhagic shock.

Descriptors: anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, propofol pharmacology, shock, hemorrhagic physiopathology, algorithms, analysis of variance, anesthesia, anesthetics, inhalation 

pharmacology, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacokinetics, blood glucose metabolism, blood 

pressure drug effects, computer simulation, heart rate drug effects, isoflurane pharmacology, 

lactic acid blood, nonlinear dynamics, pilot projects, propofol pharmacokinetics, swine.

Johnson, K.B., S.E. Kern, E.A. Hamber, S.W. McJames, K.M. Kohnstamm, and T.D. Egan (2001). 

Influence of hemorrhagic shock on remifentanil: a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic analysis. Anesthesiology 94(2): 322-32. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Hemorrhagic shock is known to alter significantly the pharmacokinetics of fentanyl, an opioid that requires delivery to the liver for metabolism. The 

authors hypothesized that the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of remifentanil, 

an esterase metabolized opioid that does not require delivery to a metabolic organ, would 

be altered less by hemorrhagic shock that those of fentanyl. METHODS: Sixteen pigs were 

assigned randomly to control and shock groups. The shock group was bled using an isobaric hemorrhage model. Remifentanil 10 microg x kg(-1) x min(-1) was infused for 10 

min to both groups. Arterial samples were collected for remifentanil concentration assay. 

Pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated using a three-compartment model. The electroencephalogram spectral edge was used as a measure of drug effect. The pharmacodynamics 

were characterized using a sigmoid inhibitory maximal effect model. RESULTS: Remifentanil blood levels were higher in the shocked group. The central clearance was slower and 

the central compartment was smaller in shocked animals. No difference between groups was 

observed in the magnitude or time course of the remifentanil-induced decrease in spectral 

edge. CONCLUSIONS: Hemorrhagic shock altered the pharmacokinetics of remifentanil, 
66• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

suggesting that less remifentanil would be required to maintain a target plasma concentration. However, because of its rapid metabolism, the impact of hemorrhagic shock on the 

concentration decline of remifentanil after termination of the infusion was minimal. Hemorrhagic shock did not alter the pharmacodynamics of remifentanil.

Descriptors: analgesics, opioid pharmacokinetics, piperidines pharmacokinetics, shock, 

hemorrhagic metabolism, computer simulation, dose response relationship, drug, piperidines 

pharmacology, swine.

Johnson, K.B., T.D. Egan, J. Layman, S.E. Kern, J.L. White, and S.W. Mcjames (2003). The influence of hemorrhagic shock on etomidate: a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic 

analysis. Anesthesia and Analgesia 96(5): 1360-1368. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Descriptors: blood and lymphatics: transport and circulation, cardiovascular system: transport and circulation, metabolism, pharmacology, sedative hypnotics, opioids, etomidate, 

hemorrhagic shock, vascular disease, bispectral index scale.

Kaiser, G.M., F. Breuckmann, S. Aker, H. Eggebrecht, H. Kuehl, R. Erbel, N.R. Fruhauf, C.E. Broelsch, and H.H. Quick (2007). Anesthesia for cardiovascular interventions and magnetic 

resonance imaging in pigs. Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science 

JAALAS 46(2): 30-3. ISSN: 1559-6109.

NAL Call Number: SF405.3 .A23

Abstract: Large animal models are still required for many experimental purposes. The aim 

of the current study was to define a viable narcotic procedure for experimental cardiovascular interventions and imaging in pigs. A total of 32 domestic pigs were used. Animals 

received propofol, midazolam, and fentanyl as continuous intravenous infusion anesthesia 

for complex vascular interventions, angiographic X-ray imaging, and magnetic resonance 

imaging (MRI). Anesthesia was maintained for 6 to 10 h. The initial hourly doses were 

2.29 mg/kg of propofol, 1.14 mg/kg of midazolam, and 0.009 mg/kg of fentanyl, with 

controlled ventilation. Anesthesia, interventions, imaging, periods of apnea of as long as 2 

min, and transportation were well-tolerated. Stress-induced arrhythmias were not noted, and 

artifact-free imaging was achieved. The combination of propofol, midazolam, and fentanyl is 

well-suited for experimental angiographic interventional studies, experimental cardiovascular 

MRI, and MR-guided interventions in pigs.

Descriptors: anesthesia methods, cardiovascular surgical procedures, laboratory animal 

science methods, magnetic resonance imaging instrumentation, sus scrofa surgery, anesthesiology instrumentation.

Kaiser, G.M., N.R. Fruhauf, H. Zhang, S. Westermann, I. Bolle, K.J. Oldhafer, and C.E. Broelsch 

(2003). Intravenous infusion anesthesia with Propofol-Midazolam-fentanyl for experimental surgery in swine. Journal of Investigative Surgery the Official Journal of the Academy of 

Surgical Research 16(6): 353-7. ISSN: 0894-1939.

Abstract: There is a need for prolonged anesthesia procedures in experimental surgery. 

Animals in this study received fentanyl, Midazolam, and Propofol administered by continuous intravenous infusion for anesthesia along with controlled ventilation. Time of anesthesia 

was 413 +/- 95 min. Animals could be extubated 20 +/- 12 min after operation. Animals 

recovered completely from anesthesia by day 1 after surgery with almost normal physical 

activity. This study clearly shows that intravenous infusion anesthesia is safe and easy to 

handle in prolonged anesthesia for experimental surgery in swine. This anesthetic protocol 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •67

can also be used for intraoperative transportation.

Descriptors: anesthesia, intravenous methods, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, fentanyl pharmacology, midazolam pharmacology, propofol pharmacology, sus scrofa, abdomen 

surgery, anesthesia, intravenous mortality, infusions, intravenous, species specificity.

Kaiser, G.M., M.M. Heuer, N.R. Fruhauf, C.A. Kuhne, and C.E. Broelsch (2006). General handling and anesthesia for experimental surgery in pigs. Journal of Surgical Research, The

130(1): 73-9. ISSN: 0022-4804.

NAL Call Number: RD1

Abstract: The pig is a common large animal for experimental settings in many fields of 

surgery. In experimental surgery, there is a need for different narcotic procedures depending on the complexity of the surgical investigation. Narcotic procedures have to be safe, easy 

to handle, and should not influence the experimental results. We hereby present important 

aspects of handling and narcotic procedures for pigs. The aim of this publication is to supply 

an introduction for young surgical investigators who are planning or already have started 

investigations using pigs as an experimental animal. This publication is based on our institutional experience of narcotic and surgical procedures in more than 400 cases.

Descriptors: anesthesia veterinary, models, animal, surgical procedures, operative veterinary, 

swine, handling psychology.

Kazama, T., T. Kurita, K. Morita, J. Nakata, and S. Sato (2002). Influence of hemorrhage on 

propofol pseudo-steady state concentration. Anesthesiology 97(5): 1156-61. ISSN: 0003-

3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: A small induction dose has been recommended in cases of 

hemorrhagic shock. However, the influence of hemorrhage on the amplitude of plasma propofol concentration has not yet been fully investigated during continuous propofol infusion. 

The authors hypothesized that the effect of hemorrhage on plasma propofol concentration is 

variously influenced by the different stages of shock. METHODS: After 120 min of steady 

state infusion of propofol at a rate of 2 mg x kg(-1) x h(-1), nine instrumented immature 

swine were studied using a stepwise increasing hemorrhagic model (200 ml of blood every 

30 min until 1 h, then additional stepwise bleeding of 100 ml every 30 min thereafter, to the 

point of circulatory collapse). Hemodynamic parameters and plasma propofol concentration 

were recorded at every step. RESULTS: Before total circulatory collapse, it was possible to 

drain 976 +/- 166 ml (mean +/- SD) of blood. Hemorrhage of less than 600 ml (19 ml/kg) 

was not accompanied by a significant change in plasma propofol concentration. At individual 

peak systemic vascular resistance, when cardiac output and mean arterial pressure decreased 

by 31% and 14%, respectively, plasma propofol concentration increased by 19% of its prehemorrhagic value. At maximum heart rate, when cardiac output and mean arterial pressure 

decreased by 46% and 28%, respectively, plasma propofol concentration increased by 38%. 

In uncompensated shock, it increased to 3.75 times its prehemorrhagic value. CONCLUSIONS: During continuous propofol infusion, plasma propofol concentration increased by 

less than 20% during compensated shock. However, it increased 3.75 times its prehemorrhagic concentration during uncompensated shock.

Descriptors: anesthetics, intravenous pharmacokinetics, hemorrhage metabolism, propofol 

pharmacokinetics, cardiac output drug effects, hemodynamic processes drug effects, metabolic clearance rate, propofol pharmacology, shock, hemorrhagic metabolism, swine.

Notes: Comment In: Anesthesiology. 2002 Nov;97(5):6A.
68• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Keates, H. (2003). Induction of anaesthesia in pigs using a new alphaxalone formulation. Veterinary Record, The 153(20): 627-8. ISSN: 0042-4900.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 V641

Descriptors: anesthesia veterinary, anesthetics pharmacology, pregnanediones pharmacology, swine physiology, anesthetics administration and dosage, azaperone administration and 

dosage, azaperone pharmacology, embryo implantation, heart rate drug effects, injections, 

intravenous veterinary, pregnanediones administration and dosage.

Keita, A., E. Pagot, A. Prunier, and C. Guidarini (2010). Pre-emptive meloxicam for postoperative 

analgesia in piglets undergoing surgical castration. Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia

37(4): 367-74. ISSN: 1467-2995 (Electronic). 1467-2987 (Linking).

DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-2995.2010.00546.x

NAL Call Number: SF914 .V47 

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of preoperative meloxicam administration 

on postoperative stress and pain induced by surgical castration in piglets. STUDY DESIGN: 

Prospective, blinded, randomized clinical trial. ANIMALS: One hundred and eighty male 

piglets of <1 week of age. METHODS: Castration was performed on 150 piglets which had 

received either an intramuscular injection of 0.4 mg kg(-1) meloxicam or a placebo 10-30 

minutes before the procedure. Blood cortisol and ACTH concentrations were determined 

at 30 minutes post-castration and haptoglobin was measured at 24 hours post-castration. 

Presence or absence of foreleg movements, hind leg movements, urine or faeces emission, 

tremors or other body movements were recorded during the castration procedure. Scores for 

presence or absence of prostration, tremors, tail movements and isolation were recorded at 

30 minutes, and at 1, 2, 4 and 24 hours post-castration and combined in a global behaviour 

score (GBS). Blood samples were taken from a further 30 piglets which did not undergo 

castration. RESULTS: Mean blood cortisol and ACTH concentrations at 30 minutes postcastration were both significantly lower in the meloxicam group than in the placebo group (p 

< or = 0.01). The mean haptoglobin concentration at 24 hours was not significantly reduced 

(p = 0.178). The distribution of the GBS during castration was similar in both groups. There 

were significant differences in the GBS after castration at both 2 and 4 hours post-castration 

with a greater proportion of piglets in the meloxicam group showing no behavioural alterations (82.7%versus 68.0% at both time points). The score distribution was similar in both 

groups at 30 minutes, 1 and 24 hours after castration. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL 

RELEVANCE: This study suggests that pre-emptive administration of meloxicam is able to 

produce some postoperative analgesia after surgical castration of young piglets.

Descriptors: analgesia, behavior, castration, meloxicam, pain, piglets.

Kerbaul, F., M. Bellezza, C. Mekkaoui, H. Feier, C. Guidon, J. Gouvernet, P.H. Rolland, F. Gouin, T. 

Mesana, and F. Collart (2006). Sevoflurane alters right ventricular performance but not 

pulmonary vascular resistance in acutely instrumented anesthetized pigs. Journal of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia 20(2): 209-16. ISSN: 1053-0770.

NAL Call Number: RD87.3.H43

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: Although the effects of halogenated agents on both normal and 

diseased left ventricles have been widely studied, the influence of these anesthetic agents 

on right ventricular (RV) performance remains less well characterized. This study was 

undertaken to examine the effects of 2 different concentrations of sevoflurane on RV function, and coronary and pulmonary hemodynamics in acutely instrumented anesthetized 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •69

pigs. DESIGN: Prospective experimental study. SETTING: Laboratory of experimental 

research in a university teaching hospital. SUBJECTS: Anesthetized pigs. INTERVENTIONS: Regional RV function in 10 pigs was determined from pressure segment length 

loop analysis, global RV function from stroke work versus end-diastolic pressure relation, 

right coronary blood flow, and pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR), without and then with 

2.6% (minimum alveolar concentration [MAC]) and 3.9 % (1.5 MAC) end-tidal sevoflurane 

concentrations. MAIN RESULTS: Sevoflurane preserved inflow systolic shortening and RV 

regional external work, but significantly depressed outflow systolic shortening (p < 0.05). 

Global RV stroke work was depressed to 72% +/- 12% and 61% +/- 10% of baseline value, 

respectively, with 1 and 1.5 MAC of sevoflurane (p < 0.05), but without alteration of PVR. 

Right coronary blood flow decreased dose dependently. CONCLUSIONS: Sevoflurane 

causes significant depression of global RV function associated with a qualitatively different 

effect on inflow and outflow tracts, without any modification of PVR.

Descriptors: anesthesia, inhalation, anesthetics, inhalation administration and dosage, 

methyl ethers administration and dosage, pulmonary artery physiology, vascular resistance 

drug effects, ventricular function, right drug effects, blood pressure physiology, disease 

models, animal, dose response relationship, drug, follow up studies, prospective studies, 

swine.

Kerbaul, F., C. Guidon, J. Stephanazzi, M. Bellezza, P. Le Dantec, T. Longeon, and M. Aubert 

(2001). Sub-MAC concentrations of desflurane do not inhibit hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in anesthetized piglets. Canadian Journal of Anaesthesia; Journal Canadien 

D’Anesthesie 48(8): 760-7. ISSN: 0832-610X.

NAL Call Number: RD78.68.C4

Abstract: PURPOSE: In vitro, halogenated agents reduce the pulmonary vasoconstrictor 

response to alveolar hypoxia in isolated perfused lungs. However, studies in intact animals 

have been less convincing. The aim of the present study was to assess the effect of sub-MAC 

concentrations of desflurane on hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV) in anesthetized piglets using the pressure/cardiac output relationship (P/Q). METHODS: Eleven 

large white piglets were anesthetized and ventilated mechanically, alternatively in hyperoxia 

(FIO2=0.4) and in hypoxia (FIO2=0.12). Multipoint plots of pulmonary arterial pressure 

(PAP), or differences between PAP and left atrial pressure (LAP) against Q were generated by 

gradual inflation of a balloon advanced into the inferior vena cava. P/Q relationships were 

established in hyperoxia and in hypoxia at baseline, and then with gradual concentrations of 

desflurane. RESULTS: In hypoxia, pressure gradients (PAP-LAP) increased significantly at 

every level of Q, demonstrating active pulmonary vasoconstriction. Desflurane did not affect 

these P/Q relationships either in hyperoxia, or in hypoxia, when compared with baseline. 

CONCLUSION: Desflurane at a clinically relevant dose has no significant effect on HPV in 

anesthetized piglets.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, anoxia physiopathology, isoflurane pharmacology, pulmonary artery drug effects, vasoconstriction drug effects , anesthesia, cardiac 

output drug effects, isoflurane analogs and derivatives, pulmonary artery physiology, swine, 

sympathetic nervous system drug effects.

Kharasch, E.D., K.M. Powers, and A.A. Artru (2002). Comparison of Amsorb, sodalime, and 

Baralyme degradation of volatile anesthetics and formation of carbon monoxide and 

compound a in swine in vivo. Anesthesiology 96(1): 173-82. ISSN: 0003-3022.
70• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Consequences of volatile anesthetic degradation by carbon 

dioxide absorbents that contain strong base include formation of compound A from sevoflurane, formation of carbon monoxide (CO) and CO toxicity from desflurane, enflurane and 

isoflurane, delayed inhalation induction, and increased anesthetic costs. Amsorb (Armstrong 

Ltd., Coleraine, Northern Ireland) is a new absorbent that does not contain strong base and 

does not form CO or compound A in vitro. This investigation compared Amsorb, Baralyme 

(Chemetron Medical Division, Allied Healthcare Products, St. Louis, MO), and sodalime 

effects on CO (from desflurane and isoflurane) and compound A formation, carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) concentrations, and anesthetic degradation in a clinically relevant porcine 

in vivo model. METHODS: Pigs were anesthetized with desflurane, isoflurane, or sevoflurane, using fresh or partially dehydrated Amsorb, Baralyme, and new and old formulations 

of sodalime. Anesthetic concentrations in the fresh (preabsorber), inspired (postabsorber), 

and end-tidal gas were measured, as were inspired CO and compound A concentrations 

and blood oxyhemoglobin and COHb concentrations. RESULTS: For desflurane and 

isoflurane, the order of inspired CO and COHb formation was dehydrated Baralyme >> 

soda-lime > Amsorb. For desflurane and Baralyme, peak CO was 9,700 +/- 5,100 parts per 

million (ppm), and the increase in COHb was 37 +/- 14%. CO and COHb increases were 

undetectable with Amsorb. Oxyhemoglobin desaturation occurred with desflurane and 

Baralyme but not Amsorb or sodalime. The gap between inspired and end-tidal desflurane 

and isoflurane did not differ between the various dehydrated absorbents. Neither fresh nor 

dehydrated Amsorb caused compound A formation from sevoflurane. In contrast, Baralyme 

and sodalime caused 20-40 ppm compound A. The gap between inspired and end-tidal sevoflurane did not differ between fresh absorbents, but was Amsorb < sodalime < Baralyme with 

dehydrated absorbents. CONCLUSION: Amsorb caused minimal if any CO formation, 

minimal compound A formation regardless of absorbent hydration, and the least amount of 

sevoflurane degradation. An absorbent like Amsorb, which does not contain strong base or 

cause anesthetic degradation and formation of toxic products, may have benefit with respect 

to patient safety, inhalation induction, and anesthetic consumption (cost).

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation metabolism, barium compounds pharmacology, 

calcium chloride pharmacology, calcium compounds pharmacology, calcium hydroxide 

pharmacology, carbon monoxide metabolism, ethers metabolism, hydrocarbons, fluorinated 

metabolism, oxides pharmacology, potassium compounds pharmacology, sodium hydroxide 

pharmacology, absorption, carboxyhemoglobin analysis, isoflurane analogs and derivatives, 

isoflurane metabolism, methyl ethers metabolism, swine.

Notes: Comment In: Anesthesiology. 2002 Oct;97(4):1038; author reply 1038 .

Kimme, P., T. Ledin, and F. Sjoberg (2007). Dose effect of sevoflurane and isoflurane anesthetics 

on cortical blood flow during controlled hypotension in the pig. Acta Anaesthesiologica 

Scandinavica 51(5): 607-13. ISSN: 0001-5172.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The ability of the brain to preserve adequate cerebral blood 

flow (CBF) during alterations in systemic perfusion pressure is of fundamental importance. 

At increasing concentrations, isoflurane and sevoflurane have been known to alter CBF, 

which may be disadvantageous for patients with increased intracranial pressure. The aim was 

to examine the effects of isoflurane and sevoflurane at increasing minimum alveolar concentrations (MAC) on CBF, during controlled hypotension. METHODS: We studied eight pigs 

during variations in perfusion pressure induced by caval block (100, 60, 50, and 40 mmHg) 

under normocapnia. CBF was measured locally in a defined area (4 x 5 measurement points 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •71

covering 1 cm(2)) of the motor cortex using laser Doppler perfusion imaging. Physiological variables, assessed by analysis of arterial O(2) and CO(2), hemoglobin and hematocrit, 

were controlled. CBF was measured during propofol (10 mg x kg(-1)x h(-1)) and fentanyl 

(0.002 mg x kg(-1)x h(-1)) anesthesia, and then during anesthesia with either isoflurane or 

sevoflurane (given in random order) at increasing MAC (0.3-1.2). After a washout period, 

the measurements were repeated with the other gas. RESULTS: CBF was significantly higher 

in the cortex during normotensive (control) settings, MAP approximately 100 mmHg, compared with during hypotension (MAP 40-60 mmHg). Neither different anesthetic nor MAC 

or local measurement sites were found to influence CBF at any perfusion pressure. CONCLUSION: In this experimental model, the effect of hypotension on CBF was not altered 

by the anesthetics used [isoflurane, sevoflurane (MAC 0.3-1.2) or propofol (10 mg x kg(-1)

x h(-1))]. In this aspect (cortical tissue perspective), these volatile agents appear as suitable as 

propofol for neurosurgical anesthesia for patients at risk.

Descriptors: anesthesia, general, anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, cerebrovascular 

circulation drug effects, isoflurane pharmacology, methyl ethers pharmacology, analysis of 

variance, brain radionuclide imaging, dose response relationship, drug, hypotension, controlled methods, intracranial pressure drug effects, laser doppler flowmetry instrumentation, 

swine.

Klc, N. and W. Erhardt (2004). Infusion of pentobarbital and fentanyl combination for longterm anaesthesia in pigs. Turk Veterinerlik Ve Hayvanclk Dergisi 28(3): 603-607. ISSN: 

1300-0128.

NAL Call Number: SF1 .D57

Descriptors: anesthesia, anesthetics, blood gases, blood pressure, body temperature, drug 

combinations, fentanyl, haemoglobin, heart rate, pentobarbital, pharmacodynamics.

Klein, C. and P. Reinhold (2001). Analysis of respiratory mechanics by impulse oscillometry in 

non-sedated and diazepam-sedated swine. Research in Veterinary Science 70(3): 181-189. 

ISSN: 0034-5288 .

NAL Call Number: 41.8 R312

Abstract: Analysis of respiratory mechanics using impulse oscillometry is applicable to 

sedated, or non-sedated (trained) pigs when they are fixed in a sling. In this study, the influence of the following sources of variability on measurement results was examined: (i) sedation 

with diazepam; (ii) body weight of animals (ranging in age: 40 to 102 days); and (iii) time of 

the measurement (circadian influences). The following parameters were examined: respiratory 

rate (RR), tidal volume (V(t)), spectral resistance, reactance and coherence, each at 5, 10, 15 

and 20 Hz (R5,...R20, X5,...X20, CO5...CO20, respectively), distal respiratory resistance 

(R(dist)), and proximal airway resistance (R(prox)). After sedation (using 1.5 mg diazepam 

per kg body weight), RR and V(t) decreased significantly. There was a significant improvement of CO5, CO10 and CO15. Increase in body weight was strongly correlated to V(t), 

furthermore to spectral resistance parameters. Impulse oscillometry system (IOS) parameters 

showed only slight non-significant alterations in dependency on the time of day. In consequence, different sources of variability must be taken into account when performing IOS 

measurements in swine.

Descriptors: swine, diagnostic techniques, measurement, diazepam, anesthesia, body 

weight, circadian rhythm, variation, respiration.
72• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Kleinsasser, A., K.H. Lindner, C. Hoermann, A. Schaefer, C. Keller, and A. Loeckinger (2001). 

Isoflurane and sevoflurane anesthesia in pigs with a preexistent gas exchange defect.

Anesthesiology 95(6): 1422-6. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Decreased arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2) during 

volatile anesthesia is well-known. Halothane has been examined with the multiple inert gas 

elimination technique and has been shown to alter the distribution of pulmonary blood flow 

and thus PaO2. The effects of isoflurane and sevoflurane on pulmonary gas exchange remain 

unknown. The authors hypothesized that sevoflurane with a relatively high minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) would result in significantly more gas exchange disturbances in 

comparison with isoflurane or control. METHODS: This study was performed in a porcine 

model with an air pneumoperitoneum that generates a reproducible gas exchange defect. 

After a baseline measurement of pulmonary gas exchange (multiple inert gas elimination 

technique) during propofol anesthesia, 21 pigs were randomly assigned to three groups of 

seven animals each. One group received isoflurane anesthesia, one group received sevoflurane 

anesthesia, and one group was continued on propofol anesthesia (control). After 30 min of 

volatile anesthesia at 1 MAC or propofol anesthesia, a second measurement (multiple inert 

gas elimination technique) was performed. RESULTS: At the second measurement, inert gas 

shunt was 15 +/- 3% (mean +/- SD) during sevoflurane anesthesia versus 9 +/- 1% during 

propofol anesthesia (P = 0.02). Blood flow to normal ventilation/perfusion (V(A)/Q) lung 

areas was 83 +/- 5% during sevoflurane anesthesia versus 89 +/- 1% during propofol anesthesia (P = 0.04). This resulted in a PaO2 of 88 +/- 11 mmHg during sevoflurane anesthesia 

versus 102 +/- 15 mmHg during propofol anesthesia (P = 0.04). Inert gas and blood gas 

variables during isoflurane anesthesia did not differ significantly from those obtained during 

propofol anesthesia. CONCLUSIONS: In pigs with an already existent gas exchange defect, 

sevoflurane anesthesia but not isoflurane anesthesia causes significantly more gas exchange 

disturbances than propofol anesthesia does.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, isoflurane pharmacology, methyl ethers 

pharmacology, pneumoperitoneum physiopathology, pulmonary gas exchange drug effects, 

acid base equilibrium drug effects, anesthesia, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, blood 

gas analysis, noble gases diagnostic use, propofol pharmacology, swine.

Klockgether Radke, A.P., S. Huneck, S. Meyberg, P. Neumann, and G. Hellige (2005). Ketamine 

enantiomers differentially relax isolated coronary artery rings. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 22(3): 215-21. ISSN: 0265-0215.

Abstract: BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: It has been shown that racemic ketamine 

increases coronary blood flow and that this effect is at least in part due to a direct vasorelaxing effect of this substance. This study was designed to determine whether ketamine might 

stereoselectively relax isolated porcine coronary arteries. METHODS: Using the model of 

isolated vessels we studied the effects of S(+) ketamine, R(-) ketamine, and racemic ketamine 

(5-500 microg mL(-1)) on artery strips pre-contracted by either potassium chloride (KCl) 

or prostaglandin F2alpha (PGF2alpha). To elucidate possible mechanisms of action these 

experiments were repeated in the presence of one of the following compounds: N(omega)-

nitro-L-arginine (L-NNA), indomethacin, glibenclamide, and tetraethylammonium (TEA) 

chloride, an inhibitor of the BK(Ca) K+ channel. RESULTS: Both isoforms and racemic 

ketamine relaxed isolated coronary arteries in a concentration-dependent manner in concentrations beyond those used in clinical practice. S(+) ketamine exerted the strongest 

vasorelaxing effect, followed by racemic ketamine and R(-) ketamine. Pretreatment with 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •73

L-NNA, indomethacin, or glibenclamide did not alter the vasodilating properties of ketamine, whereas TEA chloride significantly attenuated the vasorelaxing effects of all the three 

forms of ketamine. CONCLUSIONS: Ketamine dilates coronary arteries in vitro when 

administered in high concentrations. There is a stereoselective difference with a stronger vasorelaxing effect of S(+) ketamine compared to racemic and R(-) ketamine. The impact of TEA 

chloride suggests that the activation of the BK(Ca) channel may contribute to the vasodilating effect of ketamine.

Descriptors: anesthetics, dissociative pharmacology, coronary vessels drug effects, ketamine 

pharmacology, vasodilator agents pharmacology, anesthetics, dissociative administration and 

dosage, anti arrhythmia agents pharmacology, cardiovascular agents pharmacology, dinoprost pharmacology, dose response relationship, drug, enzyme inhibitors pharmacology, 

glyburide pharmacology, indomethacin pharmacology, ketamine administration and dosage, 

nitroarginine pharmacology, potassium channel blockers pharmacology, potassium chloride 

pharmacology, stereoisomerism, swine, tetraethylammonium pharmacology, vasoconstrictor 

agents pharmacology, vasodilator agents administration and dosage.

Klockgether Radke, A.P., H. Schulze, P. Neumann, and G. Hellige (2004). Activation of the K+ 

channel BK(Ca) is involved in the relaxing effect of propofol on coronary arteries. European Journal of Anaesthesiology 21(3): 226-30. ISSN: 0265-0215.

Abstract: BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Propofol may cause undesirable hypotension due to vasodilation. The underlying mechanisms are not completely understood. We 

investigated the mechanisms by which propofol relaxes vascular segments. METHODS: 

We studied the effect of propofol on isolated porcine coronary artery rings precontracted 

with potassium chloride or prostaglandin F2alpha. RESULTS: Propofol, in a concentrationdependent manner, relaxed all segments at concentrations of 5 microg mL(-1) and above. 

This relaxation was unaltered in the presence of N(omega)-nitro-L-arginine, indomethacin, 

diltiazem and glibenclamide. Tetraethylammonium chloride, an inhibitor of the BK(Ca) 

K+ channel (a high conductance Ca2+-sensitive K+ channel), dose-dependently attenuated 

the vasodilating effect of propofol (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggests that 

the activation of the BK(Ca) channel may contribute to the vasodilating effect of propofol, 

hereby causing hyperpolarization of the smooth muscle membrane and reduction of smooth 

muscle tone.

Descriptors: anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, coronary vessels drug effects , potassium channels drug effects, propofol pharmacology, vasodilator agents pharmacology, 

anesthetics, intravenous administration and dosage, anesthetics, intravenous antagonists and 

inhibitors, calcium channel blockers pharmacology, cyclooxygenase inhibitors pharmacology, 

diltiazem pharmacology, dinoprost pharmacology, dose response relationship, drug, enzyme 

inhibitors pharmacology, glyburide pharmacology, indomethacin pharmacology, muscle, 

smooth, vascular drug effects, nitroarginine pharmacology, potassium channel blockers pharmacology, potassium chloride pharmacology, propofol administration and dosage, propofol 

antagonists and inhibitors, swine, tetraethylammonium pharmacology, vasoconstrictor agents 

pharmacology, vasodilator agents administration and dosage, vasodilator agents antagonists 

and inhibitors.

Kmiec, M. (2005). Castration of piglets without or with general anesthesia (Azaperone-Ketamine): practicability, animal welfare, economy [Die Kastration von Saugferkeln ohne 

und mit Allgemeinanasthesie (Azaperon-Ketamin): Praktikabilitat, Wohlbefinden und 
74• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Wirtschaftlichkeit.]. Dissertation, Freie Univ.: Berlin, Germany. 121 p.

Online: http://library.vetmed.fu-berlin.de/diss-abstracts/18.html

Descriptors: anesthesia , anesthetics, animal welfare, azaperone, castration, ketamine, pain, 

piglets, surgery, pigs.

Language of Text: German, Summary in English.

Kobr, J., V. Kuntscher, V. Treska, J. Molacek, V. Vobruba, and J. Fremuth (2010). Ventilation and 

haemodynamic indicators in spontaneously breathing pigs under general anaesthesia. 

Acta Veterinaria Brno 79(1): 61-65. ISSN: 0001-7213.

DOI: 10.2754/avb201079010061

NAL Call Number: SF604.B7

Descriptors: anesthesia, anesthetics, blood gases, cardiac output, fentanyl, azaperone, hemodynamics, pharmacodynamics, piglets, respiration rate, Czech Black Pied piglets.

Language of Text: Czech.

Konwar, B. and B. Saikia (2006). Ketamine and its combination with diazepam for balanced 

anaesthesia in swine. Indian Veterinary Journal 83(5): 507-508. ISSN: 0019-6479.

NAL Call Number: SF604.I45

Descriptors: pharmacology, ketamine, diazepam, methods and techniques, anesthesia, clinical techniques, drug combination, heart rate, temperature range .

Krismer, A.C., Q.H. Hogan, V. Wenzel, K.H. Lindner, U. Achleitner, S. Oroszy, B. Rainer, A. 

Wihaidi, V.D. Mayr, P. Spencker, and A. Amann (2001). The efficacy of epinephrine or 

vasopressin for resuscitation during epidural anesthesia. Anesthesia and Analgesia 93(3): 

734-42. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) during epidural anesthesia is considered 

difficult because of diminished coronary perfusion pressure. The efficacy of epinephrine and 

vasopressin in this setting is unknown. Therefore, we designed this study to assess the effects 

of epinephrine versus vasopressin on coronary perfusion pressure in a porcine model with 

and without epidural anesthesia and subsequent cardiac arrest. Thirty minutes before induction of cardiac arrest, 16 pigs received epidural anesthesia with bupivacaine while another 

12 pigs received only saline administration epidurally. After 1 min of untreated ventricular 

fibrillation, followed by 3 min of basic life-support CPR, Epidural Animals and Control 

Animals randomly received every 5 min either epinephrine (45, 45, and 200 microg/kg) or 

vasopressin (0.4, 0.4, and 0.8 U/kg). During basic life-support CPR, mean +/- SEM coronary perfusion pressure was significantly lower after epidural bupivacaine than after epidural 

saline (13 +/- 1 vs 24 +/- 2 mm Hg, P < 0.05). Ninety seconds after the first drug administration, epinephrine increased coronary perfusion pressure significantly less than vasopressin 

in control animals without epidural block (42 +/- 2 vs 57 +/- 5 mm Hg, P < 0.05), but 

comparably to vasopressin after epidural block (45 +/- 4 vs 48 +/- 6 mm Hg). Defibrillation 

was attempted after 18 min of CPR. After return of spontaneous circulation, bradycardia 

required treatment in animals receiving vasopressin, especially with epidural anesthesia. Systemic acidosis was increased in animals receiving epinephrine than vasopressin, regardless 

of presence or absence of epidural anesthesia. We conclude that vasopressin may be a more 

desirable vasopressor for resuscitation during epidural block because the response to a single 

dose is longer lasting, and acidosis after multiple doses is less severe compared with epinephrine.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •75

Descriptors: anesthesia, epidural, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, epinephrine pharmacology, vasoconstrictor agents pharmacology, vasopressins pharmacology, blood gas analysis, 

blood pressure drug effects, coronary circulation drug effects, electrocardiography drug 

effects, heart arrest, induced, hemodynamic processes drug effects, swine, ventricular fibrillation prevention and control.

Krismer, A.C., K.H. Lindner, V. Wenzel, V.D. Mayr, W.G. Voelckel, K.G. Lurie, and H.U. Strohmenger (2001). The effects of endogenous and exogenous vasopressin during experimental 

cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Anesthesia and Analgesia 92(6): 1499-1504. ISSN: 0003-

2999.

Descriptors: vasopressin, epinephrine, biochemistry and molecular biophysics, pharmacology, cardiovascular system: transport and circulation, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, open 

chest model, therapeutic method, blood pressure.

Kumar, A., H.J. Mann, and R.P. Remmel (2006). Pharmacokinetics of tiletamine and zolazepam 

(Telazol) in anesthetized pigs. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 29(6): 

587-9. ISSN: 0140-7783.

NAL Call Number: SF915.J63

Descriptors: anesthetics, dissociative pharmacokinetics, anti anxiety agents pharmacokinetics, swine metabolism, tiletamine pharmacokinetics, zolazepam pharmacokinetics, anesthesia, 

general veterinary, anesthetics, dissociative administration and dosage, anesthetics, dissociative blood, anti anxiety agents administration and dosage, anti anxiety agents blood, 

area under curve, drug therapy, combination, infusions, intravenous veterinary, injections, 

intramuscular veterinary, swine physiology, tiletamine administration and dosage, tiletamine 

blood, zolazepam administration and dosage, zolazepam blood.

Kumar, V., P.N. Sahay, and L.L. Dass (2005). Comparative evaluation of xylocaine, xylazine and 

bupivacaine for lumbosacral analgesia in pigs. Indian Veterinary Journal 82(10): 1062-

1065. ISSN: 0019-6479.

NAL Call Number: SF604.I45

Descriptors: pharmacology, veterinary medicine: medical sciences, anesthesiology : medical 

sciences, epidural anesthesia, clinical techniques.

Kurita, T., K. Morita, K. Fukuda, K. Takata, M. Uraoka, Y. Sanjo, and S. Sato (2006). Landiolol, 

an ultra-short-acting beta 1-adrenoceptor antagonist, does not alter the electroencephalographic effect of isoflurane in swine model. British Journal of Anaesthesia 96(5): 602-7. 

ISSN: 0007-0912.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: beta-Adrenergic blocking agents may interact with anaesthetics, and several studies suggest that beta-blockers attenuate electroencephalographic 

responses during general anaesthesia. We have investigated the influence of landiolol, an 

ultra-short-acting beta 1-adrenoceptor antagonist, on the electroencephalographic effect of 

isoflurane in pigs. METHODS: Ten swine were anaesthetized through inhalation of 2% 

isoflurane. The inhalational concentration was then decreased to 0.5% and maintained for 

25 min, before being returned to 2% and maintained for a further 25 min (control period). 

After control measurements, infusion of landiolol (at 0.125 mg kg(-1) min(-1) for 1 min, 

and then at 0.04 mg kg(-1) min(-1)) was started. After a 20 min stabilization period, the 

inhalational concentration was varied as in the control period (40 gamma landiolol). Finally, 

infusion of landiolol was increased from 0.04 to 0.2 mg kg(-1) min(-1), and after a 20 min 
76• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

stabilization period, the inhalational concentration was again varied as in the control period 

(200 gamma landiolol). End-tidal isoflurane concentrations and spectral edge frequencies 

were recorded throughout the study. Analysis of the pharmacodynamics was performed 

using a sigmoidal inhibitory maximal effect model for spectral edge frequency vs effect-site 

concentration. RESULTS: There were no significant differences in the effect of isoflurane 

among the conditions used. Landiolol did not shift the concentration-effect relationship [the 

effect-site concentration that produced 50% of the maximal effect was 1.35 (0.17)% under 

control conditions, 1.30 (0.12)% at 40 gamma landiolol, and 1.38 (0.30)% at 200 gamma 

landiolol]. CONCLUSION: Landiolol does not alter the electroencephalographic effect of 

isoflurane. 

Descriptors: adrenergic beta antagonists pharmacology, anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, electroencephalography drug effects, isoflurane pharmacology, morpholines 

pharmacology, urea analogs and derivatives, dose response relationship, drug, drug interactions, hemodynamic processes drug effects, models, animal, receptors, adrenergic, beta 1 

antagonists and inhibitors, swine, urea pharmacology.

Kurita, T., K. Morita, K. Fukuda, M. Uraoka, K. Takata, Y. Sanjo, and S. Sato (2005). Influence of 

hypovolemia on the electroencephalographic effect of isoflurane in a swine model. Anesthesiology 102(5): 948-53. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Hypovolemia alters the effect of several intravenous anesthetics by influencing pharmacokinetics and end-organ sensitivity. The authors investigated the 

influence of hypovolemia on the effect of an inhalation anesthetic, isoflurane, in a swine 

hemorrhage model. METHODS: Eleven swine were studied. After animal preparation with 

inhalation of 2% isoflurane anesthesia, the inhalation concentration was decreased to 0.5% 

and maintained at this level for 25 min before being returned to 2% (control). After 25 min, 

hypovolemia was induced by removing 14 ml/kg of the initial blood volume via an arterial 

catheter. After a 25-min stabilization period, the inhalation concentration was decreased to 

0.5%, maintained at this level for 25 min, and then returned to 2% (20% bleeding). After 

another 25 min, a further 7 ml/kg blood was collected, and the inhalation concentration 

was altered as before (30% bleeding). End-tidal isoflurane concentrations and an electroencephalogram were recorded throughout the study. Spectral edge frequency was used as a 

measure of the isoflurane effect, and pharmacodynamics were characterized using a sigmoidal 

inhibitory maximal effect model for the spectral edge frequency versus end-tidal concentration. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in the effect of isoflurane among the 

conditions used. Hypovolemia did not shift the concentration-effect relation (the effect site 

concentration that produced 50% of the maximal effect was 1.2 +/- 0.2% under control 

conditions, 1.2 +/- 0.2% with 20% bleeding, and 1.1 +/- 0.2% with 30% bleeding). CONCLUSIONS: Hypovolemia does not alter the electroencephalographic effect of isoflurane, in 

contrast to several intravenous anesthetics.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, electroencephalography drug effects, 

hypovolemia physiopathology, isoflurane pharmacology, anesthetics, inhalation pharmacokinetics, blood gas analysis, dose response relationship, drug, hematocrit, hemodynamic 

processes drug effects, hemorrhage physiopathology, isoflurane pharmacokinetics, lactic acid 

blood, swine.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •77

Kurita, T., K. Morita, K. Fukuda, M. Uraoka, K. Takata, Y. Sanjo, and S. Sato (2005). Influence of 

hemorrhagic shock and subsequent fluid resuscitation on the electroencephalographic 

effect of isoflurane in a swine model. Anesthesiology 103(6): 1189-94. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The authors have previously reported that hemorrhage does 

not alter the electroencephalographic effect of isoflurane under conditions of compensated 

hemorrhagic shock. Here, they have investigated the influence of decompensated hemorrhagic shock and subsequent fluid resuscitation on the electroencephalographic effect of 

isoflurane. METHODS: Twelve swine were anesthetized through inhalation of 2% isoflurane. The inhalational concentration was then decreased to 0.5% and maintained for 25 

min, before being returned to 2% and maintained for 25 min (control period). Hemorrhagic 

shock was then induced by removing 28 ml/kg blood over 30 min. After a 30-min stabilization period, the inhalational concentration was varied as in the control period. Finally, fluid 

infusion was performed over 30 min using a volume of hydroxyethyl starch equivalent to the 

blood withdrawn. After a 30-min stabilization period, the inhalational concentration was 

again varied as in the control period. End-tidal isoflurane concentrations and spectral edge 

frequency were recorded throughout the study. The pharmacodynamics were characterized 

using a sigmoidal inhibitory maximal effect model for spectral edge frequency versus effect 

site concentration. RESULTS: Decompensated hemorrhagic shock slightly but significantly 

shifted the concentration-effect relation to the left, demonstrating a 1.12-fold decrease in the 

effect site concentration required to achieve 50% of the maximal effect in the spectral edge 

frequency. Fluid resuscitation reversed the onset of isoflurane, which was delayed by hemorrhage, but did not reverse the increase in end-organ sensitivity. CONCLUSIONS: Although 

decompensated hemorrhagic shock altered the electroencephalographic effect of isoflurane 

regardless of fluid resuscitation, the change seemed to be minimal, in contrast to several 

intravenous anesthetics.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, electroencephalography drug effects, 

isoflurane pharmacology, resuscitation, shock, hemorrhagic physiopathology, anesthetics, 

inhalation pharmacokinetics, blood gas analysis, fluid therapy, hemodynamic processes drug 

effects, hetastarch therapeutic use, isoflurane pharmacokinetics, plasma substitutes therapeutic use, shock, hemorrhagic drug therapy, swine.

Kurita, T., K. Morita, T. Kazama, and S. Sato (2002). Influence of cardiac output on plasma propofol concentrations during constant infusion in swine. Anesthesiology 96(6): 1498-503. 

ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: As propofol is a high-clearance drug, plasma propofol concentrations can be influenced by cardiac output (CO), which can easily change in response to 

several factors. If propofol is metabolized in the lungs, the difference between pulmonary and 

arterial propofol concentrations might also be affected by CO. The objective of the current 

study was to assess how much plasma propofol concentrations are affected by CO and to 

determine how much the lungs take part in propofol elimination and in concentration 

changes affected by CO in anesthetized swine. METHODS: Thirteen swine were studied. 

Propofol was administered via a peripheral vein at a rate of 6 mg x kg(-1) x h(- 1), and blood 

samples were simultaneously collected from pulmonary and femoral arteries at 0, 2, 3.5, 5, 

7, 10, 20, and 30 min and at 20-min intervals up to 270 min. After 90 min of sampling 

(baseline 1), CO increased in response to a continuous infusion of dobutamine (20 microg 

x kg(-1) x min(- 1); high-CO state); the infusion was then stopped, and CO was allowed to 

return to baseline (baseline 2). Finally, CO decreased with the administration of proprano-
78• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

lol (2.0-4.0 mg administered intravenously; low-CO state). Each hemodynamic status was 

maintained for 1 h. RESULTS: As CO increased 36% from baseline 1, plasma propofol 

concentrations decreased by 18% from baseline 1, and as CO decreased 42% from baseline 1, plasma propofol concentrations increased by 70% from baseline 1. Plasma propofol 

concentrations can be expressed by the following equation: plasma propofol concentration 

(micrograms per milliliter) = 6.51/CO (l/min) + 1.11 (r = 0.78, P < 0.0001). No significant 

differences were observed between plasma propofol concentrations in pulmonary and femoral 

arteries in any state, and CO caused no apparent differences between pulmonary and arterial 

propofol concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: An inverse relation was observed between CO 

and propofol concentrations. The lungs appear to have a minor effect on plasma propofol 

concentrations during constant infusion in anesthetized swine.

Descriptors: anesthetics, intravenous blood, cardiac output, propofol blood, femoral artery 

metabolism, infusions, intravenous, propofol administration and dosage, pulmonary artery 

metabolism, swine.

Kurita, T., K. Morita, T. Kazama, and S. Sato (2003). Comparison of isoflurane and propofol-fentanyl anaesthesia in a swine model of asphyxia. British Journal of Anaesthesia 91(6): 871-7. 

ISSN: 0007-0912.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: There have been few studies comparing the response to 

asphyxia and the effectiveness of typical cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) using exogenous epinephrine administration and manual closed-chest compression between total 

intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA) and inhalational anaesthesia. METHODS: Twenty pigs 

were randomly assigned to two study groups anaesthetized using either 2% end-tidal isoflurane (n=10) or propofol (12 mg x kg(-1) h(-1))-fentanyl (50 microg x kg(-1)) (n=10). 

Asphyxia was induced by clamping the tracheal tube until the mean arterial pressure (MAP) 

decreased to 40% of the baseline value (40% MAP time). The tracheal tube was declamped 

at that point, and CPR was performed. Haemodynamic parameters and blood samples were 

obtained before the induction of asphyxia, at 1-min intervals during asphyxia, and 1, 2, 3, 5, 

10, 30 and 60 min after asphyxia. RESULTS: TIVA maintained the MAP against hypoxiahypercapnia stress significantly longer than isoflurane anaesthesia (mean (SD) 40% MAP 

time 498 (95) and 378 (104) s respectively). In all animals in the isoflurane group, spontaneous circulation returned within 1 min of the start of CPR. In six of the TIVA animals, 

spontaneous circulation returned for 220 (121) s; spontaneous circulation did not return 

within 5 min in the remaining four animals. CONCLUSIONS: Although TIVA is less prone 

than isoflurane anaesthesia to primary cardiovascular depression leading to asphyxia, TIVA is 

associated with reduced effectiveness of CPR in which resuscitation because of asphyxic haemodynamic depression occurs.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, 

asphyxia physiopathology, isoflurane pharmacology, anesthetics, combined pharmacology, 

anesthetics, intravenous blood, asphyxia therapy, blood pressure drug effects, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, disease models, animal, epinephrine blood, epinephrine therapeutic use, 

fentanyl pharmacology, norepinephrine blood, propofol blood, propofol pharmacology, 

swine.

Kurita, T., K. Takata, M. Uraoka, K. Morita, and S. Sato (2007). Landiolol, an ultra short-acting 

beta1-adrenoceptor antagonist, does not alter the minimum alveolar anesthetic concentration of isoflurane in a swine model. Anesthesia and Analgesia 105(3): 656-60.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •79

Abstract: BACKGROUND: We previously reported that landiolol, an ultra-short-acting 

beta1-adrenoceptor antagonist, does not alter the electroencephalographic effect of isoflurane. Here, we investigated the influence of landiolol on the minimum alveolar anesthetic 

concentration (MAC) of isoflurane required to prevent movement in response to a noxious 

stimulus in 50% of subjects. METHODS: Ten swine (29.0 +/- 3.4 kg) were anesthetized by 

inhalation of isoflurane. MAC was determined using the dewclaw clamp technique, in which 

movement in response to clamping is recorded. After determination of MAC in the baseline 

period, an infusion of landiolol (0.125 mg x kg(-1) x min(-1) for 1 min, then 0.04 mg x 

kg(-1) x min(-1)) was started. After a 20-min stabilization period, MAC was again assessed 

(0.04 mg x kg(-1) x min(-1) landiolol). The infusion of landiolol was then increased from 

0.04 to 0.2 mg x kg(-1) x min(-1), and after a 20-min stabilization period, MAC was again 

assessed (0.2 mg x kg(-1) x min(-1) landiolol). Finally, the infusion of landiolol was stopped, 

and after a 20-min stabilization period, MAC was assessed for a fourth time (Baseline 2). 

RESULTS: Landiolol clearly attenuated the increases in heart rate and mean arterial blood 

pressure that occurred in response to the dewclaw clamp, but did not alter the MAC of isoflurane. CONCLUSIONS: Landiolol does not alter the antinociceptive effect of isoflurane. 

This result, combined with that from our previous work, also suggests that landiolol does not 

influence the anesthetic potency of inhaled anesthetics.

Descriptors: adrenergic beta antagonists pharmacology, anesthetics, inhalation metabolism, 

isoflurane metabolism, morpholines pharmacology, pulmonary alveoli drug effects, receptors, 

adrenergic, beta 1 antagonists and inhibitors, urea analogs and derivatives, administration, 

inhalation, anesthetics, inhalation administration and dosage, blood pressure drug effects, 

cardiac output drug effects, consciousness drug effects, dose response relationship, drug, 

heart rate drug effects, isoflurane administration and dosage, models, animal, pain measurement, pain threshold drug effects, pulmonary alveoli metabolism, receptors, adrenergic, beta 

1 metabolism, swine, urea pharmacology.

Kurth, C.D., M. Priestley, H.M. Watzman, J. McCann, and J. Golden (2001). Desflurane confers 

neurologic protection for deep hypothermic circulatory arrest in newborn pigs. Anesthesiology 95(4): 959-64. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and deep hypothermic circulatory arrest (DHCA), as used for infant heart surgery, carry a risk of ischemic neurologic 

injury. Volatile anesthetics have neuroprotective properties against both global and focal ischemia at normothermia. The authors examined the hemodynamic and neuroprotective effects 

of desflurane in a piglet CPB-DHCA model. METHODS: Twenty piglets aged 5-10 days 

received a desflurane- (6-9% expired) or fentanyl-based anesthetic before and during CPB 

(before and after DHCA). DHCA lasted 90 min at 19 degrees C brain. Cardiovascular variables (heart rate, arterial pressure, blood gases, glucose, brain temperature) were monitored. 

On postoperative day 2, neurologic and histologic outcomes were determined. RESULTS: 

Cardiovascular variables before, during, and after CPB were physiologically similar between 

groups. The desflurane group had better neurologic performance (P = 0.023) and greater 

postoperative weight gain (P = 0.04) than the fentanyl group. In neocortex, the desflurane 

group had less tissue damage (P = 0.0015) and fewer dead neurons (P = 0.0015) than the 

fentanyl group. Hippocampal tissue damage was less in the desflurane group (P = 0.05), but 

overall, neuronal cell counts in the CA1 sector of the right hippocampus were similar to 

those in the fentanyl group. CONCLUSIONS: Desflurane-based anesthesia yields hemodynamics during CPB with DHCA that are similar to those with fentanyl-based anesthesia. 
80• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

However, desflurane-based anesthesia improves neurologic and histologic outcomes of CPBDHCA in comparison with outcomes with fentanyl-based anesthesia.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, heart arrest prevention and control, 

hypothermia complications, isoflurane pharmacology, neuroprotective agents, animals, 

newborn, behavior, animal drug effects, brain pathology, cardiopulmonary bypass, heart 

arrest etiology, hemodynamic processes drug effects, isoflurane analogs and derivatives, swine, 

time factors.

Lahrmann, K.H. (2005). Castration of piglets without or with general anaesthesia (azaperoneketamine): practicability, animal welfare, economy [Castracion de lechones con 

anestesia general: factibilidad, bienestar animal y economia. SUIS(18): 22-29.

Descriptors: anesthesia, azaperone-ketamine protocol., animal welfare, castration, European 

Union, pigs.

Language of Text: Spanish, Summary in English.

Lahrmann, K.H. (2006). Clinical and experimental studies on general anesthesia with ketamine/azaperone in the pig [Klinisch-experimentelle Untersuchungen zur Ketamin/

Azaperon-Allgemeinanasthesie bei Schweinen.}. Praktische Tierarzt 87(9): 713-725. ISSN: 

0032-681X.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 P882

Descriptors: adverse effects, anesthesia, anesthetics, analgesia, azaperone, diagnosis, dosage 

effects, drug therapy, hypothermia, ketamine, piglets, potency, surgery.

Language of Text: German, Summary in English.

Lahrmann, K.H., M. Kmiec, and R. Stecher (2006). Piglet castration with ketamine/azaperone-anaesthesia: concurring with animal welfare, practical, but economic? [Die 

Saugferkelkastration mit der Ketamin/Azaperon-Allgemein-anasthesie: tierschutzkonform, praktikabel, aberwirtschaftlich?]. Praktische Tierarzt 87(10): 802-809. ISSN: 

0032-681X.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 P882

Descriptors: anesthesia, anesthetics, animal health, animal welfare, azaperone, castration, 

economic analysis, growth, hypothermia, ketamine, pain, piglets, surgery, survival.

Language of Text: German, Summary in English.

Lang, S.A., B. Tsui, and T. Grau (2003). New avenues of epidural research. Anesthesia and Analgesia

97(1): 292-3. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Descriptors: anesthesia, epidural adverse effects, epidural space physiology, anesthesia, 

epidural methods, electric stimulation, epidural space ultrasonography, spinal nerve roots 

physiology, swine.

Notes: Comment On: Anesth Analg. 2003 Jan;96(1):3-6.

Larsen, J.R., S.R. Aagaard, J.M. Hasenkam, and E. Sloth (2007). Pre-occlusion ischaemia, not 

sevoflurane, successfully preconditions the myocardium against further damage in 

porcine in vivo hearts. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 51(4): 402-9. ISSN: 0001-5172.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Sevoflurane is proposed to possess important tissue protective effects based on experimental ischaemia-reperfusion studies from models with collateral 

coronary flow, unlike that of the normal human or the porcine heart. The objective was to 

evaluate the infarct-reducing capability of pre-ischaemic sevoflurane inhalation on myocar-
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •81

dial infarct size in a porcine model. METHODS AND MATERIALS: The study comprised 

33 pigs under pentobarbital anaesthesia. Animals were divided into three groups: control 

(CON), sevoflurane intervention (SEVO) and ischaemic preconditioning (IP). The distal 

left anterior descending coronary artery was occluded for 40 min with a percutaneous coronary intervention catheter. Before occlusion, group IP underwent two 5-min ischaemia 

cycles, whereas SEVO received two 5-min sevoflurane 4%v/v inhalation cycles. Animals 

were reperfused for 150 min. We then measured risk area (AAR) and infarct size (IS) after 

tetrazolium staining. The [IS/AAR-ratio] was calculated. Haemodynamics and transthoracic 

tissue-Doppler echocardiography were monitored. RESULTS: Control animals developed a 

myocardial infarction in 46.4 (+/- 6.2)% (mean +/- SEM) of the AAR. Both SEVO and IP 

groups had infarction mitigated, to 34.4 (5.7)% and 23.1 (5.3)%, respectively; however, only 

in the IP group was this significant. No significant differences between groups with respect 

to AAR, haemodynamics or echocardiographic variables were found. CONCLUSION: Preischaemic sevoflurane was found to reduce the extent of myocardial necrosis, but the change 

was not significant, whereas IP reduced IS by 50% (P= 0.038). Cardioprotection is species 

related and no previous results from porcine models have found sevoflurane to reduce IS. 

Anaesthetic washout, insufficient exposure or collateral coronary blood supply, dissimilar to 

human, may account for positive results in rodent models.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, ischemic preconditioning methods, 

methyl ethers pharmacology, myocardial infarction prevention and control, blood pressure 

drug effects, cardiotonic agents administration and dosage, coronary circulation drug effects, 

disease models, animal, heart rate drug effects, necrosis prevention and control, severity of 

illness index, swine, time factors, treatment outcome.

Lee, H.T., M. Kim, M. Jan, and C.W. Emala (2006). Anti-inflammatory and antinecrotic effects 

of the volatile anesthetic sevoflurane in kidney proximal tubule cells. American Journal of 

Physiology. Renal Physiology 291(1): F67-78. ISSN: 0363-6127.

Abstract: Renal ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury is a major clinical problem without effective therapy. We recently reported that volatile anesthetics protect against renal IR injury, 

in part, via their anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, we demonstrate the antiinflammatory and antinecrotic effects of sevoflurane in cultured kidney proximal tubule 

cells and probed the mechanisms of sevoflurane-induced renal cellular protection. To mimic 

inflammation, human kidney proximal tubule (HK-2) cells were treated with tumor necrosis 

factor-alpha (TNF-alpha; 25 ng/ml) in the presence or absence of sevoflurane. In addition, 

we studied the effects of sevoflurane pretreatment on hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced 

necrotic cell death in HK-2 or porcine proximal tubule (LLC-PK1) cells. We demonstrate 

that sevoflurane suppressed proinflammatory effects of TNF-alpha evidenced by attenuated upregulation of proinflammatory cytokine mRNA (TNF-alpha, MCP-1) and ICAM-1 

protein and reduced nuclear translocation of the proinflammatory transcription factors NFkappaB and AP-1. Sevoflurane reduced necrotic cell death induced with H2O2 in HK-2 cells 

as well as in LLC-PK1 cells. Sevoflurane treatment resulted in phosphorylation of prosurvival 

kinases, ERK and Akt, and increased de novo HSP-70 protein synthesis without affecting the 

synthesis of HSP-27 or HSP-32. We conclude that sevoflurane has direct anti-inflammatory 

and antinecrotic effects in vitro in a renal cell type particularly sensitive to injury following 

IR injury. These mechanisms may, in part, account for volatile anesthetics’ protective effects 

against renal IR injury.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, inflammation physiopathology, kidney 
82• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

cortex necrosis physiopathology, kidney tubules, proximal drug effects, methyl ethers pharmacology, cell line, cell survival drug effects, cell survival physiology, enzyme activation drug 

effects, enzyme activation physiology, epithelial cells chemistry, epithelial cells drug effects, 

epithelial cells physiology, extracellular signal regulated map kinases metabolism, gene expression regulation drug effects, gene expression regulation physiology, hsp70 heat shock proteins 

metabolism, hydrogen peroxide pharmacology, intercellular adhesion molecule 1 analysis, 

intercellular adhesion molecule 1 genetics, intercellular adhesion molecule 1 physiology, 

kidney tubules, proximal chemistry, kidney tubules, proximal physiopathology, nf kappa 

b metabolism, protein serine threonine kinases metabolism, proto oncogene proteins c akt 

metabolism, rna, messenger analysis, signal transduction drug effects, signal transduction 

physiology, swine, transcription factor ap 1 metabolism, tumor necrosis factor alpha pharmacology, tumor necrosis factor alpha physiology.

Lee, P.J., N. Ahmad, R. Langer, S. Mitragotri, and V. Prasad Shastri (2006). Evaluation of chemical 

enhancers in the transdermal delivery of lidocaine. International Journal of Pharmaceutics

308(1-2): 33-9. ISSN: 0378-5173.

NAL Call Number: RS122.A1I5 

Abstract: The effect of various classes of chemical enhancers was investigated for the 

transdermal delivery of the anesthetic lidocaine across pig and human skin in vitro. The 

lipid disrupting agents (LDA) oleic acid, oleyl alcohol, butenediol, and decanoic acid by 

themselves or in combination with isopropyl myristate (IPM) showed no significant flux 

enhancement. However, the binary system of IPM/n-methyl pyrrolidone (IPM/NMP) 

improved drug transport. At 2% lidocaine dose, this synergistic enhancement peaked at 

25:75 (v/v) IPM:NMP with a steady state flux of 57.6 +/- 8.4 microg cm(-2) h(-1) through 

human skin. This observed flux corresponds to a four-fold enhancement over a 100% NMP 

solution and over 25-fold increase over 100% IPM at the same drug concentration (p < 

0.001). NMP was also found to co-transport through human skin with lidocaine free base 

and improve enhancement due to LDA. These findings allow a more rational approach for 

designing oil-based formulations for the transdermal delivery of lidocaine free base and 

similar drugs.

Descriptors: anesthetics, local administration and dosage, drug delivery systems, lidocaine 

administration and dosage, pharmaceutic aids pharmacology, skin absorption drug effects, 

administration, cutaneous, anesthetics, local chemistry , anesthetics, local metabolism, drug 

combinations, hydrophobicity, lidocaine chemistry, lidocaine metabolism, myristates administration and dosage, myristates pharmacology, pharmaceutic aids administration and dosage, 

pyrrolidinones administration and dosage, pyrrolidinones pharmacology, solubility, swine.

Lee, Y.S., J. Wan, B.J. Kim, M.A. Bae, and B.J. Song (2006). Ubiquitin-dependent degradation 

of p53 protein despite phosphorylation at its N terminus by acetaminophen. Journal of 

Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, The 317(1): 202-8. ISSN: 0022-3565.

NAL Call Number: 396.8 J82 

Abstract: We previously reported that acetaminophen (APAP, 4-hydroxyacetanilide) caused 

apoptosis of C6 glioma cells. Therefore, we hypothesized that the level of p53, which usually 

stimulates apoptosis, might be increased after APAP exposure. However, APAP exposure for 

24 h markedly decreased the p53 content and its downstream target p21 in a concentrationdependent manner. Reduction of p53 was not accompanied by a decrease in p53 mRNA in 

C6 glioma cells, suggesting that p53 was mainly affected at the protein level. Unexpectedly, 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •83

APAP stimulated phosphorylation of p53 at Ser15, Ser20, and Ser37, which usually elevates 

p53 content. However, phosphorylation of these residues did not prevent APAP-induced 

decrease in p53. The p53 reduction was independent from the level of phospho-Akt, which 

is known to promote p53 degradation. Immunoblot analysis of the immunoprecipitated p53 

revealed that increased amounts of murine double minute 2 (mdm2) and ubiquitin were 

bound to p53 during its degradation. Lactacystin and N-benzoyloxycarbonyl (Z)-Leu-Leuleucinal (MG132), inhibitors of proteasomal proteolysis, prevented the decrease, supporting 

the proteasomal degradation of p53 upon APAP exposure. Pretreatment with chlormethiazole, an inhibitor of ethanol-inducible CYP2E1, significantly lowered the CYP2E1 enzyme 

activity and the rate of APAP-induced cell death while it prevented the reduction of p53 and 

p21 in C6 glioma cells. A nontoxic analog of APAP, 3-hydroxyacetanilde, did not reduce 

p53 and p21 contents in C6 glioma cells and LLC-PK1 porcine kidney cells. Taken together, 

our results show that APAP or its reactive metabolite(s) can directly reduce the p53 content 

through mdm2-mediated ubiquitin conjugation, despite phosphorylation of p53 at its N 

terminus.

Descriptors: acetaminophen pharmacology, analgesics, non narcotic pharmacology, tumor 

suppressor protein p53 metabolism, ubiquitin physiology, cell death drug effects, cell line, 

tumor, cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor p21 metabolism, cytochrome p 450 cyp2e1 metabolism, down regulation, llc pk1 cells, phosphorylation, rats, swine.

Lefrant, J.Y., J.E. de La Coussaye, J. Ripart, L. Muller, L. Lalourcey, P.A. Peray, X. Mazoit, A. Sassine, 

and J.J. Eledjam (2001). The comparative electrophysiologic and hemodynamic effects of 

a large dose of ropivacaine and bupivacaine in anesthetized and ventilated piglets. Anesthesia and Analgesia 93(6): 1598-605, Table of Contents. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: Ropivacaine is less potent and less toxic than bupivacaine. We administered these 

two local anesthetics in a cardiac electrophysiologic model of sodium thiopental-anesthetized 

and ventilated piglets. After assessing the stability of the model, bupivacaine (4 mg/kg) and 

ropivacaine (6 mg/kg) were given IV in two groups (n = 7) of piglets. No alteration in biological variables was reported throughout the study. Bupivacaine and ropivacaine similarly 

decreased mean aortic pressure from 99 +/- 22 to 49 +/- 31 mm Hg and from 87 +/- 17 to 

58 +/- 28 mm Hg, respectively, and decreased the peak of the first derivative of left ventricular pressure from 1979 +/- 95 to 689 +/- 482 mm Hg/s and from 1963 +/- 92 to 744 +/- 403 

mm Hg/s, respectively. Left ventricular end-diastolic pressure was similarly increased from 

6 +/- 5 to 9 +/- 5 mm Hg and from 6 +/- 4 to 12 +/- 4 mm Hg, respectively. Bupivacaine 

and ropivacaine similarly lengthened the cardiac cycle length (R-R; from 479 +/- 139 to 706 

+/- 228 ms and from 451 +/- 87 to 666 +/- 194 ms, respectively), atria His (from 71 +/- 15 

to 113 +/- 53 ms and from 64 +/- 6 to 86 +/- 10 ms, respectively), and QTc (QTc = QT x 

R-R(-0.5), Bazett formula; from 380 +/- 71 to 502 +/- 86 ms and from 361 +/- 33 to 440 

+/- 56 ms, respectively) intervals. Bupivacaine altered to a greater extent the PQ (the onset 

of the P wave to the Q wave of the QRS complex) (from 97 +/- 20 to 211 +/- 60 ms versus 

from 91 +/- 8 to 145 +/- 38 ms, P < 0.05), QRS (from 58 +/- 3 to 149 +/- 34 ms versus from 

60 +/- 5 to 101 +/- 17 ms, P < 0.05), and His ventricle interval (from 25 +/- 4 to 105 +/- 30 

ms vs from 25 +/- 4 to 60 +/- 30 ms, P < 0.05) than ropivacaine. A 6 mg/kg ropivacaine dose 

induced similar hemodynamic alterations as 4 mg/kg bupivacaine. However, bupivacaine 

altered the variables of ventricular conduction (QRS and His ventricle) to a greater extent. 

IMPLICATIONS: A 6 mg/kg ropivacaine dose induced similar hemodynamic alterations as 

4 mg/kg bupivacaine. However, bupivacaine altered the variables of ventricular conduction 
84• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

(QRS and His ventricle) to a greater extent.

Descriptors: amides administration and dosage, anesthesia, anesthetics, local administration and dosage, bupivacaine administration and dosage, electrocardiography drug effects, 

hemodynamic processes drug effects, respiration, artificial, amides toxicity, anesthetics, local 

toxicity, bupivacaine toxicity, heart drug effects, heart conduction system drug effects, injections, intravenous, myocardial contraction drug effects, swine, ventricular pressure drug 

effects.

Lefrant, J.Y., L. Muller, J.E. de La Coussaye, L. Lalourcey, J. Ripart, P.A. Peray, X. Mazoit, M. 

Dauzat, A. Sassine, and J.J. Eledjam (2003). Hemodynamic and cardiac electrophysiologic effects of lidocaine-bupivacaine mixture in anesthetized and ventilated piglets.

Anesthesiology 98(1): 96-103. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The sensory blockade induced by a lidocaine-bupivacaine 

mixture combines the faster onset of lidocaine and the longer duration of bupivacaine. The 

current study compared the effects of large doses lidocaine (16 mg/kg), bupivacaine (4 mg/

kg), and a mixture of 16 mg/kg lidocaine-4 mg/kg bupivacaine on hemodynamic and cardiac 

electrophysiologic parameters in anesthetized and ventilated piglets. METHODS: After 

carotid artery cannulation, a double micromanometer measured mean aortic pressure, left 

ventricular end diastolic pressure, and the first derivative of left ventricular pressure. Electrocardiogram recording and a bipolar electrode catheter measured RR, PQ, QRS, QT C, JT 

C, AH, and HV intervals. Lidocaine, bupivacaine, or the mixture was administered intravenously over 30 s, and studied parameters were measured throughout 30 min. RESULTS: 

Mean aortic pressure decreased in all groups ( P < 0.05). The first derivative of left ventricular 

pressure was decreased in all groups ( P < 0.001) but to a greater extent with the mixture 

compared with lidocaine ( P < 0.04). RR, QT C, and JT C intervals were similarly increased 

in all groups ( P < 0.05). In all groups, PQ, AH, HV, and QRS intervals were widened ( P 

< 0.001). The lengthening of PQ was greater with bupivacaine ( P < 0.02). The lengthening 

of AH was greater and delayed with bupivacaine compared with lidocaine ( P < 0.03). The 

lengthening of HV and the widening of QRS were greater and delayed with bupivacaine ( P 

< 0.01). The widening of QRS was greater with the mixture than with lidocaine ( P < 0.01). 

CONCLUSIONS: The alterations of ventricular conduction parameters are greater with 4 

mg/kg bupivacaine than with a mixture of 16 mg/kg lidocaine-4 mg/kg bupivacaine, whereas 

the hemodynamic parameters are similarly altered.

Descriptors: anesthetics, local pharmacology, bupivacaine pharmacology, heart drug effects, 

hemodynamic processes drug effects, lidocaine pharmacology, anesthesia, body weight physiology, bupivacaine administration and dosage, drug combinations, electrocardiography drug 

effects, electrophysiology, heart rate drug effects, infusions, intravenous, lidocaine administration and dosage, respiration, artificial, swine.

Lichtor, J.L. (2005). Depth of anesthesia monitors and shock. Anesthesiology 102(5): 1068; Author 

Reply 1069-70. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Descriptors: anesthesia, anesthetics, intravenous adverse effects, electroencephalography 

drug effects, propofol adverse effects, shock, hemorrhagic physiopathology, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacokinetics, monitoring, intraoperative, propofol pharmacokinetics, shock, 

hemorrhagic metabolism, swine.

Notes: Comment On: Anesthesiology. 2004 Sep;101(3):567-8.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •85

Lim, K.H., A.P. Halestrap, G.D. Angelini, and M.S. Suleiman (2005). Propofol is cardioprotective 

in a clinically relevant model of normothermic blood cardioplegic arrest and cardiopulmonary bypass. Experimental Biology and Medicine Maywood, N.J 230(6): 413-20. ISSN: 

1535-3702.

NAL Call Number: QP1 .S8 

Abstract: The general anesthetic propofol has been shown to be cardioprotective. However, 

its benefits when used in cardioplegia during cardiac surgery have not been demonstrated. 

In this study, we investigated the effects of propofol on metabolic stress, cardiac function, 

and injury in a clinically relevant model of normothermic cardioplegic arrest and cardiopulmonary bypass. Twenty anesthetized pigs, randomized to propofol treatment (n = 8) and 

control (n = 12) groups, were surgically prepared for cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and cardioplegic arrest. Doses of warm blood cardioplegia were delivered at 15-min intervals during 

a 60-min aortic cross-clamped period. Propofol was continuously infused for the duration 

of CPB and was therefore present in blood cardioplegia. Myocardial biopsies were collected 

before, at the end of cardioplegic arrest, and 20 mins after the release of the aortic crossclamp. Hemodynamic parameters were monitored and blood samples collected for cardiac 

troponin I measurements. Propofol infusion during CPB and before ischemia did not alter 

cardiac function or myocardial metabolism. Propofol treatment attenuated the changes in 

myocardial tissue levels of adenine nucleotides, lactate, and amino acids during ischemia and 

reduced cardiac troponin I release on reperfusion. Propofol treatment reduced measurable 

hemodynamic dysfunction after cardioplegic arrest when compared to untreated controls. 

In conclusion, propofol protects the heart from ischemia-reperfusion injury in a clinically 

relevant experimental model. Propofol may therefore be a useful adjunct to cardioplegic solutions as well as being an appropriate anesthetic for cardiac surgery.

Descriptors: anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, cardiopulmonary bypass methods, 

cardiotonic agents pharmacology, heart drug effects, heart arrest, induced methods, propofol 

pharmacology, body temperature, cardioplegic solutions administration and dosage, cardiotonic agents administration and dosage, heart physiopathology, infusions, intravenous, 

models, animal, myocardial ischemia prevention and control, propofol administration and 

dosage, reperfusion injury prevention and control, swine, temperature, time factors.

Linkenhoker, J.R., T.H. Burkholder, C.G.G. Linton, A. Walden, K.A. Abusakran Monday, A.P. 

Rosero, and C.J. Foltz (2010). Effective and safe anesthesia for Yorkshire and Yucatan 

swine with and without cardiovascular injury and intervention. Journal of the American 

Association for Laboratory Animal Science 49(3): 344-351. ISSN: 1559-6109.

Online: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/ppmc/articles/PMC2877308/

NAL Call Number: SF405.3 .A23

Abstract: The goal of this study was to identify an injectable anesthetic protocol that provides sedation sufficient for peripheral vascular catheterization, intubation, and transport 

while minimizing cardiovascular changes in Yorkshire and Yucatan pigs with and without 

cardiovascular injury and intervention (CI). Phase 1 examined the safety and efficacy of 

acepromazine-ketamine, diazepam -ketamine, midazolam-ketamine, and medetomidineketamine in 5 healthy Yorkshire pigs. For each drug combination, we obtained multiple 

measurements of heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, temperature, sedation score, 

ability to catheterize and intubate, and recovery score. Phase 2 evaluated and refined the dose 

of the most effective Phase 1 anesthetic combination (midazolam-ketamine) in healthy and 

CI Yorkshire pigs (n=53 trials). Phase 3 mirrored Phase 2 but tested midazolam-ketamine in 
86• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

healthy and CI Yucatan pigs (n=34 trials). Midazolam (0.5 mg/kg)-ketamine (25 to 27 mg/

kg) was the most effective anesthetic combination in healthy Yorkshire pigs, but this dose 

was less effective in healthy Yucatan pigs and CI Yorkshire and Yucatan pigs. Midazolam 

-ketamine resulted in tachycardia and apnea more frequently in CI pigs than healthy pigs. 

This combination also caused vomiting in one CI Yucatan pig. Overall, midazolam-ketamine 

provided safe and effective sedation for catheterization and intubation of both healthy and 

CI pigs. This study suggests Yucatan pigs may require a higher dose midazolam-ketamine to 

achieve the same level of sedation as that in Yorkshire pigs. Although anesthetic complication 

rates were higher in CI pigs, our results indicate that midazolam-ketamine can be safely used 

for sedation of both pig breeds with and without CI.

Descriptors: acepromazine, adverse effects, anesthesia, anesthetics, catheterization, 

diazepam, drug combinations, injectable anesthetics, ketamine, laboratory animals, medetomidine, potency, safety, surgery, surgical operations, pigs.

Liu, D., Y. Shao, X. Luan, M. Zhang, C. Shui, and Q. Wu (2009). Comparison of ketamine-pentobarbital anesthesia and fentanyl-pentobarbital anesthesia for open-heart surgery in 

minipigs. Lab Animal 38(7): 234-240. ISSN: 0093-7355.

DOI: 10.1038/laban0709-234

NAL Call Number: QL55.A1L33

Descriptors: laboratory animals, miniature swine, surgery, anesthesia, ketamine, pentobarbital, fentanyl, anesthetics, pharmacokinetics, dosage, intravenous injection, adverse effects, 

heart rate, blood pressure, mortality, postoperative care, drug therapy, cardiovascular agents, 

animal models, open-heart-surgery, arterial-bypass, Internet-resource.

Loeckinger, A., A. Kleinsasser, C. Keller, A. Schaefer, C. Kolbitsch, K.H. Lindner, and A. Benzer 

(2002). Administration of oxygen before tracheal extubation worsens gas exchange after 

general anesthesia in a pig model. Anesthesia and Analgesia 95(6): 1772-6, Table of Contents. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: Administration of 100% oxygen before tracheal extubation is common clinical practice. We determined the effect of this technique on postoperative gas exchange in a 

porcine model using the multiple inert gas elimination technique. After general anesthesia 

with mechanical ventilation for a period of 30 min (inspiratory fraction of oxygen of 0.3), 

anesthesia was discontinued, and the pigs were randomized to an inspiratory fraction of 

oxygen of 0.3 or 1.0 until they could be safely extubated. Thirty minutes after extubation 

while breathing air, blood flow to poorly ventilated units had significantly increased in pigs 

that had been administered 100% oxygen as compared with those receiving 30% oxygen 

(17% +/- 15% versus 7% +/- 5%; P = 0.009). We conclude that exposure to 100% oxygen 

before extubation may cause an undesirable alteration in gas exchange. IMPLICATIONS: 

Blood flow to lung units with a low V(A)/Q ratio was significantly larger in pigs that had 

been exposed to 100% oxygen before extubation as compared with those exposed to 30% 

oxygen before extubation.

Descriptors: anesthesia, general, intubation, intratracheal, oxygen toxicity, pulmonary gas 

exchange, models, animal, swine, ventilation perfusion ratio.

Notes: Comment In: Anesth Analg. 2002 Dec;95(6):1472-3.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •87

Loepke, A.W., M.A. Priestley, S.E. Schultz, J. McCann, J. Golden, and C.D. Kurth (2002 ). Desflurane improves neurologic outcome after low-flow cardiopulmonary bypass in newborn 

pigs. Anesthesiology 97(6): 1521-7. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Despite improvements in neonatal heart surgery, neurologic 

complications continue to occur from low-flow cardiopulmonary bypass (LF-CPB) and 

deep hypothermic circulatory arrest (DHCA). Desflurane confers neuroprotection against 

ischemia at normothermia and for DHCA. This study compared neurologic outcome of a 

desflurane-based with a fentanyl-based anesthetic for LF-CPB. METHODS: Thirty piglets 

aged 1 week received either fentanyl-droperidol (F/D), desflurane 4.5% (Des4.5), or desflurane 9% (Des9) during surgical preparation and CPB. Arterial blood gases, glucose, heart 

rate, arterial pressure, brain temperature, and cerebral blood flow (laser Doppler flowmetry) 

were recorded. After CPB cooling (22 degrees C brain) using pH-stat strategy, LF-CPB was 

performed for 150 min followed by CPB rewarming, separation from CPB, and extubation. On postoperative day 2, functional and histologic outcomes were assessed. RESULTS: 

Cardiovascular variables were physiologically similar between groups before, during, and 

after LF-CPB. Cerebral blood flow during LF-CPB (13% of pre-CPB value) did not differ 

significantly between the groups. Functional disability was worse in F/D than in Des9 (P = 

0.04) but not Des4.5 (P = 0.1). In neocortex, histopathologic damage was greater in F/D 

than in Des4.5 (P = 0.03) and Des9 (P = 0.009). In hippocampus, damage was worse in F/D 

than in Des9 (P = 0.01) but not Des4.5 (P = 0.08). The incidences of ventricular fibrillation 

during LF-CPB were 90, 60, and 10% for F/D, Des4.5 (P = 0.06), and Des9 (P = 0.0002), 

respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Desflurane improved neurologic outcome following LF-CPB 

compared with F/D in piglets, indicated by less functional disability and less histologic 

damage, especially with Des9. Desflurane may have produced cardiac protection, suggested 

by a lower incidence of ventricular fibrillation.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation therapeutic use, cardiopulmonary bypass, hemodynamic processes drug effects, isoflurane analogs and derivatives, isoflurane therapeutic use, 

neuroprotective agents therapeutic use, postoperative complications prevention and control, 

ventricular fibrillation prevention and control, anesthetics, inhalation administration and 

dosage, animals, newborn, disease models, animal, dose response relationship, drug, isoflurane administration and dosage, neuroprotective agents administration and dosage, swine, 

ventricular fibrillation etiology.

Lowe, J.F. (2004). Biopsy of tonsils ante-mortem without anaesthesia [Biopsia de amigdalas antemortem sin anestesia.]. SUIS(5): 32-34.

Descriptors: biopsy, diagnosis, techniques, nonanesthetic method, tonsils, pigs.

Language of Text: Spanish.

Lykkegaard, K., B. Lauritzen, L. Tessem, P. Weikop, and O. Svendsen (2005). Local anaesthetics 

attenuates spinal nociception and HPA-axis activation during experimental laparotomy 

in pigs. Research in Veterinary Science 79(3): 245-51. ISSN: 0034-5288.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 R312

Abstract: The effect of local anaesthetics on spinal nociception and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA-axis) was examined in a porcine model of abdominal 

surgery. A standardised laparotomy without visceral involvement was performed on 24 pigs. 

One group received a unilateral infiltration of mixed lidocaine and bupivacaine in skin, 

muscle and peritoneum of the surgical area prior to surgery (n=12), while local anaesthetics 
88• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

were replaced by isotonic saline in a second group (n=12). A sham group was subjected to 

anaesthesia (n=8), but did not undergo surgery. Two hours after surgery, half of the pigs from 

each group were perfused with formalin and the spinal cord was taken out for stereological quantification of the total number of Fos-like-immunoreactive (Fos-LI) neurones in the 

dorsal horn. Surgery with saline gave rise to a significant increase in the number of Fos-LI 

neurones ipsilaterally (107,001+/-16,548; p<0.001) as well as contralaterally (12,766+/-

3,842; p<0.01) compared to the sham group. In animals undergoing surgery with LA, the 

number of Fos-LI neurones ipsilaterally was not significantly different from the sham group 

(p=0.78), and was reduced significantly both ipsilaterally (6960+/-1662; p<0.001) and contralaterally (3974+/-1131; p<0.05) compared to the saline group. In the other half of each 

group, blood samples, for determination of ACTH, cortisol, C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 concentrations, were drawn prior to and at predetermined time-points during and after 

surgery. Surgery with saline gave rise to dramatic increases in plasma ACTH and cortisol 

(p<0.01 and p<0.001, respectively) within 15 min of incision. In contrast, no changes from 

the initial concentrations of ACTH and cortisol were observed in pigs receiving local anaesthetics. No changes in plasma concentrations of C-reactive protein or interleukin-6 were 

observed in either of the groups. These results indicate that spinal nociception and HPA-axis 

activation caused by laparotomy in pigs can be attenuated by use of infiltration and incisional 

local anaesthetics prior to surgery. The present model provides a valuable tool in the evaluation of analgesic treatment during surgery, offering objective measures of both nociception 

and stress.

Descriptors: anesthesia, local veterinary, anesthetics, local therapeutic use, hypothalamo 

hypophyseal system drug effects, laparotomy veterinary, pain drug therapy, pain physiopathology, pituitary adrenal system drug effects, adrenocorticotropic hormone blood, 

bupivacaine therapeutic use, c reactive protein metabolism, disease models, animal, hydrocortisone blood, interleukin 6 blood, lidocaine therapeutic use, pain veterinary, swine 

physiology, swine diseases drug therapy, swine diseases physiopathology.

Makiranta, M.J., J.P. Jauhiainen, J.T. Oikarinen , K. Suominen, O. Tervonen, S. Alahuhta, and V. 

Jantti (2002). Functional magnetic resonance imaging of swine brain during change in 

thiopental anesthesia into EEG burst-suppression level--a preliminary study. Magma 

New York, N.Y. 15(1-3): 27-35. ISSN: 0968-5243.

NAL Call Number: RC78.7.N83

Abstract: Deepening anesthesia produces well known changes in electroencephalogram 

(EEG) and evoked potentials, differing in pathological and normal brain. Yet, it is not known 

how the T2*-weighted signal changes in the healthy brain during deepening anesthesia. We 

studied the effect of thiopental bolus on functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in 

the healthy brain using porcine model. In five pigs (2-3 months, 20-25 kg), the control bolus 

prior to fMRI resulted in a change into burst-suppression. After the recovery of continuous EEG, fMRI (4 min) was performed with a single bolus of thiopental (11.4-17.1 mg/kg) 

administered 1 min after the onset of imaging. This was repeated in four of five pigs. Positive 

(6-8%) or negative (-3 to -8%) signal intensity changes correlated to the thiopental bolus 

injection were seen in the group average fMRI response. Positive response was 1.6% and 

negative response 2.3% of the total brain region of interest (ROI) voxels. Responding voxels 

were distributed more prominently in the thalamic ROI (4.5%) than in the cortical ROI 

(2.2%). The group average of unthresholded voxel time courses showed that the net effect 

of thiopental bolus was a small (0.5%) but a clear positive change in the thalamic region, 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •89

while variance changed in the global level. In conclusion, this study is the first to show that 

significant signal intensity changes occur in fMRI response during the sudden deepening of 

thiopental anesthesia. However, these responses are neither anatomically constant nor global 

in the healthy swine brain. Copyright 2002 Elsevier Science B.V.

Descriptors: anesthesia, intravenous, brain drug effects, electroencephalography drug 

effects, magnetic resonance imaging methods, thiopental administration and dosage, anesthesia recovery period, blood pressure drug effects, brain physiology, brain mapping methods, 

cerebral cortex drug effects, cerebral cortex physiology, electroencephalography methods, feasibility studies, infusions, intravenous, reference values, reproducibility of results, sensitivity 

and specificity, statistics, swine, thalamus drug effects, thalamus physiology.

Malavasi, L.M., H. Augustsson, M. Jensen Waern, and G. Nyman (2005). The effect of transdermal delivery of fentanyl on activity in growing pigs. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 46(3): 

149-57. ISSN: 0044-605X.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 AC87

Abstract: Recently, decreased activity levels have been observed in pigs treated postoperatively with transdermal delivery of fentanyl (TD-fentanyl) after isoflurane anaesthesia. 

Whether the change in behaviour is related to opioid-induced sedation or to insufficient 

pain relief remains to be investigated. This study was therefore undertaken to evaluate the 

effect of TD-fentanyl 50 microg h(-1) on the activity level with and without isoflurane 

anaesthesia. Eight pigs (25.4 +/- 5.2 kg) were submitted to a cross-over study and given two 

treatments; 1) fentanyl patch applied after 30 minutes of anaesthesia (treatment A/F) and 2) 

fentanyl patch without anaesthesia (treatment F). The pigs’ behaviour was observed from a 

video recording instantaneously every 10 minutes for 24 h before treatments and up to 72 h 

after the patch attachment. Venous blood samples were taken 1, 6, 12, 24, 48 and 72 h after 

the patch application. The behaviour recordings showed that TD-fentanyl did not produce 

sedation in any pig. No differences were found between the two treatments in activity level, 

weight gain or serum fentanyl concentration. This concentration measured after 24 h was 

0.27 +/- 0.11 ng ml(-1) and 0.47 +/- 0.40 ng ml(-1) in the A/F and F group, respectively. 

In conclusion, transdermal delivery of 50 microg h(-1) fentanyl did not cause inactivity in 

growing pigs. However, the large variations in serum fentanyl concentration indicate that 

drug absorption from transdermal patches is unpredictable and sometimes deficient.

Descriptors: analgesics, opioid administration and dosage, behavior, animal drug effects, 

fentanyl administration and dosage, swine growth and development, administration, cutaneous, analgesics, opioid blood, analgesics, opioid metabolism, anesthetics, inhalation 

pharmacology, chromatography, gas veterinary, cross over studies, fentanyl blood, fentanyl 

metabolism, isoflurane pharmacology, longitudinal studies, video recording.

Malavasi, L.M., M. Jensen Waern, M. Jacobson, A. Ryden, P. eOhagen, and G. Nyman (2006). 

Effects of extradural morphine on end-tidal isoflurane concentration and physiological 

variables in pigs undergoing abdominal surgery: a clinical study. Veterinary Anaesthesia 

and Analgesia 33(5): 307-312. ISSN: 1467-2987.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-2995.2005.00260.x

NAL Call Number: SF914 .V47

Abstract: To evaluate the effects of preoperative extradural morphine on the end-tidal 

isoflurane (F [smallcapital e]’ISO) concentration and on physiological variables in pigs 

undergoing abdominal surgery. Prospective, randomized, blinded study. Fourteen healthy 
90• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

pigs (20 * left-pointing-double-angle * 4 kg) undergoing intestinal cannulation. Anaesthesia was induced with a combination of medetomidine (50 (So(Bg kg superscript -1(B) 

and tiletamine-zolazepam (2.5 mg kg superscript -1(B) injected intramuscularly, and was 

maintained with isoflurane in air and oxygen (F [smallcapital i]O subscript 2(B = 50% O 

subscript 2(B). In the first group, morphine (0.1 mg kg superscript -1(B) was administered 

extradurally before surgery. The second group received an equivalent volume of extradural 

saline as control. During the experiment, heart and respiratory rates, mean arterial blood 

pressure, tidal volume and minute ventilation were recorded every 10 minutes. The concentration of F [smallcapital e]’ISO was adjusted, according to the depth of anaesthesia, by an 

experienced animal nurse. Within treatment groups, time-related changes in F [smallcapital 

e]’ISO and physiological variables were analysed using a repeated measurement [smallcapital 

anova]. Differences in data between treatment groups were analysed at specific time points 

using a Mann-Whitney U-test. Results are presented as mean * left-pointing-double-angle * 

SD; p < 0.05 was considered as significant. After the onset of action of the morphine, the F 

[smallcapital e]’ISO required to maintain anaesthesia was significantly lower in the extradural 

morphine group compared with control. During the expected maximal effect of the drug, 

F [smallcapital e]’ISO was significantly lower in the morphine group (0.6 * left-pointingdouble-angle * 0.2%) than in the control group (0.9 * left-pointing-double-angle * 0.2%). 

The decrease in F [smallcapital e]’ISO indicated that the onset of action of morphine was 

approximately 30 minutes after injection. No significant differences in other clinical variables 

were found between the groups. Pigs that received extradural morphine before abdominal 

surgery achieved surgical anaesthetic depth at a lower F [smallcapital e]’ISO concentration. 

Extradural morphine allows abdominal surgery to be performed at a lower F [smallcapital 

e]’ISO concentrations.

Descriptors: analgesia, swine, cardiovascular and respiratory effects, end tidal isoflurane, 

extradural morphine.

Malavasi, L., G. Nyman, H. Augustsson, M. Jacobson, and M. Jensen Waern (2006). Effects of epidural morphine and transdermal fentanyl analgesia on physiology and behaviour after 

abdominal surgery in pigs. Laboratory Animals 40(1): 16-27. ISSN: 0023-6772.

NAL Call Number: QL55.A1L3

Abstract: The objective of this work was to evaluate the physiological and behavioural effects 

of opioid analgesic treatment in pigs subjected to abdominal surgery. Ten Swedish Landrace 

x Yorkshire pigs (20 * left-pointing-double-angle * 4 kg b.w.) were submitted for intestinal 

cannulation. The pigs were allocated into two groups during one preoperative, one surgical and two postoperative days. All pigs were anaesthetized with medetomidine, tiletamine 

and zolazepam. One group was treated with epidural morphine (0.1 mg/kg) preoperatively, 

and transdermal fentanyl patches (50 [mu]g/kg/h) were applied behind the ear immediately 

after surgery. The other group received epidural saline (equivalent volume) and placebo 

patches. All pigs were regularly weighed and clinically examined and repeated blood samples 

were analysed for serum concentrations of cortisol, [beta]-endorphin and fentanyl. Pre- and 

postoperative behaviours were evaluated by a swine specialist blinded to the treatment, three 

times a day, and were also videotape recorded for a total of 84 h per pig. No differences in 

behaviour were noted by the observer. During the first postoperative 12 h, treated pigs did 

not differ in activity compared with preoperative recordings, while untreated pigs were found 

to be less active. The treated group started to show interest in eating immediately after anaesthesia recovery, whereas the placebo group did not. During the 12-60 h postoperative period, 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •91

the treated group had lower activity levels compared with the preoperative levels, which were 

similar to those in the placebo group. Treated pigs gained 0.5 * left-pointing-double-angle * 

0.2 kg during the subsequent two postoperative days, whereas the untreated pigs lost weight 

throughout the experiment. Cortisol concentration differed immediately after the surgery: 

Group P had 325 * left-pointing-double-angle * 120 nmol/L and Group M 159 * leftpointing-double-angle * 49 nmol/L. [beta]-endorphin concentration did not differ between 

groups. The highest serum fentanyl concentration (0.37 * left-pointing-double-angle * 0.3 

ng/mL) was measured 24 h postoperatively. Preoperative epidural morphine in combination 

with postoperative transdermal fentanyl resulted in earlier return to normal activity levels and 

an immediate weight gain after surgery.

Descriptors: swine, laboratory animals, pain, postoperative care, analgesia, feeding behavior, 

physical activity, liveweight gain, cortisol, endorphins, animal use refinement.

Maneuf, Y.P., Z.D. Luo, and K. Lee (2006). alpha2delta and the mechanism of action of gabapentin in the treatment of pain. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology 17(5): 565-70. 

ISSN: 1084-9521.

NAL Call Number: QH573

Abstract: Gabapentin is a drug that has been widely used in the treatment of chronic 

pain states. Despite its widespread usage, it is only recently that light has been shed on the 

mechanism of action of this agent. In the current review, the authors document the pharmacological, biochemical and molecular information that has led to the identification of the 

alpha2delta1 auxilliary subunit of voltage gated calcium channels as the target for this drug’s 

actions.

Descriptors: amines pharmacology, analgesics pharmacology, calcium channels metabolism, cyclohexanecarboxylic acids pharmacology, gaba modulators pharmacology, pain drug 

therapy, gamma aminobutyric acid pharmacology, brain metabolism, brain radiography, 

calcium channels genetics, mice, pain physiopathology, rats, swine.

Markstrom, A., A. Hedlund, U. Sjostrand, A. Nordgren, and M. Lichtwarck Aschoff (2001). Effects 

of sustained pressure application on compliance and blood gases in healthy porcine 

lungs. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 45(10): 1235-40. ISSN: 0001-5172.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Short periods of sustained increase in airway pressures 

(Press(up)) are believed to re-open lung areas that collapsed upon induction of anaesthesia. 

Recruitment of alveolar surface is usually assessed in terms of changes in the pressure-volume 

(PV) curve. The purpose of this study was to analyse PV-curves before and after a Press(up) 

and to ascertain whether such changes are compatible with the concept of recruitment of 

lung volume. METHODS: During ketamine anaesthesia, 12 healthy piglets were subjected 

to a Press(up) with end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) of 12 cmH2O and end-inspiratory 

pressure of 40 cmH2O. Before and after Press(up), PV-curves were obtained from a slow 

insufflation of 630 ml at zero PEEP (ZEEP). RESULTS: Compliance was non-linear both 

before and after Press(up) increasing up to 300 ml and sharply decreasing thereafter. After 

Press(up), the entire compliance curve was shifted to a higher absolute level. Up to 100 

ml and a pressure level corresponding to the lower inflection point on the PV-curve (LIP), 

compliance was higher before Press(up). No effects on blood gases could be observed. CONCLUSION: If the similar shape of the compliance curve corresponds to a similar chain of 

re-opening and overdistension events, this would imply that all volume gained by Press(up) is 

lost within 10 min, without explaining the higher absolute compliance following Press(up). 
92• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

We speculate that a) re-opening of rapidly collapsing small airways determines the initial 

compliance increase; b) the lower compliance after Press(up) until LIP indicates reduced 

intratidal re-opening of lung regions; and c) changes in bronchomotor tone induced by 

Press(up) raise the absolute compliance, with a similar scenario of alveolar and small airway 

recruitment now taking place but at different degrees of airway stiffness.

Descriptors: anesthesia, lung physiology, positive pressure respiration, pulmonary gas 

exchange, airway resistance, anesthetics, dissociative, hemodynamic processes, lung compliance, pressure, prone position, respiratory mechanics, swine, tidal volume.

Martin Cancho, M.F., M.S. Carrasco Jimenez, J.R. Lima, L.J. Ezquerra, V. Crisostomo, and J. Uson 

Gargallo (2004). Assessment of the relationship of bispectral index values, hemodynamic 

changes, and recovery times associated with sevoflurane or propofol anesthesia in pigs.

American Journal of Veterinary Research 65(4): 409-16. ISSN: 0002-9645.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 Am3A 

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To evaluate bispectral index (BIS) values in pigs during anesthesia maintained with sevoflurane-fentanyl or propofol-fentanyl as a predictor of changes in 

hemodynamic parameters and duration of recovery from anesthesia. ANIMALS: 12 pigs. 

PROCEDURE: Pigs were randomly allocated to undergo 1 of 2 anesthetic regimens. Anesthesia was induced with propofol (2 mg/kg, i.v.); 6 pigs were administered sevoflurane via 

inhalation (1 minimum alveolar concentration [MAC] at a fresh gas flow rate of 3 L/min; 

group I), and 6 were administered propofol (11 mg/kg/h, i.v.; group II). All pigs received fentanyl (2.5 mg/kg, i.v., q 30 min). After abdominal surgery, pigs were allowed to recover from 

anesthesia. Cardiovascular variables and BIS values were recorded at intervals throughout the 

procedure; duration of recovery from anesthesia was noted. RESULTS: No correlation was 

established between arterial blood pressure and BIS and between heart rate and BIS. Mean 

BIS at discontinuation of administration of the anesthetic agent was greater in group-II pigs 

(65.2 +/- 10.6 minutes) than in group-I pigs (55.8 +/- 2.9 minutes). However, recovery from 

anesthesia was significantly longer in group II (59.80 +/- 2.52 minutes) than in group I (9.80 

+/- 2.35 minutes). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In swine anesthetized with sevoflurane or propofol and undergoing abdominal surgery, the BIS value derived 

from an electroencephalogram at the end of anesthesia was not useful for predicting the 

speed of recovery from anesthesia. Moreover, BIS was not useful as a predictor of clinically 

important changes in arterial blood pressure and heart rate in those anesthetized pigs.

Descriptors: anesthesia, intravenous veterinary, anesthetics, combined pharmacology, 

electroencephalography veterinary, fentanyl pharmacology, methyl ethers pharmacology, propofol pharmacology, sus scrofa surgery, analysis of variance, anesthesia recovery period, blood 

pressure drug effects, electroencephalography drug effects, heart rate drug effects.

Martin Cancho, M.F., M.S. Carrasco Jimenez, J.R. Lima, L. Luis, V. Crisostomo, and J. Uson Gargallo (2006). The measurement of neurovegetative activity during anesthesia and surgery 

in swine: an evaluation of different techniques. Anesthesia and Analgesia 102(5): 1333-40.

Abstract: In this study we evaluated, in 10 sevoflurane-anesthetized pigs undergoing abdominal surgery, different techniques for measuring autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity: 

ANSiscope index, spectral analysis of heart-rate variability, hemodynamic variables, and 

plasma catecholamines and cortisol levels. Animals underwent a 120-min anesthesia during 

which unilateral ovariectomy was performed. Cardiovascular and respiratory responses were 

monitored. ANSiscope indices (ANSindex sympathetic, ANSindex parasympathetic and 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •93

balANSindex) were used to monitor ANS activity. Spectral analysis was performed using an 

autoregressive model with a parametric method. The low frequency (LF) and high frequency 

(HF) components were used to interpret the power spectral density of short-term electrocardiograms (ECGs). The relationship LF/(LF+HF) reflects sympathetic activity, HF/(LF+HF) 

indicates parasympathetic activity, and the LF/HF ratio gives the predominance of the 

system. Plasma concentrations of adrenaline, noradrenaline, and cortisol were determined at 

different times. Correlation (P < 0.01) was found between the balANSindex and adrenaline 

levels and between LF/HF ratio and plasma adrenaline concentrations. Moreover, a significant (P < 0.01) correlation was found between the balANSindex and LF/HF ratio. However, 

no correlation was seen between the registered ANSiscope indices and hemodynamic variables. The correlation seen in this study suggests that the balANSindex could be a useful tool 

to monitor ANS activity during anesthesia and surgery.

Descriptors: anesthesia, general methods, hemodynamic processes physiology, ovariectomy, 

autonomic nervous system drug effects, autonomic nervous system physiology, blood pressure drug effects, blood pressure physiology, heart rate drug effects, heart rate physiology, 

hemodynamic processes drug effects, hydrocortisone blood, methyl ethers administration and 

dosage, swine.

Martin Cancho, M., J. Lima, L. Luis, V. Crisostomo, M. Lopez, L. Ezquerra, M. Carrasco Jimenez, 

and J. Uson Gargallo (2006). Bispectral index, spectral edge frequency 95% and median 

frequency recorded at varying desflurane concentrations in pigs. Research in Veterinary 

Science 81(3): 373-381. ISSN: 0034-5288.

DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2006.01.003

NAL Call Number: 41.8 R312

Abstract: The objective of this study is to evaluate the usefulness of bispectral index (BIS), 

spectral edge frequency 95% (SEF) and median frequency (MED) in relation to a simple 

descriptive scale (SDS) as indicators of anaesthetic depth at different desflurane concentrations in swine. Sixteen pigs were randomly allocated to four groups. Electroencephalograms 

(EEG) were recorded during desflurane anaesthesia, and BIS, SEF and MED were calculated 

from the EEG. The agent was administered in pure oxygen at 1, 1.25, 1.5 and 1.7 MAC in 

randomized order. Anaesthetic depth was evaluated on a SDS. BIS decreased significantly (P 

< 0.001) at the different anaesthetic dosages used. SEF decreased significantly (P < 0.001) 

from basal to 1 MAC of desflurane. MED decreased significantly (P < 0.001) from basal 

to 1 MAC and from 1 to 1.75 MAC. Good correlation was seen between SDS scores and 

BIS values and between SDS scores and MED values. BIS appeared to be useful to predict 

changes in anaesthetic depth at clinically used dosages of inhalant anaesthesia.

Descriptors: veterinary medicine, electroencephalography, prediction, anesthetics, animal 

models, desflurane.

Martoft, L., E. Jensen, B. Rodriguez, P. Jorgensen, A. Forslid, and H. Pedersen (2001). Middlelatency auditory evoked potentials during induction of thiopentone anaesthesia in pigs.

Laboratory Animals 35(4): 353-363. ISSN: 0023-6772.

NAL Call Number: QL55.A1L3

Abstract: A method is described for measuring middle-latency auditory evoked potentials 

(MLAEP) in consciously awake, non-sedated pigs during the induction of thiopentone 

anaesthesia (0.6 ml/kg, 2.5% thiopentone solution). It was done by using autoregressive 

modelling with an exogenous input (ARX). The ability to perceive pain during the induc-
94• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

tion was compared with (1) the changes in latencies and amplitudes of the MLAEP, (2) the 

change in a depth of anaesthesia index based on the ARX-model and (3) the change in the 

95% spectral edge frequency. The pre-induction MLAEP was easily recordable and looked 

much like the one in man, dogs and rats. The temporal resolution in the ARX method was 

sufficiently high to describe the fast changes occurring during induction of thiopentone 

anaesthesia. As previously reported from studies in man, dogs and rats, induction of thiopentone anaesthesia resulted in significantly increased latencies and decreased amplitudes of 

the MLAEP trace as well as in a significantly reduced depth of anaesthesia index and spectral 

edge frequency. None of the changes, however, related well to the ability to react to a painful 

stimulus. Whether an ARX-based depth of anaesthesia index designed especially for pigs 

might be better than the present index (designed for man) for assessing depth of anaesthesia 

must await the results of further studies.

Descriptors: swine, anesthesia, hearing, thiopental, heart rate, electroencephalography, 

depth of anesthesia, laboratory mammals.

Martoft, L., L. Lomholt, C. Kolthoff, B. Rodriguez, E. Jensen, P. Jorgensen, H. Pedersen, and A. 

Forslid (2002). Effects of CO2 anaesthesia on central nervous system activity in swine.

Laboratory Animals 36(2): 115-126. ISSN: 0023-6772.

NAL Call Number: QL55.A1L3

Abstract: The objective of the study was to examine the changes in central nervous system 

(CNS) activity and physical behaviour during induction and awakening from CO2 anaesthesia. Two studies, each using pigs immersed into 90% CO2 gas for a period of 60 s were 

performed. In study 1, we monitored middle latency auditory evoked potentials (changes 

in latencies, amplitudes and a depth of anaesthesia index), electroencephalographic parameters (delta, theta, alpha and beta electroencephalographic power and 95% spectral edge 

frequency) and heart rate; and in study 2, we monitored body movements and arterial and 

venous partial pressure of CO2 and O2. No behavioural signs of distress were observed 

during the early part of the induction. The swine exhibited muscular activity from 13-30 

s after induction-start as well as during awakening from anaesthesia, possibly because of 

a transitory weaker suppression of the brain stem than of the cortex. The CNS and blood 

gas parameters started to change from the very start of induction. The CNS suppression 

lasted only approximately one minute after the end of the induction period. The two studies 

indicated a good temporal relationship between changes in amplitude, depth of anaesthesia 

index, spectral edge frequency, and arterial P(CO2) during the induction period.

Descriptors: swine, anesthesia, carbon dioxide, consciousness, blood sampling, oxygen, 

heart rate, animal welfare, animal stress, depth of anesthesia, distress.

Martoft, L., H. Stodkilde Jorgensen, A. Forslid, H.D. Pedersen, and P.F. Jorgensen (2003). Co2 

induced acute respiratory acidosis and brain tissue intracellular ph: a 31p nmr study in 

swine. Laboratory Animals (London) 37(3): 241-248. ISSN: 0023-6772.

NAL Call Number: QL55.A1L3

Descriptors: High concentration carbon dioxide (CO2), pre-slaughter anesthesia, shortlasting surgical anesthesia, euthanasia, blood and lymphatics: transport and circulation, 

metabolism, methods and techniques, nervous system: neural coordination, carbon dioxide 

induced acute respiratory acidosis, metabolic disease, toxicity, carbon dioxide anesthesia, 

clinical techniques, laboratory techniques, phosphorus 31 nmr spectroscopy, laboratory 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •95

techniques, spectrum analysis techniques, animal welfare, arterial ph, carbon dioxide partial 

pressure, intracellular ph.

Marx, T. (2002). Is xenon uptake in animals higher than reported previously? British Journal of 

Anaesthesia 88(3): 452; Author Reply 453. ISSN: 0007-0912.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacokinetics, xenon pharmacokinetics, research 

methods, swine.

Notes: Comment On: Br J Anaesth. 2001 Sep;87(3):497-8.

Mauch, C. and G. Bilkei (2004). Castration of suckling piglets under general anaesthesia [Saugferkelkastration unter Anasthesie.]. Wiener Tierarztliche Monatsschrift 91(4): 93-98. ISSN: 

0043-535X.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 T345 

Descriptors: acepromazine, anesthesia, azaperone, castration, healing, ketamine, neuroleptics, piglets, pigs.

Language of Text: German, Summary in English.

Mayr, V.D., C. Raedler, V. Wenzel, K.H. Lindner, and H.U. Strohmenger (2004). A comparison of 

epinephrine and vasopressin in a porcine model of cardiac arrest after rapid intravenous 

injection of bupivacaine. Anesthesia and Analgesia 98(5): 1426-31, Table of Contents. ISSN: 

0003-2999.

Abstract: In a porcine model, we compared the efficacy of epinephrine, vasopressin, or the 

combination of epinephrine and vasopressin with that of saline placebo on the survival rate 

after bupivacaine-induced cardiac arrest. After the administration of 5 mg/kg of a 0.5% bupivacaine solution i.v., ventilation was interrupted for 3 +/- 1 min (mean +/- SD) until asystole 

occurred. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) was initiated after 1 min of cardiac arrest. 

After 2 min of CPR, 28 animals received, every 5 min, epinephrine; vasopressin; epinephrine 

combined with vasopressin; or placebo i.v.. Three minutes after each drug administration, up 

to 3 countershocks (3, 4, and 6 J/kg) were administered; all subsequent shocks were 6 J/kg. 

Blood was drawn throughout the experiment for the determination of plasma bupivacaine 

concentration. In the vasopressin/epinephrine combination group, all pigs survived (P < 

0.01 versus placebo); in the vasopressin group 5 of 7, in the epinephrine group 4 of 7, and in 

the placebo group none of 7 swine survived. The plasma concentration of total bupivacaine 

showed no significant difference among groups. In this model of bupivacaine-induced cardiac 

arrest, CPR with a combination of vasopressin and epinephrine resulted in significantly 

better survival rates than in the placebo group. IMPLICATIONS: Although cardiovascular 

collapse occurs mostly immediately after rapid injection of a local anesthetic in the presence 

of anesthesiologists, resuscitation may be difficult, and the outcome is usually poor. In this 

model of bupivacaine-induced cardiac arrest, cardiopulmonary resuscitation with a combination of vasopressin and epinephrine resulted in significantly better survival rates than in the 

placebo group.

Descriptors: anesthetics, local, bupivacaine, epinephrine therapeutic use, heart arrest chemically induced, heart arrest drug therapy, vasoconstrictor agents therapeutic use, vasopressins 

therapeutic use, cardiac output drug effects, drug combinations, epilepsy, tonic clonic 

chemically induced, epilepsy, tonic clonic physiopathology, heart arrest physiopathology, 

hemodynamic processes drug effects, injections, intravenous, survival, swine, vascular resis-
96• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

tance drug effects.

Notes: Comment In: Anesth Analg. 2004 Dec;99(6):1875-6; author reply 1876.

Melzer, W. and B. Dietze (2001). Malignant hyperthermia and excitation-contraction coupling. 

Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 171(3): 367-378. ISSN: 0001-6772.

NAL Call Number: QP1 .A2 

Descriptors: metabolism, muscular system: movement and support, excitation contraction 

coupling, malignant hyperthermia, genetically pre-disposed individualss, voltage clamp conditions.

Merritt Charles, L., D. Chen, C. Legall, N. Mootoo, S.H. Brann, L. Perrault, D. Williams, C.N. 

Thomas, and C. Ezeokoli (2003). Provision of anaesthesia for porcine cardiac transplantation at the veterinary school in Trinidad and Tobago. West Indian Medical Journal, The

52(2): 95-8. ISSN: 0043-3144.

Abstract: A successful heterotopic cardiac transplantation was performed between sibling 

female Yorkshire Juvenile swine. Adequate pre-medication with azaperone and a smooth 

induction were ensured for both pigs, which were anaesthetized simultaneously with sodium 

thiopentone followed by endotracheal intubation and intermittent positive pressure ventilation. Inhalation anaesthetic agents were used for maintenance, neuromuscular blockade was 

achieved with cisatracurium and both fentanyl and tramadol were used to provide analgesia. Invasive monitoring was used in both the donor and recipient. Central venous pressure 

(CVP) was maintained at > 10 cm H2O and mean arterial pressure (MAP) > 60 mmHg. 

Heparin was injected during the surgical dissection of the heart in the donor to prevent coronary thrombosis and prior to aortic side clamping for end-to-side anastomosis of the donor 

heart in the recipient abdomen. After transplantation, the cardiovascular parameters of the 

recipient showed a MAP of 85-105 mmHg and a CVP of 8-10 cm H2O while echocardiography of the transplanted heart confirmed an ejection fraction (EF) of 80%. A functional 

anaesthetic team was assembled and trained to provide anaesthesia for porcine cardiac transplantation. The transplanted heart suffered pump failure after 69 days and was excised for 

performance of tissue analysis.

Descriptors: anesthesia, general veterinary, heart transplantation methods, heart transplantation veterinary, swine surgery, transplantation, heterotopic veterinary, anesthesia, 

intravenous, anesthetics administration and dosage, graft rejection, graft survival, intubation, 

intratracheal veterinary, monitoring, intraoperative methods, monitoring, intraoperative 

veterinary, risk assessment, schools, veterinary, sensitivity and specificity, transplantation, heterotopic methods, trinidad and tobago.

Mets, B. and E.A. Walker ( 2006). Local anesthetic effect on liver function. Anesthesia and Analgesia

103(4): 1045-6.

Descriptors: anesthetics, local pharmacology, lidocaine pharmacology, liver drug effects, 

amides pharmacology, bupivacaine pharmacology, liver metabolism, models, animal, perfusion, rats, swine.

Notes: Comment On: Anesth Analg. 2006 Feb;102(2):473-7.

Mills, P.C. and S.E. Cross (2006). Transdermal drug delivery: basic principles for the veterinarian. 

Veterinary Journal 172(2): 218-233. ISSN: 1090-0233.

NAL Call Number: SF601.V484

Descriptors: pharmacology, veterinary medicine: medical sciences, integumentary system: 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •97

chemical coordination and homeostasis, electroporation, laboratory techniques, genetic techniques, iontophoresis, clinical techniques, drug patch, drug delivery device, particle mediated 

epidermal delivery, clinical techniques, blood flow.

Morrison, S.G., J.J. Dominguez, P. Frascarolo, and S. Reiz (2000). A comparison of the electrocardiographic cardiotoxic effects of racemic bupivacaine, levobupivacaine, and ropivacaine 

in anesthetized swine. Anesthesia and Analgesia 90(6 ): 1308-1314. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Descriptors: pharmacology, lethal dose, local anesthetics, levobupivacaine, racemic bupivacaine, ropivacaine, after intracoronary injection, QRS interval, precordial electrocardiograph. 

Mutschler, D.K., U. Gustafsson, S. Basu, A.O. Larsson, and M.B. Eriksson (2006). Ropivacaine 

may have advantages compared to bupivacaine in porcine endotoxemic shock. Upsala 

Journal of Medical Sciences 111(2): 189-99. ISSN: 0300-9734.

Abstract: Patients that undergo major abdominal surgery often receive epidural postoperative analgesia. Septic complications are frequently seen in this cohort. In a porcine model of 

endotoxemic shock, resembling human gram-negative septic shock, we evaluated the effects 

of two widely used local anaesthetics, bupivacaine and ropivacaine given intravenously. In 

the endotoxin-ropivacaine group mixed venous saturation and platelet count were higher 

as compared to endotoxemic controls. Mean arterial blood pressure and platelet count were 

higher in ropivacaine-endotoxin pigs than in bupivacaine-endotoxin ones. Bupivacaine 

augmented endotoxin-mediated decrease in left ventricular stroke work index. Ropivacaine 

displays pathophysiological advantages compared to bupivacaine in septic shock, which may 

be explained by improved tissue perfusion by ropivacaine.

Descriptors: amides therapeutic use, anesthetics, local therapeutic use, endotoxemia drug 

therapy, protective agents therapeutic use, shock, septic drug therapy, amides pharmacology, anesthetics, local pharmacology, blood platelets drug effects, blood pressure drug effects, 

bupivacaine pharmacology, bupivacaine therapeutic use, disease models, animal, lipid peroxidation drug effects, platelet count, protective agents pharmacology, stroke volume drug 

effects, sus scrofa, ventricular function, left drug effects.

Nakayama, T., M. Hayashi, D.O. Warner, and K.A. Jones (2005). Anesthetics inhibit membrane 

receptor coupling to the Gq/11 heterotrimeric G protein in airway smooth muscle. Anesthesiology 103(2): 296-305 . ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Some anesthetics relax airway smooth muscle in part by 

inhibiting acetylcholine-induced increases in Ca2+ sensitivity, an effect associated with inhibition of guanosine nucleotide exchange at the alpha subunit of the Gq/11 (Galphaq/11) 

heterotrimeric G protein. This study tested the hypothesis that these anesthetic effects are 

not unique to the muscarinic receptor but are a general property of the heptahelical receptors that increase Ca2+ sensitivity in airway smooth muscle. METHODS: Anesthetic effects 

on agonist-induced increases in Ca2+ sensitivity were measured in porcine airway smooth 

muscle strips permeabilized with S. aureus alpha-toxin. Anesthetic effects on basal (without 

agonist stimulation) and agonist-promoted Galphaq/11 guanosine nucleotide exchange 

were determined in crude membranes prepared from porcine airway smooth muscle. The 

nonhydrolyzable, radioactive form of guanosine 5’-triphosphate was used as the reporter for 

nucleotide exchange at Galphaq/11. RESULTS: Acetylcholine, endothelin-1, and histamine 

caused a concentration-dependent increase in Ca2+ sensitivity. Halothane (0.67 +/- 0.07 

mM) and hexanol (10 mM) significantly inhibited the increase in Ca2+ sensitivity induced 
98• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

by each agonist. Each agonist also caused a time- and concentration-dependent increase 

in Galphaq/11 nucleotide exchange. Neither anesthetic had an effect on basal Galphaq/11 

nucleotide exchange, whereas halothane and hexanol significantly inhibited the increase in 

Galphaq/11 nucleotide exchange promoted by each agonist. CONCLUSION: These data 

suggest that inhibition of agonist-promoted guanosine nucleotide exchange at Galphaq/11 

by some anesthetics may be a general property of heptahelical receptors involved cellular processes mediated by Galphaq/11, including muscarinic, endothelin-1, and histamine receptor 

activation of Ca2+ sensitivity.

Descriptors: anesthetics pharmacology, gtp binding protein alpha subunits, gq g11 metabolism, trachea drug effects, acetylcholine pharmacology, calcium metabolism, cell membrane 

metabolism, dose response relationship, drug, endothelin 1 pharmacology, guanosine 5’ o 3 

thiotriphosphate metabolism, guanosine diphosphate metabolism, histamine pharmacology, 

swine, trachea metabolism.

Nalos, M., U. Wachter, A. Pittner, M. Georgieff, P. Radermacher, and G. Froeba (2001). Arterial and 

mixed venous xenon blood concentrations in pigs during wash-in of inhalational anaesthesia. British Journal of Anaesthesia 87(3): 497-8. ISSN: 0007-0912.

Abstract: There are no data available on the kinetics of blood concentrations of xenon 

during the wash-in phase of an inhalation anaesthesia aiming at 1 MAC end-expiratory concentration. Therefore, we anaesthetized eight pigs with continuous propofol and fentanyl and 

measured arterial, mixed venous and end-expiratory xenon concentrations by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 15, 20, 30, 60 and 120 min after starting the 

anaesthetic gas mixture [67% xenon/33% oxygen; 3 litre x min(-1) during the first 10 min, 

thereafter minimal flow with 0.48 (SD 0.03) litre x min(-1)]. End-expiratory xenon concentrations plateaued (defined as <5% change from the preceding value) at 64 (6) vol% after 7 

min, and arterial and mixed venous xenon concentrations after 5 and 15 min respectively. 

The highest arterio-venous concentration difference occurred after 3 min. Using the Fick 

principle, we calculated a mean xenon uptake of 3708 (829) and 9977 (3607) ml after 30 

and 120 min respectively.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation blood, xenon blood, anesthesia, inhalation methods, 

anesthetics, inhalation pharmacokinetics, swine, xenon pharmacokinetics.

Notes: Comment In: Br J Anaesth. 2002 Mar;88(3):452; author reply 453.

Oelschlager, H., P. Glassl, A. Seeling, J. Wange, M. Listing, and B. Jung (2001). Synthese und 

pharmakologische Wirkung chiraler Fomocaine ((4-[2-Methyl-3-(morpholin-4-yl)

propyl]benzyl)-phenyl-ether und (4-[1-Methyl-3-(morpholin-4-yl)propyl]benzyl)-

phenyl-ether). 13. Mitteilung zur Synthese neuer Verbindungen mit lokalanasthetischer 

Wirkung. [Synthesis and pharmacologic action of chiral fomocaine ((4-[2-methyl-3-

(morpholin-4-yl)propyl)benzyl)-phenyl-ether and (4-(1-methyl-3-(morpholin-4-yl)

propyl]benzyl)-phenyl-ether). 13. Synthesis of new compounds with local anesthetic 

action]. Pharmazie, Die 56(8): 620-5. ISSN: 0031-7144.

Abstract: The syntheses of two chiral fomocaines namely rac ((4-[2-methyl-3-(morpholin4-yl)propyl]-benzyl)-phenyl-ether (O/G 3) and rac (4-[1-methyl-3-(morpholin-4-yl)propyl]

benzyl)-phenyl-ether) (O/G 5) are reported. These compounds are part of a new research 

program concerning the relation between chirality and local anaesthetic activity in the group 

of fomocaines. The yield over five steps is in the range of 9% (O/G 3) up to 19.2% (O/G 5). 

The racemates were resoluted via the diastereomeric salts formed with (+)- or (-)-campher-
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •99

sulfonic acid. The chromatographic resolution in analytical scale is successful using a Daicel 

OD-column. The enantiomers are stable. The surface anaesthesia of the racemates as well 

as of the enantiomeres is weaker in comparison with fomocaine. The rate of tissue irritation 

is higher. The LD50 (mouse i.v.) is in the range between 290-390 mg/kg, while fomocaine 

shows a LD50 value of 175 mg/kg.

Descriptors: anesthetics, local chemical synthesis, ethers chemical synthesis, morpholines chemical synthesis, phenyl ethers chemical synthesis, anesthetics, local pharmacology, 

anesthetics, local toxicity, biopharmaceutics, chromatography, high pressure liquid, chromatography, thin layer, ethers pharmacology, indicators and reagents, lethal dose 50, mass 

spectrometry, microsomes, liver drug effects, morpholines pharmacology, phenyl ethers pharmacology, phenyl ethers toxicity, spectrophotometry, infrared, stereoisomerism, swine.

Language of Text: German.

Pabelick, C.M., B. Ay, Y.S. Prakash, and G.C. Sieck (2004). Effects of volatile anesthetics on storeoperated Ca(2+) influx in airway smooth muscle. Anesthesiology 101(2): 373-80. ISSN: 

0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: In airway smooth muscle (ASM), volatile anesthetics deplete 

sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca(2+) stores by increasing Ca(2+) “leak.” Accordingly, SR 

replenishment becomes dependent on Ca(2+) influx. Depletion of SR Ca(2+) stores triggers Ca(2+) influx via specific plasma membrane channels, store-operated Ca(2+) channels 

(SOCC). We hypothesized that anesthetics inhibit SOCC triggered by increased SR Ca(2+) 

“leak,” preventing SR replenishment and enhancing ASM relaxation. METHODS: In 

porcine ASM cells, SR Ca was depleted by cyclopiazonic acid or caffeine in 0 extracellular 

Ca(2+), nifedipine and KCl (preventing Ca(2+) influx through L-type and SOCC channels). Extracellular Ca(2+) was rapidly introduced to selectively activate SOCC. After SOCC 

activation, SR was replenished and the protocol repeated in the presence of 1 or 2 minimum 

alveolar concentration halothane, isoflurane, or sevoflurane. In other cells, characteristics of 

SOCC and interactions between acetylcholine (Ach) and volatile anesthetics were examined. 

RESULTS: Cyclopiazonic acid produced slow SR leak, whereas the caffeine response was 

transient in ASM cells. Reintroduction of extracellular Ca(2+) rapidly increased [Ca(2+)]

i. This influx was insensitive to nifedipine, SKF-96365, and KBR-7943, inhibited by Ni 

and blockade of inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate-induced SR Ca(2+) release, and enhanced by 

ACh. Preexposure to 1 or 2 minimum alveolar concentration halothane completely inhibited Ca(2+) influx when extracellular Ca(2+) was reintroduced, whereas isoflurane and 

sevoflurane produced less inhibition. Only halothane and isoflurane inhibited ACh-induced 

augmentation of Ca(2+) influx. CONCLUSION: Volatile anesthetics inhibit a Ni/Lasensitive store-operated Ca(2+) influx mechanism in porcine ASM cells, which likely helps 

maintain anesthetic-induced bronchodilation.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, calcium metabolism, muscle, smooth 

metabolism, respiratory muscles metabolism, acetylcholine pharmacology, caffeine pharmacology, calcium channels drug effects, calcium channels metabolism, microscopy, confocal, 

muscle, smooth drug effects, phosphodiesterase inhibitors pharmacology, respiratory muscles 

drug effects, sarcoplasmic reticulum drug effects, sarcoplasmic reticulum metabolism, swine, 

vasodilator agents pharmacology.
100• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Pabelick, C.M., Y.S. Prakash, M.S. Kannan, D.O. Warner, and G.C. Sieck (2001). Effects of halothane on sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium release channels in porcine airway smooth 

muscle cells. Anesthesiology 95(1): 207-15. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Volatile anesthetics relax airway smooth muscle (ASM) by 

altering intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i). The authors hypothesized that relaxation 

is produced by decreasing sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ content via increased Ca2+ “leak” 

through both inositol trisphosphate (IP3) and ryanodine receptor channels. METHODS: 

Enzymatically dissociated porcine ASM cells were exposed to acetylcholine in the presence 

or absence of 2 minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) halothane, and IP3 levels were 

measured using radioimmunoreceptor assay. Other cells were loaded with the Ca2+ indicator 

fluo-3 and imaged using real-time confocal microscopy. RESULTS: Halothane increased IP3 

concentrations in the presence and absence of acetylcholine. Inhibition of phospholipase C 

blunted the IP3 response to halothane. Exposure to 2 MAC halothane induced a transient 

[Ca2+]i response, suggesting depletion of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+. Exposure to 20 

microM Xestospongin D, a cell-permeant IP3 receptor antagonist, resulted in a 45+/-13% 

decrease in the [Ca2+]i response to halothane compared with halothane exposure alone. In 

permeabilized cells, Xestospongin D or 0.5 mg/ml heparin decreased the [Ca2+]i response 

to halothane by 65+/-13% and 68+/-22%, respectively, compared with halothane alone. In 

both intact and permeabilized cells, 20 microM ryanodine blunted the [Ca2+]i response 

to halothane by 32+/-13% and 39+/-21%, respectively, compared with halothane alone. 

Simultaneous exposure to Xestospongin D and ryanodine completely inhibited the [Ca2+]

i response to halothane. CONCLUSIONS: The authors conclude that halothane reduces 

sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ content in ASM cells via increased Ca2+ leak through both IP3 

receptor and ryanodine receptor channels. Effects on IP3 receptor channels are both direct 

and indirect via elevation of IP3 levels.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, calcium channels metabolism, halothane 

pharmacology, muscle, smooth metabolism, sarcoplasmic reticulum metabolism, calcium 

channels drug effects, calibration, escin pharmacology, inositol 1,4,5 trisphosphate metabolism, microscopy, confocal, muscle, smooth cytology, muscle, smooth drug effects, receptors, 

cytoplasmic and nuclear drug effects, receptors, cytoplasmic and nuclear metabolism, 

ryanodine receptor calcium release channel drug effects, ryanodine receptor calcium release 

channel metabolism, sarcoplasmic reticulum drug effects, swine.

Perk, E.C., O. Duzgun, O. Guzel, and Z. Mutlu (2004). Inhalation anaesthesia in swine [Domuzlarda inhalasyon anestezisi.]. Veteriner Fakultesi Dergisi Istanbul 30 (1): 47-59. ISSN: 

0378-2352.

Descriptors: anesthesia, anesthetics, atropine, halothane, inhaled anesthetics, isoflurane, 

ketamine, pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, preanesthetic medication, thiopental, xylazine, surgery.

Language of Text: Turkish, Summary in English.

Pittner, A., M. Nalos, M. Theisen, F. Ploner, U.B. Bruckner, M. Georgieff, P. Radermacher, and G. 

Froba (2002). Inhaling nitrous oxide or xenon does not influence bowel wall energy 

balance during porcine bowel obstruction. Anesthesia and Analgesia 94(6): 1510-6, Table 

of Contents. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: Xenon (Xe) is less soluble than nitrous oxide (N(2)O) and hence may be more 

suitable during bowel obstruction. Therefore, we compared the intestinal mechanical and 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •101

biochemical effects of these two gases with those of total IV anesthesia in a porcine model 

of small-bowel obstruction. Intestinal obstruction was induced in 33 anesthetized pigs, in 

18 of which segmental ileal perfusion was reduced by partial arterial occlusion. Pigs received 

total IV anesthesia, Xe, or N(2)O (in 30% oxygen) for 4 h, and we determined the intraluminal pressure and volume, the arterial-ileal PCO(2) gap, and the lactate and pyruvate 

levels in the segmental mesenteric vein. Under both experimental conditions, Xe or N(2)

O ventilation caused the volume to significantly increase with a concomitant significant 

increase in the intraluminal pressure during N(2)O ventilation. Regardless of the anesthesia 

technique, none of the biochemical variables was influenced in the animals with maintained 

ileal blood supply. In contrast, reducing the segmental perfusion induced pronounced alterations of all variables of bowel wall energy metabolism. The type of anesthesia, however, had 

no further statistically significant effect. Short-term inhalation of Xe or N(2)O seems to have 

no deleterious effects on the metabolic balance of the gut wall during intestinal obstruction. 

IMPLICATIONS: In anesthetized pigs, short-term inhalation of xenon or nitrous oxide 

over 4 h when compared with total IV anesthesia had no additional deleterious effects on the 

metabolic balance of the gut wall during intestinal obstruction, no matter whether the arterial blood flow was reduced or not.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, energy metabolism drug effects, intestinal obstruction metabolism, intestines physiology, nitrous oxide pharmacology, xenon 

pharmacology, blood gas analysis, blood pressure drug effects, central venous pressure drug 

effects, gastrointestinal motility drug effects, intestinal obstruction physiopathology, intestines blood supply, pulmonary gas exchange drug effects, regional blood flow drug effects, 

swine.

Polydoro, A.S., C. White, C. Hennemann, J.A. Ferreira, C.M. Gomes, G. Costi, and M. Feser 

(2001). Dissociative anaesthesia in pigs with xylazine and tiletamine/zolazepam [Anestesia dissociativa em suinos com a associacao xilazina e tiletamina/zolazepam.]. A Hora 

Veterinaria(122): 9-13. ISSN: 0101-9163.

Descriptors: anesthesia, hemodynamics, pharmacodynamics, respiration, xylazine, restraint, 

cardiopulmonary parameters.

Language of Text: Portuguese, Summary in English.

Prakash, Y.S., A. Iyanoye, B. Ay, G.C. Sieck, and C.M. Pabelick (2006). Store-operated Ca2+ influx 

in airway smooth muscle: Interactions between volatile anesthetic and cyclic nucleotide 

effects. Anesthesiology 105(5): 976-83. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Volatile anesthetics produce bronchodilation in part by 

depleting sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca stores in airway smooth muscle (ASM). Other bronchodilatory drugs are known to act via cyclic nucleotides (cyclic adenosine 3’,5’-cyclic 

monophosphate, cyclic guanosine 3’,5’-cyclic monophosphate). Intracellular Ca regulation 

in ASM involves plasma membrane Ca influx, including that triggered by sarcoplasmic 

reticulum Ca depletion (store-operated Ca entry [SOCE]). The authors hypothesized that 

anesthetics and bronchodilatory agents interact in inhibiting SOCE, thus enhancing ASM 

relaxation. METHODS: In enzymatically dissociated porcine ASM cells imaged using fluorescence microscopy, sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca was depleted by 1 microm cyclopiazonic 

acid in 0 extracellular Ca, nifedipine, and potassium chloride (preventing Ca influx through 

L-type channels and SOCE). Extracellular Ca was rapidly reintroduced to selectively activate 

SOCE in the presence or absence of 1 minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) halothane, 
102• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

isoflurane, or sevoflurane. Anesthetic interference with SOCE regulation by cyclic nucleotides was examined by activating SOCE in the presence of (1) 1 microm acetylcholine, 

(2) 100 microm dibutryl cyclic adenosine 3’,5’-cyclic monophosphate, or (3) 100 microm 

8-bromo-cyclic guanosine 3’,5’-cyclic monophosphate. RESULTS: SOCE was enhanced by 

acetylcholine, whereas volatile anesthetics and both cyclic nucleotides partially inhibited Ca 

influx. Preexposure to 1 or 2 MAC anesthetic (halothane > isoflurane > sevoflurane) inhibited SOCE. Only halothane and isoflurane inhibited acetylcholine-induced augmentation of 

Ca influx, and significantly potentiated cyclic nucleotide inhibition such that no influx was 

observed in the presence of anesthetics and cyclic nucleotides. CONCLUSIONS: These data 

indicate that volatile anesthetics prevent sarcoplasmic reticulum refilling by inhibiting SOCE 

and enhancing cyclic nucleotide blunting of Ca influx in ASM. Such interactions likely result 

in substantial airway relaxation in the presence of both anesthetics and bronchodilatory 

agents such as beta agonists or nitric oxide.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, calcium signaling drug effects, muscle, 

smooth metabolism, respiratory system metabolism, acetylcholine pharmacology, bucladesine pharmacology, cyclic gmp analogs and derivatives, cyclic gmp pharmacology, halothane 

pharmacology, isoflurane pharmacology, methyl ethers pharmacology, muscle, smooth cytology, muscle, smooth drug effects, myocytes, smooth muscle drug effects, myocytes, smooth 

muscle metabolism, respiratory system cytology, respiratory system drug effects, swine.

Prunier, A., G. Bataille, M.C. Meunier Salaun, A. Bregeon, and Y. Rugraff (2001). Influence of 

tail docking, with or without a cold analgesic spray, on the behaviour, performance 

and physiology of piglets [Consequences comportementales, zootechniques et physiologiques de la caudectomie realisee avec ou sans “insensibilisation” locale chez le 

porcelet.]. Journees De La Recherche Porcine En France 33: 313-318. ISSN: 0767-9874.

NAL Call Number: SF391.I53

Descriptors: analgesics, animal behavior, animal welfare, corticotropin, docking, glucose, 

growth, hydrocortisone, lactic acid, pain, physical activity, piglets, tail docking.

Language of Text: French, Summary in English.

Notes: Meeting Information: 33emes Journees de la Recherche Porcine en France, 30-31 

janvier et 1er fevrier 2001, Paris, France.

Prunier, A., M. Bonneau, E.v. Borell, S. Cinotti, M. Gunn, B. Fredriksen, M. Giersing, D. Morton, 

F. Tuyttens, and A. Velarde (2006). A review of the welfare consequences of surgical castration in piglets and the evaluation of non-surgical methods. Animal Welfare 15(3): 

277-289. ISSN: 0962-7286.

NAL Call Number: HV4701.A557

Descriptors: piglets, castration, local anesthetics, immunization, gonadotropin releasing 

hormone, vaccine development, animal welfare, males, literature reviews, food animals, boar 

taint.

Prunier, A., A. Mounier, and M. Hay (2005). Effects of castration, tooth resection, or tail dockings on plasma metabolites and stress hormones in young pigs. Journal of Animal Science

83(1): 216-222. ISSN: 0021-8812.

NAL Call Number: 49 J82

Descriptors: swine, young animals, castration, tail docking, veterinary dentistry, metabo-
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •103

lites, pain, blood glucose, lactic acid, catecholamines, males, anesthesia, animal handling, 

females, corticotropin, hormone secretion, cortisol, animal welfare.

Puglisi, F., A. Crovace, F. Staffieri, P. Capuano, G. Carravetta, M. De Fazio, G. Lograno, L. Lacitignola, V.L. Troilo, G. Martines, C. Chiumarulo, and V. Memeo (2007 ). Comparison of 

hemodynamic and respiratory effects of propofol and sevoflurane during carbon dioxide 

pneumoperitoneum in a swine model. Chirurgia Italiana 59(1): 105-11. ISSN: 0009-

4773.

Abstract: The aim of this study was to compare intraoperative hemodynamic and respiratory 

parameters using propofol and sevoflurane during laparoscopic surgery in a porcine model. 

After induction of general anaesthesia in 16 pigs with fentanyl (0.005 mg kg(-1)) followed by 

propofol (6 mg Kg(-1)), it was maintained with fentanyl (0.01 mg kg(-1)h(-1)) and sevoflurane in O2 in group 1 (G1, n = 8) and fentanyl and propofol (12 mg kg(-1)h(-1)) in group 2 

(G2, n = 8). The parameters monitored were heart rate, airway pressure (PAW), arterial and 

venous blood pressures and arterial blood gas analysis. The carbon dioxide pneumoperitoneum was maintained at 12 mmHg for 2 hours. Data were expressed as mean +/- standard 

deviation and were analysed using the Wilcoxon test (p < 0.05). G1 showed significantly 

higher PAW values than G2 at T60, T90 and T120. The heart rate values were significantly 

higher in G1 at T90 and T120. Middle arterial pressure was significantly lower in G1 than 

G2 at T30 and T60. The base deficit was significantly greater in G1 at T60, T90, T120 and 

Tpost. In this study propofol assured better hemodynamic and respiratory conditions than 

sevoflurane during laparoscopy in a porcine model.

Descriptors: anesthetics, combined pharmacology, blood pressure drug effects, heart rate 

drug effects, methyl ethers pharmacology, pneumoperitoneum, artificial, propofol pharmacology, pulmonary gas exchange drug effects, anesthetics, combined administration and 

dosage, anesthetics, inhalation administration and dosage, anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, anesthetics, intravenous administration and dosage, anesthetics, intravenous 

pharmacology, blood gas analysis methods, carbon dioxide, disease models, animal, laparoscopy methods, methyl ethers administration and dosage, propofol administration and 

dosage, statistics, nonparametric, swine.

Rai, A., S. Bhalla, S.S. Rebello, H. Kastrissios, and A. Gulati (2005). Disposition of morphine in 

plasma and cerebrospinal fluid varies during neonatal development in pigs. Journal of 

Pharmacy and Pharmacology, The 57(8): 981-6. ISSN: 0022-3573.

NAL Call Number: RS11.J6 

Abstract: The pharmacological effects of morphine are mediated via the central nervous 

system (CNS) but its clearance from the CNS in neonates has not been investigated. We 

have proposed that neonatal development of the blood-brain barrier affected CNS clearance mechanisms and CNS exposure to morphine. Male piglets (n = 5) aged one, three and 

six weeks were given morphine sulfate (0.5 mg kg(-1), i.v.). Serial blood and cerebrospinal 

fluid (CSF) samples were withdrawn over 360 min after morphine administration. Morphine concentration was measured by radioimmunoassay. A three-compartment model was 

fitted to individual data. Estimated parameters were reported as median and range. The peak 

morphine concentrations in plasma were not significantly different in the one-, three- or 

six-week-old piglets. Plasma clearance at one week (4.5, 3.8-8.6 mL min(-1) kg(-1)) was 

significantly lower than at three weeks (30.0, 19.1- 39.0 mL min(-1) kg(-1)) and six weeks 

(37.0, 29.7-82.8 mL min(-1) kg(-1)). The peak morphine concentration in CSF at one week 
104• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

(59.84, 31-67 ng mL(-1)) was higher than at three weeks (18.8, 17.7-25 ng mL(-1)) and six 

weeks (24.51, 16.5-84 ng mL(-1)), while CSF clearance was lower at one week (1.0, 0.18-9 

mL min(-1) kg(-1)) compared with three weeks (6.2, 2.3-9.3 mL min(-1) kg(-1)) and six 

weeks (3.95, 1.3-85.7 mL min(-1) kg(-1)). Apparent plasma:CSF transfer ratio at one week 

was greater than at three and six weeks. The reduced plasma and CSF morphine clearance in 

early infancy resulted in elevated systemic and central morphine exposure in neonatal pigs.

Descriptors: aging physiology , analgesics, opioid pharmacokinetics, growth and development physiology, morphine pharmacokinetics, neonatology, analgesics, opioid blood, 

analgesics, opioid cerebrospinal fluid, analgesics, opioid toxicity, animals, newborn, morphine blood, morphine cerebrospinal fluid, morphine toxicity, swine.

Ranheim, B., H. Haga, and K. Ingebrigtsen (2005). Distribution of radioactive lidocaine injected 

into the testes in piglets. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics 28(5): 481-

483. ISSN: 0140-7783.

NAL Call Number: SF915.J63

Descriptors: piglets, lidocaine, radiolabeling, swine breeds, testes, injection site, anesthesia, 

castration, males, Yorkshire (swine breed), animal age, body weight, epinephrine, drug evaluation, Norwegian-Landrace-(swine-breed).

Reinelt, H., T. Marx, J. Kotzerke, P. Topalidis, S. Luederwald, S. Armbruster, U. Schirmer, and M. 

Schmidt (2002). Hepatic function during xenon anesthesia in pigs. Acta Anaesthesiologica 

Scandinavica 46(6): 713-6. ISSN: 0001-5172.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Inhalation anesthetics decrease liver perfusion and oxygen 

consumption by changing the distribution pattern of perfusion between the hepatic artery 

and the portal vein and by direct effects on liver cells. The effects of xenon on liver perfusion and function have been not investigated until now. METHODS: Fourteen pigs were 

randomly assigned to two groups to receive either 73-78% xenon or 75% nitrogen in oxygen 

with additional supplementation of pentobarbital and buprenorphine. Microspheres were 

used to determine the arterial perfusion of the liver and splanchnic organs. Oxygen contents 

were measured by catheterization of the portal and a liver vein. Lactate and glucose plasma 

concentrations were measured in hepatic, mixed venous and arterial blood. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and lactate dehydrogenase (LOH) plasma concentrations were measured 

in arterial blood. Urea production rates were calculated to assess hepatic metabolic function. 

RESULTS: Significant higher oxygen contents were found in the liver venous blood during 

xenon anesthesia. No differences were found in any other investigated parameters. CONCLUSION: Higher oxygen content in liver venous blood observed during xenon anesthesia 

was not induced by changes in hepatic perfusion distribution or by an impairment of liver 

metabolic capacity. However, it can be explained by similar results known from inhalation 

anesthesia. Additionally, the effect can be caused by the reduction of plasma catecholamine 

concentrations during xenon anesthesia.

Descriptors: adjuvants, anesthesia pharmacology, anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, 

anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, buprenorphine pharmacology, liver drug effects, liver 

physiology, liver circulation drug effects, pentobarbital pharmacology, xenon pharmacology, analgesics, opioid pharmacology, liver circulation physiology, oxygen consumption drug 

effects, swine.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •105

Reinelt, H., T. Marx, U. Schirmer, S. Luederwald, P. Topalidis, and M. Schmidt (2002). Diffusion 

of xenon and nitrous oxide into the bowel during mechanical ileus. Anesthesiology 96(2): 

512-3. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacokinetics, digestive system metabolism, intestinal obstruction physiopathology, nitrous oxide pharmacokinetics, xenon pharmacokinetics, 

blood pressure drug effects, cardiac output drug effects, disease models, animal, perfusion, 

pressure, swine.

Reinelt, H., T. Marx, U. Schirmer, and M. Schmidt (2001). Xenon expenditure and nitrogen accumulation in closed-circuit anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 56(4): 309-11. ISSN: 0003-2409.

Abstract: The high price of xenon has prevented its use in routine, clinic anaesthetic practice. Xenon therefore has to be delivered by closed-circuit anaesthesia. The accumulation of 

nitrogen is a significant problem within the closed circuit and necessitates flushing, which in 

turn increases gas expenditure and costs. In previous investigations, nitrogen concentrations 

between 12% and 16% have been reported in closed-circuit anaesthesia. In order to avoid 

such nitrogen accumulation, we denitrogenised seven pigs using a non-rebreathing system 

and connected the animals to a system primed with a xenon/oxygen mixture. In comparison, 

seven pigs were anaesthetised with xenon using a standard low-flow anaesthetic procedure. 

Anaesthesia time was 2 h. Nitrogen concentrations in the closed system ranged from 0.08 to 

7.04% and were not significantly different from those observed during low-flow anaesthesia. 

Closed-circuit anaesthesia reduced the xenon expenditure 10-fold compared with low-flow 

anaesthesia.

Descriptors: anesthesia, closed circuit, anesthetics, inhalation administration and dosage, 

nitrogen analysis, xenon administration and dosage, anesthetics, inhalation economics, drug 

administration schedule, drug costs, nitrogen metabolism, swine, xenon economics.

Reinelt, H., U. Schirmer, T. Marx, P. Topalidis, and M. Schmidt (2001). Diffusion of xenon and 

nitrous oxide into the bowel. Anesthesiology 94(3): 475-7; Discussion 6a. ISSN: 0003-

3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Nitrous oxide diffuses easily from blood into air filled spaces. 

Xenon is also a relatively insoluble gas, like nitrous oxide. Therefore, the authors measured 

xenon diffusion into obstructed bowel segments during xenon anesthesia and compared 

this with nitrous oxide and nitrogen diffusion. METHODS: Twenty-one pentobarbitalanesthetized pigs were randomly assigned to three groups to receive either xenon-oxygen, 

nitrous oxide-oxygen, or nitrogen-oxygen (75%-25%), respectively. In each animal four 

bowel segments of 15-cm length were isolated. A pressure-measuring catheter was inserted 

into the lumen, and 30 ml of room air was injected into the segments. Anesthesia with the 

selected gas mixture was performed for 4 h. Pressure in the segments was measured continuously. The volume of gaseous bowel content was measured on completion of the study. 

RESULTS: The median volume of bowel gas in animals breathing nitrous oxide was 88.0 ml 

as compared with 39.0 ml with xenon anesthesia and 21.5 ml in the nitrogen-oxygen group. 

After 4 h of anesthesia, the intraluminal pressures in the nitrous oxide group were found to 

be significantly greater than in the control group and in the xenon group. CONCLUSIONS: 

The amount of diffused gas was significantly lower during xenon anesthesia than with nitrous 

oxide anesthesia but greater than with controls. Blood solubility can therefore be regarded as 

an important factor influencing gas diffusion into air filled cavities.
106• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Descriptors: anesthesia, inhalation, anesthetics, inhalation pharmacokinetics, colon, nitrous 

oxide pharmacokinetics, xenon pharmacokinetics, diffusion, swine.

Rex, S., C. Missant, P. Segers, and P.F. Wouters (2007). Thoracic epidural anesthesia impairs the 

hemodynamic response to acute pulmonary hypertension by deteriorating right ventricular-pulmonary arterial coupling. Critical Care Medicine 35(1): 222-9. ISSN: 0090-3493.

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: Thoracic epidural anesthesia is increasingly used in critically ill 

patients. This analgesic technique was shown to decrease left ventricular contractility, but 

effects on right ventricular function have not been reported. A deterioration of right ventricular performance may be clinically relevant for patients with acute pulmonary hypertension, 

in which right ventricular function is an important determinant of outcome. In the present 

study, we tested the hypothesis that thoracic epidural anesthesia decreases right ventricular 

contractility and limits its capacity to tolerate pulmonary hypertension. DESIGN: Prospective, placebo-controlled study using an established model of acute pulmonary hypertension. 

SETTING: University hospital laboratory. SUBJECTS: A total of 14 pigs (mean weight, 35 

+/- 2 kg). INTERVENTIONS: After instrumentation with an epidural catheter, biventricular conductance catheters, a pulmonary flow probe, and a high-fidelity pulmonary pressure 

catheter, seven pigs received thoracic epidural anesthesia and seven pigs served as control. 

Hemodynamic measurements were performed in baseline conditions and after induction of pulmonary hypertension via hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (Fio2 of 0.15). 

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Ventricular contractility was assessed using 

load- and heart rate-independent variables. Right ventricular afterload was characterized with 

instantaneous pressure-flow measurements. In baseline conditions, thoracic epidural anesthesia decreased left but not right ventricular contractility. In untreated animals, pulmonary 

hypertension was associated with an increase in right ventricular contractility and cardiac 

output. Pretreatment with thoracic epidural anesthesia completely abolished the positive inotropic response to acute pulmonary hypertension. As a result, ventriculo-vascular coupling 

between the right ventricle and pulmonary-arterial system deteriorated, and cardiac output 

was significantly lower in animals with thoracic epidural anesthesia than in untreated controls during hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension. CONCLUSIONS: Thoracic epidural 

anesthesia inhibits the native positive inotropic response of the right ventricle to increased 

afterload and deteriorates the hemodynamic effects of acute pulmonary hypertension.

Descriptors: anesthesia, epidural adverse effects, disease models, animal, thoracic vertebrae, 

ventricular dysfunction, right etiology, ventricular dysfunction, right physiopathology, acute 

disease, anesthesia, epidural methods, anoxia complications, blood pressure, cardiac output, 

critical care, heart rate, homeostasis, hypertension, pulmonary complications, hypertension, pulmonary physiopathology, myocardial contraction, prospective studies, pulmonary 

circulation, pulmonary wedge pressure, random allocation, stroke volume, swine, vascular 

resistance, ventricular dysfunction, left etiology.

Notes: Comment In: Crit Care Med. 2007 Jan;35(1):321-2.

Reyes, L., K.D. Tinworth, K.M. Li, D.F. Yau, and K.A. Waters (2002). Observer-blinded comparison of two nonopioid analgesics for postoperative pain in piglets. Pharmacology, 

Biochemistry, and Behavior 73(3): 521-8. ISSN: 0091-3057.

Abstract: Piglets are popular for studies of respiratory and cardiovascular function, but 

opioid analgesics are contraindicated in these studies because of central nervous system 

depression. We evaluated two nonopioid analgesics for postoperative pain relief following 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •107

implantation of a central arterial catheter via an inguinal incision. Animals were randomly 

assigned to paracetamol-treated (n=8, rectal suppositories, 100 mg/kg) meloxicam-treated 

(n=8, 1 mg/kg meloxicam via the catheter) or untreated control group (n=8, placebo suppositories and normal saline). Additional controls received paracetamol or meloxicam, without 

pain (n=6 for both groups). Behavioral and physiological assessments, and blood sampling 

were undertaken at nine timed intervals until 24 h after surgery. Multifactorial numerical 

rating scale (NRS), behavioral and physiological pain scores (PPS) decreased over time for 

all groups (P<.001). On NRS and behavioral criteria, meloxicam was significantly better 

than paracetamol (P<.001), and both were better than control (p<.001 for each). Physiological parameters discriminated between the control and analgesia-treated groups, but not 

between paracetamol and meloxicam. Preliminary pharmacokinetics, determined by isocratic 

high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), revealed no difference in the half-life of 

paracetamol (2.5+/-0.3 h) vs. meloxicam (3.4+/-0.4 h). Paracetamol and meloxicam provided effective postoperative analgesia in piglets, with meloxicam superior to paracetamol on 

behavioral criteria.

Descriptors: acetaminophen therapeutic use, analgesics, non narcotic pharmacology, pain 

measurement drug effects, pain, postoperative drug therapy, thiazines therapeutic use, thiazoles therapeutic use, acetaminophen adverse effects, acetaminophen pharmacokinetics, 

analgesics, non narcotic adverse effects, analgesics, non narcotic pharmacokinetics, behavior, 

animal drug effects, blood pressure drug effects, body temperature drug effects, half life, 

heart rate drug effects, kidney drug effects, liver drug effects, models, biological, respiratory 

mechanics drug effects, swine, thiazines adverse effects, thiazines pharmacokinetics, thiazoles 

adverse effects, thiazoles pharmacokinetics.

Rice, M.T. (2006). Errors in the April 2005 ethical question. Canadian Veterinary Journal, The; 

Revue Veterinaire Canadienne, La 47(1): 7. ISSN: 0008-5286.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 R3224 

Descriptors: anesthesia, general veterinary, pain veterinary, veterinary medicine ethics, anesthesia, general ethics, animal welfare, pain prevention and control, quality control, swine.

Notes: Comment On: Can Vet J. 2005 Jul;46(7):579.

Risk, D., D. Verpy, J.D. Conley, T. Jacobson, and T.W. Sawyer (2001). Volatile anesthetics give a 

false-positive reading in chemical agent monitors in the “H” mode. Military Medicine

166( 8): 708-10. ISSN: 0026-4075.

Abstract: Chemical agent monitors (CAMs) are routinely used by the armed forces and 

emergency response teams of many countries for the detection of the vesicant sulfur mustard 

(HD) and the G series of organophosphate nerve agents. Ambient operating room isoflurane 

levels were found to produce strong positive signals in the “H” mode when the CAM was 

used to monitor the efficacy of decontamination procedures during routine surgical procedures on HD-poisoned animals requiring up to 8 hours of general anesthesia. Subsequent 

testing showed that isoflurane, as well as desflurane, sevoflurane, halothane and methoxyflurane, produce two ionization peaks in the CAM response. One of these peaks is interpreted 

by the CAM processing software as HD, resulting in a CAM “H” mode bar response. No 

interference was encountered with isoflurane, desflurane, and sevoflurane when the CAM 

was set to the “G” mode, although extremely high (nonclinical) concentrations of halothane 

and methoxyflurane yielded a weakly positive bar response. These findings have potentially 

serious ramifications for the medical management of patients resulting from terrorist, mili-
108• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

tary, or chemical agent decommissioning activity when concomitant chemical injuries are 

also possible.

Descriptors: anesthetics analysis, chemical warfare agents analysis, environmental monitoring instrumentation, operating rooms, environmental monitoring methods, false positive 

reactions, swine.

Rocco, A.G. and J.H. Philip (2006). Hydrodynamics of the spinal epidural space. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 31(6): 588; Author Reply 589. ISSN: 1098-7339.

NAL Call Number: RB127

Descriptors: anesthesia, epidural, cerebrospinal fluid pressure drug effects, epidural space 

physiology, epidural space drug effects, infusion pumps, injections, epidural, research design, 

sodium chloride administration and dosage, swine, transducers, pressure.

Notes: Comment On: Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2006 Mar-Apr;31(2):100-4.

Rodriguez Lopez, J.M., P. Sanchez Conde, F.S. Lozano, J.L. Nicolas, F.J. Garcia Criado, C. Cascajo, 

and C. Muriel ( 2006). Laboratory investigation: effects of propofol on the systemic 

inflammatory response during aortic surgery. Canadian Journal of Anaesthesia; Journal 

Canadien D’Anesthesie 53(7): 701-10. ISSN: 0832-610X.

NAL Call Number: RD78.68.C4

Abstract: PURPOSE: A laboratory investigation was undertaken to assess the effects of propofol on renal function, through modulation of the systemic inflammatory response, in an 

in vivo experimental model of aortic surgery in comparison with sevoflurane. METHODS: 

Twenty young male piglets were anesthetized with either propofol 4 mg.kg(-1).hr(-1) (n = 

10) or sevoflurane 1.5% end-tidal concentration (n = 10). Animals were subjected to aortaaortic bypass with suprarenal aortic clamping for 30 min. At specific intervals (basal -before 

the start of surgery; reperfusion 15 min after unclamping the aorta; at 24, 48 and 72 hr after 

surgery, and on the seventh day after surgery) the levels of the following were determined: 

plasma creatinine, renal myeloperoxidase, tumour necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin 1-ss, 

and interferon-gamma; kidney superoxide anion and its detoxifying enzyme superoxidase 

dismutase, kidney malondialdehyde and the activity of inducible nitric oxide synthase. 

Seven days after surgery, the animals were anesthetized using the described techniques, and 

after blood withdrawal and kidney sampling they were sacrificed. RESULTS: In comparison 

with sevoflurane, propofol was associated with a lower concentration of plasma creatinine 

(P < 0.05) together with lower concentrations of myeloperoxidase, tumour necrosis factoralpha, interleukin 1-ss, interferon-gamma, superoxide anion and superoxidase dismutase, 

malondialdehyde and inducible nitric oxide synthase (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: In an 

experimental model of aortic reconstructive surgery, and compared with sevoflurane, propofol anesthesia is associated with less neutrophil infiltration, lower plasma proinflammatory 

cytokine levels, lower production of oxygen free radicals, less lipid peroxidation, and reduced 

inducible nitric oxide synthase activity. These observations suggest a possible renal protective 

effect of propofol in this surgical setting.

Descriptors: anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, aorta surgery, propofol pharmacology, 

systemic inflammatory response syndrome metabolism, systemic inflammatory response syndrome prevention and control, anesthetics, inhalation administration and dosage, creatinine 

blood, disease models, animal, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay methods, interferon 

type ii blood, interferon type ii drug effects, interleukin 1beta blood, interleukin 1beta drug 

effects, malondialdehyde metabolism, methyl ethers administration and dosage, nitric oxide 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •109

synthase drug effects, nitric oxide synthase metabolism, peroxidase drug effects, peroxidase 

metabolism, superoxide dismutase drug effects, superoxide dismutase metabolism, superoxides metabolism, swine, systemic inflammatory response syndrome blood, time factors , 

tumor necrosis factor alpha blood, tumor necrosis factor alpha drug effects.

Rodriguez, N.A., D.M. Cooper, and J.M. Risdahl (2001). Antinociceptive activity of and clinical 

experience with buprenorphine in swine. Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal Science 

American Association for Laboratory Animal Science 40(3): 17-20. ISSN: 1060-0558.

NAL Call Number: SF405.3 .A23

Abstract: We performed antinociceptive testing on swine receiving buprenorphine. Intravenous access was achieved, and animals were allowed to recover for 24 h. Baseline skin-twitch 

latency to a focused light source was determined for each animal. Animals received intravenous (i.v.) buprenorphine at 0.08 (n =1), 0.16 (n = 1), 0.005 (n = 5), 0.01 (n = 5), or 

0.02 mg/kg (n = 6). Skin-twitch latency was determined 15, 30, 60, 120, 180, 240, 300, 

360, 420, 480, 540, and 600 min after buprenorphine administration. Analgesic activity as 

measured by a significant increase in latency time over baseline values occurred at all time 

points except 480 min in animals that received 0.02 mg/kg buprenorphine i.v. Analgesic 

activity to 420 min was demonstrated in animals that received 0.01 mg/kg buprenorphine 

i.v. Analgesic activity was not demonstrated at any time point in animals that received 

0.005 mg/kg buprenorphine i.v. A retrospective analysis of postoperative care records was 

performed to determine whether 0.01 mg/kg buprenorphine i.v. or intramuscularly (i.m.) 

postoperatively to swine provided clinically relevant analgesia. Records of swine receiving 

buprenorphine from 1997 to 2000 were reviewed for indications of treatment failure, such 

as pain or a change in analgesic regimen from that used routinely. Treatment failure occurred 

in 18 of 416 (4.3%) cases treated with buprenorphine. This failure occurred in 17% of 

cases with problems categorized as inflammatory in nature and in 15.5% of those with systemic problems or organ failure. We concluded that antinociceptive testing predicted that 

buprenorphine administered at 0.01 mg/kg i.v. in swine likely would provide analgesic efficacy for 6 h and when administered at 0.02 mg/kg i.v. likely would provide 10 h analgesia. 

Clinical signs of pain in animals recovering from surgery were not observed in the majority 

of cases when buprenorphine was administered twice or thrice daily at 0.01 mg/kg i.m. or i.v. 

However, buprenorphine was less effective at treating signs of pain associated with inflammation, organ failure, or systemic disease than at ameliorating pain associated with surgical 

incisions and orthopedic, dental, and ophthalmic procedures.

Descriptors: analgesics, opioid pharmacology, buprenorphine pharmacology, pain measurement veterinary, swine physiology, analgesics, opioid administration and dosage, 

buprenorphine administration and dosage, injections, intravenous veterinary, nociceptors 

drug effects, pain measurement drug effects, retrospective studies, swine surgery, time factors.

Rollin, B.E. (2002). An ethicist’s commentary on the case of the client requesting anesthesia 

medication. Canadian Veterinary Journal, The; Revue Veterinaire Canadienne, La 43(11): 827. 

ISSN: 0008-5286.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 R3224 

Descriptors: anesthesia veterinary, cesarean section veterinary, surgery, veterinary ethics, 

swine surgery, veterinarians ethics, anesthesia ethics, animal welfare, cesarean section ethics, 

ethics, professional, surgery, veterinary economics, veterinarians psychology.
110• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Rud, H., O. Andresen, B. Ranheim, and H.A. Haga (2002). Boar taint and castration of pigs - do 

suitable alternatives to local anaesthesia exist? [Kjonnslukt og kastrering av gris finnes 

det gode alternativer til lokalbedovelse?]. Norsk Veterinaertidsskrift 114(4): 383-387. ISSN: 

0332-5741.

Descriptors: anesthesia, boars, castration, piglets, pigs.

Language of Text: Norwegian, Summary in English.

Saers, A.S., M. Ritzmann, and K. Heinritzi (2005). Evaluation and dosage determination of the 

anaesthetic thiopental for the anaesthesia of pigs after induction with neuroleptanalgesia [Anwendbarkeit und Dosisfindung des Anasthetikums Thiopental fur die Narkose 

des Schweins nach vorhergehender Neuroleptanalgesie.]. Tierarztliche Praxis Ausgabe G, 

Grosstiere/Nutztiere 33(6): 432-437. ISSN: 1434-1220.

NAL Call Number: SF603.V43

Descriptors: anesthesia, anesthetics, analgesics, atropine, azaperone, body temperature, 

dosage, heart rate, ketamine, miniature pigs, neuroleptics, pharmacodynamics, piglets, respiration rate, thiopental, pigs.

Language of Text: German, Summary in English.

Sakihara, C., W.J. Perkins, D.O. Warner, and K.A. Jones (2004). Anesthetics inhibit acetylcholinepromoted guanine nucleotide exchange of heterotrimeric G proteins of airway smooth 

muscle. Anesthesiology 101(1): 120-6. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Anesthetics inhibit airway smooth muscle contraction in 

part by a direct effect on the smooth muscle cell. This study tested the hypothesis that the 

anesthetics halothane and hexanol, which both relax airway smooth muscle in vitro, inhibit 

acetylcholine-promoted nucleotide exchange at the alpha subunit of the Gq/11 heterotrimeric G protein (Galphaq/11; i.e., they inhibit muscarinic receptor-Galphaq/11 coupling). 

METHODS: The effect of halothane (0.38 +/- 0.02 mm) and hexanol (10 mm) on basal 

and acetylcholine-stimulated Galphaq/11 guanosine nucleotide exchange was determined 

in membranes prepared from porcine tracheal smooth muscle. The nonhydrolyzable, 

radioactive form of guanosine-5’-triphosphate, [S]GTPgammaS, was used as the reporter 

for Galphaq/11 subunit dissociation from the membrane to soluble fraction, which was 

immunoprecipitated with rabbit polyclonal anti-Galphaq/11 antiserum. RESULTS: Acetylcholine caused a significant time- and concentration-dependent increase in the magnitude 

of Galphaq/11 nucleotide exchange compared with basal values (i.e., without acetylcholine), 

reaching a maximal difference at 100 microm (35.9 +/-2.9 vs. 9.8 +/-1.2 fmol/mg protein, 

respectively). Whereas neither anesthetic had an effect on basal Galphaq/11 nucleotide 

exchange, both halothane and hexanol significantly inhibited the increase in Galphaq/11 

nucleotide exchange produced by 30 microm acetylcholine (by 59% and 68%, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Halothane and hexanol interact with the receptor-heterotrimeric 

G-protein complex in a manner that prevents acetylcholine-promoted exchange of guanosine-5(‘)-triphosphate for guanosine-5’-diphosphate at Galphaq/11. These data are consistent 

with the ability of anesthetics to interfere with cellular processes mediated by heterotrimeric 

G proteins in many cells, including effects on muscarinic receptor-G-protein regulation of 

airway smooth muscle contraction.

Descriptors: acetylcholine antagonists and inhibitors, acetylcholine pharmacology, anesthetics pharmacology, gtp binding proteins metabolism, guanine nucleotides metabolism, 

muscle, smooth metabolism, anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, gtp binding protein alpha 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •111

subunits, gs metabolism, guanosine 5’ o 3 thiotriphosphate pharmacology, guanosine diphosphate metabolism, guanosine triphosphate metabolism, halothane pharmacology, hexanols 

pharmacology, membranes drug effects, membranes metabolism, muscle contraction physiology, muscle relaxation drug effects, muscle, smooth drug effects, precipitin tests, swine, 

trachea drug effects, trachea metabolism.

Sanchini, L., S. Pinna, and A. Venturini (2002). Prolonged anaesthesia in minipigs [L’anestesia 

di lunga durata nel minipig.] . Obiettivi e Documenti Veterinari 23(3): 67-71. ISSN: 0392-

1913.

Descriptors: anesthesia, injectable anesthetics, laboratory animals, miniature pigs, pigs.

Language of Text: Italian, Summary in English.

Schmidt, A., I. Oye, and J. Akeson (2005). Cerebral physiological responses to bolus injection 

of racemic, S(+)- or R(-)-ketamine in the pig. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 49(10): 

1436-42. ISSN: 0001-5172.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Little is known about the influence of ketamine and its enantiomers on cerebral haemodynamics, and there are no direct comparison reports. This study 

was designed to evaluate cerebrovascular responses to bolus injections of racemic, S(+)- and 

R(-)-ketamine in an established experimental model. METHODS: Anaesthesia was induced 

with propofol in 14 pigs and maintained with fentanyl and vecuronium. The intra-arterial 

xenon clearance technique was used to calculate the cerebral blood flow (CBF). Eight pigs 

(part I) were given three consecutive 60-s intravenous (i.v.) bolus injections of 10 mg/kg 

of racemic ketamine (Ketalar, Pfizer), and cerebral and systemic physiological responses 

were studied for 30 min after each injection. Following the determination of equipotent 

doses of the racemate and its enantiomers by recumbency tests, bolus injections of racemic 

ketamine (10 mg/kg), S-ketamine (5 mg/kg) and R-ketamine (20 mg/kg) were given in 

randomized sequence to another six pigs (part II) and evaluated at 1, 5, 10, 15, 25 and 40 

min. RESULTS: No statistically significant acute tolerance in the CBF response to racemic 

ketamine was found in part I of the study. In part II, the decreases in the mean arterial 

pressure (MAP) and CBF by S-ketamine were significantly smaller than those by racemic 

and R-ketamine (both P < 0.001). No study drug had any significant effect on the cerebral 

arteriovenous oxygen content difference (C(av)O(2)) over time, but S-ketamine was associated with lower C(av)O(2) than racemic ketamine (P = 0.008) and R-ketamine (P = 0.016). 

CONCLUSIONS: Bolus injection of S-ketamine was associated with less cerebral and systemic haemodynamic depression than racemic or R-ketamine in equipotent doses in this 

experimental model. These findings indicate possible advantages of S-ketamine over racemic 

ketamine.

Descriptors: anesthetics, dissociative pharmacology, cerebrovascular circulation drug effects, 

ketamine pharmacology, anesthetics, dissociative administration and dosage, anesthetics, dissociative chemistry, biotransformation, blood pressure drug effects, hemodynamic processes 

drug effects, injections, intravenous, ketamine administration and dosage, ketamine chemistry, oxygen blood, stereoisomerism, swine, vascular resistance drug effects.

Schmidt, A., E. Ryding, and J. Akeson (2003). Racemic ketamine does not abolish cerebrovascular 

autoregulation in the pig. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 47(5): 569-75. ISSN: 0001-

5172.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Little is known about the influence of racemic ketamine on 
112• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

autoregulation of cerebral blood flow (CBF), and available reports regarding its influence on 

cerebral hemodynamics are contradictory. This study was designed to evaluate cerebrovascular responses to changes in the mean arterial pressure (MAP) during ketamine anesthesia. 

METHODS: In eight normoventilated pigs anesthesia was induced with propofol and 

maintained by i.v. infusion of ketamine (15.0 mg kg(-1) x h(-1)) during measurements. The 

intra-arterial xenon clearance technique was used to calculate CBF. Balloon-tipped catheters 

were introduced in the inferior caval vein and mid-aorta, and increases or decreases by up to 

40% in mean arterial pressure (MAP) in random order were achieved by titrated inflation of 

these balloon catheters. Cerebral blood flow was determined at each MAP level. Regression 

coefficients of linear pressure-flow curves were calculated in all animals. RESULTS: From 

the mean baseline level (101 mmHg) MAP was reduced by 20% and 40%, and increased by 

26% and 43%. The maximal mean increase and decrease in MAP induced a 12% increase 

and a 15% decrease, respectively, of CBF from the mean baseline level (52.6 ml.100 g(-1) 

x min1). The 95% confidence interval (-0.02; 0.38) of the mean regression coefficient of 

individual pressure-flow curves does not include the regression coefficient (0.64) of a linear 

correlation between MAP and CBF including origo (correlation coefficient 0.99), which 

indicates complete lack of cerebrovascular autoregulation. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude 

that autoregulation of CBF is not abolished during continuous ketamine infusion in normoventilated pigs and that previous divergent conclusions are unlikely to be associated with 

severe impairment of cerebrovascular autoregulation.

Descriptors: anesthetics, dissociative pharmacology, cerebrovascular circulation drug 

effects, homeostasis drug effects, ketamine pharmacology, analgesics, opioid pharmacology, anesthesia, anesthetics, dissociative administration and dosage, anesthetics, dissociative 

pharmacokinetics, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, blood pressure drug effects, dose 

response relationship, drug, fentanyl pharmacology, hemodynamic processes drug effects, 

infusions, intravenous, ketamine administration and dosage, ketamine pharmacokinetics, 

propofol pharmacology, respiration, artificial, stereoisomerism, swine.

Schmidt, M., T. Marx, S. Armbruster, H. Reinelt, and U. Schirmer (2005). Effect of Xenon on 

elevated intracranial pressure as compared with nitrous oxide and total intravenous 

anesthesia in pigs. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 49(4): 494-501. ISSN: 0001-5172.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Xenon in low concentrations has been investigated in neuroradiology to measure cerebral blood flow (CBF). Several reports have suggested that inhalation 

of Xenon might increase intracranial pressure (ICP) by increasing the cerebral blood flow and 

blood volume, raising concerns about using Xenon as an anesthetic in higher concentrations 

for head-injured patients. A porcine study is presented in which the effects of inhaled 75% 

Xenon on elevated ICP, cerebral perfusion pressure and the efficacy of hyperventilation for 

ICP treatment were compared with nitrous oxide anesthesia and total intravenous anesthesia 

(TIVA). METHODS: Twenty-one pentobarbital-anesthetized pigs (age: 12-16 weeks) were 

randomly assigned to three groups to receive either 4 h of Xenon-oxygen ventilation, nitrous 

oxide-oxygen ventilation or air-oxygen (75%/25%) ventilation, respectively. After instrumentation for parenchymal ICP measurement and ICP manipulation, an epidurally placed 

6-F balloon catheter was inflated until a target ICP of 20 mmHg was achieved. After 4 h of 

anesthesia hyper- and hypoventilation maneuvers were performed and consecutive ICP and 

CBF changes were investigated. RESULTS: Intracranial pressure and CBF increased significantly in the nitrous oxide group as compared with the controls. There was no increase of 

ICP or CBF in the Xenon or control group. Intracranial pressure changed in all three groups 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •113

corresponding to hyper- and hypoventilation. CONCLUSIONS: During Xenon anesthesia, elevated ICP is not increased further and is partially reversible by hyperventilation. Our 

study suggests that inhalation of 75% Xenon seems not to be contraindicated in patients 

with elevated ICP.

Descriptors: anesthesia, intravenous, anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, anesthetics, 

intravenous pharmacology, intracranial pressure drug effects, nitrous oxide pharmacology, 

xenon pharmacology, cardiac output drug effects, electroencephalography drug effects, hypnotics and sedatives pharmacology, pentobarbital pharmacology, s100 proteins metabolism, 

swine.

Schmidt, M., T. Marx, E. Gloggl, H. Reinelt, and U. Schirmer (2005). Xenon attenuates cerebral 

damage after ischemia in pigs. Anesthesiology 102(5): 929-36. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Cerebral blood flow may be compromised in a variety of 

anesthetic procedures, and ischemic cerebral complications represent the leading cause of 

morbidity after cardiac operations. With the growing importance of neuroprotective strategies, the current study was designed to determine whether xenon would attenuate cardiac 

arrest-induced brain injury in pigs. METHODS: Twenty-four pigs (aged 12-16 weeks) were 

investigated in a randomized design. General hemodynamics, intracranial pressure, brain 

tissue oxygenation, and cerebral microdialysis parameters were investigated. The animals were 

assigned to two groups to receive anesthesia with either xenon (75%) in oxygen (25%) or 

total intravenous anesthesia combined with air in oxygen (25%) ventilation 15 min before 

cardiac arrest. After induction (t0) of cardiac arrest of 4 min, cardiopulmonary resuscitation 

was performed for 1 min, and the induced ventricular fibrillation was terminated by electrical defibrillation. The investigation time was 240 min. RESULTS: Approximately 60 s after 

cardiac arrest, brain tissue oxygenation decreased to a critical level of less than 5 mmHg, 

paralleled by a decrease in electroencephalographic activity. Glycerol as a damage marker 

increased significantly (> 200 m; P < 0.05), with a peak 90 min after cardiac arrest in both 

groups. Glycerol concentrations during reperfusion were significantly lower and normalized 

faster in the xenon group as compared with the total intravenous anesthesia group. CONCLUSION: Although the primary ischemic lesion in this model was similar in both groups, 

the cerebral microdialysis data show that xenon induces a differential neurochemical benefit 

in cerebral cell damage and metabolism as compared with total intravenous anesthesia in vivo 

during cerebral reperfusion after cardiac arrest in a pig model.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, ischemic attack, transient prevention 

and control, neuroprotective agents, xenon pharmacology, anesthesia, intravenous, blood 

gas analysis, body temperature, brain pathology, brain chemistry drug effects, electroencephalography drug effects, glutamic acid metabolism, glycerol metabolism, heart arrest 

physiopathology, hemodynamic processes drug effects, intracranial pressure drug effects, 

ischemic attack, transient etiology, ischemic attack, transient pathology, lactic acid blood, 

microdialysis, oxygen consumption drug effects, pyruvic acid metabolism, swine.

Notes: Comment In: Anesthesiology. 2006 Jan;104(1):211; author reply 211-2.

Schmidt, M., T. Marx, J. Kotzerke, S. Luderwald, S. Armbruster, P. Topalidis, U. Schirmer, and H. 

Reinelt (2001). Cerebral and regional organ perfusion in pigs during xenon anaesthesia.

Anaesthesia 56 (12): 1154-9. ISSN: 0003-2409.

Abstract: Little is known about the haemodynamic effects of inhaled xenon on regional 

organ perfusion. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of 79% xenon ventila-
114• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

tion on organ perfusion in pigs. We investigated 10 pigs, which were randomly allocated 

to receive either xenon 79% or total intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA)/oxygen anaesthesia. 

Microspheres were used to determine organ perfusion. The following regions of interest were 

investigated: cerebral cortex, medulla oblongata, brainstem, cerebellum, liver, kidney, small 

intestine, colon, muscle, skin and heart. The results demonstrated a significant increase in 

regional perfusion in the brainstem (+63%), cerebral cortex (+38%), medulla oblongata 

(+35%) and cerebellum (+34%). All other organs showed no significant change in regional 

perfusion. We conclude that xenon should be used with caution in clinical situations associated with pathological increases in intracranial pressure, e.g. neurosurgical procedures, head 

injury, cerebral mass lesions or stroke.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, cerebrovascular circulation drug effects, 

hemodynamic processes drug effects, xenon pharmacology, anesthetics, combined pharmacology, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, buprenorphine pharmacology, microspheres, 

pentobarbital pharmacology, regional blood flow drug effects, swine.

Schmidt, M., T. Marx, C. Papp Jambor, U. Schirmer, and H. Reinelt (2002). Effect of xenon on 

cerebral autoregulation in pigs. Anaesthesia 57(10): 960-6. ISSN: 0003-2409.

Abstract: There are little data on the effect of anaesthetic concentrations of xenon on cerebral pressure autoregulation. In this study, we have investigated the effect of 79% xenon 

inhalation on cerebral pressure autoregulation and CO2 response in pigs. Ten pigs were randomly allocated to receive xenon 79% or halothane anaesthesia, respectively, in a crossover 

designed study. Halothane was used to validate the experimental set-up. Transcranial Doppler 

was performed to determine the mean flow velocities in the middle cerebral artery (vMCA) 

during defined cerebral perfusion pressures and during normo-, hyper- and hypoventilation. The results showed that the inhalation of 79% xenon preserved cerebral autoregulation 

during conditions of normo-, hyper- and hypoventilation and at different cerebral perfusion 

pressures in pigs. These results suggest that with the inhalation of xenon, in the highest concentration suitable for a safe clinical use, cerebral autoregulation is preserved.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, homeostasis drug effects, intracranial 

pressure drug effects, xenon pharmacology, blood pressure drug effects, carbon dioxide 

blood, cerebrovascular circulation drug effects, cross over studies, halothane pharmacology, 

hydrogen ion concentration drug effects, partial pressure, swine, ultrasonography, doppler, 

transcranial.

Schnoor, J., J.K. Unger, B. Kochs, J. Silny, and R. Rossaint (2005). Effects of a single dose of ketamine on duodenal motility activity in pigs. Canadian Veterinary Journal, The; Revue 

Veterinaire Canadienne, La 46(2): 147-52. ISSN: 0008-5286.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 R3224

Abstract: In order to investigate the effects of a single dose of ketamine on duodenal motility, the present study focused on the electric impedance technique. Five pigs (32 to 40 kg, 

CVC group) were instrumented with a central venous catheter 1 d before measurements. 

The next day, general anesthesia was started and maintained via central venous catheter by 

propofol and fentanyl. In contrast, the pigs of the KETA group (n = 5) received ketamine 

intramuscularly prior to the induction of anesthesia by the injection of propofol-fentanyl via 

an ear vein. An intraluminal impedance catheter was manually introduced into the proximal 

duodenum. Measurements were recorded for 4 h. The KETA group showed a median duration of phase II that was shortened by 35%, while phase I was prolonged by 73% (P < 0.05). 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •115

In conclusion, when gastrointestinal motility has to be investigated, the effects of a single 

dose of ketamine, even for premedication, should be taken into consideration.

Descriptors: anesthetics, dissociative pharmacology, duodenum drug effects, gastrointestinal motility drug effects, ketamine pharmacology, swine physiology, duodenum physiology, 

electric impedance, gastrointestinal motility physiology, injections, intramuscular veterinary, 

random allocation.

Schoffmann, G., P. Winter, R. Palme, A. Pollak, G. Trittenwein, and J. Golej (2009). Haemodynamic changes and stress responses of piglets to surgery during total intravenous 

anaesthesia with propofol and fentanyl. Laboratory Animals 43(3): 243-248. ISSN: 0023-

6772.

NAL Call Number: QL55.A1L3

Abstract: The purpose of the study was to assess the haemodynamic (blood pressure and 

heart rate) changes and stress responses (serum cortisol and serum amyloid A [SAA] concentrations) to surgery in piglets during total intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA) with propofol and 

fentanyl. After preanaesthetic medication with intramuscular midazolam (0.5 mg/kg body 

mass), ketamine (10 mg/kg) and butorphanol (0.5 mg/kg) anaesthesia was induced in five 

piglets, with intravenous propofol (1 mg/kg) followed by tracheal intubation and mechanical 

lung ventilation. Soft tissue surgery was performed in the jugular and inguinal regions during 

TIVA with propofol (8 mg/kg/h) and fentanyl (35 og/kg/h). Anaesthesia was maintained for 

300 min after surgery as the piglets were the control group of a project involving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Mean plasma cortisol concentration decreased significantly 

(P < 0.05) from 59 pl 39.9 nmol/L (mean pl 1 SD) before surgery to 7.5 pl 2.5 nmol/L 300 

min after end of surgical procedure. The mean SAA concentrations increased over the same 

period from 1.6 pl 2.3 og/mL to 4.2 pl 5.6 og/mL without statistical significance. The baseline (presurgery) mean arterial pressure (MAP) was 72 pl 9 mmHg compared with 72 pl 11 

mmHg 300 min after end of surgery. Neither heart rate nor lactate concentrations changed 

significantly over the same time points: heart rate was 104 pl 11 and 103 pl 15 beats/min 

whereas mean lactate concentrations were reduced from 1.14 pl 0.45 mmol/L to 0.90 pl 0.22 

mmol/L. Haemodynamic stability, a decrease in serum cortisol and a non-statistically significant rise in mean SAA concentrations suggest that the anaesthetic described suppresses the 

stress response of piglets to surgery without adverse cardiovascular effects. Therefore, it may 

prove useful in cardiovascular research.

Descriptors: piglets, laboratory animals, surgery, anesthesia, general anesthetics, fentanyl, 

drug evaluation, combination drug therapy, intravenous injection, risk assessment, adverse 

effects, cardiovascular system, blood pressure, heart rate, animal stress, stress tolerance, biomarkers, cortisol, lactates, propofol-, serum-amyloid-A.

Schonreiter, S., V. Lohmuller, H. Huber, A.J. Zanella, J. Unshelm, and W. Erhardt (2000). Effects 

of CO2/O2-anaesthesia on behaviour, beta -endorphin- and cortisol concentrations of 

male piglets after castration. [Auswirkungen der CO2/O2-Narkose auf das Verhalten 

sowie die beta -Endorphin- und Cortisolkonzentrationen mannlicher Saugferkel nach 

der Kastration.]. KTBL Schrift(391): 137-145.

Descriptors: anesthesia, animal behavior, animal welfare, carbon dioxide, castration, endorphins, hydrocortisone, oxygen, stress, surgery.

Language of Text: German, Summary in English.

Notes: Meeting Information: Aktuelle Arbeiten zur artgemassen Tierhaltung 1999. Vortrage 
116• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

anlasslich der 31. Internationalen Arbeitstagung Angewandte Ethologie bei Nutztieren der 

Deutschen Veterinarmedizinischen Gesellschaft e. V. Fachgruppe Verhaltensforschung vom 

18. bis 20. November 1999 in Freiburg/Breisgau.

Schulz, C., M. Ritzmann, A. Palzer, K. Heinritzi, and S. Zols (2007). Effect of isoflurane-anesthesia 

on postoperative pain due to castration of piglets [Auswirkung einer Isofluran-Inhalations-narkose auf den postoperativen Kastrationsschmerz von Ferkeln.]. Berliner Und 

Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 120(5/6 ): 177-182. ISSN: 0005-9366.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 B45

Descriptors: anesthesia, castration, hydrocortisone, isoflurane, non steroidal antiinflammatory agents, cortisol peak, pain, piglets, postoperative care, postoperative complications.

Language of Text: German, Summary in English.

Schulz, C., M. Ritzmann, A. Palzer, K. Heinritzi, and S. Zols (2007). Auswirkung einer Isofluraninhalations- narkose auf den postoperativen Kastrationsschmerz von Ferkeln. [Effect of 

isoflurane inhalation anesthesia on postoperative pain due to castration of piglets]. Berliner Und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 120(5-6): 177-82. ISSN: 0005-9366.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 B45

Abstract: Since April 2006 piglets in Germany can only be castrated without anesthesia in 

the first 7 days of life. However, a castration is a painful experience even for an animal of 

this young age. Whether the castration under isoflurane-anesthesia is a reasonable alternative to castration without anesthesia was tested in the following investigation at 206 4 to 6 

day old piglets.The serum-cortisol-concentration was chosen as the parameter for the pain 

caused by castration. A part of the animals was castrated without anesthesia (group II, n = 

42) or with anesthesia (group IV, n = 41). Additionally Meloxicam, a non-steroidal antiinflammatory drug, was applicated to piglets castrated with anesthesia (group V, n = 41). 

For control another part of the animals were only handled without (group I, n = 41) or with 

anesthesia (group III, n = 41), but they were not castrated. Cortisol-concentration prior 

to castration was compared to the concentration 0.5, 1,4 and 24 hours after castration. In 

addition cortisol was compared between groups at all points of time. Cortisol did rise significantly in castrated animals with animals with or without anesthesia than in animals of the 

non-castrated control groups. Cortisol after castration was significantly lower in piglets with 

an application of Meloxicam prior to castration. The pain caused by castration is an explanation for the differences in cortisol-concentration between castrated and not-castrated animals. 

Regarding those results, we assume that castration with isoflurane-anesthesia does not fulfil 

the demand for reducing pain after castration compared to castrating piglets without anesthesia.

Descriptors: anesthesia, inhalation veterinary, anesthetics, inhalation administration and 

dosage, isoflurane administration and dosage, orchiectomy veterinary, pain, postoperative 

veterinary, swine surgery, animals, newborn surgery, anti inflammatory agents, non steroidal 

administration and dosage, handling psychology, hydrocortisone blood, orchiectomy adverse 

effects, orchiectomy methods, pain, postoperative drug therapy, pain, postoperative prevention and control, thiazines administration and dosage, thiazoles administration and dosage, 

time factors, treatment outcome.

Language of Text: German.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •117

Schuster, F., H. Scholl, M. Hager, R. Muller, N. Roewer, and M. Anetseder (2006). The doseresponse relationship and regional distribution of lactate after intramuscular injection 

of halothane and caffeine in malignant hyperthermia-susceptible pigs. Anesthesia and 

Analgesia 102(2): 468-72.

Abstract: We hypothesized that IM halothane and caffeine injection increases local lactate 

concentration dose-dependently in malignant hyperthermia-susceptible (MHS) and nonsusceptible (MHN) pigs and that the hypermetabolic reaction measured by regional distribution 

of lactate and carbon dioxide is limited to a small muscle volume. Microdialysis probes were 

placed in the hindlimbs of 7 MHS and 7 MHN pigs and perfused with Ringer’s solution. 

After equilibration, boluses of increasing halothane and caffeine concentrations were injected. 

For the second hypothesis regarding regional distribution, microdialysis probes were positioned in 7 MHS and 6 MHN pigs at the injection site for halothane and caffeine and at a 

distance of 10 mm and 25 mm. Lactate was measured in the dialysate by spectrophotometry. 

In addition, PCO2 was measured in the halothane experiments. Halothane and caffeine 

increased IM lactate dose-dependently in MHS pigs significantly more than in MHN pigs. 

Lactate and PCO2 were increased only at the injection site but not at 10 mm and 25 mm 

distance. MH susceptibility leads to a leftward shift of the dose-response curve for IM lactate 

after local injection of halothane and caffeine. The increase of lactate and carbon dioxide 

levels after local MH trigger injection is limited to a small area around the probe.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, caffeine pharmacology, halothane 

pharmacology, lactic acid metabolism, malignant hyperthermia metabolism, anesthetics, 

inhalation administration and dosage, caffeine administration and dosage, carbon dioxide 

blood, disease susceptibility, dose response relationship, drug, halothane administration and 

dosage, injections, intramuscular, malignant hyperthermia diagnosis, microdialysis, swine.

Schwarzkopf, K., T. Schreiber, R. Bauer, H. Schubert, N.P. Preussler, E. Gaser, U. Klein, and W. 

Karzai (2001). The effects of increasing concentrations of isoflurane and desflurane on 

pulmonary perfusion and systemic oxygenation during one-lung ventilation in pigs.

Anesthesia and Analgesia 93(6): 1434-8, Table of Contents. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: During one-lung ventilation (OLV), hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV) 

reduces venous admixture and attenuates the decrease in arterial oxygen tension by diverting 

blood from the nonventilated lung to the ventilated lung. In vitro, desflurane and isoflurane 

depress HPV in a dose-dependent manner. Accordingly, we studied the effects of increasing 

concentrations of desflurane and isoflurane on pulmonary perfusion, shunt fraction, and 

PaO(2) during OLV in vivo. Fourteen pigs (30-42 kg) were anesthetized, tracheally intubated, and mechanically ventilated. After placement of femoral arterial and thermodilution 

pulmonary artery catheters, a left-sided double-lumen tube (DLT) was placed via tracheotomy. After DLT placement, FIO(2) was adjusted at 0.8 and anesthesia was continued in 

random order with 3 concentrations (0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 minimal alveolar concentrations) 

of either desflurane or isoflurane. Differential lung perfusion was measured with colored 

microspheres. All measurements were made after stabilization at each concentration. Whereas 

mixed venous PO(2), mean arterial pressure, cardiac output, nonventilated lung perfusion, 

and shunt fraction decreased in a dose-dependent manner, PaO(2) remained unchanged with 

increasing concentrations of desflurane and isoflurane during OLV. In conclusion, increasing 

concentration of desflurane and isoflurane did not impair oxygenation during OLV in pigs. 

IMPLICATIONS: In an animal model of one-lung ventilation, increasing concentrations 

of desflurane and isoflurane dose-dependently decreased shunt fraction and perfusion of the 
118• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

nonventilated lung and did not impair oxygenation. The decreases in shunt fraction are likely 

the result of anesthetic-induced marked decreases in cardiac output and mixed venous saturation.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, isoflurane pharmacology, pulmonary 

circulation drug effects, respiration, artificial methods, anesthetics, inhalation administration 

and dosage, blood pressure drug effects, dose response relationship, drug, isoflurane administration and dosage, isoflurane analogs and derivatives, oxygen blood, respiratory mechanics 

drug effects, swine, vasoconstriction drug effects.

Schwarzkopf, K., T. Schreiber, N.P. Preussler, E. Gaser, L. Huter, R. Bauer, H. Schubert, and W. 

Karzai (2003). Lung perfusion, shunt fraction, and oxygenation during one-lung ventilation in pigs: the effects of desflurane, isoflurane, and propofol. Journal of Cardiothoracic 

and Vascular Anesthesia 17(1): 73-5. ISSN: 1053-0770.

NAL Call Number: RD87.3.H43

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To study how desflurane, isoflurane, and propofol affect pulmonary perfusion, shunt fraction, and systemic oxygenation during one-lung ventilation (OLV) 

in vivo. DESIGN: Prospective animal study with a crossover design. SETTING: Animal 

laboratory of a university hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Twelve female pigs. INTERVENTIONS: The pigs were anesthetized, tracheally intubated, and mechanically ventilated. After 

placement of femoral arterial and thermodilution pulmonary artery catheters, a left-sided, 

double-lumen tube (DLT) was placed via tracheotomy. After DLT placement, F(I)O(2) 

was adjusted at 0.8, and anesthesia was continued in random order with 1 minimal alveolar 

concentration of desflurane, 1 minimal alveolar concentration of isoflurane, or propofol. 

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Measurements of respiratory and hemodynamic parameters were made after stabilization at each anesthetic. During OLV, perfusion of 

the nonventilated lung and shunt fraction were comparable during all 3 anesthetics. PaO(2) 

was lower during desflurane and isoflurane anesthesia as compared with propofol anesthesia. Mixed venous PO(2) and cardiac output were lower with desflurane and isoflurane as 

compared with propofol. CONCLUSIONS: In a clinically relevant model of OLV cardiac 

output, PaO(2) and mixed venous PO(2) decreased during desflurane and isoflurane as 

compared with propofol, whereas perfusion of the nonventilated lung and shunt fraction 

remained comparable. Copyright 2003, Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, 

isoflurane analogs and derivatives, isoflurane pharmacology, oxygen blood, propofol pharmacology, pulmonary circulation drug effects, pulmonary circulation physiology, respiration, 

artificial statistics and numerical data, cross over studies, intubation, intratracheal, prospective studies, swine.

Schwarzkopf, K., T. Schreiber, E. Gaser, N.P. Preussler, L. Hueter, H. Schubert, H. Rek, and W. 

Karzai (2005). The effects of xenon or nitrous oxide supplementation on systemic oxygenation and pulmonary perfusion during one-lung ventilation in pigs. Anesthesia and 

Analgesia 100(2): 335-339. ISSN: 0003-2999.

DOI: 10.1213/01.ANE.0000142118.84049.80

Abstract: During experimental one-lung ventilation (OLV), the type of anesthesia may 

alter systemic hemodynamics, lung perfusion, and oxygenation. We studied whether xenon 

(Xe) or nitrous oxide (N2O) added to propofol anesthesia would affect oxygenation, lung 

perfusion, and systemic and pulmonary hemodynamics during OLV in a pig model. Nine 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •119

pigs were anesthetized, tracheally intubated, and mechanically ventilated. After placement of 

arterial and pulmonary artery catheters, a left-sided double-lumen tube was placed via tracheotomy. W anesthesia with propofol was supplemented in random order with N2O/O2 60:40 

or Xe/O2 60:40 or N2/O2 60:40. All measurements were made after stabilization at each 

concentration. Differential lung perfusion was measured with colored microspheres. Oxygenation (Pao2: 90 +/- 17, 95 +/- 20, and 94 +/- 20 mm Hg for N2/O2, N2O/O2, and Xe/

O2) and left lung perfusion (16% +/- 5%, 14% +/- 6%, and 18.8% for N2/O2, N2O/O2, 

and Xe/O2) during OLV did not differ among the 3 groups. However, mean arterial blood 

pressure (78 +/- 25, 62 +/- 23, and 66 +/- 23 mm Hg for N2/O2, N2O/O2, and Xe/O2) 

and mixed venous saturation (55% +/- 12%, 48% +/- 12%, and 50% +/- 12% for N2/O2, 

N2O/O2, and Xe/O2) were reduced during N2O/O2 as compared with the control group 

(N2/O2), Supplementation of IV anesthesia with Xe or N2O does not impair oxygenation 

nor alter lung perfusion during experimental OLV.

Descriptors: anesthesiology, cardiovascular system, anesthesia, lung perfusion , mechanical 

ventilation, one lung ventilation, oxygenation, tracheal intubation, tracheotomy, pulmonary 

hemodynamics, rnean arterial blood pressure, systemic hemodynamics .

Scolletta, S., S.M. Romano, B. Biagioli, G. Capannini, and P. Giomarelli (2005). Pressure recording 

analytical method (pram) for measurement of cardiac output during various haemodynamic states. British Journal of Anaesthesia 95(2): 159-165. ISSN: 0007-0912.

Descriptors: pharmacology, cardiovascular system: transport and circulation, methods and 

techniques, bland altman analysis, mathematical and computer techniques, pulmonary artery 

catheter, medical equipment, thermodilution, clinical techniques, diagnostic techniques, 

pressure recording analytical method, pram, clinical techniques, diagnostic techniques, beat 

by beat stroke volume monitoring, clinical techniques, diagnostic techniques, electromagnetic flowmetry, em co, clinical techniques, diagnostic techniques, femoral artery catheter, 

medical equipment, cardiac output, method accuracy, hemodynamic state, hypodynamic 

state.

Sen, S., L.M. Ytrebo, C. Rose, O.M. Fuskevaag, N.A. Davies, G.I. Nedredal, R. Williams, A. 

Revhaug, and R. Jalan (2004). Albumin dialysis: a new therapeutic strategy for intoxication from protein-bound drugs. Intensive Care Medicine 30(3): 496-501. ISSN: 0342-4642.

NAL Call Number: RC86

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: Although water-soluble drugs can be removed by haemofiltration/

haemodialysis, morbidity and mortality from intoxication with protein-bound drugs remains 

high. The present study investigates whether albumin dialysis in the form of the Molecular 

Adsorbents Recirculating System (MARS) is effective in removal of protein-bound drugs. 

DESIGN: Prospective animal study. SETTING: Surgical research laboratory in a university hospital. SUBJECTS: Seven female Norwegian Landrace pigs. INTERVENTION: We 

studied whether midazolam (97% albumin-bound) and fentanyl (85% alpha-1-acid glycoprotein-bound), administered as anaesthetics to pigs with induced acute liver failure, could 

be removed by MARS dialysis lasting for 4 h. MEASUREMENTS: After 4 h of dialysis, total 

and free anaesthetic concentrations were measured in the blood and dialysate from different 

segments of the MARS circuit. MAIN RESULTS: Midazolam: total plasma concentrations 

fell by 47.1+/-2.1% (in 4 h) across the MARS filter ( p<0.01). The charcoal component of 

the system reduced the total dialysate drug concentration by 16.4+/-2.2% ( p<0.05). Free 

midazolam removal followed a similar pattern. Fentanyl: total plasma concentrations fell by 
120• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

56.1+/-2.4% (in 4 h) across the MARS filter ( p<0.01). Clearance of fentanyl from the dialysate by the charcoal was 70+/-0.7% at 4 h ( p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The results of the 

study show that MARS can remove both albumin and other protein-bound drugs efficiently 

from the plasma, and it may have a place for the treatment of patients suffering from intoxication with this class of compounds.

Descriptors: anesthetics, intravenous blood, fentanyl blood, liver failure, acute therapy, 

midazolam blood, sorption detoxification methods, anesthetics, intravenous chemistry, fentanyl chemistry, linear models, midazolam chemistry, orosomucoid, protein binding, serum 

albumin, swine.

Notes: Comment In: Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2006;44(2):195-6.

Shafer, S.L. (2004). Shock values. Anesthesiology 101(3): 567-8. ISSN: 0003-3022.

Descriptors: anesthetics, intravenous adverse effects, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, propofol adverse effects, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacokinetics, propofol pharmacokinetics, 

shock, hemorrhagic physiopathology, shock, hemorrhagic therapy, swine.

Notes: Comment On: Anesthesiology. 2004 Sep;101(3):647-59.

Shahani, S.K., R. Lingamaneni, and H.C.J. Hemmings (2002). General anesthetic actions on 

norepinephrine, dopamine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid transporters in stably transfected cells. Anesthesia and Analgesia 95(4): 893-9, Table of Contents. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: The effects of general anesthetics on neurotransmitter uptake by plasma membrane transporters are controversial. We analyzed the effects of representative volatile and IV 

general anesthetics on recombinant transporters for norepinephrine (human NET), dopamine (rat DAT), or gamma-aminobutyric acid (rat GAT-1) stably expressed in a porcine 

kidney cell line (LLC-PK(1)). This approach avoids complicating factors associated with 

neuronal preparations, such as the involvement of multiple transporters and the indirect 

effects of membrane potential. At clinical concentrations, human NET was inhibited only 

by halothane (50% inhibitory concentration [IC(50)] = 0.54 mM), rat DAT was sensitive 

to both halothane and isoflurane (IC(50) = 0.60 and 0.64 mM, respectively), and rat GAT-1 

was insensitive to both volatile anesthetics. Human NET was inhibited in a dose-dependent 

fashion by propofol (IC(50) = 41 micro M), ketamine (IC(50) = 150 micro M), and etomidate (IC(50) > 200 micro M), but not by pentobarbital. Only propofol inhibited NET at a 

clinically relevant concentration (5 micro M). Rat DAT was inhibited in a dose-dependent 

fashion by propofol (IC(50) = 120 micro M), etomidate (IC(50) = 100 micro M), and ketamine (IC(50) = 210 micro M), but not by pentobarbital. None of these anesthetics was 

predicted to inhibit DAT at concentrations that produce anesthesia. Propofol inhibited rat 

GAT-1, but only at the largest concentration tested. General anesthetics have drug- and 

subtype-selective actions on neurotransmitter transporters. We conclude that effects on catecholamine, but not gamma-aminobutyric acid, transporters may contribute to secondary 

synaptic actions of certain anesthetics but are unlikely to be essential to their anesthetic properties. IMPLICATIONS: Previous studies have implicated neurotransmitter transporters as 

targets for general anesthetic effects on synaptic transmission. Recombinant transporters for 

norepinephrine and dopamine were sensitive to certain volatile and IV anesthetics, whereas 

gamma-aminobutyric acid transporters were insensitive. These anesthetic- and neurotransmitter-specific effects may underlie some of the secondary effects of general anesthetics.

Descriptors: anesthetics, general pharmacology, carrier proteins antagonists and inhibitors, membrane glycoproteins, membrane proteins antagonists and inhibitors, membrane 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •121

transport modulators, membrane transport proteins antagonists and inhibitors, nerve tissue 

proteins, organic anion transporters, symporters antagonists and inhibitors, dopamine 

plasma membrane transport proteins, dose response relationship, drug, gaba plasma membrane transport proteins, llc pk1 cells, norepinephrine plasma membrane transport proteins, 

rats, swine, transfection.

Shepherd, P.A., P.D. Eleazer, S.J. Clark, and J.P. Scheetz (2001). Measurement of intraosseous 

pressures generated by the Wand, high-pressure periodontal ligament syringe, and the 

Stabident system. Journal of Endodontics 27(6): 381-4. ISSN: 0099-2399.

NAL Call Number: RK351

Abstract: Intraosseous pressure generated by the use of three anesthetic systems-the Wand; a 

hand-operated high-pressure periodontal ligament (PDL) syringe; and the Stabident systemwere studied in fresh mandibles of 14 large swine. The mandibles were drilled and tapped 

in one area of both the right and left posterior molar regions. Pressure gauges were attached 

via threaded fittings. Pressures during injection were recorded for the Wand first, then the 

PDL syringe, and finally Stabident. Results showed averages of 8.3 mm Hg generated by the 

Wand, 16.3 mm Hg with the high-pressure PDL syringe, and 43.7 mm Hg from the Stabident system. Results were corroborated with data from three human cadaver mandibles.

Descriptors: anesthesia, dental instrumentation, mandible physiology, syringes, analysis of 

variance, cadaver, equipment design, injections instrumentation, manometry instrumentation, periodontal ligament, pressure, rheology, statistics, swine.

Sidi, A., J.D. Muehlschlegel, D.S. Kirby, and E.B. Lobato (2006). Treatment of ischaemic left ventricular dysfunction with milrinone or dobutamine administered during coronary artery 

stenosis in the presence of beta blockade in pigs. British Journal of Anaesthesia 97(6): 799-

807. ISSN: 0007-0912.

Descriptors: pharmacology, milrinone, dobutamine, cardiovascular system: transport and 

circulation, veterinary medicine: medical sciences, ischemic left ventricular dysfunction, vascular disease, drug therapy, surgery, etiology , coronary artery stenosis, heart disease, vascular 

disease, drug therapy, etiology, coronary occlusion.

Sigg, D.C. and P.A. Iaizzo (2006). In vivo versus in vitro comparison of swine cardiac performance: induction of cardiodepression with halothane. European Journal of Pharmacology

543(1-3 ): 97-107. ISSN: 0014-2999.

NAL Call Number: RS1

Abstract: An in situ versus in vitro comparison of relative dose-dependent effects of halothane on cardiac performance was investigated, including ventricular systolic/diastolic 

function. Such comparative studies may be of interest to individuals working on heart failure 

models, cardiac device testing, or xenotransplantation. Normal swine (n=9) received halothane at levels of 0.25, 0.5 and 1 MAC (minimum alveolar concentration) for 30 min each. 

Parameters assessed included: 1) heart rate; 2) arterial blood pressure; 3) pulmonary artery, 

central venous, left and right ventricular pressures; 4) cardiac output; 5) end-expiratory 

CO(2) and halothane levels; 6) cardiac temperature; and 7) arterial blood gases. Hearts were 

removed using standard cardioplegic procedures and reperfused in four-chamber working 

mode (n=8); again the effects of increasing halothane concentrations on cardiac performance 

were analyzed. When comparing biventricular depressive effects (negative inotropic, negative lusitropic) of halothane in vivo and in vitro, there were distinct quantitative differences. 
122• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

The negative lusitropic effects were less pronounced in vitro; this was especially true for the 

right ventricle. Yet, in vitro, halothane at all doses induced more pronounced decreases in left 

heart output compared to the right. The large mammalian isolated four-chamber working 

heart model allows for novel assessment of pharmacodynamics and/or evaluation of cardiac 

devices under a range of hemodynamic performances. Halothane, a cardiodepressive agent, 

induced direct myocardial depressive effects in vitro similar to those recorded in vivo; hence 

additional systemic effects are considered to play a minor role in ultimate performances, e.g., 

compensatory responses due to autonomic controls.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, halothane pharmacology, heart drug 

effects, myocardial contraction drug effects, blood gas analysis, blood pressure drug effects, 

body temperature drug effects, cardiac output drug effects, central venous pressure drug 

effects, depression, chemical, dose response relationship, drug, heart physiology, heart rate 

drug effects, models, animal, pulmonary gas exchange drug effects, swine, ventricular function, left drug effects, ventricular function, right drug effects, ventricular pressure drug 

effects.

Singer, D.D., A.J. Singer, S.A. McClain, and G. Tortora (2005). Histologic effects of laser-assisted 

topical anesthesia in a porcine model. Academic Emergency Medicine Official Journal of the 

Society for Academic Emergency Medicine 12(12): 1148-52.

Abstract: OBJECTIVES: A handheld laser device that removes the stratum corneum, the 

major barrier to transdermal absorption, has recently been approved to assist with topical 

anesthesia before painful procedures such as intravenous cannulation. The authors assessed 

the cutaneous histomorphologic effects of the laser device and the ability of the laser-treated 

skin to resist infection in a porcine model. METHODS: This was a blinded, randomized 

animal experiment using isoflurane-anesthetized young domestic pigs. The ventral surface 

of the animals was irradiated multiple times with a lightweight, portable erbium yttriumaluminum-garnet unit or a sham laser. One third of the wounds were inoculated with a 

Staphylococcus aureus suspension. The treated areas were then covered with a dry dressing, 

and full-thickness biopsy specimens of the treated areas were obtained immediately after 

treatment and at three, seven, ten, and 14 days for blinded histopathologic evaluation using 

hematoxylin and eosin staining and electron microscopy. Quantitative bacterial counts were 

obtained at three days in wounds exposed to bacteria. Main outcomes were quantitative 

bacterial counts, presence of cellular necrosis, epidermal integrity, and dermal scarring. Data 

analysis was conducted with descriptive statistics. RESULTS: Laser irradiation resulted in 

immediate disruption of the cornified layer of the skin and necrosis of the stratum spinosum in all treated areas. There were also focal areas of vacuolar alteration of the basal one 

third of the epidermis. There was no evidence of any damage to the basement membrane 

or the underlying dermis. At three days, the epidermis had healed and there was evidence 

of epidermal hyperplasia and hyperkeratosis that was completely resolved by 14 days. There 

were no infections and no scarring. Sham laser had no histomorphologic effects on the skin. 

There was no bacterial growth from all sham laser-treated wounds challenged with bacteria. 

Three of 20 (15%; 95% confidence interval = 0% to 31%) laser-irradiated wounds that were 

challenged with bacteria grew between 280,000 and 1,600,000 colony-forming units/g. 

CONCLUSIONS: Laser irradiation results in ablation of the stratum corneum and a superficial burn to the epidermis that heals by three to 14 days without any scarring or infection in 

pigs. Challenging laser-irradiated cutaneous wounds with a large bacterial inoculum resulted 

in bacterial growth in a minority of wounds.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •123

Descriptors: anesthesia, local methods, laser therapy, low level methods, skin pathology, 

skin radiation effects, administration, topical, bacterial infections radiotherapy, disease 

models, animal, random allocation, reference values, sus scrofa, wound healing radiation 

effects.

Sintov, A.C. and R. Brandys Sitton (2006). Facilitated skin penetration of lidocaine: combination 

of a short-term iontophoresis and microemulsion formulation. International Journal of 

Pharmaceutics 316(1-2): 58-67. ISSN: 0378-5173.

NAL Call Number: RS122.A1I5

Abstract: The objective of this study was to demonstrate the potential of the application 

of a short-term iontophoresis on the topical delivery of lidocaine hydrochloride from a 

microemulsion-based system. Five- and 10-min durations of anodal iontophoresis applied 

onto porcine skin were examined in combination with a microemulsion containing 2.5% 

lidocaine hydrochloride. A similar combination (10-min iontophoresis with microemulsion 

in the anodal electrode) was also examined in vivo in a rat model. It was shown in vitro that 

by combining microemulsion application with a 10-min iontophoresis of 1.13 mA/cm2 

electric current density, a significantly increased flux was obtained compared with a combination of aqueous drug solution with the same iontophoresis protocol. In vivo studies revealed 

that 57.71 +/- 18.65 and 18.43 +/- 9.17 microg cm(-2) were reached in the epidermis and 

dermis, respectively, at t = 30 min of microemulsion application, when iontophoresis was 

applied for 10 min. In contrast, the application of aqueous solution-iontophoresis resulted 

in a relatively lower drug accumulation (21.44 +/- 10.42 and 5.30 +/- 2.25 microg cm(-2) in 

the epidermis and dermis, respectively, at t = 30) with more rapid clearance of the drug from 

the skin. Ten-minute application of a low-current electric field on a new topical microemulsion appears to make significant changes in skin permeability. The potential advantages of 

this procedure include significantly increased flux, accumulation of a large skin drug depot, 

short lag times, reduced irritation (compared to long-term iontophoresis), simplicity and ease 

of compliance.

Descriptors: anesthetics, local administration and dosage, anesthetics, local chemistry, anesthetics, local pharmacokinetics, iontophoresis, lidocaine administration and dosage, lidocaine 

chemistry, lidocaine pharmacokinetics, skin metabolism, chromatography, high pressure 

liquid, drug carriers, drug compounding, emulsions, hydrogen ion concentration, rabbits, 

rats, rats, sprague dawley, skin absorption, skin physiology, swine, time factors.

Slater, J.M., T.A. Orszulak, and D.J. Cook (2001). Independent control of brain and body temperature using an endoaortic baffle (cardeon cobratm) during cardiopulmonary bypass 

(cpb) in swine. Anesthesia and Analgesia 92(4 Supplement): SCA61. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Descriptors: equipment, apparatus, devices and instrumentation, cardiovascular system: 

transport and circulation, cobra endoaortic baffle, equipment , cardiopulmonary bypass, 

experimental method, surgical method, body temperature, cerebral protection, hemodynamics, meeting abstract.

Notes: Meeting Information: 23rd Annual Meeting of the Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists, Vancouver, BC, Canada; May 5-9, 2001.

Smith, A.C. and M. Swindle (2008). Anesthesia and analgesia in swine. In: R.E. Fish Anesthesia and 

Analgesia in Laboratory Animals., 2nd edition, Academic: Amsterdam; Boston; London, p. 

413-440. ISBN: 978-0-12-373898-1. 
124• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

NAL Call Number: SF996.5 .A54 2008

Abstract: This chapter is an updated version of the book chapter on porcine anesthesia that 

was written for the first edition of this textbook. In the first edition, the submission on cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and malignant hyperthermia (MH) was written by William J. 

Ehler, DVM. He is not a coauthor on this version of the chapter; however, his original submission is retained mostly intact with updates from the literature.

Descriptors: surgery, anesthetic delivery, inhalation anesthesia, injectable anesthetics and 

tranquilizers, analgesia, postsurgical care, cardiopulmonary bypass .

Notes: Previous ed.: 1997.

Sondhi, S.M., N. Singh, A.M. Lahoti, K. Bajaj, A. Kumar, O. Lozach, and L. Meijer (2005). Synthesis of acridinyl-thiazolino derivatives and their evaluation for anti-inflammatory, 

analgesic and kinase inhibition activities. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry 13(13): 

4291-9. ISSN: 0968-0896.

NAL Call Number: QP550.B55

Abstract: Variety of N-(4-phenyl-3-(2’,3’,4’(un)substituted phenyl)thiazol-2(3H)-

ylidene)-2,4(un)substituted acridin-9-amine (4a-o) and 1-[(2,4-(un)substituted 

acridin-9-yl)-3-(4-phenyl-3-(2’,3’,4’(un)substituted phenyl)thiazol-2(3H)-ylidene)]isothiourea (5a-h) derivatives have been synthesized by condensation of 4-phenyl-3-(2’,3’,4’(un)

substituted phenyl)thiazol-2(3H)-imine (3a-g) with 9-chloro-2,4-(un)substituted acridine 

(1a-c) and 9-isothiocyanato-2,4-(un)substituted acridine (2a-d), respectively. All these compounds were characterized by correct 1H NMR, FT-IR, MS and elemental analyses. These 

compounds were screened for anti-inflammatory, analgesic and kinase (CDK1, CDK5 and 

GSK3) inhibition activities. Some compounds exhibited good anti-inflammatory (25-32%) 

and potent analgesic (50-75%) activities, at 50 mg/kg p.o. A compound, 4o (R1 = H, R2 = 

OCH3, R3 = CH3, R4 = CH3, R5 = H) exhibited moderate CDK1 (IC50 = 8.5 microM) 

inhibition activity.

Descriptors: acridines chemical synthesis, analgesics chemical synthesis, anti inflammatory 

agents, non steroidal chemical synthesis, enzyme inhibitors chemical synthesis, thiazoles 

chemical synthesis, acridines chemistry, acridines pharmacology , analgesics chemistry, analgesics pharmacology, anti inflammatory agents, non steroidal chemistry, anti inflammatory 

agents, non steroidal pharmacology, benzoquinones toxicity, brain metabolism, cdc2 protein 

kinase metabolism, carrageenan toxicity, cyclin dependent kinase 5, cyclin dependent kinases 

metabolism, edema chemically induced, edema prevention and control, enzyme inhibitors 

chemistry, enzyme inhibitors pharmacology, glycogen synthase kinase 3 metabolism, mice, 

pain measurement drug effects, rats, swine, thiazoles chemistry, thiazoles pharmacology.

Sugaya, I., T. Qu, K. Sugaya, and G.D. Pappas (2006). Genetically engineered human mesenchymal stem cells produce met-enkephalin at augmented higher levels in vitro. Cell 

Transplantation 15(3): 225-30. ISSN: 0963-6897.

NAL Call Number: RM287.C45

Abstract: We have reported that transplantation of adrenal medullary chromaffin cells that 

release endogenous opioid peptides into pain modulatory regions in the CNS produce significant antinociceptive effects in patients with terminal cancer pain. However, the usefulness 

of this procedure is minimal because the availability of human adrenal tissue is very limited. 

Alternative xenogeneic materials, such as porcine and bovine adrenal chromaffin cells present 

problems of immune rejection and possible pathogenic contamination. In an attempt to 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •125

develop opioid peptide-producing cells of autologous origin, we have transfected human 

mesenchymal stem cells (hMeSCs) with a mammalian expression vector containing a fusion 

gene of green fluorescent protein (GFP) and human preproenkephalin (hPPE), a precursor 

protein for enkephalin opioid peptides. Enkephalins are major neurotransmitters that play an 

important role in analgesia by activating peripheral opioid receptors. Following the establishment of stable transfection of hMeSCs, the expressions of hPPE and GFP were confirmed 

and the production of methionine enkephalin (Met-enkephalin) was significantly increased 

compared to control naive hMeSCs (p < 0.05). Our in vitro data demonstrated that genetically engineered hMeSCs with transfected hPPE gene can constitutively produce opioid 

peptide Met-enkephalin at an augmented high level. hMeSCs are relatively easy to isolate 

from a patient’s bone marrow aspirates and expand in culture by repeated passages. Autologous hMeSCs would not require immunosuppression when transplanted back into the same 

patient. Through targeted gene manipulation such as hPPE gene transfection, this may offer 

a virtually unlimited safe cell supply for the treatment of opioid-sensitive pain in humans.

Descriptors: analgesics metabolism, enkephalin, methionine genetics, enkephalin, methionine metabolism, mesenchymal stem cell transplantation methods, mesenchymal stem cells 

metabolism, analgesics therapeutic use, analgesics, opioid therapeutic use, cell proliferation, 

cells, cultured, dna genetics, enkephalins genetics, gene expression regulation genetics, gene 

fusion, genetic engineering, genetic vectors, green fluorescent proteins genetics, mesenchymal 

stem cells cytology, pain drug therapy, protein precursors genetics, reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, transfection.

Swindle, M.M. (2007). Anesthesia, analgesia, and perioperative care. In: M.M. Swindle Swine in 

the Laboratory: Surgery, Anesthesia, Imaging, and Experimental Techniques, 2nd edition, CRC 

Press: Boca Raton, p. 33-98. ISBN: <41 ISBN>. 

Online: Table of contents only: http://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/ecip077/2006102924.html

NAL Call Number: RD29.5.S94.S944 2007

Descriptors: anesthetic induction, endotracheal intubation, malignant hyperthermia, paralytic agents, postoperative monitoring, preanesthetic agents, injectable anesthetic agents, 

inhalant anesthetics, analgesics, general physiological effects of anesthetics, euthanasia.

Taguchi, K. (2006). Indications for ketamine in the anaesthesia and surgery of farm animals. 

Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Japan 59(8): 659-662. ISSN: 0447-0192 .

Descriptors: anesthesia, ketamine, surgery, cattle, pigs.

Language of Text: Japanese.

Takala, R.S., H.R. Soukka, O.A. Kirvela, H.P. Kujari, L.J. Pelliniemi, P.O. Kaapa, and R.E. Aantaa 

(2002). Alveolar integrity and ultrastructure in pigs remain undamaged after exposure to 

sevoflurane. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 46(9): 1137-43. ISSN: 0001-5172.

Abstract: Previous studies have shown that both halothane and isoflurane have adverse but 

reversible effects on alveolar physiology. The present study was designed to test the hypothesis that also sevoflurane may affect alveolar integrity. Fifteen pigs were randomly selected to 

receive either thiopentone infusion (control group, n=8) or sevoflurane (n=7) at 4.0% inspiratory concentration (1.5 MAC) in air for 6 h. Tissue samples from the lungs were obtained 

at the end of the experiment. Both histopathological light microscopy and electron microscopy were used to assess the structural integrity of the alveoli. Pulmonary hemodynamics 

were comparable in both groups. Light microscopy showed no difference between the groups 
126• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

in the amount of alveolar macrophages, red blood cells or edema. Electron microscopy 

showed minor changes such as moderate local swelling of alveolar epithelium in both study 

groups. Alveolar type II cells were ultrastructurally unaltered in both study groups. We conclude that long-term, high concentration exposure to sevoflurane has no detrimental effect 

on the alveolar integrity in pigs.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, methyl ethers pharmacology, pulmonary 

alveoli drug effects, anesthesia, anesthetics, inhalation toxicity, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, epithelium ultrasonography, hemodynamic processes drug effects, methyl ethers 

toxicity, microscopy, electron, pulmonary alveoli pathology, pulmonary alveoli ultrastructure, 

swine, thiopental toxicity.

Takala, R.S., H.R. Soukka, M.S. Salo, O.A. Kirvela, P.O. Kaapa, A.A. Rajamaki, A. Riutta, and R.E. 

Aantaa (2004). Pulmonary inflammatory mediators after sevoflurane and thiopentone 

anaesthesia in pigs. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 48(1): 40-5. ISSN: 0001-5172.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Volatile anaesthetics have been shown to affect the release of 

pulmonary inflammatory mediators and exacerbate pulmonary injury after experimental 

aspiration. Thus, in theory, volatile anaesthetics may worsen inflammatory pulmonary injury 

and disease. We have previously described that no significant changes in alveolar ultrastructure are seen after sevoflurane anaesthesia. However, this does not exclude any possible 

physiological alterations. The aim of our study was to evaluate pulmonary inflammatory 

mediators in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) after sevoflurane and thiopentone anaesthesia in 

pigs with intact lungs. METHODS: Sixteen pigs were randomly selected to receive either 

a continuous thiopentone infusion (control group, n = 8) or sevoflurane (n = 8) at 4.0% 

inspiratory concentration (1.5 MAC) in air for 6 h. Bronchoalveolar lavage samples were collected at the end of the study to determine pulmonary inflammatory markers. RESULTS: 

Compared with thiopentone anaesthesia, significant increases in BAL leukotriene C4 

(LTC4), NO3-, and NO2- levels were observed after sevoflurane anaesthesia. In addition, 

there was a significant decrease in total blood leukocyte count in sevoflurane-treated animals. 

CONCLUSION: We conclude that sevoflurane increases pulmonary LTC4, NO3-, and 

NO2- production in pigs, indicating an inflammatory response.

Descriptors: anesthesia, anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, anesthetics, intravenous 

pharmacology, inflammation mediators metabolism, lung metabolism, methyl ethers pharmacology, thiopental pharmacology, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid chemistry, bronchoalveolar 

lavage fluid cytology, cytokines biosynthesis, eicosanoids biosynthesis, leukocyte count, leukotriene c4 biosynthesis, lung drug effects, nitric oxide biosynthesis, swine.

Tanaka, H., T. Igarashi, A.T. Lefor, and E. Kobayashi (2009). The effects of fasting and general 

anesthesia on serum chemistries in KCG miniature pigs. Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science 48(1): 33-38. ISSN: 1559-6109.

Online: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2694709

NAL Call Number: SF405.3 .A23

Abstract: Investigators are obligated to optimize the perioperative care of experimental 

animals, but little is known about the effects of anesthesia and surgery on serum chemistries 

in KCG pigs. The objective of this study was to examine the influence of fasting and surgery 

under general anesthesia on 27 serum chemistries in KCG miniature pigs to improve management. Crossbred KCG minipigs were used at a mean of 12.3 mo of age (range, 8.6 to 

14.9) and 33.4 kg of body weight (range, 24.0 to 40.2). Serum chemistries were evaluated 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •127

at the start and end of a 24 h fasting period in fasted animals (n=6). No significant differences were observed between the starting and postfasting studies. Partial hemilaminectomy of 

the lumbar spine was carried out in 2 groups of animals. Those given sevoflurane anesthesia 

(n=7) had significant decreases in serum albumin, potassium, inorganic phosphorus, gamma 

-glutamyltransferase peptidase, cholinesterase, and glucose postoperatively compared with 

preoperative values. Animals given isoflurane (n=7) anesthesia had significantly decreased 

total protein, albumin, triglyceride, phospholipids, sodium, potassium, calcium, alanine 

aminotransferase, alkaline phoshatase and glucose after surgery compared with levels before 

surgery. In a separate experiment (n=7), serum glucose and insulin also decreased during the 

postoperative period after isoflurane anesthesia. These results demonstrate that select serum 

electrolytes, glucose, and insulin of KCG miniature pigs are altered after general anesthesia. 

Investigators must be aware of the effects of anesthetic agents on experimental animals to 

provide optimal care and for interpretation of experimental data.

Descriptors: alanine aminotransferase, albumins, anesthesia, blood chemistry, blood proteins, blood sugar, calcium, cholinesterase, crossbreds, enzyme activity, fasting, gamma 

glutamyltransferase, isoflurane, miniature pigs , peptidases, phospholipids, phosphorus, pig 

feeding, potassium, sodium, surgery, surgical operations, triacylglycerols, pigs.

Tiwari, S.K., R. Sharda, O.P. Mishra, S.P. Ingole, S.K. Chourasia, S. Jogi, and R. Dewangan (2006). 

Clinico-physiological and haemato-biochemical response to xylazine-propofol anaesthesia in pigs. Indian Journal of Veterinary Surgery 27(2): 119-120. ISSN: 0254-4105.

NAL Call Number: SF604.I45 

Descriptors: anesthesia, anesthetics, blood chemistry, body temperature, haematology, heart 

rate, potency, propofol, reflexes, respiration rate, xylazine, pigs.

Tsibiribi, P., C. Bui Xuan, B. Bui Xuan, A. Tabib, J. Descotes, P. Chevalier, M.C. Gagnieu, M. 

Belkhiria, and Q. Timour (2006). The effects of ropivacaine at clinically relevant doses on 

myocardial ischemia in pigs. Journal of Anesthesia 20(4): 341-3. ISSN: 0913-8668.

Abstract: A major risk associated with bupivacaine during myocardial ischemia is ventricular fibrillation. We investigated the influence of ropivacaine on cardiac contractility and the 

propensity to ventricular fibrillation before and after myocardial ischemia in a placebo-controlled pig study. Anesthetized domestic pigs were administered 1 mg.kg(-1) of ropivacaine 

intravenously over 1 min and then 0.03 mg.kg(-1).min(-1) as a 30-min infusion, or saline. 

The following endpoints were measured before and after ropivacaine administration: (1) the 

ventricular fibrillation threshold (VFT) before and during myocardial ischemia induced by 

total transient ligation of the anterior interventricular artery and (2) electrophysiological 

(sinus heart rate, duration of QRS and QT intervals) and hemodynamic (blood pressure, the 

time derivative of left ventricular pressure [peak LV dP/dt]) parameters. Ropivacaine induced 

no changes in sinus heart rate, QRS, and or QT before or during ischemia. In contrast, 

there was a mild increase in the VFT before ischemia, which was drastically and significantly 

reduced during ischemia. The reduction of peak LV dP/dt during ischemia was further 

increased by ropivacaine. We also found that the effect of ropivacaine on the VFT was coronary blood flow-dependent, with a markedly decreased threshold in the presence of ischemia. 

Similar effects have been observed in humans with several other local anesthetics, as well as 

with class I antiarrhythmic drugs. The results of this study should be taken into account by 

anesthesiologists when administering ropivacaine to coronary patients.

Descriptors: amides pharmacology, anesthetics, local pharmacology, myocardial contrac-
128• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

tion drug effects, myocardial ischemia physiopathology, ventricular fibrillation chemically 

induced, monitoring, physiologic, swine, ventricular fibrillation physiopathology.

Tsui, B.C., D. Emery, R.R. Uwiera, and B. Finucane (2005). The use of electrical stimulation 

to monitor epidural needle advancement in a porcine model. Anesthesia and Analgesia

100(6): 1611-3. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: Muscle twitches elicited with electrical stimulation (ES) during epidural insertion 

may indicate epidural needle location. We examined the potential application of ES at 5 mA 

as a continuous method of monitoring the response to epidural needle advancement in a 

porcine model. Five 20-kg pigs were used in this study. A needle with a stimulating current of 

5 mA was inserted at 20 separate levels in each pig. The needle was advanced until a muscle 

twitch was observed without loss-of-resistance (LOR). The needle position was then assessed 

using LOR. At the end of the experiment, an autopsy was performed to assess the spinal 

cord for injury. A total of 100 needle insertions were performed in the 5 pigs. The threshold 

current in the epidural space was 3.6 +/- 0.6 mA. In 59 of the needle insertions, LOR was 

not obtained at the depth at which a muscle twitch was initially observed. However, after 

advancing these 59 needles another 1-2 mm, LOR was obtained. In the other 41 insertions, 

LOR was observed without further advancement of the needle. Autopsies indicated there 

were no dural punctures or spinal cord damage in any of the pigs. These observations suggest 

that ES can be used to signal that the epidural needle is in or approaching the epidural space. 

However, the high false positive predictive value (59%) makes it impractical and unreliable 

to detect the precise entry of a needle into the epidural space in pigs.

Descriptors: anesthesia, epidural methods, electric stimulation, anesthesia, epidural 

instrumentation, dura mater anatomy and histology, false positive reactions, monitoring, 

intraoperative, needles, pilot projects, swine.

Tsyv’ian, P.B., I.D. Medvinskii, O.G. Artem’eva, and S.V. Kinzhalova (2001). Anestetiki i 

razvivaiushcheesia serdtse. [Anesthetics and the developing heart]. Anesteziologiia i Reanimatologiia(1): 72-5. ISSN: 0201-7563.

Abstract: Effects of various anesthetics on the myocardium of developing heart are reviewed. 

Anesthetics suppress myocardial contractility in a fetus and newborn more intensively than 

in an adult. This is due to immature cell mechanisms regulating cardiomyocyte contractile activity and specific effect of the autonomic nervous system on the heart. It is obvious 

that the problem of interactions between anesthetics and developing cardiovascular system 

remains important because of constant introduction of new drugs with new cell and organ 

effects into practical anesthesiology.

Descriptors: anesthetics pharmacology, fetal heart drug effects, heart drug effects, adult, 

age factors, anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, anesthetics, local pharmacology, animals, 

newborn, baroreflex drug effects, cats, diastole drug effects, heart growth and development, 

infant, newborn, myocardial contraction drug effects, rabbits, swine, systole drug effects.

Language of Text: Russian.

Ugarte, C.E. and K. O’Flaherty (2005). The use of a medetomidine, butorphanol and atropine 

combination to enable blood sampling in young pigs. New Zealand Veterinary Journal

53(4): 249-52. ISSN: 0048-0169.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 N483

Abstract: AIM: To determine the suitability of a reversible, injectable anaesthetic com-
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •129

bination including medetomidine, butorphanol and atropine to produce the degree of 

immobilisation required to allow blood sampling in young pigs. METHODS: Twenty 

6-week-old crossbred, intact male pigs were sedated with an intramuscular (I/M) injection 

of 80 microg/kg medetomidine, 200 microg/kg butorphanol and 25 microg/kg atropine. 

Heart and respiratory rates and rectal temperatures were monitored. Excessive salivation, 

gagging, laryngeal reflex, presence of pedal reflex and deep and surface analgesia were noted. 

Time of injection and the time when pigs reached mild and full sedation were also recorded. 

RESULTS: Mild sedation was produced in 90% of pigs after 5.6 (SEM 0.96) min (n = 18; 

median 5, range 2-16 min), and full sedation (lateral recumbency and loss of jaw tone) in 

60% of pigs after 12.5 (SEM 2.14) min (n = 12; median 10, range 5-28 min). The depth and 

duration of sedation were very variable and most animals were easily aroused. Ninety percent 

of the animals required the administration of halothane by mask to allow blood sampling, 

but the amount of halothane required was small. Heart and respiratory rates decreased (p 

< 0.001) but remained within the normal range. Rectal temperature was above normal at 

the time of sedation and at the time of blood sampling when the ambient temperature was 

29 degrees C but not when the ambient temperature was reduced to 25 degrees C. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of medetomidine, butorphanol and atropine at these doses 

produced sedation of variable depth and duration that was insufficient on its own to allow 

blood sampling in the majority of pigs. Hyperthermia can occur in temperature-controlled 

environments when using medetomidine, butorphanol and atropine in pigs. Reduction of 

stress and a quieter environment may improve the effects of the anaesthetic combination.

Descriptors: anesthesia veterinary, anesthetics, combined administration and dosage, blood 

specimen collection veterinary, swine physiology, animals, newborn, atropine administration 

and dosage, blood specimen collection methods, butorphanol administration and dosage, 

injections, intramuscular veterinary, medetomidine administration and dosage, swine blood.

Vagts, D.A., K. Hecker, T. Iber, J.P. Roesner, A. Spee, B. Otto, R. Rossaint, and G.F. Noldge 

Schomburg (2004). Effects of xenon anaesthesia on intestinal oxygenation in acutely 

instrumented pigs. British Journal of Anaesthesia 93(6): 833-41. ISSN: 0007-0912.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Xenon is a narcotic gas that might be able to replace volatile 

anaesthetics or nitrous oxide due to its favourable pharmacological properties, such as providing haemodynamic stability. Intestinal oxygenation is affected by most volatile anaesthetics 

as a result of cardiodepressive effects. Reducing oxygenation of the gut might be a factor 

leading to perioperative organ dysfunction. This animal study was designed to assess the 

effects of xenon on intestinal oxygenation. METHODS: After ethical approval, 24 anaesthetized, acutely instrumented pigs were randomly assigned to three groups: nine animals 

received xenon anaesthesia with inspiratory concentrations of 0, 20, 50 and 65% in addition 

to their basic i.v. anaesthesia, nine animals served as a study control group, and five animals 

were used to assess model stability. Measurement of systemic and regional haemodynamic 

and oxygenation parameters was made 30 min after changing the xenon concentration. 

RESULTS: Xenon elicited dose-dependent systemic haemodynamic changes: heart rate and 

cardiac output decreased by 30%, while mean arterial pressure was stable. Superior mesenteric artery blood flow was lower in the xenon group. Vascular resistance of the superior 

mesenteric artery increased. The small intestinal oxygen supply decreased with increasing 

xenon concentration; the mucosal tissue oxygen partial pressure decreased but did not reach 

hypoxic (<5 mm Hg) values. Serosal tissue oxygen partial pressure was maintained. CONCLUSIONS: Xenon, in addition to basic i.v. anaesthesia, elicited a decrease in cardiac output 
130• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

and maintained mean arterial pressure. Intestinal oxygenation was maintained, although 

regional macrohaemodynamic perfusion decreased. Xenon does not impair intestinal oxygenation under physiological conditions. 

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, intestines blood supply, oxygen 

consumption drug effects, xenon pharmacology, anesthetics, combined pharmacology, anesthetics, intravenous pharmacology, dose response relationship, drug, epinephrine blood, 

hemodynamic processes drug effects, intestinal mucosa blood supply, mesenteric artery, 

superior drug effects, mesenteric artery, superior physiology, models, animal, norepinephrine 

blood, oxygen blood, partial pressure, regional blood flow drug effects, swine, vascular resistance drug effects.

Vagts, D.A., T. Iber, M. Puccini, B. Szabo, J. Haberstroh, F. Villinger, K. Geiger, and G.F. Noldge 

Schomburg (2003). The effects of thoracic epidural anesthesia on hepatic perfusion and 

oxygenation in healthy pigs during general anesthesia and surgical stress. Anesthesia and 

Analgesia 97(6): 1824-32. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: Perioperative liver injury due to decreased perfusion may be an underlying mechanism behind the development of systemic inflammatory response syndrome. We designed 

this animal study to assess whether thoracic epidural anesthesia (TEA) impairs liver oxygenation due to induced hypotension. After ethical approval, 19 anesthetized and acutely 

instrumented pigs were randomly assigned to 3 groups (control and TEA alone versus TEA 

plus volume loading). Bupivacaine 0.5% 0.75 mL per segment was injected into the epidural 

space, aiming for a T5 to T12 block. After baseline values were obtained, measurements were 

repeated 60 and 120 min after epidural injection. TEA was associated with decreased mean 

arterial blood pressure but no change in total hepatic blood flow. Oxygen delivery to the 

liver and oxygen uptake remained unchanged. Liver tissue oxygen partial pressure did not 

decrease. The plasma indocyanine green disappearance rate remained stable. Volume loading 

before TEA did not relevantly affect total hepatic blood flow; it even decreased oxygen supply 

to the liver by hemodilution. We conclude that, despite decreased mean arterial blood pressure, TEA did not affect liver oxygenation. There was no clinically relevant effect of volume 

loading on total hepatic perfusion.

Descriptors: anesthesia, epidural, anesthesia, general, liver metabolism, liver circulation 

physiology, oxygen consumption physiology, stress physiopathology, surgical procedures, 

operative adverse effects, cardiac output physiology, catheterization, epinephrine blood, 

hepatic artery physiology, lactic acid metabolism, laparotomy, nitroglycerin pharmacology, 

norepinephrine blood, portal vein physiology, pulmonary artery physiology, swine, vasodilator agents pharmacology.

Vagts, D.A., T. Iber, J.P. Roesner, C. Mutz, V. Kurzweg, C. Harkner, K. Bruderlein, and G.F. Noldge 

Schomburg (2005). Effects of systemically applied clonidine on intestinal perfusion and 

oxygenation in healthy pigs during general anaesthesia and laparotomy. European Journal 

of Anaesthesiology 22(11): 879-86. ISSN: 0265-0215.

Abstract: BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Clonidine, which is used for induction 

of sympatholysis and prevention or treatment of alcohol withdrawal in anaesthesia and 

intensive care medicine, may have deleterious effects on intestinal mucosal perfusion. This 

study was designed to investigate the effects of clonidine on intestinal perfusion and oxygenation. METHODS: Following ethical approval 17 anaesthetized, and acutely instrumented 

pigs were randomly assigned to two groups: eight animals received intravenous clonidine 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •131

(2 microg kg(-1) bolus and 2 microg kg(-1) h(-1)), nine animals served as a control group. 

Measurement points for systemic and regional haemodynamic and oxygenation parameters 

were 135 and 315 min after starting the clonidine application. RESULTS: Clonidine elicited 

systemic haemodynamic changes (median [25-75th interquartile range]): heart rate (106 

[91, 126] to 84 [71, 90] beats min(-1)) cardiac output (147 [123, 193] to 90 [87, 107] mL 

min(-1) kg(-1)) and mean arterial pressure (77 [72, 93] to 69 [61, 78] mmHg) decreased. 

Despite systemic haemodynamic changes, the superior mesenteric artery blood flow did 

not change in the clonidine group. The vascular resistance of the superior mesenteric artery 

decreased. The small intestinal oxygen supply, the mucosal and the serosal tissue oxygen 

partial pressure did not change. CONCLUSIONS: Systemic sympatholysis induced by intravenously applied clonidine in addition to basic intravenous anaesthesia elicited a decrease in 

cardiac output and mean arterial pressure. However, regional macrohaemodynamic perfusion 

was maintained and intestinal oxygenation did not change. Clonidine does not impair intestinal mucosal and serosal oxygenation under physiological conditions.

Descriptors: anesthesia, general, clonidine adverse effects, intestine, small blood supply, 

intestine, small drug effects, intestine, small metabolism, laparotomy, oxygen metabolism, 

sympatholytics adverse effects, clonidine administration and dosage, hemodynamic processes 

drug effects, intestinal mucosa blood supply, intestinal mucosa drug effects, intestinal mucosa 

metabolism, splanchnic circulation drug effects, sus scrofa, sympatholytics administration 

and dosage.

Vagts, D.A., T. Iber, B. Szabo, J. Haberstroh, K. Reising, M. Puccini, K. Geiger, and G.F. Noldge 

Schomburg (2003). Effects of epidural anaesthesia on intestinal oxygenation in pigs.

British Journal of Anaesthesia 90(2): 212-20. ISSN: 0007-0912.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Perioperative intestinal hypoperfusion is a major contributing 

factor leading to organ dysfunction. It can be caused by stress as a result of surgical manipulation or hypoxia. Additionally, anaesthesia can affect intestinal oxygenation. This animal study 

was designed to assess the effects of reduced regional sympathetic nervous activity induced by 

thoracic epidural anaesthesia on intestinal oxygenation. METHODS: After ethical approval, 

16 anaesthetized and acutely instrumented pigs were randomly assigned to two groups (epidural anaesthesia alone vs epidural anaesthesia plus volume loading). The epidural anaesthesia 

aimed for a T5-T12 block. Measurements were at baseline and after 1 and 2 h. RESULTS: 

Epidural anaesthesia was associated with a decrease in mean arterial blood pressure and pronounced mesenteric vasodilatation. Mesenteric blood flow did not change. Intestinal oxygen 

uptake, mucosal tissue oxygen partial pressure and tissue carbon dioxide partial pressure 

remained unchanged. CONCLUSIONS: Despite marked systemic hypotension, epidural 

anaesthesia did not affect intestinal oxygenation. There was no benefit obtained from volume 

loading.

Descriptors: anesthesia, epidural, intestines drug effects, oxygen physiology, carbon dioxide 

physiology, epinephrine blood, hemodynamic processes drug effects, hemodynamic processes 

physiology, hemoglobins analysis, intestinal mucosa drug effects, intestinal mucosa physiology, intestines physiology, jejunum drug effects, jejunum physiology, mesenteric arteries drug 

effects, mesenteric arteries physiology, norepinephrine blood, swine, sympathetic nervous 

system physiology.
132• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Van Besouw, J. (2001). Anestesia en el trasplante cardiaco. [Anesthesia for heart transplantation]. 

Revista Espanola De Anestesiologia y Reanimacion 48(10): 473-5. ISSN: 0034-9356.

Abstract: This review covers the management of patients proposed for heart transplantation from the moment of preoperative assessment. Drug treatments that provide a bridge to 

transplantation are emphasized, with mention of traditional drugs such as dobutamine, more 

recent agents such as phosphodiesterase inhibitors, and finally new drugs such as levosimendan.Mechanical support devices and indications for their use leading to transplantation are 

discussed. Finally, the notion of xenotransplantation is mentioned as a possible solution to 

the imbalance between supply and demand for transplantable organs.

Descriptors: anesthesia, general methods, heart transplantation, cardiovascular agents 

pharmacology, cardiovascular agents therapeutic use, combined modality therapy, dobutamine pharmacology, dobutamine therapeutic use, forecasting, heart failure, congestive drug 

therapy, heart failure, congestive surgery, heart assist devices, hemodynamic processes drug 

effects, phosphodiesterase inhibitors pharmacology, phosphodiesterase inhibitors therapeutic 

use, preanesthetic medication, preoperative care, swine, tissue and organ procurement, transplantation, heterologous, transplantation, homologous.

Language of Text: Spanish.

Van Woerkom, R., K.D. Beharry, H.D. Modanlou, J. Parker, V. Rajan, Y. Akmal, and J.V. Aranda 

(2004). Influence of morphine and naloxone on endothelin and its receptors in newborn 

piglet brain vascular endothelial cells: clinical implications in neonatal care. Pediatric 

Research 55 (1): 147-51. ISSN: 0031-3998.

NAL Call Number: RJ1.P4

Abstract: The present study examines the hypothesis that morphine exposure alters 

newborn brain vascular endothelial cell production of endothelin (ET)-1, as well as the 

mRNA expression of its receptors. Newborn piglet vascular endothelial cells were treated 

with morphine (100 ng/mL media), naloxone (100 ng/mL media), or drug-free media 

(control) for 6, 24, 48, and 96 h. Media was analyzed for ET-1 and big ET-1 levels and the 

cells were assessed for ETA and ETB receptor mRNA expression. Morphine exposure progressively increased ET-1 production from 6 to 96 h with concurrent reductions in big ET-1 

levels starting at 24 h to almost undetectable levels by 96 h. Whereas ETA receptor mRNA 

expression increased 2-fold at 6 h and 4-fold at 96 h, ETB receptor mRNA expression 

remained unchanged. Naloxone exposure caused significant decreases in ET-1 levels, whereas 

an opposite effect was noted in big ET-1 levels, which increased from 6 through 96 h. Naloxone caused a progressive decrease in ETA receptor mRNA expression at 6 h through 96 h 

and a 2-fold increase in ETB receptor mRNA expression at 48 and 96 h. Increased ET-1 and 

its receptors in response to morphine may suggest altered cerebrovascular perfusion and brain 

metabolism in the immature piglet brain.

Descriptors: analgesics, opioid pharmacology, endothelin 1 metabolism, morphine pharmacology, naloxone pharmacology, narcotic antagonists pharmacology, receptor, endothelin 

a genetics, receptor, endothelin b genetics, animals, newborn, brain blood supply, cells, 

cultured, endothelium, vascular cytology, endothelium, vascular drug effects, endothelium, 

vascular metabolism, gene expression drug effects, rna, messenger analysis, sus scrofa.

Vezina, D.P., C.A. Trepanier, M.R. Lessard, M. Gourdeau, C. Tremblay, and R. Guidoin (2004). An 

in vivo evaluation of the mycobacterial filtration efficacy of three breathing filters used 

in anesthesia. Anesthesiology 101(1): 104-9. ISSN: 0003-3022.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •133

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The use of breathing filters (BFs) has been recommended to 

protect the anesthesia apparatus in proven or suspected cases of tuberculosis. Some investigators have also suggested the use of BF to alleviate the need to change anesthesia breathing 

circuits after each case. This study evaluated the filtration efficacy of three different BFs 

to prevent mycobacterial contamination of breathing circuits in a model that uses a test 

animal. METHODS: Ten Pall BB25A (pleated hydrophobic) (Pall Canada Ltd., Mississauga, Ontario, Canada), six DAR Barrierbac S (felted electrostatic; Mallinckrodt DAR, 

Mirandola, Italy), and six Baxter Airlife (felted electrostatic; Baxter Canada, Mississauga, 

Ontario, Canada) BFs were studied. For each BF tested, 20 ml of a high concentration suspension of Mycobacterium chelonae (range, 2.0 x 10 to 9.0 x 10 colony-forming units/ml) 

was nebulized during 2 h at the proximal end of the endotracheal tube of anesthetized pigs. 

At the end of the nebulization period, the BFs were sampled for culture. The titer reduction 

value (number of microorganisms challenging the BF divided by the number of microorganisms recovered downstream of the BF) and the removal efficiency (difference between the 

number of microorganisms challenging the BF and the number of microorganisms recovered 

downstream of the BF, divided by the number of microorganisms challenging the BF) were 

calculated. RESULTS: The median titer reduction values were 5.6 x 10, 6.0 x 10, and 8.0 

x 10 (P < 0.0005), and the median removal efficiencies were greater than 99.999%, greater 

than 99.999%, and 100% (P = not significant) for the DAR Barrierbac S, the Baxter Airlife, 

and the Pall BB25A, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Among the three BFs studied, only the 

Pall BB25A completely prevented the passage of M. chelonae, thus protecting the anesthesia 

breathing circuit from mycobacterial contamination.

Descriptors: anesthesiology instrumentation, mycobacterium ultrastructure, ultrafiltration 

instrumentation, canada, colony count, microbial, microscopy, electron, scanning, mycobacterium chelonae ultrastructure, mycobacterium tuberculosis ultrastructure.

Walker, B., N. Jaggin, M. Doherr, and U. Schatzmann (2004). Inhalation anaesthesia for castration 

of newborn piglets: experiences with isoflurane and isoflurane/NO. Journal of Veterinary 

Medicine. A, Physiology, Pathology, Clinical Medicine 51(3): 150-4. ISSN: 0931-184X.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 Z5

Abstract: The aim of this study was to evaluate the inhalation anaesthesia with isoflurane 

and isoflurane/N2O by mask induction for routine castration of piglets under 14 days of age. 

MATERIAL AND METHODS: Eighty-five male piglets aged between 4 and 12 days were 

used in a matched pair test. Two piglets of the same litter with the same weight were selected. 

One was castrated with, the other without anaesthesia. Induction was performed with either 

isoflurane (group ISO) or isoflurane/nitrous oxide (group ISO/N2O) in oxygen through a 

modified bain-breathing system. Induction time was 90 and 60 s for group ISO and group 

ISO/N2O, respectively. The disappearance of the palpebral reflex was recorded. The reaction of the piglets during castration was judged according to a scoring system separately 

for both testicles during skin incision and dissection of the spermatic cord. The scores were 

added and mean values were calculated. Total anaesthesia time, castration time and quality of 

recovery was recorded. Blood was collected from all piglets immediately after castration for 

measurement of ACTH and beta-endorphin values. Statistical analysis were performed by the 

Kruskal-Wallis test for nonparametric data and one-way anova (NCSS 2000, Kaysville, UT, 

USA). RESULTS: Induction of anaesthesia proved to be smooth in all cases. The palpebral 

reflex disappeared after 36.5 s in group ISO/N2O versus 51 s in group ISO. Mean castration scores were 0.6 in group ISO and 0 in group ISO/N2O, whereas 7.7 in piglets with 
134• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

no anaesthesia. These scores were significantly different. Mean anaesthesia time was 128 s 

(30-390) for group ISO and 123 s (70-220) for group ISO/N2O. No deaths occurred. The 

differences in the levels of ACTH and beta-endorphins in the blood plasma in the different groups showed no statistical difference. DISCUSSION: This study demonstrates that 

isoflurane or isoflurane/N2O anaesthesia by mask induction proves to be a safe, short and 

reliable method in piglets undergoing castration. Reaction to the castration procedure were 

significantly reduced. Stress hormone values were not different between the groups because of 

a large individual difference.

Descriptors: anesthesia, inhalation veterinary, anesthetics, inhalation administration and 

dosage, isoflurane administration and dosage, nitrous oxide administration and dosage, 

orchiectomy veterinary, swine physiology, animals, newborn physiology, animals, newborn 

surgery, orchiectomy methods, swine surgery, treatment outcome.

Wallace, A.W. and W.L. Tom (2000). Interaction of l-arginine and phosphodiesterase inhibitors 

in vasodilation of the porcine internal mammary artery. Anesthesia and Analgesia 90(4): 

840-846. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Descriptors: pharmacology, cardiovascular system: transport and circulation, zaprinast, 

sildenafil .

Weed, M.R. and R.D. Hienz (2006). Effects of morphine on circadian rhythms of motor activity 

and body temperature in pig-tailed macaques. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior

84(3): 487-96. ISSN: 0091-3057.

NAL Call Number: QP901.P4

Abstract: Previous studies of the effects of opiates on motor activity and body temperature in nonhuman primates have been limited in scope and typically only conducted with 

restrained animals. The present study used radio-telemetry devices to continuously measure 

activity and temperature in unrestrained pig-tailed macaques for 24 h following morphine 

administration. Two dose-response functions (0.56 to 5.6 mg/kg, i.m.) were determined, 

one with morphine administered at 9 a.m. and one with morphine administrated at 3 p.m. 

Under both the 9 a.m. or 3 p.m. administration schedules, body temperature and activity were increased acutely. Activity was also reduced the following morning after morphine 

administered at either time. In other regards, morphine’s effects on both temperature and 

activity differed between 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. injection, including periods of decreased activity 

immediately after the acute increases after 9 a.m. but not 3 p.m. administration. Surprisingly, 

motor activity also increased 9-12 h post-injection following morphine administered at 9 

a.m., but not at 3 p.m. These results clearly show an interaction between timing of morphine 

administration and effects on temperature and activity. These results also underscore the fact 

that single injections of drugs may have multiple and delayed effects on circadian rhythms in 

macaques.

Descriptors: analgesics, opioid pharmacology, body temperature drug effects, circadian 

rhythm drug effects, morphine pharmacology, motor activity drug effects, data interpretation, statistical, macaca, monitoring, physiologic, software, temperature, time factors.

Wei, H., Y. Chen, L. Xu, and J. Zheng (2007). Percutaneous penetration kinetics of lidocaine and 

prilocaine in two local anesthetic formulations assessed by in vivo microdialysis in pigs.

Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 30(4): 830-4 . ISSN: 0918-6158.

NAL Call Number: QP501
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •135

Abstract: The aim of this study was to characterize and compare the percutaneous penetration kinetics of lidocaine (L) and prilocaine (P) in two local anesthetic formulations by in 

vivo microdialysis coupled with HPLC. The microdialysis system for studying lidocaine 

and prilocaine was calibrated by a no-net-flux method in vitro and retrodialysis method in 

vivo, respectively. A dosage of 0.2 g/cm2 of an in-house P-L formulation (2.5% lidocaine 

and 2.5% prilocaine, methylcellulose-based) and commercially available Eutectic Mixture of 

Local Anesthesia (EMLA, 2.5% lidocaine and 2.5% prilocaine, carbopol-based) was separately but symmetrically applied in the dorsal region of pigs. Saline (0.9%, w/v) was perfused 

into the linear microdialysis probe at a flow rate of 1.5 microl/min. Dialysate was collected 

upon topical application up to 6 h at 20-min intervals and assessed by HPLC. The results 

demonstrated the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC(0-6 h)) of lidocaine and 

prilocaine in EMLA was 71.95+/-23.36 microg h/ml and 38.01+/-14.8 microg h/ml, respectively, in comparison to 167.11+/-56.12 microg h/ml and 87.02+/-30.38 microg h/ml in 

the P-L formulation. The maximal concentrations (Cmax) of lidocaine and prilocaine in the 

dermis were 29.2+/-9.08 microg/ml and 16.54+/-5.31 microg/ml in EMLA and 80.93+/-

17.98 microg/ml and 43.69+/-12.87 microg/ml in the P-L formulation, respectively. This 

study indicates a well-calibrated microdialysis system can provide vital real-time information on percutaneous drug delivery and specifically a methylcellulose-based P-L formulation 

can increase percutaneous absorption of both lidocaine and prilocaine in pigs compared to 

carbopol-based EMLA.

Descriptors: anesthesia , local, anesthetics, combined pharmacokinetics, anesthetics, local 

pharmacokinetics, skin absorption, anesthetics, combined pharmacology, anesthetics, local 

pharmacology, area under curve, calibration, chromatography, high pressure liquid, lidocaine, 

microdialysis, prilocaine, swine.

Wei, J., X. Shao, M. Gong, B. Zhu, Y. Cui, Y. Gao, and R. Wang (2005). Structure-activity relationships of novel endomorphin-2 analogues with N-O turns induced by alpha-aminoxy 

acids. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters 15(12): 2986-9. ISSN: 0960-894X.

NAL Call Number: QP501.B57

Abstract: Endomorphin-2 (H-Tyr-Pro-Phe-Phe-NH2, EM-2) is a putative endogenous muopioid receptor ligand. To study the structure-activity relationship against its receptor, we 

introduced N-O turns into EM-2 and got the analogues with potent affinities for mu-opioid 

receptor. Our results indicated that N-O turn structures at the Pro2-aminoxy-Phe3 position 

of EM-2 analogues played important roles for their affinities. These novel analogues with 

N-O turns provided a new approach to develop potent analgesics related to EM-2.

Descriptors: amino acids chemistry, analgesics, opioid pharmacology, oligopeptides pharmacology, receptors, opioid, delta agonists, receptors, opioid, mu agonists , amino acids, 

cyclic, analgesics, opioid chemical synthesis, analgesics, opioid chemistry, brain drug effects, 

brain metabolism, ileum drug effects, ileum metabolism, ligands, mice, molecular structure, 

oligopeptides chemical synthesis, oligopeptides chemistry, rats, rats, wistar, structure activity 

relationship, swine, vas deferens drug effects, vas deferens metabolism.

Weinberg, G., P. Hertz, and J. Newman (2004). Lipid, not propofol, treats bupivacaine overdose.

Anesthesia and Analgesia 99(6): 1875-6; Author Reply 1876. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Descriptors: anesthetics, intravenous therapeutic use, anesthetics, local poisoning, bupivacaine poisoning, fat emulsions, intravenous therapeutic use, overdose drug therapy, propofol 
136• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

therapeutic use, dogs, swine.

Notes: Comment On: Anesth Analg. 2004 May;98(5):1426-31, table of contents.

Weisshorn, R., F. Wappler, M. Fiege, M.U. Gerbershagen, and J.S. Am Esch (2002). Effects of 

fulminant malignant hyperthermia to the oxygen saturation in skeletal muscle tissue.

Anesthesiology Abstracts of Scientific Papers Annual Meeting(2002): Abstract No. A-1002.

Descriptors: metabolism, muscular system: movement and support, pharmacology, malignant hyperthermia, metabolic disease, tracheostomy, experimental surgical techniques, 

laboratory techniques, blood pressure, body temperature, hypercarbia, hypermetabolism, 

hypoxia .

Notes: Meeting Information: 2002 Annual Meeting of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, Orlando, FL, USA; October 12-16, 2002.

Wenger, S., N. Jaggin, M. Doherr, and U. Schatzmann (2002). Halothane anaesthesia for piglet 

castration: field study to evaluate costs and benefits [Die Halothananasthesie zur Kastration des Saugferkels Machbarkeitsstudie und Kosten-Nutzen-Analyse.]. Tierarztliche 

Praxis Ausgabe G, Grosstiere/Nutztiere 30(3): 164-170. ISSN: 1434-1220.

NAL Call Number: SF603.V43

Descriptors: anesthesia, castration, costs, halothane, piglets, recovery .

Language of Text: German, Summary in English.

Wilkinson, A.C., M.L.3. Thomas, and B.C. Morse (2001). Evaluation of a transdermal fentanyl 

system in yucatan miniature pigs. Contemporary Topics in Laboratory Animal Science American Association for Laboratory Animal Science 40(3): 12-6. ISSN: 1060-0558.

NAL Call Number: SF405.3 .A23

Abstract: Of 18 pigs used on a coronary stent experimental protocol, 6 each received a 

transdermal fentanyl patch to document the patterns of transdermal fentanyl absorption 

in swine. This approach was taken to reduce animal use and potentially refine the surgical regimen. The objective of the fentanyl portion of the study was to demonstrate that 

transdermal fentanyl may be useful in the management of postoperative analgesia in swine. 

This study sought to document that demonstrable levels of fentanyl are achievable in swine 

plasma via a transdermal system and to compare the magnitude of these levels to data in 

other species. This study does not directly correlate plasma fentanyl levels with analgesic efficacy. Plasma fentanyl concentration peaked within 42 h in five pigs and within 48 h in the 

remaining pig. All pigs had similar absorption patterns; the only difference was in magnitude. 

One pig reached 0.99 ng/ml at 42 h; the next highest concentration was 0.77 ng/ml at 48 h 

in a different animal. The peak concentration in the others ranged from 0.38 to 0.71 ng/ml.

Descriptors: analgesics, opioid pharmacokinetics, fentanyl pharmacokinetics, swine, miniature metabolism, administration, cutaneous, analgesics, opioid administration and dosage, 

analgesics, opioid blood, fentanyl administration and dosage, fentanyl blood, skin absorption, swine, swine, miniature surgery .

Xu, D., S. Abbas, and V.W. Chan (2005). Ultrasound phantom for hands-on practice. Regional 

Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 30(6): 593-4. ISSN: 1098-7339.

Descriptors: anesthesiology education, nerve block methods, phantoms, imaging, ultrasonography, interventional instrumentation, clinical competence, equipment design, models, 

animal, swine, ultrasonography, interventional methods.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •137

Yamakage, M., X. Chen, A. Kimura, S. Iwasaki, and A. Namiki (2002). The repolarizing effects of 

volatile anesthetics on porcine tracheal and bronchial smooth muscle cells. Anesthesia 

and Analgesia 94(1): 84-8, Table of Contents. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: This study was conducted to determine the effects of volatile anesthetics (potent 

bronchodilators) on membrane potentials in porcine tracheal and bronchial smooth muscle 

cells. We used a current-clamp technique to examine the effects of the volatile anesthetics 

isoflurane (1.5 minimum alveolar anesthetic concentration [MAC]) and sevoflurane (1.5 

MAC) on membrane potentials of porcine tracheal and bronchial (third- to fifth-generation) 

smooth muscle cells depolarized by a muscarinic agonist, carbachol (1 microM). The effects 

of volatile anesthetics on muscarinic receptor binding affinity were also investigated by using 

a radiolabeled receptor assay technique. The volatile anesthetics isoflurane and sevoflurane 

induced significant repolarization of the depolarized cell membranes in the trachea (from 

-19.8 to -23.6 mV and to -24.8 mV, respectively) and bronchus (from -24.7 to -29.3 mV 

and -30.4 mV, respectively) without affecting carbachol binding affinity to the muscarinic 

receptor. The repolarizing effect was abolished by a Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channel blocker, 

niflumic acid. These results indicate that volatile anesthetic-induced repolarization of airway 

smooth muscle cell membranes might be caused by a change in Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) 

channel activity and that the different repolarized effects of the volatile anesthetics could 

in part contribute to the different effects of volatile anesthetics on tracheal and bronchial 

smooth muscle contractions. IMPLICATIONS: By use of a current-clamp technique, the 

volatile anesthetics isoflurane and sevoflurane repolarized porcine airway smooth muscle 

cell membranes depolarized by a muscarinic agonist. This effect might be caused mainly by 

change in Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channel activity, not in K(+) channel activity.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, bronchi physiology, isoflurane pharmacology, methyl ethers pharmacology, muscle, smooth physiology, trachea physiology, bronchi 

drug effects, calcium channel blockers pharmacology, carbachol pharmacology, chloride 

channels antagonists and inhibitors, electrophysiology, membrane potentials drug effects, 

muscarinic agonists pharmacology, muscle, smooth drug effects, niflumic acid pharmacology, 

patch clamp techniques, receptors, muscarinic drug effects, receptors, muscarinic metabolism, swine, trachea drug effects.

Yamakage, M., X. Chen, N. Tsujiguchi, Y. Kamada, and A. Namiki (2001). Different inhibitory 

effects of volatile anesthetics on T- and L-type voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels in 

porcine tracheal and bronchial smooth muscles. Anesthesiology 94(4): 683-93. ISSN: 

0003-3022.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The distal airway is more important in the regulation of airflow 

resistance than is the proximal airway, and volatile anesthetics have a greater inhibitory effect 

on distal airway muscle tone. The authors investigated the different reactivities of airway 

smooth muscles to volatile anesthetics by measuring porcine tracheal or bronchial (third to 

fifth generation) smooth muscle tension and intracellular concentration of free Ca2+ ([Ca2+]

i) and by measuring inward Ca2+ currents (ICa) through voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels (VDCs). METHODS: Intracellular concentration of free Ca2+ was monitored by the 

500-nm light emission ratio of Ca2+ indicator fura-2. Isometric tension was measured simultaneously. Whole-cell patch clamp recording techniques were used to investigate the effects 

of volatile anesthetics on ICa in dispersed smooth muscle cells. Isoflurane (0-1.5 minimum 

alveolar concentration) or sevoflurane (0-1.5 minimum alveolar concentration) was introduced into a bath solution. RESULTS: The volatile anesthetics tested had greater inhibitory 
138• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

effects on carbachol-induced bronchial smooth muscle contraction than on tracheal smooth 

muscle contraction. These inhibitory effects by the anesthetics on muscle tension were parallel to the inhibitory effects on [Ca2+]i. Although tracheal smooth muscle cells had only 

L-type VDCs, some bronchial smooth muscle cells (approximately 30%) included T-type 

VDC. Each of the two anesthetics significantly inhibited the activities of both types of VDCs 

in a dose-dependent manner; however, the anesthetics had greater inhibitory effects on 

T-type VDC activity in bronchial smooth muscle. CONCLUSIONS: The existence of the 

T-type VDC in bronchial smooth muscle and the high sensitivity of this channel to volatile 

anesthetics seem to be, at least in part, responsible for the different reactivities to the anesthetics in tracheal and bronchial smooth muscles.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacology, bronchi drug effects, calcium channel 

blockers pharmacology, calcium channels, l type drug effects, calcium channels, t type drug 

effects, muscle, smooth drug effects, trachea drug effects, muscle contraction drug effects, 

muscle, smooth physiology, nifedipine pharmacology, swine.

Yang, Q., A.P. Yim, A.A. Arifi, and G.W. He (2002). Procaine in cardioplegia: the effect on EDHFmediated function in porcine coronary arteries. Journal of Cardiac Surgery 17(5): 470-5. 

ISSN: 0886-0440.

Abstract: OBJECTIVES: Hyperkalemia in cardioplegia impairs the endothelium-derived 

hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF)-mediated function. This study examined the effect of 

procaine in cardioplegia on the EDHF-mediated response in porcine coronary arteries. 

METHODS: An isometric force study was performed in a myograph. Two rings taken from 

the same artery (diameter 200-450 microm) were incubated with Krebs solution (group I) 

or 20 mM K+ (group II) with/without procaine (1 mM) at 37 degrees C for 1 hour. The 

EDHF-mediated relaxation was induced by bradykinin (BK, -10 approximately -6.5 log 

M) after U46619 (-8 log M, in group I) or K+-precontraction (in group II) in the presence 

of indomethacin (7 microM), NG-nitro-L-arginine (300 microM), and hemoglobin (20 

microM). The membrane potential of a single smooth muscle cell was measured by a microelectrode after superfusion with Krebs solution with/without procaine for 1 hour. RESULTS: 

The EDHF-mediated relaxation was increased by the treatment with procaine with the 

EC50 shifted leftward (97.3 +/- 0.6% vs. 83.0 +/- 5.1% at -7 log M and 99.4 +/- 0.6% vs. 

96.7 +/- 1.6% at -6.5 log M, p < 0.05; EC50: -8.57 +/- 0.24 vs. -7.92 +/- 0.23 log M, p < 

0.05). Procaine decreased the BK-induced hyperpolarization from -72.3 +/- 0.7 mV to -68.8 

+/- 0.8 mV (-6.5 log M, p < 0.01). The EDHF-mediated relaxation in arteries exposed to 

20 mM K+ was not altered by procaine (49.9 +/- 7.4% vs. 55.8 +/- 7.6%, p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: In the coronary arteries, procaine has a depolarizing effect but it enhances 

EDHF-mediated relaxation. Addition of procaine in cardioplegia did not change the EDHFmediated endothelial function.

Descriptors: anesthetics, local pharmacology, biological factors physiology, muscle, smooth, 

vascular drug effects, procaine pharmacology, algorithms, bicarbonates, calcium chloride, 

cardioplegic solutions, computer graphics, coronary vessels drug effects, coronary vessels 

physiology, heart arrest, induced, magnesium, membrane potentials drug effects, membrane 

potentials physiology, models, animal, muscle relaxation drug effects, muscle, smooth, vascular physiology, potassium chloride, sodium chloride, swine.
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •139

Yokoyama, T., K. Yamashita, T. Nishiyama, C. Yajima, M. Manabe, and K. Hanaoka (2005). [A case 

of thoraco-amniotic shunt for congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation]. Masui; 

Japanese Journal of Anesthesiology, The 54(3): 287-90. ISSN: 0021-4892.

Abstract: Congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation (CCAM) is a congenital pulmonary anomaly, which may lead to fetal hydrops, pulmonary hypoplasia, and fetal or neonatal 

death. Recently, diagnosis and surgery for fetus have been improved. We experienced a case 

of CCAM, classified in Stocker class I, with a single cyst of about 5 cm in diameter. A 32 

year-old pregnant woman had a fetus diagnosed as CCAM at 25 th gestational week. The 

thoraco-amniotic shunt placement using a modified double pig tail catheter was performed 

at 27 th gestational week under general anesthesia with 1% isoflurane in oxygen 2 l x min(-1) 

and nitrous oxide 4 l x min(-1), and 100 microg of fentanyl. Fetal movement was suppressed 

during surgery. This fetal therapy was effective and the cyst disappeared after surgery. The 

baby was delivered with caesarian section under spinal anesthesia with 0.5% bupivacaine 2.5 

ml. On the next day, right lung lobectomy was accomplished under general anesthesia with 

fentanyl 0.2 mg and pancuronium 6.0 mg. Anesthesia with isoflurane, nitrous oxide, and 

fentanyl was useful for the fetal surgery of thoraco-amniotic shunt placement. Consequently, 

caesarian section and lung lobectomy were completed successfully.

Descriptors: anesthesia, obstetrical, cesarean section, cystic adenomatoid malformation of 

lung, congenital surgery, fetal diseases surgery, adult, amniotic fluid, anesthesia, general, anesthesia, spinal, cystic adenomatoid malformation of lung, congenital ultrasonography, fetal 

diseases ultrasonography, ultrasonography, prenatal.

Language of Text: Japanese.

Zaballos, M., J. Almendral, M.J. Anadon, P. Gonzalez, and J. Navia (2004). Comparative effects of 

thiopental and propofol on atrial vulnerability: electrophysiological study in a porcine 

model including acute alcoholic intoxication. British Journal of Anaesthesia 93(3): 414-21. 

ISSN: 0007-0912.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Atrial tachyarrhythmias (AT) frequently complicate the 

perioperative period. Alcohol intoxication is a recognized causative factor for dysrrhythmias. We studied the effects of propofol and thiopental on atrial electrophysiology and 

vulnerability to AT in a closed-chest porcine model in which AT are facilitated by ethanol. 

METHODS: Thirty-eight pigs were randomly assigned to thiopental (T-group, n=19) or 

propofol (P-group n=19). All animals were assigned to undergo a right atrial electrical stimulation protocol (RASP) at baseline. Thirty pigs were assigned to undergo additional RASP 

during ethanol infusion, while the remaining eight were assigned to undergo additional 

RASP during saline infusion (control group). We analysed effective refractory period (ERP), 

and intra-atrial conduction interval (ICI) (between atrial sites 4 cm apart), at several cycle 

lengths (CL). RESULTS: There were no significant differences at baseline. During ethanol 

infusion, propofol produced a greater rate-dependent decrease in excitability, manifested by 

a longer minimum paced CL with 1:1 atrial capture: 145 (11) vs 164 (27) ms in the T- and 

P-group, respectively (P=0.01). Propofol was associated with a greater rate-related slowing 

in conduction: difference between ICI at CL of 300 ms and ICI at minimum CL: 30 ms in 

P-group and 22 ms in T-group (P<0.03). In the P-group we observed a longer duration of 

induced arrhythmias (145 (131) vs 74 (91) s, P<0.03) and a higher proportion with atrial 

flutter (AFl) (76 vs 19%, P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Propofol in this model was more 

arrhythmogenic than thiopental, as manifested by a longer duration of induced arrhythmias, 

particularly AFI.
140• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Descriptors: alcoholic intoxication complications, anesthetics, intravenous toxicity, 

arrhythmia chemically induced, propofol toxicity, thiopental toxicity, alcoholic intoxication 

physiopathology, arrhythmia etiology, atrial flutter chemically induced, atrial function, right 

drug effects, disease models, animal, electrophysiology, ethanol, random allocation, swine.

Zhou, J.X. and J. Liu (2002). Tissue solubility of four volatile anesthetics in fresh and frozen 

tissue specimens from swine. American Journal of Veterinary Research 63(1): 74-7. ISSN: 

0002-9645.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 Am3A 

Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To determine tissue solubilities of desflurane, sevoflurane, enflurane, and halothane in swine and to evaluate the effects of freezing specimens on tissue 

solubility, SAMPLE POPULATION: Arterial blood samples and specimens of brain, heart, 

liver, kidney, muscle, and subcutaneous fat from 5 healthy female adult Chinese Meishan 

pigs. PROCEDURE: Each tissue specimen was divided into 2 parts. One part was used to 

measure tissue-gas partition coefficients immediately after collection. The other part was 

frozen at -20 C for 6 days prior to determination of tissue-gas partition coefficients. Tissuegas and blood-gas partition coefficients were measured by use of gas chromatography, and 

tissue-blood partition coefficients were calculated. Regression analysis was performed to 

determine whether fat-gas partition coefficients were correlated with lean tissue-gas partition coefficients. RESULTS: Tissue-gas and blood-gas partition coefficients of halothane 

were greater than those of enflurane followed by coefficients of sevoflurane and desflurane. 

However, the order of anesthetic agents with the greatest to smallest tissue-blood partition 

coefficients was sevoflurane, halothane, enflurane, and desflurane. Muscle-gas partition 

coefficients of sevoflurane and enflurane, liver-gas partition coefficients of desflurane and 

halothane, and the kidney-gas partition coefficient of enflurane were significantly greater in 

frozen specimens, compared with fresh specimens. Lean tissue-gas partition coefficients of all 

4 volatile anesthetics correlated directly with fat-gas partition coefficients. CONCLUSIONS 

AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The fat content of lean tissue is an important factor in 

determining the tissue solubility of volatile anesthetics. Freezing specimens before determination of tissue-gas partition coefficients may result in a false increase in tissue solubility.

Descriptors: anesthetics, inhalation pharmacokinetics, swine metabolism, adipose tissue 

metabolism, brain metabolism, enflurane blood, enflurane pharmacokinetics, halothane 

blood, halothane pharmacokinetics, isoflurane analogs and derivatives, isoflurane blood, isoflurane pharmacokinetics, kidney metabolism, liver metabolism, methyl ethers blood, methyl 

ethers pharmacokinetics, muscle, skeletal metabolism, myocardium metabolism, tissue distribution.

Zink, W., J.R. Bohl, N. Hacke, B. Sinner, E. Martin, and B.M. Graf (2005). The long term myotoxic effects of bupivacaine and ropivacaine after continuous peripheral nerve blocks.

Anesthesia and Analgesia 101(2): 548-54, Table of Contents. ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: Compared with bupivacaine, acute myotoxicity of ropivacaine is less severe. Thus, 

in this study we compared the long term myotoxic effects of both drugs in a clinically relevant setting. Femoral nerve catheters were inserted in anesthetized pigs, and either 20 mL of 

bupivacaine (5 mg/mL) or ropivacaine (7.5 mg/mL) was injected. Subsequently, bupivacaine 

(2.5 mg/mL) and ropivacaine (3.75 mg/mL) were continuously infused (8 mL/h) over 6 h. 

Control animals were treated with corresponding volumes of normal saline. After 7 and 28 

days, respectively, muscle samples were dissected at the former injection sites, and histological 
Swine Anesthesia and Analgesia (2011) •141

patterns of muscle damage were blindly scored (0 = no damage to 3 = marked lesions/myonecrosis) and compared. No morphological tissue changes were detected in control animals. 

In the observed period, both local anesthetics induced morphologically identical patterns 

of calcific myonecrosis, formation of scar tissue, and a marked rate of fiber regeneration. 

However, bupivacaine’s effects were constantly more pronounced than those of ropivacaine. 

These data show that both drugs induce irreversible skeletal muscle damage in a clinically 

relevant model, and confirm the exceeding rate of myotoxicity of bupivacaine. However, the 

clinical impact of these long term myotoxic effects still has to be assessed. IMPLICATIONS: 

In a period of 4 wk after peripheral nerve block, both long-acting local anesthetics, bupivacaine and ropivacaine, produced calcific myonecrosis suggestive of irreversible skeletal muscle 

damage. In comparison with ropivacaine, however, the extent of bupivacaine-induced muscle 

lesions was significantly larger.

Descriptors: amides toxicity, anesthetics, local toxicity, bupivacaine toxicity, muscular diseases chemically induced, nerve block, peripheral nerves, muscle cells drug effects, muscle 

cells pathology, muscle fibers pathology, muscle, skeletal pathology, muscular diseases pathology, necrosis, swine.

Zink, W., C. Seif, J.R. Bohl, N. Hacke, P.M. Braun, B. Sinner, E. Martin, R.H. Fink, and B.M. 

Graf (2003). The acute myotoxic effects of bupivacaine and ropivacaine after continuous peripheral nerve blockades. Anesthesia and Analgesia 97(4): 1173-9, Table of Contents. 

ISSN: 0003-2999.

Abstract: Bupivacaine causes muscle damage. However, the myotoxic potency of ropivacaine 

is still unexplored. Therefore, we performed this study to compare the effects of bupivacaine and ropivacaine on skeletal muscle tissue in equipotent concentrations. Femoral nerve 

catheters were inserted into anesthetized minipigs, and 20 mL of either bupivacaine (5 mg/

mL) or ropivacaine (7.5 mg/mL) was injected. Subsequently, bupivacaine (2.5 mg/mL) 

and ropivacaine (3.75 mg/mL) were continuously infused over 6 h. Control animals were 

treated with corresponding volumes of normal saline. Finally, muscle samples were dissected 

at injection sites. After processing and staining, histological patterns of muscle damage were 

blindly examined, scored (0 = no damage to 3 = myonecrosis), and statistically analyzed. 

After normal saline, only interstitial edema was found. Bupivacaine treatment caused severe 

tissue damage (score, 2.3 +/- 0.7), whereas ropivacaine induced fiber injury of a significantly 

smaller extent (score, 1.3 +/- 0.8). Furthermore, bupivacaine, but not ropivacaine, induced 

apoptosis in muscle fibers. In summary, both drugs induce muscle damage with similar 

histological patterns. Compared with bupivacaine, which induces both necrosis and apoptosis, the tissue damage caused by ropivacaine is significantly less severe. We conclude that 

ropivacaine’s myotoxic potential is more moderate in comparison with that of bupivacaine. 

IMPLICATIONS: After continuous peripheral nerve blockades, the long-acting local anesthetics bupivacaine and ropivacaine both induce fiber necrosis in porcine skeletal muscle 

tissue. In comparison with ropivacaine, bupivacaine causes tissue damage of a significantly 

larger extent and additionally induces apoptosis in skeletal muscle cells.

Descriptors: amides adverse effects, anesthetics, local adverse effects, bupivacaine adverse 

effects, muscular diseases chemically induced, nerve block, peripheral nerves, edema pathology, in situ nick end labeling, microscopy, electron, muscle fibers pathology, muscle fibers 

ultrastructure, muscle, skeletal pathology, muscle, skeletal ultrastructure, muscular diseases 

pathology, swine, swine, miniature, tissue fixation.
142• AWIC Special Reference Brief, SRB 11-01

Zols, S., M. Ritzmann, and K. Heinritzi (2006). Effect of analgesics on castration of male piglets 

[Einfluss von Schmerzmitteln bei der Kastration mannlicher Ferkel. Berliner Und 

Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 119(5/6): 193-196. ISSN: 0005-9366.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 B45

Descriptors: piglets, anesthesia, analgesics, animal welfare, German law, castration, hydrocortisone, immobilization, non steroidal antiinflammatory agents, postoperative castration 

pain, preanesthetic medication, stress, stress response, surgery.

Language of Text: German, Summary in English.

Zols, S., M. Ritzmann, and K. Heinritzi (2006). Effect of local anaesthesia in castration of piglets 

[Einsatz einer Lokalanasthesie bei der Kastration von Ferkeln. Tierarztliche Praxis Ausgabe 

G, Grosstiere/Nutztiere 34(2): 103-106. ISSN: 1434-1220.

NAL Call Number: SF603.V43

Descriptors: piglets, analgesic properties, animal welfare, blood serum, castration, hydrocortisone, local anesthesia, male animals, pain, procaine.

Language of Text: German, Summary in English.

Zols, S., M. Ritzmann, and K. Heinritzi (2006). Einfluss von Schmerzmitteln bei der Kastration 

mannlicher Ferkel. [Effect of analgesics on the castration of male piglets]. Berliner Und 

Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift 119(5-6): 193-6. ISSN: 0005-9366.

NAL Call Number: 41.8 B45

Abstract: According to the current German animal welfare law, male piglets may be surgical castrated without anaesthesia up to four weeks of life. This surgical procedure is painful 

during and also after the operation, for newborn animals as well as for adults. This study was 

aimed to investigate the impact of preoperative application of analgesics (Meloxicam) on 

the postoperative castration - pain of four to six days old male piglets. In this investigation 

all animals were randomly distributed in three groups:the first one was only immobilized 

but had no surgery, the second one was castrated without analgesics, and the third group 

was castrated after application of Meloxicam. Blood samples were taken immediately before 

immobilization, castration or application of the analgesic as well as one, four and 28 hours 

afterwards to determine Cortisol-concentration in the blood serum and, via this stressmarker, to indirectly evaluate the postoperative und possible intraoperative castration-pain. 

As a result all piglets castrated without preoperative application of Meloxicam showed significantly increased Cortisol-concentration one and four hours after castration. In contrast, 

piglets castrated with analgesics resulted in no significant increase during the entire experiment.

Descriptors: analgesics, non-narcotic administration and dosage, pain prevention and 

control, stress, swine surgery, thiazines administration and dosage, thiazoles administration 

and dosage, analysis of variance, animal husbandry methods, animal welfare, hydrocortisone, 

orchiectomy adverse effects, pain etiology, pain measurement, stress prevention and control, 

swine blood.

Language of Text: German.