# Patent

## Title
Bounded rate near-lossless and lossless image compression

## Abstract

A system adjusts the quantization parameter used to encode an image sample (e.g., pixel component). The system accesses a quantization parameter for encoding a current image pixel from an implicit rate control and obtains a measure of another image sample within a particular distance from the sample. When the measure meets a predetermined criterion, the system adjusts the quantization parameter, encodes the pixel after adjusting the quantization parameter, and explicitly indicates the adjusting of the quantization parameter to a decoding system.

## Background
CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
This application claims priority to provisional application Ser. No. 61/709,316, filed 3 Oct. 2012 which is entirely incorporated herein by reference. This application also claims priority to provisional application Ser. No. 61/764,807, filed 14 Feb. 2013, provisional application Ser. No. 61/764,891, filed 14 Feb. 2013, provisional application Ser. No. 61/770,979, filed 28 Feb. 2013, provisional application Ser. No. 61/810,126, filed 9 Apr. 2013, provisional application Ser. No. 61/820,967, filed 8 May 2013, provisional application Ser. No. 61/832,547, filed 7 Jun. 2013, and provisional application Ser. No. 61/856,302, filed 19 Jul. 2013.


TECHNICAL FIELD
This disclosure relates to image processing. This disclosure also relates to compression and decompression techniques for image transmission and display.
BACKGROUND
Immense customer demand has driven rapid advances in display technologies, image analysis algorithms, and communication technologies, as well as the widespread adoption of sophisticated image display devices. As just a few examples, these devices range from DVD and Blu-ray players that drive high resolution displays for home theaters, to the now ubiquitous smart phones and tablet computers that also have very high resolution displays. Improvements in image processing techniques will continue to expand the capabilities of these devices.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
FIG. 1 shows an example architecture in which a source communicates encoded data to a sink.
FIG. 2 is an example of an encoder.
FIG. 3 shows a parallel processing architecture.
FIG. 4 shows an example of a predictor and quantizer.
FIG. 5 shows example sample locations.
FIG. 6 shows examples of a coded format for compressed samples.
FIG. 7 shows an example of a virtual buffer model.
FIG. 8 shows an example decoder.
FIG. 9 shows example logic for encoding.
FIG. 10 shows example logic for decoding.
FIG. 11 shows an example encoding and decoding system.
FIG. 12 shows an example of a picture and a picture parameter set.
FIG. 13 shows another example of an encoder.
FIG. 14 shows another example of a decoder.
FIG. 15 illustrates samples sets for block search.
FIG. 16 illustrates an example of indexed color history.
FIG. 17 shows an example of a portion of a slice using substream multiplexing.
FIG. 18 shows an example of substream demultiplexing logic.
FIG. 19 shows an example of substream multiplexing logic.
FIG. 20 shows an example of slice timing and delays.
FIG. 21 shows an example of 3×1 partial SADs that form 9×1 SAD.
FIG. 22 shows an example of original pixels used for encoder flatness checks.
FIG. 23 shows an example of a display system.
FIG. 24 shows an example of an encoder.
FIG. 25 shows an example of a system for dynamically adjusting rate control parameters used by an encoder, decoder, or both
FIG. 26 shows an example of image content with a busy pixel area adjacent to a smooth pixel area.
FIG. 27 shows an example of a Unit rearrangement process.



DETAILED DESCRIPTION
FIG. 1 shows an example architecture 100 in which a source 150 communicates with a sink 152 through a communication link 154. The source 150 or sink 152 may be present in any device that manipulates image data, such as a DVD or Blu-ray player, a smartphone, a tablet computer, or any other device. The source 150 may include an encoder 104 that maintains a virtual buffer 114. The sink 152 may include a decoder 106, memory 108, and display 110. The encoder 104 receives source data 112 (e.g., source image data) and may maintain the virtual buffer 114 of predetermined capacity to model or simulate a physical buffer that temporarily stores compressed output data. The encoder 104 may also evaluate the encoded symbols for transmission at a predetermined bit rate. The encoder 104 may specify the bit rate, as just two examples, in units of bits per pixel, or in units of bits per unit of time.
The encoder 104 may determine the bit rate, for example, by maintaining a cumulative count of the number of bits that are used for encoding minus the number of bits that are output. While the encoder 104 may use a virtual buffer 114 to model the buffering of data prior to transmission of the encoded data 116 to the memory 108, the predetermined capacity of the virtual buffer and the output bit rate do not necessarily have to be equal to the actual capacity of any buffer in the encoder or the actual output bit rate. Further, the encoder 104 may adjust a quantization step for encoding responsive to the fullness or emptiness of the virtual buffer. An exemplary encoder 104 and operation of the encoder 104 are described below.
The decoder 106 may obtain the encoded data 116 from the memory 108. Further, the decoder 106 may determine the predetermined virtual buffer capacity and bit rate, and may determine the quantization step that the encoder 104 employed for encoding the encoded data 114. As the decoder 106 decodes the encoded data 116, the decoder 106 may also determine the fullness or emptiness of the virtual buffer 114 and adjust the quantization step used for decoding. That is, the decoder 106 may track the operation of the encoder 104 and determine the quantization step that the encoder 104 used. The decoder 106 decodes the encoded data 116 and provides video data 118 to a display 110. In some implementations, the quantization step is not present in the encoded data 116, saving significant bandwidth. Examples of decoders 106 and encoders 104, and their operation are described below.
The memory 108 may be implemented as Static Random Access Memory (SRAM), Dynamic RAM (DRAM), a solid state drive (SSD), hard disk, or other type of memory. The display link 154 may be a wireless or wired connection, or combinations of wired and wireless connections. The encoder 104, decoder 106, memory 108, and display 110 may all be present in a single device (e.g. a smartphone). Alternatively, any subset of the encoder 104, decoder 106, memory 108, and display 110 may be present in a given device. For example, a Blu-ray player may include the decoder 106 and memory 108, and the display 110 may be a separate display in communication with the Blu-ray player.
FIG. 2 shows an example of an encoder 200. The encoder 200 encodes the video data 202. The video data 202 may take the form of a series of successive frames 202-0, . . . , 202-x, for example. The frames 202-0, . . . , 202-x may take the form of 2-dimensional matrices of pixel components, which may be represented in any color space such as the Red/Green/Blue (RGB), YUV, Luminance Y/Chroma Blue Cb/Chroma Red Cr (YCbCr), Luminance Y/Chroma Orange/Chroma Green (YCoCg), Alpha, Red, Green, Blue (ARGB), or other color space. Each of the pixel components may correspond to a spatial location. While the matrices may be overlaid to form a picture, each of the pixel components in the matrices are not necessarily co-located with pixel components in other matrices.
Each pixel component may be encoded with a value comprising a predetermined number of bits, such as eight, ten, or twelve bits per pixel component. The encoding may employ, as examples, 10 bit YCbCr 4:2:2, 8 bit YCbCr 4:2:2, 10 bit YCbCr 4:4:4, 8 bit YCbCr 4:4:4, 8 bit ARGB 32, or 8 bit RGB 24 encoding. The encoder 200 may receive the pixel components of the frames in raster scan order: left to right, top to bottom. In certain implementations, the video encoder 200 may receive the pixel components at a predetermined rate. The predetermined rate may correspond to the real-time frames per second display rate.
The video encoder 200 may include an input, predictor & quantizer 204, a mapping and variable length coder (VLC) 206, rate controller 208, a rate buffer 210, and memory (e.g., DRAM) 212. The video encoder 200 receives and encodes the pixel components. While the number of bits representing pixel components coming into the video encoder 200 may be constant (per pixel component), the number of bits representing each coded pixel may vary dramatically. The encoder 200 may increase the number of bits representing coded pixels by reducing the quantization step, or decrease the number of bits by increasing the quantization step.
The input, predictor & quantizer 204 predicts and quantizes the pixel components, resulting in quantized residuals. In certain implementations, the input, predictor, & quantizer 204 may predict a pixel component from previously encoded and reconstructed pixel components in the same frame, e.g., 202-0. The mapper and variable length coder 206 codes the quantized residuals, resulting in coded bits.
The input, predictor & quantizer 204 may use a predetermined initial quantization step for quantizing a predetermined amount of data, such as video pixel data. The mapping and variable length coder 206 signals the rate controller 208, which in turn instructs the input, predictor & quantizer 204 to increment, decrement, or leave unchanged the quantization parameter, as will be described in more detail below.
The mapping and variable length coder 206 may code the quantized sample values using their natural 2's complement binary values. The number of bits that the mapping and variable length coder 206 uses to code each value may be determined dynamically by a combination of recent history of coded values of the same pixel component and a prefix value associated with each unit of samples.
The rate controller 208 determines whether to increment, decrement, or leave unchanged the quantization step. The rate controller 208 may perform the quantization step analysis, e.g., by simulating or modeling a buffer of predetermined capacity that it evaluates at a predetermined bit rate. The modeled buffer may be referred to as a virtual buffer. If the virtual buffer is becoming full, the rate controller 208 may increase or increment the quantization step. If the virtual buffer is becoming empty, the rate controller 2098 may decrease or decrement the quantization step. Further aspects of this are described below with respect to rate control for slices.
The rate controller 208 may determine the fullness of the virtual buffer by, e.g., counting the bits that are used to encode the input received over a given number of input samples and subtracting the product of the predetermined bit rate, in bits per sample, and the number of input samples. The number of input samples may be as few as one sample.
A decoder may decode the encoded data starting with the initial quantization step. As the decoder decodes the encoded data, the decoder may also determine the fullness of the virtual buffer. The decoder may determine the fullness or emptiness by observing the amount of bits that were used to encode an amount of decoded data corresponding to the number of input samples. The decoder may then determine the quantization step decision that was made at the encoder 200. Accordingly, the encoder 200 does not need to explicitly transmit the quantization step to the rate controller or any other logic in the decoder.
FIG. 3 shows a parallel processing architecture 300. The demultiplexer 302 receives the input pixel components 304, and separates each pixel component into constituent parts, e.g., Alpha 306, Red 308, Green 310, and Blue 312. The prediction & quantization blocks 314, 316, 318, and 320 are associated with a particular one of the constituent parts of the pixel components. There may be any number of such blocks and they may operate in parallel. In the case of a format with four pixel components, such as ARGB, each prediction & quantization block processes a particular component part. When the architecture 300 processes pixel components with fewer constituent parts than prediction & quantization blocks, then some of the prediction & quantization blocks need not operate for the processing of those pixel components. The prediction & quantization blocks 314-320 may provide quantized residuals to a particular one of component mappers 322, 324, 326, and 328. The component mappers 322-328 may also operate in parallel.
The mappers 322-328 provide mapped quantized residuals ‘E’ to a multiplexer 330. The multiplexer 330 multiplexes the mapped quantized residuals ‘E’ into a residual stream 332 that is provided to the variable length coder 334. Alternatively, there may be a variable length encoder associated with each component mapper, and the multiplexer 330 may multiplex the variable length encoded quantized residuals output by the multiple variable length encoders.
FIG. 4 shows an example of a predictor and quantizer 400. The predictor and quantizer 400 includes a buffer 402, first delay logic 404 (implementing, e.g., six sample delay), a prediction engine 406, and second delay logic 408 (implementing, e.g., 3 sample delay). The buffer 402 may store the previous reconstructed image line. The prediction engine 406 receives the current pixel component ‘x’, reconstructed pixel components ‘w’, ‘t’, ‘s’, ‘g’, ‘c’, ‘b’, ‘d’, and ‘h’ from the previous line from the first delay blocks 404, and reconstructed pixels from the left on the current line, ‘k’, ‘r’, ‘f’, ‘a’ from the second delay blocks 408.
In order to use reconstructed pixel components, instead of the input pixel components, the quantizer 410 may provide quantized residuals E′ to an inverse quantizer 412. The inverse quantizer 412 inverse quantizes the quantized residuals. The reconstructed pixels ‘Rx’ are generated from the quantized residuals E′ and the predicted values from the prediction engine.
The prediction engine 406 may include an Edge prediction engine 414, LS prediction engine 416, Left prediction engine 418, and ABCD prediction engine 420. As described above, the prediction engine 406 predicts the current pixel component ‘x’ from reconstructed pixel components ‘w’, ‘t’, ‘s’, ‘g’, ‘c’, ‘b’, ‘d’, and ‘h’ from the previous line, and reconstructed pixels from the left on the current line, ‘k’, ‘r’, ‘f’, ‘a’, thereby resulting in a residual E′′ representing the pixel component ‘x’.
The operation of the prediction engine 406 will now be described with reference to FIG. 5, which shows example pixel components 500. The prediction engine 406 may adaptively predict pixel components from neighboring reconstructed pixels of the line above, and the left pixels of the same line of the pixel to be predicted. For example, the prediction engine 406 may predict pixel ‘x’ from a combination of any of the reconstructed pixels ‘t’, ‘s’, ‘g’, ‘c’, ‘b’, ‘d’, ‘h’, ‘k’, ‘r’, ‘f’, and ‘a’.
The spatial prediction adaptively chooses an output from one of the four candidate prediction engines: the Edge prediction engine 414, LS prediction engine 416, Left prediction engine 418, and ABCD prediction engine 420 as its predictor for the current pixel component. The choice may be made according to the prediction errors determined for one or more previous reconstructed pixel components, considering the candidate predictors. This operation may be the same in both the encoder and decoder, and no prediction control information needs to be included in the encoded data. The decoder may implement an identical prediction mode algorithm and deduce the prediction mode used by the encoder. Once a predictor is selected, the value of each sample is predicted using the selected predictor. The residual value E′′ is calculated as the difference between the predicted value and the actual sample value.
LS Prediction Engine 416
The LS prediction engine 416 may produce a predicted value Px of the current sample ‘x’ according to the following:














if (c >= max(a, b))



 Px = min(a, b);



else {



 if (c <= min(a, b))



  Px = max(a, b);



 else Px = a + b − c;}









ABCD Prediction Engine 420.
The ABCD prediction engine 420 may produce the prediction value Px=(a+b+c+d+2)/4. This is an average of four neighboring samples.
Left Prediction Engine 418
The Left prediction engine 418 may use the reconstructed value of the left pixel of the current sample as its prediction value. In other words, Px=‘a’.
Edge Prediction Engine 414
The Edge prediction engine 414 may employ more neighboring pixels than the LS prediction engine 416. The Edge prediction engine 414 may detect an edge at several possible angles around the current sample ‘x’, and use the edge information in the prediction. The Edge prediction engine 414 may search, as examples, for directions of an edge that are horizontal, vertical, 45 degree, 135 degree, about 22.5 degrees and about 157.5 degrees. The Edge prediction engine 414 may be implemented in two stages. The first stage is edge detection. The second stage is edge selection.
Some options may be specified for the prediction function. The use of the reconstructed sample value ‘a’, which is immediately to the left of ‘x’, may be disabled by configuring the Edge prediction engine 414 with a parameter such as NOLEFT=1. Avoiding the use of sample ‘a’ may allow more time for the prediction, quantization and inverse quantization path to function, which may be an advantage in high throughput systems where circuit timing may make it difficult to reconstruct sample ‘a’ quickly. The use of the reconstructed sample values ‘a’ and ‘f’, which are the two samples immediately to the left of ‘x’, may be disabled by configuring the Edge prediction engine 414 with a parameter such as NOLEFT=2 (also referred to as NO2LEFT). This allows even more time for the prediction, quantization and inverse quantization path to function. When circuit timing needs three clock cycles for prediction, quantization and inverse quantization, the use of NOLEFT=2 facilitates a throughput of one sample per clock.
The individual prediction engines from the four listed above may be selectively enabled and disabled. For certain classes of content, better performance may be obtained by utilizing a subset of the prediction functions. When predicting samples along the top and left edges of an image, for example, the Left prediction engine 418 may be employed, as specified below.
NOLEFT=1 Option
When NOLEFT=1, the reconstructed sample value ‘a’ in the LS prediction engine 416, ABCD prediction engine 418, and Edge prediction engine 420 is replaced by its prediction Pa using the reconstructed samples ‘f’, ‘g’, and ‘c’ according to the following:














if (ABS(g−c) > ABS(g−f)*3)



 Pa = c;



else {



 if (ABS(g−f) > ABS(g−c)*3)



  Pa = f;



 else Pa = (f+c+1)/2;}









NOLEFT=2 Option
When NOLEFT=2, the reconstructed sample values ‘f’ and ‘a’ in the LS prediction engine 416, ABCD prediction engine 418, and Edge prediction engine 420 are replaced by their predictions Pf and Pa using the reconstructed samples ‘r’, ‘s’, ‘g’, and ‘c’. The prediction of ‘a’ may use the same approach as in NOLEFT, except that ‘f’ is replaced by Pf according to the following:

Pf=(r+g+s+c+2)/4;

Edge prediction engine with NOLEFT=0, NOLEFT=1, NOLEFT=2
When NOLEFT=0, the left sample is used in the prediction, and the following may be applied to the edge detection:












 if ( (2*ABS(a−c) > 6*ABS(c−b)) && 2*ABS(a−c) > 6*ABS(c−g) &&


2*ABS(a−c) > 6*ABS(a−f) )


 {


  edge1 = 0;


  strength1 = ABS(c−b);


 }


 else if ( 2*ABS(b−c) > 6*ABS(c−a) && 2*ABS(c−d) > 6*ABS(c−a) )


 {


  edge1 = 1;


  strength1 = ABS(c−a) ;


 }


 else


 {


  strength1 = max_strength;


  edge1 = 7;


 }


 if ( 2* ABS(a−g) > 6*ABS(a−b) && 2* ABS(a−g) > 6*ABS(f−c) )


 {


  edge2 = 2;


  strength2 = ABS(a−b);


 }


 else if( 2* ABS(a−b) > 6*ABS(a−g) && 2* ABS(a−b) > 6*ABS(s−f))


 {


  edge2 = 3;


  strength2 = ABS(a−g) ;


 }


 else


 {


  strength2 = max_strength;


  edge2 = 7;


 }


 if ( 2*ABS(a−g) > 6*ABS(a−d) )


 {


  edge3 = 4;


  strength3 = ABS(a−d) ;


 }


 else if ( 2*ABS(a−b) > 6*ABS(a−s) )


 {


  edge3 = 5;


  strength3 = ABS(a−s) ;


 }


 else


 {


  strength3 = max_strength;


  edge3 = 7;


 }









When NOLEFT=1, the left sample is not used in the prediction, and the following may be applied to the edge detection:












 if ( (2*ABS(f−g) > 6*ABS(c−g)) && 2*ABS(f−g) > 6*ABS(s−g) &&


2*ABS(f−g) > 6*ABS(r−f) )


 {


  edge1 = 0;


  strength1 = ABS(c−g);


 }


 else if ( 2*ABS(g−c) > 6*ABS(f−g) && 2*ABS(b−g) > 6*ABS(g−f) )


 {


  edge1 = 1;


  strength1 = ABS(f−g);


 }


 else


 {


  strength1 = max_strength;


  edge1 = 7;


 }


 if ( 2* ABS(f−s) > 6*ABS(f−c) && 2* ABS(f−s) > 6*ABS(r−g) )


 {


  edge2 = 2;


  strength2 = ABS(f−c);


 }


 else if ( 2* ABS(f−c) > 6*ABS(s−f) && 2* ABS(f−c) > 6*ABS(r−t) )


 {


  edge2 = 3;


  strength2 = ABS(s−f);


 }


 else


 {


  strength2 = max_strength;


  edge2 = 7;


 }


 if ( 2*ABS(s−f) > 6*ABS(f−b) )


 {


  edge3 = 4;


  strength3 = ABS(f−b);


 }


 else if ( 2*ABS(f−c) > 6*ABS(f−t) )


 {


  edge3 = 5;


  strength3 = ABS(f−t);


 }


 else


 {


  strength3 = max_strength;


  edge3 = 7;


 }









When NOLEFT=2, the two left samples are not used in the prediction, and the following may be applied to the edge detection:












 if ( (2*ABS(r−s) > 6*ABS(g−s)) && 2*ABS(r−s) > 6*ABS(t−s) &&


2*ABS(r−s) > 6*ABS(k−r) )


 {


  edge1 = 0;


  strength1 = ABS(g−s);


 }


 else if ( 2*ABS(s−g) > 6*ABS(r−s) && 2*ABS(c−s) > 6*ABS(s−r) )


 {


  edge1 = 1;


  strength1 = ABS(r−s);


 }


 else


 {


  strength1 = max_strength;


  edge1 = 7;


 }


 if ( 2* ABS(r−t) > 6*ABS(r−g) && 2* ABS(r−t) > 6*ABS(k−s) )


 {


  edge2 = 2;


  strength2 = ABS(r−g);


 }


 else if ( 2* ABS(r−g) > 6*ABS(t−r) && 2* ABS(r−g) > 6*ABS(k−w) )


 {


  edge2 = 3;


  strength2 = ABS(t−r);


 }


 else


 {


  strength2 = max_strength;


  edge2 = 7;


 }


 if ( 2*ABS(t−r) > 6*ABS(r−c) )


 {


  edge3 = 4;


  strength3 = ABS(r−c);


 }


 else if ( 2*ABS(r−g) > 6*ABS(r−w) )


 {


  edge3 = 5;


  strength3 = ABS(r−w);


 }


 else


 {


  strength3 = max_strength;


  edge3 = 7;


 }









The parameter ‘max_strength’ may be defined as the largest possible absolute difference between two samples. This parameter may be related to the pixel data format, e.g., for 8-bit data, max_strength=255, for 10-bit data, max_strength=1023. The same edge selection logic may be applied in each case of NOLEFT=0, NOLEFT=1 and NOLEFT=2, except that the sample value ‘a’ may be replaced by its prediction Pa when NOLEFT=1 or NOLEFT=2, and the sample value ‘f’ may be replaced by its prediction Pf when NOLEFT=2:














if (strength1 <= strength2)



{



 if (strength1 <= strength3)



 {



  edge = edge1;



  strength = strength1;



 }



 else



 {



  edge = edge3;



  strength = strength3;



 }



}



else



{



 if (strength2 <= strength3)



 {



  edge = edge2;



  strength = strength2;



 }



 else



 {



  edge = edge3;



  strength = strength3;



 }



}



if (strength == max strength || edge == 7)



 Px = (a+c+b+d+2) / 4;



else



{



 switch(edge)



 {



 case 0: Px = a;



 case 1: Px = b;



 case 2: Px = d;



 case 3: Px = c;



 case 4: Px = h;



 case 5: Px = g;



 }



}









Predictor Selection
A Unit may be considered to be a logical grouping of adjacent samples of the same component. For example, the Unit size may be selected to be equal to two. A Unit size may be the number of samples comprised by a Unit. In alternative implementations, the Unit size may be selected to have a value of one, three, four or another value. In one embodiment, when the Unit size is selected to be equal to two, for every pair of samples of one component, a selected set (up to all) of the candidate predictors may be evaluated using the previous pair of samples of the same component, and the predictor that performs best for that previous pair is selected for the current pair. The selection of a predictor may be made on boundaries that do not align with Units. There may be certain exceptions under which the set of candidate predictors is restricted, for example when samples to the left or above are not available, or for example when one or more predictors are not enabled.
For the first pair of samples of the image, e.g., the two samples on the left edge of the top line, the Left prediction engine 418 may be selected as the predictor. Further, for the first pair of samples of each line other than the first, the LS prediction engine 418 may be selected. Sample values that are not available for use in prediction may be assigned a pre-determined value, for example one half of the maximum range of sample values.
For other pairs of samples, the predictor may be selected according to the estimated prediction errors of the left pair of samples, which may be calculated by all four predictors. When the reconstructed value of the current sample ‘x’ is found, the estimated prediction error for the current sample can be calculated as follows:

err_sample=ABS(x′−Px)

In the above equation, Px is the predicted value of the current sample from each of the four predictors. The prediction error of one predictor is the sum of err_sample over both samples in a pair of samples for a predictor. The predictor with the smallest prediction error is then selected as the predictor for the next pair of samples of the same component.
Note when NOLEFT=1, the prediction error of the left sample is not available. Assuming the current sample is ‘x’ in FIG. 5, then if NOLEFT=0, the prediction engine selected by the left pair, the samples of ‘f’ and ‘a’, is used for the current sample pair. If NOLEFT=1, the predictor selected by the smallest prediction error of the available left pair may be used, e.g., the samples of ‘r’ and ‘f’ if ‘x’ is the second sample of the pair, or samples of ‘r’ and ‘k’ is ‘x’ is the first sample of the pair. If NOLEFT=2, the predictor selected by the smallest prediction error of the samples of ‘r’ and ‘k’ may be used if ‘x’ is the first sample of the pair, or samples of ‘k’ and its immediately left one if ‘x’ is the second sample of the pair. The residual or error value E′′ may be determined as: E′′=x−Px.
The reconstructed sample value of ‘x’, for use in future predictions, may be obtained as follows:














x′ = Px + E′ * QuantDivisor;



if (x′ < 0) x′ = 0;



else if (x′ > MAXVAL) x′ = MAXVAL;









The value QuantDivisor is defined below. MAXVAL is the maximum value that can be coded by the uncompressed video sample word size, e.g., 1023 for 10 bit video, and 255 for 8 bit video. In one implementation, Cb and Cr are non-negative integers.
The operation of the mapper and variable length coder 206 is described with reference to FIG. 6, which shows examples of sample units 600, which are also referred to as Units. The mapper and variable length coder 206 may use entropy coding to code sample values using their natural 2's complement binary values. The number of bits used to code each value may be determined dynamically by a combination of the recent history of coded values of the same component and a prefix value associated with each Unit 605 of samples. In certain implementations, a Unit 605 comprises two samples 610 of a particular component type, e.g., Y, Cb or Cr, or Alpha, R, G or B. In some implementations, the Cb and Cr samples are coded together in one Unit. The same set of components may be used for the prediction of the number of bits.
Each Unit 605 of samples has a Unit sample size. A Unit sample size may be the size in bits of each of the samples in a Unit. The Unit 605 sample size may be large enough to code each of the samples contained in the Unit 505, and it may be larger. The size of one sample may be the number of bits used to code the sample's value in 2's complement. For example, a value of 0 has a size of 0, a value of −1 has a size of 1, a value of −2 or 1 has a size of 2, a value of −4, −3, 2 or 3 has a size of 3, and so on.
A Unit 605, may have a maximum sample size, which is the maximum of the sizes of all the samples in the Unit 605. A Unit 605 may also have a predicted size. In one implementation, if the predicted size is greater than or equal to the maximum sample size, then the Unit 605 sample size is equal to the predicted size. In one implementation, if the maximum sample size is greater than the predicted size, then the difference, which is always non-negative, is coded in the prefix value 612, and the maximum sample size may be used as the Unit 605 sample size. In another implementation, if the maximum sample size is different from the predicted size, then the difference, which may be positive or negative, is coded in the prefix value 612. The prefix value may use unary coding, e.g., for implementations with non-negative prefix values, the value 0 has the code 1 (binary), the value 1 has the code 01, the value 2 has the code 001, and so on. The Unit sample size is the sum of the predicted size and the prefix value 612. For 10 bit video, the greatest possible sample size is 10, and the smallest possible predicted size is 0, so the greatest possible prefix value is 10, which occupies 11 bits i.e. 0000 0000 001. For implementations with signed prefix values, signed prefix values may be unary coded.
The predicted size may be a function of the sizes of previously coded samples. In one implementation, the predicted size is the average, with rounding, of the sizes of the samples of the same component of the previous two samples, e.g., of the previous Unit, given that the Unit size is 2. If the Unit size is 4, the predicted size may be the average of the sizes of the four samples of the same component of the previous Unit. If the Unit size is 3, the predicted size may be generated by the average of the sizes of the last two samples of the same component of the previous Unit, thereby avoiding division by 3. Alternatively, if the Unit size is 3, the predicted size may be generated as a weighted sum of 3 samples of the previous unit of the same component. The weights may be, for example, (1⁄4, 1⁄4, 1⁄2).
For example, if a component of an image, after quantization, is such that the size of the samples is 2 for many consecutive samples, then the predicted size is 2, and the prefix value is 0. Therefore the prefix code is ‘1’, and each sample is coded using 2 bits, and a Unit of two samples has a total of 5 bits. In the event of a transient causing a sudden increase in the sample size, the prefix value codes the increase in the sizes. In the event of another transient causing a sudden decrease in the sample size, the prefix value may be 0 and the Unit sample size may be equal to the predicted size, which may be in excess of the sizes of the samples in the Unit. Therefore each sample may be coded with a number of bits equal to the predicted size, even though their own sizes are less. Following a transient, in the absence of another change in sample sizes, the Unit sample size and predicted size converge again. This technique results in very efficient coding of samples, given that the sizes of the samples may change from Unit to Unit, particularly when the sizes do not frequently change very rapidly.
The delta size Unit variable length coding (DSU-VLC) scheme facilitates efficient encoding and decoding at high speed in hardware, in part because it does not rely upon VLC tables. The number of bits in a Unit to be decoded is determined from the prefix value (counting zeros) and the predicted size, which can be determined before encoding or decoding the current Unit. It is feasible to encode or decode one Unit per clock, and faster decoding approaches are also feasible. Encoding can encode multiple Units in parallel, for greater throughput. The Unit size may be selected to be greater than two for various reasons. For example, larger Unit size may be chosen where the usage imposes a throughput requirement that cannot practically be met with a Unit size of 2, in which case a Unit size of 3 or 4 may be used.
Referring again to FIG. 4, the quantizer 410 quantizes the residuals E′′, which in general includes the case of lossless coding, using a quantization parameter Quant. Quant may take on values ranging from 0, signifying lossless, to the value that corresponds to the highest value of QuantDivisor[ ] (see below). With an exemplary set of values of QuantDivisor and QuantOffset shown below, the value of Quant ranges from 0 to 17.
The quantizer 410 may perform quantization on the residual value E′′ as follows:














if (Quant = 0)









E′ = E′′;









else









if (E′′ >= 0)









E′ = (E′′ + QuantOffset[Quant]) / QuantDivisor[Quant];









else E′ = (E′′ − QuantOffset[Quant]) / QuantDivisor[Quant];









where division may be with truncation, as, e.g., in the ‘C’ language.
The set of divisors may be:
int QuantDivisor[ ]={1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 24, 28, 32, 48, 64, 128, 256};
The associated set of offsets, the rounding constants, may be:
int QuantOffset[ ]={0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 23, 31, 63, 127};
In this approach, there are 4 odd-valued divisors (3, 5, 7 and 9), and seven that are products of one of these odd-valued divisors and one of five other values, each of which is a power of 2: 2**N. As a result, in one implementation, the quantization function supports 4 odd-valued divisors.
The use of this particular set of values of QuantDivisor[ ] provides good compression with low complexity. Note that division by the odd numbers can be performed in hardware using multiplication by one of a small set of optimized constant values.
In other implementations, the divisors may be selected such that they do not have odd factors. For example:
int QuantDivisor[ ]={1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2048, 4096};
int QuantOffset[ ]={0, 0, 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, 63, 127, 255, 511, 1023, 2047};
Rate Control
The value of Quant is determined via a rate control technique, which may be performed identically in both the encoder and decoder. The rate control technique may base its decisions on a measure of the activity of the most recently coded predetermined number of pixel components and on the fullness of the buffer model. The predetermined number may be, for example, 3, 2, or some other number. The value of Quant may be updated once per coded predetermined number of pixel components.
FIG. 7 shows an example of a virtual buffer model 700. The virtual buffer model 700 is in communication with a bitstream source 702, the rate controller 208, and a bitstream consumer 706. The virtual buffer model 700 models the behavior of a rate buffer where the output bit rate is a specified bit rate. The specified bit rate may be in units of bits per pixel or per group of pixels, or it may be in other units such as bits per unit of time, such as bits per second. The bitstream consumer 706 may model the consumption of bits at a specified rate. The bitstream source 702 may be the output of the mapper and variable length coder 206, for example. A group of pixels may comprise a predetermined number of pixels, for example two, three, four, or some other number.
Bits enter the virtual buffer model 700 when they are created. For example, the number of bits used to code a Group is added to the model 700 when the Group is coded. Bits leave the virtual buffer model 700 according to a pre-determined schedule. For example, the schedule may specify a constant rate in units of bits per group. The virtual buffer model 700 may be implemented as an accumulator 708, in which one value is added and other value is subtracted per Group. Alternatively, the schedule of removing bits from the virtual buffer model 700 may be in units of bits per second. Alternatively, the times at which bits are added to or subtracted from the buffer model 700 may be finer or coarser than a Group, and may use a construct other than a Group, such as a sample, a macroblock, a slice or a picture. In order to model the behavior of a First In First Out (FIFO) buffer, the fullness of the virtual buffer model 700 may be clamped to 0 when subtracting a number of bits from the fullness that would otherwise result in a negative value of fullness.
When the output bit rate used in the virtual buffer model 700 is less than or equal to the actual bit rate at which bits are removed from the rate buffer in an encoder, and the rate controller 704 ensures that the virtual buffer model 700 does not overflow, the rate buffer also does not overflow. More generally, the encoder may use the virtual buffer model 700 to manage the rate of creation of bits by the encoder such that another virtual buffer model, which may be applied later to the encoder's bit stream, does not overflow or underflow. The bit rate at which bits leave the virtual buffer model can be changed at any time to any supported value. If the actual rate at which bits leave the rate buffer equals or approximates the rate at which bits leave the virtual buffer model, the encoder's bit rate can be set to any supported bit rate with effectively instantaneous response. Because the rate control uses the virtual buffer model to manage the rate of creation of bits, the rate control function does not need to monitor the rate at which bits leave the rate buffer.
In one implementation, the encoder and decoder perform identical rate control (RC) decisions, which control the value of the quantizer, or Quant, without the encoder transmitting any bits that specifically indicate quantization control. The rate control may depend on the activity, measured by the sizes of the samples, of the previous Group, as well as fullness of the virtual buffer model, and a measure of the strength of an edge, if any, in the preceding samples. The rate control may use several configurable thresholds. Units 605 are organized into Groups 710. Groups 710 are utilized to organize the samples to facilitate the buffer model and rate control. In another exemplary implementation, the decoder does not perform the same rate control decisions as the encoder, and the encoder transmits bits which indicate at least a portion of the quantization control.
In one implementation, the encoder, including the rate controller 208, ensures that the virtual buffer model 700 never exceeds a defined maximum fullness, while choosing quantization levels to maximize overall subjective image quality. For some images and bit rates, both may be achieved relatively easily, while for others, the buffer fullness may vary and approach or reach the size of the virtual buffer model 700 at times and the quantization may vary and may reach the maximum allowed value at times.
The virtual buffer model 700 may represent a FIFO of predetermined size, BufferSize. The value of BufferSize may be chosen according to the particular application. A larger size generally facilitates better compression for a given bit rate and image contents, and vice versa. A larger size also implies a larger amount of space available in a physical rate buffer, as well as potentially increased latency. In an exemplary implementation, at the start of a picture, the buffer model 700 is initialized to be empty. Alternatively, the virtual buffer model 700 fullness may be retained from one picture to the next, or it may be initialized to some other value.
As each Group 710 of samples is encoded, the number of bits used to code the Group is added to the accumulator in the virtual buffer model 700. After each Group is coded, a number equal to the budget of bits per Group, e.g., the specified bit rate, is subtracted from the accumulator, with the result clamped to 0 to enforce non-negative fullness. In implementations where the decoder mimics the rate control of the encoder, the same operation happens in the decoder: as each Group is decoded, the number of bits that the Group occupies is added to the model and the specified bit rate, e.g., the budget number of bits per Group, is subtracted, with the result clamped to 0. This way the encoder and decoder buffer models track exactly for every Group in each picture. The rate controller 208 can guarantee that the buffer fullness never exceeds the defined maximum value, e.g., the buffer size, by adjusting the value of Quant.
In one implementation, at the start of each picture, the quantization value Quant is initialized to 0, corresponding to lossless coding. In another implementation, the value of Quant is initialized to a non-zero value. The value of Quant may be adjusted dynamically to avoid overflowing the buffer model while maximizing the compressed image quality. The rate control algorithm may facilitate encoding of difficult images at low bit rates with minimum visible quantization errors, as well as encoding difficult images at higher bit rates with no visible quantization error.
In one implementation, the activity level of each Group is measured. The activity level may be the maximum quantized residual size of each Unit in the Group, times the number of samples in a Unit (e.g., either 2, 3, or 4), plus 1 (corresponding to a prefix value of 0), summed over all of the Units in the Group. The quantized residual sizes are after quantization using the current value of Quant. As an example of 2 samples per unit and 3 units per group, the numbers of bits for sample 0 and 1 are SampleSize[0] and SampleSize[1] respectively. Assume the maximum of the two samples for unit 0 is MaxSizeUnit[0]=MAX(SampleSize[0], SampleSize[1]), then the activity level for the group is RcSizeGroup=MaxSizeUnit[0]+1+MaxSizeUnit[1]+1+MaxSizeUnit[2]+1. Another parameter that calculates the real number of bits coded in the last Group, e.g., BitsCodedCur, in example shown below, is also used in determining whether the value of Quant should be increased, decreased, or left unchanged.
The following describes control of the quantization parameter, Quant, for an example where the virtual buffer size is 16 Kbits. In this example, “MaxBitsPerGroup” represents the pre-determined data rate in bits per group. Offset[ ] is a set of values that adjust the “target_activity_level” according to the fullness of the buffer model, which is represented by “Buffer_fullness”, and which is compared to various threshold values represented by BufTh1, BufTh2, and so on:












// Set target number of bits per Group according to buffer fullness


if(Buffer_fullness < BufTh1)


{









Target_activity_level = MaxBitsPerGroup + offset[0];



MIN_QP = minQP[0];



MAX_QP = maxQP[0];







}


else if(Buffer_fullness < BufTh2)


{









Target_activity_level = MaxBitsPerGroup + offset[1];



MIN_QP = minQP[1];



MAX_QP = maxQP[1];







}


else if(Buffer_fullness < BufTh3)


{









Target_activity_level = max(0, (MaxBitsPerGroup + offset[2]));



MIN_QP = minQP[2];



MAX_QP = maxQP[2];







}


else if(Buffer_fullness < BufTh4)


{









Target_activity_level = max(0, (MaxBitsPerGroup + offset[3]







));









MIN_QP = minQP[3];



MAX_QP = maxQP[3];







}


else if(Buffer_fullness < BufTh5)


{









Target_activity_level = max(0, (MaxBitsPerGroup + offset[4]







));









MIN_QP = minQP[4];



MAX_QP = maxQP[4];







}


else if(Buffer_fullness < BufTh6)


{









Target_activity_level = max(0, (MaxBitsPerGroup + offset[5]));



MIN_QP = minQP[5];



MAX_QP = maxQP[5];







}


else if(Buffer_fullness < BufTh7)


{









Target_activity_level = max(0, (MaxBitsPerGroup + offset[6]));



MIN_QP = minQP[6];



MAX_QP = maxQP[6];







}


else if(Buffer_fullness < BufTh8)


{









Target_activity_level = max(0, (MaxBitsPerGroup + offset[7]));



MIN_QP = minQP[7];



MAX_QP = maxQP[7];







}


else if(Buffer_fullness < BufTh9)


{









Target_activity_level = max(0, (MaxBitsPerGroup + offset[8]));



MIN_QP = minQP[8];



MAX_QP = maxQP[8];







}


else if(Buffer_fullness < BufTh10)


{









Target_activity_level = max(0, (MaxBitsPerGroup + offset[9]));



MIN_QP = minQP[9];



MAX_QP = maxQP[9];







}


else if(Buffer_fullness < BufTh11)


{









Target_activity_level = max(0, (MaxBitsPerGroup +







offset[10]));









MIN_QP = minQP[10];



MAX_QP = maxQP[10];







}


else if(Buffer_fullness < BufTh12)


{









Target_activity_level = max(0, (MaxBitsPerGroup +







offset[11]));









MIN_QP = minQP[11];



MAX_QP = maxQP[12];







}


else if(Buffer_fullness < BufTh13)


{









Target_activity_level = max(0, (MaxBitsPerGroup +







offset[12]));









MIN_QP = minQP[12];



MAX_QP = maxQP[12];







}


else if(Buffer_fullness < BufTh14)


{









Target_activity_level = max(0, (MaxBitsPerGroup +







offset[13]));









MIN_QP = minQP[13];



MAX_QP = maxQP[13];







}


else


{









Target_activity_level = max(0, (MaxBitsPerGroup +







offset[14]));









MIN_QP = minQP[14];



MAX_QP = maxQP[14];







}









The 14 values of threshold (BufTh1 through 14) of buffer fullness in units of bits may be set for a virtual buffer model size of 16 Kbits (16,384 bits) as {1792, 3584, 5376, 7168, 8960, 10752, 12544, 13440, 14336, 15232, 15456, 15680, 15960, 16240}. The 15 values of offsets (offset[0 to 14]) for Target_activity_level may be set as {20, 10, 0, −2, −4, −4, −8, −10, −10, −10, −10, −12, −12, −12, −12}.
At any range of buffer fullness, which is bounded by two consecutive thresholds, e.g. BufTh1<=Buffer_fullness<BufTh2, there is a range of Quant, specified by MIN_QP and MAX_QP, allowed for the rate controller 208 to use. This helps to regulate the variation of Quant to avoid over-quantization when the buffer level is low, as well as avoiding the use of too many less significant bits that may not help with visual quality when the buffer fullness is high. The pair of parameters, MIN_QP and MAX_QP, associated with each range of buffer fullness levels are selected respectively from an array of 15 values of minQP[0 to 14], with example default values of {0, 0, 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 8, 8, 8, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17}, and an array of 15 values of maxQP[0 to 14] with example default values of {2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17}, according to the buffer fullness level.
The value of Quant is adjusted according to the measured activity levels, the target activity level, the allowed Quant range specified by MIN_QP and MAX_QP, and the strength of a strong edge. When there is a strong edge, the activity level normally increases significantly if the value of Quant stays fixed. The rate control algorithm detects the presence of a strong edge by examining the activity level of the current Group and that of the preceding Group as well as the associated values of Quant. When a strong edge is detected, the rate control algorithm does not increase the value of Quant immediately after the presence of the strong edge, in order to avoid potential quantization noise that is more readily visible in smooth areas that may follow a strong edge. This factor may be observed for example in some cartoon content. The rate control may increase the value of Quant at the second group after a strong edge. One parameter that serves as a threshold in detecting strong edges is defined as EdgeFactor in the pseudo code below.
Some implementations avoid excessive fluctuation of Quant around a high quantization value, which could result in visible high frequency quantization noise in some images. These implementations regulate the increase of Quant so that Quant does not increase for two consecutive Groups of pixels when the value of Quant is already high, with certain exceptions. However, the decrease of Quant may be allowed as soon as the measured activity level is low. These adjustments are controlled by two parameters defined as QuantIncrLimit[0] and QuantIncrLimit[1] in the example below; their default values may be set to 11. In the following example, RcSizeGroup represents the activity level, BitsCodedCur represents the actual number of bits used to code the most recently coded Group, and RcTgtBitsGroup represents the Target_activity_level. RcTgtBitOffset[0] and RcTgtBitOffset[1] are offset values that adjust the range of the target activity level. EdgeFactor is a parameter that is used to detect a strong edge. The quantization step of the last Group is Quant, which is saved as QuantPrev before it is assigned the value for the current Group.
The operation of the Quant adjustment may be implemented as follows:












if ( RcSizeGroup < (RcTgtBitsGroup − RcTgtBitOffset[0])


 && BitsCodedCur < (RcTgtBitsGroup − RcTgtBitOffset[0]))








{
QuantPrev = Quant;



Quant = MAX(MIN_QP, (Quant−1));







}


else if (BitsCodedCur > RcTgtBitsGroup + RcTgtBitOffset[1])








{
if ((QuantPrev == Quant && RcSizeGroup *







2 < RcSizeGroupPrev * EdgeFactor) || (QuantPrev < Quant &&


RcSizeGroup < RcSizeGroupPrev * EdgeFactor && Quant <


QuantIncrLimit[0])


|| (Quant < QuantIncrLimit[1] ) )










{
QuantPrev = Quant;




Quant = MIN(MAX_QP, (Quant+1));} }







else QuantPrev = Quant;









When the buffer fullness approaches the maximum allowed level, the above Quant value determined by the activity level may be replaced by max_QP:














if (Buffer_fullness >= BufTh_overflow_avoid)









*Quant = max_QP;









Where BufTh_overflow_avoid is a programmable parameter.
FIG. 8 shows an example decoder 800. The decoder 800 includes a rate buffer 802, a variable length decoder (VLD) 804, a predictor, mapper and inverse quantizer (PMIQ) 806, and a rate controller 808. The decoder 800 may be located in the same device or in a different device as the encoder, and may receive the bitstream input from any source, such as a memory or communication interface. For example, the decoder 800 may be located remotely from the encoder and receive the input bitstream via a network interface.
The rate buffer 802 may be a FIFO memory which temporarily stores compressed data bits after the encoder 800 receives them. The rate buffer 802 may be integrated with the rest of the video decoder or it may be located in another module, and it may be combined with another memory. The size of the rate buffer 802 may be at least as large as the virtual buffer used in the video encoder. For example, where the video encoder uses a 16 kbits virtual buffer, e.g., 2048 bytes, the rate buffer may be the same size, i.e., 2048 bytes or larger. Ready-accept flow control may be used between the rate buffer 802 and the VLD 804 to control that when the rate buffer 802 is empty the decoding operation is suspended until there is data available in the rate buffer 802.
The fullness of the rate buffer 802, at any given time, may not be the same as the fullness of the virtual buffer model. In part this is because the decoder virtual buffer model mimics the operation of the encoder virtual buffer model, and not the operation of the decoder, and the buffer model operates with the specified number of coded bits/pixel times the number of pixels in a Group being removed from the buffer model every time a Group is decoded, rather than the actual schedule at which bits arrive at the decoder. The transmission of compressed bits may be modeled as being exactly synchronized with the decompression function, while in actual operation the input of the rate buffer 802 may be read from memory more quickly or more slowly than exactly this rate. This is one reason that the rate control, above, operates on the buffer model and not on the rate buffer fullness.
The input to the VLD 804 is a compressed bit stream 812. The compressed bit stream 812 may include a series of Groups. The Groups may include a set of Units. Each Unit may have a Prefix and some number of samples, for example two, three or four samples. The VLD 804 operation is the inverse of the variable length coder (VLC) 206 function. Since the input to the VLD 804 is a stream of bits, e.g., a stream of VLC coded samples, part or all of the VLD operation may be performed sequentially. Some of the VLD functionality may be pipelined, however.
In one implementation, the VLD 804 uses a Unit size of 2, i.e., 2 samples per Unit. The choice of Unit size may be the same for both the encoder and decoder for any given image. The Unit size is generally an attribute of the encoded bit stream.
The VLD 804 decoding operation entails determining the actual sizes (e.g., number of significant bits) of the samples in the previous Unit of the same component as the one currently being coded, and creating a predicted Unit sample size from this information. This analysis may be pipelined. The VLD 804 may decode the Prefix of each unit, which may be unary coded. The decoded Prefix value is added to the predicted sample size value. The resulting sample size information indicates how many bits for each sample are contained in the Unit. The VLD 804 extracts from the incoming bit stream a number of bits equal to the prefix size plus the determined sample size times the number of samples per Unit. Once the VLD 804 extracts these bits, they are de-multiplexed and processed by subsequent decoding steps which may be pipelined.
Similar to the VLC, the number of bits spent for the current Group as well as the activity level of the current Group are calculated and passed to the rate controller 808 for rate control. The VLD 804 generates the values of RcSizeGroup and BitsCodedCur and passes these to the rate controller 808.
Once the coded samples are extracted, they are converted to a suitable format for subsequent processing. For example, they may be converted to an 11 bit 2's complement signed format, with sign-extension of negative sample values. These constant-width sample values are demultiplexed into individual component streams of samples, and sent to the Predictor, Mapping and I-Quant (PMIQ) block 806.
FIG. 9 shows example logic 900 for encoding. The logic 900 initializes the quantization step to zero (902) and receives a unit of pixel components (904). The logic 900 also performs quantization using the quantization step and encodes the quantized values (906). The logic 900 measures the fullness of the virtual buffer (908) and adjusts the quantization step based on the measured fullness (910). If the encoding is finished (912), flow may return to (902) or terminate altogether; otherwise flow may continue at (904).
FIG. 10 shows example logic 1000 for decoding. The logic 1000 initializes the quantization step to zero (1002). The logic 1000 decodes a coded unit and updates the virtual buffer (1004). The logic 1000 also dequantizes using the quantization step parameter (1006), and measures the fullness of the virtual buffer (1008). Further, the logic 1000 may adjust the quantization step based on the measured fullness (1010). The logic 1000 determines whether decoding of the frame is finished (1012), and if so, flow may return to (1002) or terminate. Otherwise, the flow may return to (1004).
Operation Description
The description above provides an example architecture that supports additional specific image processing operations. An introduction to some of these operations is provided next. Additional architectural implementations that support the image processing operations are also discussed further below.
FIG. 11 shows an example encoding and decoding system 1100, based on the example of FIG. 1. The system 1100 supports real time operation. Source data 112, which may be uncompressed, enters the encoder 104, for example in real time and raster scan order. The encoder 104 compresses incoming pixels to form a bitstream and temporarily stores portions of the bitstream in its rate buffer 210. The output of the rate buffer 210 is the slice layer of a Display Stream Compression (DSC) bitstream 1106. The DSC bitstream 1106 may be conveyed, e.g., in real time from the encoder 104 to the decoder 106. In that regard, a wide variety of communication links 1104 may convey the DSC bitstream 1106 to the decoder 106. Underlying the communication links 1104 may be a wide variety of transport layers, and the communication links 1104 may include local high speed busses, WiFi links, Ethernet links, satellite links, cellular (e.g., 3G or 4G/LTE) links, as examples.
The decoder 106 receives the DSC bitstream 1106 into its rate buffer 802, which temporarily stores portions of the DSC bitstream 1106. The decoder 802 decodes bits from the rate buffer 802 to obtain uncompressed pixels. The decoder 802 outputs the uncompressed pixels, e.g., in real time and in raster scan order, for the display 110. The image output from the decoding process may have the same format as the image input to the encoding process.
The DSC bitstream may include of a sequence of frames coded using a picture layer syntax. The picture layer syntax may include a PPS (picture parameter set) and a slice syntax. The PPS contains parameters that the decoder 106 uses for correct decoding of the slice layer. FIG. 12 shows an example of a PPS 1200.
The picture layer may operate in units of entire pictures. A picture may be, as examples, a frame in the case of a progressive format video, or a field in the case of an interlaced format video. Each picture may include an integer number of contiguous, non-overlapping, identically-sized, rectangular slices. In the encoder 104, slice coding is specified via a slice layer. In the decoder 106, each slice may be decoded independently without reference to other slices. There may be one slice per line or multiple slices per line. In the case of multiple slices per line, bits from the slices covering one line are multiplexed in the DSC bitstream 1106 via a slice multiplexing process described below. Each slice may include a set of groups, and each group may be a set of three consecutive pixels in raster scan order. Further, the encoder 104 may encode each group with multiple (e.g., three) entropy codes, one for each component, and each of which may be a specific type of variable length code (VLC). Furthermore, some groups may include one or more additional bits which signal specific decoding operations.
FIG. 13 shows another example of an encoder 1300. The DSC encoding process generates bitstreams that may precisely conform to the independently specified bpp (bits per pixel) rate. The bpp rate may be specified in terms of bits per pixel time, which may be algorithmically specified, as the unit of a pixel time is the same at both the input and output of the encoder 1300. The number of bits that code each pixel, or group of pixels, may vary considerably. In the encoder 1300, the rate buffer 1302 facilitates converting the variable number of bits used to code each group into, e.g., a constant bpp rate. To that end, the encoding process includes the rate controller 1304.
The encoder 1300 may include color space conversion logic 1306, e.g., RGB input to reversible YCoCg conversion logic. An input buffer 1308 stores the converted input. Prediction, quantization, and reconstruction (PQR) logic 1310 implements prediction of sample values and generation of residual values. The prediction, quantization, and reconstruction (PQR) logic 1310 may include multiple (e.g., three) predictors: modified median adaptive prediction (MMAP), mid-point prediction (MPP), and block prediction (BP). The PQR logic 1310 also implements quantization of residual values and reconstruction of sample values. An indexed color history (ICH) 1312 is also present, as is VLC coding logic 1314 that may implement entropy coding using delta size unit variable-length coding (DSU-VLC). The input buffer 1308 provide samples to the flatness determination logic 1318. Note also that substream multiplexing logic 1320 is present to prepare a multiplexed output stream to the rate buffer 1302.
FIG. 14 shows another example of a decoder 1400 configured to decode image data that the encoder 1300 has encoded, and produce image output 1418. The decoder 1400 may implement the inverse of the operations that were performed by the encoder 1300. The decoder 1400 may include a rate buffer 1402, substream demultiplexer 1420, and VLC entropy decoding logic 1404 for delta sized unit variable length coding (DSU-VLC). The decoder 1400 also includes PQR logic 1406 that may implement multiple (e.g., three) predictors: modified median adaptive prediction (MMAP), mid-point prediction (MPP), and block prediction (BP). The PQR logic 1406 also performs inverse quantization of residual values and reconstruction of sample values. An ICH 1408, rate control logic 1410, and color space conversion logic 1412 is also present. Flatness indications may be signaled in the bitstream from the encoder, and provided to the rate control logic 1410.
The encoding process may produce display stream coded bitstreams that conform to an HRD (hypothetical reference decoder) constraint. The HRD may be idealized model of a decoder that includes a model of a rate buffer, which should neither overflow nor underflow.
The DSC bitstream and decoding process facilitate decoding 3 pixels per clock cycle in practical hardware implementations. In other implementations, the decoding process may process 1, 3, or other numbers of pixels per clock. Additional throughput in terms of pixels per clock may be increased via encoding and decoding multiple slices in parallel, which is facilitated by utilizing multiple slices per line in the DSC bitstream.
Color Space Conversion Logic 1306, 1412
RGB video input to the encoding process may be converted to YCoCg for subsequent processing. The reversible form of YCoCg may be used, and as such the number of bits per each of the two chroma components is one greater in YCoCg than it is in RGB. In the case of YCbCr input, no color space conversion need be performed. The inverse color space conversion is performed in the decoding process.
PQR Logic 1319, 1406
Each group of pixels is coded using either predictive coding (P-mode) or indexed color history coding (ICH-mode). For P-mode there are three predictors: modified median-adaptive prediction (MMAP), block prediction (BP), and midpoint prediction (MPP). The encoder and decoder may select MMAP, BP, or MPP automatically, using the same algorithm in each, without signaling the selection in the DSC bitstream.
In the encoder 1300, each sample is predicted using the selected predictor. The original sample value is compared to the predicted value, and the difference is quantized. Each quantized error is then entropy-coded if P-mode is selected. The encoder 1300 also performs a reconstruction step wherein the inverse-quantized error is added to the prediction so that the encoder and decoder may use the same reference samples.
In decoder 1400, the samples are predicted using a selected predictor. The residual value, which is obtained from decoding the DSC bitstream, is inverse quantized and the result added to the prediction, forming the reconstructed sample value.
The median-adaptive predictor (MAP) may be the prediction method that is used in JPEG-LS. However, a modification is made to allow the decoder 1400 to process three pixels in a group in parallel and to improve coding. The modified median-adaptive predictor (MMAP) facilitates hardware implementations for decoders running at 3 pixels/clock. The MMAP predicts a current sample value as a function of reconstructed previously coded samples to the left and above the current sample. The encoder 1300 and decoder 1400 may use identical sets of reconstructed samples for this purpose, and hence the MMAP produces the same results in both the encoder 1300 and the decoder 1400. MMAP may be the default predictor, and is effective at predicting sample values in most conditions.
The MPP predicts a current sample from a value that is approximately at the mid-point of the valid range for the sample. The MPP has the benefit of bounding the maximum size of the residual. MPP may be selected in place of MMAP when the number of bits required to code the samples in of one component of a group would be greater than or equal to the bit depth for that component minus the quantization shift.
The BP predicts a current sample from a reconstructed previously coded sample to the left of the current sample in the same scan line. The offset from the current sample to the predictor position is a BP vector. The BP vector and the decision of whether or not to use BP are determined automatically by the BP function, which is the same in both the encoder and decoder.
Block Prediction
Block prediction may predict the current sample where the predictor is a sample to the left of the current sample, in the same line. The relative position of the reference sample may be between (−3) and (−10), inclusive. Using additional pixel locations may improve quality. The relative position is a vector within the same line of samples; this is referred to as the block prediction vector.
The search to find the best vector may be performed on the previous line of samples, rather than the line that is currently being coded. In one implementation, the block search compares a set of 9 consecutive samples with reference samples using various potential vectors with values ranging from −3 to −10. The current samples and the reference samples being compared are in the same scan line, e.g., the line above the line of the sample to be coded. For each vector considered, a SAD (sum of absolute differences) is calculated over 9 samples in each of the current and reference set. The vector with the lowest SAD value is selected. In cases of ties, the vector closest to 0 is selected.
The 9-pixel SAD of the vector −1 is also used in order to determine whether BP or MMAP should be used. More details of predictor selection are given below.
A vector, once selected, applies to each group of 3 samples. Therefore the block search is performed every 3 samples.
A vector means that the predictor for pixel X is the pixel that is to the left of pixel X in same line, the distance to the left in pixel units being equal to the vector value.
FIG. 15 illustrates example sample sets 1500 for block search, showing several reference samples 1502 and vectors 1504, 1506. An example of the current sample ‘x’ 1506 and the current SAD calculation samples 1508 are also shown.
Indexed Color History (ICH) Logic 1312, 1408
FIG. 16 illustrates an example of indexed color history 1600.
In many types of content, such as computer-generated text and graphics, similar pixel values tend to appear in reasonably close proximity while not necessarily being adjacent to one another. Because of this, it can be helpful to keep track of a number of recently-used pixel values in the Indexed Color History (ICH). When the encoder 1300 selects ICH-mode for a particular group, it sends index values corresponding to the selected pixel values within the ICH. These index values are used directly in the output pixel stream.
The ICH logic includes a storage unit that maintains a set of recently used color values that were coded using another coding method such as predictive coding. The encoder 1300 and decoder 1400 may maintain identical states of the ICH. The ICH may have 32 entries, with an index value pointing to each entry. For groups that are ICH coded, each pixel may be coded with a 5-bit ICH index, which points to one of the entries. As each group of pixels is encoded in the encoder or decoded in the decoder in P-mode, the values of all the pixels in the group are entered into the ICH. The ICH may be managed as a shift register where the most-recently used (MRU) values are at the top and the least-recently used (LRU) values are at the bottom. New entries are added at the top and all other entries are shifted down, with the bottom entries falling out of the ICH. When a group is coded in ICH-mode, the three indices used to code those pixels reference entries in the ICH. When an ICH entry is referenced, it is moved to the top of the ICH and the other values above the prior location of the entry are shifted down by 1. This operation is performed in parallel for all 3 entries of each ICH coded group, and the most recent, e.g., the rightmost pixel value of the group becomes the MRU. The result is that the most recently used (MRU) value is at the top of the history and the least recently used (LRU) value is at the bottom of the history. Whenever a P-mode group of three pixels is added at top of the history, the three LRU values are removed.
For the first line each slice, all 32 ICH entries are treated as part of the shift register. For lines after the first line of a slice, the last 7 index values are defined to point to reconstructed pixels in the line above the current line, rather than entries in the ICH. This is useful for efficient coding of pixel values that are not in the history shift register, and it improves coding with some content.
ICH mode may be selected on a per-group basis by the encoder 1300. The encoder 1300 signals the use of ICH mode for a group using an escape code in the luma substream DSU-VLC. For each group coded in ICH mode, each pixel in the group is coded using a fixed-length 5 bit code, where the index values point into the history. The decoder 1400 decodes each ICH-coded group by determining the use of ICH mode via the bitstream syntax and decoding each pixel in the group by reading the values pointed to by the ICH indices that constitute the coded values of the pixels. Both the encoder 1300 and decoder 1400 update the ICH state identically every group by inserting P-mode pixels into the ICH and by re-ordering the ICH entries in response to ICH mode groups.
Entropy Coding Logic 1314, 1404
The display stream coding defines syntax at multiple layers. The lowest layer is called the substream layer. There may be three substreams in each slice, one for each component. The three substreams may be multiplexed together by a substream multiplexing (SSM) process to form a coded slice. If there is more than one slice per line, the coded slices may be multiplexed by the slice multiplex process; and if there is only one slice per line, the slice multiplex process is not used. The resulting bits of all slices are concatenated to form a coded picture. Each coded picture is optionally preceded by a picture parameter set (PPS).
Substream Layer
The display stream encoding may use an entropy coding technique referred to above as DSU-VLC for coding residuals associated with predictive coding. ICH coding of pixels uses a fixed-length code for each pixel. Specialized values are used to signal the use of ICH mode, and other codes signal quantization adjustments associated with flat regions of pixels.







TABLE 1







Examples of sizes for different residual values











Residual values
Size in bits
Representation















−3
3
101b



−2
2
10b



−1
1
1b



0
0
<none>



1
2
01b



2
3
010b



3
3
011b










The pixels in each slice may be organized into groups of three consecutive pixels each. A group is a logical construction employed by the encoding and decoding processes, but need not be directly represented in the bitstream. DSU-VLC organizes samples into units. A unit is the coded set of residuals of three consecutive samples of one component. Each unit has two parts: a prefix and a residual. The size of each residual is predicted based on the size of the three previous residuals of the same component type and any change in QP that may have occurred. The prefix may be a unary code that indicates the non-negative difference between the size of the largest residual in the unit and the predicted size. If the difference is negative, the value coded by the prefix is zero. The residual portion of each unit contains 3 values, one for each sample in the unit. The residual values are coded in 2's complement. The number of bits allocated to residuals can vary from unit to unit; however, all 3 residuals in one unit may be allocated the same number of bits.
In addition, the prefix for luma units also indicates whether or not ICH mode is used for each group. A transition from P-mode to ICH-mode may be indicated by an escape code, e.g., a prefix value that indicates a size that is one greater than the maximum possible residual size for luma. The maximum possible residual size for luma depends on the QP value that applies to luma in the group. An ICH-mode group immediately following another ICH mode group may be indicated by a luma prefix code consisting of a single “1” bit. A P-mode group immediately following an ICH-mode group may be indicated by a modified unary code.
For an ICH-mode group, the residual portion may be 5 bits for each component, where each 5 bit code is an ICH index which codes a complete pixel, and the chroma components do not utilize a prefix. For subsequent ICH-mode groups following an initial ICH-mode group, each group may use 16 bits for every group, e.g., a 1 bit prefix and (3) 5 bit ICH codes.
The luma substream may also contain some conditional fixed-length codes in the syntax for the purpose of the encoder conveying information about a transition from a busy area to a smooth area. This “flatness indication” is discussed in more detail below.
Substream Multiplexing
The three component-wise substreams may be multiplexed together using a fixed-length substream multiplexing scheme with no headers. One technique for doing so is described in the U.S. Patent Publication Number 2011-0305282 A1, which is incorporated by reference. Error! Reference source not found. FIG. 17 shows an example of the results of substream multiplexing 1700, including various multiplexed words and components 1702. Each mux word may have an identical size, e.g., 48 bits for 8 or 10 bits per component (bpc), or 64 bits for 12 bpc. The order of the mux words 1702 is derived from the order in which parallel substream decoders use the data in order to decode in real time.
FIG. 18 shows an example of substream demultiplexing logic 1800. The logic 1800 includes a memory such as a rate buffer 1802, a demultiplexer 1804, and funnel shifters with VLD 1806, 1808, and 1810. The combination of the funnel shifter and VLD is referred to as a substream processor (SSP). At each group time, any combination of the SSP's may request a mux word or none at all. If a request is received from an SSP, the demultiplexer 1804 sends a mux word to that SSP. If multiple requests are received in the same group time, the demultiplexer 1804 sends a mux word to each SSP that made a request.
At the end of the slice, the SSP's may request mux words beyond the end of the substream layer data. Therefore, the encoder 1300 may insert padding mux words as needed at the end of the slice.
FIG. 19 shows an example of the substream multiplexing logic 1900, including VLC and funnel shifters 1902, 1904, 1906, balance memories (e.g., FIFOs) 1908, 1910, 1912, a multiplexer 1914, rate buffer 1916, and demultiplexer model 1918. The demultiplexer model 1918 helps the encoder 1300 to order the mux words correctly. The balance FIFO's 1908, 1910, 1912 may store many groups worth of data in order to provide the mux words at the appropriate time.
Rate Control
The encoder 1300 and decoder 1400 may use identical rate control (RC) algorithms, configured identically. The decisions made by the RC algorithm to adjust QP in the encoder are mimicked in the decoder 1400, such that the decoder 1400 has the same QP value as the encoder 1300 at every pixel, without any bits being spent communicating the QP value, except for the flatness indication. RC decisions are made in the encoder 1300 and decoder 1400 based on information previously transmitted and received. RC can change the QP value every group.
Rate Control Goals
The RC provides the encoder 1300 and decoder 1400 with quantization parameters (QP) to use for each group. Since the RC function is the same on both the encoder side and the decoder side, the base QP value is known to both encoder 1300 and decoder 1400, and it does not need to be transmitted in the bitstream. However, the base QP value or adjustments to the QP value may be sent in the bitstream for flatness indication, described below.
The RC attempts to ensure hypothetical reference decoder (HRD) conformance. There is a model of an idealized rate buffer (FIFO) that converts a varying number of bits to code each group into a specified constant bit rate. The RC is designed to ensure that this FIFO will not overflow or underflow assuming that bits are removed at an assumed constant bit rate.
The RC optimizes picture quality in its QP decisions. It is desirable to use a lower QP on relatively flat areas and a higher QP on busy areas due to perceptual masking. In addition, it is desirable to maintain a constant quality for all pixels; for example, the first line of a slice has limited prediction, and may therefore use an additional bit allocation.
HRD Buffer Model
A hypothetical reference decoder (HRD) model describes the behavior of an idealized rate buffer in a decoding system. An encoder rate buffer model may be mirrored on the decoder side. The encoder model tries to ensure that there are no overflows or underflows. Since the DSC may be constant bit rate (CBR), the HRD model fullness is equal to buffer size−encoder buffer fullness; therefore, the decoder buffer model does not overflow or underflow. The DSC encoder rate buffer model may define a schedule for bits entering and leaving the rate buffer.
During the initial delay, e.g., initial transmission delay, the encoder generates bits into its rate buffer every group, but no bits are removed. During this period, the encoder model fullness increases according to the number of bits that are generated. The delay period may be specified in terms of group times or pixel times, as examples.
As long as there are more pixels in the slice to be encoded, the encoder generates bits according to the content. Bits are removed at the constant rate that is specified. To prevent the buffer fullness from dropping below 0, the prediction mode may be overridden to use MPP, which enforces a minimum data rate. Once the last group of a slice has been encoded, no more bits are added to the rate buffer. Bits continue to leave the rate buffer at the constant rate until the buffer becomes empty, after which the encoder sends zero bits to ensure that the compressed slice size in bits is equal to bpp*number of pixels in slice, in CBR operation.
The decoder initial delay is specified as the complement of the encoder initial delay; e.g., the HRD delay minus encoder initial delay. The decoder rate buffer fullness then tracks as the complement of the encoder buffer fullness.
CBR vs. VBR
Under conditions when the encoder rate buffer would otherwise underflow, there is a design choice of whether the encoder inserts bits to prevent underflow, or it uses VBR. To prevent underflow, the RC determines whether underflow is possible after the next coded group, and when this condition occurs it forces MPP mode which enforces a minimum bit rate. The decoder does not require any special logic to handle stuffing, as it decodes the extra bits just as it would any other group.
It is possible to support variable bit rate (VBR). With VBR, the encoder 1300 stops sending bits under certain conditions when it would otherwise underflow and has no bits to send (Off). The encoder 1300 then starts sending bits again at some identified event (On). To make on-off VBR compatible with a general HRD that does not depend on the real time behavior of the transport, the off and on events may be specified.
With VBR, the encoder stops sending bits when it would otherwise underflow and has no bits to send. The encoder's RC process operates once per group. At each group, it adds to the buffer model the number of bits that code the group, and normally it subtracts from the buffer model the nominal number of bits per group, which is 3*bpp, adjusted as necessary to form an integer number of bits. With VBR, if this subtraction of bits/group from the buffer model fullness would result in a negative value of fullness, the RC subtracts the normal number of bits and then clamps the buffer fullness to zero, i.e. the model fullness is never allowed to be negative. In a real system with a real transport and real decoder, when the encoder has no bits to send, i.e. its real rate buffer is empty, the transport does not send any bits and the decoder does not receive any bits. The decoder's real rate buffer may be full, but it does not overflow. When the encoder does have bits to send, transport is expected to transmit them at the normal rate and the decoder receives them at that rate. The decoder's real buffer does not overflow nor underflow, and the decoder does not have to do anything special to handle VBR. The transport should understand when there is and is not valid data available to send and receive.
Slices
The number of bits that code a picture may be equal to the number of pixels of that picture times the specified bpp rate. Further, any subset of slices of a picture may be updated in place in a compressed frame buffer by over-writing the previous version of each of the corresponding slices. One consequence is that a complete picture can be transmitted as a series of consecutive slices comprising the entire picture, and that an entire picture transmitted as a series of consecutive slices meets the same requirement as for slices, e.g., the number of bits equals the number of pixels times the bpp rate, and also the entire picture comprising slices should conform to an appropriate HRD model to ensure correct real time buffer behavior with this mode of operation. One consequence is that the delay from the start of transmission to the start of decoding and the delay from the end of transmission to the end of decoding are the same as one another and the same for each slice.
The algorithm uses a rate buffer model, which may be referred to as a rate buffer. The algorithm allows the encoder's rate buffer to have up to a specified fullness, e.g., a maximum number of bits, at the end of each slice. If at the end of coding a slice the encoder's buffer has fewer bits than this maximum number, it may pad the remaining bits at the end with 0s, for example, to produce exactly the required number of bits. This final number of bits occupies a specified number of pixel times to transmit at the specified bpp rate. This number of pixel times is the delay from the end of encoding to the end of transmission, which may be called the final transmission delay. The total rate buffer delay, in units of pixel times, in the combination of an idealized encoder and decoder is equal to the rate buffer size divided by the bpp rate. The initial transmission delay, from the start of encoding a slice until the start of transmission of that slice, is the same as the final transmission delay. The initial decoding delay, e.g., the delay in the HRD timing model from the start of reception of a slice to the start of decoding of the slice is set equal to the total end-end rate buffer delay minus the initial transmission delay. This permits correct operation per the description above.
FIG. 20 shows an example of slice timing and delays 2000. FIG. 20 shows slice input video timing 2002, slice transmission timing 2004, and slice decoding timing 2006. The algorithm may have a fixed parameter value for the maximum number of bits that can be in the encoder buffer at the end of a slice, typically  ̃4 kbits. The resulting ending transmission delay is a function of the bpp rate; it is set to ceiling (4096/bpp_rate). At 8 bpp, this delay is 170 group times, and at 12 bpp it is 114 group times. The initial delay may be set to this value.
The end-end HRD delay is equal to the HRD buffer size divided by the bpp rate. For example, if the HRD buffer size is 19,836 bits and the rate is 12 bpp, the end-end HRD delay is floor (19,836/36)=551 group times. This is actually an upper bound, and the HRD delay could be set to a lower value, however if a lower value were used then the algorithm would not be able to take full advantage of the available buffer size for purposes of RC.
The initial decoding delay, which applies directly to the HRD and indirectly to real decoders, should be set to the HRD delay−initial transmission delay. In the example here, where the initial transmission delay is set to 114 group times as above, the initial decoder delay is 551−114=437 group times. This is a delay that applies to the HRD, i.e. an idealized hypothetical decoder. A real decoder is of course free to have additional delay.
The algorithm's rate buffer size, which is also the HRD buffer size, can be selected by an encoder as long as it does not exceed the capabilities of compatible decoders. The optimum rate buffer size is a function of several factors including the bpp rate and the width of slices.
Note that the initial transmission delay is typically a function of bpp rate. The HRD rate buffer size may be set by the encoder as long as it does not exceed the capabilities of decoders. It is practical to design real systems with adjustable bit rate and constant end-end delay, from video into the encoder to video out of the decoder, and with constant delay from compressed data into the decoder to video put of the decoder. An encoder may set the initial transmission delay and the initial decoder delay to selected values to facilitate seamless changes of bit rate with constant delay.
Options for Slices
The encoder 1300 and decoder 1400 support a wide variety of slice widths and heights. One configuration is slice width=1⁄4 picture width and slice height=32 lines. Another possible configuration is slice width=picture width and slice height=8 lines. The slice dimensions can be specified up to the picture width by the picture height. To minimize extra data that may need to be sent, equal-sized slices may be used throughout the picture.
Taller slices may lead to better compression. Extra bits are allocated to the first line of each slice to maximize quality and to prevent artifacts at the boundaries between slices. The number of extra bits allocated per group on the first line is set via a parameter in the PPS. The numbers of bits available to all lines after the first line each slice may be reduced in order that the total number of bits per slice is the number of pixels times the bpp rate. The more lines there are after the first line in each slice, the less reduction in bit allocation is required. Therefore a slice height of 32 lines typically gives better performance than a slice height of 8. There is no cost associated with slice height—there is no additional buffering nor any other additional resources. The encoder 1300 and decoder 1400 support a slice size equal to the entire picture size.
Slices narrower than the full screen width may be desirable for various practical purposes. Narrower slices provide the ability to update, via partial update, a narrower slice, or to facilitate parallel processing at low cost. In practice, multiple slices per line can use one line buffer the size of the picture width. With multiple slices per line, and slices that are taller than one line, the rate buffers for the different slices may be independent. For example, with four slices per line, a practical implementation would use four rate buffers. The sizes of each rate buffer can be specified to be smaller for the case of 4 slices/line than they would normally be specified for the case of one slice/line, as the optimum rate buffer size is a function of the slice width, although not exactly proportional. Hence there is a small increase in the total amount of rate buffer space when there are multiple slices per line, while there is no increase in the total amount of line buffer space.
Slice Multiplexing
In systems configured to use more than one slice per scan line, the compressed data may be multiplexed according to a specific pattern in order to minimize cost in both encoders and decoders. The recommended pattern is as follows. For an integer number S of slices per line, each slice has P pixels per line, and the picture is W pixels wide. Preferably P is equal for all slices, equal to W/S, which is preferably an integer. The multiplexed bit stream contains a number of bits=P*bpp rate for the first slice of the first row of slices, then P*bpp rate for the 2nd slice of the first row, and so on for all slices of the first row.
One iteration of this pattern has W*bpp rate bits, which may be the same number of bits as would have been used if there were one slice per line. If P*bpp rate is not an integer, an adjustment can be made to result in an integer number of bits per slice. For example, the number of bits included for one line of one slice may be the integer truncated value of P*bpp plus the accumulated residual amount from previous truncations. Then this pattern repeats as many times as needed to transmit all the bits of all slices in the first row of slices. An application specification, for example a transport specification that is designed to carry DSC compressed image data, may carry data from different slices in separate packets. In that case, the last bits from one slice may be in a separate packet from those of other slices, including the first bits of the vertically adjacent slice immediately below the first one. Alternatively an application specification may choose to package the last bits of one slice with the first bits of another slice, for example a horizontally adjacent neighboring slice or a vertically adjacent neighboring slice. The overall pattern may repeat for the entire image. It is not necessary to include markers or other indications in the bit stream indicating which bits are for which slice. Instead, the transport layer may provide such indicators.
Additional Information on Slice Multiplexing Follows.
Slice multiplexing may occur when VBR is disabled, e.g., stuffing is enabled. When stuffing is disabled, the number of bits coding each slice may vary, e.g., the DSC operation is VBR. Pictures include some number of slices. Slices may be identically-sized when possible, e.g., when the ratio of picture width to slice width is an integer. In case this ratio is not an integer, the widths of the columns of slices may be set to integer values that differ by no more than 1, and whose sum is the picture width. Slice multiplexing is possible also when VBR is enabled as well. The memories used and multiplexing pattern will depend on characteristics of the link, including for example, the overhead required to enter or leave a low-power state.
With VBR disabled (stuffing enabled) slices of the same width are coded using the same number of compressed bits. When the slice width is equal to the picture width, the slice layer data is sent sequentially (slice 0, slice 1, . . . , slice N−1, where N is the number of slices). When the slice width is shorter than the picture width, the slice data for all slices on the same line may be multiplexed into fixed-length chunks. The length of each chunk may be equal to floor (bits_per_pixel*slice_width). The floor( ) function is used since bits_per_pixel may be fractional. For example, in a case where the picture is split into two equal-sized slices on each line, the multiplexed bitstream would contain:
Slice 0 chunk/Slice 1 chunk/Slice 0 chunk/Slice 1 chunk . . . .
The final chunks of each slice may be padded with zero bits if needed due to the ceil( ) function.
With VBR enabled, the number of bits of coding each slice may differ from P*bpp rate. For example, the number of bits may be less than this value. The number of bits per chunk may differ from floor (bits_per_pixel*slice_width), for example the number of bits may be less than this value. Slices may be multiplexed using chunks of unequal numbers of bits. The numbers of bits per chunk may be indicated for example by packet length information or marker codes in a transport layer.
The display stream coding may be specified in terms of components that are labeled Y, Co, and Cg. If the convert_rgb flag is equal to 0 in the current PPS, the encoder may accept YCbCr input. The Cb component may be mapped to the Co component label. The Cr component may be mapped to the Cg component label. In this case, the bit depth of the Cb/Co and Cr/Cg components may be equal to the Y component, whose bit depth is specified using the bits_per_component field in the current PPS. If the convert_rgb flag is equal to 1 in the current PPS, the encoder may perform color-space conversion from RGB to YCoCg. The color space conversion may be:














cscCo = R − B



t = B + (cscCo >> 1)



cscCg = G − t



y = t + (cscCg >> 1)









The cscCo and cscCg values have one additional bit of dynamic range compared with Y. The final Co and Cg values may be centered around the midpoint:














Co = cscCo + (1 << bits_per_component)



Cg = cscCg + (1 << bits_per_component)









Note that here, the bits_per_component variable may represent the number of bits of each of the R, G, and B components, which is one less than the number of bits per component for the Co and Cg components. If a slice extends beyond the right edge of a picture, the right-most pixel in each line of the picture may be repeated to pad the slice to the correct horizontal size. If a slice extends beyond the bottom edge of a picture, the bottom-most pixel in each pixel column of the picture may be repeated to pad the slice to the correct vertical size.
Line Storage
The display stream compression may include buffer memory to hold the previous line's reconstructed pixel values for MMAP prediction and ICH. In some cases, a decoder line buffer may have sufficient storage to contain the full-range reconstructed samples. However, some decoders may choose to use a smaller bit depth to lower the implementation cost.
If a smaller bit depth is used, the decoder may communicate this to the encoder. The encoder may set the linebuf_width according to what the decoder implementation supports. The following method for bit-reducing samples may be used:














shiftAmount = MAX(0, maxBpc − linebuf_width);



round = (shiftAmount>0) ? (1<<(shiftAmount−1)) : 0;



storedSample = (sample + round) >> shiftAmount;



readSample = storedSample << shiftAmount;









where maxBpc is the bit depth of the current component, storedSample is the sample value that is written to the line buffer, and readSample is the value that is read back.
Prediction Types
There are three prediction types that may be supported in P-mode: MMAP, BP, and MPP.
Modified Median-Adaptive Prediction (MMAP)
The modified median-adaptive predictor is specified in the table below.







TABLE 2







Pixels surrounding current group












c
b
d
e







a
P0
P1
P2










Table 2 shows the labeling convention for the pixels surrounding the three pixels in the group being predicted (P0, P1, and P2). Pixels ‘c’, ‘b’, ‘d’, and ‘e’ are from the previous line, and pixel ‘a’ is the reconstructed pixel immediately to the left.
A QP-adaptive filter may be applied to reference pixels from the previous line before they are used in the MMAP formulas below. A horizontal low-pass filter [0.25 0.5 0.25] may be applied to the previous line to get filtered pixels filtC, filtB, filtD, and filtE. For example,

filtB=(c+2*b+d+2)>>2;

The filtered pixels may be blended with the original pixels to get the values that are used in MMAP (blendC, blendB, blendD, blendE). The following method is used for the blending:














diffC = CLAMP(filtC − c, −QuantDivisor[qlevel]/2,



QuantDivisor[qlevel]/2);



blendC = c + diffC;



diffB = CLAMP(filtB − b, −QuantDivisor[qlevel]/2,



QuantDivisor[qlevel]/2);



blendB = b + diffB;



diffD = CLAMP(filtD − d, −QuantDivisor[qlevel]/2,



QuantDivisor[qlevel]/2);



blendD = d + diffD;



diffE = CLAMP(filtE − e, −QuantDivisor[qlevel]/2,



QuantDivisor[qlevel]/2);



blendE = e + diffE;









The predicted value for each is given below:












P0 = CLAMP(a + blendB − blendC, MIN(a, blendB), MAX(a,


blendB));


P1 = CLAMP(a + blendD − blendC + R0, MIN(a, blendB, blendD),


MAX(a, blendB, blendD));


P2 = CLAMP(a + blendE − blendC + R0 + R1, MIN(a, blendB,


blendD, blendE), MAX(a, blendB, blendD, blendE));









where R0 and R1 are the inverse quantized residuals for the first and second samples in the group.
In the case of the first line of a slice, the previous line's pixels are not available. So the prediction for each pixel becomes:














P0 = a;



P1 = CLAMP(a + R0, 0, (1<<maxBpc)−1);



P2 = CLAMP(a + R0 + R1, 0, (1<<maxBpc)−1);









where maxBpc is the bit depth for the component that is being predicted.
Block Prediction (BP)
The BP predictor is a pixel value taken from a pixel some number of pixels to the left of the current pixel. The “block prediction vector” (bpVector) is a negative value that represents the number of pixels to the left to use for the prediction. In one implementation, the block prediction vector is always between −3 and −10 inclusive, which means that it uses samples outside of the current group.
The BP predictor is used to predict all three components from the pixel referred to by the block prediction vector:

P[hPos]=recon[hPos+bpVector];

So the predicted values for the 3×1 group correspond with the reconstructed pixels values for the 3×1 set of pixels that is pointed to by the block prediction vector.
Midpoint Prediction
The midpoint predictor is a value at or near the midpoint of the range, and depends on the value of the reconstructed pixel immediately to the left of the current pixel (pixel “a” in Table 2).

midpointPred=(1<<(maxBpc−1))+(a&((1<<qLevel)−1));

where maxBpc is the bit depth for the component being predicted, and qLevel is the quantization level that applies to the current component.
Predictor Selection
Block prediction is supported by the encoder 1300. The encoder 1300 may choose to disable block prediction in the stream (e.g., because the attached decoder does not support block prediction or because the picture would not benefit from block prediction) by setting block_pred_enable in the PPS equal to 0. In this case, MMAP is selected over block prediction, and the algorithms in this section are not used.
The decision to use either BP or MMAP may be made on a group basis using information from the previous line. This means that the decision can be made up to a line time in advance of processing the current group if it helps the implementation. The group referred to in this section starts at a horizontal location of hPos pixels from the leftmost pixel column in the slice.
FIG. 21 shows an example 2100 of 3×1 partial SADs that form 9×1 SAD. First, a search may be performed to find the best block prediction vector. The reference pixels for the SAD may be the set of 9 pixels in the previous line starting at a horizontal location of hPos−6. The SAD is computed between the reference pixels and 9 different block prediction candidateVector's (−1, −3, −4, −5, −6, −7, −8, −9, and −10) pointing to the previous line's pixels. The 9-pixel SAD is computed as a sum of 3 3-pixel SAD's (see FIG. 21). First, each absolute difference may be truncated and clipped before being summed in the 3-pixel SAD according to:

modifiedAbsDiff=MIN(absDiff>>(maxBpc−7),0x3F);

where maxBpc is the bit depth for the current component.
The resulting 6-bit modifiedAbsDiff values are summed over each set of three adjacent samples and over the 3 components, resulting in a 10 bit value that represents the 3×1 partial SAD for one component; this 10-bit value is clamped to 9-bits (e.g., values greater than 511 are clamped to 511). Three 9-bit 3-pixel partial SAD's are summed to get the final 9-pixel SAD, which is an 11-bit number. The 3 LSB's of each 9×1 SAD are truncated before comparison:












bpSad[candidateVector] = MIN(511, sad3x1_0[candidateVector] +


sad3x1_1[candidateVector] + sad3x1_2[candidateVector]);









The 9 9-pixel SAD's are compared to one another, and the lowest SAD may be selected, with ties broken by selecting the smallest magnitude block prediction vector. If the lowest SAD block prediction vector is −1, the bpCount counter is reset to zero and MMAP is selected for this group. If the lowest SAD block prediction vector is not −1, the candidate BP vector becomes the vector with the lowest SAD, and the bpCount counter is incremented unless hPos <9.
BP may be selected if the following conditions are all true:
The bpCount value is greater than or equal to 3.
lastEdgeCount is less than 9. The lastEdgeCount value represents the number of pixels that have gone by since an “edge” occurred. An “edge” occurs when ABS(current sample−left sample)>32<<(bits_per_component−8) for any component.
Selecting Between BP/MMAP and MPP
The encoder may decide whether to use BP/MMAP based on the size of the quantized residuals that would be generated if BP/MMAP were selected. For example, the encoder may determine the maximum residual size for BP/MMAP for each of the three components. If the maximum residual size for any component is greater than or equal to a threshold such as maxBpc−qLevel for that component, then MPP may be selected for that component.
In addition, the encoder may select MPP in order to enforce a minimum data rate to prevent underflow.
Quantization
The predicted value of each sample of the pixel is subtracted from the corresponding input samples to form the residual sample values E, one for each component of the pixel.

E=x−Px, where x is input, Px is predicted value.

Each residual value E may be quantized using division with truncation by a divisor that is a power of 2 and using rounding with a rounding value that is 1 less than half the divisor.














If E<0 QE = (E−ROUND)/DIVISOR



Else QE = (E+ROUND)/DIVISOR



// the “/” operator is div with truncation as in C









Where:














DIVISOR = 2**qLevel = 1 << qLevel



ROUND = DIVISOR/2 − 1









The value of qLevel may be different for luma and chroma and is determined by the rate control (RC) function.
MPP quantized residuals may be checked to ensure that their sizes do not exceed a threshold such as maxBpc−qLevel, where qLevel is the quantization level for the component type (luma or chroma) and maxVal is the maximum possible sample value for the component type. If an MPP residual exceeds this size, the encoder may change the residual to the nearest residual with a size of maxBpc−q Level.
Inverse Quantization and Reconstruction
The encoder may follow the same process used in the decoder to arrive at the reconstructed pixel values. For pixels that are predicted using MMAP, BP, or MPP, the reconstructed sample value may be:

reconSample=CLAMP(predSample+(quantized_residual<<qLevel),0,maxVal);

where predSample is the predicted sample value, quantized_residual is the quantized residual, qLevel is the quantization level for the component type (luma or chroma), and maxVal is the maximum possible sample value for the component type.
Flatness QP Override
FIG. 22 shows an example 2200 of original pixels used for encoder flatness checks. Encoders generate a “flatness signal” if upcoming input pixels are relatively flat to allow the QP to drop quickly. The encoder algorithm to determine the flatness bits in the syntax is described below, as is the algorithm that both the encoder and decoder follow to modify the QP.
Encoder Flatness Decision
A set of 4 consecutive groups is called a supergroup. The encoder examines each supergroup before it is encoded in order to determine which, if any, of the groups are “flat”. The first supergroup starts with the 2nd group in the slice as shown in FIG. 22. Supergroups may be defined consecutively within the slice. A supergroup that includes the last group of a line may wrap around to include groups on the subsequent line.
The flatness determination may be done for each group within the supergroup independently and includes a determination of the “flatness type” (e.g., either somewhat flat or very flat) for each group. Two flatness checks may be performed, both using pixels from the original, uncompressed image.
Flatness check 1 determines the MAX and MIN value among the samples shown in FIG. 22 for each component. A value of flatQLevel is determined for each component:

flatQLevel=MapQpToQlevel(MAX(0,masterQp−4));

The masterQp value that is used is the one that is used for rate control for the 2nd group to the left of the supergroup that is being tested. MapQptoQlevel maps the masterQP value to qLevelY (luma) and qLevelC (chroma) values that are used for both luma and chroma. For example, a masterQP value of 0 may map to qLevelC and qLevelY values of 0, values 1 and 2 may map to qLevelC values of 1 and 2 respectively, and successive unit increases in masterQP may map to unit increases alternating between qLevelY and qLevelC.
If the MAX−MIN for any component is greater than (2<<(bits_per_component−8)), the check for very flat fails for flatness check 1; otherwise, it passes. If the MAX−MIN for any component is greater than QuantDivisor[flatQLevel], the check for somewhat flat fails for flatness check 1; otherwise, it passes.
If flatness check 1 indicates that the group is either somewhat flat or very flat, that result is the final result that is used for the group. If both fail, flatness check 2 is performed over the 6 pixels indicated in FIG. 22. The same comparisons are done as in flatness check 1, except that the MAX and MIN are computed over 6 samples rather than 4. The final result of flatness check 2 is then used as the final result for the group.
For a given supergroup, there are then four flatness indications of either not flat, somewhat flat, or very flat. The value of prevlsFlat is initialized to 1 if the previous supergroup had a flatness indication; otherwise it is initialized to 0. The following algorithm is used to distill the flatness information into a single flatness location and type:














Loop over four groups in supergroup {









If !prevIsFlat && group is either very flat or somewhat









flat









 Current group and flatness type is signaled



Else









prevIsFlat = 0;









}









If no group is selected, no QP modification is made and flatness_flag for the supergroup is set to 0 in the entropy decoder. If a group is selected, the flatness_flag for the supergroup is set to 1, and the corresponding group is signaled as the first_flat group in the bit stream along with its associated flatness_type. The entropy encoder will only signal flatness_flag if the masterQp value is within the range of flatness_min_qp and flatness_max_qp, so no adjustment is made in the RC if the corresponding masterQp is out of range.
The encoder flatness searches do not span to the next line. If a group within a supergroup falls on the next line, it is not considered to be flat. However, the first group of a line may contain the next_flatness_flag syntax element assuming the syntax allows it at that point (see section Error! Reference source not found.).
Flatness QP Adjustment
The encoder and decoder make the same QP adjustment for a group where a flatness indication has been made. The RC receives a flatness signal corresponding to a particular group within a supergroup that may be either “somewhat flat” or “very flat”. It should be noted that if the current masterQp is less than 7<<(2*(bits_per_component−8)), the flatness indication may be assumed to be “somewhat flat”.
For a “very flat” signal, the QP is adjusted as follows:

masterQp=1<<(2*(bits_per_component−8));

For a “somewhat flat” signal:

masterQp=MAX(stQp−4,0);

If there is no flatness signal for a particular group:

masterQp=stQp 

If the flatness QP override modifies the masterQp, the modified masterQp is used as the starting point for the short-term rate control on the next RC cycle.
Display Compression in Various Contexts
The image compression techniques described above and below may be employed in various contexts, systems, and architectures, such as the exemplary systems shown in FIGS. 1 and 11 above. FIG. 23 shows another example of a display system 2300 based on the example shown in FIG. 11.
The display system 2300 includes a sending device 2310 and a receiving device 2320. The devices 2310 and 2320 may take any number of forms. In the example shown in FIG. 23, the sending device 2310 is a set top box and the receiving device 2320 is a digital television. Additional examples of the sending device 2310 or receiving device 2320 include media projectors, content distribution servers, digital versatile disc (DVD) players, high definition (e.g., Blu-RayTM) media players, home media servers, computers, laptops, mobile devices, cellular phones, tablets, personal data assistants, navigation systems, storage devices, and other devices.
A communication link 2330 couples the devices 2310 and 2320. The communication link 2330 may be a wired link as shown in FIG. 23 or a wireless link. The communication link 2330 may include multiple links, including a combination of both wired and wireless links. In some variations, the receiving device 2320 receives decoder configuration parameters from the sending device 2310, e.g., through the communication link 2330 or another communication link.
The sending device 2310 may include the encoder 104 and a rate buffer 210 for compressing incoming source data 112 of an image into encoded data 116. The sending device 2310 sends the encoded data 116 to the receiving device 2320 through the communication link 2330. The receiving device 2320 may include the decoder 106 and a rate buffer 802 for decoding the encoded data 116 into video data 118, e.g., in real time and in raster scan order for output through the display 110
Note that the receiving device 2320 need not output decoded data for display. Before or after decoding the encoded data 116, the receiving device 2320 may, as examples, store the image data in a memory for subsequent processing, forward the image data to another device, or analyze the content of the image data. The receiving device 2320 may store, analyze, or forward the encoded data 116 or decoded data in addition to or as an alternative to displaying decoded data.
DSU-VLC Predicted Size is Less than a Function of Sizes
As discussed above, an encoder may determine a predicted size of a unit 605 for coding the unit 605. The encoder may determine the predicted size as a function of the sizes of previously coded samples. In one implementation, the predicted size is the average, with rounding, of the sizes of the samples of the same component of the previous two samples, e.g., of the previous Unit, given that the Unit size is 2. If the Unit size is 4, the predicted size may be the average of the sizes of the four samples of the same component of the previous Unit. If the Unit size is 3, the predicted size may be the average of the sizes of the last two samples of the same component of the previous Unit, thereby avoiding division by 3.
As another variation, the encoder may selectively adjust the result of the predicted size function, e.g., by increasing or decreasing the output of the predicted size function by a particular value. For instance, the encoder may determine the predicted size to be the value of the predicted size function minus a value, where the value may be 1, 2, or some other configurable predicted size adjustment parameter value. The predicted size adjustment parameter may be a predetermined design constant. Alternatively, the predicted size adjustment parameter may depend on the value of a syntax element in a compressed bit stream. The encoder may send a determined or preconfigured predicted size adjustment parameter value to the decoder as part of a compressed bit stream.
The encoder may selectively adjust (e.g., decrease) the predicted size under certain conditions. The encoder may, in some variations, vary the predicted size adjustment parameters based on a change in the quantization parameter (QP). When QP increases, the encoder may lower the result of the predicted size function. The greater the degree of QP increase, the lower the encoder may adjust the result of the predicted size function. When the QP decreases, e.g., past a particular QP threshold, the encoder may lower the result of the predicted size function by a lesser amount, make no adjustment to the predicted size function result, or increase the predicted size function result. When the delta size is implemented as a non-negative value and the predicted size is larger than the actual size, the encoder may advantageously decrease the predicted size to prevent use of extraneous bits in coding Samples. For example, when the predicted size is 1 greater than the actual size, in a Unit of 3 samples, 3 bits are wasted. Accordingly, the encoder may decrease the predicted size to efficiently reduce bit usage.
As another example, the encoder may adjust the predicted size according to a size variance between previous samples. The encoder may decrease the result of the predicted size function (e.g., average size of the previous samples) when the samples differ by a particular size difference threshold. As an illustration, the encoder may employ a predicted size function of the average of the size of the previous two samples, e.g., given that the Unit size is 2. When one of the previous samples requires a large number of bits, the average may be skewed high, resulting in wasted bits for the current sample. Accordingly, when the difference in size between these previous two samples exceeds a particular threshold, the encoder may decrease the predicted size output (the average in this example) by a predetermined number.
As another option, the encoder may perform a weighted function of the sizes of the previous samples, such as a weighted average. For example, with a Unit size of three, the weighted average may weigh the 3 samples of a Unit using weights of (1⁄4, 1⁄4, 1⁄2). As yet another option, the encoder may determine the predicted size as the median size of the previous samples. The decoder may apply the same predicted size adjustments as the encoder. Additionally or alternatively, the decoder may receive an explicit indication of predicted size adjustment for one or more samples in a compressed bit stream.
Adaptive Low Pass Filter
An encoder may apply any of a variety of pre-processing operations to an input image prior to encoding the input image. For example, the encoder may apply a filter to achieve a desired result in the input image. The desired result may be smoothing or softening of the input image, for example. FIG. 24 shows an example of an encoder 2400 based on the example from FIG. 13. The encoder 2400 includes an adaptive low pass filter (LPF) 2402 for reducing high frequency content determined according to the filter design, e.g., the location of the cutoff frequency and magnitude of attenuation. In the example in FIG. 24, the encoder 2400 filters an image input through the adaptive LPF 2402 after color space conversion (e.g., reversible RGB to YCoCg conversion). In other variations, the encoder 2400 may implement the adaptive LPF 2402 to filter an image input prior to the color space conversion or other processing in the encoder 2400. The adaptive LPF 2402 may reduce high frequency components in the input image, which may reduce the magnitude of the residual for coding after prediction and reduce the number of bits used by the encoder 2400 to encode the image input.
The encoder 2400 may be designed or configured to meet a particular bit rate. Depending on the bit rate, the encoder may increase the QP values, which may result in visible artifacts in encoded image content. By filtering the image input prior to quantization through the adaptive LPF 2402, the encoder 2400 may reduce the number of bits needed to code the filtered image while avoiding visible artifacts. Accordingly, the encoder may selectively apply the filter 2402 in an attempt to avoid QP values that may generate visible image artifacts. In some scenarios, the adaptive LPF 2402 may have design parameters that are set so that the filter removes specific (perhaps pre-determined) high frequency noise in the image input. Depending on the filtered frequencies, the filter may then remove noise without degrading the actual image content.
The adaptive LPF 2402 may apply varying degrees of filtering on an input image stream. The adaptive LPF 2402 may vary the degree of low pass filtering based on (e.g., as a function of) a target bit rate of the encoder 2400. For example, the adaptive LPF 2402 may filter the input image stream according to a first set of filtering parameters for when the target bit rate is within a particular range, and employ a different set of filtering parameters when the target bit rate transitions to a higher or lower rate range. As another example shown in FIG. 24, the adaptive LPF 2402 receives a current QP value from the rate controller 1304 and varies a degree of filtering to an image input stream as a function of the current QP value. The higher the current QP value, the greater degree of low pass filtering the adaptive LPF 2402 may apply, and vice versa. When the QP value is below a threshold value, the adaptive LPF 2402 may perform no filtering. Another additional or alternative parameter value the adaptive LPF 2402 may account for when determining a low pass filtering degree is buffer fullness, e.g., the higher the level of buffer fill, the greater the filtering or softening of the image input and vice versa.
In another variation, the encoder 2400 may include analysis logic that analyzes the content of the image input stream. The encoder 2400 may delay the encoding of the incoming image, e.g., by up to multiple frames or lines, to analyze the image content. In that regard, the encoder 2400 may determine whether high frequency data in the image is attributable to noise (that can be filtered) or high-detail content in the image (that may not be filtered to preserve the content detail). The encoder 2400 may likewise determine the degree of noise or detail in the image content and set one or more filtering parameters (e.g., the cutoff frequency of the filter or magnitude of attenuation) accordingly. As such, the encoder 2400 may determine whether, and to what degree, to process image input data through the adaptive LPF 2402 according to the image analysis. In one variation, some or all of the image content analysis may be performed by logic external to the encoder 2400, and the encoder 2400 may receive a signal from external analysis logic indicating a degree of filtering for the incoming image content.
The adaptive LPF 2402 may adjust any number of filtering parameters to account for a current QP, buffer fill level, noise vs. detail content, or any of the other factors described above. The adaptive LPF 2402 may adjust any parameter of the filter itself that affects the degree or quality of low pass filtering applied to an image input. The adaptive LPF 2402 provides one example of pre-processing the encoder may apply. Additionally or alternatively, the encoder may apply a linear filter, a non-linear filter, spatial filter, temporal filter, spatial-temporal combination, motion-compensated temporal filter, and more. And while the example in FIG. 24 uses a low-pass filter, the encoder 2400 may implement and adaptively adjust any type of processing logic that selectively attenuates one or more frequency, noise or detail components in an input image.
Adjusting RC Parameters
FIG. 25 shows an example of a system 2500 for dynamically adjusting rate control parameters used by an encoder 2502, decoder 2504, or both. The encoder 2502 includes a rate controller 2503 and the decoder 2504 includes a rate controller 2505. The respective rate controllers 2503 and 2505 may apply identical RC algorithms when encoding and decoding data, e.g., as discussed above. The encoder 2502 may determine the RC parameters that are applicable to its encoding process in a dynamic manner. As a result, the RC parameters in use at any given time may vary, e.g., between RC Parameters A 2511, RC Parameters B 2512, and other sets of RC parameters.
The encoder 2502 may dynamically adjust the one or more RC parameters used by the rate controller 2503 or other portion of the encoder 2502. For instance, the encoder 2502 may select a particular set of RC parameters for use by the rate controller 2503 depending on the target bit rate for which the encoder 2502 is configured. At higher target bit rates, the encoder 2502 may select a set of RC parameters that employs finer quantization. At lower target bit rates, the encoder may select a set of RC parameters that employ coarser quantization. Accordingly, the encoder 2502 may be able to achieve a wide variety of output quality levels, including lossless coding of image data at relatively higher bit rates, or high quality lossy coding at lower bit rates. Additionally or alternatively, the encoder 2502 may select a set of RC parameters based on any combination of other factors, such as bits/pixel component, image size, the particular content characteristics of an image input stream (e.g., moderately noisy, high detail, smooth, etc.), or other factors.
In some variations, the encoder 2502 sends an RC parameter indication 2520 to the decoder 2520. The encoder 2502 may send the RC parameter indication 2520 as part of a bitstream of encoded data 116 or separately, e.g., through a dedicated control channel. The RC parameter indication 2520 may specify the particular set of RC parameters used by the encoder 2502 and/or provide an indication of the current set of RC parameters used by the encoder 2502. For example, the decoder 2504 may similarly implement or access a consistent set of RC parameters stored on a memory implemented by the decoder 2504, and the RC parameter Indication 2520 sent by the encoder 2502 may specify which particular set of RC parameters for the decoder 2504 to retrieve from memory and apply to the rate controller 2505. In some implementations, the encoder 2502 may not send any RC parameter indications 2520. Instead, the encoder 2502 and decoder 2504 may share consistent RC parameter selection logic and implicitly select the same set of RC parameters.
The values for specific RC parameters may be determined through experimentation. Some exemplary intermediate and RC parameters that the encoder 2502 and decoder 2504 may adjust are presented next in Table 3:







TABLE 3







Exemplary Intermediate Rate Control Parameters








Parameter Name
Description





Range Thresholds
This parameter specifies ranges of buffer fullness.



The Range thresholds may include, for example,



fourteen (14) values of threshold (BufTh1 through 14)



of buffer fullness in units of bits.


minQP[ ]
A set of minimum values for Quant that the RC may



determine, one for each range of buffer fullness.


maxQP[ ]
A set of maximum values for Quant that the RC may



determine, one for each range of buffer fullness.


Target Bits Offset[ ]
Offset[ ] is a set of values, one per range, that adjust



the “target_activity_level” according to the fullness of



the buffer model, which may be represented by



“Buffer_fullness”, and which is compared to various



threshold values represented by BufTh1, BufTh2, etc . . .


minRateBufferSize
The minimum rate buffer size in bits. The real physical



rate buffer may need to be slightly larger than this to



account for the fact that the end-to-end delay is



specified in group times rather than bits and to



account for substream muxing. This parameter value



may be equal to rc_model_size − initial_offset +



ceil(initial_enc_delay * bits_per_pixel * 3) +



groupsPerLine * first_line_bpg_offset, for example.


hrdDelay
The total end-to-end HRD delay in groups. This may



be equal to ceiling(minRateBufferSize/(3 *



bits_per_pixel)).


first_line_bpg_offset
The first line of each slice may not code as efficiently



as subsequent lines due to the lack of prediction and



the lack of ICH upper neighbors. To maintain a



uniform visual quality across a slice, the encoder may



provide an extra bit allocation for the first line.



Empirical results have shown that a value of 12 bpg



works well at 8 bits/pixel and 15 bpg works well at 12



bits/pixel.


nfl_bpg_offset
If the first line has an additional bit budget, the



additional bits that were allocated may come out of the



budget for coding the rest of the slice. Therefore, the



nfl_bpg_offset parameter may be set to



first_line_bpg_offset/(slice_height − 1) rounded up to



16 fractional bits.


initial_enc_delay
If the initial encoder delay were zero, the buffer level



may be constrained to a zero at the end of a slice to



guarantee that a slice contains the correct number of



bits. This may be problematic, because it would be



difficult to ensure good visual quality at the end of a



slice. A nonzero initial_enc_delay allows a final



maximum buffer fullness of up to initial_enc_delay *



bits_per_pixel * 3. Empirical results suggest an



optimal value satisfies initial_enc_delay *



bits_per_pixel * 3 ≈ rc_model_size/2.


initial_dec_delay
The total HRD delay may be a constant, so the



decoder does not wait the same number of group



times as the encoder before starting the decode. The



initial_enc_delay + initial_dec_delay corresponds with



the total HRD delay (in groups), which may be equal



to hrdDelay.


slice_bpg_offset
If the initial RC model condition is not completely full,



the encoder may account for the difference between



the initial RC model offset (initial_offset) and the RC



model size (rc_model_size). The slice_bpg_offset



provides a means to make up this difference. In



addition, the slice_bpg_offset allows the rate control to



account for bits that may be lost to SSM at the end of



a slice. The value can be set to (rc_model_size −



initial_offset + numExtraMuxBits)/groupsTotal



(rounded up to 16 fractional bits), where groupsTotal



is the total number of groups in a slice as defined



above.


initial_offset
The initial offset indicates the initial condition within



the RC model. A high initial_offset means that the rate



control will react quickly at the beginning of a slice,



whereas a low initial_offset means that the rate control



may react more slowly. Empirical results have shown



that a value of 6144 works well at 8bpp and a value of



2048 works well at 12bpp.


final_offset
This parameter may be set equal to rc_model_size −



initial_delay * bits_per_pixel * 3 + numExtraMuxBits in



order to ensure HRD compliance and maximize the



bits available at the end of a slice.


rc_model_size
This value indicates the size of the “RC model”; larger



values enhance the ability of the rate control to



allocate bits across the slice. However, a larger



rc_model_size can require a larger physical rate buffer



and can hurt performance on smaller slices. Empirical



results have shown an rc_model   _size of 8192 bits



performs well for slices containing 15000 or more



pixels.


initial_scale_value
This value shrinks the effective RC model range at the



beginning of a slice to maximize tracking ability. It is



recommended to use a value of rc_model_size/



(rc_model_size − initial_offset), keeping in mind that



initial_scale_value has 3 fractional bits.


scale_decrement_interval
This value indicates the number of groups between



decrementing the scale factor at the beginning of a



slice. It is recommended to use a value equal to



groupsPerLine/(8 * (initial_scale_value − 1.0)), where



groupsPerLine is defined above.


scale_increment_interval
At the end of the slice, it is also desirable to shrink the



effective RC model range to maximize tracking ability.



It is recommended to use a value equal to



groupsPerLine/(8 * (finalScaleValue − 1.125)), where



groupsPerLine is defined above and finalScaleValue



is equal to rc_model_size/(rc_model_size −



final_offset).









Quick Lower of QP on Relatively Smooth Content
The RC algorithm itself may determine a QP adjustment based on various measurements and parameters, including the fullness of the buffer model or the activity of coded samples. This operation may be referred to as implicit rate control. The RC parameters may specify setting a minimum QP value for various ranges of buffer model fullness. When the RC algorithm detects relatively flat content, based on the various measurements and parameters for example, the RC algorithm may incrementally lower the minimum QP value. In some instances, it may be advantageous to quickly adjust, e.g., lower, the QP instead of performing incremental decreases of the minimum QP value. In that regard, the encoder may selectively adjust a QP value determined by the RC algorithm.
The encoder may access a QP from an implicit RC algorithm for a current sample and determine to adjust the QP in various scenarios. For example, the encoder may obtain a measure for any number of surrounding samples near the current sample. The surrounding samples may be within a particular number of samples from the current sample, e.g., to the left, right, top, top/left, top right, etc. The measure may indicate any characteristic of the surrounding samples, such as a flatness indication.
The encoder may obtain a measure for from one or more samples subsequent to the current sample in a coding order, which may refer to “future” samples. For instance, when the encoder uses a raster line order for coding, the “future” samples may include samples to the right or below the current sample. These “future” samples may be unavailable to a decoder employing an implicit RC algorithm. When the encoder determines to adjust the QP from an implicit RC based on the measure from one or more “future” samples, the encoder may provide an explicit indication to the decoder, which may include coding information to support the decoder performing the same QP adjustment.
When the encoder obtains a measure from samples previous to the current sample in the coding order, the encoder may adjust the QP without sending an explicit indication to the decoder. As the decoder may similarly obtain the measure from the same set of previous samples considered by the encoder, the decoder may determine to make the same QP adjustment as the encoder. This may refer to a form of implicit QP adjustment.
When the measure meets a predetermined criterion, the encoder may adjust the QP determined from the implicit RC algorithm. As one example, the predetermined criterion may be a high flatness threshold, e.g., threshold indicating a group of samples as “very flat” as described above in FIG. 22.
The encoder may adjust the QP for a current sample obtained from an implicit RC in various ways. In some variations, the encoder adjusts the QP as a function of the measure of one or more surrounding samples. The encoder may, for instance, reduce the quantization parameter by a first reduction value when the measure meets a first criterion (e.g., exceeds a first threshold) and reduce the quantization parameter by second reduction value when the measure meets a second criterion (e.g., exceeds a second threshold and not the first threshold), the second reduction value being lesser than the first reduction value. As another example, the encoder may adjust the QP by a particular amount depending on a particular range of values the measure falls within.
One particular scenario when the encoder may adjust the QP value is when image content becomes smooth. FIG. 26 shows an example of image content 2600 with a busy pixel area 2610 adjacent to a smooth pixel area 2620. When encoding pixels directly along the edge between the busy pixel area 2610 and the smooth pixel area 2620, the encoder may identify the flatness of upcoming pixels in the smooth pixel area 2620 and in response, sharply decrease the QP value determined by the RC algorithm, e.g., by a particular value that may be a function of the flatness. Doing so may reduce striping or other artifacts that may occur near the busy-smooth pixel edge as a result of an incremental reduction in QP and may allocate additional bits to encoding the samples after the edge.
As described above with regard to FIG. 22 and flatness determination, the encoder may determine a degree of flatness of multiple groups that form a supergroup. The encoder may determine a flatness indication for each group within the supergroup independently and including a “flatness type” determination (e.g., either somewhat flat or very flat) for each group. The encoder may perform one or more flatness checks, and in the specific example described above in FIG. 22, the encoder performs two flatness checks, both using pixels from the original, uncompressed image.
As another option, the encoder may, for a current pixel, examine a number of subsequent pixels in a raster line and obtain a flatness indication for the subsequent pixels to the right of the current pixel.
In some variations, the encoder may obtain a measure (e.g., predict the flatness) of one or more upcoming (e.g., “future”) pixels without examining the upcoming pixels. In that regard, the encoder may predict a flatness of upcoming pixels by examining the encoding history of previously coded pixels. For example, in a raster line coding order, the encoder may examine the history of previously coded pixels to the left or above the current pixel, such as the previous line of pixels above the current pixel. The encoder may predict, for example, an edge between transitioning from a busy pixel area 2610 to a smooth pixel area 2620 by examining the residual values or reconstructed values of the examined pixels. The encoder may then determine to adjust (e.g., reduce) the QP based on the predicted flatness of upcoming pixels. This scheme may be implicit in the sense that decoder can identically determine to adjust (e.g., reduce) the QP by an identical amount through examining the previous decoding history and without receiving an explicit QP adjust indication from the encoder.
Optionally, the encoder may analyze values of samples, at least some of which were not previously coded, to obtain a flatness indication. When the encoder determines the set of samples meet a threshold degree of flatness, the encoder may transmit an explicit syntax element indicating a QP adjustment amount to the decoder. The explicit syntax element may, in some variations, indicate not to adjust a QP determined from an implicit rate algorithm (e.g., a QP adjustment of 0). When the encoder determines the set of samples does not meet any threshold degree of flatness (e.g., is neither very flat nor somewhat flat), the encoder may send a compressed bit stream without the explicit syntax element, thus conserving bit usage. Hybrid explicit-implicit parameter control is also discussed below.
In some scenarios, the encoder may forego adjusting the QP determined by an implicit RC algorithm. Exemplary scenarios include when the current QP is less than a low threshold value and the image content is flat or transitioning from busy to flat and when the QP is greater than a high threshold value to avoid overflow. In these exemplary scenarios, the encoder may forego sending an explicit syntax element or explicit QP adjustment indication to the decoder.
Hybrid Explicit-Implicit Quantization and Prediction Control
An encoder may explicitly indicate QP, prediction, or other encoding variables in the encoded bitstream (e.g., by sending values or indicators for these variables), compared to implicit recovery of these parameters in the decoder from the decoding process itself based on decoding history. When the encoder decides to change the QP, the prediction vector, or other parameter in a manner that the history will not readily allow the decoder to ascertain, the encoder may explicitly insert bits into the bitstream in a bit cost efficient way to inform the decoder of the new QP, block prediction, or other parameter value. This provides a type of hybrid implicit/explicit signaling of QP, prediction, and other parameters.
The encoder may insert an explicit quantization indication into the encoded bit stream, the explicit quantization indication specifying an adjustment of the quantization parameter determined according to the implicit rate algorithm. The explicit quantization may specify adjustment of the quantization parameter by a particular value, optionally without including the particular value itself.
As one example, the encoder may use, e.g., one operational mode bit per Unit to indicate whether or not the decoder should proceed with implicitly obtaining parameters. When the operational mode bit is set, for instance, the decoder may proceed with implicit determination of the parameters. But when the bit is cleared, the encoder may provide a parameter indicator in the bitstream and override the implicit operation of the decoder for that Unit. The parameter indicator may be, as examples, an explicit QP value, an indication to raise or lower QP, an indicator to turn on or off block prediction, or an explicit value for a prediction vector. Another specific example of hybrid implicit/explicit signaling of QP was described above with regards to flatness determination and sending a flatness indicator, such as the flatness_flag value.
As yet another specific example, the encoder may use an operational mode bit to indicate whether or not the decoder should continue using an explicit QP adjustment indication (e.g., either an explicit QP value or an indication to raise or lower QP) when decoding subsequent blocks. For example, the encoder may indicate an explicit QP adjustment for a first Unit. When the operational mode bit is set for the subsequent Unit, for instance, the decoder may use the same explicit QP adjustment of the first Unit when decoding the subsequent Unit. The decoder may continue to use the explicit QP adjustment of the first Unit until receiving a Unit with the operational mode bit cleared. When the operational mode bit is cleared, the decoder may proceed with implicitly obtaining parameters for the current Unit instead of using the previously specified explicit QP adjustment.
The encoder may use a single operational mode bit to indicate implicit or explicit control for a combination of QP, prediction, or another parameter value. For instance, when the encoder clears the operational mode bit, the decoder may implicitly determine both the QP and prediction. When the encoder sets the operational mode bit, the encoder may send additional bits to specify an explicit QP adjustment (which may be 0) and/or additional bits to indicate a prediction type or mode.
Modified DSU-VLC for Higher Throughput
As discussed above, the delta size Unit variable length coding (DSU-VLC) technique facilitates efficient encoding and decoding at high speed in hardware. The number of bits in a Unit to be decoded is determined from the prefix value (counting zeros) and the predicted size, which can be determined before encoding or decoding the current Unit. It is feasible to encode or decode one Unit per clock, including Units with a size 2, 3, 4 samples, or more. Faster decoding approaches are also feasible.
As a further advantage, a VLC may arrange multiple Units such that the delta size values of the multiple Units are contiguously located in a bitstream. One example of a Unit rearrangement process 2700 is presented next in FIG. 27.
FIG. 27 includes three Units with a Unit size of 2. In particular, FIG. 27 shows the Unit Y 2710, which may store Y component samples 610 for two pixels, as well as the Unit Co 2720 and the Unit Cg 2730, which may respectively store the Co and Cg component samples 610 for the two pixels. Together, the Unit Y 2710, Unit Co 2720, and Unit Cg 2730 store two pixels worth of image data.
The VLC may collectively code the Units 2710, 2720, and 2730 as a Group 2740 (or meta-Unit), the Group 2740 storing the image data for two pixels. The VLC may arrange the bitstream such that the prefixes 612 of the Units 2710, 2720, 2730 consecutively form the Group prefix 2750. In some implementations, the VLC may code the group prefix 2750 as a concatenation of the Unit prefixes 612 of the particular Units forming the Group. In other implementations, the VLC may recode the prefixes 612 to form a Group prefix 2750. The Group prefix 2750 may indicate the delta sizes for the underlying Units in the Group 2740 as well as support extraction of the samples 610 within each of the underlying Units. In that regard, the VLD of a decoder may interpret the Group prefix 2750 of the Group 2740 shown in FIG. 27 to extract the underlying Y, Co, and Cg samples.
With a single Group prefix 2750 for multiple Units each with multiple samples, a decoder may be capable of decoding the Group prefix 2750 and extracting the bits of the respective two samples 610 for all three Units in one clock cycle (i.e., at a rate of 2 pixels per clock). In that regard, the VLC and VLD may increase pixel processing throughput by increasing encoding and decoding efficiencies through a Group prefix 2750 for multiple Units, each including multiple samples.
Parallel Processing for Higher Throughput
A system may perform any of the encoding or decoding processes and techniques described above in parallel. For example, an encoding system may implement multiple encoders in parallel, each encoding a different portion, e.g., slice, of an input image. The encoding system may also implement synchronization or multiplexing logic to ensure that the encoded image data from the multiple, parallel encoders is transmitted in a sequential (e.g., raster line) order. Such synchronization logic may include one or more buffers for temporarily storing encoded bit streams that input into multiplexor logic for ordering the encoded bit streams.
In a similar regard, a decoding system may implement one or more decoders in parallel for decoding the encoded bit stream. The decoding system may include demultiplexer logic that splits the encoded bit streams among the parallel decoders. The decoding system may also include multiplexing logic restoring the order of the image data after decoding by the multiple parallel decoders. This multiplexing logic may include buffers to synchronize the outputs of the multiple parallel decoders for a sequential output.
The parallel encoding performed by an encoding system may be transparent to a decoding system, and likewise with the parallel decoding performed by the decoding system. The encoding system may use a number of parallel encoders different from the number of parallel decoders used by the decoding system, or an encoding system may not use parallel encoders while a decoding system may use parallel decoders.
The encoding and/or decoding systems may divide image data for parallel processing in any number of ways. One example includes splitting an image into multiple vertical or horizontal stripes, each of which may have the substantially the same size. Encoding or decoding image data in parallel may increase the image processing throughput of the system.
The methods, devices, and logic described above may be implemented in many different ways in many different combinations of hardware, software or both hardware and software. For example, all or parts of the system may include circuitry in a controller, a microprocessor, or an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), or may be implemented with discrete logic or components, or a combination of other types of analog or digital circuitry, combined on a single integrated circuit or distributed among multiple integrated circuits. All or part of the logic described above may be implemented as instructions for execution by a processor, controller, or other processing device and may be stored in a tangible or non-transitory machine-readable or computer-readable medium such as flash memory, random access memory (RAM) or read only memory (ROM), erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM) or other machine-readable medium such as a compact disc read only memory (CDROM), or magnetic or optical disk. Thus, a product, such as a computer program product, may include a storage medium and computer readable instructions stored on the medium, which when executed in an endpoint, computer system, or other device, cause the device to perform operations according to any of the description above.
The processing capability of the system may be distributed among multiple system components, such as among multiple processors and memories, optionally including multiple distributed processing systems. Parameters, databases, and other data structures may be separately stored and managed, may be incorporated into a single memory or database, may be logically and physically organized in many different ways, and may implemented in many ways, including data structures such as linked lists, hash tables, or implicit storage mechanisms. Programs may be parts (e.g., subroutines) of a single program, separate programs, distributed across several memories and processors, or implemented in many different ways, such as in a library, such as a shared library (e.g., a dynamic link library (DLL)). The DLL, for example, may store code that performs any of the system processing described above.
Various implementations have been specifically described. However, many other implementations are also possible.

## Claims

1. A method comprising:
accessing a quantization parameter, from an implicit rate control, for encoding a current image sample;
obtaining a measure of another image sample within a particular distance from the current image sample;
adjusting the quantization parameter;
encoding a pixel after adjusting the quantization parameter;
when the measure meets a predetermined criterion, setting an operational mode bit to a first value to indicate an explicit encoding parameter determination and separately explicitly indicating the adjusting of the quantization parameter to a decoding system by specifying a change to the quantization parameter; and
when the measure does not meet the predetermined criterion, implicitly signaling the quantization parameter to the decoding system by forgoing explicit indication of the adjusting of the quantization parameter and setting the operational mode bit to a second value to indicate an implicit encoding parameter determination.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the measure comprises a flatness indication and the predetermined criterion comprises a high flatness threshold; and
when the flatness indication meets the high flatness threshold:
reducing the quantization parameter by a predetermined value.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein obtaining the measure comprises obtaining a flatness indication for a predetermined number of samples right of the current image sample.

4. The method of claim 1, where obtaining the measure comprises:
determining whether a first set of samples surrounding the current image sample meets a high flatness threshold; and
when the first set of samples meets the high flatness threshold:
determining the measure meets the predetermined criterion; and

when the first set of samples does not meet the high flatness threshold:
determining whether a second set of samples surrounding the current image sample meets the high flatness threshold; and

when the second set of samples meets the high flatness threshold:
determining the measure meets the predetermined criterion; and

when the second set of samples does not meet the high flatness threshold:
determining the measure does not meet the predetermined criterion.

5. The method of claim 1, where explicitly indicating comprises:
sending a quantization adjustment amount.

6. The method of claim 1, where adjusting the quantization parameter comprises:
reducing the quantization parameter by a first reduction value when the measure meets a first criterion; and
reducing the quantization parameter by second reduction value when the measure meets a second criterion but does not meet the first criterion; and
wherein first reduction value is greater than the second reduction value.

7. A system comprising:
buffer circuitry configured to store a first image sample; and
encoding circuitry in communication with the buffer circuitry and configured to:
obtain a quantization parameter for encoding the first image sample, the quantization parameter determined according to an implicit rate control algorithm;
adjust the quantization parameter to obtain an adjusted quantization parameter;
encode, into a compressed data stream, the first image sample using the adjusted quantization parameter;
obtain a measure of a second image sample within a particular distance from the first image sample;
when the measure meets a predetermined criterion, insert an explicit quantization indication into the compressed data stream, the explicit quantization indication specifying an adjustment to the quantization parameter determined according to the implicit rate algorithm and the explicit quantization indication separately comprising a bit set to indicate an explicit quantization parameter determination; and
when the measure does not meet the predetermined criterion, implicitly signal the adjustment to the quantization parameter by forgoing explicit indication of the adjustment.

8. The system of claim 7, where the bit of the explicit quantization indication comprises an operational mode bit configured to specify whether to adjust a quantization parameter value determined through implicit quantization parameter determination.

9. The system of claim 8, where the operational mode bit is also configured to specify whether to adjust a prediction vector determined through implicit prediction vector determination.

10. The system of claim 7, where the explicit quantization indication is configured to specify the adjustment of the quantization parameter by a particular value without including the particular value itself within the indication.

11. The system of claim 7, where the second image sample comprises a member of a set of image samples subsequent to the first image sample.

12. The system of claim 11, where:
the encoding circuitry is configured to specify the adjustment to the quantization parameter by indicating a particular value by which to adjust the quantization parameter; and
the particular value comprises a function of the measure.

13. The system of claim 7, where the encoding circuitry is further configured to:
access the quantization parameter for encoding a third image sample, the quantization parameter determined according to the implicit rate control algorithm;
encode the third image sample using the quantization parameter; and
indicate, in the compressed data stream, use of the quantization parameter.

14. A product comprising:
a machine-readable medium other than a transitory signal; and
instructions stored on the machine-readable medium, the instructions, when executed, configured to cause a processor to:
responsive to an implicit rate control, apply an adjustment to a quantization parameter;
after applying the adjustment, encode a current pixel in accord with the adjustment;
obtain a measure of second pixel within a particular distance from the current pixel;
after encoding the pixel and when the measure meets a predetermined criterion, insert an explicit quantization indicator into a data stream including an encoding of the pixel, the explicit quantization indicator specifying the adjustment to the quantization parameter and the explicit quantization indicator comprising a bit that indicates an explicit quantization parameter encoding; and
when the measure does not meet the predetermined criterion, implicitly signal the adjustment to the quantization parameter by forgoing explicit indication of the adjustment.

15. The product of claim 14, where the instructions, when executed, are further configured to cause the processor to determine the adjustment to the quantization parameter by performing an implicit quantization parameter determination using the implicit rate control.

16. The product of claim 14, where the instructions, when executed, are further configured to cause the processor to insert an operational mode bit into the data stream, the operational mode bit configured to indicate when to apply the adjustment to the quantization parameter.

17. The product of claim 14, where:
the measure comprises a flatness indication; and
the instructions, when executed, are further configured to cause the processor to reduce the quantization parameter by a predetermined value when the flatness indication meets a flatness criterion.

18. The product of claim 14, where the second pixel comprises a member of a set of pixels subsequent to the current pixel.

19. The product of claim 14, where:
the instructions, when executed, are further configured to specify the adjustment to the quantization parameter by indicating a particular value by which to adjust the quantization parameter; and
the particular value comprises a function of the measure.