CHOOSING 

THE RIGHT WORD 

Whenever we come upon one of those intensely 

right words in a book or a newspaper the E VEN THOUGH SEVERAL WORDS may be synonymous, they 

resulting effect is physical as well as spiritual, all have different shades of meaning. Authors should carefully 

and electrically prompt. choose the word that best conveys the intended message. Technical -- - writers sometimes fail to distinguish shades of meaning, or they 

Mark Twain brush aside careful word choices in the haste to set down their 

scientific concepts. If a word is uncommon, double check its spelling 

and meaning or risk passing a flawed message to the reader. 

The following words and phrases are stumbling blocks for many 

Survey authors: 

About, approximately, on the 

order of 

Absent, lacking 

Accuracy, precision 

Align, alignment 

"An" should precede "h" words only if the "h" is silent: an heir, an 

herb, an honor, or an hour, but a historic event. In contemporary American usage almost all beginning h's are pronounced. 

"About" is nearly always better than "approximately," but 

"approximately" is preferable if fairly accurate figures are 

being given. "On the order of' should be used only with an 

established order of intensity, magnitude, or velocity. It should 

not be substituted for "about." 

"Absent" means simply not present or missing ("absent without 

leave"), but "lacking" implies need or requirement. "Data are 

lacking" could mean that they are unavailable but seems to say 

we want more. Absence is a factual condition or observational 

statement, as in the following examples: 

Sandstone beds are lacking [absent] from the lowermost section. 

Samples containing evidence of secondary mineralization are lacking 

[unavailable, not found]. 

The lack of an item, as opposed to its mere absence, reflects 

more human than natural factors; the scientist is concerned with 

the existence of facts, which should dictate the choice of words. 

If no evidence exists, then say so directly. 

A measurement can be precise without being accurate. Precision 

relates to values reported in very small increments; accuracy 

reflects the correctness of those values. A stratigraphic measurement to the nearest tenth of a meter is very precise but is 

not necessarily accurate. In statistics, "accuracy" is the agreement of a measured or computed value with the absolute or true 

value; "precision" is the degree of coincidence of repeated measurements of a single quantity. (See also section on "Significant 

Figures," p. 119.) 

"Align" and "alignment" should refer to things being in a line; 

"The stakes were precisely aligned." The author who said the 

minerals are aligned N. 30" E. meant that their long axes are 

oriented in that direction, not that they are one behind another. 

The alternative spelling "dine" is no longer used in Government 

reports. 
All of 

Although, whereas 

Altitude, elevation 

And (or) 

Apparent, evident, obvious 

The word "of' in the phrase "all of" is generally superfluous. As a 

popular idiom "all of" emphasizes totality, as "How many of the 

rocks did you see?" "I saw all of them." The best usage omits 

the "of' as needless, preferring "I saw them all." I saw all (not, 

all of) the specimens. Include "of," however, with pronouns, as 

"all of it," "of whom," "of which," "of them." 

The foregoing judgment is based on the assumption that the 

word "of' is a partitive in phrases like "some of," "many of," 

"one of '-that is, a term implying partition or denoting a 

part-whereas in "all of," no expression of partition is intended. 

"The whole of' has been criticized on the same grounds. 

You may say "the whole staff accompanied the Chief Hydrologist" or (for emphasis) "the whole of the staff," but it would 

be better to say "the entire staff" or "all members of the 

staff," not "all of the members of the staff." "Take it all" is 

better than "Take all of it." 

But "of' after "all" should not be mechanically cut out. In the 

phrase "Many but not all of these fragments are rounded" the 

italicized words may be superfluous, but whether or not they are 

cut out, the "of' should stand. 

"Although" means "regardless of the fact that," and "whereas" 

suggests "but at the same time" or "while on the contrary." A 

clear contrast between two statements is implicit in "whereas" 

but is not implicit in "although." ("Jack was short and fat, 

whereas Jill was tall and skinny." "Although gypsum is soft, 

talc is even softer.") 

Both terms may refer to height above sea level, but "elevation" 

may also mean uplift in a geologic sense. To avoid ambiguity, 

use "altitude" in geologic reports to indicate height above sea 

level and use "elevation" to mean uplift. Because "elevation," 

however, is widely used by engineers and topographers to mean 

altitude, Survey reports directed to such readers may follow 

that usage. Consistency is essential; do not use "altitude" and 

"elevation" interchangeably within a report, and do not use 

"elevation" for "uplift" if you also use it to mean "altitude." 

The legalistic "and (or)" is not erroneous but is frowned upon by 

grammarians and should be avoided. The slash (andlor) serves 

the same purpose no better. "Or" or "and" alone may suffice to 

make the meaning clear; "or both" may be added. 

In some places the succession of shale beds is interrupted by lenses of sand 

or gravel. 

The sequence may include limestone or sandstone, or both. 

"Obvious" means so easily perceived or seen that it cannot be 

missed. "Evident" denotes the existence of visible signs, all 

pointing to one conclusion. "Apparent" goes one step beyond 

"evident" and implies visible signs and some reasoning, as in 

"The absurdity of their contention is apparent to one who 

knows the effects produced by the same causes in the past." 

Apparent, evident, obvious 157 
Appears, seems 

Area, region, section 

As, since, because 

As much as, up to 

As well as, and 

"Appears" in its primary sense means to come into view, as in "As 

one travels westward the mountain appears over the horizon." 

"Appears" also means to give an impression and therefore 

approximates "seems," as in "It seems (appears) clear that the 

rock was originally a sandstone." "Seems" may suggest something in opposition to fact, however, as in "The rock seems to 

be gray, but in good light it is seen to be buff." If you wish to 

maintain a distinction between "appears" and "seems," you 

should follow the first definition above. 

"Area" and "region" are common geographic descriptors. Use 

"region" for larger geographic units and "area" for smaller 

ones. Usage should be consistent; the "region" of one paragraph 

should not become the "area" of another. "Section" is best 

reserved for land sections, cross sections, and thin sections. 

"As" and "since" are sometimes used as conjunctions interchangeably with "because," but the result can be ambiguous if the 

reader takes the meaning to be "after," "when," or "at the 

time that." In the following examples, "as" and "since" are 

ambiguous: 

The levees were sandbagged since [because] all the creeks were in flood. 

Since [when, or because] you left the door ajar, the house fdled up with flies. 

Since [because] the Snow Storm Mine ceased production and the Lost 

Packer Mine shipped only a few cars of matte, the increase during the year 

was due to * * *. 

As [because] the hillside was logged off, avalanching increased. 

"Because" is the most specific conjunction used to express cause or 

reason-it indicates unequivocal causal relationship. "Since" is 

sometimes used in place of "because," but its principal connotation of time confuses the usage, particularly in introductory 

clauses: "Since" [Because] a tidal wave was forecast, people fled 

to higher ground." 

"As much as" is better than "up to" for describing an upper limit. 

"Up to" implies a position in space and logically should be 

coupled with a preceding "from." (See also "Range.") 

"As well as" is used in a parenthetical sense to give slightly less 

emphasis to what follows it compared with what precedes it; if 

no such subordination is intended, "and" should be used instead. 

The parenthetical construction does not affect the number (singular or plural) of the verb, so awkward phrasing can result: 

"Quartz, as well as microcline and oligoclase, is a major constituent" doesn't sound as good as "Quartz, microcline, and 

oligoclase are major constituents." 

158 Appears, seems 
Assume, presume, postulate 

Assure, ensure, insure 

Audience, readership 

Balance, remainder, rest 

Based on, on the basis of 

In the sense of suppose, "presume," which is similar to "assume," 

expresses what the presumer believes until it is proved wrong, 

and the presumption should be based on experience, theory, or 

logic. "Assume" perhaps should mean to take for granted, and 

with less reason for doing so than to take that which is presumed; it emphasizes the arbitrary acceptance of something as 

true. "Postulate," in the sense of suppose, means to assume, 

especially as a basis for argument. Webster says, "One can 

assume * * * at any point in a course of reasoning, but one 

postulates something or lays down a proposition as a postulate 

only as the groundwork for a single argument, or for a chain of 

reasoning, or for a system of thought." In considering "postulate," scientific writers might ponder whether they actually 

mean that word or, perhaps, "infer" or "conjecture." 

"Assure" means to encourage. "Ensure" means to make certain. 

"Insure" should be used when referring to underwriting a loss. 

"Audience" is used widely as a synonym of "readership," but 

its derivation is from the Latin verb "to hear." Although 

"audience" has come to mean one's public or readership, it is 

better reserved for august gatherings in lecture halls or meetings with the Director. 

"Balance" is properly used to denote the difference between two 

amounts when their comparison is in one's mind. Without this 

idea of comparison, "rest" or "remainder" is the better word. 

"Rest" is preferred to "remainder" when there is no implication 

of subtraction, depletion, or deduction. If such an implication 

does exist, as in "Two faults trend northeast, but the rest trend 

east," either word is correct, though "remainder" is a bit 

stilted. "Remainder" seems preferable in describing laboratory 

analyses even when that which remains is not thought of in 

terms of amount, weight, or the like, but "rest" has the virtue 

of being shorter. 

Carefully distinguish the participial phrase "based on" from the 

prepositional phrase "on the basis of." "Based on" modifies the 

noun in the main clause of the sentence; "on the basis of" 

modifies the verb. 

Based on [On the basis of] measurements made on photographs, Brown 

estimates * * * . (Brown is not based on photogrammetic measurements, the 

estimates are.) 

Brown's estimates were based on measurements made on photographs. 

Even when grammatically correct, a "basis" phrase may be less 

desirable than a concrete phrase. 

The rocks on the basis of [If classified by] size of grain [the rocks] may be 

divided into sandstones and conglomerates. (Also, "grain size" would be 

better than "size of grain.") 

The conclusions stated seem to be warranted on the basis of [by] the data 

presented. 

Based on, on the basis of 159 
Beside, besides 

Between, among 

Both, different 

Calculate, compute, determine, 

estimate 

Can, could; may, might 

Case, instance 

160 Beside. besides 

In some senses these are interchangeable. "Beside" means by the 

side of. "Besides" means in addition to or other than. Some 

writers prefer "in addition to" over "besides" where an adding 

to or union with something is meant; "besides" may not be as 

clear here, because it may be taken to mean "other than" in the 

sense of except. 

Strictly speaking, "between" requires two objects; "among," more 

than two. However, current usage permits use of "between" 

with more than two objects when each item is considered in 

relation to each of the others. 

"Both" and "different" are useful words, but they are not needed 

in these sentences: 

Both branch chief and project leader will depart in opposite directions. 

They are both alike. 

The Survey occupies more than 30 differat buildings. 

The motorship brings mail and freight to the different towns in the region. 

Samantha Harper and Bill Macy have married and both are honeymooning in 

Hawaii. 

"Calculate" and "compute" are used to describe mathematical 

determinations. "Calculate" hints at sophisticated mathematical 

operations; "compute" suggests straightforward arithmetic. 

"Determine" means to find out exactly. "Estimate" may involve 

calculations or computations, but it also implies use of judgment 

and a result that is not necessarily exact. 

"Can" suggests the ability to do something. "May" expresses permission ("Mother, mother, may I go") or possibility ("These 

rocks may have been folded more than once"). "Could" and 

"might," respectively, are the past tenses of these two verbs, 

but all four words are also treated as subjunctive verbs that can 

convey ideas in present or future time. "Can" and "may" have 

positive connotations, whereas "could" and "might" imply that 

the ability or permission required to do something is unlikely: 

This outcrop can be studied. (Studying it is feasible) 

This outcrop could be studied. (If certain criteria were met) 

This outcrop may be studied. (You have permission to do so) 

This outcrop might be studied. (Chances are less likely that it will be studied 

or that permission will be granted) 

Authors should guard against these words. In most cases they [of 

them] are superfluous, and in some instances they are 

misleading; they commonly add needless words. 
Case, instance-Continued The author who wrote, "Specimens in some cases exhibit veins 

of calcite" meant simply "some specimens," not museum pieces. 

Catch the double meaning here: "Splendent prisms of hornblende were displayed in only one case; in every other case the 

rocks were propylitic." See also "Display, exhibit." 

Other improper or superfluous usages: 

In some cases [places] the lowlands contain lakes, the most conspicuous 

instance being Crystal Lake. 

In a fav instaw [Locally], as at Chimney Pond * 

One such case formed a cinder wne. (How could a case form a cinder cone?) 

In several cases the casing has been pulled. 

In case of a malfunction of the pump * *. (If the pump fails) 

Centered around, at, in, on, upon Because "center" refers to a central point or focus, "centered 

around" is illogical and should not be used. "Centered at, in, 

on," or "upon" are all acceptable alternatives. 

Character, conditions, purposes In many sentences these words take up space without adding 

anything to the meaning. If the extraneous words are 

eliminated, the expression is more forceful, as in the following 

examples. Delete the words in italic: "The surface is of a very 

uneven character." "With proper drainage conditions, the land 

could be made more suitable for farming purposes." 

Characteristic, distinctive, typical "Characteristic" distinguishes that which identifies some particular 

thing. "Distinctive" emphasizes that which sets something 

apart. "Typical" expresses the qualities of a representative 

example. 

Collide, collision (see p. 151) 

Commonly, generally, typically, "Commonly" refers to something that is frequent or ordinarily so. 

usually "Generally" refers to something that is extensive but not 

universal. "Typically" refers to something that applies to most 

members of a class. "Usually" has a temporal connotation for 

something that is customary or regular but not universal; it 

should not be confused with "generally." 

Some writers use "comparative(ly)" and "relative(ly)" to hedge 

otherwise-positive statements and thereby diminish the effectiveness of their writing ("Discharge was comparatively rapid." 

"The eruptions were relatively small."). Neither term is properly used without a comparison: "Compared with the great eruption of 1815, these eruptions were relatively small." 
Compass directions 

Compose, comprise, consist, 

constitute, include 

Terms of compass direction, such as "west," "western," 

"westerly," and "westward," should not be used indiscriminately. The adjectives "west" and "western" may both be used, but 

each should be used consistently. Indefinite or general terms of 

broad application may end in "ern," as "in the western part of 

the district"; terms of definite designation need not, as "west 

bank, west side." 

"West" is an adverb also, as in the sentence "The fault strikes 

west" (or "westward"). Use "west" to indicate approximate 

direction, meaning anywhere between west-northwest and westsouthwest. Exact direction is better expressed by saying "due 

west" or by giving the deviation in degrees, as "N. 75" W." 

Puzzles in direction appear in many reports: 

About 13 kilometers north and a little west of Weatherford. 

About 160 kilometers south of west of this * * * 

In a ravine 2.5 kilometers west and a short distance north of Hanover. 

If a place cannot be reached by a diagonal (few places can), say 

"Drive 10 miles north and then 2 miles east." 

The adjective "westerly" is used properly in such phrases as 

"westerly dip, direction, trend." Its use as an adverb is less 

desirable; STA suggests "westward": 

The fault extends indefinitely westerly [westward]. 

The stream here turns westerly [westward]. (Not "westwardly" or "to the 

westward.") 

The "westerly wind" means the wind that blows from the west. 

"Westward" also is both an adjective and an adverb. It is used 

properly in the unit modifiers "westward dipping, trending, 

flowing" (but west-dipping might be better). "Westward" 

is used as an adverb in "extends westward." The adverb "westward" means toward the west or in a general westerly direction. In the sentence "Clay is abundant in this formation at 

Newton and westward," the latter part would be better if 

written "at and west of Newton." 

Authors often stumble over these terms. "Comprise," besides being 

a bit stuffy, is so widely misused that you might better avoid it 

entirely. A safe guideline for authors: Excise "comprise" should 

it arise. 

The whole "comprises" the parts; for example, "The formation 

comprises [consists of] limestone and shale." The parts "compose" or "constitute" the whole, as in "Limestone and shale 

compose [constitute] the formation." Never write "is comprised 

of '; the passive form "is composed of' can be substituted for 

"comprises" or "consists of," but the result is a weaker sentence: "The formation is composed of [consists ofl limestone 

162 Compass directions 
Compose, comprise, consist, and shale. In contrast to all these terms, "inc1ude"indicates an 

constitute, include-Continued incomplete listing of constituents: "The formation includes 

limestone and shale" implies that other constituents not 

mentioned are included also. 

Conclude, deduce, imply, infer "Conclude" means to reach a decision or an agreement as a logical 

result of interpreting evidence. "Deduce" means to derive an 

inference from a principle. "Infer" is similar to "deduce" but is 

not so strong a statement. The difference between "infer" and 

"imply" rests on the writer-reader relationship: The reader 

infers or concludes something from an implied statement by the 

writer. To imply something is to state it indirectly, to hint, 

or to suggest. "Imply" and "infer" should not be used 

interchangeably. 

Conduct 

Conspicuous, prominent 

Continual, continuous 

Crop out, outcrop 

"Conduct" is a good verb for leading an orchestra but is stilted for 

a field trip or a research project and, moreover, is often superfluous: "Exploration and development should be conducted in an 

orderly and careful fashion." "Jones conducted research on 

[researched] the evolution of the Desmoinesian Foraminifera." 

In the sense of being immediately noticeable, "conspicuous" and 

"prominent" are synonyms. The root meaning of "prominent," 

however, is to jut out or project above a level or beyond a surface, and when that meaning is intended, a clear distinction 

between these two terms should be observed. Rock colors and 

bedding planes may be conspicuous; a volcanic cone may be both 

conspicuous and prominent. 

"Continual" relates only to time and applies to something that goes 

on incessantly or that recurs unceasingly. "Continuous" refers 

to uninterrupted action in time or unbroken extent in space. 

Use "crop(s) out" as a verb; use "outcrop" as a noun. "Outcrop" 

used as a verb is easily misread: "The rock outcrops at three 

places in the study area * * * " is an example that brings the 

reader up short, wondering what comes next. 

Crossbedded, cross-laminated, The AGI Glossary and Webster's Third International Dictionary 

cross-stratified hyphenate all these words, but the Survey and the GPO Style 

Manual write "crossbedded" as one word. "Cross-laminated" vs. 

"crosslaminated" is writer's choice, but "crosslaminated" looks 

a bit awkward. "Cross-stratified" should always be hyphenated 

to avoid tripling the s's. 

Data, facts, information The term "data" generally refers to organized information used to 

answer questions or reach conclusions. Data are often used to 

verify "facts." "Information" is knowledge gained in any way, 

whether through study, experience, or hearsay; its connotation 

is more general than "data," though the terms are sometimes 

used interchangeably. "Data" is the plural of "datum" and 

should not be used in a singular sense in Survey reports. 

"Datums," however, is correct for bench marks and time 

markers. 

Data, facts, information 163 
Deplete, enrich "Deplete" means "decrease the supply of" or "deprive of something 

essential to existence"; "enrich" means "add to or improve by 

addition." Thus, one can have "an enriched [depleted] granite" 

or "a granite enriched [depleted] in calcium." The converse is 

not possible; calcium cannot be depleted in granite. The phrasing may be further simplified by using a unit modifier: Ca-poor, 

quartz-rich granite. 

Despite, in spite of, notwithstanding All three terms indicate opposition of varying intensity to contrary 

forms or circumstances. "Notwithstanding" suggests the weakest opposition, "despite" is stronger, and "in spite of" is 

strongest. 

Determined to be 

Develop, development 

"Determined to be" appears in many manuscripts, but watch out 

for this pitfall (see p. 142, 143): "Determined to be" can be 

either (1) intransitive or (2) transitive passive voice, as in the 

following: 

(1) King was determined to be successful. 

(2) The Uinta Mountain Group was determined to be Precambrian. 

"Develop" in many manuscripts is intended to mean acquire, 

deposit, exploit, form, grow, mine, occur, work, or various other 

verbs that fail to gel in the minds of their writers. Here are a few 

uses and misuses: 

In this district ore bodies of considerable importance [value?] have been 

developed [formed? worked?]. 

Here the vein is developed in greater thiehs [thicker]. 

The large development [great thickness] of Triassic sediments in this 

region * * *. 

It is possible that its development was in Tertiary time. (Write, "It may 

have formed in Tertiary time.") 

There is much lateral variation in the development [thickness? character? 

composition?] of even the most persistent strata. 

Salt pseudomorphs are more prominently developed [more abundant? more 

conspicuous? more nearly perfect?] on the south slope of the mountains. 

In its typical development [Typically] the formation is a series of dark clay 

shales. 

Neither the limestone nor the sandstone is developed with sufficiat un$'- 

ity [sufficiently uniform] to be traced for c-dle distance [very far]. 

In some places the quartz is developed in [forms] anhedral grains. 

Here the century plants attain their greatest develqpment [largest size?]. 

These plants are here present in less abundance and in more stunted develop 

mat [smaller and less abundant]. 

In the mining industry "develop" and "development" have explicit meaning. To develop a mining property is to open up the 

ore bodies. The work done for these purposes is development or 

164 Deplete, enrich 
Develop, development-Continued 

Display, exhibit 

development work. "Developed" and "development" are used 

properly in the following sentences: 

It is the only deposit that has been developed. 

The development of the deposit will soon be undertaken [start]. 

Even in the above examples, however, the sentences would gain 

clarity by a more informative choice of words. 

In water-well construction "develop" and "development" have a 

particular meaning also, although more explicit words might add 

clarity. To develop a well is to remove fine-grained material 

from the walls of a drill hole to improve yield. In ground-water 

parlance, "develop" and "development" refer to exploitation of 

ground water: 

Large supplies of ground water are developed in this area. 

The ground-water development in this area is intensive. 

Save both words for museums, art shows, and department store 

windows. "Display" and "exhibit" appear interchangeably in 

many papers whose authors fail to search out more meaningful, 

less trite words. "Webster's Third New International Dictionary," equates display with "an unfolding, stretching out, spreading out, or otherwise showing in full detail or to best advantage 

(displaying the new fabrics to the buyers)." "Exhibit" applies to 

putting forward prominently, openly, or conspicuously to attract 

rather than merely permit attention and inspection ("He exhibited with peculiar pride two cream-colored mules"-Willa 

Cather). Other meanings include "show off" and "show with 

ostentation." 

Now try to visualize a fault exhibiting very little drag, a rock 

exhibiting poorly developed fracture cleavage, or a thin section 

displaying eutaxitic texture. If you can believe some authors, 

quartzite may even exhibit vague cross stratification or dim 

outlines of hopper crystals. 

Distinctive (see "Characteristic") 

Dominant, predominant; dominate, "Dominant" and "predominant" both mean that which exercises 

predominate principal control, but "predominant" can also mean having 

greatest influence or authority at a given time. The verb forms, 

"dominate" and "predominate," are synonymous, so the shorter 

form is better. 

Doubled-up auxiliary verbs Mark Twain, in his book "A Tramp Abroad," wrote: 

Harris said that if the best writer in the world once got the slovenly habit of 

"doubling up his have's" he could never get rid of it-that is to say, if a 

man gets the habit of saying "I should have lied to have known more about 

it," instead of saying "I should have liked to know more about it," his 

disease is incurable. 

Doubled-up auxiliary verbs 165 
Doubled-up auxiliary verbs-Con. 

Dramatic 

Drainage basin, drainage divide, 

watershed 

Due to, owing to 

Doubled-up "have," "has," and other auxiliary verbs are seen in 

rough drafts of some manuscripts, as in the following sentences: 

This gravel has the appearance of having [apparently has] been deposited by 

moving water and has a strong resemblame to [strongly resembles] the Gila 

conglomerate. 

The known geologic history of the region may be said to have been begun 

@gar11 in Silurian time. 

On the other hand, "to be" is often omitted where it should be 

used, as in these sentences: 

Cap Glacier is reported [to be] a thin n6v4 field. 

The submarine topography appears [to be] chiefly the result of glacial 

erosion. 

"Have" and "has" should be used as principal verbs only with 

thoughtful discrimination. "Has" should be used in place of 

"contains" in the sentence "This water contains a higher 

mineral content," but "have" and "has" are used undesirably in 

the following sentences: 

The deep erosion gives evidence that the rocks have a [are of] considerable 

age. 

The alluvial soil has [contains] much sand and gravel. 

The rocks have aflesh wlor [are flesh colored]. 

The sample had had no exposure [not been exposed] to the air. 

"Dramatic" means theatrically representing human character or 

behavior. Its attribution to striking natural phenomena such as 

earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or fault offsets is an anthropomorphism. Such events or features would be better described 

as "great" or " significant," or they should be described by 

some other appropriate scientific term. 

"Watershed" once meant just the divide separating one drainage 

basin from another. Now it also means catchment area or 

drainage basin, even though such usage can be ambiguous. 

"Drainage basin" is a better term to indicate the area drained. 

"Drainage divide" refers to the boundary between one drainage 

area and another. "Drainage" should not be used as shorthand 

for "drainage basin." 

STA recommends that authors adhere to the traditional use of "due 

to" only as a predicate adjective following a linking verb: "The 

uplift was [due to] owing to movement in the underlying plate." 

Many modern writers inelegantly use "due to" as an adverbial 

modifier by simply dropping "owing to" from their vocabularies: 

"Landsliding was instantaneous due to [, owing to] liquefaction 

of saturated silt." "Due to [Owing to] the rugged terrain, the 

fault trace was very crooked." (Better yet, "Because of the . ) Because rugged terrain, * * *" or "On account of * * * " " 

of' is clearly better than "due to the fact that" or "owing to 

the fact that." Although the adverbial use of "due to" is common, it is deplored by most grammarians. 

166 Dramatic 
Employ, use, utilize 

Encounter 

Essential, essentially 

Evidence, evidenced 

"Employ" and "use" are generally interchangeable, except that 

"employ" is stuffier. "Utilize" and "employ" are equally pompous, but "utilize" implies a practical or profitable use. "Employ" 

also means "to hire," so its use in a different sense may cause 

momentary misunderstanding in the mind of the reader: "We 

employed a block and tackle to remove the specimens." 

"Encounter" means to meet unexpectedly; to come face to face; 

to oppose, confront, or contest-a meeting with hostile forces. 

"Encounter" is a favorite verb of writers who prefer a longer, 

more impressive-sounding word than "meet" or "find." It has 

little place in technical literature except for dramatic effect, 

which doesn't belong there either. Better alternatives are 

"meet" and "find." 

"Kaye first encountered xonotlite deep in the workings of the 

Puerto Rican mine." 

"Essential" means part of the nature or essence of somethinga basic or indispensable property. It should not substitute for 

"almost," "chiefly," "in effect," "mainly," "most of," "principally," or "virtually": "The formation is essentially [mostly] 

limestone" or "Most of the formation is limestone." To describe 

a mineral as "essential" is correct if you mean that the mineral 

is invariably part of a particular rock. 

"Evidence" is overused by some scientists-cum-mystery writers. The 

writer who said, "No fossil evidence was found," meant "No 

fossils were found." Another writer who said, "In this limestone 

pebbles were in evidence," should have said, "This limestone 

contained pebbles" (and would thereby have strengthened the 

sentence with a straightforward transitive verb). 

"Evidenced," the past tense of a verb best avoided, is not as meaningful as "shown," "indicated," or "proved." 

Exhibit (see "Display") 

Exhibit 167 
Expressions of indefinite time and Careful writers reserve adverbial words and phrases such as "at 

place (see also "While" and times," "often," "sometimes," "when," and "while" for expres- 

"Time words, * * *" 1 sions relating to time. 

Change this To this 

These phenocrysts are often deeply Many of these phenocrysts are corroded. deeply corroded. 

Following "Following" is used appropriately as an adjective in the sense of 

"succeeding": "The analyses are given in the following table." 

"They left the following day." The participle "following" should 

be avoided, however, in the sense of "after": "Following [after] 

the earthquake, a series of smaller shocks rattled the Bay 

Area." "O'Brien left the ship following his dinner." "Kellerman 

went West following a prolonged illness." 

Former, latter \ 

"Former" and "latter" are so often misused that many careful 

writers decline to use them at all. Do not use them if the reader 

will have to look back to find what they mean. "Former" and 

"latter" cannot be used, of course, for more than two antecedents, as in "The granite consists of quartz, orthoclase, and 

biotite, the former constituting two-thirds of the rock." Some 

writers use these words without reason, as in the following 

sentences: 

The quartz veins lie near bodies of muscovite-biotite granite, the latter being 

[which is] probably the youngest rock in the region. 

The mines and the smelter were operated until the first of November, the 

latter [smelter] treating an average of 360 tons daily. (In this construction, 

"latter" seems to refer to "November.") 

Most such deposits contain calcite, and where they carry copper-iron 

sulfides, the latter will oxidize to carbonates, silicates, and oxides. (Write, 

"Most such deposits contain calcite, and any copper-iron sulfides they carry Will * 8 8 " .) 

Some meanings can only be guessed or inferred from the 

context: 

The concentration of the sulfide ion is so greatly affected by change of 

acidity that tb latter [this change] is the principal factor determining the 

precipitation of sulfides. 

One of the purposes of the reconnaissance was to examine certain prospects 

containing ores of uranium and vanadium, and it is to the latter [these ores] 

that this report is confined. (The context shows that "the latter" means the 

ores of both uranium and vanadium, not just vanadium, and not "certain 

prospects.") 

The house and chimney swing with different periods under the impulse imparted by the ground, and the latter [chimney] is broken off, usually at the 

roof line. (As written, "latter" refers to "ground.") 

"Former" and "latter" have no proper antecedents in the 

following sentences: 

I have seen all the phenomena herein described but have minutely studied 

only small parts of them. It would be impossible for any one person to do 

the latter unless it were made a life task. 

168 Expressions of indefinite time and place 
Former, latter-Continued 

Found to be, known to be, 

seen to be 

Grow 

Horizon 

In color the chrysocolla ranges from reddish brown to brownish black; in a 

few places it is light blue. The latter [blue chrysocolla] has a vitreous luster 

and is crystallized, but the former is [brown varieties are] dull and in most 

places amorphous. ("In color" is superfluous in the first sentence.) 

The word "found" intrudes without reason in "These rocks are 

found exposed at many places" and "The principal lakes found 

in this region * * * . " In the sentence "These lands are lmown 

to contain valuable deposits," the words in italic may be easily 

spared. "Known to be," 'found to be," and "seen to be" are 

generally superfluous, as in the sentences "The St. Peter sandstone is known to be jointed in places"; "In this region the 

deposits are found to be more arenaceous." On the other hand, 

these phrases may be improperly omitted where they are required to complete the sense of a statement, as "Under the 

microscope the grains of sand are [seen to be] coated with iron." 

"The rich ore, when examined closely, contains [is seen to contain] fine-grained drusy quartz." "Under the lens, the tuff has 

[is seen to have] a eutaxitic texture." (The texture is eutaxitic 

whether you see it or not, but it is seen to be eutaxitic under 

the lens.) 

"Grow" should not be used to indicate changed conditions not 

involving growth: "The rocks grow [are] larger toward the apex 

of the fan." "Downstream they grow [become] progressively 

smaller." (Some rocks may grow larger, as by accretion, but 

none grow smaller.) 

The term "horizon" denotes mere position, and its use for "bed" or 

"stratum" is improper. A horizon has no thickness, being merely a stratigraphic level or plane. In the following sentences 

"horizon" is used improperly: 

This horizon [interval] is about 1 meter thick. 

Several thin horim [beds] stand out from the rest. 

The total thickness of the horizon that carries the congwate 

[conglomeratic beds] is 6 meters. 

By virtue of conventional usage, however, "horizon" is applied 

in soil terminology to soil zones having thickness: "A, B, or C 

horizon" refers to a specific soil zone. 

The preference today is the shorter ending (hydrologic, hydrographic) but no strong justification supports such choice. Except 

for conventional expressions (Geologic Division, Geological 

Survey), consistency within a report should govern usage. 

"Historic," however, signifies momentous or ominous ("On this 

historic occasion"); "historid" means within the human cultural 

record and thus more accurately describes such natural events 

as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, most of which were 

prehistoric. 

"-ic" and "-ical" 169 
Important, interesting 

Inaugurate 

Initiate 

In question 

In situ 

Intermittent, occasional, sporadic 

Interval 

Some Survey writers overuse these words. "Important" should not 

be used for "large," "abundant," "conspicuous," "valuable," or 

any other term of indefinite meaning. What is interesting to one 

investigator may be uninteresting to another. For clarity, you 

should point out why something is interesting or important; then 

the need for either word may disappear, as follows: 

The most important [best? easiest? most traveled?] route across the 

quadrangle 

The most important [productive] aquifer 

The most interesting [complex?] microfold 

Used every fourth year on or about January 20. For Survey 

projects and programs, "begin" and "start" are better. 

Used appropriately in some technical reports, perhaps, but generally 

is better applied to occult ceremonies in secret societies. 

Some authors write "in question" about matters that are not in 

question at all. Instead of "the landslide in question," write "the 

landslide just mentioned" or "this landslide." 

"In situ" has wide usage in some technical fields and has specific 

connotations in terms such as in situ density, in situ temperature, and in situ theory, but for most purposes, "in place" is 

more meaningful and less stilted. 

"Intermittent" means starting and stopping at intervals. "Occasional" implies a randomness to something happening from time 

to time. "Sporadic" has a similar sense of randomness, but it 

also can refer to location (sporadic outcrops). 

Use "interval" in its usual sense of time or space-a span of time 

between the recurrence of things or a space between objects. Do 

not write "glacial interval" for "glacial period." "Interval" is 

also used to mean the thickness between horizons, as in "The 

rocks in this interval are sandstone and shale." It should be 

applied to the thickness, not to the rocks themselves. A well log 

or a measured section may include a covered, concealed, or 

missing interval. 

We couldn't do without this very useful pronoun, but beware of 

grammatical pitfalls. As an impersonal pronoun, "it" often acts 

as an expletive that lacks an antecedent and takes the place of 

the subject: "It is snowing." It may also take the place of and 

disagree in number with the true subject: "It was the ammonoids that dominated in the Cretaceous, but it was the nautiloids 

that survived into the Tertiary." (For a simpler construction, 

delete the words in italic.) 

When using "it" as a personal pronoun, take care to assure its 

proper antecedence, and avoid using "it" in two senses that 

might be confusing in the same sentence: 

170 Important, interesting 
It-Continued It has not been possible to identify it with any of the described forms, and it 

seems to be so distinct that it is probable that additional examples could be 

recognized. (The first and fourth "its" are expletives; the second and third 

are personal pronouns.) 

If the contaminated ground water reaches the town water supply, it may 

spread pollution throughout the community. (Here the intended antecedent 

of "it" was "contaminated ground water" but could as easily have been 

"town water supply.") 

It is apparent, clear, evident, or These phrases are somewhat patronizing and tend to antagonize the 

obvious that reader. What seems obvious to the writer, moreover, may be 

obscure to the reader. If something is obvious or apparent, 

perhaps it need not be said. 

Its, it's 

Keyboard, keyboarding 

Kind, type 

Last year, this year 

Latter (see "Former") 

Lie, lay 

Limited 

"Its" is the possessive of "it." "It's" is the contraction of "it is." 

"Keyboard" and "keyboarding" fill a need beyond the words "type' 

and "typing" in regard to the use of computers for word processing, computer typesetting, computer graphics, and desktop 

publishing. Type a letter, yes, but keyboard the data for the 

digitizer. Keyboarding is more than mere typing. 

"Kind" is the better word in reference to a general group or 

category. "Type" is better in reference to a specific group or 

category. 

Avoid these vague references. By the time your report is published, 

"last year" may be several years past. Be specific; cite the 

appropriate date. 

"Lie," meaning to recline or be situated, is an intransitive verb, 

which therefore takes no direct object: "Now I shall lie down to 

sleep." Its forms are lie, lying, lay, and lain: "The sandstone lies 

on the shale." "They lay undisturbed for thousands of years." 

"They had lain there for centuries." 

The transitive verb "lay," meaning to put, place, or prepare, 

requires a direct object: "Now I lay me down to sleep." "Lay 

that pistol down." The forms of "lay" are lay, laying, and laid. 

"Lie" and "lay" are confusing because of their similarities and 

seeming contradictions. The past tense of "lie" is the same as 

the present tense of "lay": "Last night as I lay on my pillow"; 

"Lay (place) your head upon the pillow." "She then laid her 

eggs in the carefully prepared nest where they lay until hatched 

by the warm sun." 

"Limited" should be used in the sense of "confined" but should not 

be used in the sense of "few," "meager," "scanty," "short," 

"slight," or "small." 

Rainfall in this arid region is therefore limited [scanty]. 

Their interest in the fauna was limited [slight]. 

Limited 171 
Limited-Continued He had limited [few] interests other than ammonites. 

Now available for a limited [short] time only. 

Located, situated 

Majority, most 

But its use is proper in the following constructions: 

His interest in the fauna was liited to the ammonites. 

Sandbags piled along the railway limited the floodwaters to the eastern part 

of town. 

"Located" and "situated" are generally superfluous, as in the 

following sentences: 

One of the domes is located in sec. 31; the other is located in secs. 3 and 4. 

South of the axis of the principal anticline there is situated a small syncline. 

The outcrops are situated on the shore and in close proximity to deep 

water. 

The largest of these outliers is situated 2 miles to th southeastward of the 

canyon. 

This field is lo&d 5 kilometers north of Bristol. 

"Locate," however, is properly used in setting well sites, 

surveying section corners, and recovering books missing from 

the library. 

"Majority" means the greater part of something, but some of its 

connotations relate to populations of people, election results, 

reaching legal age, and the rank of major. "Most," which is 

shorter and has no such connotations, is better for indicating 

greater degree, number, quantity, or size. Write "most of the 

grains," not "the majority of the grains." 

Many, several, various, numerous "Many" means an indefinite large number; more than a few. 

"Numerous" and "many" are close synonyms, but "many" is 

better because it is shorter. "Several" means more than two or 

three but fewer than many. "Various" is often misused for 

"many" or "several" in sentences such as "Various attempts 

were made to recover the gold," and "Native arsenic was found 

at various places." "Various" is better used in the sense of unlike or different: "Native arsenic is found in various settings." 

(See also "Various, different.") 

Mineralization 

More or less 

Any of the many processes by which minerals form. Its use as a 

synonym for "deposit" is prevalent but ungrammatical ("tion" is 

the process, not the product). "They then drifted on the hanging 

wall in hope of finding richer miwalization [ore]." 

"More or less" is overworked by many Survey authors, is less 

direct than "about," "almost," or "nearly," and is occasionally 

erroneous, as in the following impossibilities: 

more or less vertical more or less inert 

more or less less unique more or less surrounded 

more or less intact 

172 Located, situated 
Myself, herself, himself 

Number of 

Occur 

Occurrence 

Omar KhayyAm to the contrary ("Myself when young did eagerly 

frequent * * *"), using the reflexive pronoun is poor form when 

the ordinary pronouns "I" or "me" will do: 

The area was visited by William Jones and myself[me] in July. 

Jones and myself [I] visited the area in July. 

After a few perfunctory remarks the chairman introduced myseZf[me] to the 

audience. 

"A number of" usually connotes "several" or "not many," but it 

literally is ambiguous. Use "a few" or "several." If you know 

the actual number, use it, even with "about" to indicate 

uncertainty. 

"Occur" is the refuge of writers who lack the time or imagination 

to think of a more appropriate verb. Note the following limp 

sentences: 

Trees occur [grow, flourish] on the north-facing slopes. 

Waterfowl occur [gather] here in great numbers. 

The mines occur [are] in Breathitt County. 

A well-exposed occurrence of dolomite sheared by faulting occurs [is well 

exposed, crops out] near Boulder Creek. 

Dikes with variable morphologies occur in the study area. (Change to: Dikes 

in the study area have varied morphologies.) 

Exposures of the most richly fossiliferous Lower Ordovician strata in the 

United States occur [are exposed] about 80 km west of Delta, Utah. (Better 

yet, substitute the active verb "crop out.") 

"Occurrence" is best used, if at all, to mean something that takes 

place, such as an event, happening, or incident (for example, 

"mode of occurrence"). "Occurrence" has been used inaccurately in many geologic reports to connote a mineral deposit itself, 

especially a deposit of indefinite but low concentration or value, 

as opposed to an exploitable resource. (See section on "Mineral 

Reserves, Resources, Resource Potential, and Certainty," 

p. 95). 

Over, under, more than, less than "Over" and "under" are used in some phrases where "more than" 

and "less than" or "fewer than" would be better. The use of 

"over" in the sense of "more than" and of "under" in the sense 

of "less than" or "fewer than" is not grammatically erroneous, 

but "over" and "under" should not be used where they might 

be confusing, as in some of the following sentences: 

The dolomite dips eastward under over 6 meters of muscovite-biotite schist. 

Even under the best condition it was not profitable to mine coal under 2 

feet thick or over 200 miles from market. (Here, "under" has also been used 

in two different senses in one sentence.) 

The burning has advanced along the coal bed for over [a distance of more 

than] 300 meters and under [beneath] 300 meters of overlying material. 

Over. under, more than, less than 173 
Over, under, more than, less thanContinued 

The ore generally lies under @neath] more than 6 meters, and in some 

places over [more than] 30 meters, of sand and clay overburden. (Better yet, 

write: The ore generally lies beneath more than 6 meters of sand and clay, 

and in some places more than 30 meters.) 

'Upward of' is also used undesirably for "more than," as in "The 

project will cost upward of a million dollars." "Better than" in 

the same sense has a barbarous double meaning. 

"Over" or "above" may be misleading in such sentences as "Oxidation extends to depths above [of more than] 640 meters." (A 

better rewrite would be: "Oxidation extends deeper than 

640 meters.") 

Part, portion, partly, and partially "Portion" suggests an assigned or allotted part: "Take your portion 

and go." If that implication is not intended, the preference is 

for "part." Choose the shorter, simpler word. Some writers use 

"partially" when "partly" would be better, although "partly" 

and "partially" are not strict synonyms. "Partly" is better in 

reference to part of a whole, as in "The valley is partly filled 

with alluvium." "Partially" is better when the meaning is "to a 

certain degree or measure," as in "The Leadville Limestone was 

partially metamorphosed" or "This outcrop has been partially 

weathered." Many readers may not detect the subtlety. "Partial" and "partially" also may imply partiality or bias. 

Percent, percentage (proportion) 

Precision (see "Accuracy, precision") 

Present, presence 

Survey style forbids use of "percent" except with a numeral, as 

"4 percent copper." By this usage, "a large percent" is incorrect; the correct phrase would be "a large percentage." "Percentage" is synonymous with "proportion"; it should not be 

used when no proportion is being expressed: 

The greater percentage [part] of the soil of the area is of glacial origin. 

"Percent" is preferred to "percentage" for table headings. If 

other terms, such as "meters" and "centimeters," are abbreviated in a table, "percent" may be abbreviated as "pct"; it is 

not abbreviated in text. The symbol "%" may also be used in 

tables, but in small type it is not as easily read as "pct." 

"Present" and "presence" are favorites of many writers but are 

generally superfluous, as in the following sentences: 

The undulating strata mark one of the many local unconformities pent in 

the arkose. 

Here cacti are presat in greater abundance [more abundant] than on the 

plateau. 

[n most of its facies quartz is the most abundant mineral present. 

The metallic minerals present in the ores * * *. 

Blocks of sandstone are present scattered over the surface. 

174 Part, portion, partly, and partially 
Present, presence-Continued 

Prominent (see "Conspicuous") 

Quite, rather, somewhat 

Range (see also "Vary' 

Rare, scanty, scarce, sparse 

In this area there are several irregularities present. (This area has several 

irregularities.) 

Some of the zinc present in the ores is saved. 

The presence of open channels that extend downward to caverns may be seen 

at several places. 

27u presence of th other sulfides of copper were not noted in the district. 

(Wrong subject but right verb). 

These vague descriptors are best avoided in technical writing. 

Loose comparisons can be made to well-known objects ("melon-size 

boulders"; "larger than a bread box"), but specific ranges require expressed limits. When "range" is used, the prepositions 

"from" and "to" must also be used, and for literacy the adverbial phrases "in thickness," "in length," "in width," and so on 

must be used instead of the adjectives "thick," "long," or 

"wide." "The dikes range in thickness from 0.5 to 5 m." Contrast that with "The dike is 5 m thick." The use of "range" 

requires two limits-don't say, "ranges up to * * * . " If only the 

upper limit is stated, alternative phrasing should be used, such 

as "is as much as" or "reach a maximum of." 

"Vary," rather than "range," should be used for changes or fluctuations such as those related to flow, stream width, tidal levels, 

turbidity, or salinity: "The water level in the well varies yearly 

and seasonally; during the spring the level normally ranges from 

10 to 15 m below ground surface." 

Take care in the use of "zero," as zero is significant when it is 

stated in a measurement. A reader who is told that "Two coal 

beds are separated by 0 to 10 cm of bone" may wonder how 

much separation is made by 0 cm of bone. However, in the 

sentence, "The Livesay Shale ranges from 0 to 7 m in thickness," it is clear that the formation is locally nonexistent. 

"Rare" denotes something very uncommon or few in total number: 

"rare old coins"; "rare and endangered species"; "rarely 

euhedral." 

"Scanty" implies bare sufficiency or an inadequate quantity: 

"scanty rainfall. " 

"Scarce" applies to ordinary things locally not abundant: "Outcrops 

are scarce in the deeply weathered saprolite." 

"Sparse" means spread thinly: "sparse crystals of pyroxene"; 

"sparse gray hairs on a shiny balding pate." 

Sample, sample No., sample number Drop the "No." or "number." "Sample 00," "specimen 00," or 

"drillhole 00" is the preferred usage in text, tables, and figures. 

"Sample No." is an acceptable column head in a table, however. 

Sample, sample No., sample number 175 
Several (see "Many, several, various, 

numerous") 

Secure 

Significant (see also "Important, 

interesting") 

Since (see "As, since, because") 

So, so that 

Structure, structural feature 

"Secure" is appropriate usage for activities related to battening 

hatches, bolting doors, or guaranteeing the blessings of liberty 

to ourselves and our posterity but is stilted for getting concert 

tickets, seats at the ball game, or specimens for analysis. ("Did 

you secure the specimens?" "Yes, I locked them in the vault.") 

Many Survey writers misuse this word, which means "important, 

having a meaning;" it does not mean "large." "Significant 

amounts of calcium are present in the rocks" should be rewritten as "Calcium content of the rocks is high." 

"So" by itself is a coordinating conjunction used to join clauses of 

equal rank: "The laboratory results were inconclusive, so I requested more tests." When used as a subordinating conjunction 

(as when introducing a clause that gives the reason for an action), "so" should be followed by "that": "We have described 

our results in detail so that the basis for our interpretation will 

be clear." 

In geology, the term "structure" is properly applied to the spatial 

relationships of rocks. "Structure" should not be used synonymously for "structural feature" nor for such features as "fold," 

"fault," "anticline," "syncline," "pipe," "neck," or "batholith." 

Note the following indiscretions: 

The producing structures [folds] are two closed anticlines. 

Surprisingly, the structure [anticline] has been found [to be] barren of oil 

and gas in the Tensleep and Phosphoria Formations. 

There has been considerable speculation as to the type of fold that exists on 

this structure. me structure of this fold has been the subject of considerable speculation.] 

Superfluous prepositions-at, from, The use of a verb plus a preposition to express an idea that may be 

of, on, to, with conveyed by some other verb alone may lead to the undesirable 

doubling of prepositions: 

This can be dispensed with [spared] with advantage. 

The conditions nzet with [observed, faced] in the field. 

A large production is not to be looked fw [expected] from these deposits. 

Placer mining has been carried on [done] on this stream. (Or better yet: 

Placer deposits have been mined from this stream.) 

In "a thickness of from 2 to 4 meters" the "from" should be 

omitted. So also, in "The water rises to within 3 meters of the 

surface," the "to" is superfluous. Prepositions are doubled or 

tripled badly in the following sentences: 

Each of the veins has been drifted on for from 15 to 20 meters. (Drifts have 

been run 15-20 meters on each vein). 

176 Several 
Superfluous prepositions-at, from, 

of, on, to, with-Continued 

Terrain, terrane 

That, which (see p. 143) 

There are, it is 

This well was brought in [completed] in 1986. 

This is equivalent to coal of at least $50 [or more] a ton. 

A newscast stating that "The march will reach the State line in 

from between 12-15 hours" used three prepositions where one 

would have sufficed. 

"Of" is superfluous after "permit," as in the phrase "too poorly 

preserved to permit of identification." 

"Of' is multiplied needlessly in many phrases, as in "An estimate 

of the cost of the operation of [operating] the filter." In most 

such phrases a noun ending in "tion" and the "of" following it 

should be replaced by a gerund, ending in "ing." Many phrases 

in which "of" is repeated can be rewritten with advantage. 

"Following the discovery of the character of this deposit" 

means "After the character of this deposit was discovered." 

"Terrain" refers to a topographic or geographic landscape 

configuration-for example, a "hilly terrain," a "wooded 

terrain." "Terrane" refers to a lithologic or geologic areal 

expanse-for example, a "metamorphic terrane," a "basaltic 

terrane." If in doubt about either usage, find an appropriate 

substitute, as neither term is indispensable. 

Expletives such as "There are," "There were," and "It is" are 

effective in some constructions, but more commonly they 

(1) subordinate the real subject, (2) add needless words, and 

(3) diminish the strength of the sentence. Merely deleting the 

expletive and inserting the weak verb "is" or "exists" is not apt 

to improve the sentence. In the following examples, active verbs 

have been substituted to strengthen the constructions. 

There has been some faulting subsequent to the deposition of the ore. 

(Recast as, "Some faulting followed the deposition of the ore.") 

It is the belief of the project geologist [believes] that the alignment is 

landslide. 

There are many other primary minerals containing phosphorus. 

There were in that same country prospectors abiding [lived] in the hills. 

There is a probability that some of the veins may have had their gold content increased by enrichment. (Recast as, "The gold content of some veins 

may have been enriched.") 

There are valuable deposits in this area. (Recast as "This area contains 

valuable deposits" not "Valuable deposits exist in this area.") 

An initial "There is" or "There are" may undesirably detach a 

sentence from the preceding one, as in the following example: 

The Niagara is mainly a light-gray dolomite. There are [It contains] both 

thick and thin beds and, at certain horizons, there is considerable chert. 

There are, it is 177 
There are, it is-Continued 

Thick, thickness 

This, these, those 

Time words, place, and 

state of being 

Some appropriate usages: 

It is raining! 

There is still hope 

It is, sir, as I have said, a small college, and yet there are those who love it 

Once upon a time there were three bears. 

The phrase "in thickness" and not the adjective "thick" must be 

used after "ranges." Write, "The bed ranges from 12 to 15 

meters in thickness," "The bed ranges in thickness from 12 to 

15 meters," or "The bed is 12 to 15 meters thick." 

The demonstrative pronouns "this," "these," and "those" should 

not be used alone if (1) their antecedents are in doubt, (2) no 

antecedents have been expressed, or (3) the reader must back 

up-even momentarily-to find their antecedents. Lacking other 

clues, the reader will tend to link a pronoun to the nearest 

available noun, as follows: 

Twenty-nine master's theses dealing with various aspects of the geology 

were produced by students. These are on file [the theses, not the students] 

at the university library. 

The rocks contain numerous drusy cavities. In these, minerals of later age 

have been deposited. (Repeat "cavities" after "these" and add a comma.) 

If words (mostly adverbs) that strictly speaking denote time are 

used to denote place or state, the bewildered reader is forced to 

reread the construction to get the author's meaning: 

The pebbles are usually gray, but sometimes they are pink. 

While the fault was buried by alluvium we were able to locate it by 

trenching. 

These phenocrysts are often corroded. 

Usually these rocks are right-side up. 

Time words Intended to mean Time words Intended to mean Always ..................... Everywhere Sometimes --. In places, some of 

Frequently, often----- Commonly, many of Usually Commonly, most of 

Now and then ---------- Here and there When Where 

Occasionally ------------- Locally While ----------. Although, whereas 

Since ........................ Inasmuch as 

More examples and how to fix them: 

[Many of] These fissures ofta intersect. 

[Some of] These crystals are sometimes a centimeter or more in diameter. 

[Some of] The volcanoes are sometimes practically extinct. 

The complexity of the folding is sometimes very marked [at some places]. 

(Better: Locally, the folding is very complex.) 

Pyrite is less common than marcasite, although it does occur at times [at 

some places]. (The second clause is redundant and should be omitted.) 

178 Thick, thickness 
Time words, place, and 

state of being-Continued 

Toward, towards 

Typical 

Undertake 

Unique 

Value 

These rocks are nearly always red [at most places]. 

wany of] These terraces are frequently covered with gravel. 

[Few of] These pebbles almost never have striated faces. 

The moraine is seldom less than a kilometer wide [in few places]. 

"When" is often misused for "where," as in the following 

sentences: 

When were] the thickness is greatest it is 75 meters. 

The ore was richest when [where] it was most altered. 

Identical meanings, but "toward" is more common in American 

usage. Use either, but be consistent. 

"Typical" should mean just what it says: that which typifies. Don't 

illustrate the best outcrop in the quadrangle, for example, and 

caption it "Typical exposure of the Gunflint Shale" if the 

Gunflint typically forms a covered slope. 

Appropriate in funeral arrangements but stilted in technical writing. 

"Unique" means one of a kind; it is absolute, not relative. Don't say 

"less, more, more or less, or most unique." 

"Value" in its abstract sense means the worth or desirability of 

something. In "Lead and zinc values are nearly equal, and their 

total exceeds the value of gold," the reader is uncertain as to 

whether "values" refers to the percentage of the metals or to 

dollar value. To say "About 50 meters below level 6 the ore 

carried high values in silver and gold, some lead, and 10 to 

25 percent excess silica" is ambiguous. In mathematics and 

statistics, "value" means any particular quantitative determination, as the different values of a variable. 

Various, different (see also "Many, "Various," meaning "different" or "diverse," is misused for 

several, various, numerous") "many" or "several" in the following sentences: 

Gold has been found on the beach and various [several] attempts have been 

made to recover it. (Unless various methods were used.) 

Native arsenic was found at various [several] places. 

"The rocks are of various colors" is correct, but "The rocks are 

variously colored" would be better (so as to eliminate the 

awkward "are of"). 

"Different" is sometimes used carelessly, as in "I telephoned him 

different times" when the writer meant only "I telephoned him 

several times." "Different" is sometimes used inappropriately, 

as in the following sentences: 

The ore is associated with different [several] mineral groupings. 

oifferat [Several] phyla are represented. 

Various, different 179 
Various, different-Continued 

Vary, variable (see also "Range' 

Verbal, oral 

"Different" may be used properly if degree of difference is to 

be expressed, as in "very different phyla," (but "diverse phyla" 

would be clearer). 

The verb "vary" has both an intransitive sense ("Iron contents vary 

in samples of the ore") and a transitive sense ("Vary the flow 

rate by adjusting the valve"). A "variable," strictly speaking, is 

an abstract mathematical quantity whose value can be arbitrarily set. A physical parameter may assume varying values in 

repeated measurements, but it is not freely variable. Note the 

different meanings of variable: 

Lava flows of variable [varied] composition. 

Variable [Varied] phosphorous contents. 

Fracture characteristics of rocks under variable stress conditions (in the 

laboratory). 

Analyses using variable [varied] reagent concentrations. 

The gold-silver values are variable [vary] in samples from Homestead Peak. 

A variety of [Various] minerals * 

"Verbal" refers to words. It is commonly used improperly for 

"oral," which means "spoken." "Verbal" is properly used in the 

sentence "The differences between the two accounts are only 

verbal9'-that is, the ideas are practically alike, but the words 

are different. Communications of unpublished information should 

be called "written" or "oral" but not "verbal." In the following 

example "verbal" is used correctly: 

The text contained two explanations, one verbal and the other mathematical. 

Very, much "Very" is a useful intensifier in some contexts (very fine sand, very 

The critics of very have a way of going coarse sand; "I am very grateful"; "He is the very model of a 

too far and damning the laudable. modern major general"), but it should be used with caution in 

H. W. Fowler others ("The destruction was very appalling" is less effective 

prose than just "The destruction was appalling"). Overuse of 

"very" minimizes its value as an intensifier. 

"Very" used with absolutes or superlatives is meaningless or 

cloddish (very unique, very highest, very unanimous, very 

meaningless). 

As a modifier of past participles, "much" should generally be used 

instead of "very": Though the andesite was not very [much] 

faulted [was little faulted?], it was very [much] altered. 

"Very," however, is a proper intensifier of "much": "Are the rocks 

much faulted?" "Yes, very much so." 

Vicinity of, neighborhood of 

180 Vary, variable 

"In the vicinity of' and "in the neighborhood of' are sometimes 

used unnecessarily for "about" or "nearly," as in the following 

sentences: 
Vicinity of, neighborhood of-Con. 

While 

The cost of production is in the vicinity of [about] 50 percent of the selling 

price. 

Its population is in the nAghbwhood of [about] 1,500. 

For clarity use "while" to mean contemporaneity-"at the time 

that," but not to mean "although," "whereas," "and," or 

"but." 

Appropriate: 

Jones mapped while Martin napped. 

Inappropriate: 

Martin spent 2 weeks resolving geologic problems while [whereas] Jones 

spent a month studying the coal. (Did time move faster for Jones?) 

Also: 

Wh& [Although] the fault was buried by alluvium we found its trace by 

trenching. 

While [Although] work is progressing it is not completed. 

Most of the precipitation falls as snow during the winter months while 

thunderstorms are common during the summer. (Change "while" to 

"although" or "but" and place a comma after "months.") 

Watershed (see "Drainage basin") 

With (see p. 131, under "Prepositions") 

Needless words and phrases Many sentences can be strengthened by just deleting needless words 

and phrases. Like the troublemakers noted in the previous section, the common redundancies shown here in italic are easily 

rectified. 

Throughout the whole of the Mesozoic Era. 

Throughout the entire area. 

A series of parallel ridges resembling in their form * 

The problem is a difficult one. 

There can be no doubt but that it is Cretaceous. 

The Survey has not as yet finished its work in this region. 

As yet no ore bodies of this type have [yet] been exploited. 

The conditions were favorable for landslides to occur. (Or better yet: The 

conditions favored landslides.) 

Equally as well. 

It occurs in disseminated grains scattered through the rock. 

Most of the intrusive masses are of large size. 

The rock is dark green in color. 

An innumerable number of tiny veins. 

Needless words and phrases 181 
Needless words and phrasesContinued 

Contemporaneous in we. 

The beds do not crop out at the surface. 

This lies on the southwest si& of the line of the fault. (Or better yet: 

of the fault line.) 

The color of the fluorspar is dull green. 

A report giving the results of the work is in process of preparation. 

Subseqwmt to the formation of [After] the Pleistocene terraces [were formed] 

there has been considerable phosphate [was] deposited along th.e streams in 

the form of flood plains and bars of [along] the present streams. 

No side streams enter Red River from the north. 

At its base the formation lies on a remarkably even surface of granite. 

About a mile in a northwesterly directionfiom [of] Fort Bayard. 

Lenticular in charucter. 

Grass Creek almost bisects the basin into two parts. 

In every respect except size the Ashe County deposits are exactly lie those 

exhibited by the Cranberry deposit. 

The h-dropped block. (An up-dropped block would be peculiar. Write 

"downthrown block" or "downfaulted block.") 

The ores are of igneous origin originally. (Or: The ores are igneous.) 

-the highest at 365 meters and others at lower 2evel.s down to about 300 meters 

above sea level. (Others than the highest would, of course, be "at lower levels." 

The "above sea level" should be transposed after "365 metersH-with the 

first item to which it applies, rather than the last-to read as follows: -the 

highest 365 meters above sea level and others down to about 300 meters.) 

In addition another similar dike. (If it is "another," it is "in addition"; if it 

is "similar," it can't be the same one and therefore must be "another." "A 

similar die" tells the whole story. 

182 Needless words and phrases 
Needless words and phrasesContinued 

The phrases "as already stated" or "as described above" are 

generally unnecessary. Repetition of a statement in another connection may be perfectly justifiable, but the reader need not be 

reminded that it is a repetition-in fact, the reader may not 

realize it unless told so by the author. If you wish to refer to a 

place where a statement is given in more detail, the form "as 

explained in detail on page 00" or simply "(see p. 00)" may be 

used, but remember that you or your editor will have to scrupulously check all such entries in the page proof before final 

printing. 

Introductory phrases, such as "It may be said that * * * , " " It 

might be stated that * * * , " " Concerning this matter it may be 

borne in mind that * * * , " " In this connection the statement 

may be made that * * *," "With respect to the occurrence of 

these ores it has been found that * * * , " can generally be 

replaced by single words, as in the following sentence: "There 

can be little doubt that this fissure is [undoubtedly] the prolongation of a fault of the same character as the one [like that] already 

described." If you write "It is important to note that * * *," 

the reader may wonder if the rest of the report is not important 

enough to note. 

"During the winter months" or "in the summertime" are commonly used for "during the winter" or "in summer." Necessities of 

rhyme and meter may justify "the good old summertime," but 

Survey reports are not written in metrical form. 

"When I use a word," Humpty Dumpty said, in a rather scornful tone, " It means 

just what I choose it to mean-neither more nor less." 

Needless words and phrases 183