CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF 

NATIONAL RECONNAISSANCE

APRIL 2012
Hexagon (KH-9) 

Mapping Camera Program 

and Evolution

CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF 

NATIONAL RECONNAISSANCE

CHANTILLY, VA

APRIL 2012

Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics 

Foreword 

This volume re-publishes Hexagon Mapping Camera Program and Evolution as part of the Center for the 

Study of National Reconnaissance’s (CSNR) Classics series. The introductory information explains that while the 

focus of this history is on the Hexagon KH-9 mapping camera subsystem, it actually provides an overview of the 

entire Hexagon program and a full discussion of the evolution of satellite photoreconnaissance up to 1982. This 

volume’s author, Maurice G. Burnett, drew heavily on existing secondary source histories for his broader discussion 

of satellite photoreconnaissance. In particular, he relied on Robert Perry’s National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) 

histories that were available at the time. Burnett also turned to the then Defense Mapping Agency and Aerospace 

Corporation for additional data in support of his research. 

Much of the redaction in the history involves the removal of Hexagon’s KH-9 panchromatic intelligence images. 

Although the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (renamed National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency on 24 

November 2003) declassified and transferred the KH-9 mapping system primary film record to the National Archives 

and Records Administration on 20 September 2002, the KH-9 panchromatic film record remains classified at this 

publication in March 2012. However, the Director of National Intelligence declassified selected KH-9 panchromatic 

imagery products for the NRO to use during the turnover of Hexagon artifacts to the National Museum of the 

United States Air Force (NMUSAF). To illustrate the intelligence value of the Hexagon program, we included 

sixteen of those KH-9 imagery products as figures in a supplemental section at the end of the history. 

The Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics is a series of occasional CSNR publications 

whose purpose is to inform our readers about classic issues from the past. The books and monographs in the series 

most typically are histories, but they also could address lessons-learned topics, the legacy recognition of people 

and programs, insights into historically significant artifacts, or tutorials on the discipline of national reconnaissance. 

We issue the publications in the series on both an ad hoc basis, or in connection with a significant event. We are 

issuing a Gambit-Hexagon collection of histories in response to Director of the NRO Bruce Carlson’s decision in 

June 2011 to declassify the programs and his subsequent declassification announcement on 17 September 2011. 

The Historical Documentation and Research (HDR) Section of the CSNR selected five classic histories of the 

Gambit and Hexagon programs:

•	 A History of Satellite Reconnaissance—The Perry Gambit & Hexagon Histories (by R. L. Perry)

•	 The Gambit Story (by F. C. E. Oder, J. C. Fitzpatrick, & P. E. Worthman)

•	 The Hexagon Story (F. C. E. Oder, J. Fitzpatrick, & P. E. Worthman)

•	 Hexagon Mapping Camera Program and Evolution (M. Burnett)

•	 A History of the Hexagon Program—The Perkin-Elmer Involvement (by R. J. Chester)

On 21 January 2012, the CSNR published the first volume in the Gambit-Hexagon CSNR Classics series, 

A History of Satellite Reconnaissance—The Perry Gambit & Hexagon Histories. We did this in support of the 

ceremony that marked the NRO turning over a collection of Gambit and Hexagon artifacts to the NMUSAF and 

their exhibit opening of these artifacts to the public. The opening of this exhibit represented the largest collection of 

satellite reconnaissance artifacts ever assembled and put on public display. That exhibit can serve as a companion 

resource to those who read the histories in this CSNR Classics collection. 

Each of these histories offers a different perspective on the programs; the Perry Gambit and Hexagon histories 

are from the viewpoint of a former Air Force historian at RAND writing in response to tasking from the then NRO 

Program A (Air Force program); the Oder, et. al. Gambit and Hexagon histories are from the viewpoint of authors 

with program experience working under the sponsorship of the Deputy Director of the NRO; the Burnett Hexagon 

mapping system history is from the viewpoint of the Hexagon program office working under the direction of two 

Air Force officers in the program and the NRO Program A Director; and the Chester Hexagon history is from the 

viewpoint of Perkin-Elmer, which was an associate contractor for the Hexagon program.

All of the authors researched and wrote their histories during what some observers might describe as the 

height of the Cold War, from 1964 to 1985. This influenced them to react to and focus heavily on the threat from 

the former Soviet Union and its allies. Also, all of the authors had at least some degree of first-hand knowledge 

about these programs, and in many cases, they had first-hand experience working in the programs. This gives you 

a window into what it was like to be a participant-observer in the development and operation of these film-return 

satellite photoreconnaissance systems during the Cold War. 

Dr. James D. Outzen, the NRO Senior Historian and Chief of the CSNR’s HDR section, is the editor for the 

Gambit-Hexagon CSNR Classics series. Dr. Outzen selected the five histories for this CSNR Classics series from 

the NRO Records Center and CIA archives that collectively best retell the impressive Cold War story about these 

programs. He has prepared a brief preface and introduction for each history to provide context and explain its 

significance. 

When you read the histories you will note that some information is missing. Even though the Director of the 

NRO authorized the declassification of almost all the programmatic information about these programs, some 

information, because of its potential impact on other sources and methods, remains classified. Dr. Outzen usually 

let the redacted text stand on its own, but in some instances he has done some editing for readability. For some of 

the histories, Dr. Outzen has incorporated supplemental reference material into the publication. 

Robert A. McDonald, Ph.D.

Director

Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance

Preface

Coinciding with the commemoration of the 50th Anniversary of the National Reconnaissance Office 

(NRO), the Director of the NRO, Mr. Bruce A. Carlson, publicly announced the declassification of the 

Gambit and Hexagon imagery satellite systems on 17 September 2011. This announcement constituted 

the NRO’s single largest declassification effort in its history. The Gambit and Hexagon programs were 

active for nearly half of the organization’s history by the time of the declassification announcement. 

Their history very much represents the NRO’s history—one that is defined by supremely talented 

individuals seeking state of the art space technology to address difficult intelligence challenges. 

The United States developed the Gambit and Hexagon programs to improve the nation’s means 

for peering over the iron curtain that separated western democracies from east European and Asian 

communist countries. The inability to gain insight into vast “denied areas” required exceptional systems 

to understand threats posed by US adversaries. Corona was the first imagery satellite system to help 

see into those areas. It could cover large areas and allow the United States and trusted allies to identify 

targets of concern. Gambit would join Corona in 1963 by providing significantly improved resolution 

for understanding details of those targets. Corona provided search capability and Gambit provided 

surveillance capability, or the ability to monitor the finer details of the targets. 

For many technologies that prove to be successful, success breeds a demand for more success. 

Once consumers of intelligence—analysts and policymakers alike—were exposed to Corona and 

Gambit imagery, they demanded more and better imagery. Consequently, the Air Force, who operated 

the Gambit system under the auspices of the NRO, entertained proposals for an improved Gambit 

system shortly after initial Gambit operations commenced. They received a proposal from Gambit’s 

optical system developer, Eastman Kodak, for three additional generations of the Gambit system. 

Ultimately the Air Force settled on only developing the proposed third generation because the proposed 

second generation offered minimal incremental improvement and the fourth generation appeared 

technologically unachievable at the time. The third generation became known as Gambit-3 or Gambitcubed while it was under development. Once it replaced the first generation, it simply became Gambit. 

The new Gambit system, with its KH-8 camera system, provided the United States outstanding imagery 

resolution and capability for verifying strategic arms agreements with the Soviet Union. 

Corona was expected to serve the nation for approximately two years before being replaced 

by more sophisticated systems under development in the Air Force’s Samos program. It turned out 

that Corona served the nation for 12 years before being replaced by Hexagon. Hexagon began as a 

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) program with the first concepts proposed in 1964. The CIA’s primary 

goal was to develop an imagery system with Corona-like ability to image wide swaths of the earth, 

but with resolution equivalent to Gambit. Such a system would afford the United States even greater 

advantages monitoring the arms race that had developed with the nation’s adversaries. The system that 

became Hexagon faced three major challenges. The first was development of the technology, which 

was eventually overcome by the Itek and Perkin-Elmer Corporations. The second was bureaucratic, 

deciding how the CIA and Air Force would cooperate in building such a system because they each 

had strengths and weaknesses in the development of national reconnaissance systems. The third 

challenge was to secure the resources that were required to build the most complicated and largest 

reconnaissance satellites at the time. By 1971, the NRO overcame the challenges to successfully 

launch the Hexagon satellite and fulfill, or even exceed, expectations for unparalleled insight into 

capabilities of US adversaries. 

At the time of the Gambit and Hexagon declassification announcement, the NRO released a 

number of redacted Gambit and Hexagon documents and histories on its public website. One of the 

histories is contained in this volume. 

Hexagon Mapping Camera Program and Evolution was written in 1982 by Maurice G. Burnett at 

the request of the Director of the Air Force Program at the NRO, known as Program A. The Hexagon 

mapping camera flew on 12 of the 20 Hexagon missions. It proved to be a remarkably efficient and 

prodigious producer of imagery for mapping purposes. The mapping camera system was successful 

by every standard including technical capabilities, reliability, and capacity.

Hexagon Mapping Camera Program and Evolution is very unique among the histories of the 

Gambit and Hexagon programs for two reasons. First, Burnett provides a comprehensive history of 

the development of imagery satellites. The volume is very useful for individuals who want to become 

familiar with the development of these systems as well as the evolution of the Air Force’s Program 

A at the NRO. Second, Burnett also provides a very detailed history of the mapping camera system 

including technical development as well as the operation of the mapping camera system.

Burnett prepared a history that is further strengthened by the visual content he chose to enhance the 

historical narrative. Hexagon Mapping Camera Program and Evolution includes multiple photographs, 

engineering drawings, and examples of satellite imagery. This content gives readers, especially those 

interested in the development of satellite imagery, another reason to read this volume.

Hexagon Mapping Camera Program and Evolution joins five other volumes of Gambit and Hexagon 

histories that the Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance is reprinting in conjunction with the 

program declassifications. Those other volumes include The Gambit Story and The Hexagon Story 

both written by Frederic Oder, James Fitzpatrick, and Paul Worthman, Robert Perry’s histories of 

Gambit and Hexagon, a Perkin-Elmer history of Hexagon, and a compendium of key Gambit and 

Hexagon program documents. In total, this collection of Gambit and Hexagon publications provides 

the public with broad insight into previously classified programs. The volumes complement each other 

by providing details not found exclusively in any single program history volume.

At the time of this writing, KH-9 panoramic camera system imagery has not been declassified. 

I have included in a separate section of this publication a small number of KH-9 images that were 

released in conjunction with the Hexagon declassification. 

I have chosen not to reprint pages that were redacted in their entirety in Hexagon Mapping Camera 

Program and Evolution. Those pages are: 157 and 158. We also did not reprint blank pages, which 

consist of pages 24, 32, 36, 38, 40, 42, 54, 62, 76, 84, 86, 90, 92, 94, 98, 102, 1-8, 1-10, 1-12, 1-16, 

1-18, 1-22, 1-24, 1-26, 1-28, 1-30, 1-32, 1-36, 2-22, 2-48, 3-4, 3-10, 3-12, 4-4, 4-8, 5-10, 5-12, 6-4, 6-6, 

6-10, 6-12, & 6-14. The unedited redacted Hexagon Mapping Camera Program and Evolution can be 

found in the declassified records section of NRO.gov for those interested in reviewing a document with 

the completely redacted and blank pages.

The Gambit and Hexagon systems became reliable means for addressing difficult intelligence 

challenges once they became operational. The Hexagon system, in particular, provided broad area 

imagery that was essential for understanding the strategic capabilities and arms control compliance 

of the Soviet Union and other Cold War adversaries. These national reconnaissance systems dutifully 

provided the nation reliable vigilance from above until the next generation of imagery satellites 

advanced US intelligence collection capabilities.

James D. Outzen, Ph.D.

Chief, Historical Documentation and Research

The Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance

The Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance (CSNR) is an independent 

National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) research body reporting to the NRO Deputy Director, 

Business Plans and Operations. Its primary objective is to ensure that the NRO leadership 

has the analytic framework and historical context to make effective policy and programmatic 

decisions. The CSNR accomplishes its mission by promoting the study, dialogue, and 

understanding of the discipline, practice, and history of national reconnaissance. The CSNR 

studies the past, analyzes the present, and searches for lessons-learned.

Contact Information: Please phone us at 703-488-4733 or email us at csnr@nro.mil

To Obtain Copies: Government personnel can obtain additional printed copies directly 

from CSNR. Other requestors can purchase printed copies by contacting Government 

Printing Office (GPO):

The Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 

Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov Phone: toll free (866) 512-1800; DC area (202) 512-1800

Fax: (202) 512-2104 Mail: Stop IDCC, Washington, DC 20402-0001

ISBN: 978-1-937219-08-6

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30 JANUARY 2012
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 30 JANUARY 2012
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 30 JANUARY 2012
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution

NRO APPROVED FOR RELEASE . 

30 JANUARY 2012
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics
HEXAGON (KH-9) Mapping Camera Program and Evolution
Center for the Study of National Reconnaissance Classics


CENTER FOR THE STUDY OF 

NATIONAL RECONNAISSANCE

APRIL 2012