United States Court of Appeals

For the First Circuit

No. 19-1584

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

Appellee,

v.

LOUIS GARDNER,

Defendant, Appellant.

APPEAL FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT

FOR THE DISTRICT OF NEW HAMPSHIRE

[Hon. Joseph A. DiClerico, Jr., U.S. District Judge]

Before

Lynch, Lipez, and Kayatta,

Circuit Judges.

William S. Maddox for appellant.

Seth R. Aframe, Assistant United States Attorney, with whom 

Scott W. Murray, United States Attorney, was on brief, for 

appellee.

July 20, 2021
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LIPEZ, Circuit Judge. Pursuant to a plea agreement, 

Louis Gardner pled guilty to a variety of drug and firearm offenses

in exchange for a 120-month sentence. While in custody prior to

sentencing, he assaulted a fellow inmate, a breach of the plea 

agreement. In light of that breach, the government withdrew from 

the agreement. When Gardner then moved to withdraw his guilty 

plea, the government opposed, insisting that Gardner was still 

bound by the plea. The district court denied the motion to 

withdraw and sentenced Gardner to 160 months' imprisonment -- 40 

months above the agreed-upon sentence. Gardner now appeals the 

denial of his motion to withdraw the plea, as well as the length 

of his sentence. Because we agree that Gardner should have been 

allowed to withdraw his plea, we do not reach the sentencing issue.

I.

Louis Gardner was charged with six related drug and 

firearm offenses. He and the government negotiated a plea 

agreement. The agreement explained that "[i]n exchange for the 

defendant's guilty pleas" on three of the six counts, the 

government "agrees" to certain sentencing stipulations and to 

dismiss the remaining counts of the indictment.1 It also stated 

that the parties "stipulate and agree that 120 months' imprisonment 

1 Although the plea agreement (and the district court, at 

times) referred to Gardner's "guilty pleas" (i.e., the pleas to 

each of the three separate counts), we use "guilty plea" to refer 

to all three pleas collectively.
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is an appropriate disposition of this case," and that the parties 

intended this sentencing stipulation to be "binding" under Federal 

Rule of Criminal Procedure 11(c)(1)(C),2 meaning that "if the Court 

will not accept the plea agreement under Fed. R. Crim. P.

11(c)(3)(A),3 the plea agreement is null and void and the defendant 

will be allowed the opportunity to withdraw his guilty pleas." In 

addition to other recitals, waivers, and stipulations, the 

agreement included a breach provision, which specified that if, 

"before sentencing," Gardner "violates any term or condition of 

this Plea Agreement, engages in any criminal activity, or fails to 

appear for sentencing," the government "may consider such conduct 

to be a breach of the Plea Agreement and may withdraw therefrom."

The district court duly held a change of plea hearing. 

The court went over the agreement and confirmed that Gardner 

understood it and was entering into the plea knowingly and 

voluntarily. As part of its review, the district court also 

explained the significance of the stipulated sentence:

THE COURT: All right. So Mr. Gardner, you 

and the government have agreed that the total 

sentence that's to be imposed in this . . . 

2 Rule 11(c)(1)(C) allows the parties to "agree that a 

specific sentence or sentencing range is the appropriate 

disposition of the case," and "binds the court [to the recommended

sentence] once [it] accepts the plea agreement."

3 Rule 11(c)(3)(A) provides that, as to plea agreements 

containing an agreed-upon sentence pursuant to Rule 11(c)(1)(C), 

"the court may accept the agreement, reject it, or defer a decision 

until the court has reviewed the presentence report."
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case is 120 months in prison. That's a binding 

agreement which means if the Court accepts 

that agreement and imposes that sentence, do 

you understand you cannot withdraw your guilty 

plea?

THE DEFENDANT: Yes.

THE COURT: If the court does not accept that 

binding agreement and does not impose that 

sentence, do you understand that you would 

have the opportunity then to withdraw your 

guilty plea?

THE DEFENDANT: Yes.

In accordance with the agreement, the district court then accepted

Gardner's guilty plea on the three counts and set a date for 

sentencing.

While in custody awaiting sentencing, Gardner assaulted 

a fellow inmate. Citing the breach provision that allowed it to 

withdraw from the plea agreement if the defendant committed 

criminal activity before sentencing, the government moved to 

withdraw. After a hearing, the district court found, by a 

preponderance of the evidence, that Gardner did indeed commit the 

assault, granted the government's motion to withdraw from the plea 

agreement, and rescheduled sentencing on the previously-entered 

plea.

Sixteen days after the government's motion to withdraw 

from the plea agreement was granted, Gardner moved to withdraw the 

underlying guilty plea. At the hearing on the motion, his counsel 

argued that, given that "the government has withdrawn from the 
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agreement," and assuming that "the Court is not going to accept 

the 120 month[]" stipulated sentence, Gardner "should be allowed 

the opportunity to withdraw his plea." The district court denied 

the motion, stating that, as a matter of fairness, Gardner's loss 

of the stipulated sentence was "a consequence of his own actions," 

and "the government's withdrawal from the plea agreement because 

of Gardner's breach is not a sufficient reason to permit him to 

withdraw his guilty pleas." Then, addressing the fact that the 

agreement allowed Gardner to withdraw his plea "if the Court will 

not accept the plea agreement under Fed. R. Crim. P. 11(c)(3)(A),"

the court reasoned that it had not actually rejected the plea 

agreement, a process which entails its own, somewhat elaborate 

procedures for rejection under Rule 11(c)(5).4 Instead, the court 

explained that it had simply allowed the government to withdraw 

(as permitted by the breach provision), meaning that Gardner's 

right to withdraw the plea was never triggered.

After denying Gardner's motion to withdraw his plea, the 

district court proceeded to sentencing. Now unbound by the 

4 Specifically, in order to reject a plea agreement under 

Rule 11(c)(5), a court must, "on the record and in open court (or, 

for good cause, in camera)": "(A) inform the parties that the court 

rejects the plea agreement; (B) advise the defendant personally 

that the court is not required to follow the plea agreement and 

give the defendant an opportunity to withdraw the plea; and (C)

advise the defendant personally that if the plea is not withdrawn, 

the court may dispose of the case less favorably toward the 

defendant than the plea agreement contemplated." Fed. R. Crim. P. 

11(c)(5).
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agreement's 120-month stipulation, it applied the Sentencing 

Guidelines and ultimately imposed a sentence of 160 months. On 

appeal, Gardner challenges the denial of his motion to withdraw 

his plea.

II.

Guilty pleas and plea agreements are distinct, governed 

by different parts of Rule 11. See Fed. R. Crim. P. 11(a), (b) 

(guilty pleas); Fed. R. Crim. P. 11(c) (plea agreements). Although 

a defendant usually pleads guilty pursuant to a plea agreement, 

"[g]uilty pleas can be accepted while plea agreements are deferred, 

and the acceptance of the two can be separated in time." United 

States v. Hyde, 520 U.S. 670, 674 (1997).

In general, we review a district court's denial of a 

pre-sentencing motion to withdraw a guilty plea for abuse of 

discretion. United States v. Rodríguez-Morales, 647 F.3d 395, 397 

(1st Cir. 2011). When presented with such a motion, a district 

court must determine whether there is a "fair and just reason for 

requesting the withdrawal." Fed. R. Crim. P. 11(d)(2)(B); see

also United States v. Dunfee, 821 F.3d 120, 127 (1st Cir. 2016). 

In applying that standard, there is not an "exclusive list of 

reasons that might allow withdrawal of a plea." United States v. 

Aker, 181 F.3d 167, 170 (1st Cir. 1999). However, according to 

case law, relevant considerations include: (1) whether the 

original plea was knowing, intelligent, and voluntary and in 
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compliance with Rule 11, (2) the strength of the reason for 

withdrawal, (3) the timing of the motion to withdraw, (4) whether 

the defendant has a serious claim of actual innocence, (5) whether 

the parties had reached (or breached) a plea agreement, and (6) 

whether the government would suffer prejudice if withdrawal is 

permitted. See Dunfee, 821 F.3d at 127; United States v. Tilley, 

964 F.2d 66, 72 (1st Cir. 1992). The overall standard is 

"liberal," United States v. Kobrosky, 711 F.2d 449, 454 (1st Cir. 

1983), and "permissive," United States v. Merritt, 755 F.3d 6, 9 

(1st Cir. 2014).5

Gardner's argument for allowing his withdrawal turns on 

the language of his plea agreement. When interpreting a plea 

agreement, we apply "[b]asic contract principles." United States

v. Newbert, 504 F.3d 180, 185 (1st Cir. 2007). The touchstone is 

the "defendant's reasonable understanding" of the agreement.

United States v. Conway, 81 F.3d 15, 17 (1st Cir. 1996).6

5 To be sure, we have questioned whether the standard is 

quite as liberal as some of our older cases suggest. See United 

States v. Torres-Rosario, 447 F.3d 61, 66 (1st Cir. 2006) 

("Although older case law endorses a liberal approach to presentence plea withdrawals, it is questionable how far this view 

has survived the pressure of growing dockets and an increasing 

appreciation of the grim dynamics of plea bargaining, including 

the prevalence of 'buyer's remorse' among those who have pled." 

(citations omitted)). But we have not actually abdicated the 

"liberal" standard. See, e.g., Merritt, 755 F.3d at 11 (noting 

the prevailing liberal standard while cautioning that "liberal 

allowance is not to be confused with automatic allowance").

6 See also United States v. Gregory, 245 F.3d 160, 166 (2d 

Cir. 2001) (considering "the 'reasonable meaning' of the parties' 
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III.

Our first task, then, is to determine the parties' 

reasonable understanding of the agreement, specifically as to 

whether Gardner would be permitted to withdraw his guilty plea if 

the government withdrew from the agreement because of Gardner's 

breach.

In our view, that question is resolved by the agreement 

itself, which states: "[I]f the Court will not accept the plea 

agreement under Fed. R. Crim. P. 11(c)(3)(A), the plea agreement 

is null and void and the defendant will be allowed the opportunity 

to withdraw his guilty pleas." Although this "opportunity to 

withdraw" provision refers to the court not accepting the agreement 

under Rule 11(c)(3)(A), it does not say that the right to withdraw 

is limited to any particular reason for non-acceptance. Rather, 

it says that Gardner will have the option to withdraw his plea if 

the event contemplated by the language -- the acceptance of the 

plea agreement under Rule 11(c)(3)(A) and the imposition of the 

stipulated sentence -- did not occur for any reason. Here,

undisputedly, that event never occurred. 

overall agreement"); United States v. Cruz-Romero, 848 F.3d 399, 

401 (5th Cir. 2017) ("In examining the government's compliance 

with its promises in the plea agreement, we ask 'whether the 

Government's conduct was consistent with the parties' reasonable 

understanding of the agreement'" (quoting United States v. Harper, 

643 F.3d 135, 139 (5th Cir. 2011))).
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In denying Gardner's motion to withdraw his plea, 

therefore, the district court misread the "opportunity to 

withdraw" provision. It first determined that the agreement 

allowed Gardner to withdraw the plea only if the court 

"'reject[ed]' the plea agreement under Rule 11(c)(3)(A) and 

(c)(5)." And then it reasoned that:

In this case . . . the court did not "reject"

the plea agreement under Rule 11(c)(3)(A) and 

(c)(5). In granting the government's motion 

to withdraw from the agreement, the court 

enforced . . . the plea agreement, which 

permitted the government to withdraw if 

Gardner engaged in criminal activity. . . . 

Gardner cannot transform his breach of the 

plea agreement, which cost him his right to 

receive the agreed-upon sentence, into a 

rejection of the agreement by the court.

We see two difficulties with the court's approach. 

First, while the district court was undoubtedly "enforcing" the 

agreement by allowing the government to withdraw in light of 

Gardner's breach, that enforcement is only one half of the 

equation. Both parties to the agreement have a claim to its 

enforcement. The second question is what impact the government's 

withdrawal had on Gardner's rights -- and specifically, whether 

Gardner remained bound by his guilty plea or had a right to 

withdraw it.

On that question, the district court, in evaluating

whether it "rejected" the agreement, focused on a word that does 

not appear in the plea agreement. As we have seen, the
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"opportunity to withdraw" provision is worded differently. It 

permits withdrawal of the plea if the district court "will not 

accept the plea agreement under Fed. R. Crim. P. 11(c)(3)(A)." 

And, as we have noted, the court indisputably did not accept the 

agreement. Said differently, the agreement's reference to "not 

accept" is a broader term than "reject." "Not accepting" 

encompasses every situation in which the court does not actually 

impose the stipulated sentence; "rejecting" the agreement under 

Rule 11 is just one of those situations.

While not necessarily dispositive, it is telling that

the district court seemed to endorse the correct reading of the

"opportunity to withdraw" provision at the change of plea hearing:

THE COURT: All right. So Mr. Gardner, you 

and the government have agreed that the total 

sentence that's to be imposed in this . . . 

case is 120 months in prison. That's a binding 

agreement which means if the Court accepts 

that agreement and imposes that sentence, do 

you understand you cannot withdraw your guilty 

plea?

THE DEFENDANT: Yes.

THE COURT: If the court does not accept that 

binding agreement and does not impose that 

sentence, do you understand that you would 

have the opportunity then to withdraw your 

guilty plea?

THE DEFENDANT: Yes.

These statements suggest that, consistent with the agreement,

there were two -- and only two -- mutually exclusive outcomes: if 
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the court "accept[ed] the agreement and impose[d] that sentence," 

Gardner would not be able to withdraw his guilty plea, whereas if 

it "d[id] not accept that binding agreement and d[id] not impose 

that sentence," Gardner would have the opportunity to withdraw his 

guilty plea. 

The dissent disagrees with our reading of the agreement. 

It suggests that the agreement "explicitly requires the district 

court to indicate that it will not accept the agreement" in order 

to trigger Gardner's withdrawal right. However, nothing in the 

operative phrase ("if the Court will not accept the plea agreement 

under Fed. R. Crim. P. 11(c)(3)(A)") requires any kind of

affirmative statement. Rather, the language simply establishes a 

future condition which, if not satisfied, will trigger a specified

consequence. Therefore, once it was clear that the district court 

would not accept the agreement, Gardner had a right to withdraw 

his plea. The dissent, in effect, is introducing a further

requirement: that the district court had to affirmatively reject

the agreement. While the agreement could have been written that 

way, it was not.7

7 We note that, if the agreement had been written to give 

Gardner the right to withdraw only if the district court 

affirmatively rejected the agreement, it would simply be reciting 

what Rule 11 already guarantees. See Fed. R. Crim. P. 11(c)(5) 

(requiring the court, if it "rejects a plea agreement" specifying 

a sentence pursuant to Rule 11(c)(1)(C), to "give the defendant an 

opportunity to withdraw the plea").
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The dissent also suggests that "[t]he district court's 

actions demonstrate that it accepted the plea agreement." That 

view of what occurred is unsupportable. "Accepting a plea 

agreement" is a formal act under the Rules and triggers serious

consequences and obligations. Rule 11(c)(1)(C) "binds the court 

[to the recommended sentence] once [it] accepts the plea 

agreement." Obviously, the court never imposed the recommended 

sentence of 120 months. It imposed a sentence of 160 months. 

Additionally, Rule 11(c)(5) provides that, "[i]f the court accepts 

the plea agreement" proposing a recommended sentence, it must 

inform the defendant that "the agreed disposition will be included 

in the judgment." Here, at the change of plea hearing, the court 

accepted Gardner's guilty plea but deferred a decision on the 

recommended sentence. It did not inform Gardner that the 

recommended sentence would be included in the judgment or state

that he would be sentenced as provided in the agreement. Under no 

plausible construction of the rules or the proceedings, then, did

the district court accept the agreement, in fact or constructively.

Additionally, nothing else in the agreement suggests 

that the "opportunity to withdraw" provision should not be taken 

to mean what it says. The breach provision itself says nothing 

about the defendant's right of withdrawal after a breach, 

explaining only that "if, before sentencing, [Gardner] violates 

any term or condition of this Plea Agreement, engages in any 
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criminal activity, or fails to appear for sentencing, the United 

States may consider such conduct to be a breach of the Plea 

Agreement and may withdraw therefrom." That is, the breach 

provision is silent about whether Gardner would be held to his 

guilty plea, despite the government's withdrawal, or whether, in 

light of the government's withdrawal, he would be permitted to 

withdraw his plea.

Similarly, nothing in the general law of plea bargaining 

or our case law precludes Gardner from withdrawing his guilty plea 

in these circumstances. To the contrary, "it is generally accepted 

that 'when a defendant breaches his plea agreement, the Government 

has the option to either seek specific performance of the agreement 

or treat it as unenforceable' (at least absent language in the 

plea agreement specifying fewer or other remedies)." 5 Wayne R. 

LaFave et al., Crim. Proc. § 21.2(e) (4th ed. 2020) (quoting United 

States v. Cimino, 381 F.3d 124, 128 (2d Cir. 2004)). In this 

context, "specific performance" means that the government can 

enforce the remaining provisions of the agreement and hold the 

defendant to the guilty plea. See United States v. Alexander, 869 

F.2d 91, 94-95 (2d Cir. 1989). If the government instead chooses 

to treat the entire agreement as unenforceable (sometimes referred 

to as "cancellation"), the presumption is that the defendant may 

withdraw his plea, unless "the plea agreement itself . . . 

describe[s] the government's remedies in such a fashion as to 
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foreclose plea withdrawal by the defendant in these 

circumstances." 5 Wayne R. LaFave et al., Crim. Proc. § 21.2(e). 

Here, as we have explained, the plea agreement did not foreclose 

plea withdrawal by the defendant in the event of his own breach.

The government cites our decision in United States v. 

Tilley, 964 F.2d 66 (1st Cir. 1992), for the proposition that a 

defendant should not be able to withdraw a plea because of his own 

breach of a plea agreement. Like Gardner, Tilley breached his 

plea agreement by committing a crime (in Tilley's case, by

perjuring himself before a grand jury and at a criminal trial). 

Id. at 69. Facing the loss of certain benefits under the 

agreement, Tilley then moved to withdraw his plea. Id. The 

district court denied the motion, and we affirmed. Id. at 73. We 

first determined that the court did not err in finding that Tilley 

breached the agreement. Id. at 72. Then, after analyzing the 

appropriate factors, we concluded that the court did not abuse its 

discretion in finding that there was not a "fair and just reason" 

to permit withdrawal. Id. at 72-73. 

Some of our language in the opinion suggests that Tilley 

was foreclosed from withdrawing his plea simply because he breached 

his agreement by committing a crime. See id. at 73 (in arguing 

for the opportunity to withdraw his plea, we said, Tilley

"overlooks the fact that he did indeed violate the plea agreement 

by engaging in behavior which constitutes a crime"). But as the 
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rest of the opinion makes clear, Tilley's holding relies on the 

specific language of Tilley's plea agreement, which provided that, 

if Tilley violated the agreement, "the Government had the option 

to declare the agreement null and void, or to bring the failure to 

fully cooperate to the attention of the court." Id. at 71 n.17. 

In response to Tilley's breach, the government simply chose the 

latter, specifically-provided remedy, which did not trigger any 

right to withdraw the plea. See id. at 73 ("In view of a violation 

by appellant of the plea agreement, the Government was entitled to 

bring all factors related to said violation to the attention of 

the court."). Here, there is no analogous remedy specified in the 

plea agreement. The plea agreement does not make clear that the 

defendant would be bound to the plea if the government opted to 

withdraw from the agreement.

In sum, this is not a case where the plea agreement 

specifies that "if [the defendant] committed new crimes, he would 

be bound to his guilty plea even if the Government exercised its 

right to rescind the [plea] agreement." United States v. Gregory, 

245 F.3d 160, 166 (2d Cir. 2001). To the contrary, the agreement 

indicated (and the district court confirmed at the change of plea 

hearing) that Gardner would be able to withdraw his plea if the 

court did not accept the agreement -- and the court did not accept 

the agreement. 
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With that understanding of the agreement in mind, we 

proceed to consider whether there is a fair and just reason to 

permit withdrawal of Gardner's plea.

IV.

As we have noted, the substantive standard for 

evaluating a motion to withdraw a guilty plea in the trial court 

(and the standard that informs our review of the trial court's 

exercise of discretion in denying a motion to withdraw a guilty 

plea) is whether there was a "fair and just reason" for withdrawal. 

The relevant considerations include: (1) whether the plea was 

knowing and voluntary and in compliance with Rule 11, (2) the 

strength of the reason for withdrawal, (3) the timing of the motion 

to withdraw, (4) whether the defendant has a serious claim of 

actual innocence, (5) whether the parties had reached (or breached) 

a plea agreement, and (6) whether the government would suffer 

prejudice if withdrawal is allowed. See Tilley, 964 F.2d at 72.

Three of the considerations favor withdrawal. First, 

the reason for withdrawal is highly compelling: the agreement 

explicitly guaranteed Gardner the opportunity to withdraw his plea

in these circumstances. This reason is far from a mere "second 

thought[] about some fact or point of law, or about the wisdom of 

his earlier decision." United States v. Parrilla-Tirado, 22 F.3d 

368, 371 (1st Cir. 1994) (citations omitted). Indeed, it goes to 

the heart of the bargain that Gardner struck with the government.
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Second, Gardner moved to withdraw his guilty plea 

promptly. He did so only sixteen days after the court granted the 

government's motion to withdraw from the plea agreement, when

Gardner first learned that the court would not be accepting the 

agreement. Although we typically measure any delay from the entry 

of the guilty plea, see Ramos, 810 F.2d at 313, we have recognized

that a different approach may be warranted in certain 

circumstances. For example, we observed that, when a motion to 

withdraw is motivated by post-plea developments in a separate case, 

it may not be correct to "rel[y] on the . . . passage of time 

between the plea and the motion to withdraw it as an indication 

that [the defendant] was simply employing sharp tactics," at least 

when the motion to withdraw "was filed so soon after the events in 

the [other] case." United States v. Isom, 580 F.3d 43, 53 n.15 

(1st Cir. 2009). In the present circumstances, we consider the

sixteen-day delay to be the appropriate measure for evaluating 

promptness, as Gardner had no reason to move to withdraw earlier. 

And even though we have held a delay as brief as thirteen days 

against a defendant, see Ramos, 810 F.2d at 313, the delay here is 

certainly on the shorter side, and we have countenanced much longer 

delays when other considerations favor withdrawal, see United 

States v. Daniels, 821 F.2d 76, 79 (1st Cir. 1987) (allowing 

withdrawal after ten-week delay).
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Third, there does not appear to be any prejudice to the 

government, beyond the burdens that inevitably accompany any 

withdrawal -- namely, those of processing the withdrawal and 

negotiating a second plea or proceeding to trial. Indeed, there 

is no suggestion by the government of any kind of prejudice, such 

as any difficulty in tracking down witnesses or otherwise preparing 

for a potential trial. See Kobrosky, 711 F.2d at 455 (explaining 

that "[t]he most common form of prejudice is the difficulty that 

the government would encounter in reassembling its witnesses"). 

The dissent, on the government's behalf, speculates about possible 

kinds of prejudice, but it is not our role to make an argument 

that the government never makes.

To be sure, on the negative side of the balance, there 

are also three factors. Gardner has not advanced any plausible 

theory of innocence.8 But this deficiency is not fatal; it just 

"counsels against" allowing withdrawal. United States v. Mercedes

Mercedes, 428 F.3d 355, 360 (1st Cir. 2005). Additionally, he 

unquestionably breached the agreement by committing an assault, a 

significant breach to be sure. And, finally, there is no 

8 According to the plea agreement, Gardner was arrested while 

driving home, armed with a gun, from a drug purchase. Also in the 

vehicle were a confidential informant and an eventual codefendant. Gardner had previously sold drugs to the informant on 

two occasions. Gardner argues that if his guilty plea were 

withdrawn, he would have the opportunity to move to suppress 

evidence and raise an entrapment defense.
- 19 -

indication that the guilty plea was not "knowing, intelligent, and 

voluntary" at the time it was made. United States v. Adams, 971 

F.3d 22, 38 (1st Cir. 2020). The district court scrupulously 

followed the technical requirements of Rule 11, and Gardner 

voluntarily pled guilty in accordance with the agreement as written 

and as explained by the district court.

Despite these countervailing considerations, we conclude 

that the strength of Gardner's reason for withdrawal so far 

outweighs the offsetting factors that the inquiry tilts in his 

favor. The government failed to recognize that the plea agreement, 

by its terms, gave Gardner the right to withdraw his plea under 

the circumstances of this case. That failure, sanctioned by the 

court with its denial of Gardner's motion to withdraw his plea, 

was tantamount to a breach of the plea agreement by the government. 

Given the importance of contract principles to the enforcement of 

plea agreements, see Newbert, 504 F.3d at 185, and the other

factors cited in Gardner's favor, there was a fair and just reason 

for the withdrawal of Gardner's plea, and the district court abused 

its discretion in concluding otherwise. 9

9 The dissent also maintains that any prejudice to the 

government should be considered only after Gardner has met his 

burden on the initial five factors (and thereby established some 

good reason for withdrawal). Some of our cases do suggest such a 

bifurcated analysis. See, e.g., United States v. Pellerito, 878 

F.2d 1535, 1537 (1st Cir. 1989) ("If a defendant advances a 

plausible reason, the court should also weigh the prejudice, if 

any, to the government."). But other cases of ours simply list 
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V.

We close with two additional points. The government and 

the dissent argue that allowing a plea withdrawal in these 

circumstances would, effectively, reward Gardner for his own 

breach. Even worse, the government and dissent suggest, such a 

decision would encourage future defendants to deliberately breach 

their plea agreements in the hope of getting out of their pleas.10 

We are unpersuaded. In the face of a defendant's

strategic breach, the government will not be obligated to cancel 

the agreement and concede to the withdrawal of the plea. Rather, 

as the non-breaching party, the government will have the option of 

how to respond. The government might elect specific performance:

that is, keep the rest of agreement in place, in which case the 

defendant would be stuck with the same plea, plus, potentially, 

additional exposure for a new crime. See Cimino, 381 F.3d at 128 

n.3. Alternatively, the government might choose to void the 

agreement, concede to withdrawal of the original plea, and 

prejudice as one factor among the others. See, e.g., United States

v. Dunfee, 821 F.3d 120, 127 (1st Cir. 2016); United States v. 

Isom, 580 F.3d 43, 52 (1st Cir. 2009); United States v. Kobrosky, 

711 F.2d 449, 455 (1st Cir. 1983). Here, even if we adopted the 

dissent's preferred approach, we would still find that Gardner had 

established a plausible reason for withdrawal based on the initial 

five factors -- in particular, the strength of the reason for 

withdrawal.

10 To be clear, there is no argument or indication here that 

Gardner committed the assault in order to facilitate his plea 

withdrawal.
- 21 -

"demand[] that [the defendant] either plead guilty a second time

or go to trial." Id. In the latter case, the price is high: a 

defendant would lose the benefits of the existing plea agreement 

(including any agreed-upon sentence and benefit for acceptance of 

responsibility) and, if he breached by committing a crime, face 

the possibility of a new prosecution.

Additionally, of course, the government can avoid a 

repetition of the scenario here by being clearer in future plea 

agreements about the consequences of a defendant's breach (i.e., 

by explicitly specifying in the agreement that the defendant will 

still be held to the guilty plea even if the government exercises 

its right to withdraw). See United States v. Rivera, 954 F.2d 

122, 125 (2d Cir. 1992) (instructing that "[t]he government should 

make it absolutely clear in a plea agreement that a breach by the 

defendant releases the government from its obligation to recommend 

leniency but does not release the defendant from the plea of 

guilty"). The prosecution, defendants, and the courts would all 

benefit from this additional clarity.

VI.

For the reasons set forth herein, Gardner must be 

permitted to withdraw his guilty plea. We vacate the judgment. 

So ordered.

- Dissenting Opinion Follows -
- 22 -

LYNCH, Circuit Judge, dissenting. With respect, I 

believe the majority got this wrong and departed from controlling 

law at every key point in its analysis. After entering into a 

plea agreement, Gardner assaulted a codefendant and possible 

witness against him. This assault triggered a provision in his 

plea agreement giving the government, but not Gardner, the right 

to "consider [Gardner's] conduct to be a breach of the Plea 

Agreement and . . . withdraw" from it. The government exercised 

this right. The majority opinion allows Gardner to also withdraw 

from the plea agreement due to his own breach. In doing so, it 

concludes that the district court never accepted the plea agreement 

under Rule 11, directly contradicting the fact that the court 

enforced the plea agreement. Further, the majority erroneously 

reads into the plea agreement terms not bargained for by the 

defendant, disadvantaging the government. Beyond that, the 

majority erroneously holds that the district court abused its 

discretion when it did not allow Gardner to withdraw his plea and 

posits that no harm will come from its decision. I disagree on 

all of these key points.

The majority begins its analysis by saying that the plea 

agreement's "opportunity to withdraw" provision gives Gardner the 

right to withdraw his plea. That provision reads: "[I]f the Court 

will not accept the plea agreement under Fed. R. Crim. P. 
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11(c)(3)(A), the plea agreement is null and void and [Gardner] 

will be allowed the opportunity to withdraw his guilty pleas." 

When presented with a plea agreement like Gardner's, 

Rule 11 says that a court "may accept the agreement, reject it, or 

defer a decision until the court has reviewed the presentence 

report [('PSR')]." Fed. R. Crim. P. 11(c)(3)(A). The text is 

clear that, even if the court chooses to defer its decision pending 

review of the PSR, the court has to choose between two options: 

accepting or rejecting the plea agreement. See United States v. 

Hyde, 520 U.S. 670, 675 (1997) (discussing the district court's 

ability to "defer its decision about whether to accept [a] [Rule 

11(c)(1)(C)] agreement (emphasis added)); United States v. Fokker 

Servs. B.V., 818 F.3d 733, 745 (D.C. Cir. 2016) (describing "a 

district court's authority to 'accept' or 'reject' a proposed plea 

agreement under Rule 11"); see also Fed R. Crim. Proc. 11(c) 

(outlining the procedures for "[a]ccepting a [p]lea [a]greement" 

in Rule 11(c)(4) and "[r]ejecting a [p]lea [a]greement" in Rule 

11(c)(5)). 

The majority concedes that the district court never 

rejected the plea agreement.11 It should have then concluded that 

11 As the majority recognizes, a district court must follow 

the procedures in Rule 11(c)(5) to reject a plea agreement, which 

it did not do here. If the district court had rejected the 

agreement, there would be no need to interpret it. Gardner would 

have been permitted to withdraw his plea pursuant to Rule 

11(c)(5)(B).
- 24 -

the court either deferred acceptance of the agreement or accepted 

it outright. In either case, that would mean that the "opportunity 

to withdraw" provision does not apply to Gardner. Instead, the 

majority erroneously holds that the provision applies (and Gardner 

can withdraw his plea) because, even though the district court did 

not reject the agreement, the majority says that the district court 

did not accept the agreement.12 

This holding is inconsistent with the text of the plea 

agreement. The "opportunity to withdraw" provision says that if 

the court "will not accept" the agreement, then the agreement 

becomes null and void. (Emphasis added). The majority's reading 

ignores the word "will." Non-acceptance alone would not be 

enough.13 The agreement explicitly requires the district court to 

indicate that it will not accept the agreement, something it did 

not do. 

12 The majority erroneously reads the change of plea 

hearing transcript to say that the district court had "two -- and 

only two -- mutually exclusive" options. In the majority's view, 

the district court could either (1) accept the plea agreement and 

impose the sentence in the agreement or (2) not accept the 

agreement and not impose that sentence. This reading ties 

acceptance of the agreement to sentencing, making it impossible 

for the court to accept the plea agreement until a defendant is 

sentenced. That is flatly inconsistent with Rule 11. 

13 If non-acceptance alone were enough, then the plea 

agreement would have become null and void when the district court, 

consistent with Rule 11, chose to defer acceptance of the agreement 

at Gardner's change of plea hearing. Fed. R. Crim. P. 11(c)(3)(A). 
- 25 -

Indeed, it did the opposite. The district court's 

actions demonstrate that it accepted the plea agreement. The 

district court said it relied on the "facts . . . set forth in the 

offense conduct paragraph of the plea agreement" when it accepted 

Gardner's guilty plea during his change of plea hearing and later 

said it was enforcing, not rejecting, the agreement when it allowed 

the government to withdraw from the agreement due to Gardner's 

breach. See United States v. Soloff, 993 F.3d 240, 244 (4th Cir. 

2021) ("Where the record furnishes sufficient evidence to conclude 

that a district court constructively accepted the plea agreement, 

the court's failure to explicitly accept the agreement will not 

undo the parties' bargain."); United States v. Leyva-Matos, 618 

F.3d 1213, 1216 n.1 (10th Cir. 2010) (concluding that "the district 

court . . . constructively accepted the plea agreement by working 

within its terms and accepting certain stipulations while 

rejecting others"); United States v. Brown, 571 F.3d 690, 693 (7th 

Cir. 2009) (finding that a district court accepted a plea agreement 

when "every aspect of the court's disposition . . . was consistent 

with an acceptance of the plea agreement"); United States v. 

Skidmore, 998 F.2d 372, 375 (6th Cir. 1993) ("[T]he court's failure 

to elect clearly one of the options specified in [Rule 11(c)'s 

predecessor] amounted to an acceptance of the plea agreement."). 

The majority uses the "opportunity to withdraw" provision (which, 

if it had actually been triggered, would have voided the agreement 
- 26 -

entirely) to imply a new and unbargained-for term into the 

agreement.14 Doing so upsets the bargain the parties struck. I 

would conclude that because the district court never said it would 

not accept the agreement, did not treat the agreement as null and 

void, and in fact enforced the plea agreement's breach provision, 

Gardner has no opportunity to withdraw. 

Even if Gardner did have an opportunity to withdraw his 

guilty plea under the plea agreement, Gardner cannot withdraw this 

plea unless he can "show a fair and just reason for requesting the 

withdrawal." Fed. R. Crim. Proc. 11(d)(2)(B). We review for abuse 

of discretion the district court's determination that Gardner has 

not shown a fair and just reason. See United States v. Merritt, 

755 F.3d 6, 9 (1st Cir. 2014). There was no abuse of discretion 

here. 

To determine if a fair and just reason for withdrawal 

exists, district courts consider five factors: "(1) the timing of 

defendant's change of heart; (2) the force and plausibility of the 

14 At times, the majority implies that the government is 

choosing to treat the agreement as either unenforceable or null 

and void. This implication misunderstands the government's 

position. The government wants to treat the agreement as 

enforceable, enforce the provision allowing it to withdraw from 

the agreement, and hold Gardner to his guilty plea pursuant to the 

agreement. The majority's discussion of the "general law of plea 

bargaining" governing what happens when the defendant breaches a 

plea agreement is not relevant here because the plea agreement 

explicitly says what happens: if Gardner breaches, the government 

(but not Gardner) has the right to withdraw from the plea 

agreement.
- 27 -

reason; (3) whether the defendant has asserted his legal innocence; 

(4) whether the parties had reached (or breached) a plea agreement; 

and (5) most importantly, whether the defendant's guilty plea can 

still be regarded as voluntary, intelligent, and otherwise in 

conformity with Rule 11 . . . in light of the proffered reason and 

the disclosed circumstances." United States v. Tilley, 964 F.2d 

66, 72 (1st Cir. 1992). If, and only if, a fair and just reason 

exists, then the district court considers whether the government 

will be prejudiced by the withdrawal of the plea. See United

States v. Adams, 971 F.3d 22, 38 (1st Cir. 2020) ("If the totality 

of [the other five factors] militates in favor of allowing the 

plea to be withdrawn, the court should then consider whether, and 

to what extent, withdrawal would prejudice the government."); 

United States v. Flete-Garcia, 925 F.3d 17, 24 (1st Cir. 2019); 

United States v. Marrero-Rivera, 124 F.3d 342, 347 (1st Cir. 1997); 

United States v. Muriel, 111 F.3d 975, 978 (1st Cir. 1997); United 

States v. Desmarais, 967 F.2d 17, 19 (1st Cir. 1992); United States

v. Ramos, 810 F.2d 308, 313 (1st Cir. 1987). Here, the district 

court correctly concluded that no fair and just reason for 

withdrawal exists. All of the factors cut against Gardner. 

On the first factor, Gardner pleaded guilty in October 

2018 and moved to withdraw his plea almost four months later, in 
- 28 -

February 2019.15 We have held that waiting only thirteen or 

fourteen days from the date of the original plea cuts against the 

defendant. See Ramos, 810 F.2d at 313 (1st Cir. 1987); Nunez 

Cordero v. United States, 533 F.2d 723, 726 (1st Cir. 1976). That 

is because a quick withdrawal might indicate that the original 

plea was "made in haste," Nunez Cordero, 533 F.2d at 726, and that 

the request for withdrawal is not being made "to gain personal 

advantage," Ramos, 533 F.2d at 313; see also United States v. 

Fernández-Santos, 856 F.3d 10, 18 (1st Cir. 2017) ("The timing of 

a motion to withdraw a guilty plea is important . . . because it 

is 'highly probative of motive.'") (quoting United States v. Doyle, 

981 F.2d 591, 595 (1st Cir. 1992)); United States v. SanchezBarreto, 93 F.3d 17, 24 (1st Cir. 1996) ("[Defendants] belated 

plea-withdrawal motions substantially weakened [their] claims that 

their guilty pleas resulted from confusion or coercion."). The 

four-month delay here shows that Gardner's request to withdraw was 

15 The majority measures the timing of the plea withdrawal 

as "sixteen days after the court granted the government's motion 

to withdraw from the plea agreement." The majority ignores the 

fact that the reason we consider timing at all is because it 

informs whether the defendant's original plea was knowing and 

voluntary and whether the defendant is trying to strategically 

withdraw the plea. Even in United States v. Isom, 580 F.3d 43, 53 

n.15 (1st Cir. 2009), on which the majority relies, the Court noted 

that the delay in filing a withdrawal motion after the original

plea was relevant and cut against the defendant. See id.

(explaining that the "delay works to [the defendant's] detriment" 

when "his claim of innocence did not depend on the events in the 

companion case, but could have been raised earlier"). 
- 29 -

to gain personal advantage, not because he made his original plea 

too hastily.

As to the second factor, Gardner wants to withdraw his 

guilty plea because he chose to assault his codefendant. The 

majority's holding "would allow the defendant to withdraw his 

guilty plea simply on a lark" after he "has sworn in open court 

that he actually committed the crimes, after he has stated that he 

is pleading guilty because he is guilty, after the court has found 

a factual basis for the plea, and after the court has explicitly 

announced that it accepts the plea." Hyde, 520 U.S. at 676. It 

"debases the judicial proceeding at which a defendant pleads and 

the court accepts his plea" by "degrad[ing] the otherwise serious 

act of pleading guilty into something akin to a move in a game of 

chess." Id. at 676-77. Allowing defendants to benefit by 

breaching their plea agreements makes it harder for the government

to enforce plea agreements. The majority opinion forces the 

government to either excuse breaches or void plea agreements and 

take on the costs and risks associated with allowing defendants to 

withdraw their guilty pleas. If defendants can escape their plea 

agreements through intentional breaches, they may choose to gamble 

on future acquittals by breaching. Encouraging breaches in this 

way will cause defendants to treat plea agreements as disposable 

and to take their terms less seriously. The "force and
- 30 -

plausibility" of Gardner's reason therefore does not support 

withdrawal. Tilley, 964 F.2d at 72.

The majority agrees that the remaining three factors cut 

against Gardner. Gardner has made no claim of innocence, "an 

'important factor' in determining whether there is fair and just 

reason to allow him to withdraw his plea." United States v. 

Daniels, 821 F.2d 76, 79 (1st Cir. 1987) (quoting United States v. 

Kobrosky, 711 F.2d 449, 455 (1st Cir. 1983)). He admits that he 

is responsible for breaching the agreement by assaulting his 

codefendant. See Tilley, 964 F.2d at 73. And his plea was knowing 

and voluntary, which is the most important factor in the analysis. 

See United States v. Muriel, 111 F.3d 975, 978 (1st Cir. 1997). 

By the majority's own count, three factors, including the most 

important one, do not support withdrawal. Only two support it.16 

I do not see how the majority can conclude that the district court 

committed a "demonstrable abuse of discretion" here in holding 

that no fair and just reason existed for Gardner to withdraw his 

plea. See Marrero-Rivera, 124 F.3d at 348 ("[W]e accord 

considerable deference to the firsthand assessment ultimately made 

16 The majority says there is no prejudice to the government 

and that this fact helps Gardner. Even if this were true, 

prejudice is only relevant if the totality of the other factors 

supports withdrawal. See United States v. Adams, 971 F.3d 22, 38 

(1st Cir. 2020).
- 31 -

by the district court, which must be affirmed absent a demonstrable 

abuse of discretion.").

Finally, even if a fair and just reason for withdrawal 

did exist, I strongly disagree that the government's mere assertion 

of prejudice is insufficient. The majority's decision will 

obviously cause harm in general and clearly, quite specifically on 

the facts of this case. The majority's result is not a simple 

matter of the government reinstating the original charges. The 

events leading to Gardner's prosecution occurred in April 2017, 

and it is self-evident that the government will be prejudiced by 

having to prosecute Gardner more than four years after the fact. 

The government will likely have difficulty securing 

witnesses.17 After so much time has passed, it is likely that some 

witnesses could not reliably testify against Gardner. See United 

States v. Allard, 926 F.2d 1237, 1243 (1st Cir. 1991) (holding 

that the fact that a "witness against [the defendant] is no longer 

available to testify" "clearly . . . constitutes the kind of 

prejudice that may be considered under . . . the 'fair and just 

reason' standard"); Kobrosky, 711 F.2d at 455 ("The most common 

17 Gardner pleaded guilty while the government was 

negotiating plea agreements with his codefendants and the 

government did not require any of them to testify against Gardner 

as part of their plea deals. Gardner also assaulted one of his 

codefendants, who was in a wheelchair at the time, for being a 

"rat" and "ratt[ing] on his case," which could discourage his other 

codefendants from testifying against him. 
- 32 -

form of prejudice is the difficulty that the government would 

encounter in reassembling its witnesses; and the longer the delay 

in moving for a plea withdrawal, the greater this prejudice is 

likely to be."). Further, a confidential informant was important 

to the government's case. There is no evidence that this informant 

is still alive or able to testify against Gardner. 

Finally, much of the delay prejudicing the government 

here is attributable to Gardner, who deliberately prolonged this 

appeal (perhaps for tactical reasons) by seeking briefing 

extensions for almost eight months. See Allard, 926 F.2d at 1243 

(explaining that "a delay that prejudices the government's case is 

a factor weighing against withdrawal" when "the defendant can be 

blamed for the delay"). Gardner's brief was supposed to be filed 

in December 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic. His counsel 

repeatedly requested extensions, many of which were totally 

unrelated to the pandemic. In all, he received ten extensions and 

had to be ordered to file a brief by August 14, 2020. Such delay 

tactics should not be rewarded. 

I respectfully dissent.