Papahānaumokuākea

CONDITION REPORT 2009

March 2009

Marine National 

Monument
U.S. Department of Commerce

Gary Locke, Secretary

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Jane Lubchenco, Ph.D.

Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere

National Ocean Service

John H. Dunnigan, Assistant Administrator

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries

Daniel J. Basta, Director

U.S. Department of the Interior

Ken Salazar, Secretary

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Rowan W. Gould, Acting Director

Report Preparers:

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument:

Dr. Randy Kosaki, Malia Chow, Elizabeth Keenan

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries:

Kathy Broughton, Dr. Stephen R. Gittings

Copy Editor: Matt Dozier

Graphic Designer: Matt McIntosh

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries

SSMC4, N/ORM62

1305 East-West Highway

Silver Spring, MD 20910

301-713-3125

http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

6600 Kalaniana‘ole Hwy, #300

Honolulu, HI 96825

808-397-2660

http://hawaiireef.noaa.gov

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

1849 C Street, NW

Washington, DC 20240

800-344-9453

http://www.fws.gov

State of Hawaii

Department of Land and Natural Resources

1151 Punchbowl Street, Rm. 330

Honolulu, HI 96813

808-587-0099

http://www.hawaii.gov/dlnr

Cover credits (Clockwise):

Map: 

The bathymetric data shown on this map is from the 2-Minute gridded global relief data set, also known as ETOPO2 ver 2. Data and 

metadata may be obtained from: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/

fliers/06mgg01.html

Photos:

Coral reef: James Watt; Hawaiian monk seal: James Watt; Brown 

booby at Pearl and Hermes Atoll: Dan Suthers; Spinner dolphins: 

James Watt; Galapagos sharks: James Watt; Dan Suthers; Bow of 

the USS Macaw: James Watt

Suggested Citation:

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries. 2009. Papahānaumokuākea 

Marine National Monument Condition Report 2009. U.S. Department 

of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, Silver Spring, MD. 54 pp.
1

About this Report........................................................................................2

Summary and Findings...............................................................................2

National Marine Sanctuary System 

and System-Wide Monitoring .................................................................3

Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument 

Condition Summary Table ..............................................................................

4

Site History and Resources

Overview.....................................................................................................6

Location ......................................................................................................6

Designation.................................................................................................7

Early Settlement and Discovery..................................................................7

Geology ......................................................................................................8

Water ..........................................................................................................8

Habitat ........................................................................................................9

Living Resources ......................................................................................10

Maritime Archaeological Resources ......................................................... 11

Native Hawaiian Cultural Resources ........................................................12

Pressures on the Monument

Marine Pollution........................................................................................13

Climate Change and Coral Bleaching.......................................................14

Diseases...................................................................................................14

Alien Species............................................................................................15

Fishing ......................................................................................................15

Vessel Hazards and Groundings ..............................................................18

Tourism and Recreation............................................................................19

Coastal Development ...............................................................................19

State of the Monument Resources

Water ........................................................................................................20

Habitat ......................................................................................................21

Living Resources ......................................................................................24

Maritime Archaeological Resources .........................................................27

Response to Pressures

Marine Pollution........................................................................................30

Diseases, Climate Change and Coral Bleaching......................................31

Alien Species............................................................................................32

Fishing ......................................................................................................32

Vessel Hazards and Groundings ..............................................................33

Tourism and Recreation............................................................................33

Protected Species.....................................................................................34

Maritime Archaeological Resources .........................................................34

Native Hawaiian Cultural Resources ........................................................35

Concluding Remarks.....................................................................................36

Acknowledgements.......................................................................................36

Cited Resources.............................................................................................37

Additional Resources....................................................................................41

Appendix A: Rating Scheme for System-Wide Monitoring Questions ......43

Appendix B: Consultation with Experts and Document Review ................53

Table of Contents
Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

2 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

About this Report 

This “condition report” provides a summary of the status of the 

resources in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, 

which is co-managed by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the State of Hawaii. 

The report includes pressures on the monument resources, current 

condition and trends, and management responses to the pressures 

that threaten the integrity of the marine environment. Specifically, the 

document includes information on the status and trends of water quality, habitat, living resources and maritime archaeological resources 

and the human activities that affect 

them. It presents responses to a 

set of questions posed to all sanctuaries (Appendix A). Resource 

status of Papahānaumokuākea 

Marine National Monument is rated 

on a scale from good to poor, and 

the timelines used for comparison 

vary from topic to topic. Trends in 

the status of resources are also reported and are generally based on 

observed changes in status over 

the past five years, unless otherwise specified. Monument staff 

consulted with a working group of 

outside experts familiar with the resources and with knowledge of previous and current scientific investigations. Evaluations of status and 

trends are based on interpretation 

of quantitative and, when necessary, non-quantitative assessments 

and the observations of scientists, 

managers and users. The ratings reflect the collective interpretation of 

the status of local issues of concern among monument program staff 

and outside experts based on their knowledge and perceptions of local problems. The final ratings were determined by sanctuary staff. 

This report has been peer-reviewed and complies with the White 

House Office of Management and Budget’s peer review standards as 

outlined in the Final Information Quality Bulletin for Peer Review.

This is the first attempt to describe comprehensively the status, 

pressures and trends of resources at Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Additionally, the report helps identify gaps in current 

monitoring efforts, as well as causal factors that may require monitoring 

and potential remediation in the years to come. The data discussed will 

enable us not only to acknowledge prior changes in resource status, but 

will also provide guidance for future management challenges.

Summary and Findings

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (the monument) 

is the single largest conservation area under the U.S. flag, encompassing 139,792 square miles of the Pacific Ocean - an area larger than 

all the country’s national parks combined. Thanks to their isolation 

and past management efforts, the reefs of the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands are considered to be in nearly pristine condition. Home to the 

highly endangered Hawaiian monk seal, threatened green sea turtles 

and high abundances of endemic species (found nowhere else on 

earth), the complex and highly productive marine ecosystems of the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

are significant contributors to the 

biological diversity of the oceans 

(Friedlander et al. 2005.) 

Due to the monument’s remoteness and regulations that 

limit access, impacts from local 

human uses are relatively few. 

However, past activities have permanently altered some areas and 

in some cases resulted in degradation of habitats. Also, human 

activities currently taking place 

outside the monument, such as 

deposition of marine debris, can 

result in living resource, habitat, 

and water quality degradation. 

Other concerns for the monument 

include climate change and coral 

bleaching, diseases affecting marine organisms, and marine alien 

species that can threaten native 

biodiversity and degrade habitats.

Despite past human uses such as military activities that have left 

behind contamination on many of the atolls, monument-wide water 

quality parameters suggest relatively good conditions, due primarily 

to the monument’s remoteness and current regulations that limit access. Habitat structure has been impacted by derelict fishing gear, 

marine debris and coral bleaching. However, a majority of these habitats have not been significantly affected and are in good condition. 

Most living resource populations in the monument appear to be in 

healthy condition; however, monk seals are significantly decreasing. 

Other significant threats include potential manifestations of global climate change such as seawater acidification, rising sea surface temperatures and rising sea levels. The monument’s management plan, 

released in December 2008, recommends a number of management 

actions that will address these concerns.

Papahanaumokuakea

Marine National Monument

•	 139,797 square miles of land and ocean and is

the single largest conservation area under the

U.S. flag

•	 Designated by Presidential Executive Order in

2000 as a Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve; subsequently designated by Presidential Proclamation

as a Marine National Monument in 2006

•	 Among the few large-scale, intact, predatordominated reef ecosystems left in the world

•	 High incidence of marine endemism due to the

age of the islands and relative isolation from

other coral reefs

•	 A rich cultural history of deep ties between

Native Hawaiians and the land and ocean, on

genealogical, cultural and spiritual levels that

remain today
Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 3

Information regarding maritime archaeological resources is limited due to the size of the monument. However, known resources 

do not appear to be a threat to the environment, and there is very 

little human activity that may threaten the integrity of archaeological resources. The primary threat to these resources is their natural 

deterioration over time; little can be done to control or protect these 

resources from natural processes.

National Marine Sanctuary System 

and System-Wide Monitoring

The National Marine Sanctuary System manages marine areas 

in both nearshore and open ocean waters that range in size from 

less than one to almost 140,000 square miles. Each area has its 

own concerns and requirements for environmental monitoring, but 

ecosystem structure and function in all these areas have similarities 

and are influenced by common factors that interact in comparable 

ways. Furthermore, the human influences that affect the structure 

and function of these sites are similar in a number of ways. For these 

reasons, in 2001, the program began to implement System-Wide 

Monitoring (SWiM). The monitoring framework (NMSP 2004a) facilitates the development of effective, ecosystem-based monitoring programs that address management information needs using a design 

process that can be applied in a consistent way at multiple spatial 

scales and to multiple resource types. It identifies four primary components common among marine ecosystems: water, habitats, living 

resources and maritime archaeological resources.

By assuming that a common marine ecosystem framework can 

be applied to all places, the National Marine Sanctuary System 

developed a series of questions that are posed to every sanctuary 

and used as evaluation criteria to assess resource condition and 

trends. The questions, which are shown on the following pages and 

explained in Appendix A, are derived from both a generalized ecosystem framework and from the National Marine Sanctuary System’s 

mission. They are widely applicable across the areas managed by 

the National Marine Sanctuary System and provide a tool with which 

the system can measure its progress toward maintaining and improving natural and archaeological resource quality.

Similar reports summarizing resource status and trends will be 

prepared for each marine sanctuary approximately every five years 

and updated as new information allows. The information in this report 

is intended to help set the stage for the management plan review 

process. The report also helps sanctuary staff identify monitoring, 

characterization and research priorities to address gaps, day-to-day 

information needs and new threats. 

Photo: James Watt

Spinner dolphins use the shallow lagoons of the atolls to rest during the day, and feed in the deeper waters surrounding 

the atolls at night.
Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

4 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument

Condition Summary Table

The following table summarizes the “State of Monument Resources” section of this report. The first two columns list 17 questions used 

to rate the condition and trends for qualities of water, habitat, living 

resources, and maritime archaeological resources. The Rating column consists of a color, indicating resource condition, and a symbol, 

indicating trend (see key for definitions). The Basis for Judgment 

column provides a short statement or list of criteria used to justify 

the rating. The Description of Findings column presents the statement that best characterizes resource status, and corresponds to 

the assigned color rating. The Description of Findings statements are 

Status: Good Good/Fair Fair Fair/Poor Poor Undet.

 Trends: Conditions appear to be improving................................ p

Conditions do not appear to be changing...................... –

Conditions appear to be declining ................................. q

Undetermined trend....................................................... ?

 Question not applicable................................................. N/A

# Questions/Resources Rating Basis for Judgment Description of Findings Monument Response

WATER

1

Are specific or multiple stressors, 

including changing oceanographic and atmospheric conditions, 

affecting water quality and how 

are they changing?

q Published literature indicates 

temperature increases.

Selected conditions may preclude 

full development of living resource 

assemblages and habitats, but are not 

likely to cause substantial or persistent 

declines.

Monitoring of physical and biological 

parameters to evaluate extent of the 

issue.

2

What is the eutrophic condition 

of monument waters and how is 

it changing? – Lack of anthropogenic inputs.

Conditions do not appear to have the 

potential to negatively affect living 

resources or habitat quality.

Monument designation regulates 

access and requires reporting for 

on-going monitoring.

3

Do monument waters pose risks 

to human health and how are 

they changing? – Lack of sources, causes and 

human exposure.

Conditions do not appear to have the 

potential to negatively affect human 

health.

No current issues.

4

What are the levels of human 

activities that may influence 

water quality and how are they 

changing?

p Limited access; regulations 

prohibit discharges.

Few or no activities occur that are 

likely to negatively affect water quality.

Continuous evaluation of possible 

impacts of ship traffic.

HABITAT

5

What are the abundance and 

distribution of major habitat types 

and how are they changing?

q

Marine debris is degrading 

beaches and reefs. Potential loss 

of habitat from climate change 

and sea-level rise.

Selected habitat loss or alteration has 

taken place, precluding full development of living resource assemblages, 

but it is unlikely to cause substantial 

or persistent degradation in living 

resources or water quality.

Active detection and removal 

program to reduce accumulations of 

marine debris. Monitoring of physical 

and biological parameters of climate 

change.

6

What is the condition of 

biologically-structured habitats 

and how is it changing?

q Marine debris, coral disease and 

perhaps bleaching frequency.

Selected habitat loss or alteration 

has taken place, precluding full 

development of living resources, but it 

is unlikely to cause substantial or persistent degradation in living resources 

or water quality.

Supporting research to better understand the impacts. Development 

of best management practices to 

minimize transfer between sites.

7

What are the contaminant concentrations in monument habitats 

and how are they changing?

– Localized contamination is 

adversely affecting associated 

habitat and wildlife.

Selected contaminants may preclude 

full development of living resource assemblages, but are not likely to cause 

substantial or persistent degradation.

No management response.

8

What are the levels of human 

activities that may influence 

habitat quality and how are they 

changing?

– Limited visitation.

Some potentially harmful activities exist, but they do not appear to have had 

a negative effect on habitat quality.

Rigorous permitting and monitoring 

of human activities to ensure limited 

cumulative effects.

customized for all possible ratings for each question. Please see Appendix A for further clarification of the questions and the Description 

of Findings statements.

Table is continued on the following page.
Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 5

# Questions/Resources Rating Basis for Judgment Description of Findings Monument Response

LIVING RESOURCES

9 What is the status of biodiversity 

and how is it changing? – Assessment/monitoring activities 

to date.

Biodiversity appears to reflect pristine 

or near-pristine conditions and promotes ecosystem integrity (full community development and function).

Continuing efforts to characterize 

biodiversity.

10

What is the status of environmentally sustainable fishing and 

how is it changing?

p Limited activity; existing fishery to 

be phased out by June 2011.

Extraction does not appear to affect 

ecosystem integrity (full community 

development and function).

Developing fisheries independent 

stock assessment methods that 

will be implemented post fishing 

cessation.

11

What is the status of nonindigenous species and how is it 

changing?

?

Few species with isolated distributions; uncertainty of potential 

impact.

Non-indigenous species exist, precluding full community development and 

function, but are unlikely to cause 

substantial or persistent degradation of 

ecosystem integrity.

Prevention through hull inspections 

and cleaning, marine debris removal, 

quarantines in place for most islands; 

monitoring programs may document 

distribution and abundance of nonindigenous species.

12 What is the status of key species 

and how is it changing? ?

Monk seal decline; corals and 

predatory fish populations high 

and stable.

The reduced abundance of selected 

keystone species may inhibit full community development and function and 

may cause measurable but not severe 

degradation of ecosystem integrity; or 

selected key species are at reduced 

levels, but recovery is possible.

Mitigation efforts include predator removal and seal relocation to 

improve survivorship. Implementation 

of recovery plans for monk seals 

and ongoing research to understand 

foraging, diet and habitat.

13

What is the condition or health 

of key species and how is it 

changing?

?

Monk seal starvation and body 

condition; debris ingestion by 

seabirds; predatory fish and most 

corals in good condition and 

stable.

The diminished condition of selected 

key resources may cause a measurable but not severe reduction in 

ecological function, but recovery is 

possible.

Intense research and monitoring 

target of key endangered species.

14

What are the levels of human 

activities that may influence living resource quality and how are 

they changing?

– Limited visitation.

Some potentially harmful activities exist, but they do not appear to have had 

a negative effect on living resource 

quality.

Through regulated activities visitation 

is monitored to ensure that impacts 

are minimized.

MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

15

What is the integrity of known 

maritime archaeological resources and how is it changing?

q Natural deterioration (physical, 

biological and chemical).

The diminished condition of selected 

archaeological resources has reduced, 

to some extent, their historical, 

scientific or educational value and 

may affect the eligibility of some sites 

for listing in the National Register of 

Historic Places.

Documentation of known sites. 

Ongoing surveys to identify new sites.

16

Do known maritime archaeological resources pose an 

environmental hazard and how is 

this threat changing?

– No known resources with hazardous cargos.

Known maritime archaeological 

resources pose few or no environmental threats.

Continued monitoring and exploration 

to locate potential threats.

17

What are the levels of human 

activities that may influence 

maritime archaeological resource 

quality and how are they 

changing?

p Few instances of resource 

removal or damage.

Few or no activities occur that are 

likely to negatively affect maritime 

archaeological resource integrity.

All activities are regulated by permits; 

known locations are protected by 

federal law; outreach and education 

increasing awareness of importance 

of protection.

Papahanaumokuakea Marine Monument Condition Summary Table (Continued)
Site History and Resources

6 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

Site History and Resources

The expansive ecosystems of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are among the few large-scale, intact, predator-dominated reef ecosystems left in the world, and one of the most remote (Figure 1). The area is comprised of small islands, islets and atolls and a complex 

array of shallow coral reefs, deepwater slopes, banks, seamounts, and abyssal and pelagic oceanic ecosystems supporting a diversity 

of marine life, 25 percent of which is endemic to the Hawaiian Archipelago (Eldredge and Miller 1994, Miller and Eldredge 1996, Randall 1992). 

The coral reefs of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are the foundation of an ecosystem that hosts a distinctive assemblage of marine mammals, fish, sea turtles, birds, algae and invertebrates, including species that are rare, threatened, endangered or have special legal protection 

status. The Census of Coral Reefs (2006) and Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program expeditions (between 

2000 and 2006) revealed many previously unreported and undescribed species of reef invertebrates and corals, evidence that the reefs within 

the monument have not been sufficiently explored and surveyed. Additional explorations and analyses are needed to adequately characterize 

and document rare habitats and species, especially vulnerable endemic species that may require special management (NMSP 2005).

Figure 1.Hawaiian Archipelago including the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Nihoa Island to Kure Atoll) and Main Hawaiian Islands (Islands of Hawai‘i 

to Kaua‘i). Inset shows the Hawaiian Archipelago in the Pacific Ocean.

Map: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

Location

A vast, remote and largely uninhabited marine region, the monument encompasses an area of 139,792 square miles of Pacific Ocean 

in the northwestern extent of the Hawaiian Archipelago. The monument is comprised of all lands, including emergent and submerged 

lands and waters of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and is approximately 1,382 miles long and 100 miles wide. The area includes 

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve, 

the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge/Battle of Midway National 
Site History and Resources

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 7

Memorial, the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, Kure Atoll 

Wildlife Sanctuary and the State of Hawaii Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine Refuge (71 FR 51134).

Designation

In 2000, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve was established by Presidential Executive Order with 

a mission to carry out coordinated and integrated management to 

achieve the primary purpose of strong and long-term protection of 

the marine ecosystems in their natural condition, as well as the perpetuation of Native Hawaiian cultural practices and the conservation 

of heritage resources of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. The Executive Orders that created the reserve in 2000 also initiated a process to designate the waters of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

as a federal national marine sanctuary. In 2006, after substantial public comment in support of strong protections for the area, President 

George W. Bush signed a proclamation creating the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument. The president’s actions afforded the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands our nation’s highest form of marine environmental protection. Subsequently, through 

an initiative put forth by the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Native 

Hawaiian Cultural Working Group, the monument was given the Hawaiian name, Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, in 

March 2007. The monument is co-managed by the Department of 

the Interior’s U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Department of Commerce’s National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 

and the State of Hawaii, and is now the single largest conservation 

area under the U.S. flag.

Early Settlement and Discovery

One of the most remarkable feats of open-ocean voyaging and 

settlement in all of human history was the movement of ancestral 

Oceanic people across the vast Pacific Ocean. The Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands were explored, colonized, and in some cases, permanently settled by Native Hawaiians in pre-contact times. Nihoa 

and Necker Island (Mokumanamana), the islands closest to the main 

Hawaiian Islands, have archaeological sites with agricultural, religious and habitation features (Figure 2). Based on radiocarbon data, 

it has been estimated that Nihoa and Necker Islands could have been 

inhabited from 1000 A.D. to 1700 A.D. In the Hawaiian Archipelago, 

the northwestern region contained the most peripheral islands that 

relied heavily on interaction and networking between core islands 

(the main Hawaiian Islands) as a social mechanism to help reduce 

the possibility of extinction of their geographically isolated populations (Emory 1928, Cleghorn 1988).

Though Hawaiian traditions retained the names of a handful of islands in the northwestern chain, regular contact had long ceased by 

the time Captain Cook’s two ships made the first European contact 

with the Hawaiian islands in 1778. Later, many of the reefs and atolls in 

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands were discovered by westerners in 

the 1800s either intentionally or when ships ran aground. Some of the 

locations, such as Maro Reef, Laysan Island, and Pearl and Hermes 

Atoll, received their historic names from the shipwrecked vessels. 

Referred to as the Küpuna (elder) Islands, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are ceded lands (crown lands belonging to the Hawaiian monarchy at the time Hawaii was annexed by the United States) 

and extremely important to the Native Hawaiian people. Their rich 

Figure 2. Stones placed several hundred years ago by Polynesian visitors 

at Mokumanamana, or Necker Island, for spiritual or navigational purposes.

Figure 3. Map of part of the Pacific basin showing the volcanic trail of the 

Hawaiian hotspot– 6,000-km-long Hawaiian Ridge-Emperor Seamounts chain.

Photo: Andy Collins, NOAA

Data source: ESRI® Data & Maps, 2004. Map produced by: Kaylene E. Keller
Site History and Resources

8 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

Figure 4. The Pacific plate slowly moves over the Hawaiian hotspot to the northwest 

at an average rate of 9.5 cm/yr. Kure atoll, the most northern emergent land, was formed 

approximately 30 million years ago (Wessel et al. 2006). The area directly over the hotspot 

is volcanically active. The activity decreases and eventually stops as the plate moves on. 

Diagram: NOAA Ocean Explorer

cultural resources inform us about the origins of Hawaii’s 

first people and hold great significance in Native Hawaiian culture and history. Myth and culture join in ancient 

oli (chant) and mele (song) telling of the fire goddess 

Pele and her family traversing the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and stopping at Mokumanamana on their 

way to the main Hawaiian Islands (NMSP 2005).

Geology

Over the past 70 million years or more, the combined 

processes of magma formation, volcano eruption and 

growth, and continued movement of the Pacific Plate 

over a magmatic “hotspot” have left a long trail of volcanoes across the Pacific Ocean floor (Figure 3). The Hawaiian Ridge-Emperor Seamount chain extends 3,728 

miles from the “Big Island” of Hawaii to the Aleutian and 

Kamchatka trenches off Alaska and Siberia respectively. The Hawaiian Islands themselves are a very small 

part of the chain and are the youngest islands in the 

immense, mostly submarine mountain chain composed 

of more than 80 volcanoes (Clague 1996).

 A sharp bend in the chain indicates that the motion 

of the Pacific Plate abruptly changed about 43 million years ago as it 

took a more westerly turn from its earlier northerly direction. The formation of the bend coincides with a major reorganization of northern 

Pacific seafloor spreading centers and the initiation of subduction at 

the Mariana arc-trench system (Sharp and Clague 2006).

As the Pacific Plate continues to move west-northwest, the Island 

of Hawaii will be carried beyond the hotspot by plate motion, setting the stage for the formation of a new volcanic island in its place 

(Figure 4). Loihi Seamount, an active submarine volcano, is forming 

about 22 miles off the southern coast of Hawaii. Loihi already has 

risen about two miles above the ocean floor to within one mile of the 

ocean surface. According to the hotspot theory, assuming Loihi continues to grow, it will become the next island in the Hawaiian chain. 

In the geologic future, Loihi may eventually become fused with the 

Island of Hawaii, which itself is composed of five volcanoes knitted 

together: Kohala, Mauna Kea, Hualalai, Mauna Loa and Kilauea.

The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands constitute the northwest 

three-fourths of the vast chain of the Hawaiian Archipelago. Moving 

northwest from the main Hawaiian Islands, this stretch of emergent 

lands is characterized as small rocky islands, banks, atolls, coral islands and reefs, which become progressively older moving from east 

to west. The reefs are some of the healthiest and least disturbed 

coral reefs remaining and make up one of the very last large-scale, 

predator-dominated coral reef ecosystem on the planet. Over millennia, invertebrate animals and algae have constructed massive reefs 

in the shallow seas surrounding the islands. Coral animals and coralline algae, initially attached to the basalt of the ancient volcanoes, 

accreted gradually by secreting skeletons of calcium carbonate. The 

basaltic islands eventually eroded away and subsided under their 

own massive weight. However, the upward growth of the coral reefs 

has kept pace with the gradual sinking of the volcanic remnants, 

leaving the reefs we see today.

Due to the remote locale of the reefs of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands dispersal and recruitment of reef species from the 

rest of the Pacific is an uncommon event. Long periods of isolation 

for the survivors led to the evolution of species distinct from those 

that evolved independently on the host reefs, resulting in the highest 

levels of marine endemism recorded for a large archipelago in the 

world (Randall 1992, Eldredge and Miller 1994, Miller and Eldredge 

1996). Surveys and explorations to date have yet to adequately 

characterize the actual degree of endemism in the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands, especially for reef invertebrates, corals and algae 

(NMSP 2005).

Water: Oceanographic Conditions

Ocean currents transport and distribute larvae among and between different atolls, islands and submerged banks of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and also provide the mechanism by which 

species are distributed to and from the main Hawaiian Islands, as 

well as far distant regions. Upper ocean currents in the Northwestern 
Site History and Resources

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 9

Hawaiian Islands are highly variable in both speed and direction, being dominated by eddy variability. Averaged over time, the resultant 

mean flow of the surface waters tends to flow predominantly from 

east to west in response to the prevailing northeast tradewinds (Firing et al. 2004).

Significant wave events vary over interannual (between year) and 

decadal time scales, which can also determine distributions of species of corals and algae and their associated fish and invertebrate 

assemblages. Interannually, some years experience greater or lesser amounts of cumulative wave energy or numbers of extreme wave 

events than other years (Figure 5). This apparent decadal variability 

of wave power is possibly related to well-documented Pacific Decadal Oscillation events, which are a mode of North Pacific climate 

variability at multi-decadal time scales that has widespread climate 

and ecosystem impacts (Mantua et al. 1997).

The coral reefs of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, particularly 

Kure, Midway, and Pearl and Hermes Atolls at the northwestern end 

of the archipelago, are exposed to large seasonal temperature fluctuations. Sea surface temperatures at these northerly atolls range 

from less than 18°C in late winter of some years (17°C in 1997) to 

highs exceeding 28°C in the late summer months of some years 

(29°C in 2002). Compared with most reef ecosystems around the 

globe, these fluctuations are extremely high. While the summer temperatures are generally similar along the entire Northwestern Hawaiian Islands chain, the winter temperatures tend to be 3-7°C cooler 

at the northerly atolls than at the southerly islands and banks as the 

subtropical front migrates southward.

Satellite observations reveal a significant chlorophyll front associated with the subtropical front, with high chlorophyll north of the front 

and oligotrophic waters south of the front. These observations reveal 

significant seasonal and interannual migrations of the front northward during the summer months and southward during the winter 

months (Seki et al. 2002). The southward migration of the subtropical 

front generally brings these high-chlorophyll waters into the northern 

portions of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. During some years, 

these winter migrations of the subtropical front extend southward to 

include the southern end of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Additional evidence suggests decadal scale movements in the southward extent of the subtropical front (Friedlander et al. 2005).

Habitat

The monument is comprised of a complex array of reef, slope, 

bank, seamount, abyssal and pelagic marine environments. The 

healthy and extensive shallow-water coral reefs encompass over 

4,450 square miles of shallow-water coral reef habitat. Pearl and 

Hermes Atoll, French Frigate Shoals, Maro Reef, and Lisianski Island have the most extensive near-shore reefs (Figure 6). Gardner 

Pinnacles, Lisianski Island, Maro Reef and Necker Island have the 

most extensive shallow-water bank areas (NOAA 1998).

 Within the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, the reefs differ in coral 

cover and species organization. This vast, shallow-water coral reef 

ecosystem supports a dynamic system of marine species. Up to 25 

percent of the shallow-water organisms found in the Hawaiian Islands 

are endemic, or are found nowhere else on earth. It has been hypothesized that the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands act as stepping stones 

Figure 5.Time series of wave power computed from wave data from 

NOAA Buoy #51001 located near Nihoa Island in the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands. Data courtesy of NOAA Data Buoy Center.

Figure 6.Table corals, such as these Acropora are common throughout 

the tropical Pacific and at French Frigate Shoals, but absent in the main 

Hawaiian Islands.

Source: Friedlander et al. 2005

Photo: James Watt
Site History and Resources

10 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

and reservoirs for organisms found in the main Hawaiian 

Islands, just as their predecessors in the Emperor Seamounts may have served as the stepping stones for the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NOS 2003).

The monument is also comprised of a unique system of terrestrial environments, which will be mentioned but not expanded upon in this report. Many of 

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands islets and atolls 

have been relatively untouched by humans. Nihoa Island is one of the most biologically pristine islands in 

the Pacific and probably most closely represents the 

original island appearance and native species found 

before humans arrived in the Hawaiian Islands, although recent infestations of alien grasshoppers periodically threaten the vegetation and other terrestrial 

wildlife. Many of the islands provide breeding sites for 

numerous central Pacific seabirds that nest in burrows 

and cliffs, on the ground, and in trees and shrubs. For 

some species, these tiny specks of land provide their 

only breeding sites.

Living Resources

The coral reefs of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are inhabited by at least 57 species of coral species, 355 algae species and 

many invertebrate species. Thorough and systematic explorations 

will likely add to these numbers. This diversity and species richness 

now exceeds that of the main Hawaiian Islands. Indeed, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands host an exceptionally high number of endemic corals and algae (Maragos et al. 2004).

The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands ecosystems play an important 

role in supporting a host of marine mammals. Hawaiian monk seals 

(Figure 7), and Hawaiian spinner and bottlenose dolphins are resident 

species that occur within these ecosystems during the entire year. 

Transient species such as spotted dolphins, humpback whales and 

numerous other cetaceans occur seasonally within the monument.

The endemic Hawaiian monk seal, the most endangered marine 

mammal in the United States, is the only seal dependent upon coral 

reefs for its existence. The first range-wide beach counts of monk 

seals occurred in the late 1950s. Due to a 50 percent decline discovered in beach counts, the Hawaiian monk seal was listed as endangered throughout its range in 1976. NOAA Fisheries designated critical habitat for the Hawaiian monk seal from shore out to 20 fathoms 

throughout the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands in May 1988. Since 

that time additional research has indicated that the seals also forage 

in very deep waters on offshore banks and seamounts (Parrish et al. 

2002). In recent years the seal population has continued to decline. 

Beach counts are used as an index of the population, and in 2008 the 

mean number of seals older than pups observed in beach counts at 

the six major NWHI subpopulations was a little over 300 seals (NMFS 

unpublished data). An estimated 1,100 to 1,200 animals remain 

throughout the island chain (Carretta et al. 2008).

The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are an important nesting 

habitat for the threatened green sea turtle, which occupies three habitat types: open beaches, open sea and shallow, protected waters 

(Figure 8). Eastern Island at French Frigate Shoals alone accounts 

for more than 80 percent of the nesting population for the entire archipelago. Upon hatching, the young turtles crawl from the beach 

and swim over shallow reef areas and extensive shoal areas to the 

open ocean. When their shells grow 8 to10 inches long, they move 

to shallow feeding grounds over coral reefs and rocky bottoms. Age 

at sexual maturity is estimated at 20 to 50 years. While the green 

sea turtle is a resident species, the endangered leatherback, the endangered olive ridley, and the threatened loggerhead sea turtles are 

considered transient species that occur seasonally in this expansive 

area. The endangered hawksbill turtle is also a resident in Hawaii, 

with small nesting populations near the southeast end of the archipelago and with feeding populations throughout the islands.

The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands support some unique species 

of marine life that are also found in geographically distant ecosystems. It is believed that the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are linked 

to these ecosystems via associated seamounts and the island groups 

adjacent to them. Some of these unique fish species commonly 

Figure 7.The Hawaiian monk seal is the second most endangered marine mammal in 

the world, after its close relative, the Mediterranean monk seal. 

Photo: James Watt
Site History and Resources

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 11

found on the reefs in the monument, such as the slingjaw wrasse, the 

masked angelfish and the knifejaw are rare elsewhere in the Hawaiian archipelago. The total number of species in the Northwest Hawaiian Islands is unknown, but initial sampling indicates the presence of 

approximately 260 fish species at Midway alone (Randall 1992).

Structurally, apex predators, such as sharks and jacks, dominate 

fish communities on the reefs. In addition, abundance and biomass 

estimates indicate that the reef community is characterized by fewer 

herbivores, such as surgeonfishes, and more carnivores, such as 

damselfishes, goatfishes and scorpionfishes. The value of these exquisite reef communities extends beyond the intrinsic; they also have 

the potential to hedge against fisheries collapses in the main Hawaiian 

Islands by potentially serving as a source of recruits and propagules.

The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are home to millions of seabirds and the largest seabird rookery under unified management in 

the Pacific. Four endangered endemic bird species, Laysan duck, 

Laysan finch, Nihoa finch and Nihoa millerbird, breed on the islands 

along with approximately 14 million seabirds of 22 species.

The coral reefs of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands support diverse communities of benthic macroinvertebrates. Mollusks, crustaceans and echinoderms dominate the non-coral invertebrate fauna in 

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, which is typical for most coral reef 

communities. As many as 600 species of macroinvertebrates were 

identified at French Frigate Shoals alone on the 2000 Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program expedition, with more than 250 species (not including marine snails) reported 

as new records. In October 2006, a Census of Coral Reefs (2006) 

expedition to French Frigate Shoals returned with numerous species 

that have yet to be identified. More than 100 new species records are 

expected from this expedition (NMSP 2005, Friedlander et al. 2005). 

Maritime Archaeological Resources

The Hawaiian Islands have a rich maritime history (Figure 9). During 

the late 18th and early 19th centuries, European and American traders 

began to call at the main Hawaiian Islands, and by 1825, Honolulu became the most important port in the Pacific. During the 19th and 20th 

centuries, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands experienced a series of 

extractive activities, including fishing, guano mining, shipwreck salvage 

cruises, bird poaching (feathers), and pearl oyster collection, as well 

as commercial exploitation of other marine and terrestrial wildlife. The 

geographic location of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands became increasingly important to commercial and military planners. The opening 

of the Japan Whaling grounds in 1820 sent ships through the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands in pursuit of whale oil. Midway was claimed 

by the U.S. government in 1867 and by the turn of the century had become an important transpacific cable station and stopping point for the 

flying “Clippers” carrying passengers and mail between San Francisco 

and Manila. In 1940, the U.S. Navy constructed the Pacific Naval Air 

Base, and subsequently a submarine base, at Midway. During World 

War II, patrol vessels were stationed at most of the islands and atolls.

Figure 8.Green sea turtles are found around most of the islands in the 

Hawaiian Archipelago. Their primary nesting site is at French Frigate 

Shoals. 

Figure 9. Bow of the USS Macaw ASR-11, which was a 250-foot salvage 

and rescue ship. During salvage operations in 1944, the Macaw ran aground 

and subsequently sank during a powerful storm.

Photo: James Watt

Photo: James Watt
Site History and Resources

12 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

 The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands have been a veritable graveyard of marine disaster. The low, inconspicuous character of the 

islands and their faulty or insufficient location on marine charts, in 

conjunction with the numerous activities that have occurred over the 

past few centuries have left a scattered maritime legacy around and 

on the islands, including shipwrecks and sunken naval aircraft. Currently, there are 60 known shipwreck sites among the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands. The earliest sites discovered so far include the 

whaling ships Pearl and Hermes dating back to 1822. Combined 

with known aircraft, there are a total of 127 known potential maritime 

resource sites (Van Tilburg 2002). Twenty of these sites have been 

confirmed by field survey including five 19th century whaling ships, 

which represent an important period of whaling history in the Pacific. 

Many of these heritage resources, as defined by State and Federal 

Preservation Laws, are of historical and national significance. Some 

of these ship and aircraft wreck sites fall into the category of war 

graves associated with major historic events, such as the Battle of 

Midway in June 1942. They are a physical record of past activities in 

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and embody unique aspects of 

Island and Pacific history.

Native Hawaiian Cultural Resources

Indigenous Hawaiians have a connection to and interest in the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, which is documented in their oral 

and written histories, genealogies, spirituality, songs and dance. 

Polynesians traveled thousands of miles over hundreds of years 

in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and there is archaeological 

evidence of human habitation on Nihoa over a period of 500 to 700 

years (Figure 10). There are also recorded visits to these islands 

by the monarchs of the Hawaiian Nation, which extended out to the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. 

In Hawaiian traditions, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are considered a sacred place, a region of primordial darkness from which 

life springs and spirits return after death (Kikiloi 2006). According to 

Hawaiian traditional practices, in which responsibilities are inherited 

from ancestors, ancestral deities, and a multitude of gods, and also in 

accordance with perpetual indigenous Hawaiian sovereign authority, 

indigenous people of Hawaii have inherited inalienable duties to care 

for and protect the “body forms” that preceded them in the evolutionary process. These body forms include coral polyps, seaweed, fish, 

all other ocean life forms, birds, and islands. Connections to these 

body forms are genealogically based. They are all ancestors, connected to the Hawaiian people in space, time and spiritual energy. 

Therefore, indigenous people of Hawaii have the responsibility to 

honor and protect their ancestors who reside in the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands in their multitude of forms (NMSP 2005).

Figure 10. Archaeological evidence of human habitation on Nihoa. 

Also in photo is a red-footed boobie.

Photo: Andy Collins, NOAA
Pressures on Monument Resources

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 13

Figure 12. Sand (forefront) and Eastern Islands at Midway Atoll, the site 

of a U.S. naval air facility during the World War II and Cold War eras, before Midway was transferred to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1996. 

Numerous human activities and natural events and processes affect the condition of natural and archaeological resources in marine 

environments. This section describes the nature and extent of the most prominent pressures on the monument.

gear catches on organisms of the remote reefs and atolls of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, it begins a process of destructive activity.

Coastal and Terrestrial Pollution

Past uses of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands have left a 

legacy of contamination on many of the atolls. The Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands have hosted an array of polluting human activities 

including guano mining, fishing camps, U.S. Coast Guard LORAN 

stations, various Cold War military missions, and U.S. Navy airfields 

and bases (Figure 12). Contamination at all these sites includes 

onshore and offshore debris such as batteries (lead and mercury), 

PCB-containing transformers, capacitors, and barrels of petroleum 

and other chemicals. Many of the common contaminants biomagnify 

so that small amounts found in sediment can result in significant concentrations in upper trophic levels.

 Several areas of contamination have been identified in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and include the following (Friedlander et 

al. 2005):

■ Kure and French Frigate Shoals both have point sources of PCBs 

due to former U.S. Coast Guard LORAN stations. While the U.S. 

Coast Guard has mounted limited cleanup actions at both sites, 

contamination remains and is found in island soils and in nearshore sediments and biota.

Pressures on the Monument

Marine Pollution

Marine Debris

Many reefs in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and throughout 

the Pacific have been inundated with large amounts of debris lost by 

North Pacific commercial fishing operations or dispersed from other 

marine or terrestrial sources. These objects degrade reef health by 

abrading, poisoning, smothering and dislodging corals and other 

benthic organisms, and entangling fish, marine mammals, crustaceans and other mobile species. Marine debris containing hazardous 

materials such as pesticides, petroleum, toxic chemicals and phosphorus flares washes up on the beaches of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and is a danger to wildlife and humans. It is unknown how 

much of these toxic compounds are released from the debris while 

floating in the marine environment. Marine debris and derelict fishing 

gear hinder the recovery of the critically endangered Hawaiian monk 

seal and threatened sea turtles through entanglement, drowning and 

suffocation (NMSP 2005). 

 The North Pacific Subtropical Convergence Zone provides a 

mechanism for derelict fishing gear and other marine debris either lost 

or discarded throughout the Pacific Rim to accumulate in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Figure 11). Under certain conditions, this 

convergence zone moves to encompass the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands and deposits tons of net and line on these shallow reef systems. 

Derelict gear may circulate for years in ocean gyres and currents until 

it snags on a shoal. The extensive shallow reefs of the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands are ideal for such debris settlement. Once derelict 

Figure 11. Derelict fishing gear at Midway Atoll. 

Photo: Susie Holst

Photo: Hawaii Wildlife Fund
Pressures on Monument Resources

14 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

■ Tern Island, a part of the French Frigate Shoals atoll, was formed into 

a runway to serve as a refueling stop for planes enroute to Midway 

during World War II and served as the site of various Cold War missions. Leaking underground storage tanks were a source of petroleum contamination until removed by the Army Corps of Engineers.

■ The U.S. Navy built a naval air facility and submarine base at 

Midway Atoll and during base reduction and closure identified and 

cleaned up numerous sites contaminated with petroleum, pesticides, PCBs and metals. While most known areas were remediated, several areas, including unlined eroding landfills, warrant 

continued monitoring for potential releases. 

■ Plutonium from the aboveground nuclear tests in the 1960s at 

Johnston Atoll has been detected in corals 700 miles to the north 

at French Frigate Shoals.

Climate Change and Coral Bleaching

Climatic events play an important role in the ecosystem productivity of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Fluctuations in the 

abundances of monk seals, reef fishes and chlorophyll have been 

documented from the early 1980s to the present and may be associated with multidecadal climate oscillations. While severe tropical 

storms or typhoons are rare, winter storms are common, resulting 

in a noticeable increase in winds and high seas that impact the reef 

system. 

 Problems associated with increased sea surface temperatures 

have been reported in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Sea surface 

temperature information obtained from NOAA demonstrated that water 

temperatures at Midway rose nearly two degrees centigrade over the 

usual summer maxima in August of 2002. Corresponding with this warm 

water event, substantial coral bleaching was observed—a process 

whereby coral colonies lose their color due to the expulsion of symbiotic 

microscopic algae (zooxanthellae) from most coral tissues—on reefs 

at the three northwestern most atolls: Kure, Midway, and Pearl and 

Hermes (Figure 13). At the three northern atolls, bleaching was most 

severe on the backreef, moderate in the lagoon, and low on the deeper 

forereef (Kenyon et al. 2006). No significant bleaching was found the 

following year during surveys conducted in July 2003. Substantial coral 

bleaching at several reef systems was confirmed in the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands during surveys conducted in September and October 2004 (Kenyon and Brainard 2006). Military construction, including 

the dredging of a ship channel and filling for the airfields, dramatically 

changed water levels and circulation in the Midway lagoon, and may 

have exacerbated the effects of 2002 and 2004 lagoon coral bleaching. At Pearl and Hermes Atoll and Midway Atoll, bleaching was most 

pronounced in the shallow backreef habitat. The incidence of bleaching 

in the shallow backreef habitat at Kure, the northernmost atoll in the 

Hawaiian Archipelago, was less than that at Pearl and Hermes and at 

Midway (NMSP 2005, Friedlander et al. 2005, Hoeke et al. 2006)

Climate models predict that global average sea level may rise 

considerably this century, potentially affecting species that rely on 

coastal habitat. Most of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are low 

lying and therefore potentially vulnerable to increases in global average sea level. The effects of habitat loss on Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands biota are difficult to predict, but may be greatest for endangered Hawaiian monk seals and threatened Hawaiian green sea 

turtles at Pearl and Hermes Reef (Baker et al. 2006).

Diseases

There has been a worldwide increase in the reports of diseases 

affecting marine organisms. However, the factors contributing to 

disease outbreaks are poorly understood due to lack of information 

on normal disease levels in the ocean. The Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands are considered to be one of the last relatively pristine large 

coral reef ecosystems remaining in the world. As such, it provides 

the unique opportunity to document what may be the normal levels 

of disease in a coral reef system exposed to limited human influence 

(Friedlander et al. 2005, Harvell et al. 1999).

Recent studies in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands have begun to document baseline levels of coral and fish disease (Work 

et al. 2004, Aeby 2006) (http://www.hawaii.edu/HIMB/HawaiiCoralDisease/) (Figure 14). Tumors, as well as lesions associated with 

parasites, ciliates, bacteria and fungi, have been found on a number 

of coral species. During a 2003 survey of 73 sites throughout the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, evidence of coral disease was found 

at very low levels at 68.5 percent of the sites across all regions. The 

Figure 13. Partially bleached Porites sp. coral in the monument. 

Photo: NOAA
Pressures on Monument Resources

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 15

overall average prevalence of disease (number of diseased colonies/

total number of colonies) was estimated at 0.5 percent (range 0-7.1 

percent) compared to the average prevalence of disease of 0.95 percent in the main Hawaiian Islands. The prevalence of disease varies 

among different genera of coral with the highest prevalence in species of the genera Porites and Acropora. Recent disease observed 

on giant table corals at French Frigate Shoals may have spread from 

Johnston Atoll about 520 miles to the south (Friedlander et al. 2005).

In the Hawaiian Archipelago, more than 50 percent of endangered 

Hawaiian green sea turtles nest at East Island, French Frigate Shoals 

in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Green sea turtles are affected by 

fibropapillomatosis, a disease that causes tumors in turtles. Although 

most cases of the disease in the Hawaiian Islands have been observed 

in the main Hawaiian Islands, green sea turtles are highly migratory. The 

prevalence of fibropapillomatosis in the Hawaiian green turtle population was estimated at 40 to 60 percent, with the majority of cases found 

among juvenile turtles. The majority of recent turtle strandings are by 

juvenile turtles with the disease (Work et al. 2004). As such, fibropapillomatosis may pose a significant threat to the long-term survival of the 

species (Quackenbush et al. 2001, NMFS and USFWS 1998).

Alien Species

Alien species can be defined as organisms that are not native to 

a particular ecosystem and have been accidentally or deliberately 

introduced to an area outside of their historic geographic range. An 

invasive species is one that demonstrates rapid growth and spread, 

invades habitats, and displaces native organisms. A total of 11 introduced invertebrate, fish and algal species have been recorded in the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and are generally low in number and 

impact. One potential exception to this is the coral disease observed 

on table coral which has an unknown source and may possibly be 

caused by an alien (introduced) species. Alien species may be introduced unintentionally by vessels, marine debris or aquaculture, or 

intentionally, as in the case of some species of groupers, snappers 

and algae. Eleven species of shallow-water snappers and groupers 

were purposely introduced to one or more of the main Hawaiian Islands in the late 1950s (Randall 1987). Presently, two of these introduced fish, the ta’ape (Lutajanus kasmira) and the roi (Cephalopholis 

argus) are now established in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. 

Populations of alien marine species that have already colonized 

areas of the main Hawaiian Islands represent the most likely source 

of invasive species in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Most can 

be found from littoral zones to deep water coral beds. The few alien 

species known from the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are mostly restricted to areas of higher human activity at Midway Atoll and 

French Frigate Shoals (Godwin et al. 2005).

Though not all introduced species will become invasive, those 

that do could have some of the following potential environmental impacts to the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (State of Hawaii 2003): 

■ loss of native biodiversity;

■ functional changes of freshwater, other inland waters, and nearshore marine ecosystems;

■ alterations in nutrient cycling pathways; and

■ decreased water quality.

Fishing

Between 1750 and the 1920s, western explorers harvested monk 

seals, whales, fish, seabirds and guano from various parts of the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. More recently, the history of fishing 

and other resource extractive uses included the overexploitation of 

the indigenous black-lipped pearl oyster (1928 to 1930), the beginning of a commercial fishing fleet (1930s to 1940s), a cessation of 

commercial uses during World War II, a resumption of commercial 

fishing (1945 to 1960) during which Tern Island was used as a transshipment point for fresh fish flown to Honolulu, and a proliferation of 

foreign fishing vessels from Japan to Russia (1965 to 1977). Currently fishery management plans exist for precious corals, bottomfish, pelagics, crustaceans and coral reef fisheries, however, the only 

active fishery is for bottomfish.

The recent Presidential Proclamation that established the monument determined that commercial fishing for bottomfish and associated 

pelagic species may continue within the monument until June 15, 2011. 

The proclamation established caps for total landings for each fishing 

year at 350,000 pounds for bottomfish species and 180,000 pounds for 

Figure 14. Differences in overall prevalence of disease among coral 

genera in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. 

Source: G. Aeby, unpublished data

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

Acropora Montipora Porites Pocillopora

% Prevalence of Disease

Genera
Pressures on Monument Resources

16 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

pelagic species. After June 15, 2011, commercial fishing for bottomfish 

and associated pelagic species will be prohibited in the monument. 

Commercial Bottomfish

The federally permitted Northwestern Hawaiian Islands commercial bottomfish fishery has been regulated under the current management regime since 1986 (Figure 15). The fishery targets deepwater 

(generally > 75-100 fm) snappers, and one endemic species of grouper (WPRFMC 2004). The allowable gear and fishing requirements 

were designed to minimize habitat impacts and maintain by-catch 

levels of approximately 25 percent (WPRFMC 1986, NMSP 2004b). 

Fishing effort in the main Hawaiian Islands is the major stress 

on the bottomfish fishery in the Hawaiian archipelago. However, in 

2002, data suggested that fishing effort had exceeded acceptable 

levels in the Mau zone, one of two fishing zones established in the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Data from the following year indicated that overfishing was no longer occurring in the Mau zone, and 

currently there is no reason to believe that the fishing mortality metrics for either of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands’ zones (Mau or 

Ho’omalu) will change significantly in the future. Nonetheless, it has 

been recognized that the assessment methods rely heavily on fishery-dependent data sets that lack information on important segments 

of the population. As such, a Bottomfish Stock Assessment Panel 

was convened by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management 

Council in January 2004 to develop a plan to improve data collection 

and assessment methodologies (NMSP 2004b).

Commercial Pelagic Fisheries

Trolling

A very small number of commercial pelagic trolling fishermen 

have recently operated in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. These 

fishermen do not have federal fishing permits, as the fishery management plan for pelagic species does not regulate this small fleet. 

The fishermen operated under a State of Hawaii commercial marine 

license that enabled them to sell their catch legally. 

Hawaii’s commercial pelagic fishery is divided into four distinct types 

of fisheries: pole and line (aku) boats, handline (ika shibi and palu ahi) 

boats, pelagic trolling boats, and pelagic longline (swordfish and tuna) 

boats. Of these, pelagic trolling is the most popular statewide, with 90 

percent of the participants and 50 percent of the small boat landings 

(WPRFMC 2003). The Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, Division of Aquatic Resources has records for nine commercial 

pelagic trolling vessels fishing in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands between 1991 and 2000. The current fishing gear and methods have little 

to no impact on the habitat and have very low levels of bycatch. However, 

activities associated with fishing vessels, such as anchoring, could damage submerged historic shipwreck and aircraft sites (NMSP 2004b).

Longlining

Commercial pelagic longlining was prohibited within 50 nautical miles 

of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands in 1991 because of interactions with 

endangered and threatened species within the Protected Species Zone.

Figure 15. Bottomfish fisheries are divided into management subareas in the Hawaiian 

Archipelago. As of 2003, five 

bottomfish vessels operate in the 

Mau Zone, and four operate in 

Source: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

the Ho’omalu Zone.
Pressures on Monument Resources

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 17

Commercial Lobster Fishery

The now-closed, commercial lobster fishery began in 1976 (Figure 16). Advances in trap design and processing techniques led to a 

steady increase in total landings. Catch per unit effort (lobsters per 

trap) declined dramatically between 1983 and 1987. In 1991, NOAA 

Fisheries issued an emergency closure of the fishery. Reasons for 

closure included: (1) a decrease in catch per unit effort below acceptable levels; (2) indications of sporadic or poor recruitment events; 

and (3) an indication that the spawning stock biomass was at 22 

percent of pre-exploitation levels, which was close to the 20 percent 

definition of overfishing (NMSP 2004b).

The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands lobster fishery was closed 

in 2000 by both federal court order related to the National Environmental Policy Act and protected species issues, and by NOAA 

Fisheries to protect lobster stocks because of: (1) shortcomings in 

understanding the dynamics of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

lobster populations; (2) uncertainty in population model parameter 

estimates; and (3) the lack of appreciable rebuilding of the lobster 

population despite significant reductions in fishing effort throughout 

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Additionally, there was some 

concern at the time that the lobster fishery could impact juvenile 

monk seal foraging success. However, dietary studies of monk seals 

have been inconclusive because they were initiated too late to assess the extent to which adult seals or pups forage for lobsters. The 

Presidential Proclamation of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands as 

a marine national monument has determined that any commercial 

lobster fishing permit shall be subject to a zero annual harvest, which 

effectively closes the lobster fishery in perpetuity (NMSP 2004b).

Recreational and Sport Fishing Activities

Recreational catch and keep fishing is prohibited in the monument. Recreational fishing had previously taken place in the vicinity 

of Nihoa Island, based on reports of pelagic spearfishing and recreational trolling by fishermen from the main Hawaiian Islands. Catch 

and effort data is unavailable for this fishing activity.

Historical Trade in Coral and Reef Species

The harvest of live rock and live coral is currently prohibited 

throughout the Hawaiian Archipelago by both state and federal regulations (WPRFMC 2001). The harvest of other coral reef species has 

been prohibited in federal waters of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands since the establishment of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve in 2000 by Executive Order.

 No domestic or commercial precious coral fishery has ever 

operated in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, although a fishery 

management plan was issued in 1981. One permit was issued to 

harvest coral under an experimental fishing permit, but the venture 

was unsuccessful. Although harvest of coral reef species such as 

black-lipped pearl oysters (Figure 17), turtles and reef fish occurred 

in the early and mid-1900s, coral reef species are no longer commercially harvested in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NMSP 

2004b).

Figure 16. Commercial Lobster Catch Per Unit Effort (all species) in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Diagram: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, based on data from 

DiNardo and Marshall 2001
Pressures on Monument Resources

18 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

Other Fishing Activities

A short-lived commercial fishing operation involving a single vessel 

using bottom longlines to catch sharks was conducted at French Frigate Shoals and nearby banks in the year 2000. During one 21-day fishing trip, this vessel caught 990 sharks in the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands consisting mainly of sand-bar sharks at 69 percent, Galapagos 

sharks at 18 percent, and tiger sharks at 10 percent (Vatter 2003).

Recreational fishing and Native Hawaiian sustenance fishing previously had been at low levels. Sustenance fishing included fishing 

for pelagic reef and bottomfish species using trolling, handline, and 

pole and line fishing techniques. Sustenance fishing has taken place 

aboard research, U.S. Coast Guard and military vessels. This type 

of fishing is also believed to occur from transiting vessels, including 

sailboats, although no data exists to confirm this assumption. Fishing 

effort and landings are currently undocumented, but efforts have been 

made to collect this information from NOAA ships. NOAA conducted 

a pilot sustenance fishing survey on all NOAA permitted vessels in 

2005-2006. Voluntary reporting indicated that very few fish were 

caught during the time surveyed. The Presidential Proclamation allows for sustenance fishing and defines it as fishing for bottomfish or 

pelagic species in which all catch is consumed within the monument, 

and that is incidental to an activity permitted by the monument. Some 

illegal foreign fishing activities have also been known to occur around 

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Regulations are enforced primarily by the U.S. Coast Guard, but enforcement is difficult primarily due 

to the size of the monument.

Vessel Hazards and Groundings

Hazards to shipping and other forms of maritime traffic are inherent 

in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands’ 1,200 miles of islands, islets, 

shallow submerged reefs and shoals. The region is exposed to open 

ocean weather and sea conditions all year, punctuated by severe 

winter storm and wave events. Vessel groundings and the release of 

fuel, cargo, rats and other items pose real threats to the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands. The region contains 127 known potential maritime 

resource sites. Some represent environmental threats, while others 

consist chiefly of marine debris and are of little specific value. Wrecks 

of historic sailing vessels in high energy environments are considered 

artifact “scatter sites,” and do not pose an immediate or critical threat 

to their surroundings. More modern shipwrecks, such as the fishing 

vessels Hoei Maru #5 and Paradise Queen II at Kure, or the tanker 

Mission San Miguel at Maro Reef, are greater threats to reef ecosystems. Mechanical damage from the initial grounding, subsequent 

redeposition of wreck material by storm surge, fishing gear damage to 

reef and species, and fuel, oil or hazardous contents are all issues to 

be considered. In some cases it may be more detrimental to remove 

the grounded vessel than to leave it where it is, and this option must 

be weighed when deciding how to respond to these threats.

 In 1998, the Paradise Queen II ran aground at Kure Atoll, spilling 

11,000 gallons of diesel fuel and 500 gallons of hydraulic fluids and oil. 

The vessel also lost 3,000 pounds of frozen lobster tails, 4,000 pounds 

of bait, 11 miles of lobster pot mainline, and 1,040 lead-weighted plastic 

lobster traps. Traps rolling around in the surf broke coral and coralline 

algal structures. In 2000, researchers found broken coral, 600 lobster 

traps, and the bodies of two monk seals among piles of nets surrounding the decaying wheelhouse (USFWS 2000). Also in 2000, the 85-foot 

longliner Swordman I, carrying more than 6,000 gallons of diesel fuel 

and hydraulic oil, ran aground at Pearl and Hermes Reef in 2000. Vessel Monitoring System technology allowed agents to track the disaster 

and quickly send out equipment for a clean-up, costs for which the government had to sue to recover. Since 1976, at least 15 vessels have run 

aground in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Among these are two 

recent incidences: the M/V Casitas (Figure 18) was engaged in marine 

debris removal when it ran aground at Pearl and Hermes Reef, and the 

S/V Grendel is thought to have been adrift without a pilot when it landed 

on the reef at Kure atoll (NMSP 2005, Friedlander et al. 2005). 

Figure 18. M/V Casitas aground at Pearl and Hermes Reef, July 2005.

Photo: USCG

Figure 17. Black-lipped pearl oysters, at one time very common, were 

harvested in the late 1920s to make buttons from their shells.

Photo: NOAA
Pressures on Monument Resources

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 19

Figure 19. Tern Island at French Frigate Shoals, which was enlarged 

during World War II to create an air strip. Today the island is part of the 

Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, operated year-round as a field 

station by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and seasonally visited by 

NOAA Fisheres marine mammal and sea turtle scientists and U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service seabird biologists and volunteers.

Photo: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Tourism and Recreation

Due to the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands’ isolation, tourism and 

recreational activities have historically been extremely limited. Midway Atoll has served as a base for an ecotourism operation conducted under the auspices of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service since 

1996. Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge accommodates visitor 

use such as historic preservation service projects, guided tours, diving and snorkeling trips, and fishing operations (extraction and nonextraction). In addition, Midway Atoll has been a destination for a 

limited number of cruise ships. For the past three years, one cruise 

ship per year has visited Midway (Barry Christenson [Manager, Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge], pers. comm.) However, visitor 

use in recent years has been minimal due to the lack of routine, affordable air charter service to and from Midway Atoll National Wildlife 

Refuge. With plans for future tourist activities around Midway Atoll, 

historic shipwreck sites in the vicinity may become more vulnerable 

to impacts from divers and snorkelers. Impacts include artifact removal and damage from improper diving techniques. Many of these 

impacts can be mitigated with education and outreach efforts that inform visitors of site preservation protocols (Friedlander et al. 2005).

Possible impacts from tourism at Midway include disturbance 

to nesting seabirds, Hawaiian monk seals, green sea turtles, spinner dolphins, fish and marine invertebrates. Visitor programs will be 

provided with orientation materials and will be subject to restrictions 

(e.g. 150 ft. approach distance for seals) intended to minimize impacts to wildlife (USFWS 2006). 

Coastal Development

Coastal development in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands has 

consisted of infrastructure to support a guano mining operation at 

Laysan Island a century ago, naval base construction at Midway and 

French Frigate Shoals during the first half of the 20th century, and 

U.S. Coast Guard LORAN station construction and operations at 

Kure and French Frigate Shoals for several decades following World 

War II. The Midway Naval Air Station supported several hundred to 

several thousand soldiers and dependents during pre- to post-World 

War II. Navigation channels for the naval bases at Midway and were 

dredged during the middle of the 20th century. These types of coastal 

development activities alter current flow and shoreline configuration 

and, as a result, may significantly alter coastal erosion patterns. Operation of housing and other facilities in the past has contributed to 

point and nonpoint sources of pollution to the marine environment.

 Since the closure of Navy and U.S. Coast Guard facilities, coastal 

development activities have been limited to small-scale conversion 

of abandoned U.S. Coast Guard buildings on Tern Island at French 

Frigate Shoals and Green Island at Kure to wildlife research stations 

(Figure 19). The only recent coastal construction has been the repair 

of the seawall protecting Tern Island’s small runway and buildings 

and construction of a small boat ramp at French Frigate Shoals in 

2004. Current human population levels are limited to a few workers 

and volunteers at wildlife stations operated at Laysan, French Frigate Shoals and Midway year round and at Kure, Lisianski, and Pearl 

and Hermes atolls seasonally.
State of Monument Resources

20 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

Water

Large areas of the marine environment of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are considered to be nearly pristine due to their remoteness, the fact that most of the islets and shoals remain uninhabited, and the oceanographic conditions of the central Pacific Ocean. 

While there have been very few studies conducted on contamination, 

the lack of major pollution sources and the health and productivity 

of the coral reef ecosystems in the area strongly suggest that the 

marine environment is relatively unpolluted except during oil spills 

and other pollution discharges during ship groundings.

Although the waters surrounding the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands are minimally affected overall by anthropogenic stressors, 

some environmental impacts due to past human activities remain. In 

response to concerns by U.S. Fish and Wildlife scientists over high 

levels of toxic contaminants (e.g., PCBs and lead) in Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands wildlife (e.g., moray eels, Hawaiian monk seals, 

and albatrosses), near-shore sediment sampling was conducted in 

2000 (see State of “Habitat” Resources). Results of this study suggest the potential for localized water contamination, as contaminants 

in sediments can contribute to water quality degradation.

Satellite observations indicate a significant chlorophyll front in 

the area, with seasonal annual migrations (northward in the summer 

and southward during the winter). Should oceanographic changes 

cause these nutrient-rich waters to cross the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands, productivity in the coral reef ecosystems would be expected 

to increase, resulting in trophic changes in the ecosystem (Friedlander et al. 2005).

The following information provides an assessment by monument 

staff of the status and trends pertaining to water quality and its effects 

on the environment:

1. Are specific or multiple stressors, including changing oceanographic and atmospheric conditions, affecting water quality and how are they changing? 

The remote location of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands has 

resulted in minimal anthropogenic impacts; therefore, the rating 

for this question is “good/fair.” However, ocean acidification and 

temperature rise are of concern on a time scale of several decades. Acidification is projected over the next century to affect 

calcification by shallow and deep corals as well as other calcifying organisms, including plankton (Kleypas et al. 2006). Temperature rise has been documented in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and may be associated with the increasing level and 

frequency of coral bleaching (Jokiel and Brown 2004). Changes 

in the oceanographic regime, specifically the position of the subState of Monument Resources

This section provides summaries of the conditions and trends within four resource areas: water, habitat, living resources and maritime 

archaeological resources. For each, monument staff and selected outside experts considered a series of questions about each 

resource area. The set of questions derive from the National Marine Sanctuary System’s mission and a system-wide monitoring 

framework (NMSP 2004a) developed to ensure the timely flow of data and information to those responsible for managing and protecting 

resources in the ocean and coastal zone, and to those that use, depend on, and study the ecosystems encompassed by the sanctuaries. 

Appendix A (Rating Scheme for System-Wide Monitoring Questions) clarifies the set of questions and presents statements that were used to 

judge the status and assign a corresponding color code on a scale from “good” to “poor.” These statements are customized for each question. 

In addition, the following options are available for all questions: “N/A” – the question does not apply; and “undetermined” – resource status is 

undetermined. In addition, symbols are used to indicate trends: “▲” – conditions appear to be improving; “▬” – conditions do not appear to 

be changing; “▼” – conditions appear to be declining; and “?” – trend is undetermined. 

This section of the report provides answers to the set of questions. Answers are supported by specific examples of data, investigations, 

monitoring and observations, and the basis for judgment is provided in the text and summarized in the table for each resource area. Where 

published or additional information exists, the reader is provided with appropriate references and web links.

Judging an ecosystem as having “integrity” implies the relative wholeness of ecosystem structure, function, and associated complexity, along 

with the spatial and temporal variability inherent in these characteristics, as determined by its natural evolutionary history. Ecosystem integrity 

is reflected in the system’s “ability to generate and maintain adaptive biotic elements through natural evolutionary process” (Angermeier and 

Karr 1994). The natural fluctuations of a system’s native characteristics, including abiotic drivers, biotic composition, complex relationships, 

and functional processes are unaltered and are either likely to persist or be regained following natural disturbance.
State of Monument Resources

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 21

tropical convergence zone, could affect productivity and other 

ecosystem dynamics in the region (Herman 1979). Though climate related changes may be extreme over the period of several 

decades, the status and trends recorded here are based on a 

time frame of 5 to 10 years. While impacts from acidification may 

not manifest in the near term, short term consequences of temperature change are more likely to be observed, possibly in the 

form of continued bleaching events.

2. What is the eutrophic condition of monument waters 

and how is it changing? The remote location of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands has resulted in minimal anthropogenic 

inputs, therefore, the rating for this question is “good and not 

changing.” However, the addition of micronutrients may occur 

from oxidation of discarded equipment. Climate change could 

also potentially affect the location of subtropical convergence 

and possibly result in periods of eutrophication.

3. Do monument waters pose risks to human health and 

how are they changing? Ciguatera has been reported in reef 

fishes, but humans are not typically exposed at this time because 

harvesting of reef fish species is not allowed (White 2007), therefore, 

the rating for this question is “good and not changing.” It is possible 

that fish which is obtained through sustenance fishing (allowed on 

permitted vessels) or subsistence fishing (which may be permitted 

for traditional Native Hawaiian practices) may contain ciguatera, although fish which are likely to contain the toxin are usually avoided.

4. What are the levels of human activities that may influence water quality and how are they changing? Since 

the signing of the Executive Order in 2000 and the subsequent 

2006 Presidential Proclamation establishing the monument 

there has been a reduction in human activities that could affect 

water quality. The number of flights to French Frigate Shoals 

and Midway Atoll (the only islands/atolls with landing strips in the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands), and the number of ship cruises 

per year decreased over the period 2005-2007. In addition, the 

number of people on land per day on all islands and atolls, excluding Midway, decreased over that same time period (PMNM 

2008, PMNM unpublished. data). There is currently very limited 

access to the monument, however, there are plans to open Midway Atoll to tourism. Although previously allowed, vessels can 

no longer pump untreated sewage within the monument. The 

rating for this question is “good and improving” based on limited levels of activity and the recent prohibitions of discharges.

Water Quality Status & Trends

# Issue Rating Basis for Judgment Description of Findings

1 Stressors q

Published literature 

indicates temperature 

increases.

Selected conditions may 

preclude full development of living resource 

assemblages and habitats, but are not likely 

to cause substantial or 

persistent declines.

2 Eutrophic 

Condition – Lack of anthropogenic 

inputs.

Conditions do not appear 

to have the potential to 

negatively affect living 

resources or habitat 

quality.

3 Human 

Health – Lack of sources, 

causes and human 

exposure.

Conditions do not appear 

to have the potential to 

negatively affect human 

health.

4 Human 

Activities p

Limited access; 

regulations prohibit 

discharges.

Few or no activities 

occur that are likely to 

negatively affect water 

quality.

Habitat

The remoteness and limited fishing activities in the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands have resulted in minimal anthropogenic impacts of 

local origin on habitat resources. The reefs in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are among the few large-scale, intact reef ecosystems 

remaining in the world and offer scientists an opportunity to study how 

unaltered ecosystems are structured, how they function, and how they 

can most effectively be preserved. However, despite the limited human 

activity currently occurring in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, impacts from distant marine and past terrestrial activities have occurred.

Many of the terrestrial and nearshore habitats were physically altered by the military prior to World War II by dredging the shallow marine 

areas to enlarge islands at Midway, Kure and French Frigate Shoals. 

Subsequent military and U.S. Coast Guard operations on these islands 

resulted in further disturbance and contamination. Since the military and 

U.S. Coast Guard terminated missions on the islands, much of the contamination has been remediated and habitats are being restored. However, remaining uncharacterized and unlined landfills are contaminating 

seabird and sea turtle nesting areas and eroding contamination into the 

nearshore environment. Lead paint used on most of the structures on the 

islands affects albatross and other seabirds nesting near the buildings

 Marine debris, mostly derelict fishing gear from distant trawl 

Status: Good Good/Fair Fair Fair/Poor Poor Undet.

Trends: Improving (p), Not Changing (–), Declining (q), 

Undetermined Trend (?), Question not applicable (N/A)
State of Monument Resources

22 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

and gillnet fisheries around the Pacific Rim, is perhaps the greatest anthropogenic impact to the reefs of the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands (Figure 20). It has been estimated that at most, 900 metric 

tons of debris have accumulated in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands over the past several decades. Assuming accumulation rates 

have been relatively constant over the past four decades, long-term 

average accumulation rates are approximately 47 metric tons per 

year (Dameron et al. 2007). Since 1996, the NOAA Fisheries Pacific 

Islands Fisheries Science Center has led a highly successful multiagency effort to remove and recycle over 550 metric tons of derelict 

fishing gear from the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. However, until 

substantial efforts are made to significantly reduce the sources of debris and until debris can be effectively removed at sea, accumulation 

is expected to continue indefinitely (Friedlander et al. 2005). 

Past land-based human activities in the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands have also imposed potential impacts on marine habitat resources in the form of numerous toxic contaminants. Midway Atoll 

bears the highest levels of contamination among the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands and is primarily associated with previous military 

activities. Green Island at Kure Atoll, and Tern and East Islands at 

French Frigate Shoals were sites of former U.S. Coast Guard stations and associated PCB contamination.

 Numerous studies on contamination in the monument have 

been conducted including remediation of the Navy’s base reduction and closure at Midway, U.S. Coast Guard site assessments 

at Kure and French Frigate Shoals, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

studies on fish, albatross, seals and turtles at Midway and French 

Frigate Shoals, and contamination in albatross at Midway. In 2000, 

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program conducted a survey of island near-shore sediments. 

Thirty-six sediment samples were analyzed for over 70 toxic contaminants. A few of the chemical concentrations were high; that is, 

above the 85th percentile of concentrations measured in the coastal 

U.S. by the NOAA National Status and Trends Program. The concentrations of organic compounds (aggregated into groups) PCB, 

DDT, Dieldrin, Chlordane and PAH were undetectable, very low or 

at least below the National Status and Trends Program median at all 

sites except three. One Midway site had DDT concentrations above 

the National Status and Trends Program median. Two other Midway 

sites had high levels of PCB DDT, and PAH, and one of these had 

a high concentration of arsenic and above-median concentrations 

of cadmium, lead and tin. A fourth site on Kure Atoll was the only 

site with high concentrations of copper and nickel (Turgeon et al. 

2002, Figure 21).

The following information provides an assessment by monument 

staff of the status and trends pertaining to the current state of the 

marine habitat:

5. What are the abundance and distribution of major 

habitat types and how are they changing? The abundance and distribution of deep sea and shallow reef habitats 

are in good condition. However, the future of shallow habitats, 

which may be affected by climate change and resulting sea surface elevation, are of great concern. Much of the current beach 

habitats that are monk seal resting places and sea turtle nesting habitat may be greatly diminished or lost altogether with sea 

Figure 20. A NOAA diver removes derelict fishing gear on Midway Atoll.

Photo: Elizabeth Keenan, NOAA

Figure 21. DDT concentrations in monument sediments.

Source: Turgeon et al. 2002
State of Monument Resources

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 23

level rise (Baker et al. 2006). Additionally, the loss of beaches 

at Tern Island from the creation of seawalls is of concern. The 

“good/fair” status rating for this question is based on the overall 

marine resources of the monument, but the “declining” trend reflects the need for special attention to be applied to these shallow/interface areas and beaches.

6. What is the condition of biologically-structured habitats and how is it changing? In general, biologically-structured habitat is in near-pristine condition; however, some localized habitats appear to be degraded due to coral bleaching and 

derelict fishing gear on reef structures. Therefore, the condition 

of biologically-structured habitats is rated as “good/fair.” There 

have been two documented bleaching events since 2002 (Kenyon et al. 2006). Shallow habitats that have been affected by 

marine debris are of great concern, as derelict fishing gear is 

likely to have severe impacts on shallow coral habitats - there is 

continued accumulation of derelict fishing nets at an estimated 

rate of 50 tons a year (Dameron et al. 2007). In addition to the 

threat in general, it is specifically a threat to table coral which is 

documented as declining, and is a limited distribution coral. Table 

coral is also affected by two serious diseases, Acropora white 

syndrome and Acropora growth anomalies (Work et al. 2008), 

which are contributing to the declining populations. Unpublished 

data suggests that the disease is spreading from Johnston Atoll. 

For this reason, the trend is rated as “declining.”

7. What are the contaminant concentrations in monument habitats and how are they changing? The remote 

location of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands has resulted in 

minimal anthropogenic impacts, however, contamination from 

Navy, U.S. Coast Guard and other military operations exist at 

Kure, Midway and French Frigate Shoals, and there have been 

incidents of contaminant releases from marine debris. Therefore, the rating for this question is “good/fair and not changing.” 

A release of the pesticide carbofuran from marine debris on the 

beach at Laysan caused the deaths of many animals, including 

several of the endangered Laysan finches (David et al. 2001). 

There has been an impact at Tern Island due to contaminants. 

Eels, crabs and other biota have been shown to have high concentrations of metals and PCBs (Miao et al. 2001). Many albatross chicks on Midway are poisoned from ingesting paint chips 

which contaminate the ground near buildings that were painted 

with lead based paint (Sileo et al. 1990). The majority of the 

monument is in good condition, although a few terrestrial areas 

and superlittoral regions have experienced varying degrees of 

anthropogenic impact.

8. What are the levels of human activities that may influence habitat quality and how are they changing? 

Overall levels of human activities are very low, although marine 

debris, climate change and remaining contamination from military 

and U.S. Coast Guard LORAN stations are major caveats. Therefore, because there is limited access to the site the rating for this 

question is “good/fair and not changing.” Both marine debris and 

climate change are problems emanating from factors outside the 

monument but the effects are being felt within. Other activities include research and some bottom fishing which may affect bottom 

habitat through anchoring, coring or instrumentation. Permitted activities such as research comprise the majority of human activities 

and can be controlled. Illegal activities exist, such as unpermitted 

entry and access and violations by permitted bottom fishers. Such 

activities are difficult to quantify, but surveillance is increasing. 

Habitat Status & Trends

# Issue Rating Basis for Judgment Description of Findings

5

Abundance/

Distribution

q

Marine debris is 

degrading beaches 

and reefs. Potential 

loss of habitat from 

climate change and 

sea-level rise.

Selected habitat loss 

or alteration has taken 

place, precluding full 

development of living 

resource assemblages, 

but it is unlikely to cause 

substantial or persistent 

degradation in living resources or water quality.

6 Structure q

Marine debris, coral 

disease and perhaps 

bleaching frequency.

Selected habitat loss 

or alteration has taken 

place, precluding full 

development of living resources, but it is unlikely 

to cause substantial or 

persistent degradation in 

living resources or water 

quality.

7 Contaminants –

Localized contamination is adversely 

affecting associated 

habitat and wildlife.

Selected contaminants 

may preclude full development of living resource 

assemblages, but are 

not likely to cause 

substantial or persistent 

degradation.

8 Human 

Activities – Limited visitation.

Some potentially harmful 

activities exist, but they 

do not appear to have 

had a negative effect on 

habitat quality.

Status: Good Good/Fair Fair Fair/Poor Poor Undet.

Trends: Improving (p), Not Changing (–), Declining (q), 

Undetermined Trend (?), Question not applicable (N/A)
State of Monument Resources

24 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

Living Resources

Coral reefs in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are among the 

few remaining large-scale, intact, predator-dominated reef ecosystems left in the world. Areas with the highest apex predator biomass 

include Pearl and Hermes Atoll, followed by Lisianski and Laysan Islands. Apex predator biomass of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

is about 55 percent of the total fish biomass, whereas this trophic 

level accounts for less than three percent of the fish biomass in the 

main Hawaiian Islands (Figure 22). Apex predator biomass on forereef habitats in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands is 1.3 metric tons 

per hectare compared to less than 0.05 metric tons per hectare in 

the main Hawaiian Islands. Overall, reef fish standing stock in the 

monument is more than 260 percent greater than the main Hawaiian 

Islands across similar habitats (Friedlander et al. 2005).

Coral reef ecosystems consist of much more than the reef-building 

corals for which they are named. Coral reefs also include sand and unconsolidated sediments, colonized hard-bottom, non-reef-building corals, crustose coralline algae and macroalgae. Corals are the keystone 

organisms of this ecosystem, comprising approximately 50 percent of 

the biomass and providing habitat structure, refuge and food to a diverse group of microscopic organisms and crustaceans, mollusks, fish 

and other species of the tropical reef environment (Garrison 1999).

Endangered Species

The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands host more than 7,000 species 

including marine mammals, fishes, sea turtles, birds, invertebrates 

and marine algae. Twenty-three species of plants and animals known 

to occur in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are listed under the Endangered Species Act. Of particular concern are the Hawaiian monk 

seal and green sea turtle. Recently the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands have been identified as providing extensive wintering habitat for 

humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae (Johnston et al. 2007). 

Hawaiian Monk Seals – Hawaiian monk seals are distributed 

throughout Hawaii predominantly in six Northwestern Hawaiian Islands subpopulations at French Frigate Shoals, Laysan and Lisianski 

Islands, Pearl and Hermes Reef, and Midway and Kure Atoll. The 

current population size of the Hawaiian monk seal is estimated between 1,200 and 1,300 individuals and depends almost entirely on 

the islands of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands for breeding and 

the surrounding reefs for sustenance. Reproductive success has 

declined, with a total of mean non-pup beach counts at the main reproductive Northwestern Hawaiian Islands subpopulations in 2003 

approximately 60 percent lower than in 1958 (Figure 23).

Trends in abundance vary considerably among the six main 

subpopulations. For example, the decline since the mid-1980s was 

largely due to a severe decline at French Frigate Shoals, where nonpup beach counts decreased by 70 percent from 1989-2003. Populations at Laysan and Lisianski Islands have remained relatively stable 

since approximately 1990, though the former has tended to increase 

slightly while the latter has decreased slowly.

 Until recently, populations at Kure, Midway, and Pearl and Hermes 

reef exhibited substantial growth. The subpopulation at Kure Atoll grew 

at an average rate of five percent per year from 1983 to 2000, due 

largely to decreased human disturbance and introduced females. Since 

2000, counts at Kure have declined coinciding with very low survival 

of the 2000-2002 cohorts from weaning to age 1 year (15 percent to 

22 percent). The subpopulation at Pearl and Hermes Reef increased 

after the mid-1970s, however, growth of this subpopulation has slowed 

recently and early survival has declined. Recovery of the small subpopulation at Midway Atoll appears to have slowed or stopped, also 

Figure 22. Comparison of the biomass in major trophic guilds between 

the main Hawaiian Islands and the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.

Figure 23. Mean beach counts of Hawaiian monk seals at the six main 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands subpopulations, 1985-2003.

Source: Antonelis et al. 2004

Source: Friedlander and DeMartini 2002

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

Apex Predators Herbivores Lower-level Carnivores

Biomass (tones per ha)

Consumer Guild

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

Main Hawaiian Islands
State of Monument Resources

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 25

accompanied by relatively poor juvenile survival. These declines may 

be related to reduced food sources or increasing competition for prey 

items with apex predators, fewer pupping sites and increased predation of pups by sharks. Implementation of the National Marine Fisheries 

Service 2006 Recovery Plan for the Hawaiian Monk Seal will hopefully 

result in an upward trend in seals before the population of reproductive 

female seals decline to precipitous levels (NMFS 2005, NMFS 2006).

Green Sea Turtles –The green sea turtle was listed as threatened 

in 1978. Although the population has increased significantly since 

the 1970s, the total number of nesting females is still well below the 

historical levels of the late 1800s (Figure 24). However, the Hawaiian 

green sea turtle stock is clearly recovering after more than 25 years 

of protecting their nesting and foraging habitats in the Hawaiian Archipelago (Balazs and Chaloupka 2003). Over 90 percent of all subadult and adult green turtles found throughout Hawaii come from the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. The primary nesting site for green 

turtles is French Frigate Shoals, which accounts for 400 nesting sites 

or 90 percent of all nesting within the Hawaiian Archipelago. Nesting 

also occurs at Pearl and Hermes Atoll and Lisianski Island. However, 

massive beach and island erosion witnessed at the principal nesting 

island in 2006 (Eastern Island, French Frigate Shoals) may reduce the 

number of suitable nesting sites for turtles or reduce the survivorship 

of hatchlings (NMSP 2005). 

Nesting Seabirds – The importance of seabirds in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands was recognized in 1909 with the establishment 

of the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge. Early protection and 

active management in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands resulted in 

large and diverse seabird populations. The conservation status of 

Hawaiian seabirds was more recently assessed as part of the North 

American Waterbird Conservation Plan (Kushlan et al. 2002). Eight 

Figure 24. Nester abundance shown as the number of female green sea turtles nesting each year at East Island (French Frigate Shoals) from 1973 to 2002.

Source: Balazs and Chaloupka 2003

of the 22 species that breed in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

were classified as highly imperiled or of high conservation concern 

at the broad scale of the plan (eastern North Pacific, western North 

Atlantic and Caribbean). At the regional scale (Pacific Islands) five of 

the breeding species were included in these highest concern categories: Laysan and Black-footed Albatrosses, Christmas Shearwater 

(Figure 25), Tristram’s Storm-petrel and Blue Noddy.

 The greatest threats to seabirds in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands have been introduced mammals (e.g., rabbits, rats and mice) and 

other invasive species, fishery interactions, contaminants, oil pollution, 

marine debris and climate change. Over the past 20 years, active management in the National Wildlife Refuges and State Seabird Sanctuary 

has included eradication of black rats at Midway Atoll and Polynesian 

rats at Kure Atoll; eradication or control of invasive plants; cleanup of 

contaminants and hazards at former military sites; and coordination 

with NOAA Fisheries, Regional Fishery Management Councils, industry and conservation organizations to reduce fishing impacts.

Introduced Species

Eleven species of shallow-water snapper and grouper were purposefully introduced to the main islands of the Hawaiian Archipelago 

in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Two snappers, the bluestripe 

snapper (Figure 26) and the blacktail snapper, and one grouper, the 

peacock grouper, are well-established and have documented patFigure 25. The Christmas Shearwater can grow to have a wingspan 

of up to nearly 32 inches. Adults return to colonies in the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands in March and depart in early fall. 

Photo: Bishop Museum

Figure 26. Bluestripe snappers (Lutjanus kasmira, or “ta’ape”) were 

introduced to the main Hawaiian Islands in the late 1950s for commercial fishing and have since spread to Midway at the opposite end of the 

Hawaiian archipelago. 

Photo: James Watt
State of Monument Resources

26 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

terns of colonization along the island chain (Randall 1987). Bluestripe snappers have been by far the most successful fish introduction 

to the Hawaiian coral reef ecosystem. From some 3,200 individuals 

introduced on the island of Oahu in the 1950s, the population has expanded its range by 1,491 miles and has been reported as far north 

as Midway in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. These records 

suggest a dispersal rate of about 20 to 80 miles per year. The other 

two species have only been recorded as far north as French Frigate 

Shoals and are present in much lower numbers than bluestripe snappers (Friedlander et al. 2005).

 The following information provides an assessment by monument 

staff of the status and trends pertaining to the current state of the 

monument’s living resources:

9. What is the status of biodiversity and how is it changing? The research community is still in an exploratory phase 

with its understanding of biodiversity. Therefore, the rating of 

“good and not changing” for this question is based on limited 

existing information. There are known terrestrial extinctions; 

however, this document is limited to the marine environment and 

therefore these extinctions are not considered in the assessment.

 Ongoing characterization and exploration is yielding new 

information on biodiversity at a rapid rate. A recent Census of 

Marine Life Cruise to French Frigate Shoals uncovered 30 to 50 

invertebrate species new to science, 58 new ascidian records, 

33 new records of decapod crustaceans, and 27 new opistobranch mollusks of record (R. Brainard, NOAA NMFS, pers. 

comm.). Hawaii Undersea Research Lab (HURL) submersible 

cruises in 2007 discovered several new genera of octocorals, as 

well as sponges that are likely new to science (C. Kelley, HURL, 

pers. comm.). Even in the relatively well-explored shallow coral 

reef areas, ongoing characterizations of crustose coralline algal 

communities are finding species or morphologies that are distinct from those of the Main Hawaiian Islands (I. Abbott, University of Hawai’i, pers. comm.).

10. What is the status of environmentally sustainable 

fishing and how is it changing? The only substantial 

fishery in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands is for bottomfish. 

Population analysis by NOAA Fisheries indicates these fisheries are operating at fishing levels below that required to harvest Maximum Sustainable Yield (WPRFMC 1986). Spawning 

potential ratio indicates that presently the overall the status of 

the fishery is good. Therefore, this question is rated “good.” The 

trend for this question is rated as “improving” because regulations will phase out bottomfishing in five years from the date of 

proclamation (due to be enforced in 2011). 

11. What is the status of non-indigenous species and how 

is it changing? The status rating for this question is “good/fair” 

because few non-indigenous species have been documented. However, there is uncertainty of potential impacts from these species; 

therefore, the trend is “undetermined.” Eleven species are documented, but not all are established. Only two invasive species are 

found throughout the monument (Godwin et al. 2005); the blueline 

snapper (ta’ape) and the hydroid Pennaria. Distribution of the latter 

is limited within the monument; the majority of established individuals are in Midway harbor. The primary source of invasive species is 

the main islands, and management processes are in place. Marine 

debris is a potential vector but is not within management control.

 

12. What is the status of key species and how is it changing? Key species in the monument include those functioning 

as apex predators, such as sharks and jacks, habitat forming corals, and protected species such as turtles, monk seals 

and seabirds. Status of these groups of species varies considerably. Apex predators are in near pristine condition in the 

monument (Friedlander and DeMartini 2002), and coral (Friedlander et al. 2005) and turtle (Balazs and Chaloupka 2003) 

populations appear to be holding steady. Monk seals, on the 

other hand, have suffered a 60 percent population decline 

since the 1950s (Antonelis 2004) and are currently at critically 

low levels. The reasons for the earlier declines are generally 

agreed on as being the result of prior human disturbance of 

habitats (during island occupation and exploitation expeditions; Kenyon 1972) and hunting (Clapp and Woodward 1972).

 Continued declines of monk seals after the 1950s are debated and most likely related to a combination of factors, including 

shark predation (Bertilsson-Friedman 2002), which affects both 

adult and juvenile survival (Craig and Ragan 1999), disrupted sex 

ratios that have enhanced levels of male aggression, food limitation (Gilmartin 1993, Craig and Ragen 1999) caused by decadal 

shifts in patterns of productivity (Polovina et al 1994) that affect 

fish abundances, inbreeding within the small remaining population, marine debris entanglement (Henderson 2001), and episodic events like ciguatera poisoning (Gilmartin et al 1980). The potential for monk seal recovery is uncertain, as some factors would 

indicate enormous challenges (e.g., the paucity of reproductively 

active females) while others suggest cause for optimism (the 

increasing number in the Main Hawaiian Islands; NMFS 2007). 

 The overall rating of “fair” for this question was considered to 

be reasonable, given the decline of the monk seal populations in 

the monument and the relatively high and stable populations of 

corals and predatory fish at the site. The “undetermined” trend is 

based on the uncertainty regarding monk seal recovery.
State of Monument Resources

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 27

13. What is the condition or health of 

key species and how is it changing? 

Surveys in some locations indicate that 

many yearling, juvenile, and adult female 

monk seals are in poor health. Emaciated 

animals and females with low reproductive 

performance may be associated with food 

limitation (Gilmartin 1993). Animals have 

also been found with severe injuries that 

compromise their condition. At French Frigate Shoals, this led investigators to suggest 

that shark predation increased after 1987 

(Bertilsson-Friedman 2002). The health of a 

few species of seabirds has also declined, 

caused by the ingestion of lead based paint 

and plastics and possibly the bioaccumulation of marine toxins. On the other hand, 

with the exception of occasional encounters 

of diseased individuals, predatory and reef 

fishes, marine invertebrates, and most corals appear stable and in good condition. The 

rating of “fair” for this question primarily considers the compromised condition of monk 

seal and seabirds. The “undetermined” 

trend is based on the uncertainty regarding 

monk seal condition and health.

14. What are the levels of human activities that may influence living 

resource quality and how are they 

changing? Overall levels of human activities are very low, although marine debris and 

climate change are major factors that threaten Northwestern Hawaiian Islands habitats 

and ultimately the health of key species 

(Baker et al. 2006). Therefore, the rating for 

this question is “good/fair and not changing.” 

Both marine debris and climate change are 

affected by human activities occurring far 

outside the monument but the effects are 

being felt within. Other activities include 

research and some bottom fishers. Permitted activities such as research comprise 

the majority of human activities and can be 

controlled, and fishing will be phased out by 

2011. Illegal activities exist and are difficult 

to quantify, but surveillance is increasing. 

Living Resources Status & Trends

# Issue Rating Basis for Judgment Description of Findings

9 Biodiversity – Assessment/

monitoring activities 

to date.

Biodiversity appears to reflect pristine or nearpristine conditions and promotes ecosystem 

integrity (full community development and 

function).

10 Extracted 

Species p

Limited activity; 

existing fishery to 

be phased out by 

June 2011.

Extraction does not appear to affect ecosystem integrity (full community development and 

function).

11 Non-Indigenous 

Species ?

Few species with 

isolated distributions; uncertainty of 

potential impact.

Non-indigenous species exist, precluding full 

community development and function, but 

are unlikely to cause substantial or persistent 

degradation of ecosystem integrity.

12 Key Species 

Status ?

Monk seal decline; 

corals and predatory fish populations 

high and stable.

The reduced abundance of selected keystone 

species may inhibit full community development and function and may cause measurable 

but not severe degradation of ecosystem integrity; or selected key species are at reduced 

levels, but recovery is possible.

13 Key Species 

Condition ?

Monk seal 

starvation and body 

condition; debris 

ingestion by seabirds; predatory fish 

and most corals in 

good condition and 

stable.

The diminished condition of selected key 

resources may cause a measurable but not 

severe reduction in ecological function, but 

recovery is possible.

14 Human

Activities – Limited visitation.

Some potentially harmful activities exist, but 

they do not appear to have had a negative 

effect on living resource quality.

Maritime Archaeological Resources

Due to the strategic location of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands for commerce and 

military activities, the area features significant maritime heritage resources. Beginning in 

2002, archaeologists with NOAA’s Maritime Heritage Program have been conducting the 

systematic survey of important wreck sites in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and sharing their findings with the public through a comprehensive education and outreach program. 

Of the current 127 potential resource sites, 20 preliminary site assessments have been 

conducted, and nine site inventory surveys have been completed. Resources include British and American 19th-century whaling shipwrecks, the U.S. Navy side wheel steamer USS 

Saginaw, the World War II submarine rescue vessel USS Macaw, and the American bark 

Carrollton. Maritime archaeological survey in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands emphasizes a non-invasive approach, in situ management being the preferred alternative. This approach is most compatible with the goal of minimizing or eliminating negative impacts on the 

ecosystem. The comprehensive survey to locate and assess all existing maritime heritage 

sites, as directed by the National Historic Preservation Act, has not been completed.

Status: Good Good/Fair Fair Fair/Poor Poor Undet.

Trends: Improving (p), Not Changing (–), Declining (q), 

Undetermined Trend (?), Question not applicable (N/A)
State of Monument Resources

28 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

The following information provides an assessment by maritime 

heritage staff from the Pacific Islands regional office of the status 

and trends pertaining to the current state of the monument’s maritime 

archaeological resources. It is important to remember that, while the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands possess unique examples of heritage 

resources, the systematic survey of these sites has only recently begun. These surveys are currently conducted by a small team of maritime archaeologists, accompanying biologists and oceanographers 

on “piggy-back” missions of opportunity. Site archaeological inventory is time-intensive, and completion of a survey often requires work 

over multiple field seasons. This means that estimates of resource 

status at this point are often based on partial data.

15. What is the integrity of known maritime archaeological resources and how is it changing? Resource integrity 

is carefully defined by the National Register for Historic Places as 

a crucial measure for heritage sites. Measures of integrity include 

location, design, setting, materials, workmanship, feeling and 

association. Integrity does not simply mean the “intactness” of a 

shipwreck or structure, for the same types of measures apply to 

scattered sites and artifacts as well, provided the site retains historical, scientific or educational information. The integrity of known 

maritime archaeological resources in the monument is rated “fair” 

because deterioration has resulted from natural biological, chemical, and physical processes. Shallow water heritage resources in 

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands have often been broken apart 

by the high-energy environment but retain a measure of integrity 

as pristine archaeological sites. The “declining” trend is due to the 

slow and inevitable processes of deterioration over time.

16. Do known maritime archaeological resources pose 

an environmental hazard and how is this threat 

changing? From the handful of archaeological resources 

which have been surveyed to date, there are no known hazardous cargoes on archaeological sites currently threatening the environment. Therefore, the rating for this question 

is “good and not changing.” Historical and archaeological 

sites are considered to be at least 50 years in age, lowering 

the immediate threat of damage from mechanical break-up. 

Nineteenth -century shipwreck sites exhibit even less potential impact, coming closer to a state of equilibrium with their 

immediate environment. World War II-era vessels that may 

have hazardous cargoes or materials have been lost in the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, but these have not yet been 

surveyed or located. Modern wrecks that are not archaeological resources may pose a threat from deterioration, and surveys of these impact sites should be conducted in the future.

17. What are the levels of human activities that may 

influence maritime archaeological resource quality and how are they changing? While there do exist 

anecdotal reports of maritime archaeological resources having 

been removed illegally from the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

in the past, these instances have not been fully documented 

or confirmed. In general, the remoteness of the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands protects its archaeological sites compared 

with other, more accessible locations. Therefore, the rating for 

this question is “good and improving.” Management efforts currently include education and outreach focusing on the nature 

of archaeological resources and heritage preservation, and this 

is one of the best long-term strategies for minimizing potential 

human impacts. Damage and/or removal of archaeological resources remain a concern, and planned future activities (such as 

tourism at specific locations) indicate the necessity of outreach, 

monitoring and enforcement. Archaeological resources are also 

subject to inadvertent damage in a similar manner to the natural 

ecosystem from anchors, marine debris, groundings, etc.

Maritime Archaeological Resources Status & Trends

# Issue Rating Basis for Judgment Description of Findings

15 Integrity q

Natural deterioration 

(physical, biological 

and chemical).

The diminished condition 

of selected archaeological resources has 

reduced, to some extent, 

their historical, scientific 

or educational value and 

may affect the eligibility 

of some sites for listing in 

the National Register of 

Historic Places.

16 Threat to 

Environment – No known resources 

with hazardous 

cargos.

Known maritime archaeological resources pose 

few or no environmental 

threats.

17 Human 

Activities p

Few instances of 

resource removal or 

damage.

Few or no activities occur that are 

likely to negatively affect 

maritime archaeological 

resource integrity.

Status: Good Good/Fair Fair Fair/Poor Poor Undet.

Trends: Improving (p), Not Changing (–), Declining (q), 

Undetermined Trend (?), Question not applicable (N/A)
Response to Pressures

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 29

Jurisdictional Authorities of the Monument

The three principal entities (collectively known as the Co-Trustees) with responsibility for managing lands and waters of the monument are the Secretary of Commerce through NOAA, the Secretary 

of the Interior through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the 

State of Hawaii through the Governor. 

The State of Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural Resources 

has stewardship responsibility for managing, administering and exercising control over coastal and submerged lands, ocean waters and 

marine resources under state jurisdiction out to three miles offshore 

of each of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, except Midway which 

was excluded by the Hawaii Statehood Act of 1959. The state currently manages the emergent lands and reefs at Kure Atoll as a State 

Wildlife Sanctuary. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has primary responsibility for management of the areas of the monument that overlay 

the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge and the Battle of Midway 

National Memorial, as well as the terrestrial areas of the Hawaiian 

Islands National Wildlife Refuge. NOAA has primary management 

responsibility of marine areas of the monument. A Memorandum of 

Agreement signed by all three trustees on December 8, 2006, created a jurisdictional regime where all parties share in the management, access and permissions to enter the monument, and which 

will normally require a consensus among all trustees for important 

decisions affecting the monument. The co-trustees have established 

a goal to provide a seamless and unified management in the spirit of 

cooperative conservation (71 FR 51134).

In coordination with the Secretary of Commerce, the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council is tasked with stewardship over fishery resources in the Exclusive Economic Zone (generally 3 to 200 miles offshore) surrounding the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands, under the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management 

Act of 1976. The council has developed fishery management plans 

for bottomfish, crustaceans, pelagic fisheries and precious corals in 

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Due to the regulations set forth in 

Proclamation 8031, which established the monument, some of these 

fisheries are now closed. In 1996, the Sustainable Fisheries Act made 

NOAA Fisheries in affiliation with the council also responsible for protecting essential fish habitat (NMSP 2005).

Entering the Monument

Entering the monument is prohibited without prior notification (uninterrupted passage only), except where

necessary to respond to emergencies threatening life,

property, orthe environment, or activities necessary for

law enforcement purposes or armed forces actions.

This section provides a summary of existing and proposed responses to pressures on marine resources of the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands. Existing monument responses and management actions are enacted to implement the final Papahānaumokuākea Marine 

National Monument regulations issued by NOAA and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service on August 29, 2006, that codify the prohibitions 

and management measures set forth in Presidential Proclamation 8031. The Monument Co-Trustees developed a joint management plan, 

containing 22 action plans that address six priority management needs, which was released in December 2008.

Response to Pressures

Figure 27. The NOAA 

research vessel Hi’ialakai 

is homeported in Hawaii to 

support coral reef ecosystem 

mapping and habitat activities 

in the greater Pacific under 

Photo: Dan Suthers

the NOAA Ocean Service. 
Response to Pressures

30 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

Special Preservation Areas and Ecological Reserves

Special Preservation Areas are discrete, biologically important 

areas of the monument (Figure 28). Uses within special preservation 

areas are subject to conditions, restrictions and prohibitions, including but not limited to access restrictions. Special preservation areas 

are used to avoid concentrations of uses that could result in declines 

in species populations or habitats, to reduce conflicts between uses, 

to protect areas that are critical for sustaining important marine species or habitats, or to provide opportunities for scientific research.

Ecological Reserves are areas of the monument consisting of 

contiguous, diverse habitats that provide natural spawning, nursery 

and permanent residence areas for the replenishment and genetic 

protection of marine life, and also to protect and preserve natural assemblages of habitats and species within areas representing a broad 

diversity of resources and habitats found within the monument.

The Special Preservation Areas cover a total area of 6,802 square 

miles, including the 924-square mile Midway Atoll Special Management 

Area. The Ecological Reserves cover a total of 37,762 square miles.

NOAA and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service monument regulations 

for special preservation areas and special management areas state 

that except due to emergencies and law enforcement activities, the 

following activities are prohibited without a valid permit:

■ Discharging or depositing any material or other matter into special 

preservation areas or the Midway Atoll Special Management Area 

except vessel engine cooling water, weather deck runoff and vessel engine exhaust; and

■ Swimming, snorkeling, or closed or open circuit SCUBA diving 

within any special preservation area or Midway Atoll Special Management Area.

Marine Pollution

Impacts of marine debris upon the ecological health of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands have not been fully documented due to the 

large size and remoteness of the region, as well as the historical and 

ongoing nature of the problem. Mortality as the result of entanglement 

in derelict fishing gear, primarily nets, has been documented for several 

mobile marine species in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands with impact 

upon the Hawaiian monk seal being of greatest concern due to its highly 

endangered status. In November 2006, NOAA Fisheries developed the 

Recovery Plan for the Hawaiian Monk Seal with the goal of assuring the 

long-term viability of the Hawaiian monk seal in the wild, allowing initially 

for reclassification to threatened status and, ultimately, removal from the 

List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife (NMFS 2006).

Figure 28. Map of monument boundaries, special preservation and management areas, ecological reserves, and commercial fishing phase-out areas. 

Map: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument
Response to Pressures

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 31

On July 13, 2007, the monument was designated “in principle” as 

a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area by the International Maritime Organization, a Specialized Agency of the United Nations. Particularly Sensitive Sea Area designation will augment domestic protective measures 

by alerting international mariners to exercise extreme caution when 

navigating through the area. Additionally, as part of the designation 

process, in July 2007 the International Maritime Organization’s SubCommittee on Safety of Navigation approved U.S. proposals for the 

associated protective measures of: (1) the expansion and amendment 

of the six existing areas to be avoided in the area, which would enlarge 

the class of vessels to which they apply and augment the geographic 

scope of these areas as well as add new areas to be avoided around 

Kure and Midway atolls; and (2) the establishment of a ship reporting 

system for vessels transiting the monument, which is mandatory for 

US ships and foreign vessels (> 300 gross tons) entering or departing 

a U.S. port, and which is recommended for all other ships.

Ultimately, the monument’s desired outcome is the elimination of 

marine debris and derelict fishing gear from the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Complete elimination of marine debris in the near 

future is virtually impossible due to the financial cost, the size of the 

area and continual influx of new debris. However, removal of existing 

debris, detection and prevention of incoming debris, and education 

to prevent generation of more debris are the achievable strategies to 

reduce its overall impact. The following management strategies have 

been identified to reduce the impact of marine debris:

■ Contributing to the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands marine debris 

removal effort and developing and implementing a five-year marine debris removal and prevention plan for the monument.

■ Supporting NOAA Fisheries marine debris studies; working with 

the U.S. State Department to gain international cooperation and 

involvement for marine debris issues; working with the fishery 

management councils to address marine debris prevention with 

U.S. fishing fleets; and working with partners to continue to develop and implement an outreach strategy for marine debris.

Existing NOAA and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service monument regulations that address marine pollution within monument waters are:

■ Exploring for, developing or producing oil, gas or minerals is prohibited within the monument.

■ Except due to emergencies and law enforcement activities, discharging or depositing any material or other matter into the monument, or discharging or depositing any material or other matter 

outside the monument that subsequently enters the monument 

and injures any resources of the monument, except fish parts 

(i.e., chumming material or bait) used in and during authorized 

fishing operations, or discharges incidental to vessel use such as 

deck wash, approved marine sanitation device effluent, cooling 

water and engine exhaust is prohibited (71 FR 51134).

Diseases, Climate Change and Coral Bleaching

With coral reefs around the world in decline, the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands present a unique opportunity to characterize an 

intact coral reef ecosystem and to begin to understand the degree of 

natural variability in an ecosystem relatively free of local anthropogenic influences. Studying these remote ecosystems may also make 

an important contribution toward understanding the impacts of global 

climate change on coral reefs.

The monument’s goal is to increase understanding of the distributions and functional linkages of marine organisms and their habitats in space and time to improve ecosystem-based management 

decisions. The following strategies have been identified to support 

continued characterization and monitoring of Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands marine ecosystems:

■ Assess and prioritize research and monitoring activities by: developing and implementing a prioritized research and monitoring 

plan for the monument and update annually; and coordinating 

meetings for research updates with researchers.

■ Conduct research that supports ecosystem-based management 

by: continuing to characterize types and spatial distributions of 

shallow-water marine habitats; working with partners to map and 

characterize deep-water habitats; conducting a biogeographic 

assessment of Northwestern Hawaiian Islands living marine resources; implementing additional research priorities identified in 

the Monument Research and Monitoring Plan; and facilitating and 

supporting the development of ecosystem models.

■ Conduct monitoring to understand ecosystem change over time 

by: assessing monitoring program protocols; formalizing a collaborative regional monitoring program for the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands; continuing to monitor at established sites in 

shallow-water coral reef; establishing a monitoring program for 

deep-water ecosystems; and collecting, analyzing and inputting 

research, monitoring and bathymetric data into appropriate databases to inform management decisions.

■ Communicate results of research and monitoring by: coordinating 

an annual meeting to present current research being conducted 

in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands; prioritizing research, moni-
Response to Pressures

32 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

toring and modeling projects for education and outreach; including an educational component in all research expeditions; and 

using materials gathered and created during research expeditions to develop or enhance education and output products.

Alien Species

Because it is difficult, if not impossible, to determine whether an alien 

species will become invasive in a given environment, efforts must be 

made to prevent all alien species from entering Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands ecosystems. Three strategies have been identified for achieving the desired outcomes of preventing alien species introductions and 

monitoring and controlling existing alien species in the monument:

■ Prevent, monitor and control alien species introductions by: developing an interagency Northwestern Hawaiian Islands alien 

species plan to address prevention, control and response and 

develop best management practices; conducting hull inspections 

and cleaning for NOAA research vessels to prevent the introduction of marine alien species to the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands; 

developing a hull inspection and cleaning program for vessels operating under permit in special preservation areas to prevent the 

introduction of marine alien species to the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands; identifying, characterizing and monitoring populations of 

alien species; conducting research on alien species detection and 

control; and working with partners in responding to alien species 

introductions in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.

■ Engage monument users and the public in preventing the introduction and spread of alien species by: integrating alien species 

information into an overall outreach program for monument permittees and integrating alien species information into general 

monument outreach materials.

■ Participate in statewide and Pacific regional alien species efforts 

by participating in statewide and international initiatives on alien 

species.

Existing NOAA and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service monument regulations that address marine alien species within monument waters 

are (71 FR 51134):

■ Introducing or otherwise releasing an introduced species from 

within or into the monument is prohibited.

■ Except due to emergencies and law enforcement activities, discharging or depositing any material or other matter into the monument is prohibited (see Marine Pollution for further details).

■ Hull cleaning and inspections required for all vessels permitted to 

enter the monument

Fishing

Existing NOAA, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and State of Hawaii 

regulations that address fishing activities within monument waters are:

■ Using or attempting to use poisons, electrical charges or explosives 

in the collection or harvest of a monument resource is prohibited.

a. Commercial fishing regulations within the monument are as follows:

■ Lobster fishing. The Presidential Proclamation has permanently 

closed the commercial lobster fishery within the monument.

■ Fishing and bottomfish and pelagic species. 

° Commercial fishing for bottomfish and associated pelagic species may continue within the monument subject to general requirements (below), until June 15, 2011, provided that: (i) the 

fishing is conducted in accordance with a valid commercial bottomfish permit issued by NOAA; and (ii) such permit was in effect on June 15, 2006, and is subsequently renewed pursuant 

to NOAA regulations.

° Total landings for each fishing year may not exceed the following amounts: (i) 350,000 pounds for bottomfish species; and (ii) 

180,000 pounds for pelagic species.

° Commercial fishing for bottomfish and associated pelagic species is prohibited in the monument after June 15, 2011.

■ General requirements. Any commercial fishing within the monument shall be conducted in accordance with the following restrictions and conditions:

° A valid permit or facsimile of a valid permit shall be on board the 

fishing vessel and available for inspection by an authorized officer;

° No attempt is made to falsify or fail to make, keep, maintain or 

submit any logbook or logbook form or other required record or 

report;

° Only gear specifically authorized by the relevant permit issued 

under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act is allowed to be in the possession of a person 

conducting commercial fishing under this section;

° Any person conducting commercial fishing notifies the Secretaries by telephone, facsimile or electronic mail at least 72 

hours before entering the monument and within 12 hours after 

leaving the monument in accordance with federal regulations;

° All fishing vessels must carry an activated and functioning ves-
Response to Pressures

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 33

sel monitoring system unit on board at all times whenever the 

vessel is in the monument;

° All fishing vessels must carry an observer when requested to 

do so by the Secretaries;

° The activity does not take place within any ecological reserve, any 

special preservation area or within either national wildlife refuge.

b. Except where necessary to respond to emergencies threatening 

life, property or the environment, or activities necessary for law 

enforcement purposes or armed forces actions, the following activities are prohibited throughout the monument (71 FR 51134):

■ Removing, moving, taking, harvesting, possessing, injuring, disturbing or damaging, or attempting to remove, move, take, harvest, possess, injure, disturb or damage any living or nonliving 

monument resource;

■ Possessing fishing gear except when stowed and not available 

for immediate use during passage without interruption through 

the monument;

■ Attracting any living monument resource

Vessel Hazards and Groundings

Vessel activities can introduce hazards to the marine environment. Some are biological in nature (e.g., the threat of alien species introductions and interactions with protected marine species). 

Other environmental threats from vessels include waste, effluent, 

and bilge and ballast water discharge, light and noise pollution, and 

anchor damage. Two strategies have been identified for achieving 

the desired outcome of preventing and reducing impacts of vessels 

operating in and transiting through Northwestern Hawaiian Islands:

■ Address known vessel hazards and impacts by: developing protocols and practices for safe vessel operations with jurisdictional 

partners; informing monument users about hazards, regulations, 

permit requirements and compliance regarding vessel operations; investigating domestic and international shipping designations; and working with NOAA and the U.S. Coast Guard to 

update nautical charts and Notice to Mariners.

■ Conduct research on vessel hazards and impacts by conducting a vessel threat assessment and conducting studies on vessel 

hazards and impacts.

NOAA and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service monument regulations stipulate that except due to emergencies and law enforcement activities, 

deserting a vessel aground, at anchor, or adrift is prohibited within 

the monument (71 FR 51134).

Tourism and Recreation

Ocean-based ecotourism and recreation in their various forms 

can provide significant educational opportunities, build constituencies and provide assistance to natural resource managers. However, 

they can also lead to wildlife disturbance, habitat degradation and 

pollution. It is a goal of the monument to prevent, avoid or minimize 

negative human impacts associated with ocean-based ecotourism 

and recreation by allowing access only for those activities that do 

not threaten the natural character or biological integrity of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands ecosystem or Native Hawaiian cultural or 

maritime heritage resources. The Midway Atoll Visitor Services Action Plan, a section of the recently completed Monument Management Plan, guides visitor activities. The plan documents approved 

recreational activities at Midway Atoll and ensures that they are compatible with the mission and objectives of the refuge, the national 

memorial and the monument. A special ocean use permit could be 

issued for such activities meeting the specific requirements specified 

in the monument regulations. The monument co-trustees will continue to assess and manage recreation and ocean-based ecotourism 

activities by: working with the Interagency Coordinating Committee 

to identify locations that may be suitable for ocean-based ecotourism; tracking and assessing recreational activities; and developing 

outreach materials specific to recreational uses and integrating them 

into a permitting outreach program.

Existing NOAA and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service monument 

regulations that address tourism and recreation within monument 

waters are:

■ Anchoring on or having a vessel anchored on any living or dead 

coral with an anchor, anchor chain or anchor rope is prohibited 

within the monument.

■ Except due to emergencies and law enforcement activities, removing, moving, taking, harvesting, possessing, injuring, disturbing, damaging, or attempting to remove, move, take, harvest, 

possess, injure, disturb, or damage any living or nonliving resource; drilling into, dredging or otherwise altering the submerged 

lands other than by anchoring a vessel; constructing, placing or 

abandoning any structure, material, or other matter on the submerged lands; touching coral, living or dead; possessing fishing 

gear except when stowed and not available for immediate use 

during passage without interruption through the monument; and 

attracting any living resource is prohibited within the monument 

(71 FR 51134).
Response to Pressures

34 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

Protected Species

There are three federal acts, as well as multiple state statutes, that 

protect specific species in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. The 

federal acts are the Endangered Species Act, the Marine Mammal 

Protection Act and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. The Endangered 

Species Act of 1973 provides for the conservation of species at risk 

of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of their range and 

the conservation of the ecosystems on which they depend. The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 established a moratorium, with 

certain exceptions, on the taking of marine mammals in U.S. waters 

and by U.S. citizens on the high seas, and on the importing of marine 

mammals and marine mammal products into the United States. The 

Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 implements various treaties and 

conventions between the United States and Canada, Japan, Mexico 

and the former Soviet Union for the protection of migratory birds.

Although endangered and threatened species are not the direct 

responsibility of the monument, coordination with agencies responsible for their welfare and recovery is necessary to ensure that activities taking place in the monument, and monument management, are 

effective in protecting and enhancing populations of those species. 

To support efforts to enhance protected species in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, the monument has identified two strategies for 

achieving this goal:

■ Coordinate with partners on protected species needs by communicating regularly with jurisdictional agencies on protected species issues and assisting in the development and implementation 

of a protected species threat reduction assessment for the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.

■ Support and facilitate research on protected species by identifying 

research needs and supporting research to enhance populations 

of protected species and incorporating new data on candidate 

and protected species into the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

biogeographic assessment database.

Maritime Archaeological Resources

Proposed strategies and associated activities in the monument 

action plan are designed to increase our understanding of maritime 

heritage resources and foster effective and protective management 

in the monument. These strategies are as follows:

■ Document and inventory maritime heritage resources. Preserving 

and appreciating maritime heritage resources begins with documentary research and field inventory surveys. These activities are 

similar to those associated with ecosystem research. Both involve 

consolidation of past information, diving operations, and mapping 

or remote sensing surveys. Maritime heritage field surveys are 

therefore compatible with multidisciplinary research missions. 

■ Incorporate maritime heritage into public education and outreach. 

Raising public awareness of the maritime heritage field is essential to better valuing and protecting the resource. Protection 

comes through understanding the nature of maritime heritage 

resources, as well as familiarity with established preservation efforts. Education and outreach for maritime resources emphasize 

“bringing the place to the people, not the people to the place” in a 

responsible manner. 

■ Coordinate monument agency efforts to protect maritime heritage resources. Because of NOAA’s previous maritime heritage work in the region, efforts to inventory, evaluate, interpret 

and preserve maritime heritage resources in the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands will be coordinated from the Pacific Islands 

regional office by NOAA maritime heritage staff and conducted 

in close collaboration and coordination between NOAA, the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources and U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service. Each program or agency provides expertise in the joint preservation of these non-renewable resources.

Existing NOAA and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Monument Regulations

Except where necessary to respond to emergencies threatening 

life, property, or the environment or activities necessary for law enforcement purposes or armed forces actions, the following activities 

are prohibited throughout the monument:

■ Removing, moving, taking, harvesting, possessing, injuring, disturbing, or damaging; or attempting to remove, move, take, harvest, possess, injure, disturb, or damage any living or nonliving 

monument resource (71 FR 51134).

State and Federal Preservation Laws

A number of established laws govern the protection and management of maritime heritage resources. The Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 

1987 charges each state with the preservation management for “certain abandoned shipwrecks, which have been deserted and to which 

the owner has relinquished ownership rights with no retention.” In the 

State of Hawaii the preservation and protection of historic properties on 

state submerged lands falls under HRS Chapter 6E, which established 

the State Historic Preservation Program. For both NOAA and U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service, preservation mandates for maritime heritage resources derive directly from elements of the Federal Archaeology Program, including the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966. Section 
Response to Pressures

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 35

110 of the Act states that each federal agency shall establish a preservation program for the protection of historic properties. Other relevant 

preservation guidelines include the Antiquities Act of 1906, Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979, National Environmental 

Policy Act of 1982, the Preserve America Executive Order (EO 13287 

2003), and the Sunken Military Craft Act of 2004. These laws codify the 

protection of heritage sites from illegal salvage and looting. NOAA’s 

Maritime Heritage Program and the monument’s Maritime Heritage 

Action Plan are specifically designed to address these preservation 

mandates and both inventory and protect these special resources for 

the benefit of the public. 

Native Hawaiian Cultural Resources

Native Hawaiian practices exercised for subsistence and other 

cultural purposes are based on a value system that is consistent with 

resource protection and preservation and serve as long-term conservation measures. The monument has identified a strategy and associated activities to support Native Hawaiian subsistence, cultural and 

religious practices in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands:

■ Review Native Hawaiian practices permit applications and track 

and monitor permitted activities.

■ Support Native Hawaiian practices by: supporting Native Hawaiian cultural research and education; developing outreach for 

those planning expeditions for Native Hawaiian practices; and 

seeking assistance from permittees to share lessons learned 

from their experiences. 

Understanding the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands from a Native 

Hawaiian perspective benefits the monument in many ways. Native 

Hawaiian research contributes to an ecosystem-based approach to 

management and complements other types of research. Education 

and outreach to the Native Hawaiian community can elicit greater 

involvement by Native Hawaiians in monument management. Utilizing cultural information in education and outreach will engage the 

broader public in learning about and caring for the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands. The monument has identified two strategies to 

increase understanding of Native Hawaiian histories and cultural 

practices related to the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands:

■ Support Native Hawaiian cultural and historical research by: identifying cultural research needs and priorities; supporting Native 

Hawaiian cultural research of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands; 

identifying ways of integrating Native Hawaiian traditional ecological knowledge and management concepts into monument 

management, and; seeking protective status, as appropriate, to 

protect cultural sites.

■ Provide cultural outreach and educational opportunities to the Native 

Hawaiian community and the general public by: integrating Native Hawaiian values and cultural information into a general outreach and education program; developing a culturally based strategy for education 

and outreach to the Native Hawaiian community; integrating Native 

Hawaiian values and cultural information into a monument permittee 

education and outreach program; and facilitating cultural education opportunities in the field for students, teachers and cultural specialists.
Concluding Remarks

36 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

This initial report on resource status and trends for the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument indicates the need for management actions that address potential impacts of key habitats, degrading conditions of some living resources (Hawaiian Monk seals, 

resident seabirds and migratory shorebirds), a general need to increase knowledge of regional biodiversity, and enhanced research 

and discovery of marine archaeological resources. Although the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are often referred to as remote and relatively 

pristine, only seven of the seventeen categories received the highest rating of good. The factors contributing to these slightly diminished 

rankings suggest areas of focus for management actions, including marine debris, the health of threatened and endangered species, and 

research on the impacts of climate change. Only three categories were rated as fair (the lowest ranking assigned to any of the categories for 

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands), suggesting that the overall condition of these ecosystems is good relative to the more heavily impacted 

reefs of the main Hawaiian Islands. 

Although the monument currently limits permitted human activity, Midway Atoll is open to a limited number of visitors. The Midway Atoll Visitor 

Service Action Plan, a section of the recently completed Monument Management Plan, guides visitor activities. Visitor activities, when possible, assist with management and conservation activities the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.

Archeological resources in the monument are an important link to the history of this area. Loss of these resources by natural processes is difficult to mitigate. In order to preserve the artifacts and history, it is therefore important to identify, locate and document these resources. 

An important focus of the monument will be to continue to recognize and perpetuate the unique relationship of native Hawaiians to the land, 

sea and their cultural traditions. The monument can facilitate this relationship by serving as a catalyst for strengthening the bond between the 

Hawaiian people and the lands and waters of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Incorporating traditional values and ecological knowledge into 

the natural resource management of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands will be an important part of all management initiatives in this region.

Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgements

Clancy Environmental Consultants, Inc., under contract to NOAA, was instrumental

in developing the template for this document and providing the initial material. We

would particularly like to thank Jeff Rosen for developing the condition summary

table and Karen Fox for drafting content. We thank our reviewers for their helpful

comments: Dr. Jo-Ann Leong (Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology), Sam Pooley (Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center) and Dan Polhemus (Hawaii State Department

of Land and Natural Resources and the Bishop Museum).
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Additional Resources

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 41

Additional Resources

Antiquities Act of 1906: http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/npshistory/antiq.htm

Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987: http://www.nps.gov/archeology/tools/Laws/ASA.htm

Bishop Museum: http://www.bishopmuseum.org

Coral-List Web site, 2004 coral bleaching in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: http://coral.aoml.noaa.gov/pipermail/coral-list/2004-

October/001390.html

Endangered Species Act: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/laws/esa

Hawai’i Coral Reef Initiative Research Program: www.hawaii.edu/ssri/hcri 

Hawai’i Institute of Marine Biology: http://www.hawaii.edu/HIMB

Marine Conservation Biology Institute: http://www.mcbi.org

Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/laws/mmpa

Marine Protected Areas of the United States: http://www.mpa.gov

Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918: http://www.fws.gov/laws/lawsdigest/migtrea.html

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966: http://www.cr.nps.gov/local-law/nhpa1966.htm

Naval Historical Center: http://www.history.navy.mil 

National Park Service: http://www.nps.gov 

NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program: http://www.coralreef.noaa.gov

NOAA Coral Reef Information System (CoRIS): http://www.coris.noaa.gov

NOAA Marine Debris Program: http://marinedebris.noaa.gov

NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov

NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service Office of Protected Resources: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr

NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service Draft Marine Mammal Stock Assessment Reports: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/sars/draft.htm

NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center: http://www.pifsc.noaa.gov

NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service, Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, Bottomfish Research and Stock Assessment: http://www.

pifsc.noaa.gov/bottomfish

NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries: http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov

NOAA Ocean Explorer: http://www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument. A Citizen’s Guide: http://hawaiireef.noaa.gov/PDFs/Citizens_Guide_Web.pdf

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Multi-Agency Education Project Web site, French frigate shoals: http://www.hawaiianatolls.org/about/ffs.php
Additional Resources

42 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument: http://hawaiireef.noaa.gov

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument Management Plan: http://www.hawaiireef.noaa.gov/management/mp.html

State of Hawaii: http://www.hawaii.gov

State of Hawaii’s Department of Land and Natural Resources: http://hawaii.gov/dlnr

Sunken Military Craft Act: http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/org12-12a.htm

The White House Web site, Establishment of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Marine National Monument: http://www.whitehouse.gov/

news/releases/2006/06/20060615-18.html

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: http://www.fws.gov

U.S. Geological Survey: http://www.usgs.gov

U.S. Geological Survey, The Long Trail of the Hawaiian Hotspot: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/Hawaiian.html

Western Pacific Fishery Management Council: http://www.wpcouncil.org

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution: http://www.whoi.edu 
Appendix A: Rating Scheme for System-Wide Monitoring Questions

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 43

The purpose of this appendix is to clarify the 17 questions and possible responses used to report the condition of sanctuary resources in 

“Condition Reports” for all national marine sanctuaries. Individual staff and partners utilized this guidance, as well as their own informed 

and detailed understanding of the site to make judgments about the status and trends of sanctuary resources. 

The questions derive from the National Marine Sanctuary System’s mission, and a system-wide monitoring framework (National Marine Sanctuary Program 2004) developed to ensure the timely flow of data and information to those responsible for managing and protecting resources 

in the ocean and coastal zone, and to those that use, depend on and study the ecosystems encompassed by the sanctuaries. They are being 

used to guide staff and partners at each of the 14 sites in the sanctuary system in the development of this first periodic sanctuary condition 

report. Evaluations of status and trends may be based on interpretation of quantitative and, when necessary, non-quantitative assessments 

and observations of scientists, managers and users.

Judging an ecosystem as having “integrity” implies the relative wholeness of ecosystem structure, function, and associated complexity, along 

with the spatial and temporal variability inherent in these characteristics, as determined by its natural evolutionary history. Ecosystem integrity 

is reflected in the system’s “ability to generate and maintain adaptive biotic elements through natural evolutionary process” (Angermeier and 

Karr 1994). The natural fluctuations of a system’s native characteristics, including abiotic drivers, biotic composition, complex relationships, 

and functional processes are unaltered and are either likely to persist or be regained following natural disturbance.

Following a brief discussion about each question, statements are presented that were used to judge the status and assign a corresponding 

color code. These statements are customized for each question. In addition, the following options are available for all questions: “ N/A” - the 

question does not apply; and “Undet.” - resource status is undetermined.

Symbols used to indicate trends are the same for all questions: “▲” - conditions appear to be improving; “▬” - conditions do not appear to 

be changing; “▼” - conditions appear to be declining; and “?” – trend is undetermined. 

This is meant to capture shifts in condition arising from certain changing physical processes and anthropogenic inputs. Factors resulting 

in regionally accelerated rates of change in water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen or water clarity could all be judged to reduce water 

quality. Localized changes in circulation or sedimentation resulting, for example, from coastal construction or dredge spoil disposal can affect 

light penetration, salinity regimes, oxygen levels, productivity, waste transport and other factors that influence habitat and living resource 

quality. Human inputs, generally in the form of contaminants from point or nonpoint sources, including fertilizers, pesticides, hydrocarbons, 

heavy metals and sewage, are common causes of environmental degradation, often in combination rather than alone. Certain biotoxins, such 

as domoic acid, may be of particular interest to specific sanctuaries. When present in the water column, any of these contaminants can affect 

marine life by direct contact or ingestion, or through bioaccumulation via the food chain.

[Note: Over time, accumulation in sediments can sequester and concentrate contaminants. Their effects may manifest only when the sediments are 

resuspended during storm or other energetic events. In such cases, reports of status should be made under Question 7 – Habitat contaminants.]

Good Conditions do not appear to have the potential to negatively affect living resources or habitat quality.

Good/Fair Selected conditions may preclude full development of living resource assemblages and habitats, but are not likely to cause 

substantial or persistent declines.

Fair Selected conditions may inhibit the development of assemblages and may cause measurable but not severe declines in 

living resources and habitats.

Fair/Poor Selected conditions have caused or are likely to cause severe declines in some but not all living resources and habitats.

Poor Selected conditions have caused or are likely to cause severe declines in most, if not all, living resources and habitats.

Appendix A: Rating Scheme for System-Wide Monitoring Questions

Water

Stressors

1. Question 1 (Water/Stressors): Are specific or multiple stressors, including changing oceanographic and atmospheric conditions, affecting water quality and how are they changing?
Appendix A: Rating Scheme for System-Wide Monitoring Questions

44 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

Nutrient enrichment often leads to planktonic and/or benthic algae blooms. Some affect benthic communities directly through space competition. Overgrowth and other competitive interactions (e.g., accumulation of algal-sediment mats) often lead to shifts in dominance in the 

benthic assemblage. Disease incidence and frequency can also be affected by algae competition and the resulting chemistry along competitive boundaries. Blooms can also affect water column conditions, including light penetration and plankton availability, which can alter pelagic 

food webs. Harmful algal blooms often affect resources, as biotoxins are released into the water and air, and oxygen can be depleted.

Good Conditions do not appear to have the potential to negatively affect living resources or habitat quality.

Good/Fair Selected conditions may preclude full development of living resource assemblages and habitats, but are not likely to cause 

substantial or persistent declines.

Fair Selected conditions may inhibit the development of assemblages and may cause measurable but not severe declines in 

living resources and habitats.

Fair/Poor Selected conditions have caused or are likely to cause severe declines in some but not all living resources and habitats.

Poor Selected conditions have caused or are likely to cause severe declines in most if not all living resources and habitats.

Human health concerns are generally aroused by evidence of contamination (usually bacterial or chemical) in bathing waters or fish intended for consumption. They also emerge when harmful algal blooms are reported or when cases of respiratory distress or other disorders 

attributable to harmful algal blooms increase dramatically. Any of these conditions should be considered in the course of judging the risk to 

humans posed by waters in a marine sanctuary.

Some sites may have access to specific information on beach and shellfish conditions. In particular, beaches may be closed when criteria 

for safe water body contact are exceeded, or shellfish harvesting may be prohibited when contaminant loads or infection rates exceed certain 

levels. These conditions can be evaluated in the context of the descriptions below. 

Good Conditions do not appear to have the potential to negatively affect human health.

Good/Fair Selected conditions that have the potential to affect human health may exist but human impacts have not been reported.

Fair Selected conditions have resulted in isolated human impacts, but evidence does not justify widespread or persistent concern.

Fair/Poor Selected conditions have caused or are likely to cause severe impacts, but cases to date have not suggested a pervasive 

problem.

Poor Selected conditions warrant widespread concern and action, as large-scale, persistent and/or repeated severe impacts are 

likely or have occurred.

Water

Eutrophic 

Condition 

2. What is the eutrophic condition of sanctuary waters and how is it changing?

3. Do sanctuary waters pose risks to human health and how are they changing?

Water

Human Health 
Appendix A: Rating Scheme for System-Wide Monitoring Questions

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 45

Among the human activities in or near sanctuaries that affect water quality are those involving direct discharges (transiting vessels, visiting 

vessels, onshore and offshore industrial facilities, public wastewater facilities), those that contribute contaminants to stream, river, and water 

control discharges (agriculture, runoff from impermeable surfaces through storm drains, conversion of land use), and those releasing airborne 

chemicals that subsequently deposit via particulates at sea (vessels, land-based traffic, power plants, manufacturing facilities, refineries). In 

addition, dredging and trawling can cause resuspension of contaminants in sediments.

Good Few or no activities occur that are likely to negatively affect water quality.

Good/Fair Some potentially harmful activities exist, but they do not appear to have had a negative effect on water quality.

Fair Selected activities have resulted in measurable resource impacts, but evidence suggests effects are localized, not widespread.

Fair/Poor Selected activities have caused or are likely to cause severe impacts, and cases to date suggest a pervasive problem.

Poor Selected activities warrant widespread concern and action, as large-scale, persistent, and/or repeated severe impacts have 

occurred or are likely to occur.

Habitat loss is of paramount concern when it comes to protecting marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Of greatest concern to sanctuaries 

are changes caused, either directly or indirectly, by human activities. The loss of shoreline is recognized as a problem indirectly caused by human activities. Habitats with submerged aquatic vegetation are often altered by changes in water conditions in estuaries, bays, and nearshore 

waters. Intertidal zones can be affected for long periods by spills or by chronic pollutant exposure. Beaches and haul-out areas can be littered 

with dangerous marine debris, as can the water column or benthic habitats. Sandy subtidal areas and hardbottoms are frequently disturbed 

or destroyed by trawling. Even rocky areas several hundred meters deep are increasingly affected by certain types of trawls, bottom longlines 

and fish traps. Groundings, anchors and divers damage submerged reefs. Cables and pipelines disturb corridors across numerous habitat 

types and can be destructive if they become mobile. Shellfish dredging removes, alters and fragments habitats.

The result of these activities is the gradual reduction of the extent and quality of marine habitats. Losses can often be quantified through 

visual surveys and to some extent using high-resolution mapping. This question asks about the quality of habitats compared to those that 

would be expected without human impacts. The status depends on comparison to a baseline that existed in the past - one toward which 

restoration efforts might aim.

Good Habitats are in pristine or near-pristine condition and are unlikely to preclude full community development.

Good/Fair Selected habitat loss or alteration has taken place, precluding full development of living resource assemblages, but it is 

unlikely to cause substantial or persistent degradation in living resources or water quality.

Fair Selected habitat loss or alteration may inhibit the development of assemblages, and may cause measurable but not severe 

declines in living resources or water quality.

Fair/Poor Selected habitat loss or alteration has caused or is likely to cause severe declines in some but not all living resources or water 

quality.

Poor Selected habitat loss or alteration has caused or is likely to cause severe declines in most if not all living resources or water 

quality.

4. What are the levels of human activities that may influence water quality and how 

are they changing?

Water

Human Activities 

5. What are the abundance and distribution of major habitat types and how are they 

changing?

Habitat

Abundance &

Distribution
Appendix A: Rating Scheme for System-Wide Monitoring Questions

46 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

Many organisms depend on the integrity of their habitats and that integrity is largely determined by the condition of particular living organisms. Coral reefs may be the best known examples of such biologically-structured habitats. Not only is the substrate itself biogenic, but the 

diverse assemblages residing within and on the reefs depend on and interact with each other in tightly linked food webs. They also depend 

on each other for the recycling of wastes, hygiene and the maintenance of water quality, among other requirements. 

Kelp beds may not be biogenic habitats to the extent of coral reefs, but kelp provides essential habitat for assemblages that would not 

reside or function together without it. There are other communities of organisms that are also similarly co-dependent, such as hard-bottom 

communities, which may be structured by bivalves, octocorals, coralline algae, or other groups that generate essential habitat for other species. Intertidal assemblages structured by mussels, barnacles, algae and seagrass beds are other examples. This question is intended to 

address these types of places where organisms form structures (habitats) on which other organisms depend.

Good Habitats are in pristine or near-pristine condition and are unlikely to preclude full community development.

Good/Fair Selected habitat loss or alteration has taken place, precluding full development of living resources, but it is unlikely to cause 

substantial or persistent degradation in living resources or water quality.

Fair Selected habitat loss or alteration may inhibit the development of living resources and may cause measurable but not severe 

declines in living resources or water quality.

Fair/Poor Selected habitat loss or alteration has caused or is likely to cause severe declines in some but not all living resources or water 

quality.

Poor Selected habitat loss or alteration has caused or is likely to cause severe declines in most if not all living resources or water 

quality.

This question addresses the need to understand the risk posed by contaminants within benthic formations, such as soft sediments, hard 

bottoms, or biogenic organisms. In the first two cases, the contaminants can become available when released via disturbance. They can also 

pass upwards through the food chain after being ingested by bottom dwelling prey species. The contaminants of concern generally include 

pesticides, hydrocarbons and heavy metals, but the specific concerns of individual sanctuaries may differ substantially.

Good Contaminants do not appear to have the potential to negatively affect living resources or water quality.

Good/Fair Selected contaminants may preclude full development of living resource assemblages, but are not likely to cause substantial 

or persistent degradation.

Fair Selected contaminants may inhibit the development of assemblages and may cause measurable but not severe declines in 

living resources or water quality.

Fair/Poor Selected contaminants have caused or are likely to cause severe declines in some but not all living resources or water quality.

Poor Selected contaminants have caused or are likely to cause severe declines in most if not all living resources or water quality.

6. What is the condition of biologically structured habitats and how is it changing? Habitat

Structure

7. What are the contaminant concentrations in sanctuary habitats and how are they 

changing?

Habitat

Contaminants
Appendix A: Rating Scheme for System-Wide Monitoring Questions

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 47

Human activities that degrade habitat quality do so by affecting structural (geological), biological, oceanographic, acoustic or chemical 

characteristics. Structural impacts include removal or mechanical alteration, including various fishing techniques (trawls, traps, dredges, 

longlines and even hook-and-line in some habitats), dredging channels and harbors and dumping spoil, vessel groundings, anchoring, laying 

pipelines and cables, installing offshore structures, discharging drill cuttings, dragging tow cables, and placing artificial reefs. Removal or 

alteration of critical biological components of habitats can occur along with several of the above activities, most notably trawling, groundings 

and cable drags. Marine debris, particularly in large quantities (e.g., lost gill nets and other types of fishing gear), can affect both biological 

and structural habitat components. Changes in water circulation often occur when channels are dredged, fill is added, coastal areas are 

reinforced, or other construction takes place. These activities affect habitat by changing food delivery, waste removal, water quality (e.g., 

salinity, clarity and sedimentation), recruitment patterns and a host of other factors. Acoustic impacts can occur to water column habitats and 

organisms from acute and chronic sources of anthropogenic noise (e.g., shipping, boating, construction). Chemical alterations most commonly occur following spills and can have both acute and chronic impacts.

Good Few or no activities occur that are likely to negatively affect habitat quality.

Good/Fair Some potentially harmful activities exist, but they do not appear to have had a negative effect on habitat quality.

Fair Selected activities have resulted in measurable habitat impacts, but evidence suggests effects are localized, not widespread.

Fair/Poor Selected activities have caused or are likely to cause severe impacts, and cases to date suggest a pervasive problem.

Poor Selected activities warrant widespread concern and action, as large-scale, persistent and/or repeated severe impacts have 

occurred or are likely to occur.

This is intended to elicit thought and assessment of the condition of living resources based on expected biodiversity levels and the interactions between species. Intact ecosystems require that all parts not only exist, but that they function together, resulting in natural symbioses, 

competition and predator-prey relationships. Community integrity, resistance and resilience all depend on these relationships. Abundance, 

relative abundance, trophic structure, richness, H’ diversity, evenness and other measures are often used to assess these attributes. 

Good Biodiversity appears to reflect pristine or near-pristine conditions and promotes ecosystem integrity (full community development and function).

Good/Fair Selected biodiversity loss has taken place, precluding full community development and function, but it is unlikely to cause 

substantial or persistent degradation of ecosystem integrity.

Fair Selected biodiversity loss may inhibit full community development and function and may cause measurable but not severe 

degradation of ecosystem integrity.

Fair/Poor Selected biodiversity loss has caused or is likely to cause severe declines in some but not all ecosystem components and 

reduce ecosystem integrity.

Poor Selected biodiversity loss has caused or is likely to cause severe declines in ecosystem integrity.

8. What are the levels of human activities that may influence habitat quality and how 

are they changing?

Habitat

Human Activities

9. What is the status of biodiversity and how is it changing? Living Resources

Biodiversity
Appendix A: Rating Scheme for System-Wide Monitoring Questions

48 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

Commercial and recreational harvesting are highly selective activities, for which fishers and collectors target a limited number of species, 

and often remove high proportions of populations. In addition to removing significant amounts of biomass from the ecosystem, reducing its 

availability to other consumers, these activities tend to disrupt specific and often critical food web links. When too much extraction occurs (i.e. 

ecologically unsustainable harvesting), trophic cascades ensue, resulting in changes in the abundance of non-targeted species as well. It also 

reduces the ability of the targeted species to replenish populations at a rate that supports continued ecosystem integrity. 

It is essential to understand whether removals are occurring at ecologically sustainable levels. Knowing extraction levels and determining 

the impacts of removal are both ways that help gain this understanding. Measures for target species of abundance, catch amounts or rates 

(e.g., catch per unit effort), trophic structure and changes in non-target species abundance are all generally used to assess these conditions.

Other issues related to this question include whether fishers are using gear that is compatible with the habitats being fished and whether 

that gear minimizes by-catch and incidental take of marine mammals. For example, bottom-tending gear often destroys or alters both benthic structure and non-targeted animal and plant communities. “Ghost fishing” occurs when lost traps continue to capture organisms. Lost 

or active nets, as well as lines used to mark and tend traps and other fishing gear, can entangle marine mammals. Any of these could be 

considered indications of environmentally unsustainable fishing techniques.

Good Extraction does not appear to affect ecosystem integrity (full community development and function).

Good/Fair Extraction takes place, precluding full community development and function, but it is unlikely to cause substantial or persistent degradation of ecosystem integrity.

Fair Extraction may inhibit full community development and function and may cause measurable but not severe degradation of 

ecosystem integrity.

Fair/Poor Extraction has caused or is likely to cause severe declines in some but not all ecosystem components and reduce ecosystem 

integrity.

Poor Extraction has caused or is likely to cause severe declines in ecosystem integrity.

Non-indigenous species are generally considered problematic and candidates for rapid response, if found, soon after invasion. For those 

that become established, their impacts can sometimes be assessed by quantifying changes in the affected native species. This question 

allows sanctuaries to report on the threat posed by non-indigenous species. In some cases, the presence of a species alone constitutes a 

significant threat (certain invasive algae). In other cases, impacts have been measured and may or may not significantly affect ecosystem 

integrity.

Good Non-indigenous species are not suspected or do not appear to affect ecosystem integrity (full community development and 

function).

Good/Fair Non-indigenous species exist, precluding full community development and function, but are unlikely to cause substantial or 

persistent degradation of ecosystem integrity.

Fair Non-indigenous species may inhibit full community development and function and may cause measurable but not severe 

degradation of ecosystem integrity.

Fair/Poor Non-indigenous species have caused or are likely to cause severe declines in some but not all ecosystem components and 

reduce ecosystem integrity.

Poor Non-indigenous species have caused or are likely to cause severe declines in ecosystem integrity.

10. What is the status of environmentally sustainable fishing and how is it changing?

Living Resources

Extracted 

Species

11. What is the status of non-indigenous species and how is it changing?

Living Resources

Non-Indigenous 

Species
Appendix A: Rating Scheme for System-Wide Monitoring Questions

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 49

Certain species can be defined as “key” within a marine sanctuary. Some might be keystone species, that is, species on which the 

persistence of a large number of other species in the ecosystem depends - the pillar of community stability. Their functional contribution to 

ecosystem function is disproportionate to their numerical abundance or biomass and their impact is therefore important at the community or 

ecosystem level. Their removal initiates changes in ecosystem structure and sometimes the disappearance of or dramatic increase in the 

abundance of dependent species. Keystone species may include certain habitat modifiers, predators, herbivores and those involved in critical 

symbiotic relationships (e.g. cleaning or co-habitating species).

Other key species may include those that are indicators of ecosystem condition or change (e.g., particularly sensitive species), those 

targeted for special protection efforts, or charismatic species that are identified with certain areas or ecosystems. These may or may not meet 

the definition of keystone, but do require assessments of status and trends.

Good Key and keystone species appear to reflect pristine or near-pristine conditions and may promote ecosystem integrity (full 

community development and function).

Good/Fair Selected key or keystone species are at reduced levels, perhaps precluding full community development and function, but 

substantial or persistent declines are not expected.

Fair The reduced abundance of selected keystone species may inhibit full community development and function and may cause 

measurable but not severe degradation of ecosystem integrity; or selected key species are at reduced levels, but recovery is 

possible.

Fair/Poor The reduced abundance of selected keystone species has caused or is likely to cause severe declines in some but not all 

ecosystem components, and reduce ecosystem integrity; or selected key species are at substantially reduced levels, and 

prospects for recovery are uncertain.

Poor The reduced abundance of selected keystone species has caused or is likely to cause severe declines in ecosystem integrity; 

or selected key species are a severely reduced levels, and recovery is unlikely.

For those species considered essential to ecosystem integrity, measures of their condition can be important to determining the likelihood 

that they will persist and continue to provide vital ecosystem functions. Measures of condition may include growth rates, fecundity, recruitment, age-specific survival, tissue contaminant levels, pathologies (disease incidence tumors, deformities), the presence and abundance 

of critical symbionts or parasite loads. Similar measures of condition may also be appropriate for other key species (indicator, protected or 

charismatic species). In contrast to the question about keystone species (#12 above), the impact of changes in the abundance or condition of 

key species is more likely to be observed at the population or individual level and less likely to result in ecosystem or community effects.

Good The condition of key resources appears to reflect pristine or near-pristine conditions.

Good/Fair The condition of selected key resources is not optimal, perhaps precluding full ecological function, but substantial or persistent declines are not expected.

Fair The diminished condition of selected key resources may cause a measurable but not severe reduction in ecological function, 

but recovery is possible.

Fair/Poor The comparatively poor condition of selected key resources makes prospects for recovery uncertain.

Poor The poor condition of selected key resources makes recovery unlikely.

12. What is the status of key species and how is it changing? Living Resources

Key Species

Living Resources

Health of Key 

Species

13. What is the condition or health of key species and how is it changing?
Appendix A: Rating Scheme for System-Wide Monitoring Questions

50 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

Human activities that degrade living resource quality do so by causing a loss or reduction of one or more species, by disrupting critical 

life stages, by impairing various physiological processes, or by promoting the introduction of non-indigenous species or pathogens. (Note: 

Activities that impact habitat and water quality may also affect living resources. These activities are dealt with in Questions 4 and 8, and many 

are repeated here as they also have direct effect on living resources). 

Fishing and collecting are the primary means of removing resources. Bottom trawling, seine-fishing and the collection of ornamental species for the aquarium trade are all common examples, some being more selective than others. Chronic mortality can be caused by marine 

debris derived from commercial or recreational vessel traffic, lost fishing gear and excess visitation, resulting in the gradual loss of some 

species.

Critical life stages can be affected in various ways. Mortality to adult stages is often caused by trawling and other fishing techniques, cable 

drags, dumping spoil or drill cuttings, vessel groundings or persistent anchoring. Contamination of areas by acute or chronic spills, discharges 

by vessels, or municipal and industrial facilities can make them unsuitable for recruitment; the same activities can make nursery habitats 

unsuitable. Although coastal armoring and construction can increase the availability of surfaces suitable for the recruitment and growth of hard 

bottom species, the activity may disrupt recruitment patterns for other species (e.g., intertidal soft bottom animals) and habitat may be lost.

Spills, discharges, and contaminants released from sediments (e.g., by dredging and dumping) can all cause physiological impairment and 

tissue contamination. Such activities can affect all life stages by reducing fecundity, increasing larval, juvenile, and adult mortality, reducing 

disease resistance, and increasing susceptibility to predation. Bioaccumulation allows some contaminants to move upward through the food 

chain, disproportionately affecting certain species. 

Activities that promote introductions include bilge discharges and ballast water exchange, commercial shipping and vessel transportation. 

Releases of aquarium fish can also lead to species introductions.

Good Few or no activities occur that are likely to negatively affect living resource quality.

Good/Fair Some potentially harmful activities exist, but they do not appear to have had a negative effect on living resource quality.

Fair Selected activities have resulted in measurable living resource impacts, but evidence suggests effects are localized, not 

widespread.

Fair/Poor Selected activities have caused or are likely to cause severe impacts, and cases to date suggest a pervasive problem.

Poor Selected activities warrant widespread concern and action, as large-scale, persistent and/or repeated severe impacts have 

occurred or are likely to occur.

14. What are the levels of human activities that may influence living resource quality 

and how are they changing?

Living Resources

Human Activities
Appendix A: Rating Scheme for System-Wide Monitoring Questions

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 51

The condition of archaeological resources in a marine sanctuary significantly affects their value for science and education, as well as the 

resource’s eligibility for listing in the National Register of Historic Places. Assessments of archaeological sites include evaluation of the apparent levels of site integrity, which are based on levels of previous human disturbance and the level of natural deterioration. The historical, 

scientific and educational values of sites are also evaluated and are substantially determined and affected by site condition.

Good Known archaeological resources appear to reflect little or no unexpected disturbance.

Good/Fair Selected archaeological resources exhibit indications of disturbance, but there appears to have been little or no reduction in 

historical, scientific or educational value.

Fair The diminished condition of selected archaeological resources has reduced, to some extent, their historical, scientific or 

educational value and may affect the eligibility of some sites for listing in the National Register of Historic Places.

Fair/Poor The diminished condition of selected archaeological resources has substantially reduced their historical, scientific or educational value and is likely to affect their eligibility for listing in the National Register of Historic Places.

Poor The degraded condition of known archaeological resources in general makes them ineffective in terms of historical, scientific 

or educational value and precludes their listing in the National Register of Historic Places.

The sinking of a ship potentially introduces hazardous materials into the marine environment. This danger is true for historic shipwrecks 

as well. The issue is complicated by the fact that shipwrecks older than 50 years may be considered historical resources and must, by federal 

mandate, be protected. Many historic shipwrecks, particularly early to mid-20th century, still have the potential to retain oil and fuel in tanks 

and bunkers. As shipwrecks age and deteriorate, the potential for release of these materials into the environment increases.

Good Known maritime archaeological resources pose few or no environmental threats.

Good/Fair Selected maritime archaeological resources may pose isolated or limited environmental threats, but substantial or persistent 

impacts are not expected.

Fair Selected maritime archaeological resources may cause measurable, but not severe, impacts to certain sanctuary resources 

or areas, but recovery is possible.

Fair/Poor Selected maritime archaeological resources pose substantial threats to certain sanctuary resources or areas, and prospects 

for recovery are uncertain.

Poor Selected maritime archaeological resources pose serious threats to sanctuary resources, and recovery is unlikely.

15. What is the integrity of known maritime archaeological resources and how is it 

changing?

Maritime 

Archaeological Resources

Integrity

16. Do known maritime archaeological resources pose an environmental hazard and 

how is this threat changing?

Maritime 

Archaeological Resources

Threat to 

Environment
Appendix A: Rating Scheme for System-Wide Monitoring Questions

52 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

17. What are the levels of human activities that may influence maritime archaeological 

resource quality and how are they changing?

Maritime 

Archaeological Resources

Human Activities

Some human maritime activities threaten the physical integrity of submerged archaeological resources. Archaeological site integrity 

is compromised when elements are moved, removed or otherwise damaged. Threats come from looting by divers, inadvertent damage by 

scuba diving visitors, improperly conducted archaeology that does not fully document site disturbance, anchoring, groundings, and commercial and recreational fishing activities, among others. 

Good Few or no activities occur that are likely to negatively affect maritime archaeological resource integrity.

Good/Fair Some potentially relevant activities exist, but they do not appear to have had a negative effect on maritime archaeological 

resource integrity.

Fair Selected activities have resulted in measurable impacts to maritime archaeological resources, but evidence suggests effects 

are localized, not widespread.

Fair/Poor Selected activities have caused or are likely to cause severe impacts, and cases to date suggest a pervasive problem.

Poor Selected activities warrant widespread concern and action, as large-scale, persistent, and/or repeated severe impacts have 

occurred or are likely to occur.
Appendix B: Consultation with Experts and Document Review

CONDITION REPORT 2009 Papahānaumokuākea 53

The process for preparing condition reports involves a combination of accepted techniques for collecting and interpreting information 

gathered from subject matter experts. The approach varies somewhat from sanctuary to sanctuary, in order to accommodate differing styles for working with partners. The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument approach was closely related to the 

Delphi Method, a technique designed to organize group communication among a panel of geographically dispersed experts by using questionnaires, ultimately facilitating the formation of a group judgment. This method can be applied when it is necessary for decision-makers to 

combine the testimony of a group of experts, whether in the form of facts or informed opinion, or both, into a single useful statement. 

Appendix B: Consultation with Experts and Document Review

The Delphi Method relies on repeated interactions with experts 

who respond to questions with a limited number of choices to arrive at the best supported answers. Feedback to the experts allows 

them to refine their views, gradually moving the group toward the 

most agreeable judgment. For condition reports, the Office of National Marine Sanctuaries uses 17 questions related to the status 

and trends of monument resources, with accompanying descriptions 

and five possible choices that describe resource condition. 

In order to address the 17 questions, monument staff selected 

and consulted outside experts familiar with water quality, living resources, habitat, and maritime archaeological resources. A small 

workshop (around 10-20 participants) was convened where experts 

participated in facilitated discussions about each of the 17 questions. Experts represented various affiliations including Clancy Environmental Consultants, Hawai’i Department of Land and Natural 

Resources, Hawai’i Institute of Marine Biology, NOAA’s Office of 

National Marine Sanctuaries, NOAA’s Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. At the workshop 

each expert was introduced to the questions, was then asked to 

provide recommendations and supporting arguments, and the group 

supplemented the input with further discussion. In order to ensure 

consistency with Delphic methods, a critical role of the facilitator was 

to minimize dominance of the discussion by a single individual or 

opinion (which often leads to “follow the leader” tendencies in group 

meetings) and to encourage the expression of honest differences 

of opinion. As discussions progressed, the group converged in their 

opinion of the rating that most accurately describes the current resource condition. After an appropriate amount of time, the facilitator 

asked whether the group could agree on a rating for the question, as 

defined by specific language linked to each rating (see Appendix A). 

If an agreement was reached, the result was recorded and the group 

moved on to consider the trend in the same manner. If agreement 

was not reached, the facilitator instructed monument staff to consider 

all input and decide on a rating and trend at a future time, and to send 

their ratings back to workshop participants for individual comment.

The ratings and text found in the report are intended to summarize the opinions and uncertainty expressed by the experts, who 

based their input on knowledge and perceptions of local conditions. 

Comments and citations received from the experts were included, as 

appropriate, in text supporting the ratings. 

The first draft of the document was sent back to the subject experts for what was called an Initial Review, a 21-day period that allows them to ensure that the report accurately reflected their input, 

identify information gaps, provide comments or suggest revisions to 

the ratings and text. Upon receiving those comments, the writing 

team revised the text and ratings as they deemed appropriate. The 

final interpretation, ratings, and text in the draft condition report were 

the responsibility of monument staff, with final approval by the monument manager. To emphasize this important point, authorship of the 

report is attributed to the monument alone. Subject experts were 

not authors, though their efforts and affiliations are acknowledged 

in the report. 

The second phase of review, called Invited Review, involved particularly important partners in research and resource management, 

including NOAA’s Marine Debris Program and NOAA’s National 

Marine Fisheries Service. These bodies were asked to review the 

technical merits of resource ratings and accompanying text, as well 

as to point out any omissions or factual errors. The comments and 

recommendations of invited reviewers were received, considered by 

sanctuary staff, and incorporated, as appropriate, into a final draft 

document. 

A draft final report was then sent to Dr. Jo-Ann Leong (Hawaii 

Institute of Marine Biology), Sam Pooley (Pacific Islands Fisheries 

Science Center) and Dan Polhemus (Hawaii State Department of 

Land and Natural Resources and the Bishop Museum) who served 

as external peer reviewers. This External Peer Review is a requirement that started in December 2004, when the White House Office 

of Management and Budget (OMB) issued a Final Information Quality Bulletin for Peer Review (OMB Bulletin) establishing peer review 

standards that would enhance the quality and credibility of the federal government’s scientific information. Along with other information, these standards apply to Influential Scientific Information, which 

is information that can reasonably be determined to have a “clear 

and substantial impact on important public policies or private sector 

decisions.” The Condition Reports are considered Influential Scientific Information. For this reason, these reports are subject to the 
Appendix B: Consultation with Experts and Document Review

54 Papahānaumokuākea CONDITION REPORT 2009

review requirements of both the Information Quality Act and the OMB 

Bulletin guidelines. Therefore, following the completion of every condition report, they are reviewed by a minimum of three individuals 

who are considered to be experts in their field, were not involved 

in the development of the report, and are not ONMS employees. 

Comments from these peer reviews were incorporated into the final 

text of the report. Furthermore, OMB Bulletin guidelines require that 

reviewer comments, names, and affiliations be posted on the agency 

website: http://www.osec.doc.gov/cio/oipr/pr_plans.htm. Reviewer 

comments, however, are not attributed to specific individuals. Reviewer comments are posted at the same time as with the formatted 

final document.
Notes


The National Marine Sanctuary System

The Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, serves as the trustee for a system of 14 marine protected areas encompassing more than 150,000 square miles of ocean and Great Lakes waters. The 13 national marine 

sanctuaries and one marine national monument within the National Marine Sanctuary System represent areas of America’s ocean and Great 

Lakes environment that are of special national significance. Within their waters, giant humpback whales breed and calve their young, coral 

colonies flourish, and shipwrecks tell stories of our maritime history. Habitats include beautiful coral reefs, lush kelp forests, whale migrations 

corridors, spectacular deep-sea canyons, and underwater archaeological sites. These special places also provide homes to thousands of 

unique or endangered species and are important to America’s cultural heritage. Sites range in size from less than one to almost 140,000 

square miles and serve as natural classrooms, cherished recreational spots and are home to valuable commercial industries. The sanctuary 

system represents many things to many people and each place is unique and in need of special protections.

Papahanaumokuakea