DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

HERBERT HOOVER, Secretary

STANDARDS YEARBOOK

1927

Compiled by

THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

GEORGE K. BURGESS, Director

Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication No. 77

PRICE $1

Sold only by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office Washington, D. C.

UNITED STATES

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON

1927
LETTER OF SUBMITTAL

Department of Commerce,

National Bureau of Standards,

Washington, February 12, 1927.

Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith for publication the first issue of the Standards Yearbook, which will be brought out annually

hereafter.

The Standards Yearbook represents an effort to present an adequate picture of the diversification and ramification of the standardization movement which has spread throughout the world with

astonishing vitality during the 25 years that have elapsed since the- establishment of the National Bureau of Standards. It contains

outlines of the activities and accomplishments of not only this bureau

and other agencies of the Federal Government and the States and

municipalities, but also of the American societies and associations of

which standardization is a major or very important activity.

Descriptions and illustrations are presented of all the fundamental

national standards of the United States. Moreover, outlines are

given of the various foreign, national, and the several international

standardizing agencies.

As a companion volume to Commerce Yearbook which deals,

strictly with industry and commerce, the Standards Yearbook deals

strictly with standards and standardization. In this volume are

correlated the essentials concerning standardization activities with,

which the Bureau of Standards is in close cooperation, and the subject

of standardization is presented in its entirety.

The Standards Yearbook will be most valuable in the daily work

of all officers and agencies concerned with standardization, especially

in its official or governmental aspects. It will furnish the answers,

to a great volume of urgent inquiries received by the Bureau of* Standards from manufacturers, industrial experts, engineers, and

purchasing agencies both governmental and general.

Respectfully,

George K. Burgess,

Director Bureau oj Standards^

Hon. Herbert Hoover,

Secretary oj Commerce.

ii
CONTENTS

Psfla

I. Trend of standardization 1

II. International standardizing agencies 7 Governmental 7

International bureau of weights and measures 7

Inter-American High Commission 9 Nongovernmental 9

International Astronomical Union 9

International Commission on Illumination 11 International Electrotechnical Commission 12

International Standards Association 14

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 15 Miscellaneous international organizations 18 Pan American standardization conferences 18

III. National standardizing agencies 20

National Bureau of Standards (Washington) 20

National Physical Laboratory (Teddington, London) 20

Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt (Charlottenburg) 24

Laboratoire d'Essais M6caniques, Physiques, Chimiques, et de Machines (Paris) 28

National standardizing committees 28

IV. Fundamental and working standards of the United States of America. 30

Classes of standards 32, 33 Acidimetry 31 Standard for acidity measurement 31

Calorimetry 31 Standard for heat of combustion 31

Colorimetry 31 Standard of color 31 Composition 34

Standards for quantitative analysis 34

Densimetry 35

Working standards of density for liquids 35

Electricity 35 Standard of electrical capacitance 35 Standards of electrical current 36 Standards of electromotive force 37

Standard of radio-frequency 37

Standard of electrical inductance 38

Standards of magnetic permeability 39

Standards of electrical resistance 39 Frequency 40

Working laboratory standards 40

Grain size 41 Working standard of fineness 41 Metrology (fundamental) 41 Standard of length 41 Standard of mass 42

Volume 43

Standard of volume 43 Standard of time 44

in
IV CONTENTS

IV. Fundamental and working standards of the United States—Conbd. Page Oxidimetry 45

Oxidimetric standard 45 Photometry 46 Standards of luminous intensity 46

Planometry 47 Standard of planeness 47 Polarimetry ... 47 Standard for opitcal rotation 47 Standard reducing substance 48 Pyrometry 49

Standards for temperature fixed points 49

Radiology

_

49

Standard of radioactivity 49

Radiometry 50 Standard of total radiation 50 Saccharimetry 50

Standard for optical rotation 50 Spectroscopy 51 Standard for wave-length measurements 51 Thermometry 52

Standard temperature scale 52 V. Federal standardizing agencies 53 Executive departments 53 Department of Agriculture 53 Bureau of Agricultural Economics 53 Bureau of Animal Industry 57 Bureau of Chemistry 57 Bureau of Plant Industry 61 Bureau of Public Roads 62

Forest Service 63

Weather Bureau 66

Department of Commerce 67 Bureau of the Census 68 Bureau of Fisheries 68 Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce 69 Bureau of Lighthouses 71 Bureau of Mines 72

National Bureau of Standards 77 Steamboat Inspection Service -- 78

Department of the Interior 78 Bureau of Reclamation 78

Geological Survey 79 National Park Service 79

Office of Indian Affairs 79

Department of Labor 80 Bureau of Labor Statistics 80

Children's Bureau 80 Women's Bureau 80

Navy Department 80 Bureau of Aeronautics 80 Bureau of Construction and Repair 81 Bureau of Engineering 82 Bureau of Medicine and Surgery 83
CONTENTS V

V. Federal standardizing agencies—Continued.

Executive departments—Continued.

Navy department—Continued. Page Bureau of Navigation 85 Bureau of Ordnance 87 Bureau of Supplies and Accounts 88 Bureau of Yards and Docks 88

United States Marine Corps 89

Post Office Department 90

First Assistant Postmaster General 90

Second Assistant Postmaster General 90

Fourth Assistant Postmaster General 91 Purchasing agent 92

Treasury Department 94 Bureau of the Public Health Service 94 Bureau of Supply 95

Division of Customs 95

General Supply Committee 95

Office of the Director of the Mint 96

Supervising Architect 97

United States Coast Guard 98

War Department , 99

Present status of War Department standardization

and results accomplished during 1926 100 Independent establishments 102 Board of Surveys and Maps of the Federal Government __ 102 Bureau of the Budget 104

Chief Coordinator, Office of the 104 Coordinator for Purchase 106

Federal Purchasing Board 107

Federal Specifications Board 109

Federal Traffic Board 115 Interdepartmental Board of Contracts and Adjust- ments 116

Interdepartmental Board on Simplified Office Procedure 118 Permanent Conference on Printing 121 Bureau of Efficiency, United States 124

Civil Service Commission, United States 124

District of Columbia 125

Federal Power Commission 126

General Accounting Office 126 Government Printing Office 129 Inter-American High Commission—United States sec- tion 131

Interstate Commerce Commission 131 Library of Congress 131 National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 132

National Screw Thread Commission 137 Panama Canal, The 139

Smithsonian Institution 140 United States Geographic Board 141 United States Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation 141 United States Veterans' Bureau 143

Federal Government research and testing laboratories 144
VI CONTENTS

Paie VI. National Bureau of Standards * 149

Historical outline 149 Functions 150 General 150 Standards of measurement 150 Standard constants 150

Standards of quality 150 Standards of performance _ 151 Standards of practice 151 Examples 151 Relation to Governmental agencies 153

Federal 153

State 154 Municipal 155

Relation to science, commerce, and industry 156

Research 156

Advisory committees 159 Cooperating organizations 160

Publications 161 Relation to other testing laboratories 161

Federal testing laboratories 161 Some activities and accomplishments 162 General 162

Electrical 162

Weights and measures 176

Heat and power 185

Optics 198

Chemistry 214

Mechanics and sound 222

Organic and fibrous materials 237

Metallurgy 249

Clay and silicate products 259

Simplified practice 272

Building and housing 276

Testing 284

VII. Municipal and State agencies 286

Municipal purchasing and standardizing agencies 286

State purchasing and standardizing agencies 288

VIII. General standardizing agencies 296

American Engineering Standards Committee 296

American Marine Standards Committee 301

American Society for Testing Materials 303

Central Committee on Lumber Standards 306 IX. Standardizing activities of technical societies and trade associations. 308

Alphabetical list of societies and associations 308 X. Testing and certification for the consumer 388

Certification plan 388

Commercial testing laboratories 391

College research laboratories 392
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927

L TREND OF STANDARDIZATION

Standardization is the oustanding note of this century. It ramifies

to the remotest details of our industrial regime. Its trends are highly

significant. They tap all sources of scientific knowledge and affect every phase of design, production, and utilization.

1. The trend is away from mere opinion, or even expert judgment,

and toward verifiable determinations by research of those quantities or properties which assure maximum utility. This affects quality at

its source, in the design of the product, or the layout of the process by

which it is produced.

2. The trend is away from mere duplication of material once found

acceptable, away from mere " brand" designation, still further away

from mere descriptive or qualitative prescription. The trend is toward a precise statement in measurable terms of the magnitudes of

the pertinent dimensions or properties which determine the utility. 3 . The trend is toward a minimum of standards of quality, perhaps

a single national or even international standard, for each service to be

rendered, each need to be met. With precise methods of arriving at the data comes the natural unification of specifications, the reduction

in their number as they approach ideal measures of the quality desired, as science and service make possible, and as the size of the groups

interested in a given specification widens.

4. The trend is toward making standardization an active principle

in organization and administration in every field. This is evidenced

by the multiplication of standardization agencies organized, including

technical committees on standards in the great national professional

societies. Standardization is becoming an aspect of all well-ordered

activity rather than an incidental activity supplemental to others.

5. The standardization procedure itself is becoming standardized

gradually. A set of principles of practice is slowly forming as to the

initiation, sponsorship, participation, technical basis for requirements,

criticism, revision, adoption, jurisdiction, promulgation, and adherence. As the scientific basis for such procedure becomes more convincing, acceptance by wider jurisdictions becomes relatively easier

and standardization is accelerated on a broader basis of acceptance.

6. The boundaries of the standardization field are expanding and

the prospect is that it will soon cover systematically all industry and

1
2 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

science, securing the full cooperation of all concerned, focusing every

pertinent knowledge on each item standardized, feeding back service

experience to the standardizing agencies, adopting the presumptively

best feasible, making it a general standard. The standardized postcard serves the Nation acceptably for billions of communications

annually. Modified if utility dictates, it may serve for the entire

world.

7. Standardization of all degrees is universal in industry. The

entire output of industry, the processes, and machines are being

standardized, some by individuals or firms, others by technical

organization, still others by the users. Many are being standardized

by the Government. Naturally there is no natural limit to standardization, and the benefits to be secured from the perfected service of

well-standardized products are immeasurable. Most of all, standardization has become recognized not as a stage to be completed but as a continuing process—literally a systematic harvesting of experience and

discovery used in perfecting industry. The Government program of standardization of quality through specifications must eventually

include at least all articles and services used by the Government.

The trend is to cooperate for the broadest jurisdictions, and this

points toward national standards assuring the best feasible products

for the

*******

Nation.

There is everywhere intense activity in standardization through

older organizations and through newer agencies, both national and

international. Nor is such activity limited to the industrial field. In science, terminology, methods, instruments, constants are being

standardized for ease and speed of diffusion of data and to secure comparable results. In medical research and practice measured

procedure is increasing in diagnosis and treatment. The trend is notable—the struggle for new standards based on new experience,

new knowledge—innovation winning through merit. Always the

chaotic, chance qualities and sizes give way to orderly, efficient qualities and sizes. Evolution shows the development of standard

types of life forms adapted to a given environment. Even the fine arts bear the impress of standards—the metrics of verse, the rhythm

of ornament and motion, the proportions of structures. The interplay of standards is seen in unsuspected fields where their role is mandatory, sometimes with a rigor superior to legal enactment.

Since 1901, when the Bureau of Standards was founded, the varieties of measurement have multiplied manyfold. Each requires units,

standards, methods of measurement. Their variety grows rapidly

and will continue to grow, for every aspect of matter and energy calls for a type of measurement with characteristic problems and becomes

material for standardization. Our mastery of nature depends on
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 3

such measurements. Precision to-day may be many times that of

25 years ago within ranges then measurable. To-day we measure wave lengths of light to within one two-hundred-and-fifty-billionth

of an inch, mass to a part in a billion. We rule scales accurate to a

millionth of an inch, grind quartz true flats to within one five-millionth

of an inch. Not only so, but the measurable ranges of each kind of

measurement have been extended incredibly, to infinitesimals—the

diameters of atomic nuclei, and to magnitudes ten or more million

light years. With the rapid growth of measurements, their varieties, ranges,

and precision, we now measure quality or fitness for use, performance,

or utility of devices, practice, or effectiveness of processes. These

call for standards of quality, performance, or practice—complex,

perhaps, but stating in measurable terms the pertinent magnitudes

which determine net utility. They are called specifications. As they

approach definiteness through precise measures they become service

standards. Their full scope covers all of industry when scientifically

ordered, for measures must guide every step, every factor in making

or doing things, to insure their utmost utility.

When a Federal, State, or municipal government, or a corporation

buys commodities, the quantities involved forbid risk of poor quality.

The demand must not be impracticable, hence to secure a product

producible in the mill and usable in service all concerned must be

consulted—maker, seller, buyer, user. A typical case of this was in

formulating the Federal specifications for electric lamps in 1907.

This was drafted in conference with Government lighting experts,

lamp buyers, representatives of makers and sellers, and bureau

experts in photometry. The great variety then in use was promptly

simplified to a moderate number adequate for all needs. The specification has been revised nine times as progress has made possible,

with the joint approval of all. Its provisions are feasible mill practice; the bureau inspects at the mills to minimize cost and delay,

and the lamps accepted under the specifications serve their purpose

effectively. To-day the Government specifications apply to the

entire American public largely because all concerned are parties to

their formulation and revision. A similar story may be told of

Portland cement.

While service is the ultimate test of fitness, production must

precede service. The designer and the producer must use the skill and data at hand, for the buyer is waiting in the market. As a

basis for purchase, sale, and use standards are drafted with all degrees of thoroughness, loosely at first, definitely as knowledge

permits. The cycle begins empirically, the expert drafting a tentative specification in such terms as the mill may be able to apply to making the product. As the public must pay, its voice must be

36316—27 2
4 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDAEDS

heeded, but the public is less concerned with the details of the

measurements which assure such quality.

Kesearch is the vital factor in standardization chiefly through

seven lines of approach: (a) Measuring the need to be met, (b)

analysis of factors adapted to meet the need, (c) fixing measured

controls for production of predictable quality, (d) basing such controls on correlation of fitness factors with service utility, (e) devising

methods of test of quality, (f) analysis of service experience or simulated service to aid in improving the standard, (g) most important

research fundamental to the pure sciences involved.

The measures of the need are the matrix for the specification.

Point by point the measured quality must match the measured

need. The measured curvature of the lens is made to match the

measured defect of the eye, and the result is perfected vision. The

measure of the need is basic. Modern science is making it possible

not only to measure every need, but to create new desires and needs

for the enrichment of life—aviation, radio, the camera are examples.

Fitness for use is the definition of quality. Fitness can be assured

only when the need to be met is scientifically measured. Such

measures must be the basis for all standardization.

Research thus affects every phase of the choice, treatment, and

use of materials and * energy, specifically through the discovery of

correlations of the properties of matter and energy with useful

service to man. In commerce the properties of materials are, of

course, the real utilities sold, bought, and used. The utility of

things depends upon the nature, magnitude, and stability of these

properties. To determine these is the purpose of research, to correlate them with their uses is its main problem. By eliminating the

useless or harmful properties and developing the magnitude of

useful properties, the net service is enhanced.

Standards are the means by which research is applied to the

production of serviceable things. There is a best standard humidity

for cotton spinning, a best compression ratio in the motor, a best

volatility curve for a gasoline, a best diameter for a conductor for a given current avoiding both overheating and undue cost. These

are matters of standardization. They are its principal task. They

can not be fixed by service experience for the ideal value may not,

usually does not, occur in experience. It occurs as a matter of course in experimental research which measures the effect of each

factor and finds by experiment the maximum and optimum. Research is the appeal to the nature of things. Its findings must, through

standardization, enter into the control of the processes of industry

to serve man. Congress gave the National Bureau of Standards the

task, among others, of measuring numerical constants which express

the behavior of matter and energy. They are unlimited in number,
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 5

they inhere in the nature of things, and their accuracy is their sole merit. They are indispensable in planning the processes of science

and industry and become a permanent service element in industry,

playing their part no less than the tool or the power. Dimensions

are important, but the measure of properties is now quite as important and exacting as control of size, and far more productive of new and superior kinds of service. Such constants are as essential

to the functioning of a process as the size and form of a key to the

opening of a lock. Research has a field in devising tests which can

only be mentioned here. Perhaps the test may be regarded as a temporary expedient until the standardized process makes the quality inevitable and never failing. Then, with all factors of the productive process standardized, the process will unfailingly deliver

uniformly high quality and exact dimension.

Service research, hitherto somewhat random, is becoming recognized as the true complement of laboratory research in completing

the standardization cycle. Research discloses facts which service

alone can not reveal. It finds faults in materials, defects in devices,

imperfections in service. It finds their cause and cure. It does far

more, for it lays down new principles of nature which permit progress

not only by steady increments along old lines, but by entirely new

methods creates new possibilities.

With active cooperation between maker, seller, user, and the

research laboratory the specification becomes a means of steady

progress in the industry concerned, and combined with service experience facilitates the more efficient adaptation of materials to their

uses. Inflexible specifications or standards retard advance, but if allowed to grow apace with new service experience and research

data, the specification becomes a distinct aid to such progress. Standardization in the nature of the case implies something of an

ideal, a practical ideal it is true, but nevertheless an ideal. When

it ceases to be such an ideal it ceases to be true standardization and

becomes simply fixation.

Research takes service experience, analyzes it, and gives the data

to the standardizing agencies as helpful in revising the specification.

Service integrates all factors determining net utility. Use is the

dictator, hence the appeal to service is logical. Service can tell the

whole story. An excellent example is the test structure erected by

the Bureau of Standards in which 50 or more varieties of outdoor

stuccos were built into separate panels, each of one variety. The

weather alone performed the test, the conclusions were obvious

the fittest survived. Poor types were removed from the market.

Without debate a steady progress in the quality of market stuccos

resulted from this service experience made available in a carefully

planned investigation.
6 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Wise industrial groups may anticipate the users' desires, even educate them to ever higher standards of service demands. Twenty

million car owners may not be able to give the knowledge for designing an ideal car, but their desires create a channel along which effec- tive design may well flow. Service experience, however, must yield

far more than opinions of users, namely, the scientific analysis of the

service itself, measured as carefully as we measure the parts of a machine. Hence " tire-miles," "car-miles," "miles per gallon,"

"cents per mile," "watts per candle," and the like are shop parlance

where service efficiencies are in daily question. Service efficiencies must be measured and the data used in revision. Service experience,

viewed in the light of the laboratory tests, must, however, be the

criterion for judging the adequacy of the specifications themselves, or their need for improvement.

More and more through research the most effective dimensions and

measures are wrought into materials and devices. The standards of

control measurements are less and less subject to opinion or even

expert judgment. Experts recognize that the day of arbitrary opinion

is passing, that experimental research and service experience can best

guide every item of the standard. With great gaps in our precise

knowledge of the properties of matter and energy, empiricism still rules, but its domain narrows as research gives us measured data

based on scientific methods.

No standardization is final since science is always advancing and more effective equipment is steadily introduced into industry. The

specification should be improved by steps not too frequent to unduly

interrupt the course of industry and trade, but often enough not to lose the great gains from prompt use of new knowledge. Standardization is a continuing process. Its aim is not fixity or stagnation, but

to add serviceability as often as the potential gain makes it worth

while.
II. INTERNATIONAL STANDARDIZING AGENCIES

The exigencies of international commerce, navigation, travel,

and diplomacy have necessitated certain standardization activities

designed to fix such fundamentals as time and chronology, latitude^

and longitude, common bases of reference in which to fix the values

of monetary units, quantities, tonnage register, the depths of the

navigable waters, draft of vessels, positions of the stars and planets,

national boundaries, and many similar essentials of human activities. A very brief statement concerning some of the international organizations having charge of these subjects as they effect standardization

will be given. The nongovernmental agencies are so numerous

as to preclude description. At first the agencies were largely scientific and technical groups meeting in convention and agreeing upon matters which then became subjects of legislation or administrative

adoption. The first to be organized for the preparation and distribution of standards was the International Bureau of Weights and

Measures.

GOVERNMENTAL

INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

[Sevres, near Paris, France] The International Bureau of Weights and Measures was established by the Metric Convention of May 20, 1875. This famous

treaty was signed at Paris by the plenipotentiaries of most of the

leading occidental nations. This bureau has the custody of the

international standards of weights and measures—the meter and

kilogram—to which all prototypes of the world are referred for

verification. The bureau is maintained jointly by the contracting

States, now numbering 29. The international bureau is located

in the Pare de St. Cloud, Sevres, in the northwest suburbs of Paris, on neutral territory ceded by France for this purpose. The work

of the bureau is supervised by an International Committee of Weights

and Measures, which is itself supervised by a general conference of

weights and measures provided for by the treaty of 1875.

Under the terms of the treaty the general conference meets at

least once in six years to discuss and initiate measures necessary

for the dissemination and improvement of the metric system, and

to pass upon fundamental metrological determinations. The conference is thus the highest administrative body for international

action on weights and measures, being supported by the 29 nations

7
8 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

now adhering to the treaty. Under it functions an International

Committee on Weights and Measures, whose work is to supervise

the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.

The Nations now adhering to the metric treaty signed May 20,

1875, are the following:

Germany, United States, Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada,

Chile, Denmark, Spain, Finland, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Japan,

Mexico, Norway, Peru, Portugal, Rumania, Russia, Serbia, Siam, Sweden,

Switzerland, Czechoslovakia, and Uruguay.

These nations are officially represented in the International General Conference on Weights and Measures.

Following is a digest of a report of the activities of the bureau

September 1, 1923, to August 31, 1925, read at the session of the

International Committee on Weights and Measures, September

22, 1925.

President V. Volterra recalled that May 20, 1925, marked the

fiftieth anniversary of the bureau. Despite unfavorable conditions

the level of work has been maintained with confidence that the

governments will provide resources sufficient for the task. A

representative of the National Physical Laboratory (England) was

given the use of the facilities of the bureau to determine two standards of length, and a representative of Canada aided in like comparisons, both of which disclose unexplained apparent changes in length, as high as a micron for the Canadian standards.

The discrepancy in the absolute expansion of standard bar II4 of the Central Chamber of Weights and Measures of Russia (compared with 1910 determination) has been reduced sensibly.

The precise determination of the mural base is fundamental for

geodesy, but this determination compared by primary wires occupied

the bureau five days without giving all the certainty desired. The

need for a new base was met by a contribution from the Internationa

Education Board. The sum was turned over to the Geneva Society

(Societe Genevoise).

By action of the International Committee a microphotographic

equipment has been installed. Mr. Johnansson, of Eskilstuna,

Sweden, has retouched certain standards of plane and parallel faces,

making them almost perfect.

The only prototypes which have been received at the bureau for

test during the past two years were those of Finland, meter No. 5

and kilogram No. 26. These have been returned, as well as the

German meter No. 18 and Norwegian meter No. 3. Meter No.

26, belonging to the Conservatoire National des Arts de Metiers,

has been returned to the bureau.

Experiments show how complex is the problem of using light waves as standards of length. Perard has examined many types of
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 9

lamps of cadmium. Through the courtesy of Mr. Tanakadate, the

bureau has received a lamp of the Nagaoka-Suguira type which

functions at 200 volts. The red rays of cadmium remain remarkably

monochromatic and interference fringes appear very sharp even for

200 millimeters difference of path. The comparisons of wave lengths

have assumed great importance.

Two measurements have been made of the length of the base, one

at the end of 1923 and one in the spring of 1925. The work is long

and laborious and will be simplified in the future. With the geodetic

comparator a study was made of the Spanish geodetic standard

including a calibration by comparison with the bureau's standards,

then in determining the decimeter intervals for the first meter of

the bar, which necessitates standardization of the invar 1 -meter bar.

On authority of the committee the director of the bureau re- ported that he had taken from the vault the prototype meter No. 1 and kilogram No. 7. Kilogram No. 7 replaces provisionally kilogram No. 1. Both will be restored to the vault. The committee

unanimously decided that kilogram No. 7 should not be touched

until the conference had decided with reference to the replacement

of kilogram No. 1 by this kilogram as representing the international kilogram.

INTER-AMERICAN HIGH COMMISSION

[Washington, D. CJ This commission has prepared (in cooperation with the Department of Commerce) pamphlets giving specifications for various commodities. These have been distributed to the Latin-American

members. Preparations are under way for the Conference on the

Standardization of Specifications to be held at Washington in May,

1927. Further data can be had from the Washington representative, J. Homer Butler, room 620, Hurley Wright Building, Washington.

NONGOVERNMENTAL

INTERNATIONAL ASTRONOMICAL UNION

[Imperial College, London, SW. 7, England]

The International Astronomical Union (formerly the International

Union for Solar Research) is composed (July 14, 1925) of member

organizations representing 22 countries as follows:

Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, France, Great

Britain, Greece, Holland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Poland, Portugal,

Rumania, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and United States. The president (1925-1928) is Prof. W. De Sitter, Starrewecht,

Leiden, Holland.

The secretary is Lieut. Col. F. J. M. Stratton, Gonville and Caius

College, Cambridge, England.
10 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

The standardization activities affect not only the pure science of astronomy, but the arts of navigation, chronometry, and chronology,

the establishment of boundaries between States and nations, and the

determination of location in geodetic surveys and exploration. Prof.

W. W. Campbell at the last meeting of the union said:

If one is looking for the practical side of astronomy he can find it; astronomers

tell the shipmaster how to reach his destination on the other side of the ocean; they supply accurate time by wire and wireless to all who are prepared to receive

their signals; they have been known to run boundary lines between nations (when

they have been asked to do so), perhaps nowhere more successfully than between

the United States and the Dominion of Canada.

The standards of the union are chiefly through the following of its committees: Notations, ephemerides, astronomical telegrams, meridian astronomy, astronomical instruments, solar physics (joint program), length of light waves, lunar nomenclature, longitude, variation of latitude, map of the heavens, stellar parallaxes, stellar photometry, commission on the hour.

The following was adopted at the 1925 meeting as "provisional

specifications for producing a primary standard of wave length":

The primary standard of wave length, 6,438.4696 of cadmium, shall be pro- duced by an electric current of high voltage in a vacuum tube bearing interior electrodes. The lamp shall be maintained at a temperature not exceeding 320° and shall give differences of path of at least 200,000 wave lengths. The effective excitation current shall not exceed 0.05 ampere. At room temperature the tube

shall not be luminous when it is connected to the usual high-tension circuit. (See Transactions of the International Astronomical Union, vol. 2; 1925.) The union aims to facilitate the relations between astronomers of

different countries where international cooperation is necessary or

useful, and promote the study of astronomy.

The admission of any country to the union is subject to the regulations of the International Research Council. A national committee is formed in each member country under the responsibility of

the principal academy or its National Research Council or other

responsible body.

A general assembly of delegates directs the work of the union standing committees, studies and plans collective research, and discusses

standardization. The unit used in wave-length measurements of

radiation and spectroscopy, in general, is the international Angstrom.

The union now defines this unit basically in terms of the cadmium red

radiation, the wave length of which is described under the chapter on standards in this yearbrook (see Spectrometry), in accordance

with the equivalent found by Michelson, Fabry, and Perot and

Benoit for the length of the meter in terms of cadmium red wave

lengths.
STANDARDS YEAEBOOK, 1927 II

INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON ILLUMINATION

[Teddington, England]

The international commission was formed in 1913 by reorganization of the former International Photometric Commission to provide

a coordinating agency through which knowledge of lighting art might

be promoted in all countries within the sphere of its influence. While

primarily an agency for international standardization, it concerns

itself with practical problems of improved lighting conditions through

its several national committees. Dr. Edward P. Hyde is president,

and C. C. Paterson, honorary secretary and treasurer. Summary of principal decisions 1 at the sixth session (July, 1924) at Geneva

1. The following is recommended as primary standard of light:

The brightness of a black body, used under precisely defined conditions.

2. Recommended that the national laboratories take steps (a) to

formulate standard definitions for constructing and conditions for

using a black body as primary standard of light; and (6) to establish

the definite value of the brightness of a black body used under these

conditions expressed in international candles per square centimeter.

3. That a subcommittee be formed to study the terminology of

lighting.

4. That definite values (given) be used provisionally for the factor

of visibility (for certain specified wave lengths).

5. That the committee on heterochromatic photometry extend its study to include the properties of absorbing screens.

6. That a committee on colorimetry be formed.

7. That certain symbols and definitions (listed) be adopted (comprising 8 symbols, 15 definitions).

8. That the next session include one meeting devoted to the lighting art and its popularization.

9. That the lighting of public streets be the subject of another

meeting at the next session.

10. That the report of the committee on the study of lighting of

factories and schools at the Geneva (1924) session be adopted in

regulation of such lighting, with the reservation that the words

" minimum recommended" be inserted in place of ^minimum prescribed."

11. That further steps be taken to draw attention to the need for

rules and regulations relative to lighting from the point of view of

hygiene and of safety in factories and schools.

12. That the national committees begin at once the study of the

question of automobile headlights.

1 " Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage, Sirieme session, Geneve, Juillet, 1924—Recueil des Txavaux

et Compte Rendu des Seances."
12 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

13. That if an international conference is called by any government for the purpose of regulating traffic or lighting of automobiles,

the International Commission on Illumination desires to be invited

to participate in the work concerning lighting.

The following committee reports and memoirs were submitted:

V. Primary standard of light following the proposal of Waidner and Burgess.

2. Realization of a primary standard of luminous intensity.

3. Standards of light suitable for sensitometry.

4. Properties of tungsten and the characteristics of tungsten lamps.

5. Fittings for lamps for photometry.

6. Definitions, symbols, and nomenclature for photometry.

7. Heterochromatic photometry.

8. The color temperature and luminous efficiency relation for tungsten.

9. Use of absorbing screens in heterochromatic photometry.

10. Relative visibility function.

11. Practical illuminating engineering.

12. Furtherance of good lighting by American central stations.

13. Demonstration method of teaching good lighting practice.

14. Street lighting.

15. Lighting of public streets in Paris by gas and by electricity.

16. New signal systems applied to the regulation of traffic in cities (the luminous sign and the lighting of tenements)

.

17. Lighting in factories and schools.

18. Industrial lighting developments in England.

19. Phenomena of glare. 20. Automobile headlights.

21. Standard specifications for headlight control and the reason for their adoption.

22. The field for international agreement and standardization in illumination.

23. Photometry of automobile headlights.

INTERNATIONAL ELECTROTECHNICAL COMMISSION

[28 Victoria Street, Westminster, London, England]

The International Electrotechnical Commission was organized in

1906, an outgrowth of a resolution adopted by the International

Electrical Congress of St. Louis, in 1904, to the effect that steps

should be taken to secure the cooperation of the technical societies

of the world by the appointment of a representative commission to consider the question of standardization of nomenclature and rating

of electrical apparatus and machinery.

The organization meeting was held in London June 26-27, 1906,

at which time delegates from 14 nations were present. Lord Kelvin was the first president, Col. R. E. Compton, honorary secretary.

Each country joining the commission forms a national electro- technical committee, through its technical societies which deal primarily with electrical and related subjects. In a country having no

such technical societies the Government may appoint the committee.

In the United States the national committee was organized in 1907

by the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, and it is known
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 13

as the United States National Committee of the International

Electrotechnical Commission. The office of the United States

national committee is at 33 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York,

N. Y.

The affairs of the commission are handled through a council consisting of the president of the commission, the presidents of the

national committees, ex officio, and one delegate from each national

committee, with the honorary presidents and secretaries of whom

there are several. At present the commission comprises 26 national

committees. Meetings of the council or commission may be called

by the president or at the request of three countries. The commission is supported by funds contributed through the national committee of the adhering countries on a basis of population and export

trade. Meetings are of two kinds, meetings of the advisory committees of the commission and plenary meetings. There are advisory

committees on a number of technical subjects, such as insulating

oils, standard voltages, symbols, prime movers, international vocabulary, and several other subjects. The advisory committees are composed of representatives from the national committees formally

interested in the subject. After agreement has been reached in an advisory committee, the committee report is acted upon at a plenary meeting of the commission.

The commission has issued numerous reports during the past 20

years, among which are the following international standards:

27. International Symbols, part 1, Letter Symbols (September, 1913).

28. International Standards of Resistance for Copper. (September, 1913).

29. Prime Movers for Electrical Plant (September, 1913).

30. I. E. C. Rules for Electrical Machinery, volume 1 (October, 1919).

38. International Symbols, part 2, Graphical Symbols (April, 1926).

The last plenary meeting was held in New York in April, 1926;

the next meeting will be held in Rome in the fall of 1927.

At the April, 1926, meeting of the commission 16 countries were

represented by about 120 delegates. The committees reported

activities as follows

Nomenclature.—One of the most difficult and important matters

is an international electrotechnical vocabulary. The establishment

by the commission of an electrical vocabulary will secure for the

engineer the unity and stability essential to a clear comprehension

of the literature of all nations. Vocabularies were obtained from

Holland, France, Italy, and England. A plan of action was adopted.

Rating of Electrical Machinery.—This committee has been functioning for several years, during which time it has effected a unification of regulations in several countries for generators, motors, and

transformers. The subject touches industrial and commercial

questions. The committee has thus arrived at an international

specification for electrical machines, the importance of which is
14 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

obvious. The committee unanimously reached a decision on the

methods of measuring the internal heating and the classification of

insulation.

Symbols.—This committee's previous publication, No. 27, contains the letter symbols (notation) of the fundamental units of

electrical quantities, and various mathematical symbols and rules for abbreviating metric weights and measures was amended by the

adoption of £2 as the symbol and abbreviation for the term "ohm."

At the New York meeting the committee established a long list of

graphical symbols for heavy-current electrical installations, including

graphic symbols for electric traction. The subcommittee on symbols for telegraphy, telephony, and radio has prepared lists of symbols

for submission to the various national committees.

Prime Movers.—Two subcommittees formed to consider hydraulic

turbines and steam turbines submitted reports which have been

adopted unanimously by the advisory committee.

Lamp Bases and Sockets.—The plenary meeting adopted certain

dimensions as to the international standard for bayonet bases and

sockets. The dimensions were those proposed by the French and

British. Agreement on the subject of bases and screw sockets is nearly reached.

Voltages.—The plenary meeting adopted a list of voltages by the use of which the distribution net works may interfunction on voltages

specified therein. These comprised standard voltages as consumers low terminals, nominal mean values of transmission line voltages,

and definitions of nominal and maximum and minimum voltages.

Traction Motors.—The plenary meeting adopted a specification

for traction motors subject to the approval of two points by the

French committee.

Insulating Oils.—The task of this committee is the unification of the tests of insulating oils. Many determinations have been made in

various countries, but many still remain to be undertaken to provide

the data needed by the committee. Five recommendations as to

tests were adopted by the plenary meeting.

Rules and Regulations of Transmission Lines.—The necessity

of transmitting electrical energy at high potentials over great distances

has led to the creation of aerial distributing lines. To protect the

public against accidents, legislative bodies have issued regulations

relative to their construction. A report containing five propositions was adopted by the plenary meeting.

INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ASSOCIATION

[Organization pending] Following the proposal to organize an International Standards

Association, the national standards committees of the several

countries were furnished with a draft of a proposed constitution
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 15

(statutes and by-laws) based on those of the two leading similar

organizations. The main committee of the American Engineering

Standards Committee, through its secretary, has received approvals

(some with reservation of final approval or conditionally) from the

following

Australian Engineering Standards Association, Austrian Standards Committee,

Belgian Standards Committee, British Engineering Standards Association, Canadian Engineering Standards Association, Czechoslovakian Standards Committee,

Danish Standards Committee, Dutch Standards Committee, Finnish Standards

Committee, Italian Standards Committee, Japanese Standards Committee, Norwegian Standards Committee, Polish Standards Committee, Russian Standards

Committee, Swedish Standards Committee, and Swiss Standards Committee.

The purpose of the association is stated to be the interchange of

information on standardization work and activities; promotion of

uniformity among national standards; approval, ultimately, of international standards, after sufficient experience has been acquired; and

extension or modification of machinery for these objects.

INTERNATIONAL UNION OF PURE AND APPLIED CHEMISTRY

The union was organized in London, June, 1919. Its name

indicates its scope, and the following committees outline clearly the

nature of its specific activities, most of which directly lead to standardization.

1. Committee on chemical elements (president, G. Urbain), pre- pares and publishes the official international tables of atomic weights, mass numbers of isotopes, constants of radioactivity.

2. Committee on the nomenclature of inorganic chemistry (president, W. P. Jorissen).

3. Committee on organic chemical nomenclature (president, A. F. Holleman).

4. Committee on biochemical nomenclature (president, Gabriel

Bertrand).

5. Committee on physiochemical standards (president, E. W.

Washburn).

Under the auspices of this committee a bureau of physiochemical

standards is maintained at the University of Brussels under the

direction of Prof. Jean Timmermans.

6. Committee on standard analytical reagents (president, A.

Kling).

7. International annual tables of constants and numerical data of

physics, chemistry, and technology (general secretary and editor,

Charles Marie).

This publication is issued annually and reproduces in each of its volumes all numerical data published in the literature of the world

during each year.
16 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDAEDS

8. Committee on physiochemical symbols (president, E. Cohen).

9. Committee on solid fuels (president, M. Huybrechts)

.

10. Committee on liquid and gaseous fuels (president, Georges

Gane).

11. Committee on ceramic products (president, G. Capsa).

This committee has prepared and distributes a standard sample of

zettlitz kaolin. Samples of this material can be obtained by address

ing the National Bureau of Standards.

12. Committee on bromotology (president, Orla Jensen).

13. Committee on scientific and industrial property rights (patents

and copyrights) (president, Prince Ginori Conti).

14. Committee on industrial hygiene (president, Charles Lormand).

15. Committee on the establishment of a thermochemical standard

(president, W. Swietoslawski)

.

At the meeting of the council June 24, 1925, at Bucharest, Rumania,

the Commission on Tables of Constants decided (a) That it considered particularly important the official adhesion of Chile, Japan, and

Switzerland to the union and the inclusion of the corresponding

apportionments in the budgets of these countries; (b) that the union

believes it desirable to give the committee on annual tables the maximum security, the official adhesion of all countries being the ideal

solution; (c) that the union requests the International Research

Council to call a meeting of the international conference in which a

definite statute concerning the committee on annual tables shall be

established and the adhesions officially registered.

Commission on Pure Products for Research Analytic Reagents.

It was decided to establish for each reagent and "for each pertinent

impurity that the reagent may contain, a table of minimal quantities

of such impurity that the current analysis permits. The tolerance

of impurity shall be expressed in milligrams per 100 grams of the

product.

The type of code to be adopted for defining a reagent shall carry

the precise indication of the author's reasons therefor based on re- searches, related to such and such value of the sample taken for

test, of the quantities of the reagents added, of the conditions under

which the research has been conducted, in a word, the project for a

code should be formulated in the smallest details, the operations

effected, as well as the purpose, in order to permit a useful criticism on the part of all the members of the commission.

The choice of maximum tolerance to be allowed in such or such

analytical reagent should be guided by the consideration of the mass

of this impurity which may be introduced by the maximum quantity

of this reagent in the course of an analysis and also the consideration

of the industrial cost of the purification of the reagent in question.

Standards of benzoic acid made by Maison Poulene have been

compared as to heat of combustion with that of the same acid of the
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 17

Bureau of Standards chosen as an international primary standard.

They proved practically identical. Similar comparisons with the

standards of other laboratories will permit the direct reference to the

secondary standard.

The establishment of a series of standards of viscosity led to the

undertaking of a critical experimental study of the conditions to be

realized in order to make exact measures by the aid of the Ostwald

viscosimeter. This work, by M. Martin, furnished interesting results

(see Bulletin de la Societe* Chimique de Belgique, vol. 34, pp. 81 to

116, February, 1925). We now possess at the disposition of our col- leagues a series of four standard products which assure a concordance

of at least 1 per cent in the measure of viscosity made in the various

laboratories (between 250 and 2,000 cgs units). The study of other

standards has now been continued, notably refractometry, the re- search requisite being the subject of communications in the Journal

de Chimie Physique.

International Commission on the Chemical Elements (Paris,

France).—The International Commission on the Chemical Elements

is the first of the committees maintained by the International Union

of Pure and Applied Chemistry. Its president is M. G. Urbain (1 Rue Victor Cousin, Paris, France). The second report of the international commission contains the International Table of Atomic

Weights for 1925, with details concerning the changes made according to the rules adopted to govern changes. The office of the general

secretary is 49 Rue des Mathurins, Paris, France.

International Bureau of Physicochemical Standards (Bureau Inter- national d'Etalons Physico-chimiques) (Brussels, Belgium).—The

Bureau of Physicochemical Standards was created in 1890 under the

auspices of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry*

A close collaboration is now established between the University of

Brussels and the bureau. Its transfer to its new quarters allows

space for growth and free development. The bureau has its own

laboratory, collections, and library, and may also use the scientific equipment of the university for the study of precision thermometry,

calorimetry, refractometry, electrochemistry, high pressures, and

so on. This bureau prepares in a high degree of purity a variety of chemical

substances for use in standardizing measuring instruments and

determining fixed points on the scales of such instruments. Samples

of these standard materials, together with certificates giving the

values of their properties may be obtained from the bureau for

certain fees. The preparation in quantity of standards for low temperatures is nearly completed—toluene, isopentane, amyl oxide, ethyl acetate
18 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

(too unstable in air) on which further research is in progress. With

samples of materials in use at the Bureau of Standards it is hoped to come into close agreement on the temperature scales so that when

like collaboration is undertaken with the Physikalisch-Technische

Reichsanstalt of Charlottenburg, the several countries will have a common basis for low temperatures down to —160°.

MISCELLANEOUS INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Several hundred international associations for the most varied

purposes engage to a certain extent in standardization activities,

For example, the International Union of Scientific Radio Telegraphy

(president, Gen. G. Ferrie, France) has for its objects (1) to promote

the scientific study of radio communication, (2) to aid and organize

researches requiring cooperation on an international scale and to encourage the discussion and publication of the results, and (3) to

facilitate agreement upon common methods of measurements and

the standardization of measuring instruments. A Committee on Methods of Measurement and Standards (Dr. J. H. Dellinger.

Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C, chairman) determines

standards with a particular view to the types of measurement work

done by the other committees of this organization. It promotes

and participates in the improvement and standardization of methods

for measuring frequency, field intensity of received waves, intensity

of atmospheric disturbances, automatic recording devices, fading,

and other types of radio measurements. This organization illustrates a great variety of groups concerned to some extent with international

standardization.

Another example is the Olympic Games Committee, which fixes the units, standards, dimensions, and measurements involved in

every athletic event included in the four-year international athletic

meet. The world records of achievements are established under

definite rules of authenticity and accuracy.

Such organizations are too numerous even to list here, but their

essential achievements in actual standardization work will probably

be given adequate space in the next Yearbook.

PAN AMERICAN STANDARDIZATION CONFERENCES

At the instigation of delegates of several of the South American

countries the Fifth International Conference of American States,

meeting in Santiago, Chile, during April, 1923, authorized the calling

of a Pan American Conference of experts to draw up agreements

which could be used as inter-American conventions on points dis- cussed. At the invitation of the Government of Peru, the First Pan

American Standardization Conference was held at Lima during

January, 1925.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 19

At the Lima conference there was inaugurated a plan of organized

standardization on an inter-American scale, the Inter-American High

Commission being requested to draft an inter-American convention

in which the signatory countries should (a) agree to provide for the

continuous study and establishment of inter-American standards;

(b) agree to establish organizations for this purpose; and (c) oblige

such organizations to adopt certain general uniform principles and

practices. This conference provided for the continuation of work by

recommending that a second conference be convened and that the

national sections of the Inter-American High Commission be charged

with the continuity of work in the interim. A few specific projects

received the indorsement of this conference and its recommendations

that these matters be studied and acted upon by the participating

countries.

The Inter-American High Commission, in conjunction with the

Pan American Union, has decided that the second Pan American

Standardization Conference shall be held in Washington, D. C,

coincident with the Third Pan American Commercial Conference,

which is to be convened during the first week in May, 1927. It is planned to secure the attendance at this standardization conference

of leading business men of the Pan American countries, whose practical and expert knowledge of their products will enable them to

discuss practical standardization proposals.

The Pan American Standardization Conferences are semiofficial,

the powers of the national delegations being limited to recommendations that participating countries and the appropriate groups or

trades within these countries adopt and enforce permissive and

mandatory standards. They have been inaugurated to develop more uniform specifications and higher quality standards for commodities produced in the American countries, to promote greater

production of relatively superior grades and qualities of materials,

and to advance the standard of living.
III. NATIONAL STANDARDIZING AGENCIES

When weights and measures began to expand to include within

their scope the various kinds of measurements other than length, mass, and capacity the movement for national institutions of a

scientific nature resulted in the establishment of national bureaus

equipped with laboratories and trained scientific experts for handling

the scientific experimental procedure essential to research and testing

in such fields as heat, light, electricity, sound, time, and the many

other subjects. The example of the International Bureau of Weights

and Measures (established in 1875) resulted in the establishment of

the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt in Charlottenburg, Germany; the National Physical Laboratory, in Teddington, England;

the Laboratoire d'Essais in Paris ; the National Bureau of Standards

in Washington. Standardization is a chief service rendered by these

institutions. Supporting researches contribute to the accuracy of

the standards and of methods of measurement. Inevitably the expert

staff, scientific equipment and facilities, and experience attained in

accurate measurements led each of these institutions in varying

degrees to answer the appeal for service in connection with thier use

in the industries. In other countries institutions on a smaller scale are rapidly taking up the broader functions.

Finally, the industries have taken up national standardization

both through their technical societies and their standards committees,

and through special national committees on standards on which are represented a wide range of interests, technical and industrial. (See

Chapters VIII and IX.

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

[Washington, D. OJ A detailed account of the organization and work of the National

Bureau of Standards is given in Chapter VI of this Yearbook.

NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY

[Teddington, London] The National Physical Laboratory is administered under a general

board, of which Sir Ernest Rutherford is chairman, Sir Richard

Glazebrook, chairman of the executive committee. It was established

in 1899, at Teddington, as a general standardizing laboratory where

standards and measuring instruments in use in science or trade may

be verified and researches conducted of value to the public generally.

The director of the laboratory is Sir J. E. Petavel.

20
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 21

The laboratory is divided into departments, comprising physics,

electricity, metrology, engineering, aerodynamics, metallurgy, and

metallurgical chemistry, and the national tank.

The results are published mainly in scientific and technical journals

and in the proceedings of scientific and technical societies. For the

year 1924-25 the publications numbered 105 official and 30 unofficial. See citation to annual report in the appendix under Bibliography.

MAINTENANCE OF STANDARDS

Primary Standards.—The laboratory is responsible for the primary

and secondary standards of all kinds, British and international,

which form the basis of measurement in Great Britain. "All working

standards must be checked periodically against the primary standards,

and the accuracy of the units of measurement ordinarily employed

in the research and test of the laboratory must be maintained in

relation to those of other countries." Length.—A silica meter bar for India was made and verified. "Standard" invar tapes were graduated to better than 1 part in

8,000,000 of the total length. The oil film between two polished

surfaces was found to be 0.0000005 centimeters thick. This was

part of the preparations now in progress looking to the use of light waves as standards of length. Standard measuring instruments

and methods have been improved. These include a new screw measuring apparatus, method of measuring the diameter of fine metal filaments.

Pressure, Mass, Volume.—The section handling barometers and

manometers has aided the Air Ministay and the British Engineering

Standards Association in the graduation of aircraft altimeter aneroids. Ninety-six standard weights were reverified, and the design

of knife-edge balances studied. The kilogram-pound ratio as now

determined is within 1 part in 50,000,000 of that certified by the

International Bureau of Weights and Measures in 1889. Most

scientific volumetric glassware is now graduated in terms of the

milliliter as recommended by the Joint Committee for the Standardization of Scientific Glassware.

Government Research Under the Department of Scientific and

Industrial Research.—Certain researches are being stabilized where

long periods are required; for example, the properties of materials

at high temperatures, minor metals, springs for motor vehicles, and

an iUumination research program. In the research on motor springs

the laboratory collaborates with outside bodies. A new fatigue

test machine has been built with automatic control for continuous

24-hour-a-day tests. Systematic data have been reported on

typical spring steels, together with reports of their heat treatment.

Experiments are in progress on the safe limits for repeated stress,
22 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

For the physics coordinating research board, work on color standards is in progress. An advanced stage has been reached in color

measurement and standard methods of specifying color. A new

instrument devised and constructed gives data for a complete

specification of any color, from which any color may be reproduced.

For the illumination research committee the effect of different

kinds of illumination on the accuracy, speed, and comfort of workers

has been investigated for the office of works. The minimum daylight for clerical work has been determined; studies of color and of

diffusing materials have been made.

Temperature.—Research is in progress as a basis for proposals to be made to the International Commission on Weights and Measures

in 1927 for a practical scale closely approximating the thermodynamic scale based on a number of fixed points.

Electricity.—Research disclosed that the electrical standard ohm

differed by 1 part in 100,000 from previous values necessitating a redetermination ab initio with new tubes having more exact end

faces. The executive committee of the laboratory has been designated

to consider a proposal to adopt absolute electrical units as defined

in cgs units to replace the present international units (adopted

1908). Intercomparisons of some resistance standards with those

of Germany showed the laboratory to be in agreement with the

Reichsansalt within 1 or 2 parts in 100,000.

A standard of mutual inductance was constructed for Japan to replace the standard destroyed by the earthquake of 1922, and

notable improvements based on mathematical investigation reduce

the uncertainties in the dimensions of the secondary winding. Important improvements have been made in inductances for use at high frequencies.

A multivibrator wave meter, designed and constructed in the

laboratory, has proved satisfactory as a primary standard of fre- quency. Quartz oscillators have been studied for reproducing

selected frequencies with the precision of a primary standard.

Light.—Standards for mean spherical candlepower measurements

have been compared with the standards of the National Bureau of Standards and of the Laboratoire Central d'filectricitS, in pursuance

of the recommendation of the International Commission on Illumination held at Geneva in 1924 that a black body operated under

suitable conditions should be used as a primary standard of light.

While at the temperature of the carbon lamp the agreement was

good, high-efficiency lamps were less in agreement on account of

the color differences.

Metallurgy.—Studies were made of the theory of lattice distortion

in metals and its relation to other physical and mechanical proper-
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 23

ties. Experimental work has been done on the behavior of metals

under plastic deformation at rates varying from slow compression

to quick compression by explosives. In the iron alloys research pure

iron has been produced free from oxygen. Special studies have

been made of iron-chromium alloys up to 30 per cent of chromium.

Highly pure chromium manganese and beryllium were also pre- pared. Silicon 99.7 per cent has been produced by chemical treat- ment of commercial silicon. For the radio research board, received current strength has been

measured under varied conditions. Radio and audio amplifiers

have been studied, and a research on short waves continued. Waves

of accurately determined frequencies have been broadcast, and the

range of such frequencies will be extended.

For the food investigation board the thermophysical properties

of certain refrigerating liquids were determined, methods devised

for testing the strength of heat-insulating materials, and a calorimeter

devised for measuring the heat evolved in the respiration process of

fruit. The rate of penetration of heat or cold through masses of

apples under sea-transport conditions was studied.

For the lubrication research committee investigations were made

regarding sliding, rolling, and static friction under different conditions of lubrication and load. The pressure distribution on a hot

cylindrical journal has been measured.

The laboratory prepared 106 official papers for publication, chiefly

in the technical journals.

Divisional Researches.—The variety of research work in progress

permits only a mere mention of typical items. The practical application of physics is illustrated by the experiments on heat trans- mission in cases of apples. The coefficient of diffusivity of heat into

the mass of apples was determined by tests and mathematical

analysis. A related item is the instrument for controlling the carbondioxide in the atmosphere of fruit stores. Application was made

on the study of humidity, with equally practical uses, including the

dimensional changes in leather at varying humidities, the permeability

of building materials to water vapor. In radiology the radium measurements, gamma ray protection,

luminous compounds, X-ray protection, and absorption, and the

radiographic examination of materials were items of special interest.

The work in sound included the photography of sound waves in a

ripple tank on models duplicating the shape of the auditorium wall.

The measurement of the absolute intensity of sound was made by

newly-developed methods.

A multivibrator wave meter is serving satisfactorily as a primary

standard. By the use of harmonics a wide range of frequencies may

be standardized. A " spectrum of frequencies" was prepared.
24 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

The measurements of signal strength of received radio messages was continued on a wave length of 9,000 meters. The curve of

intensity-distance distribution during daylight hours showed a clear

maximum and minimum, and a simple shape, with the maximum at 400 kilometers, and minimum at 700.

An instrument for measuring daylight has been designed and constructed. This, with other equipment, is being used in a series of

skylight measurements, which have been in progress for three or

four years. A 10-foot integrating sphere photometer is now under

construction.

In metrology, an important item was the comparison of 4-meter

standard and the coefficient of expansion.

The rating of watches and chronometers has been continued, the

laboratory procedure being reorganized. The winner of the highest

marks in the grade A tests on watches was published. An increase

in glass volumetric operators testing is noted, about 25 per cent

compared with the preceding year. In the program of building research, the study of wind pressures on structures has been continued with special reference to roof pres- sures and bridge pressures. In the work on aerodynamics a multitube dynamometer was designed and made for the simultaneous observation of the pressures at some 30 points on an air foil section.

Fundamental researches were conducted on the theory of fluid

motion, and the fluid flow around air foils. The flow was photographed and typical photographs were published of the tests made

for comparison purposes in the water channel. Experiments and

studies were made of the spinning of airplanes, including numerous

experiments on the capitol bantam airplanes, which shows unusual

spinning characteristics. Other researches were made on wind flut- ters and the wind resistance of motor cars. The metallurgical research on light alloys and the alloys of iron

comprised a group of interesting problems, including a new apparatus

for the electrodeposition of chromium. Of special interest was the

investigation of alloys for use at high temperature. The laboratory was specially active in exploring the high temperature properties

and possibilities of various alloys of a promising type. Studies of

the fatigue of single crystals of aluminum and the deformation under

reversed stress was examined by X-ray analysis.

PHYSIKALISCH-TECHNISCHE REICHSANSTALT

[National Physico-technical Institute, 25 Marchstrasse, Charlottenburg, Germany]

The Physikalisch-Technische Reiehsanstalt functions under the

Ministry of the Interior. It was established in 1887 at Charlottenburg as a national physical laboratory and standardizing bureau.

Its purpose is the experimental advancement of exact physics and
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 25

of precision technology through scientific research and testing of

measuring instruments and materials for all physical uses. In 1893

it absorbed the Reichsanstalt fur Mass und Gewicht (National Weights

and Measures Bureau). Its annual budget (1924) is nearly $238,000.

Dr. Friedrich Paschen is president. Its divisions are (1) weights and

measures, (2) electricity, (3) heat and pressure, and (4) optics.

1. Weights and Measures.—Subdivision la handles the administration of weights and measures, foreign weights and measures, and

their verification and the work of certification, and bringing about

international agreement. This subdivision is charged with making

available the regulations of foreign testing laboratories.

Subdivision lb is devoted to length measures, of which 18 classes, or an aggregate of 1,125, were tested in 1925. Of these, 521 were

gauge blocks of highest precision. The expansion of a series of objects was determined, and 12 base-line standards for the geodetic

survey of Russia were calibrated. The comparison of end-length

standards by means of the krypton radiations 587 and 557 millimi- crons wave length proved accurate to 1 part in 10,000,000, exceeding the accuracy of the definition of the prototype meter itself. Apparatus for comparing the krypton lines with the fundamental

cadmium red, 643.8 millimicrons, is under construction.

A comparator has been constructed for intercomparing end standards up to 1 meter, and for intercomparing line and end standards,

and wave-length determinations. With this it is now possible to establish the relation between line measurements and wave-length

determinations with increased accuracy, and thus control the line

prototypes.

The practice of using machines to measure lengths of fabric and

areas of leather is coming into use in ordinary trade. This has led

to requests for tests—a wire measuring and a fabric-measuring

machine were tested by methods developed for the purpose.

Density.—Eighty-nine densimetric standards for Russia and

Poland were tested with an accuracy of a few units in the fifth decimal place of the density determined. Investigation is under

way to determine the concordance of the alcoholometer scales of

Tralles, Stampfer, Mendeleef, and Osborne. Investigation was made of procedure for butyrometers and glass-measuring apparatus.

Regulations reduce the error tolerance on large gas meters from 2

to 1 per cent. Testing of water meters and similar capacity meters

shows increase.

2. Electricity.

Electrical Conductivity at Low Temperatures.—Measurements were made on the superconductivity of

metals at the temperature of liquid helium to determine whether,

as now seems probable, only one definite group of metals is superconducting, or whether with sufficiently pure materials or the use
26 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

of single crystals and sufficiently low temperatures all metals are superconducting. Of pure metals beside lead and tin, gold and

zinc have been investigated with liquid helium and hydrogen and

air. Conductivities of zinc and cadmium for heat and electricity were determined at 22.2, 89.7, and 273.2° absolute.

Electrical measures and apparatus in great variety were tested. For X-ray therapeutic dosage as well as pure physical research,

equipment has been developed to be operated with 100 ma at 140 kv

with the use of a Siegbahn vacuum spectrograph. Experiments

have been in progress on the influence of chemical combination

upon the Rontgen spectra of the elements.

The draft of new testing regulations was prepared for publication.

The legal specifications for electric meters, now 25 years old, were

believed to be inadequate to-day. An examination, however,

showed that a change is not needed. The investigations were published in the Mitteilungen der Vereinigung der Elektrizitatswerke.

During the London Rontgen Congress the German and British

resistance units were compared by means of two 1-ohm and two

0.1-ohm boxes, showing a difference of 1 part in 100,000, the British

unit being the larger. The change in electrical resistance proved

to be feasible as a means of measuring the temperature of baseline

wire standards, a tenth of a degree causing a resistance change of 2X10-4

, measurable with simple means. Many standard frequency transmissions were made, the wave

lengths of which were accurately established at the Reichsanstalt.

Measurements of frequencies of piezo-electric oscillations in crystal

quartz blocks showed a departure from true harmonic ratios because

of the finite thickness of the block. The departure was found to be

as high as 1 per cent at the twenty-first overtone. The velocity of

sound in quartz which is involved was found to be 5,450 meters per

second. Published accounts give detailed descriptions of the new

glow-discharge resonators used as high-frequency standards based on

the piezo-electric properties of quartz crystal. Here, when resonance

takes place, the vacuum tube glows. Such luminous resonators

serve as high-frequency standards for radio with an error less than

1 part in 10,000. Quartz block 80 millimeters long will give, besides

its fundamental frequency of 34,100, also other harmonic difference

frequencies.

Research was undertaken on the measurements of the velocity of

fight, the measurement of small capacities with double interrupter, on a synchronous motor for frequency measurement, on the cooling

of standard resistances, the vibrations galvanometer for moderate

frequency, the improvement of arrangements for measuring magnetism, effect of chemical combinations on thermal treatment, and on

magnetizing of ferromagnetic alloys.
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 27

3. Heat and Pressure.

Isotherms.—The measurement of iso- therms for neon and hydrogen in the equation of State investigations

has been completed and published, so that observations are available

between - 183° C. and 400° C. up to 100 atmospheres for helium,

hydrogen, neon, nitrogen, argon, and also within the limited range

to 200° for air and between 0.01 and 100° for oxygen. At the

temperature of liquid hydrogen the isotherms of helium were measured.

Temperature Scale.—The Reichsanstalt has agreed to detailed

proposals with respect to the international temperature scale as a

basis for submission by the Bureau of Standards to the International

Bureau of Weights and Measures. Measurements of black body

temperatures for establishing the optical temperature scale are in progress; the melting point of platinum and the positive crater of the carbon arc are now determined. For measuring temperatures

below the boiling point of oxygen, special facilities have been developed, including a helium-filled platinum resistance.

The melting point of hafnium, found by extrapolation from determinations on melts containing increasing proportions of hefnium

oxide up to 93 in a Hf02 + Xr02 mixture, indicating a melting point

for pure hafnium 2,811° C.±25°. Other researches related to the

measurement of the heat conductivity of insulating materials, ice,

and certain metals, and the heat of vaporization of water under

pressure, the liquefaction of hydrogen and helium, temperature coefficient of electrical resistance and of melting point, the total bright- ness of a black body, and so on.

4. Optics.—Fourteen series of measurements give 15.70 Hefner

candles ±0.6 per cent as total brightness of the black body. Standard K and L wave lengths for the newly discovered elements (43

masurium and 75 rhenium) were measured and showed agreement

in some cases better than 1 part in 1,000.

A number of high-precision fiats were tested for planeness of surface and homogeneity. Work was done on a quartz monochromator,

an ultra-violet mirror surface for collimating prisms, thermionic bolometer, fine structure of Kr and X spectral lines, and the many-line

spectrum of oxygen.

Chemical Laboratory.—Chemical data were obtained on radioactive materials partly through difficult chemical operations. Samples of chemical glassware were examined with respect to alkali

solubility and resistance as a basis for classifying them into hydrolytic classes. Numerous photochemical researches were conducted, including a study of the concentration of elements 43 and 75 in the earth's crust found to be 10~12 or 10~13

. A prognosis of their properties led to 36316—27 3
28 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

technique for examining the platinum ores and minerals of the earth

acids. The X radiations Kal, Ka2, and Kl were used, and their wave lengths compared as computed and as observed. A list of minerals in which indications were found was published.

In finer mechanics and acoustics the testing increased to 359 for

the year, besides many measurements on quartz cylinders, spools,

ohm tubes, wires, and the like. Tuning-fork comparisons by means

of Lissajous figures first reached practical application in the problem

of a Busoni third-tone voice harmonium which the Chariottenburg

Hochschule fur Musik ordered of a piano manufacturing organization.

The list of publications in scientific and technical journals comprised 98 titles, including both the official papers and the personally

prepared and privately published papers of the staff. LABORATOIRE D'ESSAIS MECANIQUES, PHYSIQUES, CHIMIQUES,

ET DE MACHINES

[Paris] The Laboratoire d'Essais is under the Conservatoire National des

Arts et Metiers and functions under the Ministry of Public Instruction

and Fine Arts, Undersecretary of State for Technical Education. A

technical commission of 23 members supervises the work. Its president is Emile Picard (permanent secretary of the Academy of Sciences).

Testing divisions comprise physics, metals, materials, machines,

and chemistry.

The 3,148 tests (1924) were divided: 480 physics and measures,

1,331 metals, 551 materials, 121 machines, and 665 chemistry.

As reported by J. Loebuitz, member of the Technical Commission

of the Laboratoire d'Essais: The laboratory has a budget of 1,082,762

francs (1924) exclusive of grant of Civil Engineers Society of France.

Total expenditures, 1,119,688 francs. Personnel has advanced

from, 62 in 1913 to 119 in 1924.

The fees received for testing in 1913 equaled 51 per cent of the ex- penditures of the laboratory. By 1924 the percentage had changed

to 96. NATIONAL STANDARDIZING COMMITTEES

There are now national standardizing committees in Australia,

Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Finland,

France, Germany, Great Britain, Holland, Hungary, Italy, Japan,

Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States

of America, making 20 in all. These have various relations with the

governments of these countries.

Although there are considerable differences in their methods of functioning and in the authority bestowed on the standardizing com-
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 29

mittees in the several countries, fundamentally all of these committees operate similarly to the American Engineering Standards

Committee, a description of which is given in Chapter VIII.

The national committees keep in active touch with each other, by

correspondence, exchange of information on new projects, on drafts

of standards, and on tendencies in national work in the respective

countries. Another important arrangement is one by which each

national standardizing committee acts as a sales agent for the

approved standards of the other committees. Thus, through the

American Engineering Standards Committee, copies of foreign

specifications and standards are made readily available for American

industries.

Three conferences of the secretaries of the national standardizing

committee have been held—in London in 1921, in Zurich in 1923,

and in New York in April, 1926.
IV. FUNDAMENTAL AND WORKING STANDARDS OF THE

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

[For illustration cited in this section see insert at end of volume] The standards of measurement briefly described in this chapter are

selected to give a fair idea of their design and workmanship, their

variety, range of complexity, and the diversity of the measurements

for which they provide. In general, elaborate comparators or special

apparatus is required in using the standards. In several cases such

equipment is shown, but in general only the standard is illustrated.

Many of the standards were designed and constructed at the Bureau

of Standards. The construction of such standards is a primary legal

function of the bureau. The bureau when established, in 1901,

inherited only the standards of length, mass, and capacity. To-day

it has standards, either primary or working, for almost even^ type

of physical measurement. By no means all of these are herein

described.

The custody of the standards and their maintenance involves

continuous activity, sometimes actively controlled conditions.

Standards of the volt are kept in stirred oil constant to within a hundredth of 1°C. For each other standard the conditions needed for

preservation and constancy are determined by research and maintained in practice.

The standards of the Government are in all stages of development. Some are in the initial stage in new fields of measurement,

others approach perfection. All represent scientific research through

years of experiment and study in which were analyzed the nature

of the things to be measured, the best means to gauge such magnitude, and the form and material best adapted to embody or reproduce

such magnitude. These researches have been intensive and have

called to their aid almost every branch of physical science and mathematical analysis. Such standards are the basis of the measurements

of science and industry. To them all measured data refer ultimately,

and upon them are, therefore, based specifications or standards of quality, performance, practice, or process, as well as those of dimension, hence all the measurements of industry and trade. The classes of standards are given in the preceding outline of

classification and purpose. Only the standards of measurement are

illustrated in this book. The functions of the National Bureau

of Standards of the United States Department of Commerce at Washington comprise with various degrees of completeness the

development, construction, custody, and maintenance of reference

and working standards and their intercomparison, improvement

and application in science, engineering, industry, and commerce.

30
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 31

ACIDIMETRY

STANDARD FOR ACIDITY MEASUREMENT

[Pure benzoic acid, C6 H5 COOH]

Benzoic acid prepared synthetically is used as a standard of acidity. No impurity is detectable in the benzoic acid samples issued

by this bureau. In using this sample a weighed portion is dissolved

in alcohol and a few drops of a very sensitive indicator (phenolphthalein) are added. This indicator is colorless in acid solution, but

turns pink in alkaline solution. A solution of sodium hydroxide is added from a measuring burette to the solution of benzoic acid.

The solution turns permanently pink as soon as enough sodium

hydroxide has been added to completely neutralize the benzoic acid.

From the weight of the benzoic acid taken and the volume of sodium

Irydroxide solution used, the exact alkalinity of the sodium hydroxide

solution can be computed. (See fig. 2.) CALORIMETRY

STANDARD FOR HEAT OF COM3USTION

[Pure naphthalene, Cio Hg] The most convenient and accurate means for standardizing laboratory bomb calorimeters used to measure the heat of combustion

of fuels, foods, etc., is by the use of standard materials of accurately

known heat of combustion. In addition to naphthalene, which, as

certified, has a heat of combustion of 9,622 (20°) calories or 40.25

kilowatt-seconds, per gram of material weighed in air against brass

weights, there are furnished also sucrose, 3,949 calories or 16.52

kilowatt-seconds, and benzoic acid, 6,329 calories or 26.47 kilowattseconds, per gram.

Standardization by means of these substances consists in burning

an accurately weighed amount of the substance in the bomb calorimeter under exactly the same conditions as when the bomb is used

for heat of combustion measurements. This determines the rise of

temperature of the calorimeter for the known amount of heat supplied and, since the temperature rise is proportional to the heat

supplied, constitutes a standardization of the calorimeter.

If the rise of temperature employed in standardizing is nearly the same as that observed in ordinary use of the calorimeter the effects of minor errors are minimized.

COLORIMETRY

STANDARD OF COLOR

[Standard sunlight] The primary standards of color of the Bureau of Standards are

(a) frequency or wave length and (b) radiant flux. These two characteristics of radiation completely determine the objective color
CLASSES OF

STANDARDS

1 Standards of Measurement

Reference and working standards for measurements of all kinds,

including fundamental and derived standards of measurement for expressing the quantitative aspects of space, time, matter, energy, and motion, and of their interrelations. By definition, specification, or material standard, covering, for example, length, area, and volume; mass, weight, density, and pressure; heat, light, electricity, and radioactivity; including for each the quantity, flux, intensity, density, etc. 2 Standard Constants

Natural standards or the measured numerical data as to materials and energy, known as physical or standard constants; that is, the fixed points or quantities which underlie scientific research and industrial processes when scientifically organized.

Mechanical equivalent of heat, light, electricity, and gravitation; specific densities;

viscosities; melting and boiling points; heat capacity; heats of combustion; velocity of propagation of light; conductivities of materials to heat and light; electrochemical and

atomic weights; and many similar magnitudes determined experimentally with maximum

precision and referred to fundamental standards of measure. 3 Standards of Quality

Specifications for material (by description, sample, or both), known

as standards of quality, fixing in measurable terms a property or group

of properties which determine the quality. The numerical magnitude of each constituent property pertinent to the quality involved, and specific magnitude in units of measure of such significant factors as uniformity, composition, form, structure, and others. 4 Standards of Performance

Specification of operative efficiency or action for machines and

devices, known as standards of performance, specifying the factors involved in terms susceptible of measurement.

Numerical statement of speed, uniformity, output, economy, durability, and other factors which together define the net efficiency of an appliance or machine. 5 Standards of Practice

Codes and regulations impartially analyzed and formulated after study and experiment into standards of practice for technical regulation of construction, installation, and operation, and based upon

standards of measurement, quality, and performance.

Collation of standard data, numerical magnitudes, and ranges of the pertinent factors defining quality, safety, economy, convenience, and efficiency. 32
STANDARDS

PURPOSE

1 To aid accuracy in industry through uniform and correct measures; To assist commerce in size standardization of containers and products;

To promote justice in daily trade through systematic inspection and regulation;

To facilitate precision in science and technologic research through calibration of

units, measures, and instruments involved.

2 To serve as an exact basis for scientific study, experiment, computation, and

design;

To furnish an efficient control for industrial processes in securing reproducible

and uniformly high quality in output;

To secure uniformity of practice in graduating measuring instruments, or in compiling tables for standards of quality and performance, and wherever such

uniformity is desirable; and

To aid laboratory research by reducing errors and uncertainty caused by use of data of doubtful accuracy.

3 To secure high utility in the products of industry by setting an attainable standard

of quality;

To furnish a scientific basis for fair dealing to avoid disputes or settle differences

To promote truthful branding and advertising by suitable standards and methods

of test; and

To promote precision and avoid waste in science and industry by affording quality standards by which materials may be made, sold, and tested. 4 To clarify the understanding between maker, seller, buyer, and user as to operative

efficiency of appliances and machines;

To make exact knowledge the basis of the buyer's choice; and

To stimulate and measure mechanical progress. 5 To furnish for each utility a single impersonal standard of practice as a basis for agreement of all interests, clearly defined in measurable terms; To insure effective design and installation of utilities of all kinds; To promote safety, efficiency, and convenience in the maintenance and operation

of such utilities; and

To secure uniformity of practice where such is practicable, and effective alternates in other cases. 33
34 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

stimulus independently of the subjective color perceptive characteristics of the observer.

The standard instruments used in color measurements are cali- brated in terms of wave length by reference to lamps which emit

radiant energy of known wave length (for example, mercury, helium,

etc.).

The working standards of spectral energy distribution are incandescent lamps (and filters). A working standard of sunlight developed and used at the bureau is the light from a gas-filled tungsten

lamp (at 15.6 lumens per watt) modified by passing through a rota- tory dispersion filter. The effect is that of a blue filter which by

specific selective transmission so modifies the tungsten lamp radiation that it gives the observer's eye a spectral energy distribution

closely similar to that of average natural noon sun at Washington.

The standard of reflection is magnesium oxide (MgO), prepared by

combustion of magnesium turnings. Working standards of porcelain

and other materials are used.

The working standards of selective transmission used are carefully polished glass plates. The fundamental standards of nonselective transmission are sector disks.

Working standards of color include colored cards and other colored

materials.

COMPOSITION

STANDARDS FOR QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS

[Example: Basic open-hearth 0.2 per cent carbon steel see fig. 5] In 1905 the American Foundrymen's Association turned over to the bureau its standardized pig-iron samples, comprising four sets and covering a considerable range of compositions. The distribution of these was carried on after they had been reanalyzed by the

bureau chemists and by some commercial testing laboratories.

The technical chemist when called upon to devise new and rapid

methods to fit complex materials of a hitherto uninvestigated nature can not generally avail himself of the methods of the research chemist

in handling but one or two variables at a time. The time at his

disposal for investigation is necessarily limited, and research must

be conducted along lines of greatest efficiency. The result has been

the evolution of the standard analyzed sample. This may be defined

as a material resembling as closely as possible the chemical and

physical nature of the material with which the chemist expects to Jeal, and which has been analyzed by a sufficient number of methods

and analysts to establish its average composition with considerable

certainty. The use of such a sample is quite obvious where the

chemist has at hand a material which when subjected to the usual
STANDAKDS YEARBOOK, 1927 35

operation of analysis will behave like the stock material he expects

to analyze.

Theoretically, there should he provided for the chemist at a works

as many standard samples as he has different kinds of materials to deal with. Thus, in a steel works making steel by the Bessemer,

basic open-hearth, or crucible processes, in addition to standards for

all the raw materials there should be a standard sample for each

different composition produced by the same process. DENSIMETRY

WORKING STANDARDS OF DENSITY FOR LIQUIDS

[Hydrometers and picnometers] Density is defined as the mass per unit volume. It may be ex- pressed in grams per cubic centimeter, pounds per cubic foot, or

in any convenient units.

The density of liquids is measured by the use of the picnometer,

the hydrometer, and the hydrostatic weighing (plummet) method.

The choice of method depends largely upon the nature of the liquid

to be measured.

The hydrometer and the hydrostatic weighing method are much

used in determining the density of transparent liquids of high fluidity,

such as petroleum distillates, acids, and alcohols, while the picnometer

is most often used for opaque liquids and liquids of high viscosity.

The standard hydrometers shown in Figure 6 are used by the

bureau in checking similar apparatus and in determining the density

of liquids.

ELECTRICITY

STANDARD OF ELECTRICAL CAPACITANCE

[The farad see fig. 7] The unit of capacitance is the farad. The capacitance of a condenser is 1 farad when a change of 1 volt in the potential difference

applied to its terminals wil] cause a change of 1 coulomb in the

charge of the condenser. In practice the capacitance of condensers is usually expressed in microfarads (millionths of a farad) or in micromicrofarads (trillionths of a farad).

The primary standard of capacitance of this bureau is a bank of 10

fixed air condensers, each having a value of 0.01 farad. Their value

is determined in terms of the international electrical units by observing the average current that flows on to them when they are charged

and discharged a known number of times per second with a known

voltage. The secondary standards are mica condensers which are maintained continuously at a constant temperature of 25° C. The

capacitance of these secondary standards is determined by comparison with the primary standards under definite conditions.

36316—27 4
36 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The capacitance of condensers having certain geometric forms can be computed from the dimensions. Such computations are, however, based on electrostatic relations, and the results are, therefore, obtained in electrostatic units. To convert to micromicrofarads, the value in cgs electrostatic units is divided by 0.8988.

STANDARDS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

[The ampere, see figs. 8 and 9] The cgs electromagnetic unit of current is defined in terms of the

magnetic field produced by the current. Several different but

equivalent definitions are in common use. The following statement

gives a physical picture of the effect of the magnetic field. A cgs electromagnetic unit of current flows in a circular circuit having a radius of 1 centimeter when the force on a unit magnetic pole placed

at the center of the circle is 2w dynes. The ampere is one-tenth of the cgs unit.

On account of the difficulty (as it appeared at that time) of experimentally realizing the ampere from its definition, the London Electrical Conference of 1908 established the international ampere. It

is defined as the " unvarying current which, when passed through a

solution of silver nitrate in water * * * deposits silver at the

rate of 0.00111800 of a gram per second." However, if a number of voltameters are in series, so that the same current passes through

each, the deposit will be different in each voltameter. During the

international experiments of 1910 differences of several parts in

10,000 in the weight of silver deposited were generally observed in each set of voltameter determinations. Therefore, the voltameter

is not suitable as a laboratory standard for the measurement of

current, but by taking the mean of 50 or 100 observations a value can be obtained which, together with a standard of resistance, will serve to fix the voltage of a group of standard cells. These cells are used as working standards with standard resistances to form

a working standard for determining the unit of electric current. Experimental work done at the Bureau of Standards shows that

the ampere as derived from the cgs unit and the international ampere

agree within the limit of experimental error. The cgs ampere can

be determined with an accuracy of about 1 part in 100,000, while the

uncertainty in the international ampere (partly on account of the

lack of definite specifications for the silver voltameter) is several

parts in 100,000.

From its nature, it is impossible to maintain a standard of electric current. However, a standard instrument for measuring current can

be maintained. At the Bureau of Standards the Rosa-Dorsey cur- rent balance is the primary standard instrument for measuring
STAXBABDS YEARBOOK, 1927 37

current. However, in laboratory measurements the current is generally determined by measuring the difference in potential which is produced at the terminals of a standard resistance.

STANDARDS OF ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

[The volt, see Sg. 10] The cgs unit of electromotive force is that electromotive force which

dissipates power in a circuit at the rate of 1 erg per second when a cgs unit of current is flowing. In respect to an electromagnetic cir- cuit, an equivalent statement is that an electromagnetic unit of elec- tromotive force is induced when the magnetic flux through the circuit

changes at the rate of 1 maxwell per second. The volt is 100,000,000

times the cgs electromagnetic unit. On account of the difficulty of

experimentally realizing the volt as thus defined, the international

volt was established by the London Electrical Conference of 1908.

This is denned as the potential difference between the terminals of a

resistance the value of which is 1 international ohm, when the current which flows through it is 1 international ampere. In 1910 an

international committee made experiments at the Bureau of Standards to determine, by means of the international ohm and ampere,

the value to be assigned to the mean of a group of standard cells. Since that time the volt has been maintained by a group of standard

ceils. It is assumed that the mean of this group does not change.

The cells in the group which maintain the value of the volt at the

Bureau of Standards are Weston normal cells. The positive electrode

of these cells is mercury, the negative electrode a 12 Yi per cent

cadmium amalgam, the electrode a saturated solution of cadmium

sulphate with an excess of crystals, and the depolarizer a paste of mercurous sulphate. Such a cell must be kept for several days at a constant temperature before its electromotive force becomes stable.

The Weston unsaturated cell is much less affected by temperature

and is generally used as a secondary standard. Its construction

differs from the Weston normal cell only in having an electrolyte

which is saturated at 4° C, and hence is unsaturated at laboratory

temperatures. Since the electromotive force varies slightly from cell to cell, for precision work must be determined for each cell by comparison with the standard group.

STANDARDS OF RADIO-FREQUENCY

[Wave length of radio waves] The dimensions of radio-frequency are the reciprocal of time.

Hence frequency is derivable from the unit of time, the second, and

the fundamental standard upon which frequency standards are based

is the standard of time, the rotating earth. In the practice of the

Bureau of Standards the standard of frequency has been derived from

time standards in a number of ways. Most of the methods involve
38 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

the measurement of a low frequency (a few hundred alternations per

second) and a process of stepping up from this to radio-frequencies

by the use of either a cathode-ray oscillograph or alternating-current

harmonics. In one of the methods the low frequency used is measured

by means of a pendulum, together with a chronograph. Another

uses a combination of a tuning fork and oscillograph. Another uses an audio-frequency alternator and chronograph.

An independent method of establishing the standard of radiofrequency is the use of a radio-frequency alternator, together with a speed counter. Another is the calculation of frequency in terms of

capacitance and inductance of a tuned circuit, these two quantities

being determined fundamentally from speed measurements. An in- dependent method in which direct use is made of the fundamental

standard of length rather than that of time is the measurement of wave length of standing waves of very high frequency as produced on a pair of parallel wires, frequency being calculated from the observed wave length and the known velocity of light.

The standards used for maintaining the Bureau of Standards values

of radio-frequency are three frequency meters and a group of piezoelectric quartz plates. The mechanical constants of the quartz plates

are such that their frequencies of mechanical vibration are in the radio

range of frequencies. By virtue of their piezo-electric property they

introduce into radio circuits current variations of the same frequency

as that of the mechanical vibrations. They are usable either as oscil- lators—that is, generators of current—or as resonators. The working standards of frequency for the calibration of other

instruments are a group of carefully constructed frequency meters. These instruments are combinations of capacity and inductance,

together with an indicating device. One of the three primary standard frequencj^ meters is shown in Figure 12. STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL INDUCTANCE

[The henry] The unit of inductance is the henry, named after the distinguished

American physicist, Joseph Henry, who made important investigations in the field of magnetic induction. The inductance between two

circuits is, by definition, 1 henry if a volt is induced in one circuit

whenever the current in the other changes at the rate of 1 ampere per

second. Similarly, the self-inductance of a circuit is 1 henry if a counter electromotive force of 1 volt is induced when the current in

this circuit changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second. A coil which

has an inductance of 1 henry has an inductance of 1,000,000,000 cgs electromagnetic units.

The fundamental standard of self-inductance of this bureau is a

single-layer coil wound on a porcelain form, which had previously
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 39

been ground to a true cylinder. This coil has an inductance of about

23 millihenrys. The inductance of such a coil not only can be

measured in terms of the ohm and the second of time, but also can

be computed from the mechanical dimensions of the coil and wire.

The dimensions required are the diameter of the coil, the number

of turns per centimeter, and the diameter of the wire.

STANDARDS OF MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY

[Typical standard magnetic test bars] Carefully selected and prepared specimens of steel, the magnetic

properties of which have been determined with high accuracy, are used as magnetic standards in the intercomparison and standardization of permeabilities; an accuracy of 1 per cent can be obtained.

The bars of square section shown have been used in an intercompari- son between the Bureau of Standards and the Laboratoire Central

d'filectricite, of France. The standards must possess (a), magnetic

uniformity along their length, (b) metallurgical stability, and (c) uniformity of section. (See fig. 13.)

In calibrating and using these magnetic standards mechanical

strain or vibration must be avoided, as they affect the magnetic

properties of the material, and care should be taken that standards

are not heated during a test. The determination of the magnetic

properties of steels entering into electrical machines and equipment

is of the utmost importance both for economy of steel and the effi- ciency of design and operation.

STANDARDS OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

[The ohm] The cgs unit of resistance is the resistance of a circuit when a cgs unit of electromotive force causes 1 cgs unit of current to flow. The ohm is 1,000,000,000 cgs units. While the above definition re- quires only electrical measurements to determine the ohm, yet in

practice it has been found convenient to construct apparatus which

so involves the principles on which the fundamental units of current and electromotive force are based that a value of the ohm is obtained

directly from measurements of length and time. Such measurements

are difficult, and it is only recently that they have been carried out

with precision.

The international ohm was established by the London Electrical

Conference of 1908 as "the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of mercury at the temperature of melting

ice, 14.4521 grams in mass, of a constant cross sectional area and of a length of 106.300 cm." The construction of such a standard is so

difficult that a particular instrument may differ from the mean of

a group by several parts in 100,000.
40 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

At the meeting of the international committee at the Bureau of

Standards in 1910 it was agreed to take as the international ohm the

mean of the values which had been obtained at the national laboratories of England and Germany. Since that time the international

ohm has been maintained at the Bureau of Standards by a group of

1-ohm wire standards. Measurements made at the Bureau of Standards, 1912-1914, showed no measurable error in the adopted value

of the ohm.

From measurements made in England and Germany, it is known

that the international ohm is larger than the ohm as derived from

the cgs units by about 1 part in 2,000. Hence, to obtain cgs ohms,

multiply the value in international ohms by 1.0005.

FREQUENCY

WORKING LABORATORY STANDARDS

[Tuning-fork vibrations, see fig. 17] The frequency of a tuning fork varies with temperature, amplitude,

and the manner in which it is supported, and this is true whether the

fork is running free or driven in some manner. For very precise

work the fork must be calibrated in the position in which it is to be

used and not "disturbed in any way thereafter.

By means of a photoelectric cell operated by flashes from a free pendulum small-time intervals are obtained and recorded by a special

oscillograph. When the vibrations of a tuning fork are rated against

this standard, an accuracy of a few parts in 100,000 is readily

obtainable.

The electromagnetic drive shown is one method of operating a fork

and is generally sufficiently accurate for ordinary laboratory work.

[Pendulum oscillations, see fig. 16] In order to secure an accurate sharply defined time scale as a permanent record, simultaneously recording any events which are

to be measured with respect to time the apparatus shown in Figure

16 has been developed.

Light from the lamp, L, is interrupted by the swinging pendulum

in P which allows a flash of the light to fall upon the photo-electric

cell, PC, once every half second. The voltage change thus produced

operates the amplifier, A, so that instantaneous current is obtained

sufficiently large to operate the oscillograph, 0. As the light from

the oscillograph whips across the camera shutter a short horizontal

line is recorded upon the camera film at every transit. The film record on development appears as a series of thin trans- verse parallel lines.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 41

GRAIN SIZE

WORKING STANDARD OF FINENESS

[Portland cement] The degree of fineness of cement is an important factor in determining the quality of Portland cement. The Federal specifications require that the residue on a standard No. 200 sieve shall not

exceed 22 per cent by weight. The bureau has prepared standard

samples of this material to serve as a standard of fineness. The per

cent of each sample of the cement passing through a standard No.

200 sieve is certified. (See fig. 18.)

The use of these standard fineness samples is a convenient way of maintaining control on standard No. 200 sieves to be used in cement

testing. By comparison of the percentage of the sample passing

through a sieve being tested and the per cent certified as passing

through a standard sieve, the correction to the sieve may be obtained.

This correction applied to the percentage passing the seive gives the

true fineness of the cement. The standardization of sieves for con- formity to the specification for dimensions of wires and openings is best accomplished by means of an optical projection apparatus.

METROLOGY (FUNDAMENTAL)

STANDARD OF LENGTH

[The meter, see fig. 19] The primary standard of length in the United States is the national prototype meter No. 27, a platinum-iridium bar (90 per cent

platinum and 10 per cent iridium), having a cross section which re- sembles the letter X and which is commonly called the Tresca section in honor of its originator. This shape was chosen because of

its rigidity and low temperature lag and also because it permits

placing the graduations in the plane of the neutral axis where the

intervals so defined will not be sensibly altered by any flexure to which the bar might be subjected in use. The length of the bar,

defined as the distance between a specified portion of two lines, has

been determined by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures by comparison with the international prototype meter, and its length when at the temperature of melting ice certified by that

bureau.

The Bureau of Standards possesses three secondary standards of

length (of which the principal one is known as meter No. 21), these

being platinum-iridium standards of the same cross section as the

national prototype meter. They have all been certified by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Sets of precision

gauge blocks serve as the secondary reference standards for contact

measurement.
42 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The secondary standard meter bars of platmum-iridium are sometimes used as working standards for work of very high precision.

Other working standards at the Bureau of Standards are of an H-shape cross section and are made of nickel-steel alloys. Halfmeter bars, decimeter bars, and various special graduated bars and

scales are also used as standards for length measurements where line standards are required. For contact length measurements the working standards are precision gauge blocks, micrometer screws, etc. In spectroscopy the wave length of red cadmium radiation is used

as the standard. This wave length expressed as a decimal fraction

of the meter was determined by Fabry, Perot, and Benoit in 1904.

This value and that found by Michelson in 1892 are in agreement

to ] part in 15,000.000, using values reduced to specified standard

conditions in each case. The wave length of the principal radiation of helium is used as a working standard in the graduation of some precise scales, in the

comparison of precision gauges, and in a number of other cases where

the methods of interferons try are applicable.

STANDARD OF MASS

[The kilogram, see fig. 20] The primary national standard of mass of the United States

the United States prototype kilogram No. 20—is a plain cylinder of piatinum-iridium (90 per cent platinum and 10 per cent iridium)

with diameter and height equal and slightly rounded edges. Its mass is certified in terms of prototype kilogram "K," the international

standard of mass preserved by the International Bureau of Weights

and Measures.

United States prototype kilogram No. 20 was constructed under

the terms of the international treaty known as the Convention of the

Meter, signed on May 20, 1875, by 17 nations, and approved by the

President and the Senate. It was received by the President of the

United States on January 2, 1890, and accepted on behalf of the

Government. It is now kept on a polished plate of crystal quartz,

under two concentric bell jars, in the standards vault of the Bureau

of Standards in Washington, D. C. This standard is 1 of 40 such "prototypes" made and tested at the same time. One of the lot was selected to be the international

standard, and others were then distributed b}^ lot to the various

governments In the international organization. In addition to No. 20 the United States received also kilogram No. 4, which now

constitutes the best of the secondary standards, being practically on a par with kilogram No. 20 except in the matter of formal recognition. These new standards were so much better than any other standards

available at that time that in 1893 the Office of Standard Weights and
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 43

Measures decided that "greater stability in weights and measures, as well as much higher accuracy in their comparison" could be obtained

by deriving from the new standards not only the other metric units,

such as the gram- and milligram, but also the various avoirdupois,

troy, and apothecaries' units. Ever since that time the following

equivalents have been used in defining the relations between metric,

avoirdupois, troy, and apothecaries' units.

1 pound troy or 12 apothecaries' ounces= 5,760 grains.

1 avoirdupois pound = 7,000 grains.

1 avoirdupois pound = 0.4535924277 kilogram.

The relation adopted between the avoirdupois pound and the kilogram is the value determined as the result of the joint work in 1883

by the British Standards Office and the International Bureau of

Weights and Measures. 1 Among the more important secondaiy standards are a set from 500

grams to 1 milligram made of the same material as the national

prototypes, four standards of 1 avoirdupois pound each, of heavily

gold-plated tobin bronze, together with one standard of 10 troy ounces and two of 1 troy pound, also of gold-plated bronze. These

and certain other secondary standards are occasionally used for extremely accurate work, while still others derived from these, are used as ordinary " working standards" for most of the work.

The working standards range from 0.05 milligram (about ! o o 6o o o

pound), used in testing small weights for laboratory work, up to test cars of 80,000 pounds, used in testing railroad track scales. The value of national prototype No. 20 is known in terms of the

international kilogram to an accuracy of about 1 or 2 parts in

100,000,000. The best standards can be compared with each other

with a precision a little beyond this, but there are few standards

that will not change their values by more than 1 part in 100,000,000 even when not used.

The precision of mass determinations is at present limited by

minute uncertainties in calculating air density, which must be done

to make correction for air bouyancy, and by uncertainty as to variations in the air and water vapor film that adheres to the surface of the weight.

VOLUME

STANDARD OF VOLUME

[Liter and other units of capacity] The liter is a unit of capacity equivalent to the volume occupied

by a quantity of pure water having a mass of 1 kilogram at the

temperature of its maximum density and under standard atmospheric pressure (760 mm). The milliliter (ml), the one-thousandth

Board of Trade (England) Report for 1884. Travaux et Memoires (International Bureau) 2; 1885.
44 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

part of the liter, is employed as the unit of volume in practically all volumetric apparatus and analyses. The cubic centimeter (cm3 ), which is smaller than the milliliter by 27 parts in 1,000,000, is used

as the unit in measurement of volume derived from length measurement.

The gallon is a unit of capacity equivalent to a volume of 231

cubic inches.

Volumetric glassware is tested by determining the weight and

temperature of the water contained or delivered by the interval

under test, the volume being calculated by the use of water-density

tables. Convenient tables for this purpose are given in Bureau of

Standards Circular No. 19, " Standard Density and Volumetric

Tables." For certain types of apparatus, such as flasks and cylindrical graduates, standards of volume are used, these having been

calibrated by the weight method.

See Figure 21 for illustrations of various sizes of working standards

as used by the bureau.

STANDARD OF TIME

[Precision clock] The standard for the measurement of time is derived from the

motion of the earth on its axis and in its orbit around the sun. The

solar day is the time of one complete rotation of the earth on its axis, and the solar year is the time of one complete revolution of

the earth in its orbit around the sun. In its annual journey around the sun the earth is at varying dis- tances from the sun and is moving at varying speeds in its orbit. As a result of these differences the length of the solar day—that is, the time between two successive apparent passages of the sun through the earth's meridian—is different at different seasons of the year. It would be exceedingly difficult to construct and to regulate a timekeeping device so that it would indicate actual solar

time. In order to avoid this difficulty a

' 'mean solar day" has

been defined in terms of the motion of a fictitious sun, which is sometimes ahead of and sometimes behind the actual sun in its apparent daily rotation around the earth. Our ordinary timepieces

are regulated to keep time with this "mean sun"; that is, to keep

mean solar time.

There is another kind of time, known as sidereal time or star time,

which is derived from the apparent motion of the fixed stars in rela- tion to the earth. This differs by about four minutes a day from

solar time and is used principally in astronomy.

The standard of time measurement for the Bureau of Standards

is the high-precision Biefler clock (fig. 22), which is capable of keeping correct time to within 0.02 second a day. This clock is
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 45

provided with an invar pendulum which swings in a partial vacuum. Means are also provided for changing the pressure within the air- tight glass chamber which incloses the entire clock, thus regulating

the rate of swing of the pendulum. The second signals from the

clock are conducted electrically to the testing laboratory, where

they are recorded automatically.

Precision time measurements in research may be made to within

0.001 second, and intervals of time to the order of a millionths of a second have been measured. The bureau Riefler clock time is compared daily with noon signals from the Naval Observatory as re- ceived by radio through the Arlington radio station. These signals are recorded automatically on the sheet of a drum chronograph,

together with the signals from the Riefler clock, as notches in a continuous pen-traced line. The speed of the drum is so regulated

that the pen travels 2 centimeters a second, and the time of the two

signals may be easily compared to 0.01 second by means of a scale

(fig. 23). Thus time is reduced to a traced line upon which notches

represent definite time observations.

Washington time is based upon the international time zone system,

in which the meridian passing through the observatory at Greenwich, England, is taken as zero. This system has been used in the

United States since 1884, but it was not until March 19, 1918, that

Congress assigned its regulation to the jurisdiction of the Interstate Commerce Commission. Under this system Washington

time is that of the seventy-fifth meridian west, which is five hours

slower than Greenwich time, since 15° of longitude makes a differ- ence of one hour in time.

OXIDIMETRY

OXIDIMETRIC STANDARD

[Pure sodium oxalate Na2C20«, see fig. 24] Sodium oxalate of certified purity is used as a standard of reducing

power. It serves as a means to determine the oxidizing power of

potassium permanganate, which can then be used with accuracy.

A weighed portion of sodium oxalate is dissolved in dilute acid, and

a solution of potassium permanganate is added from a measuring

burette. The sodium oxalate reacts with the colored potassium

permanganate solution and decolorizes it. The solution does not

become permanently pink until enough permanganate has been

added to completely destroy the sodium oxalate. The oxidizing

power of the solution of potassium permanganate can then be computed from the weight of sodium oxalate taken and the volume of potassium permanganate required.

The nature and purity of primary standards are fundamental to the accuracy of any volumetric process. This bureau aims to remove
46 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

the discrepancies which arise from the use of unsuitable or impure

standards in chemical analysis. It was for this purpose that this

primary standard in volumetric analysis was added to our list of

standard analyzed samples.

PHOTOMETRY

STANDARDS OF LUMINOUS INTENSITY

[The international candle, see fig. 28J The primary standards of luminous intensity, on which all measurements of light are ultimately based, are groups of electric incandescent lamps maintained in several national standardizing laboratories. Since 1909 the national laboratories of France, Great

Britain, and the United States have maintained a common unit of

candlepower by means of such groups of lamps. The unit is com- monly called the international candle, but it is also known as the

British candle and the bougie decimale. A satisfactory reproducible

primary standard of luminous intensity has not yet been produced.

When a reproducible primary standard is found, the value assigned

to the unit will, no doubt, be the same as the mean value of the

present existing groups of incandescent lamps.

The group of lamps which constitutes the basic reference standards

in terms of which the unit of candlepower is maintained at the

Bureau of Standards consists of 45 carbon filament 4-watts-percandle electric incandescent lamps, divided into seven subgroups.

Two of these subgroups have been intercompared with similar groups

at the national standardizing laboratories of England, France, and

Germany. The Hefner candle, which is the unit employed in

Germany and some other European countries, is 0.9 of the international candle.

Intercomparisons of the groups of lamps can be made to within an accuracy of approximately 0.2 per cent, and such intercomparisons made at intervals of several years show that Uie basic reference

standards are maintaining their assigned values within the experimental errors of the measurements.

Secondary reference standards and working standards in the form

of vacuum-tungsten lamps and gas-filled tungsten lamps have been

established by different procedures in the several national laboratories, and it appears that there may be differences as large as 3 to 4 per cent between the values assigned in different countries. These

deviations are the result of the unavoidable color differences between

carbon-filament lamps and tungsten-filament lamps.

Flame standards of luminous intensity are now rarely used, but

the national laboratories are prepared to test and certify Hefner

lamps and Vernon Harcourt pentane lamps. The candlepower of
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 47

these lamps varies with atmospheric conditions of humidity, pressure, and carbon dioxide content. An accuracy of 1 per cent is the best that can be obtained in the certification of flame standards.

The color of the light of flame standards is much redder than that

of tungsten lamps, which is a further disadvantage in their use. PLANOMETRY

STANDARD OF PLANENESS

[Quartz flats] The standard of flatness or planeness is a set of three quartz

circular flat surfaces which tested in contact in any orientations or combinations do not show appreciable or measurable deviations from

flatness. The three disks of clear fused quartz about 10 inches in diameter

are 1 3^2 to 2 inches thick, and their surfaces depart less than one one- hundredth of a light wave length from plane. These standards are

self-checking, requiring no units of measurement for their verification.

Such standards are of practical importance in the testing of planeness of surfaces, the straightness of edges, and the limiting surfaces

of end gauges, and also for producing standard angles and for cali- brating instruments used to measure curvature of surfaces.

Upon these uses of the standard of planeness depend many important modern developments of scientific technique and its industrial applications.

POLARIMETRY

STANDARD FOR OPTICAL ROTATION

[Pure sucrose, CuHmOu, see fig. 25] The sucrose content of a sample is determined by means of the

saccharimeter. This universally used instrument is standardized by means of pure sucrose. The International Sugar Commission define

the normal sucrose solution which should read 100 on the scale of

the instrument. As the rotation of the normal solution of sucrose is known in circular degrees, it is also possible for each user of a saccharimeter to standardize his instrument daily by means of a quartzcontrol plate whose rotation is accurately known. It is therefore

necessary to prepare sucrose of the highest purity for use in determining two fundamental "international" physical constants. The

first is the physical constant 100 point on the saccharimeter scale,

known as the 100-degree sugar point, and the second is the rotation

in circular degrees of the solution for a known monochromatic source

of light. By means of the former constant, quartz-control plates can

be rated in terms of sugar degrees. Exhaustive studies of the factors

determining the values of these constants were made by the bureau

and previous values found to be in error by more than one-tenth of

1 per cent (a relatively large error). At 20° C. the normal sucrose
48 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

solution rotates light having a wave length of 546.1 millimicrons

through an angle of 40.763°, and a wave length of 589.25 millimicrons

through an angle of 34.616°.

The recognized purity of the bureau's sucrose makes it a standard

for calibrating the calorimeters used in measuring the heat of combustion of foods and fuels, as well as for the determination of the

specific rotations of sucrose and for other scientific uses. The heat

of combustion is 3,949 calories per gram and the specific rotation for

light of wave length 546.1 millimicrons is 78.342° and for 589.25 milli- microns 66.529°. The values of these constants are stamped on each

label. STANDARD REDUCING SUBSTANCE

[Dextrose, CeHuOe] One of the most important and most generally used methods in

sugar analysis is the determination of the so-called reducing sugars. This class of sugars has the power of reducing copper in alkaline

solutions, the amoimt reduced being a measure of the amount of these

sugars present in a given sample. One of the sugars in this group,

namely, dextrose, is arbitrarily chosen to serve as the standard re- ducing substance and its reducing power taken as 1. Dextrose of high purity is issued as one of the standard samples

of the bureau with a view to assisting in the standardization of

analytical determinations of reducing sugars. In the preparation of

this material the purest dextrose or "corn sugar" of commerce is dissolved by heating in 40 per cent of its weight of water, treated

with one of the decolorizing carbons, and filtered. The filtered solution, which is water white, is placed in a crystallizer of the rotating

type and allowed to crystallize in motion. After crystallization is complete the crystal mass is centrifuged and washed several times

with redistilled alcohol. The crystals are very white and already

possess a high purity. They are then dissolved in water, filtered,

and recrystallized. The second crystals are carefully dried and the

polarization, ash, and reducing power determined. If these tests indicate the presence of any remaining impurities, the recrystallization is repeated until a satisfactory product is obtained.

The amount of reduced copper obtained in either a volumetric

or gravimetric determination of reducing sugar is dependent in

great measure upon the conditions of the particular analysis carried

out. Errors may arise from impurities in reagents, time of boiling, or from many other circumstances connected with individual differ- ences of procedure. These errors, however, are eliminated if the

analyst standardizes his own procedure by means of a known

quantity of reducing substance, such as pure dextrose, and subsequently adheres rigidly to the same procedure. The standard

dextrose solution may be prepared very readily and conveniently
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 49

by weighing out the required amount of solid substance and dis- solving in the necessary volume of water. In this way a neutral

solution of known composition is very rapidly prepared.

PYROMETRY

STANDARDS FOR TEMPERATURE FIXED POINTS

[Freezing points] Secondary Thermometric Fixed Points.—The freezing points of certain metals provide a convenient means of reproducing thermometric fixed points. When the freezing point of a lot of metal

has been determined on the standard temperature scale, samples

from this lot provide a means for checking the reading of any temperature-measuring device at this point. The choice of metals for

this purpose is governed by such considerations as availability,

convenience in use, and freezing point. Some metals which have

been found suitable are shown above. These metals and their

freezing points are, tin, 231.9°; lead, 327.4°; zinc, 419.45°; aluminum,

658.7° ; and copper, 1,083° C. (See fig. 29.)

RADIOLOGY

STANDARD OF RADIOACTIVITY

[Radium chloride, RaClj, see fig. 30] The primary international standard of radium is the international

radium standard preserved in the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures) at Sevres, near Paris, France. This standard, prepared by Madame Curie, is 21.99 milligrams of pure radium chloride (RaCl2 ) in a hermetically

sealed thin glass tube.

The primary national standard of radium of the National Bureau

of Standards is known as "secondary radium standard No. 6." It

is similar to the international radium standard. It was compared

directly with the international standard under the auspices of the

Commission Internationale des Etaions de Radium and certified

(in 1913) to contain 20.68 milligrams of radium chloride (RaCl2 ) as measured by its gamma radiation. This is contained in a tube of

Thuringen glass 0.27 millimeter wall thickness. This stated mass

of RaCl2 corresponded to an actual mass of contained radium equal

to 15.44 milligrams, taking the atomic weight of radium as 226 and

that of chlorine 35.457 (referred to oxygen as 16). All measure- ments and certifications by the Bureau of Standards are based on

this value as the true mass of the element radium present in October,

1913. The radioactive transformation of radium causes the standard

to lose radioactivity at a rate of about 1 per cent in 25 years, so that

the standard at present (computed Aug. 1, 1926) is equivalent to 15.360 milligrams of radium.
50 NATIONAL BUBEAU OF STANDARDS

The more important secondary working radium standards, four

in number, have masses, respectively, of 4.144 mg (Feb. 5, 1926),

9.89 mg (Aug. 29, 1926), 24.74 mg (Oct, 19, 1926), and 49.52 mg

(Oct. 20, 1926).

In the actual use of these standards, the observer measures the

effect of the standard in discharging (by ionization) the electric charge upon the gold leaf of an electroscope by comparing the rate of fall of the leaf caused by the standard with that caused by the

preparation to be tested. The buying and selling of radium products in the United States

are based upon the bureau's measurement of the gamma ray activity

of the specimens offered for sale and the certificates giving their

radium equivalent.

Conditions affecting the accuracy of determination are taken

into account, including the natural ionization of the atmosphere.

The resulting accuracy is within 1 part in 100. The precision of the

certified comparison by the Commission International de Radium

was within 1 part in 500.

RADIOMETRY

STANDARD OF TOTAL RADIATION

[Radiant energy, see fig. 31] The standard of radiation is the total radiant energy emitted by a seasoned certified carbon-filament incandescent electric lamp. It

differs from a standard of light which defines candlepower, in that

the standard of radiation gives the total energy flux, of the invisible as well as the visible radiation. A typical value for the radiant

energy of one of these radiation standards, is equal to 114.4 X 10-8 watts at 0.400 ampere and 125.0 volts. SACCHARIMETRY

STANDARD FOR OPTICAL ROTATION

[Quartz-control plates] Figure 32 shows the Bates adjustable sensibility polariscope, a modern high-precision saccharimeter, and several of the standard

quartz-control plates used in connection with it for making accurate measurements of the per cent of sugar contained in the samples to be analyzed.

The quartz-control plates, the working standards for optical

rotation, are disks of quartz about 15 mm in diameter and 1.593

mm (or less) thick, according to the point on the saccharimeter

scale which they are designed to check. They must be cut from

optically homogeneous quartz, and the faces, which must be optically

plane and parallel to about a quarter of a wave length of light, must

be accurately at right angles to the optical axis of the quartz crystal.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 51

They are mounted in the heads of the tubes shown in a group beside

the saccharimeter, in such a way as to be held accurately at right

angles to the axis of the tube. They must be free from all mechanical

strain. They are carried in a long tube so that they will be held in

the instrument accurately at right angles to the path of the light.

The 100.00° plate corresponds to a circular rotation of 40.690° for

mercury green light of A = 5461 Angstrom. The particular plates

shown are the working standards used at the Bureau of Standards

for calibrating saccharimeter scales. The quartz plates have the same effect upon a beam of polarized

light as does a sugar solution. These plates when properly prepared

and standardized are permanent, there being no change in the

optical rotation or sugar value of the plate over the period of many

years. These plates, therefore, are used to check up and correct

for an}T small accidental variations in the saccharimeter, a reading

of one or more plates being made during each set of sugar tests and

the approximate correction applied to all readings made under the same conditions, if the reading of the plate differs from its true value previously determined at the Bureau of Standards.

The order of accuracy required in sugar work must be the very

highest obtainable as may be judged from the fact that an error of

one-tenth of 1 per cent in the determination of raw sugars imported

would correspond to a difference of about $200,000 annually in the

amount of duty collected. SPECTROSCOPY

STANDARD FOR WAVE-LENGTH MEASUREMENTS

[Angstrom, see figs. 33 and 34] The primary standard of wave length of light is the red radiation of

cadmium. The wave length of this radiation of cadmium = 6438.4996

o o " o Angstroms (1 Angstrom = 1 A — one ten-millionth of 1 millimeter)

and this equivalent was formally adopted in 1907 by the Inter- national Union for Cooperation in Solar Research, now known as the International Astronomical Union, the office of which is at Gonville, Cais College, Cambridge, England.

The standard equivalent may be used either to derive the length

of 1 Angstrom a unit of length, or to express the value of other lengths

in terms of the Angstrom. The equivalent is that determined by

Fabry, Benoit, and Perot, in 1904, using interferometric methods at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, to determine

the number of light waves in the prototype meter. The equivalent

is believed determinable to 1 part in 15,000,000 or better. Secondary standards, wave lengths of iron and neon radiations,

have been determined relative to the cadmium red radiation, and

adopted as secondary standards by the International Astronomical
52 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

Union. These wave lengths have been measured at the Bureau

of Standards. The neon wave lengths were determinable and

reproducible to 1 part in 10,000,000.

The standard " frequency" is used in the study of atomic energy

levels. The absolute "frequency" is the velocity of light (in cm

per second) divided by the wave length (in centimeters). This is not

known better than 1:5,000. (Michelson in pending determination

of the velocity of light expects to increase the accuracy to 1 : 30,000.)

The "wave number" (number of waves per centimeter in vacuum)

is known to better than 1 part in 1,000,000 for most spectral lines,

and is therefore more suitable for use in connection with atomic

radiation.

THERMOMETRY

STANDARD TEMPERATURE SCALE

The ideal basis for temperature measurements in scientific and

technical work is the thermodynamic scale, which is based on the

laws of thermodynamics and is independent of the properties of any

particular substance. A standard scale is maintained for practical

use. This standard scale is as close an approximation to the thermodynamic scale as is possible with present knowledge, while at the same time it has the desirable qualities of high precision, simplicity,

and convenience, and can be independently reproduced in any suit- ably equipped laboratory. (See fig. 35.)

The standard scale is defined by a series of thermometric fixed

points, namely, the boiling point of oxygen, —183.00°, the melting

point of ice, 0°, the boiling point of water, 100° C, the boiling point

of sulphur, 444.6°, the freezing point of silver, 960.5°, and the freez- ing point of gold, 1,063° C. Interpolation between the fixed points

and extension above the gold point are accomplished by means of

specified instruments and equations. The platinum resistance thermometer with one interpolation equation is used in the range to 650° C, and with a second equation in the range to —193° C.

The standard platinum versus platinum-rhodium thermocouple is used for interpolation between 650 and 1,063° C. Extension of the

scale above 1,063° is based on Planck's law for the spectral distribution, and variation with temperature, of the energy emitted by a uniformly heated inclosure or black body. The instrument used to determine temperatures in accordance with this law is the disappearing-filament optical pyrometer.
V. FEDERAL STANDARDIZING AGENCIES

(Executive Departments)

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

The Department of Agriculture is represented on the executive

committee of the Federal Specifications Board by the chief, division

of purchases, sales, and traffic. In addition to the representation on technical committees of the

Federal Specifications Board, from bureaus separately mentioned,

members of various other department activities serve on 14 technical

committees, as department representatives.

BUREAU OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

Members of the bureau represent the Department of Agriculture on seven technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board.

Standard grades for various commodities have been developed and

promulgated under the provisions of various laws as follows:

Cotton.—The first Federal grades were promulgated under the

provisions of the cotton futures act of 1914. The application of these

standards was extended by the cotton standards act, 1924, to re- quire the use of the United States grades for cotton in all transactions based upon grade.

Grain.—The grain grades have been promulgated under the provisions of the grain standards act of 1916.

Wool and Tobacco.—The United States warehouse act of 1916

gave the Department of Agriculture the authority to promulgate

grades for the compulsory use of licensed warehousemen in connection with the issuance of warehouse receipts where the receipts state the grade. The only grades which have been officially promulgated

under this act are the wool grades, but an extensive study of tobacco

grading has also been conducted and tentative grades have been

formulated.

Other Commodities.—The authority for all other Federal grades

recommended by the Department of Agriculture is found in the

Agricultural appropriations act. The following is a check list giving

the commodities for which standards have been promulgated, to- gether with the date of issuance and also the dates of revision:

Check List of Standards for Farm Products Formulated by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics (Revised to October, 1926)

A "mandatory standard" may be defined as an official standard,

the use of which is compulsory in the conditions specified by the

law under which that standard is promulgated; for instance, the

53
54 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDAEDS

" official grain standards of the United States" for wheat are compulsory for grain shipped by grade in interstate commerce, according

to the United States grain standards act. A " permissive standard," as here used, may be defined as a standard which has been worked out and recommended officially for optional use. Such permissive standards are used by the United States

Department of Agriculture in such lines of work as inspection and

market news. Permissive standards are often adopted by States as mandatory under certain conditions.

A "tentative standard," as here used, may be defined as a standard that is still subject to investigation by the Department of Agriculture, that is offered for use under commercial conditions to test

its practicability or as a basis for discussion. Such a tentative standard may later become either a permissive or a mandatory standard,

according to circumstances.

Manatory Standards. (Under United States cotton futures act and United States cotton standards act) Cotton:

A merican upland—

White grades: Promulgated 1914; revised 1923; partially revised

1924. Yellow tinged, yellow stained, and blue stained colors: Promulgated 1916; revised 1923. Gray, spotted, and light stained: Promulgated 1922. Extra white: Promulgated 1926; effective 1927. American Egyptian (grade and color).—Promulgated 1918; revised 1923; discontinued 1925, when the 1918 standards were reestablished. Sea Island (grade and color).—Promulgated 1918; discontinued 1925. Length of staple.—Promulgated 1918; original representations revised

1925. Note.—S. R. A. 92 (Agr. Econ.) contains description of all cotton standards now in force. American cotton Unters.—Promulgated 1925; Effective 1926. (See

S. R. A., 94 (Agr. Econ.).)

(Under United, States grain standards act) Grain : Shelled corn.—Promulgated 1916; revised 1918; amended 1921, 1924. Wheat.—Promulgated 1917; revised 1918; amended 1921, 1922, 1924. Oats.—Promulgated 1919; amended 1924, 1925. Rye.—Promulgated 1923; amended 1924. (Handbook U. S. G. S. A. 90 contains descriptions of these standards.)

Grain sorghums.—Promulgated 1924. Feed oats.—Promulgated 1925. Mixed feed oats.—Promulgated 1925. (Handbook U. S. G. S. A. 161 contains descriptions of these standards.) Barleys-Promulgated 1926. (See Handbook U. S. G. S. A. 165.)
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 55

(Under United States standard container act) Containers:

Climax baskets. —Promulgated 1916. Berry boxes.—Promulgated 1916.

Till ftasfcefs.—Promulgated 1916.

(See Office of Secretary Circular 76.) (Under United States warehouse act) Wool:

Diameter of fiber —Promulgated 1923; Revised 1926. 1 (See S. R. A. 100 (Agr. Econ.).)

Note.—Licensed tobacco warehousemen are required to use tobacco grades which have

been devised for the purpose, and licensed sirup warehousemen are required to use standards promulgated by the Bureau of Chemistry for maple and cane sirup. (Office of Secretary

Circular 136.) When storing any commodity for which United States grades have been offici- ally promulgated, such grades must be used if the warehouse receipt states the grade. In the absence of official grades the department approves such grades for use by licensed warehouse men as seem best to meet the needs. Permissive Standards:

(Under United States grain standards; used as a basis for trading but not offi- cially promulgated and not under Government inspection)

Rice, Milled.—Recommended 1918; revised 1923. (See Dept. Cir. 291.) Rice, Rough.—Recommended 1923. (See Dept. Cir. 290.) (Used in services offered under annual appropriation acts covering inspection

of fruits, vegetables, hay, and other perishable farm products (shipping point

and market inspection) ; used in extension and demonstration work)

Beans, Dry Edible (19 classes).—Recommended 1926. (Mimeographed

circular.) Broom Corn.—Recommended 1926. (Mimeographed circular.) Butter.—Recommended 1918. (See S. R. A. 51 (Markets).)

Cheese, American (Whole Milk).—Recommended 1922. (See Office of Secretary Circular 157.) Fruits and Vegetables:

Apples, barreled.—Recommended 1918; revised 1924, 1926. (See

S. R. A. 93 (Agr. Econ.) Amend. 1.) Artichokes.—Recommended 1926. Asparagus.—Recommended 1922; revised 1925. Beans, string (wax or green).—Recommended 1924.

Beets, bunched.—Recommended 1924. Cabbage.—Recommended 1922; revised 1924. Cantaloupes.—Recommended 1924; revised 1926.

Carrots, bunched.—Recommended 1924; revised 1925.

Cauliflower.—Recommended 1922; revised 1925.

Celery.—Recommended 1922; revised 1925.

Cherries, sweet.—Recommended 1926.

Citrus fruits. —Recommended 1923; revised 1924. Corn, green.—Recommended 1926. Cucumbers.—Recommended 1922. Dewberries and blackberries.—Recommended 1926. Eggplant.—Recommended 1925. Grapes, American, eastern type bunch.—Recommended 1925; revised

1926.

In 1926, the former 7 grades were expanded to 12, and a numerical system of designation substituted for the grade names formerly used. The new United States grades have been correlated with the English

count system of grading. Standards for 12 grades of wool top were also promulgated in 1926.
56 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Permissive Standards—Continued.

Fruits and Vegetables—Continued.

Grapes, table.—Recommended 1924; revised 1926. Grapes, juice.—Recommended 1923; revised 1926. Grapes, packed in sawdust or other packing material.—Recommended

1925; revised 1926.

Lettuce.—Recommended 1923; revised 1926. Onions, Bermuda.—Recommended 1918; revised 1925. Onions, Creole.—Recommended 1926. Onions, northern grown.—Recommended 1920; revised 1925. Peaches.—Recommended 1922; revised 1924. Peanuts, farmers' stock white Spanish.—Recommended 1924; revised

1925. Peanuts, white shelled Spanish.—Recommended 1923; revised 1925. Peanuts, runner.—Recommended 1925; revised 1925.

Pears.—Recommended 1924; revised 1925.

Peas, fresh.—Recommended 1926. Peppers, sweet.—Recommended 1923. Pineapples.—Recommended 1924. Plums and prunes.—Recommended 1923; revised 1926.

Potatoes.—Recommended 1917; revised 1926. (See S. R. A. 93 (Agr.

Econ.) Amend. 2.) Potatoes, sweet.—Recommended 1920; revised 1926. Radishes, bunched.—Recommended 1926. Spinach.—Recommended 1925; revised 1925.

Strawberries.—Recommended 1918; revised 1926. Tomatoes, cannery.—Recommended 1923; revised 1926. Tomatoes, fresh.—Recommended 19I8; revised 1925. Turnips, bunched.—Recommended 1924. Watermelons.—Recommended 1923; revised 1925. (Descriptioos of these standards for fruits and vegetables appear in mimeographed circulars unless otherwise stated.) Hay:

Timothy, clover, and grass hay.—Recommended 1922; promulgated 1925.

Alfalfa and alfalfa mixed hay.—Promulgated 1925.

Prairie hay.—Promulgated 1925. Johnson and Johnson mixed hay.—Promulgated 1925. Mixed hay.—Promulgated 1925.

(All hay standards in Handbook H. F. S. 540.) Meats (fresh and frozen carcass beef).—Promulgated 1926. (See S. R. A.

(Agr. Econ.) 99 and Dept. Bui. 1246.) Soy beans.—Recommended 1925; revised 1926. (Mimeographed circular.) Tentative Standards:

(Used in services offered under annual appropriation acts covering inspection

of hay, poultry, butter, and other perishable farm products)

Eggs.—Recommended 1923; revised 1925. (Mimeographed circular.) (Used in services offered under annual appropriation acts; in market news

work; basis for contracts by public institutions) Meats:

Fresh and frozen veal. Fresh, frozen, and cured pork. Fresh and frozen lamb.

Fresh and frozen mutton. (Mimeographed circulars.)
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 57

Tentative standards—Continued.

(Used in market news work and educational and demonstrational work)

Livestock:

Cattle, slaughter, stockers, and feeders. (See Dept. Bui. 1464. In

press.) Calves, slaughter and stockers. (Mimeographed circular.) Hogs, slaughter, stockers and feeders. Sheep, slaughter, stockers and feeders. Lambs, slaughter, stockers and feeders. (Not yet available for dis- tribution.)

Standard schedule of market classes and grades of cattle, calves, hogs,

sheep, and lambs. (See Dept. Bui. 1360.) BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY

Members of the bureau represent the department on six technical

committees of the Federal Specifications Board.

Standards for Beef and for Color of Beef.—Standards for beef

cattle and for color of beef are in use by the animal husbandry

division in cooperation with States in judging breeding, fat, and

feeder beef cattle and beef. Color of Beef.—A set of colors characteristic of the color of meat

from adult beef 30 minutes after cutting, is in use, as is also a tentative

set of colors characteristic of the color of meat from adult beef

immediately after cutting.

There is being prepared a set of tentative colors for (a) cooked

meat and (b) fat of beef. Standards for Dips and Disinfectants.—Under authority of the

Secretary of Agriculture, embodied in Bureau of Animal Industry

order No. 292, based on acts of Congress therein quoted, officials and employees have been duly appointed, to assure that only properly

compounded products are employed in official dipping and disinfection under the supervision of the Bureau of Animal Industry.

The nature of materials standardized—disinfectants for stock

cars, premises, etc., lime-sulphur and nicotine dips for cattle and

sheep scabies, and arsenical dips for fever tick of cattle, are regulated

by setting specifications for the composition and performance of

these materials, by requirement of guaranty from manufacturers,

by analysis and test of samples submitted by manufacturers, and

by analysis and test of samples of such products collected in the field. Standards for Veterinary Biologic Products.—In its regulatory

work covering the production of veterinary biologic products, the

Bureau of Animal Industry uses standards for measurement, doses

for tuberculin, and strengths of tetanus antitoxin and botulinus

antitoxin.

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY

Members of the bureau represent the Department of Agriculture on 11 technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board.
58 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Joint Committee on Definitions and Standards for Food Products.

The Joint Committee on Definitions and Standards for Food Products is appointed by the Secretary of Agriculture. It is comprised

of 3 representatives of the Association of Official Agricultural

Chemists, 3 representatives of the American Association of Dairy,

Food, and Drug Officials, and 3 representatives from the Department of Agriculture.

Its functions are to recommend definitions and standards of

purity for food products and to determine what are adulterations

therein for the guidance of officials of the various States and for the

Department of Agriculture in the enforcement of the Federal Food

and Drugs act. It collects information and data upon methods of

manufacture, treatment, and composition of food products; it formulates and publishes for comment and criticism tentative

definitions and standards, holds public hearings to which the industries concerned and all interested are invited, and after full discussion and final revision recommends definitions and standards for food products to the Secretary of Agriculture for adoption. These,

when approved, are published through the Office of the Secretary

in the form of food inspection decisions.

Among the subjects under present consideration are ice cream,

malted milk, sweet cream butter, alimentary pastes, cream corn meal,

and special process cheese.

In the fiscal year 1926, definitions and standards were promulgated for sauerkraut, almond paste and kernel pastes, wine vinegar,

grape vinegar and malt vinegar, milk and its products, glucose,

Dutch-process chocolate and Dutch-process cocoa, fruit and fruit products, flour, meat, and the principal meat products.

Tea Standards.—The United States Board of Tea Experts is appointed by the Secretary of Agriculture, and consists of seven members, each of whom is an expert in teas. (See section 2. "An

act to prevent the importation of impure and unwholesome tea,"

approved March 2, 1897, as amended.)

The United States Board of Tea Experts selects samples of teas to serve as standards, with which all teas entering the United States must be compared for purity and quality, and if found below the

standards in purity or quality the teas are rejected.

The tea board is appointed on or before February 15 of each year, and meets in New York City or at a place designated by the Secre- tary of Agriculture. Samples suitable for standards are submitted

by the trade. From these samples the tea board selects standards

representing the primary kinds. All of these different kinds, as far as possible, are on a parity as to purity and quality. After these

standards are fixed by the Secretary, they are packed in half-pound

sealed containers and distributed to the tea examiners in the tea-
STANDAEDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 59

inspection service, and are sold to the tea-importing trade. The tea board also recommends to the Secretary any change that might be

necessary in the regulations to properly enforce the tea act. While

it is true that the tea board serves for one year and can be consulted

at any time by the Secretary of Agriculture, normally, their activities cease after the standards are selected and fixed by the Secretary.

At the 1926 meeting the tea board selected seven standards, as follows

Formosa Oolong (used for Foochow Japan.

and Canton Oolong) . Scented Orange Pekoe (used for ca- Congou. pers). Java (used for all fully fermented East Scented Canton.

India teas)

Young Hyson, green (used for all China green tea)

Physical Standards for the Navy and Marine Corps.—The United

States tea examiner at New York establishes standards of quality for

the United States Navy, which are used in purchasing all teas for

issue purposes by the Navy at the Brooklyn Navy Yard and else- where in the United States. The supervising tea examiner at Washington fixes tea standards for

the Marine Corps, which are used in purchasing all teas for issue

purposes by the Marine Corps.

The office of supervising tea examiner also helps to get up the specifications for the purchase of teas by the General Supply Committee

and the District of Columbia.

Tea Container Project.—The tea-inspection service is carrying on

a research project testing out the keeping qualities of tea in more than

100 different types of tea containers. The information gained from

this project is to be used by the division of simplified practice of the

Department of Commerce in standardizing types of tea containers.

Standards for Naval Stores (Rosin, Turpentine, etc.).—In connection with its investigational and regulatory work on naval stores, the

Bureau of Chemistry is charged by the Secretary of Agriculture with

initiating the establishment of new standards for rosin and turpentine

or the modification of existing standards. When the naval stores act went into effect on June 1, 1923, the permanent glass rosin types

previously developed by the Bureau of Chemistry and three kinds of

spirits of turpentine defined in the act were made the standards for

naval stores until otherwise prescribed as provided in the act. The

standards for rosin include the various grades of rosin, from highest to

lowest, designated by the following letters, respectively, X, WW, WG,

N, M, K, I, G, F, E, D, and B, together with the designation "gum

rosin" or "wood rosin," as the case may be. The standards for turpentine include "gum spirits of turpentine," "steam-distilled wood

turpentine," and "destructively distilled wood turpentine."

36316^—27 5
60 NATIONAL BTJBEAU OF STANDARDS

By section 3 of the naval stores act (42 Stat. 1436), the Secretary

of Agriculture is authorized to establish and promulgate standards for naval stores for which no standards are therein provided, and to modify standards, for reasons and causes deemed by him sufficient, as the interests of the trade shall require.

The Bureau of Chemistry recommends for promulgation by the

Secretary of Agriculture new standards or modified standards for naval stores in accordance with the provision of the act. The regulations for the enforcement of the naval stores act, in regulation 5, dealing with section 3 of the act, describe the procedure for establishing new and modified standards, as follows:

Whenever in the opinion of the Secretary a standard is necessary for naval

stores for which no standard is provided, or whenever for reasons deemed by him

sufficient the interests of the trade require a modification of an existing standard,

opportunities to be heard will be given those favoring or opposing the proposed

standard or proposed modification of a standard. When the hearing is to be

called for consideration of new standards, three months' notice in advance of the hearing will be given; when the hearing is to be called for consideration of the

modification of an existing standard, six months' notice in advance of the hearing

will be given. When a standard is established for naval stores for which no

standard is provided, such standard shall become effective after three months

from the date of the promulgation thereof ; when an existing standard is modified

such modification shall become effective after six months from the date of the promulgation thereof. At the present time the Bureau of Chemistry is studying the color

composition of wood rosins and considering the desirability of standards for wood rosin separate and distinct from those for gum rosin. It is also working on permanent color types for turpentines.

Through the Bureau of Chemistry, and in accordance with the

procedure outlined in the regulations for the enforcement of the

naval stores act (regulation 5), the Secretary of Agriculture promulgated the following standard for opaque rosin, effective May 15,

1926:

Opaque rosin is rosin which, because of its turbid, murky, or cloudy appearance, can not be graded under the other United States standards. The grade of such rosin shall be designated by the letters "OP," together with the designation

"gum rosin" or "wood rosin," as the case may be. The Bureau of Chemistry has one or more representatives on each

of the following committees which work on the standardization of various products for identity and purity or by specification

Joint committee on definitions and standards for food products, chairmanship

and through representatives.

United States Board of Tea Experts, chairmanship.

Standardization of Methods.—The Bureau of Chemistry also cooperates with scientific societies, such as the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, American Chemical Society, American
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 61

Leather Chemists' Association, American Society for Testing

Materials, American Public Health Association, Committee on Revision, United States Pharmacopoeia, American Drug Manufacturers

Association, and American Pharmaceutical Manufactures Association,

in the standardization of tests and analytical methods.

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY

Members of the bureau represent the Department of Agriculture on four technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board.

The Bureau of Plant Industry is not undertaking standardization

of practices or products, but is concerned with several lines of activity

involving clarification and stabilization of nomenclature of plants,

both technical and commercial.

One case of this character which may be of interest is the

cooperative undertaking of the American Joint Committee on Horticultural Nomenclature, in which the Bureau of Plant Industry

participated, which resulted in the publication of the volume "Standardized Plant Names," published in December, 1923. This book

was compiled by a subcommittee of three selected by, and was

responsible to, the American Joint Committee on Horticultural

Nomenclature, which represented the following organizations:

American Association of Nurserymen.

Ornamental Growers Association. American Society of Landscape Architects. American Pharmaceutical Association. American Institute of Park Executives.

Society of American Florists and Ornamental Horticulturists. The subcommittee also acted in cooperation with the following

societies

The American Dahlia Society.

The American Gladiolus Society.

The American Iris Society.

The American Peony Society.

The American Pomological Society.

The American Rose Society.

The American Seed Trade Association. The American Sweet Pea Society.

The book is a catalogue of approved scientific and common names

of plants in the American horticultural trade. It contains about

40,000 entries. It was published by the American Joint Committee

on Horticultural Nomenclature.

Another cooperative line of work of a somewhat similar character

is the official registration of new and improved varieties of wheat,

oats and barley, which is carried on under a cooperative agreement

between the Bureau of Plant Industry and the American Society of

Agronomy. Under this undertaking a register of new and improved
62 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

varieties of wheat, oats, and barley is being developed and maintained, the varieties being so recorded as to origin and described as to significant characters that the register will be useful to originators

and introducers of varieties of these crops, and to farmers and others

interested in the general subject.

With reference to the clarification of the nomenclature, and looking

toward the reduction in the number of varieties of fruits and vegetables grown in commercial plantings, such reduction being desirable

in connection with the effort to standardize the commercial output

of these products, considerable work has for some years been under

way in our offices of horticulture. Most definite progress thus far has been made with respect to the varieties of potatoes and sweet

potatoes. The results of comprehensive and careful varietal studies

have been incorporated in publications in which the important

groups of potatoes and sweet potatoes and the varieties composing

these groups are described. Similar work is under way with peas, peanuts, and Jerusalem artichokes.

During the past year a tentative survey of the varieties of vegetables most extensively grown in commercial plantings has been

made, the results of which indicate that fully 80 per cent of the

commercial production of most kinds of vegetables is limited to four

or five varieties of each. This autostandardization tends toward the

reduction of the number of varieties and the stabilization of these on

higher planes of productiveness and other desirable qualities.

BUREAU OF PUBLIC ROADS

Members of the bureau represent the Department of Agriculture on the following technical committees of the Federal Specifications

Board:

Road and paving materials (chairman).

Rubber products.

Cements, lime, and plaster.

Drafting equipment and supplies.

Spraying machines (horticultural)

.

Lubricants and liquid fuels. The bureau is represented on the American Engineering Standards

Committee by the chief of the bureau, and also by membership on

13 American Engineering Standards Committee sectional committees

in addition to holding sponsorship for the sectional committee on method of test for penetration of bituminous materials.

Cooperation with the American Concrete Institute consists in

representation on and participation in the work of the committee on concrete aggregates. This committee is at present engaged in

the preparation of standard specifications for aggregates.

The bureau is also represented on a joint conference committee

of the American Association of State Highway Officials and the
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1921 63

American Railway Engineering Association on steel bridge specifications.

The bureau is likewise cooperating in the work of the Association

of Asphalt Technologists, which is engaged in a study of asphalt

paving problems with a view to the ultimate standardization of

materials and methods of construction used in this type of pavement.

The bureau cooperates in standardization work with the American

Association of State Highway Officials through representation on the

committee on standards, the chairmanship of which is held by its representative. The main committee is divided into subcommittees

and the bureau is represented by one or more of its members on the

following: Committee on Design, Committee on Specifications,

Committee on Construction, Committee on Tests and Investigations,

and Committee on Bridges and Structures. This national organization is engaged in the preparation of standard specifications for

materials used in highways and bridges and for methods of construction. Standard specifications thus far published, which have been

approved by the Secretary of Agriculture for use on Federal-aid

road work, are as follows:

Standard specifications for steel highway bridges.

Standard specifications for corrugated metal pipe culverts. Tentative standard, methods of sampling and testing highway materials. Standards governing plans, specifications, contract forms, and estimates for Federal-aid highway projects.

FOREST SERVICE Members of the Forest Service represent the Department of Agriculture on five technical committees of the Federal Specifications

Board.

The Forest Service is a member of five American Engineering

Standards Committee sectional committees and is a sponsor for

specifications for railroad ties and methods of testing wood.

The Forest Service has membership on two committees of the

American Society for Testing Materials.

American Chemical Society

Standard Cellulose Committee.—

Membership to the copper number committee, appointed by the

chairman of the standard cellulose committee, includes as chairman

a Forest Products Laboratory chemist. The committee was appointed

to recommend the best method for the determination of copper

number in cellulose as one of the standard methods of cellulose

analysis. Investigation of various proposed methods and the

development of a method judged to be superior to those in general

use have resulted from the work of this group. The results have

been submitted to three referee chemists with a request for their

opinion as to the best method to be used as a standard. The method
64 NATIONAL BUKEAXJ OF STANDARDS

finally agreed upon will be recommended to the standard cellulose committee.

The chairmanship of the alpha cellulose committee is held by a Forest Products Laboratory chemist under appointment from the

chairman of the standard cellulose committee. The purpose of the

committee is to recommend a standard method for the determination of alpha cellulose. Study has been made of previously proposed

methods with the result that a new method has been developed

which will be proposed as standard to the standard cellulose committee.

American Wood Preservers I Association

Committee 4 (Preservatives).—This committee is responsible for the preparation of standard specifications for all wood preservatives and for methods

of testing them. A Forest Products Laboratory chemist is a member

of the committee.

Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry

Sulphite

Pulp Committee.—A member of the Forest Products Laboratory

has been appointed to the committee by the president of the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry. The membership

of the association votes upon committee recommendations.

The function of the committee is to recommend a standard method

of testing sulphite pulp.

The procedure has been to conduct experimental work with differ- ent pulps and methods at various laboratories under correlation by

the chairman of the committee. A ball-mill method has been

developed, but not yet adopted.

American lumber standards program.—In addition to the standardization work performed by the Forest Products Laboratory staff members as individuals on standardization committees, the Forest

Products Laboratory has contributed to the following projects of

the American lumber standards program:

Softwood yard lumber standards. Softwood factory lumber standards. Hardwood factory lumber standards.

Structural timber standards. Work in these fields on the part of the Forest Products Laboratory

has initiated from specific requests from the General Lumber Standardization Conference, from the central committee on lumber standards, and from the latter's two consulting committees.

Such specific requests have involved technical studies in the laboratory and in the field of

Thickness standards as affected by both use value and economies in production. Short and odd lengths in standard specifications.

Moisture content and shipping weights as a basis for the application of size standards. Basic grade or quality descriptions which classify the product of the log accord- ing to its highest use value and minimize waste in manufacture.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 65

To get the basic data required, sawmill studies along various specific

lines have been conducted in each lumber producing region. Construction and fabricating industry requirements have been secured by

building and factory studies and by conferences with leading technical

representatives of the industry.

The principal work under way at the present time has to do with

the thickness and moisture content standards for softwood yard lumber and the basic grade descriptions for hardwood factory lumber.

During 1926, recommendations have been made along several of

the above lines to the sponsoring organizations, particularly concerning the basic grades for hardwood lumber, in the development of

which the industry as a whole is actively engaged. Trade opposition

has been encountered, but the system proposed has advantages so worth while that its adoption by the industry stands as an objective

toward which future efforts should and are being directed. Following an analysis and final report on industrial use of short length lumber the facts have been published as Department of Agriculture Circular No. 393, "Industrial Outlets for Short Length Softwood Yard

Lumber."

Committee on Tree Names.—A standing committee of three

members has long existed in the Forest Service to attempt to determine the best prevailing usage in tree and lumber names and to standardize this usage in the work of the Forest Service, and, so far

as possible, outside. After consulting with various associations,

companies, individuals, and interested technical bodies standard

common tree and lumber names have been adopted by the Forest

Service and will be used in its publications and recommended as the

standard common names for trees and lumber throughout the United

States. A revised edition of the " Check List of Forest Trees of the

United States" is now in press. Committee on Log Rules.—At the suggestion of the central

committee on lumber standards, the Forest Service is making a survey of existing log rules, to determine the most accurate method

of measuring and calculating the volume of a log, and will recommend

to the central committee as a standard the rule or rules which give

the volume most accurately. So far the results appear to indicate

the superiority of a modified form of the "international rule" and of

the cubic foot as a unit of measure.

Society of American Foresters and Association of State Foresters

Committee on Growth and Yield Tables.—This committee is composed of 9 members, 3 from the Society of American Foresters,

3 from the Association of State Foresters, and 3 from the Forest

Service. The committee has for its object the setting up of accurate

standard practices in the preparation of growth and yield tables for

the various forest regions. These tables are based on large numbers
66 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

of measurements of trees of various sizes and ages and are designed

to allow the landowner to predict the amount of timber of a given

species that can be grown on a given area in a certain time. A report

has been published in the Journal of Forestry. The methods outlined in the report have been accepted by the Forest Service as standard practice.

WEATHER BUREAU

Members of the Weather Bureau represent the Department of

Agriculture on three technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board:

The bureau is a member of two American Engineering Standards

Committee sectional committees.

The work of the Weather Bureau is connected only in an incidental

way with matters of standardization. It is obvious, however, that

in the collection of meteorological and climatological information

from the continental areas of the United States and the cooperative

reports from vessels traversing the oceans, certain standard methods

are necessarily involved. These have been in force for many years

and are briefly referred to in the following:

Atmospheric Pressure.—Land stations are equipped with mercurial barometers of an accurate and reliable type, all carefully adjusted

and compared with fundamental standards at Washington, and, in

general, stations are equipped with two instruments, compared with

each other monthly for the purpose of checking up departures or deviations from standard pressure indications.

Elevation of barometers above sea level is very carefully standardized by geodetic measurements referred to mean sea level, and the

standard method of reduction of barometric readings at elevated

stations to a common sea level plane is in force, applicable to all continental stations. Changes in elevation that may occur by

removal of office, or otherwise, are carefully referred back to the

fundamental datum known as the " station elevation," which remains

invariable, notwithstanding minor changes in location of the office or instruments.

Barometric Observations at Sea.—In this case the instruments

used are owned by the masters of vessels. However, their indications

are checked in port as frequently and completely as possible, to determine corrections required to reduce their readings to the barometric standard of the Weather Bureau.

Temperature Measurements.—These, also, are standardized by the

distribution to all continental stations of the Weather Bureau of thermometers whose scale errors are accurately determined and

corrections applied therefore, or whose errors are so small as to be

negligible.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 67

In the use of instruments for recording pressure, temperature,

etc., uniform and systematic care is enjoined to determine from time

to time, and apply, the necessary corrections, so that the automatic

registration shall coincide as closely as practicable with eye readings

with standard instruments.

The foregoing general methods of standardization of instruments

apply to other instruments than those required for the measurement

of pressure and temperature, and result in a homogeneous body of

meteorological data collected by the Weather Bureau that is seemingly as free from variations and errors, depending on instruments,

methods, and apparatus, as practicable.

Supplementing the foregoing, standard methods of exposure and

installation of all types of instruments are enforced, so that the

indications of the instruments, freed from their instrumental and

inherent defects, are as representative as practicable of the true atmospheric conditions.

In the work in connection with river stages, flood conditions, etc., the same care is exercised in securing comparable and homogeneous

reports, the conditions being referred to some invariable reference

plane as completely as circumstances permit.

In the newer work of exploring the upper atmosphere by means of

kites, balloons, etc., the same principle of standardization of methods

and equipment has been carried out, so as to secure homogeneous

observations and results. Much of the procedure of standardization in the Weather Bureau

was accomplished many years ago, and is maintained constantly and

refined wherever required through the activities of the leaders in

charge of the specific projects. No special organization exists for

this purpose, although occasionally, where some particular subject,

such as standardization of cloud observations, etc., is involved, a committee or board is appointed to analyze and report on the subject.

In the course of the development and reduction of the observations

in the free air the bureau has supplied to the National Advisory

Committee for Aeronautics the fundamental atmospheric data on

which has been based the so-called " standard atmosphere."

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

In addition to the Department of Commerce representation on

Federal Specifications Board technical committees mentioned below,

representatives from the following additional activities represent the

Department of Commerce on the following number of technical

committees

Office of the Secretary, 2. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 2. 36316—27 6
68 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

BUREAU OF THE CENSUS

Standardization was first considered in connection with the work

of the Bureau of the Census in 1903, when the collection of the financial statistics of cities, newly undertaken by the bureau, revealed

and emphasized the lack of comparability in the city reports. The

bureau, thereupon, called a conference of comptrollers and accounting

officers, and at a second conference held in 1906 the National Association of Comptrollers and Accounting Officers was formed, having as one of its objects the installation of a uniform system of State and

municipal accounting and reporting throughout the United States. A standard classification of revenues, expenditures, indebtedness,

and other financial statistics was prepared and submitted to the

officials of the city governments, and this classification has been

closely followed by many cities. It has also been approved by the

Institute of Government Research, which is trying to introduce a uniform or standardized system of public accounting.

More recently, a similar organization of the State officials, the

Association of State Auditors, Comptrollers, and Treasurers, has

been formed to promote uniformity in accounting. A census advisory committee has been appointed in each of these associations

to meet annually to bring about comparable financial statistics for the State governments and for the governments of the cities having a population of over 30,000.

BUREAU OF FISHERIES Although the functions of the Bureau of Fisheries, as originally

outlined, do not specifically provide for any standardization activities

several such activities have become necessary as a means of carrying

out the principal function. There are two activities of this bureau on standardization. First, standardization of trade names of fishes; second, the standardization of statistics collected on fisheries by

various organizations.

From the very beginning of the bureau's work, it was necessary

that common trade names of fishes be established in order to prevent

confusion in all work pertaining to fishes, and particularly to statistical reports. Some idea of the confusion of names may be realized

from the fact that there are more than 100 species of common commercial fishes taken in the United States, and that each of these

may have from one to a half dozen common names, and that the same common name may be applied in different parts of the country

to as many different kinds of fish. Standard names to be used for most species were, in the course of the early years of the bureau,

established in its publications and statistical reports. But there

have, until recent years, remained disputed questions. These were

particularly acute in connection with proper labeling of products
STANDAEDS YEAEBOOK, 1927 69

under the jurisdiction of the Bureau of Chemistry. In order to

clarify this situation, there was a committee appointed on January

13, 1917, by the commissioner, consisting of the commissioner, the

deputy commissioner, chief of the division of scientific inquiry,

chief of the division of fishery industries, and the ichthyologist of

the Bureau of Fisheries. This committee, since its inception, has

had about 50 meetings, at each of which one or more disputed questions of proper trade names were considered, and in most cases decisions were reached and communicated to the Bureau of Chemistry

for its guidance in establishing their standard for the labeling of the

products in question. The authority of this committee is purely

advisory, but its activities, judging from results, have been adequately

effective, so much so that in recent years it has infrequently been

called upon to make further recommendations.

The collection by Federal agencies of fishery statistics has been

conducted in a standardized manner since the beginning of these

activities. They are, however, of insufficient continuity for the

purposes of conservation data, and it is necessary that they be

supplemented by statistics collected annually by States. This is being done at the present time by a number of States. The collection

and publication of statistical data in the various States, however, is so diverse that some form of standardization must be accomplished

before any compilation of the statistics of different States may be

undertaken in order to show data relative to fishing activities covering

regions extending over two or more States. The bureau is attempting

to accomplish such standardization (1) by the encouragement of

standard legislation by States requiring the statistics to be collected

in the uniform method; (2) by a personal contact with State agencies

collecting statistics; and (3) by supplementing in certain regions the

statistics collected by the States by field work on the part of its own

agents. During the past year these means of standardization have

been employed in so far as possible and in the case of the Pacific Coast

States standardization has, by these means, reached the point where

compilations are now in progress for annual statistical reports on the

fisheries of the Pacific Coast States. BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE

Members of the bureau represent the Department of Commerce

on six technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board.

The Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce is engaged in the

collection and dissemination of information relative to the foreign

and domestic commerce of the United States and other countries of

the world. In the performance of these functions, there are answered

an ever increasing number of inquiries, national and international in

scope, concerning simplification of customs tariffs, commercial laws,
70 NATIONAL BUEEATJ OF STANDARDS

trade statistics, business practices, and standard specifications for materials. Further, its commodity and technical experts are called

upon regularly to assist in the standardization and simplification

projects being developed by public and private agencies.

The standardization activities of the bureau are largely of a cooperative nature, though some projects are initiated and promoted

under its auspices, as may be seen from the following description of some of its work and accomplishments in this field. For some years the initiative has been assumed in simplifying

and standardizing the statistics of the foreign trade of the United

States in comformity with the production data published by the

Bureau of the Census and the Department of Agriculture. Statistical charts, table forms, indexes of prices, and other commercial

movements have been simplified, and duplications of such statistical presentations by Federal agencies have been materially reduced.

During 1926 an increasing effort was made to extend these activities to the international field through participation in international congresses and by conferences with representatives of foreign countries.

Commercially accepted specifications for materials have been

translated, published, and distributed in foreign-language editions.

This work was inaugurated about 10 years ago with French and

Spanish languages series. Revisions and additions were made to the

Spanish series during the last year, and a few standards were published in a newly inaugurated Portuguese language series. Under the auspices of a representative advisory committee recom- mendations were promulgated covering standard methods for preparing paper wrapped parcel post and express packages.

Through another committee standard terms and conditions for

general merchandise and cold storage warehouses were developed,

and tentative instructions promulgated.

A Spanish-English glossary of automotive terms and one dealing

with highway machinery and equipment were compiled for the purpose of assisting in the standardization of bilingual terminology in

these industries.

Reports were issued concerning merchandising and trade conditions, trading laws, export packing, and other matters relating to the

technique of foreign trade with the object of giving aid to exporters

of commodities. These studies promote the normalization and

standardization of trade practices and customs.

Through semiannual surveys of dealers' stocks of automobile tires conducted by the bureau, manufacturers were enabled to balance

their production schedules, thereby eliminating waste through nor- malization of stocks of raw and processed materials.

In cooperation with the Department of Agriculture the tanning

industry, farmers, stock raisers, and meat packers plans are under
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 71

way toward further improvement of hide and skin production through

standardization of methods of take-off. Members of the staff, versed in commodity and technical phases

of domestic and foreign trade, continue to aid committees of the

Federal Specifications Board in the development of standard specifications for materials purchased by the Federal Government.

Cooperation was also extended to the industrial committees of the

division of simplified practice, Department of Commerce, in the

development of a number of projects for reducing various commodities to common types, and for simplifying the sizes, classes, and

grades of those commodities.

BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES

The Deputy Commissioner of Lighthouses is a member of the

executive committee of the Federal Specifications Board, and members of the bureau represent the Department of Commerce on five

technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board.

The bureau is a member of the American Engineering Standards

Committee sectional committee on electrical installations on shipboard.

The Commissioner of Lighthouses has served for several years as

the representative of the American Engineering Council on the

" Joint Conference on Standard Contract Forms," a conference which

has worked under the auspices of the Department of Commerce.

The superintendent of naval construction represents the Department of Commerce on the executive committee of the American

Bureau of Shipping, in connection with the classification of vessels

owned by the United States, in accordance with the merchant marine

act of 1920 (sec. 25, 41 Stat. 988).

The superintendent of naval construction also is a member of two

American Marine Standards Committee technical committees.

Aside from the above special designations, the Bureau of Lighthouses has no groups or individuals engaged strictly on standardization work. Various individuals of the bureau are, however, constantly engaged at work making improvements on apparatus and

methods for the Lighthouse Service, which lead to a general standardization. Forty-six such individual items have thus been standardized.

Current standardization activities include the following:

Acetylene cylinders.

Radiobeacons and radiocompasses.

Lights for aerial navigation.

Vessel moorings.

Iron and wooden buoys.
72 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

All superintendents of lighthouses (19) are, however, constantly

at work making improvements on apparatus and methods for the

Lighthouse Service, which lead to a general standardization.

BUREAU OF MINES

Members of the bureau represent the Department of Commerce ' on seven technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board.

The bureau is a member of 20 American Engineering Standards

Committee sectional committees.

The bureau is also a member of the mining safety correlating committee and the safety-code correlating committee.

The work of the Bureau of Mines, extending as it does over the

broad field of scientific, technologic, and economic investigations con- cerning the mining, preparation, and use of all mineral substances, with

the object of increasing safety, health, efficiency, and economy in the

mineral industries, is closely concerned with standardization of methods

for testing, analyzing, and preparation of mineral materials. While

its chief work is along the lines of pioneering research in developing

new and efficient processes where these are lacking, and in building

up and improving methods of extraction, recovery, and utilization, numerous instances could be given where the methods of analysis,

testing, and specifications worked out and used in the bureau's laboratories have become standard practice for other investigative agencies.

As a few of the more striking examples may be mentioned (1) methods

for sampling, analyzing, and testing coal; (2) methods of analyzing

explosives for mine use and testing for permissible use in coal mines;

(3) methods for testing electrical mining equipment, lamps, and machinery to determine whether it can be safely used in atmospheres

containing gas and coal dust in explosive proportions; (4) methods

for analyzing and measuring rock dust in metal-mine atmospheres;

(5) analytical method for comparing properties of different crude oils; and (6) methods of testing explosibility of coal dusts from different

beds.

In the following paragraphs are described some of the investigations

of the Bureau of Mines that relate directly to work where standardization of process or product is one of the principal objects sought.

Standard Methods for Sampling and Analysis of Coals.—The

'work of the coal analytical laboratory of the Bureau of Mines is carried on under authority of its organic act. Its work consists chiefly of analysis of coals belonging to or for the use of the United States Government. The various executive departments and independent establishments of the Federal Government

availing themselves of the opportunity to use the service laboratory

are: The War, Navy, Treasury, Agriculture, Post Office, State, Labor,
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 73

Justice, Commerce, and Interior Departments; National Homes for

Disabled Soldiers; District of Columbia; The Panama Canal;

Panama Railroad; United States Coast and Geodetic Survey; and

United States Shipping Board. Cooperative work is carried on with

the States of Maine, Maryland, New York, New Jersey, and Virginia

in connection with their purchase of coal on a specification basis, with

various State geological surveys, with the Pennsylvania geological

survey in the anthracite coal fields, and with the American Gas

Association, and the American Society for Testing Materials. All

coal analyses for different sections of the bureau are made in the

laboratory.

The methods used are described in publications of the bureau,

Bulletins Nos. 22, 85, 123, 193, 230, Analyses of Coals, Bulletins Nos.

116 and 119, Sampling of Delivered Coal, and others.

In the course of this work the methods used in the bureau's laboratories have been widely adopted in many laboratories, or are used as a standard check in comparing results of different laboratories.

Samples are exchanged with several commercial laboratories for the

purpose of checking their methods of analysis and to improve their

standards. Referee analyses are often made.

Standard Crucibles for Coal Analysis.—The problem of comparing

the illium and vitreosil crucibles with standard platinum crucibles for

volatile matter determination was completed, and the report published in Fuels in Science and Practice (England) June, 1926.

Coal Ash Fusibility as Related to Clinker Formation.—Laboratory

methods for determining the fusibility of coal ash have been carefully

investigated by the Bureau of Mines in cooperation with the American Society for Testing Materials. The gas-furnace method developed was tentatively adopted as standard by the American Society

for Testing Materials. The bureau is now making a comprehensive

study to determine how accurately such laboratory tests predict

clinker trouble experienced on burning coal. Seven different coals were carefully investigated as to ash composition and distribution,

sulphur forms, and ash fusibility. The laboratory ash fusibility re- sults on these coals were found to be indicative of the clinker trouble

experienced in the burning of the coals. The results of the investigation are being compiled for publication. The work is being continued further on other coals. Methods of Determining Sulphur in Coal and Coke.—In cooperation with committee D-5 on coal and coke of the American Society

for Testing Materials, a careful study was made of the accuracy of

various analytical methods for determining the sulphur content of

coal and coke. It was found that the bomb-washing method and

the sodium peroxide fusion methods if properly made were just as
74 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

accurate as the Eschka method, which has for a long time been used

as a standard method for sulphur determination. The purpose of

the cooperative work with the American Society for Testing Materials is to standardize methods of analyzing and testing of coal and

coke, making the most accurate and workable methods available for use by laboratories engaged in analyzing coal and coke. Results are published in "The fusibility of coal ash," by A. C. Fieldner and

W. A. Selvig; Fuel in Science and Practice, vol. 5, No. 1 (1925), pp. 24-33, and in "Relation of ash composition to the uses of coal,"

by A. C. Fieldner and W. A. Selvig, February, 1926, meeting of

American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers.

Standard Analysis of Rock-Dusting Materials.—On account of the

increasing use of rock dust in rock-dusting coal mines to prevent

explosions of coal dust and gas, it is necessary that standard methods

be available for testing such dusts for their effectiveness and possible

effect on miners' health. The bureau's analytical laboratories analyze

samples of shale, limestone, dolomite, gypsum, and other materials

submitted by coal-mine operators for examination for suitability for

rock-dusting purposes. Standard methods for making such analyses,

and a table giving the composition of all samples of shale submitted were published as a chapter in Bulletin 21, Mining and Metallurgical

Investigations, Carnegie Institute of Technology.

Standard Testing of Permissible Explosives and Permissible Mining Equipment.—Investigation having shown that the use of unsafe

explosives had caused many mine disasters, the Pittsburgh station

in 1908 began making tests to ascertain what explosives were least likely to ignite flammable gas or coal dust. As a result of the tests

it approved certain explosives with short, quick flames as permissible

for use in gaseous or dusty coal mines. As mine disasters had also been caused by the ignition of gas or dust by electrical equipment or mine lights, the tests for permissibility were extended to cover electric lamps, switches, motors, and flame safety lamps. The names of

the articles that have passed the tests and the names of the manufacturers are published for the information of the public. This work

is conducted with the voluntary cooperation of the manufacturers.

The system governing this work contemplates allowing the manufacturer to mark his goods with a seal bearing the name of the Bureau

of Mines, and to state that they are "permissible" or "approved,"

provided the goods pass certain tests that are prescribed in published

schedules. These tests are designed to insure the minimum requirements for safety according to the best judgment of the bureau. The

submission of goods for tests is entirely voluntary. The bureau can

not require a manufacturer to submit an article for examination;

neither can it require mine operators or miners to use permissible

supplies or equipment. For the conduct of examinations and tests,
STANDAKDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 75

a standard procedure is necessary. The bureau prescribes the conditions under which the tests are made and specifies the requirements

that an article must satisfy to win the bureau's approval and be

marked "approved as permissible.' ' These conditions and requirements, as well as the fees charged to cover the cost of the work to the

Government, are given in the schedules which are printed for free distribution. The schedules in force are as follows:

No. Subject Date issued 2B Permissible motors Aug. 26,1920 May 9,1922 Feb. 3,1915

Sept. 19, 1922 Aug. 25,1920 Dec. 5, 1922 Feb. 2, 1916 Dec. 9, 1916 May 6, 1925 Apr. 11,1919 Aug. 16,1919

4A .. Permissible electric switches and junction boxes 6A Permissible portable electric lamps 7B Permissible flame safety lamps 8A Permissible Methane indicators 9A Permissible telephones 10A Miscellaneous electric lamps

11 Permissible flash lamps (methane)

11, series 1-P Permissible flash lamps (gasoline vapors)

12 Permissible single-shot blasting units...

15 Permissible locomotives. These permissible schedules have become essential in guiding the

activities of the bureau along safety lines, in giving the manufacturer of safety equipment a definite goal, and in placing the approval

work on a firm foundation.

During the year, 16 approvals of mining equipment and apparatus

have been made. Also 155 extensions of approvals have been

issued.

The bureau's permissible list covers practically every line of activity for which equipment is used in underground coal mining.

Electrically operated pumps and coal-loading outfits, were new lines

added to the bureau's approval list during the year. Manufacturers are giving more and more attention to the designing of permissible mining machinery and the bureau looks forward to the time

when operators will be able to efficiently equip their mines with a complete line of equipment which has been tested and listed by the

bureau as permissible.

The bureau's specifications for permissible explosives were adopted

as standard by the American Engineering Standards Committee in

1922.

A standard method for specific gravity study of ores by the sinkand-float method has been developed by the bureau.

A standard service test for refractories has been developed by the

bureau.

Mine Accident Statistics.—With the cooperation of State officials and of individual operators the Bureau of Mines publishes reports

dealing with accidents in the mineral industries. These reports give,

by causes and States, the fatalities at coal mines and the fatal and

nonfatal accidents at metal mines, quarries, coke ovens, and metal-
76 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

lurgical works other than iron blast furnaces. Compilation of figures on coal-mine fatalities began in 1910; that for metal mine and quarry

accidents began in 1911 ; work on statistics at coke ovens and metallurgical plants began in 1913. Figures for coal-mine fatalities are published monthly and annually; figures for other accidents are published annually. The primary purpose of the bureau in collect- ing and publishing these data has not been to fix responsibility or

to preserve a historic record of past experience, but to make available a body of reliable information from which legislative bodies and

safety engineers can determine what are the hazards that should

receive chief attention in the endeavor to increase the safety of

workers. To further this purpose the bureau has advocated the use

of standard forms for reporting accidents, and of standard methods of determining accident-frequency rates and accident-severity rates, so that the accident rates in different industries and in different States

may readily be compared.

Wire Ropes for Mines.—The Bureau of Mines collaborated with

the Bureau of Standards in the editing and revision of proposed rules

for the use of wire ropes in mines, which has been presented by the

American Mining Congress to the American Engineering Standards

Committee as American standard.

Standardization of Petroleum Specifications and Methods for Testing.—After the outbreak of the World War, concern was felt in this country with respect to the available supply of petroleum products,

and especially gasoline. The Bureau of Mines made some of the

earliest and most comprehensive investigations of the motor-fuel

situation, and as a result of these studies was able to advise the Fuel

Administration of conditions within the petroleum industry.

The bureau had a representative on the Committee on Standardization of Petroleum Specifications, which was appointed by the

President July 31, 1918. This committee was the forerunner of the

present technical committee on lubricants and liquid fuels of the

Federal Specifications Board.

Standardized Methods of First Aid Instruction have been developed to improve health conditions among those engaged in the

mineral industries.

Standardization of Mine Rescue Methods and Rescue Apparatus.

The bureau, in conjunction with mine operators and manufacturers

of rescue equipment, has developed improved types of oxygenbreathing apparatus that meet the severe test requirements formulated by the bureau engineers and surgeons on the basis of years of

experience in mine-accident investigations and rescue work and

tested out in actual service.

In 1916 the bureau issued its handbook on Rescue and Recovery

Operations in Mines After Fires and Explosions, covering methods
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 77

and equipment used and recommended by the bureau. In 1921 an international conference of members of the Bureau of Mines,

State mine bureaus, Mining Department of British Columbia, and

the British Mines Department prepared a tentative standard

procedure for mine rescue work that was issued as Technical Paper

No. 334, "Mine Rescue Standards, a Tentative Study." The

report covers rescue apparatus requirements and tests for permissibility, physical tests of rescue workers, and rules for use of rescue apparatus, and procedure to be followed at explosions and fires in

coal mines and fires in metal mines.

Mine Safety Organization.—During 1926 work toward bringing

about a standard system of mine safety organization for mines was

promoted vigorously by the bureau's engineers.

Standard Code of Safety Rules for Installing and Using Electrical

Equipment in Bituminous Coal Mines.—The Bureau of Mines, with

a view to increasing safety in mining, published in 1916 its Technical Paper No. 138, containing a set of rules recommended by the

bureau for installation and use of electrical equipment in bituminous

coal mines. In cooperation with the standardization division of

the American Mining Congress and the American Engineering

Standards Committee, a revision of the code presented in the above

paper has been completed during 1926 and is in course of publication as Technical Paper No. 402. These rules cover the installation

and use of electrical equipment underground in coal mines.

Standardizing Methods of Reporting Metal Statistics.—The Bureau

of Mines in its reports on mineral resources, production and con- sumption, and prices of minerals is working toward a standard

method of reporting ores and concentrates based on metal content

of the ore. For example, reports on mine production of lead and

zinc concentrates in short tons and value per ton, but also the actual

metal content of lead and zinc in short tons and its value per ton. All production figures for an industry are reduced to standard terms

so that comparison can readily be made.

Mine Timber Standardization.—The Bureau of Mines cooperates

with the American Mining Congress, the United States Forest

Service, and the Pennsylvania Forest Products Manufacturers

Association on work directed toward standardizing specifications

for mine timbers and simplifying timbering practice in mines.

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The director of the bureau is ex officio chairman, and a senior

engineer-physicist of the bureau staff is vice chairman and technical

secretary of the Federal Specifications Board.

Members of the bureau represent the Department of Commerce

on 54 technical committees of the board.
78 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

For details of the organization and work of the Federal Specifications Board, see page 109.

The Director of the Bureau of Standards is chairman, and a

physicist of the bureau is secretary, of the National Screw Thread

Commission. For details see page 137.

The Bureau of Standards deals with standards and standardization in their broadest aspects. For selected details of the work see Chapter VI.

STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE The supervising inspector general is a member of the American

Marine Standards Committee.

The service is represented on two American Engineering Standards

Committee sectional committees.

The bureau has had under consideration during the past year the

matter of the standardization of the inspection of the material for

boilers and the inspection of the completed boilers themselves, and

to this end the service requested the American Marine Standards

Committee to give attention to a comparison of the rules and regulations of the British Board of Trade, the British Corporation, the

Bureau Veritas, British Lloyd's, the American Bureau of Shipping,

and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers with the rules

and regulations of the Steamboat Inspection Service with a view

to adopting a code that would embody the best in all. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

In addition to membership on the technical committees of the

Federal Specifications Board mentioned below, designations from

the following additional activities represent the Department of the

Interior on the technical committees mentioned:

Office of the Secretary, 1. Division of supplies, 2. St. Elizabeths Hospital, 5.BUREAU OF RECLAMATION

An engineer of the bureau represents the Department of the

Interior on the Federal Specifications Board. Members of the

bureau represent the department on two technical committees of

the board.

The bureau is a member of two American Engineering Standards

Committee sectional committees.

Standardization work done in this bureau in the past, now in progress, and contemplated in the future, is limited to the development of designs and practices to be adopted as standards by this bureau only, for use on its several projects. In this the interests of

this bureau are the controlling factors and cooperation with outside
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 79

interests in the matter have been largely incidental. Twelve standard designs have been made and are now in use. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Members of the Geological Survey represent the Department of

the Interior on six technical committees of the Federal Specifications

Board.

The survey is a member of the American Engineering Standards

Committee sectional committee on rating of rivers. The Geological Survey has, for a number of years, been endeavoring, through committees, to standardize geologic formation names

and scientific terms used in physiography. During the past year, progress has been made along these lines in the publications of the

survey, and outside of the survey there has been manifested considerable interest in these subjects and a growing desire to conform

to such standards, as far as possible.

The water resources branch of the survey has made material

progress during the year in the standardization of instruments and

methods used in obtaining records of river discharge.

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE A member of the National Park Service represents the Department

of the Interior on the Federal Specifications Board technical committee on road and paving materials.

The National Park Service has standardized road and other

signs in use in the national parks, on monuments, and for other

purposes.

OFFICE OF INDIAN AFFAIRS Members of the Office of Indian Affairs represent the Department

of the Interior on 1 1 technical committees of the Federal Specifications

Board.

Members of the office are serving on the Interdepartmental Board

on Simplified Office Procedure, on the Interdepartmental Board of

Contracts and Adjustments, and on the Federal Purchasing Board.

Representatives of the office have also participated in several of

the movements started by the division of simplified practice, Department of Commerce. Standardization has been effected in the

Indian Service through the use of United States Government master

specifications, standard forms of accounting, bills of lading, and

Government transportation.

The office has effected a standardized system of filing in its field units, and in the main office, and by adopting the budget system to govern field appropriations, a standardized method of authorizing

the expenditure of funds appropriated for the maintenance and operation of field activities has been accomplished.

The office is adopting, as far as it is practicable to do so, the

simplified-practice recommendations of the Department of Commerce.
80 NATIONAL BUEEATJ OF STANDARDS

DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

The Department of Labor is represented on the executive committee, Federal Specifications Board, by the first aide.

The department is represented on the Federal Specifications

Board technical committee on beds and bunks.

The department, as such, is represented on 28 American EngineeringStandards Committee sectional committees.

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS The Commissioner of Labor Statistics represents the Department

of Labor on the executive committee and the main committee of the

American Engineering Standards Committee. By arrangement with

the latter organization the workers' representatives on safety-code

committees are selected and appointed through the Department of Labor.

The Commissioner of Labor is secretary-treasurer of the Inter- national Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions,

and appoints representatives of that association on American Engineering Standards Committee safety-code committees.

The bureau is represented on the American Engineering Standards

Committee safety-code correlating committee.

CHILDREN'S BUREAU

The Children's Bureau is primarily a research bureau in the whole

field of child welfare, and it is a center of information useful to all the

children of America, to ascertain and to popularize just standards

for their life and development, to serve all children, and to endeavor

to work out the standards of care and protection which shall give to every child his fair chance in the world.

WOMEN'S BUREAU

It is the duty of the Women's Bureau, in the interest of health measures for women workers, to study the problems surrounding

their employment and to draw up standards designed to make

industry safe for women.NAVY DEPARTMENT

BUREAU OF AERONAUTICS

A member of the bureau represents the Navy Department on two

technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board.

Three years ago, as a result of correspondence between the Chief

of the Army Air Corps and the Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics,

two officers were appointed, one an Army Air Corps officer of the

engineering division, McCook Field, Da}7 ton, Ohio, and the other
STANDABDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 81

an officer of the Bureau of Aeronautics, to work on the problem of bringing the material specifications and the standard-parts drawings

of the two services into agreement. The function of these officers is wholly advisory. They consider the various items used by the two

services, decide on a means of bringing the requirements into accord

and recommend to their respective services that plans and specifications be altered to bring about standardization. Those which are approved become Army-Navy aircraft standards, or AN standards,

are drawn up as master drawings and specifications, and bear the

signature of the chief engineer, engineering division, Army Air Corps,

McCook Field, and of the head of the design section of the Bureau of Aeronautics. They then serve as master drawings and specifications

for the two services in the same manner as the Federal specifications.

This work is being handled by means of an annual conference. To

this conference are invited airplane manufacturers, part manufacturers, representatives of the aeronautic standards committee of the

Society of Automotive Engineers, as well as representatives of the

various branches of the two services interested. Prior to these

meetings it has been customary to invite those interested to submit

suggestions as to subjects for standardization. Based on these and the

ideas of the two service representatives, a tentative program is drawn

up. As much of this program as is possible in the time allotted is discussed at the conference. The 1926 AN conference was held in

Washington.

Seven AN standard drawings were promulgated July, 1926.

Eleven AN specifications were agreed upon at the 1926 conference.

Fifty-three AN standards were issued up to July 1, 1926.

The following list indicates, in a general way, fields as yet untouched

for which it is hoped that AN standards may be adopted in the future

Armament.

Electrical equipment.

Power plant.

Propellers. Instruments. Personnel equipment:

Parachutes. Flying clothing.

Goggles.

Photographic equipment.

BUREAU OF CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR Members of the bureau represent the Navy Department on 30

technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board.

The bureau is represented on six sectional committees of the American Engineering Standards Committee.

The bureau is a member of the American Society for Testing

Materials and the American Marine Standards Committee.
82 NATIONAL BUEEAXJ OF STANDAEDS

In addition to representation on the organizations above mentioned

the bureau has cooperated in numerous standardization projects

undertaken by other similar agencies as listed below:

With the division of simplified practice, Department of Commerce, whenever materials in which this bureau is directly interested

are taken up. Many of the division's recommendations have

already been put into effect. With the National Lumber Manufacturers' Association and other

lumber organizations with a view to using the recently established

American lumber standards as a basis for purchase. For nearly a year the bureau has utilized standard commercial specifications and

certified commercial inspection in lumber procurement.

With the National Screw Thread Commission by putting into effect the new national form of thread on all threaded products.

With the flag standardization committee and the Commission of

Fine Arts in standardizing the proportions and colors of the national

ensign. The bureau is also engaged in standardization of colors of

all flags and pennants, in connection with the color committee of the

Federal Specifications Board.

The bureau, in its own work, is carrying on a continuing review of

the standard stock catalogue with a view to reducing multiplicity of

sizes, shapes, and grades of stock items.

Many tests are under way in the various navy yards and stations

for the purpose of obtaining technical data as a basis for further

standardization and improvement of materials, such as cordage,

locks, rubber products, bolts and nuts, hand tools, paint brushes,

beds and bunks, hose couplings, pipes and tubing, aluminum alloys,

etc. In all such work the bureau freely consults all established

commercial standards and practices with a view to advancement of

the standardization movement. The bureau has been carrying on a considerable volume of experimental work in conjunction with the

National Bureau of Standards on strength and design of riveted

joints, elastic qualities of shipbuilding steels (domestic and foreign),

and on behavior under load of blocking in dry docks.

BUREAU OF ENGINEERING

The assistant chief of the bureau represents the Navy Department

on the executive committee of the Federal Specifications Board,

and various members of the bureau represent the Navy Department

on 18 technical committees of that board.

The bureau is a member of the executive and main committees

of the American Engineering Standards Committee, and is represented on 17 sectional committees of that body.

A member of the Bureau of Engineering, jointly with a member

of the Bureau of Ordnance, represent the Navy Department on the

National Thread Commission.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 83

The bureau is represented on the marine committee of the American

Institute of Electrical Engineers in the consideration of revision

of marine rules and revision of standards for electrical installations on shipboard.

The bureau is a member of the committee on standardization of machine-tool elements of the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers, which is considering:

Proposed standards for tool holders and tool post openings in

circulation.

Completed standardization of T slots for machine tools. The bureau is a member of the executive board of the American

Marine Standards Committee and also a member of 11 subcommittees of that body.

The bureau is a member of the American Society for Testing

Materials and four committees of that body.

The bureau is a member of the chief coordinator's committee on

communications, for outlining the field to be covered by the Commerce

and Navy Departments relative to radio and sound aids to navigation and radiocompasses, and is a member of the inter-department

radio advisory committee for the consideration of adjustments of frequencies to avoid or reduce interference between Government

radio stations.

The bureau is a member of the American National Committee

of the International Electro-Technical Commission, and is a member

of the joint committee on investigation of the effect of phosphorus

and sulphur in steel, with other activities. BUREAU OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY

Members of the bureau represent the Navy Department on seven

technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board.

Three activities of the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery contribute

to formulation of standards.

1. The planning and publications division is particularly charged

with investigation of means for improvement of procedure and

material. This division prepared a new supply table for the medical

department based on an analysis of the rate of use of medical and

surgical material throughout the Navy. Fifty items were eliminated. Through the standardization of surgical instrument cases, cabinets, rolls, etc., by the naval medical supply depot, the sizes

of scalpels previously listed were reduced to three, and the number

of surgical scissors to six. The supply table items were fisted to conform to commercial practice and agree as closely as possible

with those listed by the Army. The new table also made for a standard method of stock keeping by all medical activities of the

Navy. Officers of the planning and publications division serve
84 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

as members of the above-mentioned technical committees of the

Federal Specifications Board and have acted in an advisory capacity

to other committees charged with matters of interest to the medical

department, such as beds, clinical thermometers, sterilizing equipment, etc. The Naval Medical Supply Depot in Brooklyn, N. Y., maintains

chemical, physical, bacteriological, and electrical laboratories for

testing medical supplies and equipment purchased for the Navy and

for the Veterans' Bureau. The laboratories are equipped to test a

large variety of materials ranging from drugs and chemicals to alloys,

textiles, rubber goods, X-ray equipment, and clinical instruments

of precision. Here standards are established for specifications under

which purchases are made. Federal specifications are used by this

depot as soon as they are promulgated. The supply depot's laboratories have been of great help to members of several technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board in formulating standards.

In the physical laboratory a new method for measuring the adhesiveness and probable life of adhesive plaster was developed. The rubber

section of the National Bureau of Standards assisted by timely advice

in extending the use of its facilities in the preliminary work. The

X-ray laboratory has standardized X-ray equipment, spare parts,

and supplies for the naval service with appreciable saving to the

Government.

The Naval Medical School, Washington, D. C, maintains chemical,

clinical, and bacteriological laboratories for research, diagnosis, and

instruction. As a result of work conducted at this school a standard

method of conducting the Kahn precipitation test for syphilis has

been adopted for the Navy. This is of legal as well as clinical importance in connection with pensions.

Tests on steam sterilizers of the vacuum and nonvacuum type were conducted by the Naval Medical School for the technical committee on sterilizing equipment, Federal Specifications Board.

Through the courtesy of the Director of the National Bureau of

Standards, that bureau calibrated the gauges and a representative

conducted thermal measurements. As a result of the tests it is apparent that a temperature-recording device should be provided in

addition to pressure gauges, and that manufacturers' directions should

be standardized in order to insure sterilization. A remarkable

feature of the tests was the serious temperature deviations in the

sterilizer chamber from the normal pressure-temperature ratios when

operated according to the manufacturer's printed directions.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 85

BUREAU OF NAVIGATION

A member of the bureau represents the Navy Department on the

Federal Specifications Board technical committee on wearing apparel

(nonmilitary).

Naval Observatory.—The Naval Observatory at Washington,

D. C, sends out daily the time signals which establish standard time

for the country and enable the mariner at sea to ascertain his

chronometer error and his longitude by observation. The signals are transmitted by the Naval Radio Stations at Arlington, Annapolis,

and Key West, and the noon signals by land wire also. Similar

service for the Pacific coast is furnished by the Naval Chronometer

and Time Station at Mare Island, Calif. Special signals are sent by the Naval Observatory for use of United States and foreign

scientific institutions, astronomical work, surveying, eclipse, and

longitudinal expeditions.

The observatory prepares specifications covering the purchase of

navigational instruments. The specifications are designed to insure

the purchase of instruments of high-grade quality and workmanship.

The ordinary navigational instruments, such as magnetic compasses, peloruses, etc., have long been standardized, but improvements are incorporated in them from time to time. Attempts are being made to standardize aircraft navigational instruments, but

owing to the constant improvements which are being made in these

instruments, the observatory is not yet in a position to adopt any

particular type as standard.

World Longitude Determination.—The following memorandum for

observatories in the United States, and near-by regions, was prepared

and distributed by the United States Naval Observatory, Washington,

D. C, during the year 1926:

There will be a world longitude determination by radio signals,

beginning October 1, 1926, and ending December 1, 1926. This

project, proposed several years ago, has the approval of the Inter- national Astronomical Union and of the International Geodetic and

Geophysical Union.

The principal stations of the so-called " fundamental polygon"

will be at the Naval Operating Base, San Diego, Calif., at the

Algiers Observatory, and at the Shanghai Observatory. These

stations are at nearly the same latitude, and are spaced approximately eight hours apart in longitude. It is proposed to determine

the differences of longitude with great accuracy, and to make redeterminations at intervals sufficiently separated in time in order to

test the permanency of their relative positions, and certain

possibilities as to movement of the earth's crust.
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

It is expected that many other observatories will join in this operation, including Washington, Greenwich, Paris, and Australasian

observatories. The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey

proposes to occupy stations at Honolulu and Manila

.

The radio signals will be of the so-called rhythmic type, so spaced

that there will be 61 signals per minute for 5 minutes, 306 in all. They will be sent at three periods of the day, Greenwich time, as follows

Station

Annapolis

Arlington, or Bellevue (near Washington) Honolulu

Do.... •

Saigon.. Bordeaux

D'Issy (near Paris)

Wave length

17,145 meters

74.7 and 24.9 meters.

11,500 meters

36.8 meters

17,000 and 25 meters

18,900 meters

32 meters

Greenwich time

h m h m

20 10 to 20 15

3 10 to 3 15

10 10 to 10 15 20 20 to 20 25

3 20 to 3 25

10 20 to 20 30 to

3 30 to

10 30 to 20 40 to

3 40 to

10 40 to

11 30 to

19 00 to

8 01 to 20 01 to 8 01 to 20 01 to

10 25 20 35

3 35

10 35

20 45

3 45

10 45

11 35

19 05

8 06

20 06

8 06

20 06

It is suggested and urged that as many astronomical observatories

as can arrange to do so, make time observations and receive the

signals, thus enabling them to establish their longitudes with refer- ence to one or more of these points of reference. The radio signals

may be received automatically on a chronograph, a method which

has some obvious advantages, or by ear by the coincidence or other

methods. Short-wave signals are sent as well as long-wave signals, as some observers report better reception by the short waves, especially at very distant stations when there is not much daylight

between the stations.

The Annapolis and Arlington (or Bellevue) signals will be the

principal ones by which observers in this country can connect directly

with Washington. These signals will also probably give a direct

connection with Greenwich and Paris, as will also the Bordeaux

signals.

The International Astronomical Union recommends that in the

reductions the star places of the American Ephemeris be used as far as possible, and that clock stars be confined to the region 20 or 25°

north and south of the zenith.

Any inquiries regarding the work will gladly be answered by the

United States Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C.

Hydrographic Office.—The work of the Hydrographic Office calls for standardization along special lines which is carried on between
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 87

other executive departments under authority of Executive Order 30,

September, 1919, creating the Board of Surveys and Maps, in which

the office has membership for the purpose of coordination, and the

standardization of its chart and map construction.

The office also maintains membership on the United States Geographic Board for the purpose of standardizing names entering into

its charts and publications.

The office maintains close cooperation with the hydrographic

services of all foreign nations and maintains complete exchange of

all publications in accordance with general practice. In 1921, the

International Hydrographic Bureau was established for the purpose

of standardizing and making uniform the practices of the Hydrographic Office maintained by the various nations, of which the

United States is a member and at present has a member on the

governing board of three. The Hydrographic Office is represented on the American Engineering Standards Committee sectional committee on colors for

traffic signals.

Through the coordinating agencies mentioned above, effort is constantly directed toward standardization of forms, symbols,

characters, and methods of surveying, chart construction, and publication of nautical books.

BUREAU OF ORDNANCE

During the year 1926 the Bureau of Ordnance has taken an active

interest in standardization work.

Members of the bureau represent the Navy Department on two

technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board.

The chief of the bureau is a member of the American Engineering

Standards Committee, and the bureau has contributed to the move- ment by the assignment of officers and civilian engineers to specification boards which are engaged in working out standards for

materials which are used in ordnance equipment.

Officers assigned to specification boards or committees are appointed by the chief of the bureau with full authority to act for the

bureau. In the case of the Federal Specifications Board technical

committee designations, the individual designated represents the

Navy Department. The officers generally are chiefs of design

sections of the bureau, and appoint civilian engineers as their assist- ants. During the year, a large number of specifications in the form of drafts and finished specifications have passed through the bureau.

All Navy Department specifications are referred to the bureau as they are required to be approved by the chiefs of all bureaus before
88 NATIONAL BUKEAU OP STANDARDS

they are printed. The drafts of all Federal specifications are also

referred to the bureau for comment.

The handling of the correspondence in connection with Navy

Department specifications between the various bureaus of the department and the drafting of new and revised specifications, is greatly

facilitated by the use of special procedure which was worked out by

the Navy Department specification board, and which is being fol- lowed by all bureaus. The procedure includes a standard form for

specifications, the circulating of advance copies of the draft which

insures prompt action by the various bureaus on the original, directions for routing drafts and proofs, and the forwarding to the secre- tary of the Navy specifications board a copy of all correspondence

and, every two weeks, a report on a special form showing all specifications received, date of receipt, date forwarded, and the routing

of the correspondence.

Each Navy Department specification passes through each bureau

at least twice before final printing—once in the form of a draft and

once as a page proof. During the year there were, on the average,

about 150 specifications in the process of preparation, and the combined number of drafts and proofs which were referred to the bureau was approximately 700.

A member of the Bureau of Ordnance, jointly with a member of

the Bureau of Engineering, represent the Navy Department on

the National Screw Thread Commission.

BUREAU OF SUPPLIES AND ACCOUNTS

Members of the bureau represent the Navy Department on 11 technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board.

That part of the standardization work in which the bureau is engaged which relates to the general subject of standards and standardization, consists of the preparation and promulgation of Navy

standard specifications on items over which this bureau has cognizance. During 1926, 39 new and revised specifications, and four revisions

of the "Index to Specifications," have been issued.

BUREAU OF YARDS AND DOCKS

Members of the Bureau of Yards and Docks represent the Navy

Department on 14 technical committees of the Federal Specifications

Board.

The bureau is cooperating with the metals committee, Federal

Specifications Board, on research on galvanizing, in conjunction

with the Washington Navy Yard, the New York Navy Yard, the

National Bureau of Standards, and the New Jersey Zinc Co.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 89

The bureau cooperates in connection with the simplification

program of the division of simplified practice, Department of

Commerce.

The bureau is represented on eight sectional committees of the

American Engineering Standards Committee.

A member of the bureau represents the Navy Department on the

slate committees of the American Society for Testing Materials, and

the bureau is cooperating with that society on long-time experiments on galvanized metal at Key West, Fla.

The bureau is cooperating with various tin-plate manufacturers, can manufacturers, and the National Canners' Association on its research program, and is conducting experiments at Pearl Harbor,

Hawaii, and Portsmouth, N. H., to establish standards for concrete

in sea water. The bureau has a representative on the Navy specification board, revising the Navy General Specifications for Inspection

of Materials.

In addition to the above memberships held by Navy Department

bureaus on sectional committees of the American Engineering Standards Committee, the Navy Department, as such, is represented on

11 additional sectional committees of that body.

UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS

The assistant quartermaster, United States Marine Corps, repre- sents that body on the Federal Specifications Board, and members of

the Marine Corps represent that body on seven technical committees

of the board.

The Marine Corps standardization work is closely coordinated

with that work in the Navy Department proper. The Navy Standard Specifications for Materials and Supplies are used.

The following standardization of truck transportation has been

approved and adopted by the quartermaster for the Marine Corps:

For extra light truck transportation and replacement of motor cycles with side cars (whenever advisable and practicable) —3^-ton truck commercial roadster

type, with steel pick-up freight body. For light truck transportation—^-ton truck, with Marine Corps canopy

express body, until supply in stock is exhausted; thereafter 1-ton truck, with

Marine Corps canopy top express body. For medium truck transportation—13^-ton truck, with canopy top express body. For heavy truck transportation—(a) 3-ton truck, with class A cargo or dump

body, until supply in stock is exhausted; (6) standard B 3 to 5 ton truck, with class B cargo or dump body.

The standardization of trucks under classes 1, 2, and 3 will be

effected by the gradual replacement of the obsolete and older types

of trucks as they become worn out, unserviceable, and uneconomical

to repair and maintain.
90 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A new Marine Corps automobile enamel has Keen adopted as the

standard paint for Marine Corps motor vehicles. Since there is on hand a large amount of olive drab paint, the newly adopted Marine

Corps enamel will be used only in painting passenger cars. The

olive drab paint will be used on trucks until the supply is exhausted;

thereafter all motor vehicles will be painted with the standard

enamel paint. The shade of this enamel is that approximating the

color of the winter service uniform.

POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT

The Post Office Department is represented on the Federal Specifications Board by the superintendent of the division of equipment

and supplies.

Members of various divisions represent the department on 21

technical committees of the board.

The Post Office Department is represented on American Engineering Standards Committee sectional committee on safety code for

aeronautics.

FIRST ASSISTANT POSTMASTER GENERAL

Division of Post Office Quarters and Engineering.—This branch

of the Postal Service has jurisdiction over the selection, equipping,

and leasing of quarters for presidential post offices and stations

thereof (except those located in Federal buildings, which are under

the jurisdiction of the Supervising Architect of the Treasury Department); the consideration of the practicability of devices and

inventions in the Postal Service, including the designing and construction of buildings, etc. Standardization in this work has been in process for several years

and the United States Government master specifications promulgated

by the Federal Specifications Board are used where applicable.

Division of Motor Vehicle Service.—This branch of the Postal

Service has jurisdiction over the authorization, operation and maintenance of the Government-owned motor vehicles service, and the

materials, supplies, and garage equipment pertaining thereto.

The standardization of types and sizes of motor vehicles and materials and supplies used therewith, has been progressing for several

years. United States Government master specifications promulgated

by the Federal Specifications Board are used where applicable.

SECOND ASSISTANT POSTMASTER GENERAL

Air Mail Service (Government-Operated).—During the year the

Post Office Department has purchased 50 mail-carrying planes for use in the Government-operated service between New York and

San Francisco, with a weight-carrying capacity approximating 800
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 91

pounds each. The planes purchased are known as the Douglas

M-4 mail planes.

The type of engine used in these mail planes is the Liberty 12,

which has been secured from the surplus war stock of this type engine.

On the lighted portion of the transcontinental route there has been

installed a lighting unit known as the aeroelectric, whose source

of power is the force of the wind exerted against a specially constructed

propeller, the energy being stored by means of batteries. This

unit eliminates the need of caretakers at points where these beacon

lights are installed.

By standardizing equipment, such as planes, engines, and lighting,

the cost of operating the service has been reduced to a very great

extent. Cars, Railway Post Office, Full and Apartment.—On June 30,

1926, there were 902 full railway post office cars and 4,068 apartment cars. Three new steel full mail cars, 78 new steel mail apartment cars, 22 new steel motor mail apartment cars, and 4 new steel

trailer mail apartment cars were built during the year. One hundred and forty-one cars (29 steel full mail cars, 77 steel- underframe mail apartment cars, 34 wood steel-reinforced mail

apartment cars, and 1 wood mail apartment car) were standardized,

64 apartment cars made practically standard, and 1,144 other full and apartment mail cars were made more nearly standard.

Considerable progress has been made toward standardizing mail

cars and making them safer for service requirements, improving

them in such manner as to facilitate the distribution of mail, in the

way of additional lamps, substituting electric lamps for gas and oil, opal glass reflectors in place of metal, etc. The specifications for the construction of steel full and apartment

mail cars and for fixtures therein were revised during the present

year and issued to all concerned. Electric fans were included in the

specifications, to be furnished when deemed necessary.

FOURTH ASSISTANT POSTMASTER GENERAL

Post-office equipment and furniture have been standardized, and

drawings for same have been made available. This makes it possible for the department to secure better and more uniform equipment than heretofore, and it can be purchased more cheaply and

used to better advantage.

Two types of standard safes containing a burglar-proof chest

have been adopted and specifications drawn as a result of conference

with experts of the National Bureau of Standards. Tests have been

conducted by the National Bureau of Standards on several safes

36316—27 7
92 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

manufactured in accordance with the specifications, and the department is assured that safes meeting said specification and passing the

tests referred to will be entirely satisfactory for use in the Postal

Service. The safe specifications conform to the Federal specifications

covering safes and burglar-proof chests. This department has standardized on a reinforced concrete post for

letter boxes. The adoption of this new type of post has resulted

from the assistance afforded by experts of the National Bureau of

Standards and data supplied by cement manufacturers. Steel and

iron posts have been used heretofore. These are subject to corrosion,

particularly along the seaboard; this is eliminated by the use of

cement posts. A simple form of test for strength, which is used at the plant of the contractor, has also been adopted.

Specifications have been adopted defining a defective sack or pouch

as applied to the Postal Service. This reduces to a minimum the

number of bags forwarded to the mail equipment shops at Washington

for repair.

A system has been devised whereby the accumulation of defective

mail bags throughout the country is released for shipment to the mail

equipment shops at Washington periodically and in such quantities as eliminates the storage of large quantities of mail bags at the shops,

thereby releasing valuable space for other uses. A zinc grommet has been adopted for use generally in mail bags in

lieu of a tinned steel grommet, due to the fact that the zinc grommet

will resist rust and can be more economically manufactured.

A standard, individual sewing-machine buck (stand) has been designed and is in use in the mail equipment shops.

It has been found that such an arrangement leads to greater flexability in arrangement of machines and in conservation of space. PURCHASING AGENT

The Post Office Department, in inviting bids for equipment and

supplies, uses the United States Government master specifications

promulgated by the Federal Specifications Board in practically 90

per cent of its purchases.

The specifications covering furniture and screen-line equipment for use in leased buildings occupied as post offices are drawn up by a committee of experts of the department, who confer with the leading

manufacturers of post-office equipment throughout the United

States. These standard specifications are used in the procurement

of furniture by the department as well as the lessors of buildings.

Practical men of the department draw up specifications for conveyers, mail truck bodies, letter boxes of various types, letter carriers' satchels, both leather and canvas, and other labor-saving devices.
STANDAEDS YEAEBOOK, 1927 93

Approximately $16,500,000 was expended by the department for

equipment and supplies during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1926.

Every effort was made to perfect the methods in procuring such

equipment along the lines of economy.

The substitution of 1-ply jute twine with the same yardage and

strength as the 2-ply jute twine that was used in the Postal Service

for many years brought about keen competition that resulted in a savings to the department during the last fiscal year of $53,800.

The substitution of newsprint paper for manila paper used for

facing slips resulted in a saving of $11,776.20.

The specifications promulgated by the Federal Specifications

Board result in satisfactory business relations between the department and manufacturers and dealers, as it places all bidders on an

equal basis. Standardization of Official Envelopes.—The law (act of January

12, 1895, sec. 96, 28 Stat. L. 624; as amended by the act of June 26,

1906, 34 Stat. L. 476) requires the Postmaster General to contract

for all envelopes for use by all departments, bureaus, establishments,

and services of the Government. Under a recent provision of law

certain plain envelopes for use in the District of Columbia are supplied by the Public Printer.

Prior to expiration of the annual contract term a representative

selected by each department and establishment is appointed by the

Postmaster General to serve on a committee in preparing specifications for official envelopes under new contracts for the ensuing

term. The members of this committee are well versed in the needs

of their respective offices for official envelopes, and in a series of

meetings, at which the representative of the Post Office Department

acts as chairman, they determine what sizes, styles, qualities, and

colors of envelopes will be needed, and prepare the schedule for the

use of the manufacturers and dealers in submitting their bids responsive to the notice published by the Postmaster General inviting bids.

The preparation of these specifications as embodied in the schedule

is the only function of this interdepartmental committee, but an

important result of this procedure is the elimination of those items

which are no longer needed and the consolidation of the envelope

requirements into a fewer number of sizes and grades. Persistent

effort has been made in recent years to eliminate from the schedule

all sizes which are not regular commercial sizes and all unusual

grades or qualities of paper. A number of special sizes of envelopes

have been required to cover inclosures of special sizes or shapes

already in stock and in regular use by some of the departments.

Some of the unusual sizes are for filing purposes and not for trans- mission in the mails, and a few items are needed to provide for variations in the position of the "window" in window envelopes-
94 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The aggregate quantity of these envelopes needed for the current

fiscal year is estimated at 230,000,000. The current schedule includes 69 different sizes, covering 114 items, not including 2 expansion items.

The efforts of the department at standardization in this subject

have resulted in reducing the number of items in the schedule from

306 in the fiscal year 1920 to 116 in the schedule for the current year. TREASURY DEPARTMENT

BUREAU OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE Members of the bureau represent the Treasury Department on 15

technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board.

The Bureau of the Public Health Service is represented on the

American Engineering Standards Committee sectional committee

for the development of the industrial sanitary code and is sponsor for

the project. This involved the review of sanitary codes in use in the

United States, England, Germany, Belgium, and Holland. The

best parts of these codes were taken and compiled into one general

code. The code was then submitted to labor departments of various

States, the American Federation of Labor, various Government

departments, universities, industrial physicians, and industries, for

their review and comment.

The bureau is also represented on eight additional sectional committees functioning under American Engineering Standards Committee procedure.

At the request of the American Red Cross, standardization of the

technique of the prone pressure method (resuscitation) was undertaken. A review of the methods used was first made, and a tentative

plan submitted to various industries, organizations, and labor bodies

interested. Comments upon the tentative plans were then considered and a second plan submitted. A conference was then called

of a few of the organizations still at variance, and the final draft

completed. The wording for the standard method of prone pressure

resuscitation has been accepted by the American Gas Association,

National Electric Light Association, United States Bureau of Mines,

Industrial Physicians and Surgeons, Bethlehem Steel Corporation,

National Bureau of Standards, American Red Cross, National

Safety Council, American Medical Association, American Telephone &

Telegraph Co., United States Army, United States Navy, and the

United States Public Health Service.

Hygienic Laboratory.—Official standards and standard tests include

diphtheria antitoxin, tetanus antitoxin, typhoid vaccine, botulinus

antitoxin, perfringens antitoxin (gas gangrene) arsphenamine, scarlet fever streptococcus toxin, antimeningococcic serum, antipneumococcic

serum, antidysenteric serum, diphtheria toxin-antitoxin mixture,
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 95

diphtheria toxin for Schick test, and diphtheria toxoid. Work is being

done on the standardization of digitalis, pituitary extract, and insulin.

Accomplishments for 1926.—Aside from control work connected

with the Biologies law, progress is being made in the following re- searches: Tularaemia, filterable viruses, vaccination sequelae,

typhus, studies in pathology, medical zoology, oxidation reduction

processes, malignant tumors, pneumonia, trachoma, nutrition,,

tuberculosis, and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. BUREAU OF SUPPLY

A member of the Bureau of Supply represents the Treasury

Department on the technical committee on office supplies, Federal

Specifications Board.

DIVISION OF CUSTOMS

A member of the division of customs represents the Treasury

Department on the technical committee on commercial weighing and

measuring devices, Federal Specifications Board.

GENERAL SUPPLY COMMITTEE

The General Supply Committee was created by section 4 of the act

of June 17, 1910 (36 Stat. 531), in lieu of the Board of Awards provided for in section 3709 of the Revised Statutes, as amended, and is composed of officers, one from each of the executive departments,

designated by the head thereof. The superintendent of supplies,

who is appointed by the Secretary of the Treasury, is ex officio secre- tary of the General Supply Committee, and he conducts all corre- spondence, supervises the preparation of all contracts, and performs

such other duties as the Secretary of the Treasury may direct. It is the duty of the General Supply Committee to make an annual

schedule of required miscellaneous supplies for the use of each of the

executive departments and other Government establishments in

Washington, to standardize such supplies, eliminating all unnecessary

grades and varieties, and to solicit bids based upon formulas and

specifications drawn up by such experts in the service of the Government as the committee may see fit to call upon, who shall render

whatever assistance it may require, provided that the articles intended to be purchased in this manner shall be those in common use by or suitable to the ordinary needs of two or more such departments

or establishments. United States Government master specifications are used where they are applicable. Every purchase or drawing of

such supplies from the contractor is immediately reported to said

committee. No disbursing officer may be a member of the committee.
96 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

By the Executive order of December 3, 1918, and Treasury Department Regulations, dated December 10, 1918, the General Supply

Committee has direct charge of the transfer and sale of surplus

office material, supplies, and equipment in the hands of the executive

departments and other establishments of the Government in the

District of Columbia, and is required to keep a record of all material

received and disposed of by it. The Executive order of August 27, 1919, carrying into effect the

provisions of the act of July 11, 1919, designates the General Supply

Committee as the central agency to maintain records of all material,

supplies, and equipment available throughout the United States

because of the cessation of war activities. To the committee are directed all inquiries from the various governmental establishments

regarding the availability of such surplus supplies and equipment.

The superintendent of supplies, General Supply Committee,

represents that activity on the executive committee of the Federal

Specifications Board.

The General Supply Committee is represented on 36 technical

committees of the Federal Specifications Board.

The General Supply Committee is an interdepartmental organization which, under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury,

fmictions as a contracting agency in behalf of all the executive departments and independent establishments of the Government in the

District of Columbia.

On instructions from the Chief Coordinator, the committee has, with

respect to many commonly used items, embarked upon a policy of

procurement in definite quantities rather than making annual contracts for furnishing articles in indefinite quantities from time to time. Requirements for these items are assembled four times a

year, proposals therefor are solicited for immediate delivery and a

single shipping direction placed for the entire quantity needed at one

time. Upon the delivery of the supplies, a single inspection is made

of each item prior to distribution to the various using services. This

policy has eliminated overhead costs to both the Government and

the contractor and has resulted in decidedly lower prices in many

lines with a resulting saving to the Government of hundreds of thousands of dollars. OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE MINT

The Director of the Mint represents the Treasury Department on

the technical committee on refractories of the Federal Specifications

Board.

The assayer of the laboratory, Bureau of the Mint, tests gold and

silver coins to determine whether they are within the legal requirements as to weight and fineness. The coinage laws provide for
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 97

variations in the fineness of individual coins of one one-thousandth

for gold and three one-thousandths for silver. The Revised Statutes, section 3547, provide for an annual test of

the domestic coinage executed during the prior year. The purpose is "to secure a due conformity in the gold and silver coins to their

respective standards of fineness and weight.'

The coins are directly weighed against a set of sealed coin weights,

which are accompanied by a certificate signed by the Director of the

Bureau of Standards, and which gives the value of the weights in

terms of the United States standard. The weighings are made on a balance supplied by the Philadelphia Mint, which is tested as to its equality of arms and as to sensibility.

The Director of the Mint publishes quarterly an estimate of the

value of the standard coins of foreign countries for customhouse and

other public purposes.

SUPERVISING ARCHITECT

The superintendent, computing division, of the Supervising

Architect's Office, represents the Treasury Department on the Executive Committee of the Federal Specifications Board.

Members of the Supervising Architect's Office represent the Treasury Department on 29 technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board.

The Supervising Architect's Office is represented on seven sectional

committees of the American Engineering Standards Committee.

The Office of the Supervising Architect has jurisdiction over the

preparation of plans and specifications for, and the construction,

remodeling, maintenance, and repair of, Federal buildings under control of the Treasury Department, including approximately 1,400

post offices, customhouses, courthouses, marine hospitals, quarantine

stations, etc. It also not infrequently performs architectural and

construction work for other departments.

The work of the office toward the standardization of its plans and

specifications has been along the following lines: The work of

adopting standard types of design for post-office buildings was initi- ated about 15 years ago, when a large number of post-office buildings

of similar type, based upon one standard design, were constructed.

Since that time 15 or more standard designs have been developed and

are being employed whenever practicable. These designs are pre- pared by the architectural division, and are modified to the extent

necessary after conference with officials of the Post Office Department

to meet the varying requirements as to size of working space, character of service connections, and topography of sites. It is, of course, impracticable to standardize the design of large buildings of monumental type, to be occupied by a number of different governmental
98 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDAEDS

activities; the work of standardizing the types of the smaller buildings will, however, be carried as far as may be found practicable.

In addition to this, hundreds of details of construction, equipment,

etc., have been embodied in standard miscellaneous drawings which

are used wherever applicable.

United States Government master specifications for materials are used for the construction and equipment of Federal buildings.

In 1918, the office prepared for its own use standard specifications

covering all branches of construction work in buildings under its supervision. These have been modified by changing conditions and

by the increasing use of the Federal Specifications Board's specifications, but are still in use as far as they are applicable. During the

past year standard specifications for heating materials, electrical materials, gas piping, and lighting fixtures have been formulated and

adopted for use in connection with the mechanical equipment of

buildings.

There can, of course, be no rigid standardization of specifications

for workmanship, due to architectural requirements in the treatment

of materials, the constant adoption of new methods, etc., but these

specifications have nevertheless been made fairly uniform through

long experience and practice.

The standardization of furniture and supplies for public buildings was practically completed by the maintenance division of the office about five years ago. The furniture for use in post-office workrooms

has been standardized, the types for each building being determined

by a committee composed of representatives of the Supervising

Architect's Office and of the Post Office Department. The types of furniture for general office use have been reduced to about half the

number used in commercial practice. Desks and file cases are standardized as far as the requirements of the service will permit.

The office specifications for furniture are being used by the office furniture technical committee of the Federal Spedifications Board in

the development of United States Government master specifications.

With the use of standard building designs, standard specifications

for materials not yet covered by Government master specifications,

and the United States Government master specifications for materials

promulgated by the Federal Specifications Board, this office is well

advanced toward standardization to the extent that its functions

permit.

UNITED STATES COAST GUARD

Members of the Coast Guard represent the Treasury Department

on six technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board:

The Coast Guard is represented on two sectional committees of the

American Engineering Standards Committee.
STANDAKDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 99

The United States Coast Guard makes every effort in the construction, maintenance, and repair of its vessels and stations, to standardize machinery and other eqiupment, and the requirements

of the service are constantly studied with this end in view. In

compiling specifications for new construction and repairs, the aim

has been to eliminate requirements for special materials, and to adopt fittings which have been standardized in the commercial field,

and the specifications promulgated by the Federal Specifications

Board are used where applicable.

WAR DEPARTMENT

The following standardization regulations of the War Department,

have been extracted from Army Regulations No. 850-25, dated

December 24, 1924, with amendments, and supplemented by explanatory remarks

(a) The War Department representative on the Federal Specifications Board is the chief, equipment branch, supply division, General

Staff.

(b) Procedure for adoption of United States Government master

specifications by the War Department. After the master specifications are promulgated by the Federal Specifications Board, the War

Department representative is furnished copies which are transmitted

by him to the War Department branch concerned where they are republished as United States Army specifications, all technical

requirements conforming to the master specification. The Adjutant

General's office publishes from time to time orders showing the

numbers and subjects of all United States Government specifications,

for the information of the service only.

(c) The following supply branches of the Army have members

representing the War Department on the number of technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board indicated:

Quartermaster Corps, 40. Medical Corps, 7. Corps of Engineers, 9. Ordnance Department, 4. Signal Corps, 5. Chemical Warfare Service, 2. Air Corps, 3. (d) United States Government specifications promulgated by the

Federal Specifications Board are master specifications, and are not

intended to be used directly for procurement by the War Department.

They form the basis of specifications prepared by the War Department, and it is mandatory that each specification so prepared be

prefaced with the statement that its technical requirements conform

in detail to the United States Government specification for the

36316—27 8
100 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

commodity, as approved by the Federal Specifications Board, giving

the number of the master specification applying. (Bulletin No. 24,

Supplement No. 1, Office of the Chief Coordinator, February 3, 1924.)

(e) Specifications covering items which are of a strictly military

and confidential nature are not considered by the Federal Specifications Board.

American Engineering Standards Committee.—(a) The War Department is a member body of and has three representatives and

three alternates on the American Engineering Standards Committee.

This representation is divided as follows

One from equipment branch, G—4, supply division. Two from the supply branches. In addition, supply branches not represented on the committee are given alternates in order to keep in close touch with the activities of

the committee.

(b) The War Department, as such, is represented on seven sectional

committees of the American Engineering Standards Committee.

(c) Various supply branches of the War Department are repre- sented on sectional committees of the American Engineering Standards Committee, as follows:

Quartermaster Corps, 2. Corps of Engineers, 2. Ordnance Department, 3. Air Corps, 1. National Screw Thread Commission.—Two members of the Ord- nance Department represent the War Department on the National

Screw Thread Commission.

The War Department is represented (Watertown Arsenal), with

other activities, on the joint committee on investigation of the effect of phosphorus and sulphur in steel. Joint Army and Navy Board for Coordinating and Standardizing

Specifications.—Types, grades, or classes of materials approved by

joint Army and Navy boards for coordinating and standardizing

specifications will be incorporated in equivalent United States Army

specifications.

PRESENT STATUS OF WAR DEPARTMENT STANDARDIZATION AND RESULTS ACCOMPLISHED DURING 1926

1. The Quartermaster Corps issued 146 new or revised specifications during 1926.

2. (a) The Medical Department of the War Department is working in conjunction with the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery of the

Navy Department in attempting to make the supply lists of the two

departments conform so far as can be done in view of the different

functions of those departments.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 101

(b) Attempt has been made to arrive at an agreement with the

drug industry with regard to a standardization of their shipping

problem in the preparation of specifications covering drugs and

pharmaceuticals. At the instigation of the Surgeon General, United

States Army, the American Drug Manufacturers Association at its last annual meeting, appointed a committee which is now endeavoring to draft specifications covering shipping containers for drugs

and pharmaceuticals. It is believed that this work will not only be

of material advantage to Government departments but may also result in standardization of commercial practice. During 1926, 21

specifications covering 476 articles have been approved or revised.

3. (a) The Corps of Engineers standardization activities cover

certain commodities entering into the construction of bridges, locks

and dams, revetments, and fortification work, railway equipment,

and other items used for military purposes.

(b) The Board of Engineer Equipment, consisting of officers of the

Corps of Engineers, appointed by the Chief of Engineers, designs and

develops equipment for military purposes, which is finally adopted

as standard for the United States Army. During 1926, 26 specifications were approved and adopted as standard.

4. (a) The Ordnance Department is in full sympathy with the

work of the division of simplified practice, Department of Commerce, and very willingly adopts every possible reduction in size or variety included in its recommendations.

(b) The technical staff of the Ordnance Department approves all designs and drawings of ordnance material, and in giving such

approval effort is made to see that design practice conforms to the

most generally used commerical standards. During 1926, 68 standard

specifications have been approved.

5. The Signal Corps represents the War Department on the standardization communication committee of the Army and Navy Munitions Board, the functions of which are to investigate:

(a) Standardization of interchangeable parts of communication

units.

(b) The possibility of using the same identification units now

carrying one designation in the Army and another in the Navy.

During 1926, 26 new specifications and 48 revised specifications have

been approved.

6. The Chemical Warfare Service policy governing the preparation

and printing of specifications is typical of that followed in the other

supply branches, though differing in minor details.

7. (a) The Air Corps holds a meeting once a year with representatives of the Bureau of Aeronautics of the Navy Department and the

aircraft industry, where specifications for materials, equipment, and

parts considered suitable for general use are discussed and agreed
102 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

upon if possible. In addition, there are meetings from time to time

to discuss individual items or groups of items.

(h) During the year 1926 steps were taken to revise and distribute

the Air Corps Standards Book to include the standards decided upon

at the 1925 meeting with representatives of the Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department, and the aircraft industry. This included

agreement on 19 classifications of miscellaneous parts and 14 classi- fications of strictly aeronautical parts. At the 1926 meeting tentative

agreement was reached on classifications of standard parts. Several

specifications covering materials have also been agreed upon between

representatives of the Army and the Navy for aircraft use and 15

additional are under discussion. See page 80, Navy Department,

Bureau of Aeronautics, for details. INDEPENDENT ESTABLISHMENTS

BOARD OF SURVEYS AND MAPS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

The Board of Surveys and Maps of the Federal Government was

created by Executive order dated December 30, 1919, to coordinate

the activities of the various map-making agencies of the executive

departments of the Government, to standardize results, and to avoid unnessary duplication of work.

The following organizations were included in the Executive order:

Corps of Engineers, United States Army.

United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, Department of Commerce.

' United States Geological Survey, Department of the Interior. General Land Office, Department of the Interior. Topography branch, Post Office Department. Bureau of Soils, Department of Agriculture.

United States Reclamation Service, Department of the Interior. Bureau of Public Roads, Department of Agriculture. Bureau of Indian Affairs, Department of the Interior. Mississippi River Commission, War Department.

United States Lake Survey, War Department.

International (Canadian) Boundary Commission,

Forest Service, Department of Agriculture.

United States Hydrographic Office, Navy Department.

Amendatory Executive orders of March 17, 1920, and January

27, 1921, named as additional organizations, for membership on the

board:

Military Intelligence Division, General Staff, War Department.

Federal Power Commission.

Air Corps, United States Army.

Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department.

At a special public meeting of the board, held July 12, 1920,

representatives of 22 non-Federal organizations were named to constitute an advisory council to the board. The organizations
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 103

represented on the advisory council as originally constituted were

the following: American Association of State Highway Officials,

American Automobile Association, American Forestry Association,

American Geographical Society, American Institute of Electrical

Engineers, American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, American Railway Engineering Association, American Society

of Agricultural Engineers, American Society of Civil Engineers,

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Water Works

Association, Appalachian Mountain Club, Association of American

Geographers, Association of State Geologists, Federated American

Engineering Societies, Geological Society of America, National

Electric Light Association, National Research Council, Rocky

Mountain Club, Sierra Club, Society of Automotive Engineers, and

Map Publishers.

One additional organization—the Society of American Military

Engineers—was added January 8, 1924.

The advisory council to the board was organized to carry out the

provisions of the Executive order of December 30, 1919, touching:

the relations of the board with the public. The organizations represented by the members of the advisory council include probably more than a half million map users, who employ maps for themselves

and their clients to the number of several millions of the citizens of

the United States. At each public meeting members of the advisory

council are present, take part in the discussions, and make recommendations concerning mapping problems.

The original Executive order creating the Board of Surveys and

Maps called for the establishment of a central information office, to be located in the United States Geological Survey, to act as a clearing

house for map information. The work of the map information office was started in January, 1920, under the direction of a topographic

engineer assigned from the United States Geological Survey. The

office is in touch with Government map-making bureaus and also

with commercial firms and individuals publishing maps in this

country and abroad. It is also well supplied with lists and cata- logues pertaining to published maps. The collection of such data in one office assures prompt answers to requests for information, and

the increasing use of its facilities is evidence of its value as an economic

feature of governmental work.

The board has considered and adopted many reports containingrecommendations for the use and guidance of map makers. Outstanding among the subjects dealt with in such reports are the use

of aerial photographs in topographic mapping; specifications for horizontal and vertical control; standard forms of monuments; scale of

standard topographic maps; standard projections for base map of

the United States, base map of a single State, and topographic map
104 NATIONAL BTJKEAU OF STANDARDS

of a quadrangle; standards for base maps of the United States,

Territories, and possessions; standard scales for base maps of States; and standard map symbols.

The greatest benefit resulting from the activities of the board is the close and harmonious cooperation brought about between the

various Government bureaus. Data regarding completed or projected work are systematically collected by the map information

office and given to bureaus interested, and in some cases to foreign

governments.

BUREAU OF THE BUDGET

The Bureau of the Budget was created by the act approved June

10, 1921. It is under the immediate direction of the President.

Under rules and regulations prescribed by the President, the bureau

prepares for him the annual budget and such supplemental or deficiency estimates as the President may recommend from time to time to Congress. To this end the bureau has the authority, under

the act, "to assemble, correlate, revise, reduce, or increase the esti- mates of the several departments and establishments. " The act

requires the head of each department and establishment to appoint

a budget officer whose duty it is to prepare, under his direction,

the departmental estimates of appropriations and such supplemental

or deficiency estimates as may be required. These officials are

liaison officers between the department and the Bureau of the

Budget. The bureau deals directly with them in the routine work

of preparing the budget. The estimates are prepared and submitted to the bureau in such form, manner, and detail as the President prescribes. On or before September 15 of each year the head

of each department and establishment revises his estimates and

submits them to the bureau.

OFFICE OF THE CHIEF COORDINATOR

The Office of Chief Coordinator was created by Circular No. 15,

Bureau of the Budget, July 27, 1921, and the duties of the office were later enlarged by the following Budget circulars, Nos. 22, 23,

25, 26, 35, 41, 42, 47, 52, 54, and Executive order No. 3578, dated

the White House, November 8, 1921.

Subject to general supervision by the Director of the Bureau of

the Budget, the Chief Coordinator handles all questions of coordination arising through the application of the policies of the President

and of the Congress to the routine business activities of the executive

branch of the Government.

The preparation of a catalogue of Federal property at large (Federal

stock catalogue), by the Office of the Chief Coordinator, elaborating

the following 25 categories of supplies previously established by
STANDAKDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 105

chat office (Bulletin No. 43, 2d ed., Office of Chief Coordinator,

July 30, 1925), is well under way, and it will shortly be ready for

publication.

CATEGORIES

Aekonautic Apparatus.—Automotive accessories. Books.—Blank forms, blue prints, charts, drawings, maps, music, newspapers

periodicals, etc. Building Material.—Asphalt, brick, cement, granite, gravel, lime, millwork,

roofing material, sand, stone, tar, tiling, etc. Chemicals, Lubricants, Paints.—Acids, cleaning compounds, cutting compounds, greases, oils, polishing compounds, soaps, etc. Clothing (equipage).—Accouterments, athletic apparel, badges, boots,

buttons, caps, findings, hats, insignia, medals, men's furnishings, shoes, sporting

goods, trimmings, women's clothing, etc. Cordage.—Cotton line, hawsers, hemp, oakum, rigging, rope, sash cord,

signal halliard, twine, wire, bare wire cable, wire rope, yarns, etc. Electrical Supplies (radio supplies).—Cable, insulated, sound-signal supplies,

telegraph outfits, telephones, wire, insulated, etc. Foodstuffs.—Canteen supplies, forage, groceries, ice, provender, provisions,

refrigerator supplies, sea foods, ship's store supplies, subsistence supplies, toilet

articles, etc. Fuel.—Charcoal, coal, coke, dust fuels, fuel oil, gas, gasoline, wood, etc. Furniture (office equipment).—Adding machines, cash registers, clocks, file cases, numbering machines, safes, typewriters, etc. Hardware (builders', general, marine) .—Agricultural implements, anchors,

blocks, boat fittings, bolts, brooms, brushes, chain, engine fittings, fireroom

fittings, nuts, rivets, ship fittings, washers, etc. Household and Kitchen Utensils (boat and ship utensils).—Chinaware,

cushions, floor coverings (nontextile) , furnaces, galley apparatus, glassware,

hotel ware, lighting apparatus (nonelectric), linoleum, mattresses, pictures,

pillows, ranges, silverware, stoves, etc. With the completion of this compilation there will be available to the supply units of the Government for the first time a master key

or index to existing supply terminology covering articles in common

use by two or more departments. This will not necessitate the

discarding of systems in use by those establishments which have

such catalogues particularly designed for their own services, but it will enable purchasing officers through the use of this master key

intelligently to discuss and agree upon cooperative plans of procurement whenever ^conditions for such action are favorable and will,

it is believed, prove of great assistance in the coordination of purchases

throughout the Government.

The Federal coordinating boards and agencies form an integral

part of the Federal budget system, and they are under the supervision

of the Chief Coordinator.
106 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

COORDINATOR FOR PURCHASE

The office of coordinator for purchase was established by Circular

No. 160, Bureau of the Budget, May 29, 1925, by direction of the

President, "* * * to act as agent through whom the Federal

Purchasing Board, acting for and in behalf of the separate purchasing

agencies of the Government, may, with the approval of the Chief

Coordinator, effect such joint procurement arrangements as may be

agreed upon. He will personally, or through some department or establishment advantageously situated, issue single proposals inviting

bids on individual commodities or natural groups thereof, for the

combined requirements of two or more departments or establishments,

as recommended after study by the Federal Purchasing Board. He

will also perform such additional duties in the clearance and distribution of procurement information and operations incident thereto as may be properly delegated to him by the Chief Coordinator."

Some 10 investigations have been conducted with respect to many

commodities for the purpose of determining the most advantageous

method of purchasing the requirements of the entire Federal Government, and recommendations are either now under consideration or have been given effect. More often than otherwise these investigations were prompted by suggestions from representatives of departments desirous of effecting greater economy in, or facilitating, procurement.

Chief among these investigations has been the study which was

begun on the procurement of bituminous coal. So far the requirements of two activities have been analyzed, with the result that their

combined requirements for the coming fiscal year have been handled

by two single purchases, which in the past have been filled from two

distinct coal-production areas. This line of development is progressing with a view ultimately of

grouping into single combined purchases the entire annual requirements of all activities which can be logically considered as attractive

to the trade in the separate coal-production areas. There has been compiled, probably for the first time, an inventory

of all the motor vehicles owned by the Federal Government. This

exhibit has proved of value to several departments as an aid in their

work, and by its reflection of exceptionally numerous trade names

or makes has further indicated the desirability of simplifying the means of purchase. Consideration is being given to inaugurating an annual inventory of such equipment, not only as a record of property but also as evidence of the transportation facilities available

within the Government.

A record is being set up to aid the various purchasing officers in

the determination of the advisability of discontinuing relations with
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 107

vendors who show a tendency toward or who have indulged in unscrupulous or fraudulent practices.

The coordinator is at present engaged in preparing an analysis or

digest of the respective proposals used by the various departments

and establishments in the purchase of bituminous coal with a view

to ultimately developing a uniform method in lieu of numerous

and diverse methods now employed. This office is also accumulating information pertaining to automobile pneumatic tires and

tubes which have failed to give satisfactory service and which have

not been examined to determine whether they individually met the

specifications, with a view to obtaining some idea as to whether

existing specifications actually provide for tires and tubes which

should give satisfactory service under the various operating conditions to be encountered throughout the country.

FEDERAL PURCHASING BOARD

The Federal Purchasing Board was created by Executive order

promulgated in Bureau of the Budget Circular No. 25, of August 25,

1921. The board is composed of one representative from each

department and independent establishment having authority to purchase supplies, together with a representative from the Federal

Specifications Board, for maintaining liaison between the two boards.

The membership of the board is as follows

Commander R. H. Johnston (S. C), United States Navy, executive chairman.

Department of Agriculture, A. McC. Ashley.

Department of Commerce, W. S. Erwin.

Department of the Interior, Walter B. Fry.

Department of Justice, Harry C. Maull, jr. Department of Labor, Shelby Smith.

Navy Department, Capt. F. G. Pyne (S. C), United States Navy.

United States Marine Corps, Maj. John Potts. Post Office Department, T. L. Degnan.

Department of State, H. C. Hengstler.

Treasury Department, D. C. Vaughan.

War Department, Lieut. Col. E. D. Peek, United States Army.

District of Columbia, M. C. Hargrove.

General Supply Committee, Robert LeFevre. Government Printing Office, E. E. Emerson. Panama Canal, A. L. Flint. Federal Specifications Board, N. F. Harriman.

United States Shipping Board, G. F. Williams. United States Veterans' Bureau, R. C. Kidd.

The board formulates policies and plans to unite purchasing

activities of the several departments and establishments and to bring about business methods calculated effectively to safeguard the

interests of the Government and at the same time promote the confidence of private business interests having dealings with the Govern-
108 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ment. It studies purchase operations with a view to determining

the advisability of centralizing purchases within departments, co- ordination among departments, utilization of surplus, and economies

to be effected by combined purchases. Detailed studies are made

of the requirements of the Government as a whole both as to quantities and qualities, available sources, localities, seasons of supply, means of transportation and storage, and kindred conditions involving purchases.

Efficient procurement requires uniform application of approved

methods of purchase and procurement activities. The Federal

Purchasing Board serves to coordinate the purchasing machinery of

the Government and to work out and standardize practical business

methods pertaining to Federal purchases to keep them in harmony

with industry.

Attention is directed toward the functions of purchase rather than

toward the properties of materials or the desirability or necessity

for the use of the articles. Through the agency of this board intradepartmental purchasing is more closely supervised and centralized

than formerly, and interdepartmental coordination is more easily

effected. Suggestions from industry or from the services themselves

are welcomed, encouraged, and considered to a conclusion and

recommendation. The board has presented to the Federal Specifications Board the need for master specifications on several items, has

suggested revision of some in use, and has been greatly benefited by

the many standardized specifications already promulgated.

The board has transmitted to the Interdepartmental Board of

Contracts and Adjustments operating experience pertaining to contracts, bid bonds, performance bonds, discounts, penalties, and

liquidated damages. It is the sense of this board that since the basis

of a contract is a meeting of minds and the existence of reciprocal good

faith, a liquidated-damage clause is undesirable.

With the assistance of the Federal Traffic Board in furnishing

transportation rates, the board has recommended that bids be invited

both f. o. b. point of manufacture and f. o. b. point of delivery, in

order that awards to the best interest of the Government might be

made. Acceptance of bids f. o. b. point of production permits

transportation on Government bills of lading at land grant or special

Federal rates. It has recognized the valuable progress made by the division of

simplified practice, Department of Commerce, and is committed to the purchase of standardized lines whenever practicable.

It has supported the investigations and studies of the Interdepartmental Board on Simplified Office Procedure in the reduction in

number and in the preparation of standardized forms for various
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 109

purposes, in the reduction in number and kinds of envelopes for

official use, and is committed to these recommendations.

The right of purchase against a contractor's account is exercised

with justice, but sparingly. Delinquencies are investigated and no debarment is made except for cause. Debarment from bidding is not

done for the purpose of punishing a dealer, but as a protection to the

Federal services. In order to insure that purchasing agents may

know the character of unsatisfactory bidders debarred for reason,

notices are now exchanged between purchasing offices. Debarment

by one department for fraud or attempted fraud against the Government is followed by the same action throughout the services.

In term contracts the speculative element has great bearing, and

the board favors them only for those supplies which are not subject to fluctuation in price. The number of items purchased under such

contracts is diminishing.

In definite-quantity purchases, with delivery at a stated time, this

function is eliminated, prices are lower, and quality better. The

board approves of this method within the departments and advocates

that the market should be entered at seasonable times to purchase

those commodities which do fluctuate in price.

Continuous attention and encouragement has been given to the

consolidation of the requirements of several items for all departments

for a given short period and to making a consolidated definite quantity

Federal purchase of the whole amount. This method heretofore

efficiently developed in the purchase of tires and tubes has been

extended to the purchase of gasoline, coal, lubricating oils, surgical

supplies and instruments, and with the experience gained will be

applied to other commodities in common use. The board has recom- mended the creation of an operating fund with which to finance these

purchases, the fund to be reimbursed directly from appropriations of

departments receiving these supplies. A bill to provide this fund is before the House of Representatives.

The board has discussed the coordination of inspection in order

that a single inspection by any one of the departments participating

in a consolidated purchase may serve for all. This will reduce the

cost of inspection, save time, permit earlier payment, and allow the

largest savings in discounts.

FEDERAL SPECIFICATIONS BOARD

The Federal Specifications Board was organized under authority

of Circular No. 42, Bureau of the Budget, dated October 10, 1921, in

which it is stated that the establishment of the board is " * * * for the purpose of coordination and economy in the procurement of

materials and services used by the Government under specifications

prepared by the various branches thereof, to avoid duplication of
110 NATIONAL BUKEATJ OF STANDAKDS

effort, and for the better utilization of resources and industries."

The duties of the Federal Specifications Board are to compile or adopt and promulgate, standard specifications for materials and

services and to bring the Government specifications into harmony

with the best commercial practice wherever conditions permit,

bearing in mind the desirability of broadening the field of supply.

Each department and establishment purchasing materials and

supplies in accordance with specifications designated a representative to serve as a member of the board. The initial meeting was held on October 31, 1921, at which time an executive committee, consisting of the representatives from the 10 executive departments, the

Panama Canal, and the General Supply Committee, was formed as being more compact for the routine handling of the business of the

board.

The personnel of the Federal Specifications Board is as follows,

the members of the executive committee being indicated with an

asterisk (*): *Dr. George K. Burgess, Director, Bureau of Standards, chairman.

*N. F. Harriman, senior engineer-physicist, Bureau of Standards, vice chairman

and technical secretary. *A. McC. Ashley, chief, division of purchase, sales, and traffic, Department of Agriculture.

*Capt. E. L. Bennett, Assistant Chief, Bureau of Engineering, Navy Department.

John F. Bethune, secretary, United States Tariff Commission.

*Dr. William A. Bevard, first aide, Department of Labor.

*C. A. Bissell, engineer, Bureau of Reclamation, Department of the Interior.

*J. S. Conway, deputy commissioner, Bureau of Lighthouses, Department of Commerce.

*W. A. E. Doying, inspecting engineer, the Panama Canal.

*J. W. Ginder, superintendent, computing division, Supervising Architect's

Office, Treasury Department.

T. L. Haden, chief clerk, Interstate Commerce Commission.

A. J. Harrison, assistant chief, purchase and issue subdivision, supply division,

United States Veterans Bureau. *H. C. Hengstler, chief, Division of Foreign Service Administration, State Department.

*George Landick, jr., superintendent, Division of Equipment and Supplies, Post

Office Department.

*Robert LeFevreSuperintendent of supplies, General Supply Committee.

*H. C. Maull, jr., chief clerk's office, Department of Justice. *Lieut. Col. J. E. Munroe, chief, equipment branch, supply division, General

Staff, War Department.

Maj. John Potts, assistant quartermaster, United States Marine Corps.

Edward O. Reed, chief of tests, Government Printing Office. *George M. Talbot, assistant director of supplies, Emergency Fleet Corporation,

United States Shipping Board; alternate, G. F. Williams.

J. W. Wimer, deputy purchasing officer, commissioners, District of Columbia.

R. L. Woodward, assistant purchasing agent, United States Civil Service Commission.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 111

The procedure adopted for the consideration of specifications is as follows : The need of specifications for a given article or material, for

either technical or business reasons, is fully considered by the executive committee, and the subject is then referred to a technical committee composed of the Government experts in the particular subject,

for consideration of all existing Government or commercial specifications. A specification is selected, or written, which will be suitable

for the uses of all departments and establishments of the Government. The cooperation and advice of interested commercial and

industrial concerns is requested and their recommendations are fully

considered by the technical committees. The specification as agreed on by the technical committee is then submitted to all departments

and establishments of the Government, through their respective

representatives on the Federal Specifications Board, for comment and

criticism. At the same time, copies of the proposed specifications are informally submitted to the American Engineering Standards

Committee with a request for their assistance in securing comment

and criticism from the various interested engineering and technical

societies of the country. All criticisms received are referred back

to the respective technical committees for consideration on their

merits. When the specification is finally agreed upon, it is promulgated by the Federal Specifications Board as official Government

standard for use in connection with the purchase of material covered

by the specification.

As far as practicable the specifications of the board are arranged

in accordance with a standard form originally adopted in 1924 and

revised in 1925.

Standard specifications are divided into eight sections, as follows:

I. General Specifications,—In this section reference is made to any applicable general specification and drawings forming a part of the specification, with a statement that such general specification and

drawings form a part of the specification. This section serves as an

index to the documents which must be considered to permit a complete interpretation of the specification.

II. Types, Grades, Classes, etc. (as applicable).—In this section

are listed the several types, grades, classes, etc., of articles or materials

covered by the specification, preceded by the words: "* * * shall be of the following types (grades, classes, etc.)." If only one

type, grade, class, etc., is required, it is so stated. The types, grades,

classes, etc. (if more than one), are listed under a brief name con- venient for reference and in accordance with commercial practice,

and whenever practicable are designated by capital letters or Arabic

numerals. The same designations are used under " Detail requirements, " Section V, and under "Methods of inspection, tests, etc./'
112 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Section VI, if applicable, so that Section II will serve as an index to the subject matter of the specification.

III. Material and Workmanship, etc.—Under this heading are included any necessary requirements relative to the character or

quality of the materials used, the method of manufacture, and workmanship. Any requirements with reference to the use of scrap are here stated. IV. General Requirements.—All essential requirements and descriptions which are applicable to the articles or materials and which

are common to all of the types, grades, classes, etc., covered by the

specifications are stated in this section. Tolerances permitted, if common to all types, grades, classes, etc., are included. If spare

parts are required for all types, grades, classes, etc., they are listed here. V. Detail Requirements.—In this section the items listed in Section

II, " Types, grades, classes, etc.," are considered consecutively, when

practicable, using the name and designation in full, detailing for each

such physical and chemical requirements, characteristics, and descriptions as may be necessary to define clearly the articles or materials

required. Where only one type, grade, or class, etc., is provided,

care is exercised to place detail requirements under this section rather

than under Section IV. The following, when applicable, are in- cluded, the statements under each heading being contained in a separate subparagraph, properly designated: Physical requirements;

chemical requirements; treatment; finish; plans; tolerances; spare

parts not listed in Section IV.

VI. Method of Inspection, Tests, etc.—In this section are stated

the tests to which the articles or materials are to be subjected in

order to determine whether they conform to the requirements of the

specification. This section also includes such descriptions of tests and methods of analysis as may be necessary to insure that they will

be properly conducted, and other information, such as location of

test specimens, method of sampling for chemical analysis, etc. When an umpire method of analysis is specified, either in the form

of a detailed description or by reference to some accepted standard

method, it is placed at the end of this section and plainly captioned

"Umpire method of analysis."

VII. Packing and Marking.—Ordinarily instructions regarding

packing and marking do not form a part of the master specifications

promulgated by the Federal Specifications Board. However, in- stances arise where marking for identification, or certification, and

special methods of packing to insure against damage in shipment,

etc., should properly be included. Where packing or marking, or

both, are included in the specification detailed instructions therefor

appear in this section.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 113

VIII. Notes.—This section, which is restricted to informative

matter only, contains all necessary information of a general or ex- planatory nature, which is not properly a part of the preceding sections. For example, when it is desirable to state the use for which

the material or article is suitable, such statement appears in this

section. References are made here to other specifications covering

other types, grades, classes, etc., of the same or similar material

or article. Citations to specifications followed without change of technical requirements or with slight deviations also appear here.

The Federal Specifications Board does not consider materials and

devices of a strictly military nature, such as ordnance material,

ammunition or explosives, military aeronautics, chemical warfare,

general military equipment, materials used in connection with the

construction of naval vessels, etc., unless specially requested to do so by the interested departments.

The circular establishing the Federal Specifications Board states that the specifications adopted and promulgated by the board shall be

binding upon and govern all departments and independent establishments of the Federal Government, and was issued by the Director

of the Bureau of the Budget, by direction of the President.

The Federal Specifications Board thus has one great advantage

over all other standardizing bodies, in that the specifications officially

promulgated are required by Executive authority to be used by all executive departments and independent establishments of the Federal

Government. As a result, the board begins at once to accumulate

data from the use of the specifications, which enables revisions to keep pace with the advances in the art of manufacture and the re- quirements of the service.

The Federal Specifications Board is represented on the following

American Engineering Standards Committee sectional committees:

1. Numbering of steels.

2. Specifications for linseed oil (joint sponsor with American Society for Testing

Materials)

The technical committees of the Federal Specifications Board are

as follows, in the order of their formation:

1. Lubricants and liquid fuels.

2. Paints and oils. 3. Lumber.

4. Soap.

5. Rubber products.

6. Leather products.

7. Feeds and forage.

8. Refractories.

9. Electrical supplies.

10. Metals.

11. Builder's hardware.

12. Beds and bunks.

13. Fire-extinguishing liquid.

14. Sterlizing equipment.

15. Cordage.

16. Plumbing fixtures.

17. Textiles.

18. Wire rope.

19. Bituminous roofing and waterproofing compounds.

20. Pipe, fittings, valves, etc. 21. Floor covering (nontextile)
114 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

22. Heat-insulating materials (other

than refractories)

.

23. Gaskets and packing material.

24. Coal.

25. Brushes and brooms.

26. Hand fire extinguishers.

27. Edible oils. 28. Safes (fire and petty larceny).

29. Paper.

30. Chinaware, glassware, stoneware, window glass, etc. 31. Brick and building tile. 32. Wood preservatives.

33. Provisions.

34. Plumbing fixtures (marine use).

35. Brake lining. 36. Inks and typewriter ribbons.

37. Portland cement, lime, and plaster. 38. Safes, burglar resisting. 39. Safety walkways (marine use).

40. Safety walkways (land use).

41. Road and paving materials.

42. Refrigerators.

43. Glue.

44. Telephones.

45. Abrasives and pohshing materials.

46. Disinfectants.

47. Gauze and bandages.

48. Hand tools.

49. Machine screws, bolts, and nuts.

50. Photographic supplies.

51. Office furniture.

52. Shipping containers.

53. Commercial weighing and measuring devices.

54. Drafting equipment and supplies.

55. Office supplies.

56. Spraying machines (horticultural).

57. Thermometers.

58. Tableware and kitchen utensils.

59. Wearing apparel (nonmihtary).

60. Insecticides.

61. Stitches, seams, and stitching.

62. Miscellaneous chemical products.

63. Hair for mattresses and upholstery work.

64. Safety goggles, helmets, etc. 65. Radio apparatus.

66. Medical and surgical instruments,

appliances, and supplies.

67. Gauges.

68. Color.

69. Tents and tent appliances.

70. Vacuum cleaners and carpet

sweepers.

71. Laundry equipment.

72. Foundry apparatus and supplies.

73. Caskets and shipping cases therefor. 74. Standard wire screens and commercial wire screen cloth.

75. Storage batteries.

76. Motor-propelled vehicles. Up to December 31, 1926, the board has adopted and promulgated

451 United States Government master specifications, for the mandatory use of all departments and independent establishments of the

Government. For list of these specifications, see Bureau of Standards Circular No. 319.

In the selection of specifications for Government use, the Federal

Specifications Board is collaborating with industry and is coordinating

these two interests in a manner which is considered to best meet the

requirements of the Government as a consumer.

In requesting comments and criticism on the proposed specifications from industrial groups, frequently differences of opinion will

arise within an industry. In such cases it is the policy of the Federal

Specifications Board to have the technical committee concerned

hold open meetings for the full discussion of the questions at issue. Of course, the final decision as to the merits of the question under

discussion must rest with the technical committee, subject to the

approval of the Federal Specifications Board.
STANDAKDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 115

As the Federal Specifications Board specifications appear, they are oftentimes put into use by States, cities, and public institutions,

and are also beginning to be widely used in industry. Thus the work

of this board becomes of great influence throughout the Nation.

FEDERAL TRAFFIC BOARD

The Federal Traffic Board was formed by Bureau of the Budget

Circular No. 41, of October 10, 1921, for the purpose of effecting

economies and better business administration throughout the Government service in the handling of passenger transportation, shipment

by freight, express, and parcel post, and for the utilization in a more

practical way of the various available carrying facilities, both rail and water. The board is composed of one representative from each of the

larger departments and independent establishments of the Government, who is designated by the head of that activit}^.

The membership of the board is as follows:

Lieut. Commander C. E. Parsons (S. C), United States Navy, coordinator

for traffic, and chairman.

Department of Agriculture, Elmer E. Forbes.

Alien Property Custodian, G. G. Johnston.

Civil Service Commission, Miss Elizabeth Raymond.

Department of Commerce, N. N. Potts.

District of Columbia, J. W. Wimer.

Federal Board for Vocational Education, E. Joseph Aronoff

Department of the Interior, C. E. Harris. Interstate Commerce Commission, C. G. Jensen, jr. Department of Justice, E. J. Matchett.

Department of Labor, George W. Love. Library of Congress, Samuel M. Croft. United States Marine Corps, Maj. Jeter R. Horton, appointed September

25, 1925, vice Charles R. Sanderson, relieved September 25, 1925. Navy Department, Lieut. Commander R. K. Awtrey.

Panama Canal (The), W. J. Fisher. Post Office Department, George W. Smith.

Government Printing Office, W. H. Kervin.

Railroad Administration, W. H. Quigg.

United States Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation, C. T. Burley.

Smithsonian Institution, W. H. Kimball.

State Department, J. D. Johnson.

Tariff Commission, John F. Bethune.

Treasury Department, Irving J. Martin.

United States Veterans' Bureau, N. C. Reed.

War Department, Col. H. H. Sheen. The board has full authority, subject to review by the chief

coordinator, to pass on all questions pertaining to

Establishment of uniform classifications for all commodities shipped by the Government.
116 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Drafting of plans for improving and standardizing methods of making shipments

and settlement of accounts. Adjustment of all questions which require application of remedial measures, such as freight rates, switching, and terminal charges, etc. The board functions by means of committees appointed by the

chairman who is also the coordinator for traffic and, as such, the

operating head of the board. All movements of Government freight,

consisting of two carloads or more, from any department are routed

by the coordinator for traffic who undertakes to provide the cheapest

possible route for the shipment.

The coordinator for traffic has routed, for eight months of the cur- rent year, a total of 20,433 carloads of Government freight or an

average of 2,554 carloads per month.

Standardized Government travel regulations prepared by the

board were approved by the President August 11, 1926, and promulgated by the Director of the Bureau of the Budget effective October

1, 1926.

INTERDEPARTMENTAL BOARD OF CONTRACTS AND ADJUSTMENTS

This board was created by Executive order promulgated in Bureau

of the Budget Circular No. 47 of November 22, 1921.

The board is composed of representatives from each department

and independent establishment authorized by law to enter into

important contracts. The membership of the board is as follows:

Gordon A. Ramsay, Bureau of the Budget, chairman; Maj. E. W. Cushing,

Officers Reserve Corps, Bureau of the Budget, assistant to the chairman.

Chief Coordinator, Brig. Gen. H. C. Smither, represented by Maj. Alfred H. Erck. Department of Agriculture, Josiah L. Carr. Department of Commerce, W. S. Erwin.

Department of the Interior, Walter B. Fry.

Department of Justice, Howard W. Ameli. Department of Labor, E. E. Salisbury.

Navy Department, Rear Admiral H. H. Rousseau; alternate, Pickens

Neagle, Solicitor for Navy Department.

Post Office Department, Walter E. Kelly.

Department of State, Jacob A. Metzger.

Treasury Department, Gordon A. Ramsay; alternate, Ralph E. Day,

Coast Guard.

War Department, Lieut. Col. C. C. Whitcomb, appointed February 5, 1926, vice Col. Edwin P. Wolfe.

Alien Property Custodian, G. C. Foster.

District of Columbia, Roland M. Brennan.

Employees' Compensation Commission, Samuel D. Slentz. Federal Board for Vocational Education, E. Joseph Aronoff. Federal Power Commission, Maj. Lewis W. Call, United States Army.

Federal Trade Commission, F. C. Baggarly.

Government Printing Office, George H. Carter.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 117

Interstate Commerce Commission, R. Granville Curry, appointed October

6, 1925, vice J. C. Fort. National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, J. F. Victory.

National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers, Col. C. W. Wadsworth.

Panama Canal (The), Noble Moore.

Smithsonian Institution, J. S. Goldsmith.

Public Buildings and Public Parks of the National Capital, James F. Gill, appointed April 14, 1926, vice E. F. Batchelor. United States Botanic Garden, Wiliner J. Paget.

Housing Corporation, Thomas W. O'Brien. United States Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation, Clyde

Wendelkin, appointed September 15, 1925, vice Harry Long.

Tariff Commission, J. F. Bethune.

United States Veterans' Bureau, C. W. Beery.

The purpose of the board is the standardization of contract forms

and the adoption of uniform practices of interpretation and negotiation, both preceding and following the actual execution of such

contracts. The board standardizes, where possible, the method of contracting

to the end that a uniform policy may control the making of contracts with a view to such changes in form of contracts as will tend to enlist the interest of the contractor in behalf of economy and promptness

of execution, as well as to eliminate those uncertainties of construction and hazards to be assumed by the contractor which have operated

to increase the cost of Government work and supplies.

The board recommends general policies in the settlement of out- standing obligations arising from contracts of the United States,

and acts in an advisory capacity, when requested, to review and

revise important contracts and agreements, to advise as to proper

interpretation of contracts in process of execution, and to assist in

the negotiations of important contracts and agreements relating to personal services, supplies, or construction work.

The board has completed the final draft of the following contract forms:

Standard form of government lease. Standard form of government invitation for bids. Standard government form of bid. Standard instructions to bidders. Standard form of government contract for construction work.

Standard form of government contract for supplies.

Standard form of government bid bond.

Standard form of government performance bond.

The board has also prepared a Digest of Decisions of the Supreme

Court, the Court of Claims, and Opinions of the Attorney General

Relating to Government Contracts, which has been published.

This digest supplements the Compilation of Principal Federal

Statutes Relating to Contracts, previously prepared by the board.
118 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The board is at work on the draft of a proposed contract law

entitled "A bill to establish uniform procedure in the making of

Government contracts." This draft contemplates the repeal of

many of the 225 existing statutes prescribing different formalities

and different methods of procedure, and combines in 18 sections the

essential provisions of law to safeguard the Government's interest

and make Government contract procedure uniform.

INTERDEPARTMENTAL BOARD ON SIMPLIFIED OFFICE PROCEDURE

The board was created by the Bureau of the Budget Circular

No. 137, dated May 16, 1924, under authorization contained in Executive Order No. 3578. The membership of the board consists of the

chairmen of the several departmental committees on simplified office procedure with the Chief Coordinator as chairman.

Brig. Gen. H. C. Smither, U. S. A., Chief Coordinator, chairman.

Maj. A. H. Erck, U. S. A., Assistant Chief Coordinator, executive chairman.

Departments:

State, E. J. Avers. Treasury, F. A. Birgfeld.

War, Brig. Gen. Lutz Wahi and Col. G. A. Nugent (alternate).

Justice, J. W. Baldwin.

Post Office, T. J. Howell. Navy, Capt. Frank H. Clark.

Interior, W. B. Acker.

Agriculture, C. W. Kitchen.

Commerce, E. W. Libbey.

Labor, S. J. Gompers.

Independent establishments:

Library of Congress, W. L. Brown. Government Printing Office, J. K. Wallace.

Interstate Commerce Commission, T. L. Haden.

Civil Service Commission, W. L. Quaid.

Federal Trade Commission, O. B. Johnson. United States Shipping Board, S. Goodacre. United States Veterans' Bureau, I. E. Scott and A. C. Fowle (alternate). Federal Board for Vocational Education, E. J. Aronoff. Panama Canal (The), R. L. Smith.

National Advisor}- Committee for Aeronautics, E. H. Chamberlin.

Federal Power Commission, F. W. Griffith. Commission of Fine Arts, H. P. Caemmerer.

National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers, Col. C. W. Wadsworth.

Public Buildings and Public Parks of the National Capital, R. O. Jennings.

Commissioners District of Columbia, D. E. Garges.

Upon the board devolves the task of aiding the departments and

independent establishments interdepartmentally by taking under

consideration all matters and subjects connected with the simplification and standardization of governmental executive office procedure

not specifically allocated elsewhere by the Chief Coordinator. There

is a tendency to lose sight of the benefits in the form of economy and
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 119

service efficiency that the General Government and those who deal

with it may derive from simplified cooperative effort permitted by

such standardization.

The standardization of office procedure and the standardization of forms are the two principal classes of subjects that the board considers. It conducts investigations and considers all questions relating

to office procedure and makes studies of the forms proposed for

standardization, including the subject matter, number of carbon

copies that may be needed, and suitability for filing or other purposes.

The board is also qualified to consider questions pertaining to per- sonnel which have an interdepartmental aspect, and its function is to consider, pass upon, and advise with respect to them.

As a summary, its functions are to bring about a fruitful realization

of greater economy and increased efficiency in the conduct of business

by the various executive departments and independent establishments. The test of efficiency of the board is its ability to secure and

maintain cooperation and coordination among the services in all matters and subjects that will lead to the elimination of waste of

effort, money, and equipment.

The work of the board is performed largely by an executive committee of 11 members. The entire board is assembled only when

questions of policy or other important matters are to be considered

The executive committee investigates all matters brought to its attention and upon which it is authorized to act and make recommendations. Since the activities of the board are confined to matters relating to

office administration, the Chief Coordinator has authorized it to issue memoranda from time to time, in a numbered series, to the

heads of departments and establishments for the purpose of securing

comments on proposed plans for coordinating administrative procedure and for conveying information.

The departments and establishments present their written or oral

views, all of which are carefully considered before definite recommendations are made to the Chief Coordinator. The Chief Coordinator refers all proposed standardized forms to the Permanent Conference on Printing for comment as to the size that may be conveniently cut from paper stock, the typography of the forms, and the

substance, color, and quality of paper most suitable for the purpose

for which the form is to be used. An agreement between the conference and the board has been made, as to the field that should be

covered by each, in order that duplication of effort may be pre- vented. The contact which is maintained by mutual representation

upon the conference and the board keeps this agreement alive. Finally the results of the board's deliberations are submitted to the

Bureau of the Budget for presentation to the President, and, if
120 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

approved by him, a numbered circular is issued to the heads of

departments and independent establishments by the Bureau of the

Budget promulgating the President's action.

The heads of departments and establishments then make requisition upon the Public Printer for such supplies as may be needed to meet the change in office administration, taking into consideration

the stock of supplies on hand, and authorize the Public Printer to destroy any electrotype plates which may have been used in the printing of forms which are to be discontinued.

Should any department or establishment upon occasion consider

it necessary to deviate from a standard form, practice, or regulation

the proposed deviation is submitted by the head of the service to the board for consideration and recommendation to the Director of

the Bureau of the Budget.

During the year 1926 nine blank forms in use by two or more

departments and establishments were standardized and promulgated. The standardization of these forms reduced the cost of

printing and enabled the Government Printing Office to make

deliveries more promptly. Since the standard forms are kept in

stock, requisitions may be filled promptly, with the result that it contributes to that sense of solidarity in the Government service so

essential to efficiency and coordinated effort. The board has made a tabulation of Governmental employees

stationed in the District of Columbia who are able to translate various

languages into English. Departments having letters or documents

written in foreign languages which they are unable to have trans- lated are privileged to call upon the executive chairman of the board

for assistance in an endeavor to find a translator able to do the work.

The bureaus have cheerfully given the services of translators and have

taken upon themselves the task of mutual assistance which the work

has necessitated. Documents, pamphlets, and letters comprising 17

different languages were translated during the year through this

arrangement.

A study of the envelopes used in the Government service was made by the board in cooperation with the Permanent Conference on

Printing. As a result it was found that expensive cloth-lined and

rope envelopes could be eliminated and less expensive kraft envelopes

of an equal or superior strength be substituted, and that the present

variety in sizes and qualities could be reduced.

Also it was found that a reduction in varieties of envelopes could

be made from time to time as the necessary adjustments were made,

in the hope that ultimately a schedule of sizes and qualities might be

devised which would be the minimum essential for efficient service.
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 121

Suitable space for filing the ever-increasing volume of public

records having permanent value for historical or other purposes is costly and difficult to obtain.

The board invited the attention of departments to the desirability

of organizing within each bureau or office a committee of experienced

employees to determine, under proper supervision, what papers

after definite periods automatically become of no further value. A

policy for the periodic destruction of such papers could then be

adopted and appropriate instructions issued by each department

for making it effective. There would then be a regular destruction

of useless papers, freeing for utilization considerable storage space

now used for the keeping of records that have ceased to be of value.

Among other matters considered by the board there may be

mentioned: The publication of an official gazette; a formula for

making brown negative (Van Dyke) paper in department laboratories;

the use of cheap grades of mimeograph paper for certain purposes;

coordination of Government mimeograph facilities; uniform listing of Government activities in telephone directories; uniform regulations for leave of absence; use of pictorial posters for increasing the

efficiency of Government employees; use of concentrated inks in

field offices; the manufacture of rubber stamps and other articles by some Government services for others; requests for deviation from

standard forms; and the use of knocked-down boxes for shipping

certain classes of articles. PERMANENT CONFERENCE ON PRINTING

The conference was organized under Executive order promulgated

in Bureau of the Budget Circular No. 14 of July 22, 1921. The object

of the conference is to investigate and propose uniform standards,

businesslike methods, and proper economies in public printing

and binding and the distribution of publications. It recommends

reductions in the amounts of Government printing and binding

through the elimination of unnecessary reports, bulletins, publican

tions, etc. The conference standardizes and changes specifications

where necessary to reduce cost of printing, scrutinizes requisitions

from the various departments with a view to reducing the cost of

work without impairing its usefulness. The conference investigates

preparation of copy for printer; cost of authors' corrections; standardization of paper in relation to grades, sizes, weights, and colors;

illustrations and printing in color; standard size forms and binding of publications; discontinuance of periodicals and annual reports;

blank and loose-leaf forms and letterheads; rush work; duplication

of departmental printing; distribution of public documents, and

mimeographing and multigraphing.
122 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

The personnel of the conference is as follows:

Chairman, George H. Carter, Public Printer. Secretary, Frank D. Smith, Department of Agriculture.

United States Tariff Commission, J. N. Stead. House of Representatives, Leroy Brandon, Journal Clerk. National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, E. H. Chamberlin.

Railroad Labor Board, Robert F. Cole. Post Office Department, F. A. Dony.

State Department, Tyler Bennett. United States Shipping Board, J. G. Reckert. Panama Canal (the), Mrs. M. W. Gillman.

Interior Department, Charles F. Glass. United States Employees' Compensation Commission, Mrs. Lillian K. Stamm.

Federal Power Commission, F. W. Griffith. General Accounting Office, H. A. Harding. Bureau of the Budget, A. E. Surguy.

Board of Commissioners of District of Columbia, M. C. Hargrove. Bureau of Efficiency, George C. Havenner. Department of Agriculture, L. J. Haynes.

Alien Property Custodian, G. G. Johnston. War Department, Henry C. Lehmann.

Department of Commerce, Thomas F. McKeon.

Department of Justice, H. C. Maull, jr. Library of Congress, George W. Morgan.

Public Buildings and Public Parks of the National Capital, George C. Gist. United States Botanic Garden, W. J. Paget. Federal Board for Vocational Education, John Shaw.

United States Veterans' Bureau, Arthur H. Smith.

Department of Labor, Shelby Smith.

United States Court of Claims, J. Bradley Tanner. Navy Department, J. E. Tibbitts. Smithsonian Institution, W. P. True.

Office of Chief Coordinator, Maj. Alfred H. Erck. Treasury Department, F. F. Weston.

Interstate Commerce Commission, L. D. Scisco. Civil Service Commission, R. L. Woodward.

United States Board of Mediation, Robert F. Cole. Federal Trade Commission, H. B. Stamm.

In order to clarify the question as to what forms should be considered for standardization and the relation of the Permanent Conference on Printing to the work of the Interdepartmental Board on

Simplified Office Procedure, the conference adopted the following

recommendation as submitted by its committee on standardization

of forms:

That where a form can be so constructed as to meet the requirements of the

various departments and establishments, the creation of such a form and its designation as a standard form is in the interest of economy and facility. In

connection with forms prepared by one department or establishment for use in obtaining in uniform manner information from other departments and establish- ments, your committee recommends that forms of this character furnished to the departments or establishments by the office designing the form should remain
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 123

as a form of a particular department, but forms of this character which the departments or establishments are required to supply for their own use should

cease to be a form of a particular department, and should be made standard

forms. A special committee of the conference cooperated with a committee of the Interdepartmental Board on Simplified Office Procedure in' a study of standard sizes and quality of envelopes for the various

services of the Government other than those purchased by the Public

Printer. The report recommended the elimination of 62 envelope

items from the list heretofore purchased on contracts awarded by the

Post Office Department, and proposed the general substitution of

kraft envelopes of the same or better strength for cloth-lined and

rope envelopes.

The conference adopted the report of the envelope committee and

concurred in its recommendations, with an amendment that the one Government contracting agency as proposed by the committee shall contract for envelopes "used by two or more departments or services

of the Government."

At the request of the conference, the Public Printer instructed the

style board of the Government Printing Office to prepare an abridged

edition of the Style Manual of the Government Printing Office for

the use of typists, clerks, and editors of the various departments in

the better and more uniform preparation of copy for the printer.

Proofs of the Style Manual Digest were submitted to the executive

committee for its review with a representative of the Government

Printing Office. The conference was advised by the Public Printer that he had

obtained authorization from Congress in the legislative appropriation act, approved May 13, 1926, to furnish inks, glues, and other supplies manufactured by the Government Printing Office in connection

with its work to departments and other establishments of the Government upon requisition and payment from available appropriations. Some of these supplies, especially inks, have been developed

by the testing section of the Government Printing Office in cooperation with several members of the conference, and it is expected that

the procurement of these supplies from the Government Printing

Office will result in substantial savings as well as better service.

The Joint Committee on Printing again invited the conference to designate a representative on its Special Committee on Paper Specifications which annually prepares the paper and envelope schedules

for the Government Printing Office. The specifications committee

made an important change in adopting 1,000 sheets as the unit of

count and basis of weight, thus abolishing the 500-sheet ream for

Government paper. This change conforms to the general trade

practice recently adopted by printers and paper manufacturers and

36316—27 9
124 NATIONAL BXJKEAU OF STANDAKDS

will greatly simplify the ordering and handling of paper, as the substance weight basis for the 1,000-sheet unit is simply double the old

500-sheet ream weight.

The conference has assisted the General Accounting Office in

standardizing the paper stock and typographical appearance of vari-

' ous accounting forms promulgated by the Comptroller General.

Among the subjects considered by the conference during the past

year were the standardizing of forms, envelopes, sizes of publications, and color of copying inks; the uniformity of binders' titles; the use of multigraphing, typesetting, and bindery machines by

various branches of the Government service; the supplying of tabulating machine cards and printing materials by the Public Printer;

and the establishment of a Government gazette. Definite action was not taken in regard to all these varied topics, but good progress was made in the standardization of forms and envelopes, which

occupied much of the attention of the conference during the year. UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EFFICIENCY

The functions of the United States Bureau of Efficiency, as pre- scribed by statutory authority, consist of the establishment and general supervision of a standard system of efficiency ratings for the

classified service in the District of Columbia; the investigation of the needs of the several executive departments and independent

establishments with respect to personnel requirements, and the in- vestigation of duplication of work and methods of business in the

various branches of the Government service.

The bureau has prescribed a uniform procedure for rating the effi- ciency of practically all employees in the classified departmental service regardless of the type of work on which they might be engaged.

Annual efficiency ratings are now prepared by the executive departments and independent establishments.

UNITED STATES CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION

In improving its methods of selecting personnel for the Federal

service the commission aims to standardize those phases of its work

in which such practice is feasible. The following steps involve standardization of one or more factors

of selection methods:

1. Compiling clear-cut specifications of duties performed.

2. Securing criteria as basis for scientifically determining the standards of proficiency as well as the relative value of the measuring devices which are

tried.

3. Setting up standards of proficiency for the following:

(a) Performance. Example: Examination for typist.

(6) Knowledge. Example: Examination for economist.

(c) Aptitude. Example: Examination for post-office distributer.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 125

4. Maintaining the standards of proficiency, by standardizing the following, for each examination:

(a) Scope of subject matter.

(b) Form in which subject matter is presented.

(c) Range and focus of difficulty.

(d) Time limit for examination.

(e) Procedure in administering examinations.

(/) Samples of forms and directions as to how they should be answered..

(g) Procedure in rating the papers. The use of objective test forms has made possible much of this

standardization. An objective test is one which contains questions

requiring certain definite answers, the scoring of which does not depend on the subjective judgment of the examiner. The same answer

in such a test receives the same credit, regardless of who rates the

papers. In a subjective test, on the contrary, the score is obtained

through the exercise of judgment; it may vary as examiners differ in

ability to judge and in their standards of judgment.

With objective test forms, accurate data can be compiled as to the

relative difficulty which different test items present to competitors.

Thus it is possible to establish definite standards and maintain

equality among alternative series of an examination. A score which

is set in one year as the standard required for a given position represents the same standard in the following year, although an alternative series of the examination is used.

One example of the application of the process of standardization in

the commission's work, during 1926, was the construction of three

tests of general adaptability which cover the entire range of adaptability. Formerly this was measured by a large number of different

tests. The advantages of the new tests are these: The three tests may be used in place of numerous forms previously required; they

are constructed on the basis of one master scale, so that a score in any

test may be translated into a score on the master scale; they are administered and scored objectively. The use of these comparable

scales for a majority of civil-service positions will make possible

improved methods of selection, placement, guidance, transfer, and

promotion.

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

District ] Government.—The Commissioners of the District government are represented on the Federal Specifications Board, by the

deputy purchasing officer. They are also represented on 10 technical

committees of the Federal Specifications Board.

The District government has standardized the specifications for

highway construction, sewer construction, and standard building

regulations, as follows:
126 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Standard Building Regulations.—The adopted building code

of the District of Columbia contains nine volumes covering the

following subjects:

Section I. Laws and regulations affecting building construction. Section II. Administration, denning the duties of the inspector of buildings

and staff, list of permit fees, and general information pertaining to the require- ments for securing permits. Section III. Precautions and safeguards, containing regulations governing use

of public space for private purposes, protection of life and limb, and adjoining

property, scaffolding, and plaster. Section IV. Projections on public property, containing regulations applicable to projections beyond property lines. Section V. Ventilation requirements pertaining to buildings utilized as places

of public assemblage, for living, and workshop purposes.

Section VI. Means of egress and special requirements for occupancies, defining the types of exits as pertain to stairways, aisles, and corridors. Section VII. Fire prevention and precaution regulations, providing for the

classification of buildings from a construction standpoint and minimum require- ments.

Section VIII. Structural-engineering requirements, pertaining to structural features of buildings defining minimum-load requirements, foundation, construction of walls, floors, and roofs. Section IX. Elevators and dumbwaiters, containing regulations based upon

latest information and recommendations of American Society of Mechanical

Engineers, and containing modern requirements for elevator construction. FEDERAL POWER COMMISSION

The standardization work of the commission, to date, has been

limited to participation in the deliberations of the sectional committee on the rating of rivers of the American Engineering Standards Committee.

A representative of the commission is serving on that committee

which is engaged in the formulation of standard methods of estimating

and recording the power capacities of streams and rivers. GENERAL ACCOUNTING OFFICE

One of the chief functions of the General Accounting Office is to prescribe and enforce a uniform system of reporting and accounting

for the receipt, expenditure, and application of public funds, looking

to legality and economy in their administration. For this purpose

a legal division is maintained, whose duty it is to prepare briefs as the basis of official decisions, by which a uniform rule of interpellation of law and regulation is established with respect to each subject

matter that is presented. It is a primary duty of the auditing and

claims divisions of this office to enforce these decisions in auditing

the accounts of accountable officers and settling claims which are presented for direct settlement, respectively. For the information

of the various departments and establishments, syllabi of all decisions
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 127

are prepared, printed on daily synopsis sheets, and the sheets distributed to those concerned, while the more important decisions are printed in full in monthly pamphlet form, and later in annual bound

volumes.

The principal activity of the office having to do with standardization work is the standardization of fiscal accounting forms and

procedure and the making of the necessary investigations for this

purpose.

Several Treasury Department circulars were issued in 1906 and

1907, which were signed jointly by the Secretary and the comptroller,

culminating in Circulars Nos. 38, 52, and 62 of 1907, relating,

respectively, to Treasury bookkeeping and statement of settled accounts; specimen and standard forms of voucher, pay roll, and

account current and accounting procedure thereunder, and trans- portation forms and procedure. To the requirements of these and

other similar circulars the departments and establishments adjust

their accounting transactions and submit from time to time their

forms and procedure for the approval of the comptroller. The forms

published in the above circulars were, however, regarded as sample

forms rather than standard forms, in the present acceptation of the

term, and it was the practice to approve for each branch of the

service such forms as it required, the same being printed for its special use in substantially the same form as the sample forms.

This practice continued, with one exception, until the present organization of this office under the Budget and Accounting Act, when the

work of complete standardization was undertaken in a more

systematic manner. The exception referred to is the inauguration of a standard trans- portation series of forms by Treasury Department Circular No. 49,

June 19, 1915, by which the control of the printing of standard

forms therein approved was placed in the Bureau of Engraving and

Printing in case of transportation requests and in the Public Printer

in case of bills of lading and transportation vouchers. The number

of transportation-requests forms was reduced to four, which are printed and kept in stock by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing

subject to requisition. Likewise, the vouchers are printed and kept

in stock by the Public Printer, and distributed upon requisition

directly to the transportation companies for their use. Little

change in this respect has been made in the case of bills of lading,

since each service has been allowed to retain its own forms provided

they agree in all essential particulars with the standard series. The success which attended the standardization of transportation

forms, especially the vouchers, under an arrangement with the

Public Printer as above indicated, established a precedent which it was thought best to follow. Accordingly, steps were taken to under-
128 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

take the work of completely standardizing accounting forms which

pertain to the advance of funds, accounting for same (disbursements,

transfers, deposits, etc.), collections of public moneys, and such

other fiscal transactions as are required to be reported and accounted

for to this office. In order to obtain full and complete information

of the conditions and requirements existing in the various branches

of the Government service and secure their cooperation in making

effective use of the new standard forms to be adopted, the head of each

department and principal establishment was requested on July 11,

1922, to appoint a representative, who would be authorized to speak

for his department or establishment before a committee of such

representatives, known as the advisory committee on fiscal accounting forms and procedure, on all matters properly coming before the

committee.

The results of the deliberations and advice of the advisory committee and the action of this office to date thereon are as follows

Standard forms Nos. 1013, 1013a, 1013b, 1013c,1013d, and 1013e (General

Regulations No. 34 and Supplement No. 1, 1924), annual salary pay roll. Standard forms Nos. 1012, 1012a, 1012b, and 1012c (General Regulations No.

36, 1924), reimbursement voucher for travel and other expenses. Standard forms Nos. 1019, 1020, 1021, and 1022 (General Regulations No. 41, 1925), account current. Standard forms Nos. 1024, 1025, 1026, and 1027 (General Regulations No. 43, 1925), schedules of disbursements and collections and requisition for disbursing funds. Standard forms Nos. 1028, 1029, 1030, and 1031 (General Regulations No. 46,

October 16, 1925, and Supplement No. 1, May 6, 1926), transportation request

and identification card, respectively.

Standard forms Nos. 1034, 1034a, 1035, 1035a, and 1036 (General Regulations No. 51, June 18, 1926), public voucher for purchases and services other than

personal, and abstract of agreement, etc. In addition to the above, the following standard forms have been

prescribed by regulation without reference to or advice from the

advisory committee:

Standard form of check list and statement of depository account (General

Regulations No. 31, 1923).

Standard form No. 1037 (General Regulations No. 57, September 3, 1926),

affidavit re dependency allowances under act of June 10, 1922, 42 Stat. 625. Standard form of telephone toll voucher, to be printed and used by telephone

companies (Bulletin No. 9, May 18, 1926).

Standard forms of administrative appropriation and fund accounting (circular No. 27, July 21, 1926).

The designing of forms for use in connection with the uniform

appropriation and fund accounting system, commenced in July, 1923, was continued during 1926, and 12 standard forms were approved

for use with 4 types of bookkeeping machines. These forms have

been so designed that the special features of the different machines

are utilized in the preparation of the records, yet the information
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 129

obtained for report purposes is the same and the number of forms

reduced to the minimum. This standardization will result in a

great saving in the printing and binding bills of the several departments and establishments, as these 12 plates will replace manytimes that number required under the old practice of permitting each

administrative department and establishment to design and print

the forms required for its particular use. Installations of the uniform accounting system have been made in

the 29 bureaus and services of the various Government departments

and establishments.

Another phase of standardization work that is being performed by

this office, which is worthy of mention, is the uniform regulation of the

administrative examination of accounts and claims by the respective

departments and establishments. As the result of exhaustive investigations made from time to time, general regulations have been issued

prescribing rules of examination as uniform as possible, with a view

to eliminating all duplication and coordinating the work of the services concerned with that of this office. On June 1, 1925, General Regulations No. 44 were published, prescribing a uniform system of symbols for appropriations and their use by administrative and other officers. Also, General Regulations No.

51, hereinbefore referred to as prescribing standard forms of purchase

voucher, etc., further prescribed a uniform system of symbols for

numbering contracts, by which the numbers given to the contracts by administrative officers in accordance with the system will be used

by this office in referring to and in filing them.

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

The chief of tests, Government Printing Office, represents that

activity on the executive committee, Federal Specifications Board,

and the office is represented on seven technical committees of the

board. "In accordance with section 3 of the printing act of June 12, 1895,

the Joint Committee on Printing is designated to set the standards

for paper for the public printing and binding. A subcommittee to prepare specifications for paper for the use of the Government Printing Office is therefore appointed by the Joint Committee on Printing.

All specifications prepared by this subcommittee must be approved by

the Joint Committee on Printing consisting of: George H. Moses, Senator from New Hampshire, chairman.

Edgar R. Kiess, Representative from Pennsylvania, vice chairman.

George Wharton Pepper, Senator from Pennsylvania.

Duncan U. Fletcher, Senator from Florida. Edward M. Beers, Representative from Pennsylvania.

William F. Stevenson, Representative from South Carolina. Ansel Wold, clerk.
130 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDABDS

The testing section of the Government Printing Office is designated

by the Public Printer to assist in the preparation of paper specifications and to prepare standard specifications for all materials used by

the office. In conducting technical investigations in this connection,

cooperative work is conducted with the manufacturers of materials

used in the printing industry, in order to establish methods for test- ing, and to develop standard specifications.

Investigations relative to the standardization of paper, based on

technical quality, are being conducted in cooperation with the United

Typothetae of America and the paper manufacturers. The technical work in this connection is conducted by the testing section of the Government Printing Office. Investigational work on paper

standardization has thus far covered only those papers commonly

known as bonds and ledgers. The paper manufacturers have submitted, upon request, two sets of their regular mill brands of bond

and ledger papers, one set in 1924 and one in 1925, which have been

completely tested and the results published in tabulated form.

As a result of this work, tentative specifications for bond and

ledger papers have been proposed and a conference with the paper

manufacturers and the United Typothetae of America will be held

in the near future for the purpose of taking action on the proposed

specifications. The proposed specifications for bond and ledger

papers have been approved by the Joint Committee on Printing for

the purchase of all papers used by the Government Printing Office. It is proposed to extend this work on paper standardization to cover

all grades of paper commonly used by the printing office. As a result of the work on materials other than paper so far con- ducted by the testing section, standard specifications have been

adopted for bookbinding cloths of all kinds, bookbinding leathers,

imitation leathers, and flax book twine. Investigations are now

under way for the purpose of developing standard specifications for

pigments and varnishes used in the manufacture of printing inks

and also for bookbinding threads. Tentative standards for these

materials have already been prepared.

In connection with the technical control work carried out by the

testing section of the Government Printing Office, standardization

work is also being conducted relative to alloys for use on various

kinds of typesetting machines and for various kinds of printing, such

as stereotyping, electroplating, etc. The testing section of this office has also conducted standardization

work for the purpose of establishing standard methods for the test- ing of glue and to develop specifications covering the various qualities

necessary for use by the printing industry. As a result of this work,

the test methods recommended by the National Association of Glue

Manufacturers have been adopted for measuring the viscosity and
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 131

jell strength of glue and tentative specifications developed for the

purchase of this material for the use of this office. INTER-AMERICAN HIGH COMMISSION—UNITED STATES SECTION

In cooperation with the United States Department of Commerce,

the section has prepared and distributed a large number of pamphlets in which are reproduced in French and Spanish as well as English

specifications for various commodities formulated by the American

Society for Testing Materials and the standards of the American

Institute of Electrical Engineers.

In cooperation with the Pan American Union, the section has been

instrumental in organizing the Pan American Standardization Conferences, the first of which was convened in Lima, Peru, in January,

1925, and the second of which will be held in Washington, D. C, in May 1927.

INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION

The Interstate Commerce Commission is represented on the Federal Specifications Board by the chief clerk. The commission is represented on two technical committees of the board.

The Interstate Commerce Commission prescribes standard sys- tems of accounts for steam roads, water carriers, electric railways,

sleeping-car companies, express companies, pipe-line companies, tele- phone companies, and telegraph and cable companies, subject to the interstate commerce act. All such carriers are required to file annual reports with the Interstate Commerce Commission on standard forms prepared by the commission.

The commission prescribes the manner in which carriers, subject

to the act, shall prepare their publications containing the rates,

charges, and regulations applicable to interstate commerce. The commission prescribes regulations for the transportation of

explosives and other dangerous articles by freight and express and

as baggage, including specifications for shipping containers.

The commission, under authority of law, has prescribed the safety

appliance standards of freight and passenger train cars; the rules

and instructions for the inspection and testing of locomotives and

their appurtenances, and specifications for automatic train-stop or

train-control devices.

The commission also fixes the limits of the standard time zones

for the continental United States and Alaska.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS

The Library of Congress promotes standardization through the

production and dissemination of standard catalogue cards. In size, 3 by 5 inches, and in the form of " entry," these cards embody deci3631&—27 10
132 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDAKDS

sions representing the consensus of professional and expert opinion

in American libraries. They are produced for use in the Library of

Congress catalogues, but extra copies are printed not merely for

free distribution as a whole to some 50 institutions, but for sale to others and to individuals. This practice aids standardization of library practice in this major library activity. The library encourages the need of an international library cataloguing code, and its modifications of this from time to time are generally accepted.

The system of classification in use in the Library of Congress has

been definitely adopted by over 70 libraries, including some abroad,

and is therefore standard for them.

NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS

The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics was established by act of Congress approved March 3, 1915.

The committee has 12 members, appointed by the President.

The law provides that the personnel of the committee shall consist

of two members from the War Department, from the office in charge

of military aeronautics; two members from the Navy Department^

from the office in charge of naval aeronautics; a representative each

of the Smithsonian Institution, the United States Weather Bureau,

and the National Bureau of Standards ; and not more than five additional persons acquainted with the needs of aeronautical science,

either civil or military, or skilled in aeronautical engineering or its allied sciences. The law further provides that all members as such

shall serve without compensation.

Revision of Nomenclature for Aeronautics.—Since aeronautics is a rapidly advancing science, the need arises from time to time for

revision of its official nomenclature. Five reports on this subject

have been issued by the committee: The first in 1917; the second in

1918; the third in 1919; the fourth in 1920; the fifth, known as report No. 157, in 1923.

In October, 1924, a special conference on aeronautical nomenclature was organized by the committee, its membership including officially

designated representatives of the Army Air Service, the Bureau of Aeronautics, of the Navy Department, the National Bureau of

Standards, the Society of Automotive Engineers, the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the Aeronautical Chamber of

Commerce of America. As the number of terms suggested for

inclusion in the official nomenclature had greatly increased since the

publication of the last report on the subject, the task of revision was much greater than ever before, and to facilitate its execution the

entire nomenclature was divided into four main sections and a

subcommittee appointed to study and agree upon the terms for each

i
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 133

section. These four subcommittees were as follows: Airship terms,

aerodynamic terms, power-plant terms, and airway terms. The four sections of the nomenclature, after revision by these

subcommittees, were submitted to and approved by the conference

as a whole, and the entire nomenclature was officially approved by

the executive committee on September 19, 1925. The new nomenclature will be published in the near future as a technical report, and

will supersede all previous publications of the committee on the

subject.

Adoption of Standard Atmosphere.—In response to the need for a national standard of certain basic physical constants for use in

connection with aeronautical calculations relating to pressure, temperature, and density relations in a normal or standard atmosphere,

the committee on aerodynamics took up the question, and, after

careful consideration and agreement between representatives of the

Army Air Service, the Bureau of Aeronautics, of the Navy Department, the United States Weather Bureau, and the National Bureau

of Standards, recommended the adoption of a set of values, known

as the standard atmosphere.

On December 2, 1924, this standard was officially approved by the

executive committee, and, on recommendation of the committee, has

since been adopted for use in aeronautical calculations by the War

and Navy Departments, the Weather Bureau, and the National

Bureau of Standards.

Tables and other reference data based on this standard have been

prepared for laboratory use, and are being published as technical

report No. 218 of the committee, entitled " Standard Atmosphere—Tables and Data."

Adoption of Altimeter Calibration Standard.—On suggestion of

the aeronautic instruments section of the National Bureau of Standards, this committee organized a special conference on altimeter

calibration standards as a subcommittee of the committee on aero- dynamics, for the purpose of formulating and recommending a new

national standard for the calibration of altimeters. The altitude

pressure relation previously in use in this country for the calibration

of altimeters was based on the assumption of a constant temperature

of +10° C. at all altitudes, which differed widely from the average

temperatures actually experienced, and hence caused altimeter readings to deviate considerably from the true altitude in many cases. It was, therefore, deemed desirable that a new standard be adopted

which would be more nearly in agreement with actual conditions.

The special conference on altimeter calibration standards included

in its membership representatives of the engineering division of the

Army Air Service, the Bureau of Aeronautics, of the Navy Department, the Weather Bureau, the National Bureau of Standards, the
134 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

National Aeronautic Association, and this committee. A meeting

of the conference was held on December 6, 1924, at which the new

standard was agreed upon for recommendation to the committee on

aerodynamics. This standard was approved by the executive committee on February 18, 1925, on recommendation of the committee on aerodynamics, and has since been adopted by the War and Navy

Departments, the Weather Bureau, and the National Bureau of Standards.

Standard Method for Determination of High-Altitude Performance.—In response to a general feeling among the organizations in

this country, that the methods used by the Federation Aeronautique

Internationale for the determination of altitudes in comparing

high-altitude performance of airplanes were not sufficiently accurate, a special conference on standard method of comparing highaltitude performance was organized as a subcommittee of the

committee on aerodynamics. The membership of this special conference included representatives of the Army Air Service, the

Naval Bureau of Aeronautics, the Weather Bureau, the National

Bureau of Standards, the National Aeronautic Association, and this

committee.

A meeting of this conference was held on June 3, 1925, at which a standard method for the determination of high-altitude performance

of aircraft was agreed upon for recommendation to the National

Aeronautic Association, which is the official representative in this

country of the Federation Aeronautique Internationale. On recom- mendation of the committee on aerodynamics, this standard was

transmitted on June 10, 1925, to the president of the National

Aeronautic Association, with a view to its presentation at the annual

conference of the Federation Aeronautique Internationale.

Standardization of Wind-Tunnel Results.—For the past several

years tests have been conducted in various wind tunnels in this

country and abroad on series of standard models with a view to bringing about a standardization of wind-tunnel results by a comparison of the results of these tests. Three cylinder models having a length ratio of 5 : 1 and four

models of the United States Army 16 airfoil having an aspect ratio

of 6 : and lengths varying from 18 to 36 inches have been tested

during the past year at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

and tests are now under way at McCook Field. These models had

previously been tested at the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory, the Washington Navy Yard, and the National Bureau of

Standards. The tests in all the wind tunnels on these models were

conducted over as wide a range of V/L as possible and included the

determination of lift, drag, and pitching moment for every 4° from

-4° to +20° C.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 135

Tests have also been conducted at the request of the Aeronautical

Research Committee of Great Britain on airship and airfoil models

constructed by the National Physical Laboratory. During the past

year a joint report on the results of the tests in this country of the

National Physical Laboratory, Royal Air Force, 15 airfoil model has

been prepared as the result of a conference between the heads of the

various laboratories at which the tests were made. This report, in

accordance with a recent agreement with the Aeronautical Research

Committee, will probably be published in this country in the near

future. An exact copy of the National Physical Laboratory airship

model is undergoing test in the variable-density wind tunnel of the

committee for comparison of the results with those obtained in the

wind tunnels of the atmospheric type.

During the past year the program of standardization tests for the

wind tunnels of this country has been extended to include tests of

three geometrically similar disks 4, 8, and 12 inches in diameter,

respectively. These disks have been constructed and have been

tested at the Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory, and will

later be tested in the wind tunnels at the Washington Navy Yard,

the National Bureau of Standards, the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, and McCook Field.

On request of the Aeronautical Research Committee of Great

Britain, the committee is now testing in its variable-density wind

tunnel at Langley Field a model of the Royal Air Force 15 wing section on a Bristol fighter airplane, a model of the Royal Air Force 19 wing

section on a BE-2E airplane, and a model of the Royal Air Force 30

section on a Bristol fighter airplane, for comparison with the results

of wind-tunnel and full-scale tests conducted on these sections in

England.

In response to suggestion of the Aeronautical Research Committee

that valuable information might be obtained if a metal-propeller

model which has been tested in this country in an open-type wind

tunnel could be sent to England and tested in one of the closed-type

tunnels of the National Physical Laboratory, the committee for- warded to England for this purpose a metal-propeller model which

had previously been tested in the open-type wind tunnel at Stanford

University.

Standardization of Aeronautical Symbols and Abbreviations.

During the past year the American Engineering Standards Committee

has had under way a program for the simplification and standardization of symbols and abbreviations used in technical and scientific

fields. This program is being carried out by a sectional committee

on scientific and engineering symbols and abbreviations of the

standards committee, the sponsors for which are the American

Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Institute
136 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

of Electrical Engineers, the American Society of Civil Engineers, the

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the Society for the

Promotion of Engineering Education.

The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics has cooperated

in this project in the preparation of the proposed standard symbols

for aeronautics. Dr. Joseph S. Ames, chairman of the executive

committee and of the subcommittee on aerodynamics of the National

Advisory Committee, acted as chairman of the subcommittee on

aeronautics of the sectional committee on scientific and engineering

symbols and abbreviations. The following organizations were represented on this subcommittee, in addition to the National Advisory

Committee for Aeronautics: The Army Air Corps, the Naval Bureau

of Aeronautics, the National Bureau of Standards, the United States

Weather Bureau, the Air Mail Service of the Post Office Department,

the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the Society of Automotive Engineers, and the Society for the Promotion of Engineering

Education. A meeting of the subcommittee was held on April 23,

1926, and a list of aeronautical symbols was recommended for approval as American standard. This list is now being considered by

the sectional committee.

American Aeronautical Safety Code.—The final draft of the « Aeronautical Safety Code was approved by the sectional committee

that is sponsored by the National Bureau of Standards and the Society of Automotive Engineers (Inc.) on April 23, 1925, and was subsequently submitted to and approved by the sponsors, who referred

it to the American Engineering Standards Committee for final approval as a tentative American standard. The code has been

prepared in printed form and may be obtained from the society.

The sectional committee is widely representative of the aero- nautical interests and functions under the procedure of the American

Engineering Standards Committee, the principal organizations rep- resented on the sectional committee being the Aeronautical Chamber

of Commerce, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, American

Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Society for Testing

Materials, American Society of Safety Engineers, Manufacturers

Aircraft Association, National Aeronautic Association, National Aircraft Underwriters' Association, National Advisory Committee for

Aeronautics, National Safety Council, Rubber Association of America,

Society of Automotive Engineers (Inc.), Underwriters Laboratories

(Inc.), National Bureau of Standards, United States Forest Service,

United States Navy Department, United States Post Office Department, United States War Department, and United States Weather

Bureau.

The committee is a continuing one, subject to call by the sponsors

to reconsider the code in part or as a whole whenever it may seem
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 137

advisable to do so, although it is felt that such revisions should not

be necessary for some time because of the care that was taken in

preparing the code. It has been the objective of the committee to prepare a code that will promote general agreement and mutual understanding as to acceptable practices for safety in the construction

and performance of aircraft, but not to prescribe too closely the

methods of design, construction, or operation. It is hoped that on

this basis the code will prove to be a valuable guide to designers,

constructors, and operators of both aircraft and airdromes in advancing the development of commercial aviation, and to constituted

authorities in enforcing regulations that may be enacted to govern

this branch of the transportation service and industries.

NATIONAL SCREW THREAD COMMISSION

The National Screw Thread Commission was authorized by an act

of Congress approved July 18, 1918 (Public Act No. 201, H. R.

10852, 65th Cong.). The life of the commission, which was originally

fixed at six months, was extended from time to time by subsequent

legislation, and on April 16, 1926, the commission was made a permanent body by removal of the time limit. (Public Act No. 125, EL R.

264, 69th Cong.)

The duties of the commission, as set forth in the above acts, are to—

* * * ascertain and establish standards for screw threads, which shall be

submitted to the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, and the Secretary

of Commerce for their acceptance and approval. Such standards, when thus

accepted and approved, shall be adopted and used in the several manufacturing

plants under the control of the War and Navy Departments, and, so far as practicable, in all specifications for screw threads in proposals for manufactured

articles, parts, or materials to be used under the direction of these departments.

The commission is composed of nine members. The Director of

the National Bureau of Standards is ex-omcio chairman of the

commission, and of the eight additional members two are appointed

by the Secretary of War, two by the Secretary of the Navy, and four

by the Secretary of Commerce. Of the latter, two are from nominations made by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and

two from nominations made by the Society of Automotive Engineers.

The field of ordinary bolts and nuts for holding purposes has been

well covered by the commission, two reports having been issued; a

progress report in 1921 (Misc. Pubs., Bureau of Standards, No. 42),

and a revised report in 1924 (Misc. Pubs., Bureau of Standards, No.

61). A complete classification of screw-thread fits has been set up,

including dimensions and tolerances for all classes except the wrenchtight or interference fit. The reports also contain specifications and

tolerances for fire-hose threads, small hose threads, and pipe threads.
138 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The revised report also contains many helpful suggestions with

reference to tap drills, threading tools, and gauges.

Most of the standards set up by the commission have been approved by the American Engineering Standards Committee as American standards.

The commission has also cooperated with a sectional committee

organized under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering

Standards Committee in setting up standard dimensions and toler- ances for bolt heads, nuts, and wrench openings. A report has been

completed, which is now in the hands of the sponsor bodies for

approval and promulgation as an American standard.

In April, 1926, the commission participated in a series of AngloAmerican and international conferences looking toward the international standardization of screw threads. While no changes in screw-thread standards were agreed upon, many points of common

interest were developed, and certain common problems discussed

with a view to establishing a definite and uniform practice with

reference to thread forms and clearances.

The commission has also cooperated with the American Petroleum

Institute in an extensive program of standardization of oil-field equipment, especially threaded joints for well casing, and cabledrilling tool joints and gauges. Four complete sets of master gauges

for the cable-drilling tool joint which have been designed and constructed for the institute have been inspected and approved by the

National Bureau of Standards. One of these sets is deposited at the

bureau for use as a master reference set and the others have been

distributed—one set to each of the important oil-producing regions.

Through the use of these regional master gauges the oil industry

throughout the country is now working to a single standard for this product in which complete interchangeability is of great importance.

A supplement to Section IV of the 1924 Report of the National

Screw Thread Commission was adopted March 17, 1926, adoption

confirmed May 5, 1926, by the commission giving tables of specific

values of pitch diameter tolerances intended to cover nearly all practical combinations of diameter, pitch, length of engagement,

and class of fit. These tables will greatly facilitate the specifications

of dimensions on drawings of special fastening screw threads.

The commission now has before it the proposal of an extension of

the national fine thread series above \}/o inches, with pitches some- what coarser than those given in the 1921 progress report, to provide

for general practice in the manufacture of bolts, nuts, and studs.

In addition, a special 12-pitch series covering sizes from inch to

3 inches is proposed to include the series in use in railroad practice

and for use, wherever possible, for all applications requiring special

threads.
STANDAEDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 139

The increasing use of ground-thread taps in industry has developed

a fuller knowledge of the technical phases of their application and

shown the great desirability of developing a single standard for their

thread dimensions which will meet the major needs of industry.

At its meeting on June 28, 1926, the National Screw Thread Commission appointed a subcommittee to form a larger committee which

includes representatives of the Tap and Die Institute and of two

large users of ground taps, to develop such standard tables of di- mensions and tolerances. The new tables will replace those now

published in the 1924 National Screw Thread Commission Report

and by the Tap and Die Institute.

The commission is now giving its attention to several projects not

covered by the reports so far issued. Among these the following

may be mentioned:

Dimensions and tolerances for wrench-tight fits, such as studs to be permanently set in cast iron, aluminum, etc. Special threads for use in the electrical industry.

Acme, square, and other special threads. Hose connection threads for cutting and welding torches (completed)

Threads and gauges for cable drilling tool joints (completed).

Dimensions and tolerances for ground thread taps. Fine thread series above 1^ inches. While the use of the standards established by the commission is mandatory only in the case of establishments operated by or under

the control of the War and Navy Departments, the standards so

far established have come into very wide voluntary use outside of

the Government, and their wide acceptance in the industries manufacturing or using screw threads has resulted in very great economic

saving, through increased interchangeability of products and decreased rejections, stocks, and carrying charges.

THE PANAMA CANAL

The Inspecting Engineer of the Panama Canal represents that

activity on the Executive Committee of the Federal Specifications

Board.

The Panama Canal is represented on 34 technical committees of

the Federal Specifications Board.

The Panama Canal is represented on the main and executive committees of the American Engineering Standards Committee. It is also represented on the American Society for Testing Materials committees on cement and screen wire cloth. The Panama Canal makes use of the United States Government

master specifications as far as they are applicable. Where no

Federal specifications are in existence covering any particular material it has been found desirable in many instances to use the

Navy specifications. However, in cases where the Panama Canal
140 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDAKDS

has found that there were no specifications in existence which would

insure their receiving material suitable for their requirements, the

authorities at the Canal Zone have endeavored to compile proper

data to be used as a basis for a specification, which often entails

considerable research work, and as a consequence the Panama

Canal has been obliged to issue a number of specifications.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

Astrophysical Observatory.—When in 1902 the observation of solar radiation, on which the temperature of the earth and all life depends, was begun by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory,

there were no instruments in existence capable of measuring the energy

of radiation to within 5 or 10 per cent, and the disagreement between

different varieties of supposedly standard instruments in this field reached as much as 50 per cent. Accordingly there was chosen for

the work two types of standard pyrheliometer and one type of sec- ondary standard pyrheliometer as follows:

1. The standard water-flow pyrheliometer, capable of receiving and completely absorbing solar heat, measuring the same to a small fraction of 1 per cent, and checking the measurements by observations on electrically introduced heat which were recovered in measuring to within a small fraction of 1 per cent.

2. The standard water-stir pyrheliometer, having similar characteristics to the water-flow pyrheliometer but employing different principles of measuring.

3. The secondary silver-disk pyrheliometer, more applicable to daily use. Over 50 copies of this instrument have been prepared, standardized at the Smithsonian Institution, and sent out, at cost, to a large number of the countries

of the world, including England and several of its dependencies, France, Germany,

Spain, Chile, Russia, Switzerland, and various of the continental and insular parts of the United States. Thus, the Smithsonian Institution furnished the standard scale of

solar radiation measurements to the world, and the measurements

in other countries are usually reduced to this standard in present

publications.

The methods of measuring the solar radiation have also been reduced

to a standardized system. Full descriptions of the apparatus and

methods are published in Volumes II, III, and IV of the Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory.

National Museum.—The principle of standardization was not only

recognized but extensively practiced at the time of the organization

of the modern National Museum. The sizes and character of the

exhibition cases were reduced to certain units and their multiples.

The colors of backgrounds and of walls of the exhibition rooms were

standardized. The size, color, and type of labels were standardized

and reduced to units. The storing of the study collections came in

for particular attention. The standard storage unit case, with its three-quarter unit, half unit and quarter unit cases, in which our
STANDARDS YEAEBOOK, 1927 141

present complement of tens of thousands of drawers are now interchangeably used throughout the Museum, was adopted as a foundation and has proven a saver of time, labor, and money.

The present unit system of the insect cases followed the office furniture, and later even stationery came in for this standardization.

In the scientific work standardization has progressed satisfactorily.

The metric system has long since been adopted. The international

efforts of zoologists and botanists to standardize their methods,

terminology, and nomenclature have had sympathetic cooperation

and material assistance from the Museum. The publications have

likewise had the principle of standardization progressively applied

to them. Citations and abbreviations have been reduced to standard

rules, synoptic keys have been simplified according to standard

principles, etc. Specific instances of work of the character referred to above are the publication of the opinions rendered by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, of which commission two

officers of the Museum are members, and the publication in "The

Auk," volume 43, No. 3, July, 1926, of "The Revised Classification

for the Fourth Edition of the A. O. U. Check List. " Similar standards

are set up in many of the Museum monographs.

UNITED STATES GEOGRAPHIC BOARD

This board passes on all unsettled questions concerning geographic names which arise in the departments, as well as determines, changes,

and fixes place names within the United States and its insular possessions, and all names suggested by any officer of the Government are

referred to the board for consideration and approval before publication. The decisions of the board are accepted by all of the departments of the Government as standard authority.

UNITED STATES SHIPPING BOARD, EMERGENCY FLEET CORPORATION

This activity is represented on the executive committee, Federal

Specifications Board, by the assistant director of supplies. It is also represented on 26 technical committees of the Federal Specifications

Board.

The Shipping Board is represented on the American Engineering

Standards Committee sectional committee on electrical installations on shipboard.

The Shipping Board collaborates with the following organizations on standardization work:

American Marine Standards Committee.

American Society for Testing Materials. American Petroleum Institute. Steamship Owners Association.
142 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDAEDS

Fuel Conservation Committee.—The director of operations of the

Emergency Fleet Corporation has formed a committee to establish

standards of fuel consumption for port and sea performance of the

active vessels of the Government merchant marine fleet. Members

for this committee are selected from the organizations listed below

Department of maintenance and repair, United States Shipping Board.

Fuel section, United States Shipping Board.

The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

The American Bureau of Shipping.

The Marine Engineers Benevolent Association. The operating managers of United States Shipping Board.

Marine publications.

The object of the committee is to promulgate and institute such

modifications in equipment and system of operation as will effect fuel economy without disturbing the traffic requirements of the fleet. Results obtained by the committee:

Standards based on fuel per mile at various drafts and speeds for 76 classes of

vessels have been established. Port standards based on various allowances for handling cargo, length of port

stay, etc., have been established. Systematic inspection of vessels and analysis of performance is maintained.

Comparison of performance of sister vessels is transmitted to various operators.

Honor roll of best performers of fleet is published semiannually and bonus

awarded best performers. (Maximum award, 50 vessels.) Research is conducted as to improved methods of operation and equipment,

especially combustion of cheaper grades of fuel. Maintains liaison between United States Shipping Board and other Govern- ment departments in reference to means of effecting fuel economy, especially in connection with fuel oil testing plant of United States Navy.

Operates fuel school in conjunction with United States Navy for officers of Merchant Marine.

Follows up all modification in equipment to determine actual results obtained

in service. Acts in advisory capacity to privately owned vessels of the American Merchant

Marine, to assist them in setting up a system whereby they can carry out the scheme which is in effect on the Government-owned vessels. Current activities.—

Active participation in the items listed above.

Actively engaged in connection with United States Navy, Bureau of Mines,

and private manufacturers in carrying on a program of tests to determine the

feasibility of using pulverized coal for marine purposes. Extending the program of fuel conservation so as to incorporate the various

other items of expense of merchant vessels such as repairs, stevedoring, supplies,

etc.Accomplishments in 1926.—The Fuel Conservation Committee

effected a reduction in the fuel costs of the Government fleet of

$350,000, as compared to 1925. This is in addition to a saving made

in 1925, amounting to a $2,500,000 reduction as compared to 1922.

This saving is determined by multiplying the total miles traveled
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 143

by the Government-owned vessels in 1926 by the reduction in the

fuel-per-mile factor, plus the product obtained by multiplying the

total port hours of the fleet by the reduction in fuel consumption per

hour for port service.

UNITED STATES VETERANS' BUREAU

The Veterans' Bureau is represented on the Federal Specifications

Board by the assistant chief, purchase and issue subdivision of the

supply division.

The bureau is represented on 32 technical committees of the Federal

Specifications Board.

There is in the coordination service of this bureau a division designated as the " standardization division," but the coordination service as a whole, which includes the investigation, evaluation, and standardization division, is responsible for all work of standardization and

coordination.

The functions of the service are to make audits, investigations, and

inspections; to obtain, compile, and evaluate statistical data; to prepare estimates of needed appropriations and maintain control of the budget; to supervise the application of the classification act of

1923 in the United States Veterans' Bureau; to assist in the standardization of organization, policy and procedure. The service can recom- mend modification of any principles or practices upon the basis of facts found through study, investigation, evaluation, or by any step

in the coordinating process. The procedure includes the following steps: The finding of original

facts by personal contact or through original correspondence, in- vestigation reports, authentic statistical compilations, etc., and after

evaluation of the data for determining needs, criteria of accomplishment, etc., the pointing out, upon the basis of facts found, of the

indicated standards and necessary principles and practices, and the

testing of their practicability by coordinating them through consultation or communication with the organization units whose

activities are affected. The current activities include the completion of work previously

begun relating to the standardization of: Personnel specifications.

Salaries. Criteria for determining the number and distribution of employees in some of the different classes of work in which requirements can be estimated by pro- duction measurement.

Criteria for determining the best methods and procedure for conducting

various activities with special reference to the further development of standardized methods in the more technical operations, such as rating, etc. The number and content of forms required for carrying out the procedure.

The improvement of organization in central office and its field offices. Budget control.
144 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDAEDS

The principal accomplishment of the bureau in standardization for the year 1926 was the placing in operation, effective January 1, 1926,

of a Standard Schedule for Rating Disabilities. This schedule comprises two tables, the first of which shows occupational variants

which express the functional importance of 17 body parts in each of approximately 1,000 occupations, the variants having been determined by a statistical process of combining and coordinating the

judgments of experts regarding the degree of functioning required

of each body part in performing the operations of each occupation.

The second table classifies by diagnosis and according to extent and

severity the common disabilities which have been disclosed by the

examination and observation of World War veterans, and expresses

under the appropriate occupational variants the percentage (or the

range of the percentage) impairment in earning capacity caused by

the effect of the disabilities upon the respective body parts in re- ducing the individual's ability to do the work of each of the listed

occupations. This table was designed to eliminate the disparities in

rating which previously existed and to establish a standard rating

procedure whereby each individual might be rated upon the basis of

the impairment of earning capacity (in the occupation in which he was employed at the time of enlistment) caused by disabilities incurred in or aggravated by his military service.

Much has been accomplished by the bureau during this year also toward reducing the number of employees and the general overhead

expense through the standardization of personnel requirements and

the standardization of methods and procedure.

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT RESEARCH AND TESTING LABORATORIES

These laboratories are primarily intended for research and testing

for the Government service, and their services, in general, are not

available to the public for commercial testing, except that under

certain regulations, prescribed by law, some of the laboratories, in- cluding the National Bureau of Standards, are available for special

tests in the public interest.

A list of nongovernmental laboratories available for commercial

testing will be found in Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication No. 90. Department of Agriculture: Bureau of Chemistry, 216 Thirteenth Street SW., Washington, D. C. Bureau of Public Roads, 515 Fourteenth Street NW., Washington, D. C. Bureau of Soils, Twelfth and B Streets SW., Washington, D. C. Forest Products Laboratory, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

Insecticide and Fungicide Board, 220 Thirteenth Street SW., Washington,

D. C. Weather Bureau, Twenty-fourth and M Streets NW., Washington, D. C.
STANDABDS YEAEBOOK, 1927 145

Department of Commerce:

Bureau of Fisheries, Sixth and B Streets SW., Washington, D. C. Bureau of Lighthouses, Tompkinsville, N. Y. Bureau of Mines, main laboratory, 4800 Forbes Street, Pittsburgh, Pa. Branch laboratory

Fairbanks, Alaska. University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.

University of Nevada, Reno, Nev.

National Bureau of Standards, main laboratories, Connecticut Avenue and

Pierce Mill Road, Washington, D. C. Branch laboratories at

Appraisers Building, San Francisco, Calif. 434 Federal Building, Denver, Colo. Lord Hall, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Northampton, Pa. Department of the Interior: Geological Survey, New Interior Building, Eighteenth and F Streets NW.,

Washington, D. C. Navy Department:

Aeronautical Engine laboratory, United States Aircraft Factory, Navy yard,

Philadelphia, Pa. Bureau of Aeronautics, United States Naval Air Station, Anacostia, D. C. Bureau of Construction and Repair, Ninth Avenue and Martha Street, Munhall, Pa.

Fire-control Laboratory, United States Navy yard, Washington, D. C.

Fuel-oil Testing Plant, United States Navy yard, Philadelphia, Pa. Material Laboratory, United States Navy yard, Brooklyn, N. Y.

Metallurgical and Testing Division, Navy yard, Washington, D. C. Naval Engineering Experiment Station, Annapolis, Md.

Naval Medical Supply Depot, Sands and Pearl Streets, Brooklyn, N. Y. Naval Powder Factory, Indian Head, Md.

Naval Research Laboratory, Bellevue, Anacostia, D. C. Naval Supply Depot, Twenty-ninth Street and Third Avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y. Navy yard, Boston, Mass. Navy yard, Mare Island, Calif. Navy yard, Norfolk, Va. Navy yard, Philadelphia, Pa. Navy yard, Puget Sound, Wash.

Treasury Department: Bureau of Engraving and Printing, Fourteenth and C Streets SW., Washington D. C. Bureau of the Public Health Service, Hygienic Laboratory, Twenty-fifth and

E Streets NW., Washington, D. C. Division of Customs

Customs laboratories

Care United States appraiser of merchandise at

501 Lombard Street, Baltimore, Md.

158 West Harrison Street, Chicago, 111. 408 Atlantic Avenue, Boston, Mass.

423 Canal Street, New Orleans, La. 641 Washington Street, New York, N. Y.

134 South Second Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Sansome and Washington Streets, San Francisco, Calif.
146 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

Treasury Department—Continued.

Division of Customs—Continued. x Customs laboratories—Continued. Care Collector of Customs, corner Bull and Dey Streets, Savannah,

Ga. Assay offices

Care Deputy Collector of Customs, 915 Grant Avenue, Kansas

City, Mo.

Care United States Appraiser of Merchandise, 641 Washington

Street, New York, N. Y.

Internal Revenue offices at

530 Post Office Building, Buffalo, N. Y. Mint Building, Charlotte, N. C. 428 Transportation Building, Chicago, 111. 36 West Gay Street, Columbus, Ohio. 906 Waggoner Building, Fort Worth, Tex. Transportation Building, Los Angeles, Calif. 5 Federal Building, Minneapolis, Minn.

Customhouse, New Orleans, La. 544 Old Post Office Building, New York, N. Y.

317, Post Office Building (office), Omaha, Nebr. 512 Earle Building, Philadelphia, Pa. 601 House Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. Federal Building, Providence, R. I. 63 Appraisers Building, San Francisco, Calif. Thompson Building, Seattle, Wash.

1016 Title Guaranty Building, St. Louis, Mo.

422 Treasury Building, Washington, D. C. United States Assay offices at

Boise, Idaho. Carson City, Nev. Deadwood, S. Dak.

Helena, Mont.

32 W

Tall Street, New York, N. Y.

Salt Lake City, Utah.

Seattle, Wash.

United States Mint at

Denver, Colo. Philadelphia, Pa. San Francisco, Calif. United States Coast Guard, Darby Building, 508 Fourteenth Street, Washington, D. C. War Department:

Air Corps, material division, Dayton, Ohio. Chemical Warfare Service, Edgewood Arsenal, Md.

Medical Department at

United States Army, Army Medical School, Army medical center, Washington, D. C. United States Army, New York Intermediate Depot, Fifty-eighth and

First Streets, Brooklyn, N. Y. Ordnance office, Watertown Arsenal, Dover, N. J. Quartermaster Intermediate Depot, Camp Holabird, Md.

Quartermaster Intermediate Depot, Twenty-first and Oregon Avenue,

Philadelphia, Pa.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 147

War Department—Continued.

Quartermaster Subsistence School, 1819 West Pershing Road, Chicago, 111. Signal Corps

United States Aircraft Radio Laboratory, McCook Field, Dayton, Ohio. The Signal Corps Laboratory, 1800 Virginia Avenue NW., Washington,

D. C. Meteorological Laboratory, Room 3448, Munitions Building, Nineteenth

and B Streets NW., Washington, D. C. Subaqueous Sound Ranging Laboratory, Fort H. G. Wright, New

London, Conn.

District Government : Asphalt and Cement Laboratory, Room 527, District Building, Washington,

D. C. Government Printing Office, North Capitol and G Streets NW., Washington,

D. C. The Panama Canal, Munhall, Pa. Smithsonian Institution, National Museum, the Mall, Washington, D. C. United States Shipping Board Emergencj7 Fleet Corporation, Pier No. 3, Hoboken, N. J. United States Soldiers' Home, Washington, D. C. United States Veterans' Bureau. (The Veterans' Bureau does laboratory work

at the following Dispensaries and Hospitals:)

Dispensaries

Class A

Boston, Mass; New York, N. Y.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Pittsburgh,

Pa.; Washington, D. C; Atlanta, Ga.; New Orleans, La.; Cincinnati, Ohio; Chicago, 111.; Detroit, Mich.; St. Louis, Mo.;

Minneapolis, Minn.; Denver, Colo.; Los Angeles, Calif.; San Francisco, Calif.; Seattle, Wash.; Dallas, Tex.

Class B—

Newark, N. J.; Baltimore, Md.; Cleveland, Ohio; Louisville, Ky.;

Indianapolis, Ind.; Milwaukee, Wis.; Des Moines, Iowa; Kansas City, Mo.; Omaha, Nebr.; Salt Lake City, Utah:

Portland, Oreg.; Oklahoma City, Okla.; Little Rock, Ark.

Class C—

Albany, N. Y.; Hartford, Conn.; Charleston, W. Va.; Bir- mingham, Ala.; Jackson, Miss.; Lexington, Ky.; Wichita, Kans.; Sioux Falls, S. Dak.; Albuquerque, N. Mex.; Casper,

Wyo.; San Antonio, Tex.

Hospitals

Tuberculosis

Alexandria, La.; West Haven, Conn.; Whipple, Ariz.; Tucson,

Ariz.; Fort Bayard, N. Mex.; Oteen, N. C; Camp Kearney,

Calif.; Minneapolis, Minn.; Fort Harrison, Mont.; Outwood,

Ky.; Fort Lyon, Colo.; Walla Walla, Wash.; Rutland Heights, Mass.; Legion, Tex.; Sunmount, N. Y.; Castle Point, N. Y.; Livermore, Calif.; Aspinwall, Pa.; San Fernando, Cuba.

Neuropsychiatric

Palo Alto, Calif.; Perry Point, Md.; West Roxbury, Mass.;

Philadelphia, Pa.; Knoxville, Iowa; Augusta, Ga.; Gulfport,

Miss.; North Little Rock, Ark.; Bronx, N. Y.; Sheridan, Wyo.;

American Lake, Wash.; Northampton, Mass.; Chillicothe,

Ohio; Camp Custer, Mich.; St. Cloud, Minn.; North Chicago,

ni.
148 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

United States Veterans' Bureau—Continued.

Hospitals—Continued.

General

Washington, D. C.j Waukesha, Wis.; Atlanta, Ga.; Boise, Idaho;

Dwight, 111.; Tacoma, Wash.; Lake City, Fla.; St. Paul, Minn.; Kansas City, Mo.; Fort Thomas, Ky.; Portland, Oreg.; Algiers

La.; Memphis, Tenn.; Muskogee, Okla.; Tuskegee, Ala.; Jefferson Barracks, Mo.; Excelsior Springs, Mo.
VI. NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

HISTORICAL OUTLINE 1 The power to "fix the standard of weights and measures" vested in

Congress by the Constitution (art. 1, sec. 8) was not exercised, except

for coinage purposes, until the act of March 2, 1799, requiring semiannual comparison of all the weights and measures used in the

customhouses. However, this revision apparently was not enforced

until 1830 when large discrepancies were found among the weights

and measures in use by the customs collectors. - Without awaiting authority from Congress, a shop was equipped

at Washington under the "Survey of the Coast," Treasury Department, for making new standards for customs purposes, copies of

which, by act of Congress (1836), were sent to the States. The same

office later supplied the governments of new States created by

Congress. Congress also directed (1866) that the States be supplied

with sets of metric standards. From 1873 funds were separately

specified for this office, which was named (1883) the Office of Construction of Standard Weights and Measures.

The splendid work of the old office in establishing American

standards and comparing them interested men of science. The

International Electrical Congress (1884) held a special session to consider a paper on "A national bureau of physical standards"—the

first call for such a bureau of science in America. The call was later

echoed by the Secretary of the Treasury (1900), who proposed to Congress that such a bureau be established. "The enterprise," he

stated, was "one of the most important branches of scientific work

any Government was called upon to undertake" and that a scientific laboratory was called for "fitted for undertaking the most refined

measurements known to modern science." The great technical and

scientific societies joined the larger industries in support of the project.

In order to get into line with the other leading countries and to meet the demands of science and industry for standardization, the

act of March 3, effective July 1, 1901, established the National

Bureau of Standards, which was transferred from the Treasury

Department to the Department of Commerce and Labor July 1, 1903.

At the time of organization, the National Bureau of Standards had

only eight employees, including a watchman and a messenger. The

1 For further reference see " Organization and Law of the Department of Commerce and Labor," Document No. 13; " History of the Standard Weights and Measures of the United States," by L. A. Fischer M 64; and "The Bureau of Standards," by G. A. Weber, published by the Institute for Government

Besearch. 149
150 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDAKDS

ensuing 25 years have brought about a steady conservative expansion

of its primary functions until on July 1, 1926, the total staff numbered

785. Its library receives more than 600 technical and scientific journals and contains 27,000 catalogued books in several languages.

Its 11 scientific and technical divisions cover more than 60 specialties.

FUNCTIONS

GENERAL

The National Bureau of Standards is charged by law with the

custody of the standards ; the comparison of the standards with those

used in science, industry, technology, commerce; and educational

institutions ; the construction of standards and of their multiples and

subdivisions; the testing and certification of standard measuring

instruments; the solution of problems arising in connection with

standards; the determination of physical constants and properties of

materials; and other investigations authorized by Congress. The

bureau's functions may be exercised for the National Government,

State governments, and, subject to reasonable fees, the general public.

The National Bureau of Standards aids industry directly or through

cooperating committees to determine the best standards of dimension,

quality, performance, and practice. Its unique research and testing

facilities are used to discover and evaluate material standards, and

to solve basic technical problems of industry.

STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT

The bureau's work on standards of measurement is designed to aid accuracy in industry through uniform and correct measures. In

this the bureau assists in size standardization of containers and

products, in promoting systematic inspection of trade weights and

measures to insure justice in daily trade, and finally to facilitate precise research in science and technology through the standardization

of measuring instruments.

STANDARD CONSTANTS

The work of the bureau on the measured numerical data concerning material and energy; that is, standard constants, furnishes an

exact basis for scientific experiment and design. These furnish also

the data for the efficient technical control of industrial process. STANDARDS OF QUALITY

The bureau's work on standards of quality includes the specification of the numerical magnitude of the property or group of properties which determine the quality. The purpose is to set an

attainable standard of quality to assure high utility in the products

of industry; to furnish a scientific basis for fair dealing by promoting

truthful branding and advertising through suitable standards and
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 151

methods of test. This work yields large-scale economies by eliminating ineffective materials.

STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE

The bureau likewise develops standards of performance; that is, specifications for the operative efficiency or accuracy of machines

or devices. These are numerical statements of speed, uniformity,

durability, output, economy, and other factors which, together, define

the net efficiency of an appliance or machine. The ultimate purpose is to make exact knowledge the basis of the buyer's choice, to

clarify the understanding between maker, seller, buyer, and user as to the operative efficiency of appliances and machines. An important

outcome of this work is that it stimulates and measures mechanical

progress. STANDARDS OF PRACTICE

A function of the bureau of very general interest is the development

of standards of practice; that is, collation of data and formulation

of codes of practice for public utilities and other services. These

are prepared in cooperation with the technical and commercial

agencies concerned and relate to the technical regulation of construction, installation, and operation. They are necessarily based

upon standards of measurement, standards of quality, and standards

of performance. The purpose of such work is to afford a single

impersonal standard of performance mutually agreed upon by all concerned and clearly defined in measurable terms. Incidentally,

it insures effective design and installation of service utilities, and

promotes safety, efficiency, and convenience in such service.

EXAMPLES

Congress has made special provision for research and testing in

specific fields involved in the five kinds of standards described above.

Some examples of such functions may be cited. State Weights and Measures.—Aid to State governments on

technical details of weights and measures inspection service, with a view to securing uniformity in weights and measures laws and

methods of inspection.

Gauge Standardization.—Standardization and testing gauges, screw threads, and other length standards required in manufacturing.

Railroad Track Scales.—Investigation of track scales and other

large scales used for interstate shipments and of large scales used by

the Government in transactions with the public.

Mine Scales.—Investigating mine scales and the conditions and

methods used to weigh and measure coal in fixing wages due, including

investigations of all means for insuring accuracy in weighing and

measuring at the mines.
152 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDAKDS

High Temperatures.—Investigations of methods of high-temperature measurements and temperature control in various industrial

processes, and making results available to industries.

Investigation of Automotive Engines.—For the promotion of economy and efficiency in automotive transportation by land and by

air through investigations of the basic principles underlying the

design, performance, operation, and testing of automotive engines,

their fuels, lubricants, accessories, and the power-transmitting system

used in connection with them, also such elements as brakes and

brake linings; to promote economy in the use of liquid fuels and safety

in vehicular traffic. Color Standardization.—Development of color standards and

methods of color measurement, with reference to their use in industrial

color standardization, the specification of colorants and of products

in which color is a pertinent property.

Radio Standardization.—Investigation and standardization of methods and instruments used in radio communication.

Sound Investigations.—Investigation of principles of sound and

their application to military and industrial purposes.

Standard Analyzed Materials.—Preparation, analysis, and certifi- cation of the composition of technical materials, either of typical

composition or of high purity, for use in checking and accuracy of

scientific and industrial chemical analyses and for testing physical

measuring instruments.

Fire-Resisting Properties.—Investigation of building materials

and their efficient use, and standardization of types of appliances for

fire prevention.

Structural Materials.—Investigation of stone, clays, cement, and

other structural materials; the collation and dissemination of scientific and other information as to approved methods for building structural

units; formulating building codes; and researches to promote, improve,

and cheapen housing and other construction.

Other Industrial Materials.—Development of standards of quality

and methods of measurement of textiles, paper, leather, and rubber.

Tests of materials, such as varnish, soap, ink, and chemicals, including

supplies for the Government service.

Clay Products.—Study of clay products, including methods of

measurement and technical processes used in their manufacture;

study of the properties of the materials used in this industry.

Optical Glass.—Investigation of problems involved in production

of optical glass.

Metallurgical Research.—Researches in metals, including foundry

practice, standards for metals, alloys, and sands ; their properties and

treatment; prevention of corrosion; development of substitutes for

metals; behavior of bearing metals; preparation of specifications;

investigation of new processes and methods of conservation in
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 153

manufacture; investigation of railway materials and causes of their

failure. Testing Machines.—Operation of testing machines in the determination of physical constants and properties of materials.

Sugar Standardization.—Development of technical specifications

for all grades of sugars, involving their standardization and methods

of manufacture; standardization and production of rare and unusual

types of sugars for medical and other scientific uses; determination of

fundamental scientific constants; standardization and design of sugartesting apparatus; study of technical problems relating to collection of revenue on sugars; and practical use of results in tests of imported

sugars.

Certification of Radioactive Materials.—Investigation of radium,

radium compounds, and other radioactive materials; standard testing

and certification of radioactive materials.

Standardization of Equipment.—Cooperation with the Government

and with engineers and manufacturers in formulating standards of

performance for instruments, equipment, tools, and other devices; the

testing and inspection of the same ; including formulation of methods

of inspection and of laboratory and service tests to insure compliance

with specification for quality and performance, and simplification of

varieties of products.

Public Utility Standards.—Investigation of standards and solution

of problems arising in connection with standards for public utilities,

such as gas, electric light and power, water, telephone, heating,

electric railway service.

Industrial Research.—Technical cooperation with the industries

upon fundamental research to promote industrial development and to

assist in the permanent establishment of new American industries.

Standardizing Mechanical Appliances.—To develop methods of

testing and standardizing machines, motors, tools, measuring instruments, and other apparatus and devices used in mechanical, hydraulic,

and aeronautic engineering; for the comparative study of types of

apparatus and methods of operation, and for the establishment of

standards of performance; for the accurate determination of funda--

mental physical constants involved in the proper execution of this

work; and for scientific experiments and investigations needed in

solving the problems which may arise in connection therewith, especially in response to the requirements of aeronautics and aviation,

for information of a purely scientific nature. RELATION TO GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES

FEDERAL

Measures have a vital place in Government. Coinage is based; on weights derived from, and checked by, the troy pound of the

National Bureau of Standards. The standard of length, the meter,
154 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

controls the invar steel tapes by which the master surveys are made

and National and State boundaries fixed. The bureau's researches

aid navigation, and the bureau sugar expert was assigned to modernize the sugar-testing methods at the ports and to place them

upon a scientific basis. Duplicate samples of all sugar cargoes are now tested at the bureau to control port analyses. The bureau

standardizes the water-current meters to measure stream flow in

forecasting water supply and flood and drought in the national

stream-gauging service. For all departments of the Government the

bureau performs standardizing service for research apparatus measuring appliances and supplies and conducts joint researches. A

special law enables the bureau to take up researches in which a given department is concerned, a transfer of funds being made upon

approval of the heads of the two departments concerned. The

advice of the bureau is sought by congressional committees, national

committees and commissions, the Bureau of the Budget, the General

Supply Committee, and almost all departments and independent

establishments.

The director is ex officio chairman of the Federal Specifications

Board and of the National Screw Thread Commission, which are

largely dependent upon the bureau for investigational and office work. He is also a member of the National Advisory Committee

for Aeronautics, the National Academy of Sciences, and the National

Research Council.

STATE

The bureau aids the States to secure for their citizens full measure

in shops and markets, adequate and safe public-utility service of

electricity and gas, and efficient specifications for State supplies.

The States depend upon the bureau for standards of measurement,

for testing them at intervals to keep them true to the national

standard. State officials confer at the bureau in a national conference on weights and measures held each year to discuss the technical details of local inspection, model laws, ordinances, and tolerances.

The bureau's nation-wide survey awakened the States to the serious

short measure prevalent in daily trade from defective measures,

faulty measurements, or even fraud. Only two States had then

adequate inspection. State legislatures and governors of States were apprised of the situation, and took effective action. To-day

most of the States have efficient inspection based upon the model

State law first drafted at the bureau and upon the manual of inspection practice prepared by the bureau.

A $4,000,000,000 freight bill is paid by the citizens of the States on products on their way to the people. The bureau's test cars traverse the various States on their nation-wide mission of accuracy,

testing the master railroad track scales for the States. These, in
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 155

turn, insure accuracy in such weighings on devices which have

shown notable improvement since this work was initiated.

The State purchasing officials requested the Department of Commerce to aid in the use of standard specifications for the purchase

of materials and equipment. The National Directory of Commodity Specifications, compiled and published by the National

Bureau of Standards with the cooperation of the Bureau of Foreign

and Domestic Commerce, is for the joint benefit of State and Federal

purchasing agencies.

Technical conferences of State utility commission engineers are held each year to promote cooperation of experts, State and National,

in this field. Standardization problems are of vital concern in all regulation of public utilities. The bureau is by law permitted to extend free testing service to State governments. This service covers weights, measures, measuring instruments, and materials, and is most useful. On request of

the States 'of Pennsylvania and New Jersey the bureau tested full- sized members of the Philadelphia-Camden Bridge, using its 10,000,000-pound compression testing machine, the largest of its kind in the world.

MUNICIPAL

The bureau aids cities by expert advice on utilities, such as gas,

electricity, or on technical inspection services, such as elevators,

fire hazards, gas-using appliances, lightning protection, and building

codes. The bureau developed a system of survey of the damage

possible from stray electricity which destroys underground metal

structures. Its remedial measures were completely worked out by

the bureau and applied to a number of cities with its experts cooperating. The bureau 's manual of weights and measures inspection gives

the city inspectors their standard reference and instruction book

the " Manual of Inspection and Information for Weights and Measures Officials." This is compact, with useful data drawn from the

nation-wide experience of bureau specialists, and is the inspector's

most useful guide in his training and daily work.

The bureau aids city traffic management in several ways. It

r has devised automobile brake-testing methods, including a new

decelerometer for measuring the rate of stopping. The methods

have been demonstrated in testing campaigns in Washington. The

bureau has tested and adjusted automobile headlight lamps, with

excellent results to the car owners and road illumination. A publication giving the best lighting practice has just been issued and is being made the basis of city regulation.

The "Zoning Primer" explains the modern districting of cities. Housing publications on construction and on plumbing, and other

36316—27 11
156 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

subjects described elsewhere, are aiding city governments in the

intelligent promotion and regulation of city housing enterprises.

The bureau has encouraged and aided the establishment of municipal testing laboratories. Its service to the local government of the

National Capital would form an interesting chapter touching on

river pollution, water power, bridge testing by strain gauges, inspection of causes of fires and of building accidents, street lighting,

theater curtains, testing of supplies, expert investigations in criminal

cases, check tests of gas and electric meters, and the technical phases

of traffic regulation and other distinctly city problems.

RELATION TO SCIENCE, COMMERCE, AND INDUSTRY

RESEARCH

Pure Science.—Research on problems arising in connection with

standards is by act of Congress a primary work of the bureau.

Research is essentially pioneer work. Progress demands new kinds

of measurements, new standards, and ever-increasing accuracy.

Close cooperation with other organizations interested in pure science

encourages the free exchange of discoveries customary in this field and frequently provides corroboratory bases for new hypotheses.

The bureau conducts hundreds of researches and suggests industrial

applications for the results. Research Associates.—Much of the bureau's research is directed

to the application of science in commerce and industry. The

research associate 2 plan permits industrial associations or groups

to place qualified men at the bureau for intensive study of selected

problems approved by the Director of the National Bureau of

Standards. Such men utilize the bureau's laboratory facilities and

equipment and have the same status as any bureau employee except

that their salaries are paid by the supporting group or association.

The work of a research associate is one of peculiar trust on

problems of concern to an entire industry. Research results are immediately available to the industry concerned and are frequently

printed in bureau publications. Devices or processes developed during research may not be patented for the benefit of the individual or the group, but are for the free use of the industry, the Government,

and the public. Correspondence relating to the work of the research

associate is conducted through official channels except on purely

personal matters. A list of the research associates and projects under investigation

arranged according to sustaining organizations is given in the following table. Current work of research associates relating to standards

of quality, performance, or practice, is given under activities and

accomplishments

.

1 For further details, see B. S. Circular No. 296.
STANDAKDS YEAEBOOK, 1927

a-s

W

p

s

a

. cq

2 k «.2 - n

S >, d 1* _g

03 © <B © co PhK opq o

bo . .3 . o "CO • -o © -Q -° £5© 1

• p

03 W Q g M .9p

© "3 9 Sms -2 2 a -q (5 c S ?93 ^ .3 3 © © « * g-c^ a^ o gjjp c3 c3^ s -p

.5 .a © C3 ©&

2 d bo

.5 3°S lis 5203 tn

53 aW

:e

ur© |1

§"5;

2'p,

03 -do o

? £ o

.9.°- ipsa Pi g.^ 53

^ *3 o co

03 ©•

So 3 cs

1 © co

! 3 & H 03

03 * gig

g*5 bO © .3 «m O MO

^2 bo .9*= G

3.'£ g

,3:3 co be© _

1 CO ©

S|a © 2 *-c

9 2 °a

P a §1

> cq ©

O

O^ £ £

pa £3.

r< ©

3 «

3 6^

CO

fcj 1-1 y

. r

Cj rj, C SB'S

te O©g.o3

a co co ©

o ot^4 -u °^a|g

ttjO 2 m «

bo i-v o s s a 2 2 3 as

O) . 0) H S

O W

g-bO

03 "H ! 03 cB

^§'C |5 g ssas °-

1U rl rtl O ! 05 O

; -93 3ft

.5? bo o g

"53 q. co 03 3

<u r1 co > n > ^^1o

§tg«.sa-aS

CP . 13

03^

-3^3.9

a !§p< t? o trs 1- o 5 >> o >>.t! © m

I-t OJ—

Q.03^1 2 £ 2

* 52

<o bo II

"3 a 3 Sb 3

S3 o

03 So §

© P o3 aa a

bo=j 3

a^

__, CO

03 fl 9 ^2

d

03 " !"o3 a|^a

g 3 ^3

3 2 3 3

03 is « a

a3

CD St* ll

bfl 3.H , ia-s

a

03 g g

3 3 3 I'I a

m ^ d ^ 03

cfl o

5ot^^

a §

03 c O CB 5 3t3«

A +3 id -.

55 ^

S2

CD3

3e

><

3

o

CO

'•303 ,Z2 II

is ©3 ofe

u o q'3

2 +3 3 o

1 O .-03

Z o If§3

o o £3

J«

>»9 « 9 a 03 o> 03 . 3 o M

.2J>-( sa^a^

v : 3^ a 3

P=(0

O S

3*^ Io a -33

i< o3 M.9

.9-3 3 a

Phco .' 3 3^ c3 03 «

>».9

m 03

_^>0 03

• 0J>H ©

J* 3 -

a^aa

© "©S ^os 3 a^&^s^

<j -< ^

© o

. 3,3 0)73 o 2

.©Ph

2

So

On

>—1 © - .© cfl 5.35

;t3^° S

is -eg -

3<i .© _r

otO o

S< CO «co 2^-3

3 &5

w c3 h

.© Bc bo^s 2

3©©^o^O<<

PQOOOO O

91

-o

CO

hfi^ 3 is

a ->©. a-a^^ © 3 OJ - 3 3 - 3 »- S a M

g g So? jo

©"oj-P bo - u ©+> 2

O 3

Pcq

3 ©

«< o

W1J it

WW OO

-3 S OP

« '33 ^§

h W.2

a ^ bps 03 3 ? o 00 3

co O o 03 cS O WW

00

©o

|p03 PQ

© S r
158 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

O «

A-«SS

o

So

O C3

© iso • - 03

wS .s sis

«3 w .« S mSSfe <J P <3 Od

Pi g

SH ee

. o o l£aa

to • as

P>> ffl CD •3 M

o a «

a

to

p I

a» © §& o

Jllj «

"3 'o, 2fto°

S >» 9 s fl o

.52 ot wo ©^ O 88-331

op w

On-^-O © "2 C3_-

•S © § 3 "2 a 3

^Z, CO •—« i_j CO CO co Q S

CO 'si fl'w

"*"> CO

2^ 3 tfO

*; <c Sv o<p

CS o HlI 5p

a ©

oO©3

3 w Is c So U

P.X3 O 0<!

23

26|

b ©"3,-s

=3 O PuS £

So Q

^ o

© « " ca ©T3

«C

6Q<! 2°

3 3 1

9

SS

2

iH II

li ^

I g « if © * §

O co 2 2 ^ = S I

L> © La

©tf-e

e £ a a

II 5 o

o o^ I

« 3 Q.2

3.S 3

o 3 o •eg a

> cS co **

©"m g; I g "St O

S3'

S o co co 1-5

i+ © ;a©

© ^3

S 3 ^.2

•2S

«CT> la

5o flW - Is

as © il

5° aft

CG?3

as

.M

CO ©J^ 1^ ©

g!5

en . B © © a>.-< © S „ • « ram <Z m&
STANDAEDS YEAEBOOK, 1927 159

Coordination with Other Research Laboratories.—With the aid of

the National Research Council, the A. S. T. M. Committee E-9 on

Correlation of Research, the various research laboratories, and many

national organizations every effort is made to coordinate all bureau

research work with that done by other bodies to provide the maximum national benefit and to avoid duplication of effort. Research within the Government service is coordinated by the

Chief Coordinator of the Bureau of the Budget.

ADVISORY COMMITTEES

Where a group interested in the formulation of standards for a given industry or in the investigation of specific subjects are not otherwise organized for the purpose the bureau encourages the formation

of an advisory committee. These committees function much the same as an informal industrial committee except that the secretarial

work is usually conducted by the bureau.

Advisory committees Name Secretary Membership

Building Code Committee.

Advisory Committee

on Cement.

Advisory Committee

on Ceramics.

Advisory Committee

on Cotton. Advisory Committee

on Cordage. Committee on Arch Dam Investigation,

Joint Steering Committee on Cooperative Fuel Research. Gauge Steel Committee.

Advisory « Committee

on Gypsum.

Advisory Committee

on Standardization of Builders' Hardware,

Advisory Committee on

Leather,

To formulate and recom- mend provisions for municipal building code

regulations. To advise on work on the

constitution and hardening of Portland cement. To assist in outlining pro- posed investigations and

reviewing results obtained. To advise on technical questions dealing with

cotton. To advise on technical questions dealing with

cordage. In charge of construction and testing of arch dam

in California 60 feet in

height. . To assist in formulating program and denning

scope of investigations in connection with co- operative fuel research. To carry on research on

dimensional changes in hardening, tempering, and aging of gauges.

To review and criticize work of The Gypsum

Industries. To standardize finishes, nomenclature, definitions, types, and general

practices affecting builders' hardware. To advise on technical questions dealing with

leather.

George N. Thompson,

division of building and housing, Commerce Department,

Washington, D. C. George E. Warren, Port- land Cement Association, 33 West Grand

Avenue, Chicago, 111. A. V. Bleininger (chair- man), Homer Laughlin China Co., Newell, W. Va. R. T. Fisher, 80 Federal

Street, Boston, Mass.

J. S. McDaniel (chair- man), 350 Madison

Avenue, New York, N. Y.

Fred A. Noetzli, 928 Central Building, Los

Angeles, Calif. None. Care of Society

of Automotive Engineers, 29 West Thirty- ninth Street, New

York, N. Y. H. W. Bearce, Bureau

of Standards, Washington, D. C.

H. J. Schweim, The Gypsum Industries,

844 Rush Street, Chicago, m.

I. J. Fairchild. National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. T. Blackadder (chair- man), Bridesburg, Pa.

Eight outstanding archi

tects and engineers.

Committees of Portland Cement Association and American Society

of Civil Engineers. Ceramic associations, brick associations, and

tile associations. Manufacturers of cotton

textiles. Cordage Institute.

Consulting ana profes- sional engineers.

Society of Automotive

Engineers.

Manufacturers of steel, manufacturers and

users of gauges, United

States Army Ordnance Department and National Bureau of Standards. Technical problems committee of The Gypsum

Industries.

Ail manufacturers of builders' hardware.

Leather manufacturers.
160 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Advisory committees—Continued

Name

Standard State Mechanics' Lien Act

Committee.

Ferrous Metals Advisory Committee.

Nonferrous Metals Advisory Committee.

Subcommittee on

Plumbing.

Manufacturers Advisory Committee on Vitreous China

Plumbing Fixtures. Radio Advisory Committee.

Committee on Program

on Transverse Fis- sures in Rails.

Purpose To draft a uniform mechanics' lien act for consideration by State legis- latures. To guide bureau in selec- tion of research prob- lems in ferrous metals.

To guide bureau in selec- tion of research prob- lems on nonferrous

metals.

To formulate and recom- mend provisions for State and municipal

regulation of plumbing

installations. To standardize nomenclature, definitions, grading rules, essential dimensions and types of vitreous china plumbing

fixtures. To assist in formulating and revising program of research in radio communication. To study the causes of segregation of rails.

Secretary Dan H. Wheeler, divi- sion of building and

housing, Department

of Commerce, Washington, D. C.

Prof. G.B. Waterhouse, (chairman), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, : Cambridge, Mass. W. M. Corse, Invest- ment Building, Washington, D. C.

George N. Thompson,

division of building and housing, Depart- ment of Commerce,

Washington, D. C.

I. J. Fairchild, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.

J. H. Dellinger, National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.

J. R. Freeman, jr., National Bureau of

Standards, Washington, D. C. George A. Orrok (chair- man), 17 Battery Place New York, N. Y.

J. H. Nelson (chairman), Wyman-Gordon Co., Worcester, Mass.

J. W. Byron, Williamsport, Md.

J. T. Howington (chair- man), Coral Ridge

Clay Products Co.,

Louisville, Ky.

Walter Humphreys, 80 Federal Street, Boston, Mass. James Spear Taylor, di- vision of building and

housing, Department

of Commerce, Washington, D. C.

Membership

Architects, lawyers,

credit men, and associ- ations connected with

building or construction operations. A. S. T. M., associa- tions of automotive, mining, and metallurgical engineers and foundrymen, and

American Society for Steel Treating. A. S. T. M., Govern- ment departments, and associations of electrochemical, mechanical, mining, and

metallurgical engineers.

7 sanitary engineers.

All manufacturers of vitreous china plumbing fixtures.

Associations of radio

engineers, electrical engineers, broadcasters, radio and electrical manufacturers.

Associations of civil and

railway engineers and

rail manufacturers. American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Government departments, engineering societies, steel manufacturers, shipbuilding

corporations, engineers, and college professors. Tanners Council of America. Hollow Building Tile

Association.

Manufacturers of wool

textiles. 10 engineers, lawyers,

realtors, and housing

experts.

Committee on Properties of Steam and the Extension of the Steam Table. Advisory Committee on I Structures and Fab- J ricated Metals.

Advisory Committee on

Tanning.

Advisory Committee on Hollow Tile Investigation. Advisory Committee on

Wool. Advisory Committee

on City Planning and

Zoning.

To direct research on the

properties of steam and

the extension of the steam table. The development of apparatus and methods of

test to obtain data for correlation of properties

of material with behavior of the structure under load. To advise on technical questions dealing with

the tanning of leather. To assist in formulating program and defining scope of the researches on the properties of clay hollow tile. To advise on technical questions dealing with

wool. To encourage proper city planning and zoning by

drafting standard State enabling acts under which municipalities may take action, and

through other publications.COOPERATING ORGANIZATIONS

Many national organizations assist the bureau in research, standardization, and simplification projects and, in turn, the bureau co- operates officially with numerous national organizations engaged in

similar effort, frequently designating members of the staff to serve on

committees.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 161

PUBLICATIONS

New research results or discoveries are announced in printed

bureau publications. Nearly 1,350 pamphlets have been published to date. Releases to the daily press give briefly the outstanding news

of the bureau's activities. Technical abstracts are prepared for

dissemination to the technical journals. New knowledge of general

or pure science is published in " Scientific Papers." Results

of direct application in the industries are printed as " Technologic

Papers." These two series are bound in volumes of approximately

750 pages. About 18 volumes have been issued of each series. Compiled technical or administrative matter is' issued as a "Circular;" for example, the standard gasoline tables, test schedules,

tests, specifications, and the like. Codes and reference texts; for

example, the codes of electrical, gas, and logging practice, which

must be carried about by the expert in his daily work, are issued as " Handbooks." This series is of pocket size. The program for the simplification of commercial practice leads to

definite proposals known as " Simplified Practice Recommendations."

Charts, conference reports, and material not suitable for other series are published as "Miscellaneous Publications."

The bureau's Technical News Bulletin is a monthly periodical

giving items concerning pending or completed work of the bureau.

The bureau also prepares "letter circulars" on specialized subjects

for use as replies to inquiries by mail. The 221 letter circulars pre- pared to date cover a wide range of subjects and represent material

not yet ready to be included in the printed series. In addition to the

Government publications, papers on subjects within the respective

specialties are printed in outside journals.

Bureau publications are sold by the Superintendent of Documents.

Subscriptions may be placed in advance for the Scientific Papers and

for the Technologic Papers. The bureau issues a descriptive list (Circular 24, together with annual supplement) of its published

material. Announcement cards giving titles of all new publications

are sent regularly on request to those concerned with the bureau's

work.

RELATION TO OTHER TESTING LABORATORIES

FEDERAL TESTING LABORATORIES

Several departments of the Federal Government have established

laboratories for special testing work where required by the nature or number of tests. When specific investigations are under way the

work is frequently divided and coordinated among several Federal

laboratories. A list of such laboratories is given on page 144.
162 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

SOME ACTIVITIES AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS

GENERAL

All activities of the bureau concern some phase of standardization,

from the pursuit of information on which to measure or base standards to the final check of delivered material for conformity to standards. The relation of some branches of the work to standardization

may be obscure to the uninitiated.

Precise measurement of light waves of the rays characteristic of

the chemical elements with an error of less than 1/254,000,000,000

inch has aided standardization in many ways. One result is the

analysis of materials to detect minute traces of impurities with a

successful application in control of steam boiler fuse plugs whose

perfect functioning depends upon high purity. The interference of such waves permitted unsurpassed accuracy in ruling line standards,

so that one gauge maker 3 reports: " These scales (twelve 6-inch

scales) are a source of immense satisfaction to us. The accuracy

with which they were done has obviated the continual series of cal- culations that are always in evidence when there are variations in

the graduations" and describes the work as "a method that will help all industry that has occasion to get practically perfect master

standards."

ELECTRICAL

Maintenance of Fundamental Electrical Units.—The two electrical units defined as fundamental in the international system are the ohm,

as reproduced by specified columns of mercury, and the ampere, as defined by the silver voltameter. In practice, however, the units

are maintained over considerable periods by wire resistance standards

for the ohm and by standard cells for the volt in lieu of a standard

for the ampere. The accepted value (1.0183 volts) for the Weston

normal cell was established by an international committee working

at the bureau in 1910. Since that time the ohm has been maintained at the bureau by assuming that the mean resistance of a group of selected 1-ohm wire standards remains constant. About

30 such standards are kept under observation, but for any one

period between intercomparisons 10 which have shown the best

degree of consistency are taken as the basis for measurements. In

a somewhat similar way the volt is maintained by several groups of standard cells. The one mercury ohm determination and the few

groups of cells made since 1910 have been considered as corroborating within their limits of certainty the values of the units as thus

maintained. Several comparisons with other national laboratories

have likewise indicated that the units are consistent within about

2 parts in 100,000. It is, however, now quite certain that the inter3 Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Co., May 28, 1924.
STANDAEDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 163

national ohm differs from the true or absolute ohm by about 5 parts

in 10,000.

In view of the long period over which the units have been maintained at the bureau by means of secondary standards (coils and cells)

it would be highly desirable to check their values by new mercury

ohm and silver voltameter determinations. Nevertheless it has been

believed that a revival of the researches on absolute units is still more

important and that if successfully carried out these researches would,

in effect, give also as accurate a check on the international units as could be made by the use of the mercury column and voltameter.

Since it has not been practicable to take up work on both types of

standards, attention has been given first to the development of apparatus for establishing the absolute units. Priority has been given to the ohm because the bureau has never made any determinations of its value. Two independent schemes for accomplishing this purpose

are being developed. Both will use stationary inductance coils designed for calculation of the inductance from dimensions. One

method will use mutual inductances so arranged that the electromotive force induced in the secondaries can be balanced against the drop

in potential in a resistance of which the value is to be determined.

The other procedure is planned to make use of the experience of the

Inductance Laboratory. It will consist essentially of the comparison,

by alternating-current bridge methods, of a self-inductance of calculated value with a resistance to be measured. In each project it is desired to carry the results to an accuracy approaching 1 part in 100,000, and this requires a theoretical and experimental study of

many details which are neglected in ordinary measurements. Fair

progress is being made, but it is impossible to predict when final results will be obtained.

For current measurements, the balance used by Dr. E. B. Rosa and

his associates is now being reassembled and studied for possible

improvements. It is hoped that this will soon give results, which,

in conjunction with the wire ohm standards, will serve to check the

bureau's standard cell values.

Standard Cells.—The unit of voltage is now maintained at the

bureau first by a primary reference group of 20 cells in an oil bath

thermostatically controlled, and, secondly, by two other reference

groups, one of which is stored in the vault with other primary standards of the bureau, the third group being kept in the section office. Intercomparisons of the primary reference group with the two

secondary groups made during the year, show variations on the aver- age of only 1 to 4 microvolts. Two mercury stills have been installed

in the chemical laboratory, especially equipped for the preparation of pure materials. New materials have been prepared for standard cells, and six new cells, the first made at the National Bureau of Standards

36316—27 12
164 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDAEDS

since July, 1916, were prepared. These cells gave a voltage agreeing

within 12 microvolts with the standard value as determined by the

primary reference group. There has been a great increase in the

standard cell testing. During six months of the year 1926 more

cells were received for test and certification than were tested and

certified by the bureau altogether during the first nine years of its existence. Analysis of standard cell records extending over a number

of years have been made to determine the annual average decrease in

voltage of the unsaturated form of cell. Since this has been found to be larger than was anticipated, it is apparent that a circular of general

information on standard cells for commercial use would be of value.

Such a circular has been in preparation. A new form of certificate to include such general information as is desirable for the users of

standard cells has also been prepared to replace the form of certificate previously in use. Intercomparisons of standard cells with England

and Japan have been made during the year, and a group of standard

cells was tested and certified for Russia.

Determination of the Henry in Terms of Mechanical Units.—The

absolute determination of the henry is based on the construction of a

coil whose inductance can be computed from its dimensions. This

problem can then be separated into four parts: (1) The construction

of an inductance of such a form that its dimensions can be accurately

determined, (2) the measurement of the mechanical dimensions of the inductance, (3) the derivation of a formula by which the induct- ance can be computed, (4) the measurement of the inductance in

terms of the international electrical units. The best form of an

inductance for this work is a single-layer solenoid. The following

discussion is based on this type of inductance.

(1) The Construction of an Accurate Solenoid.—A porcelain

tube 20 inches long and 12 inches in diameter was ground so that the

outer surface was cylindrical. When removed from the grinding

machine the variation from a true circular cross section was small.

The dimensions at the two ends were also nearly identical. This

cylindrical surface was then wound in a precision lathe with specially

drawn round wire. Measurements made after this winding showed

that the diameter in the center where the tension of the wire was

greatest was appreciably less than that at the ends. Moreover, as the porcelain was not of the same thickness throughout, the compression changed slightly the form of the cylinder so that it was no

longer exactly circular. However, it is believed that a mean of a

large number of measurements will give a value which is sufficiently accurate. A second cylinder has been constructed using wire of

rectangular cross section, but no measurements have been made

upon it.
STANDARDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 165

(2) The Measurement of the Mechanical Dimensions of the

Inductance.—It is necessary to make three separate measurements:

(a) The diameter of the wire, (6) the diameter of the cylinder, and

(c) the mean pitch of the winding.

The diameter of the wire can be measured with sufficient accuracy

by means of a good micrometer. No special apparatus was, therefore, required. The diameter of the cylinder must be measured

with great accuracy and under the same conditions as used in making

the electrical measurements. Therefore, a special micrometer has

been constructed by means of which the diameter can be measured in a constant temperature chamber. A description of this micrometer

has been published in the Journal of the Optical Society of America

and Review of Scientific Instruments, Volume 11, No. 4, October,

1925, entitled "An Electrically Controlled Micrometer Caliper," by

Dr. Charles Moon. The mean pitch can be determined by measuring

the over-all length of the winding and dividing it by the number of turns. To measure the over-all length a special flotation cathetometer has been devised. A description of this will soon be

published.

(3) Derivation of an Inductance Formula for a Solenoid.—

While formulas for the inductance of a solenoid were available, they

had all been derived on the assumption that the winding was of

round wire and that it consisted of a series of circles. In order to compute the inductances of various solenoids on which work is being

done, it was necessary to derive a more general formula. This has

been done and is published in Scientific Paper No. 537, entitled

"A Formula for the Inductance of a Helix Made with Wire of Any

Section," by Dr. Chester Snow. A formula has been developed

which will hold for wire of any shape of cross section when wound on a

solenoid in the form of a helix.

(4) The Measurement of Inductance in Terms of International Electrical Units.—This consists first in the' absolute

measurement of capacitance and then in the measurement of the

inductance in terms of this capacitance. The absolute measure- ment of capacitance of large air condensers has presented a number

of new problems for investigation. One of the most accurate methods

of measurement is by the Maxwell absolute capacitance bridge in

which a portion of the electricity which charges a condenser passes

through the galvanometer in one direction while a steady current

through resistances flows through the galvanometer in the opposite

direction. When the resistances have been properly adjusted the

galvanometer makes a small oscillation about its zero position.

The theory of this method has been carefully studied. It is now

possible to measure the value of a 0.1 microfarad condenser with an

accuracy of 1 part in 100,000. A brief description of some of the
166 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

theoretical problems connected with this bridge was given in a paper by H. L. Curtis and C. Moon, "A ballistic galvanometer as an integrating instrument, " before the April meeting of the American

Physical Society. A more complete paper will soon be published.

Absolute Measurement of High Voltages.—A large absolute

electrometer has been under construction, and is nearing completion.

It is based on the principle of the Kelvin attracted-disk electrometer,

but differs from previous instruments of this kind in its much greater

dimensions and in having a new system of guarding the electrostatic field between the plates. The nominal range of voltage

measurement with this instrument is from 5,000 to 250,000 volts. It will thus more than cover all voltages used at present in the trans- mission of power. The estimated precision of observation is about

1 part in 10,000, and it is hoped to obtain an accuracy of 5 parts in

10,000 or better. In the design and construction of this instrument no pains or expense have been spared to obtain the most suitable

materials and to incorporate all the refinements which will add to the

accuracy and dependability of the measurements.

Electrical Properties of Rubber and Gutta-Percha.—The investigation of electrical insulating materials begun some years ago with

particular reference to insulation of submarine cables has been

continued on broader grounds. Technologic Paper No. 299, " Dielectric constant, power factor, and resistivity of rubber and guttapercha," by H. L. Curtis and A. T. McPherson, issued in 1925,

covered work on rubber compounds having less than 8 per cent of

sulphur. The work has since been extended to determine the variation of electrical constants with composition over a wider range.

Rubber sulphur compounds can be made which will have any per- centage of combined sulphur from to 32 per cent. A small proportion of sulphur produces the ordinary soft rubber of commerce,

whereas a high percentage of sulphur gives the well-known hard

rubber. Between these two there is a region in which the properties

are very little known. This study of rubber sulphur compounds

has included not only the measurement of the dielectric constant,

power factor, resistivity, and dielectric strength, but also the density

and water absorption. Moreover the first three of the above electrical properties have been determined for various hydrostatic

pressures up to 10,000 pounds per square inch.

Magnetic Measurements on Sheet Steel.—Sheet steel, known to the trade as electrical sheet, constitutes a large percentage of the

magnetic materials used in the manufacture of electrical machinery

and apparatus. In order to promote uniformity in the specification

and testing of this type of material, an investigation has been carried

out for determination of the methods and procedure which will yield the most consistent and representative results. The results
STANDAKDS YEARBOOK, 1927 167

of this investigation are given in a scientific paper, "The determination of the magnetic induction in sheet steel," by R. L. Sanford

and J. M. Barry.

Magnetic Reluctivity Relationship.—The magnetic reluctivity

relationship showing a linear relationship between magnetic reluctivity and magnetizing force has been used to quite an extent for the

interpretation of data on the correlation between magnetic properties

and other physical properties. In view of the fact that the validity

of this relationship has recently been questioned, and investigation was carried out which resulted in the conclusion that the criticism was well founded and that the linear law is not valid. A new relationship was worked out which appears to represent the facts fairly well. More precise methods of test must be developed before the exact law can be determined. This work is described in a Scientific Paper,

"The Magnetic Reluctivity Relationship," by R. L. Sanford.

Standardization of Storage Batteries.—The bureau is taking

active part in the standardization of storage batteries, but this is mainly in cooperation with other organizations. With the Society of

Automotive Engineers, the bureau has participated in work involving

the standardization of sizes and ratings for automobile batteries and

bus batteries. A standard nomenclature for automobile batteries has

been prepared and, with minor revisions, this has been adopted by the

Society of Automotive Engineers. The bureau is also cooperating

with the American Institute of Electrical Engineers in the revision

of their standards for storage batteries. This relates to standard

definitions and nomenclature rather than to any particular size or type of battery. The bureau is also cooperating with the American

Electrochemical Society which has a standing committee on these

batteries.

Testing of Dry Cells.—Tests have been conducted for many bureaus

and departments of the Government on a wide variety of dry cells, including those for flashlight batteries, telephone, ignition, radio, and

other uses. In accordance with Bulletin No. 36 issued by the Chief

Coordinator, Bureau of the Budget, both qualification and acceptance

tests are recognized. The qualification tests are to determine the

relative standing of various brands of dry cells and batteries when

subjected to intermittent and delayed service tests as specified in

Federal Specifications Board specification No. 58. Acceptance and

inspection tests are also made on batteries delivered by contractors

to determine whether they comply with the requirements of the specifications. The qualification tests are made on batteries taken by

bureau inspectors from the product of manufacturers who have ex- pressed a willingness to cooperate with the bureau. The results of

such tests are made available for the use of various departments of the Government, and each manufacturer is informed of the results
168 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

of these tests on his own product. A qualification test was made in

1925 and completed within a period of about nine months. Because

of the large number of manufacturers wishing to participate in this

test, it became apparent that the bureau must enlarge its testing

facilities. The 1926 qualification test was, therefore, deferred until

the latter part of the year, and a new testing equipment was installed to accommodate approximately four times the number of dry cells and batteries which could be handled by the old equipment.

The central feature of the equipment is a switchboard of the tele- phone type for reading the cell voltages, many of which have to be

read and recorded within a minimum space of time. The wiring

includes more than a thousand circuits calibrated and adjusted to proper values of resistance for the various tests. On the 1926 qualification test 20 manufacturers have submitted samples of their product,

and the test has been begun in accordance with the regular schedule.

Improvements in Measurement of Radio-Frequency.—One of the

major developments in the bureau's radio work has been the improvement of frequency measurement. The general aim has been to give

the bureau's standards and measurements an ample margin of

accuracy over the present requirements of frequency control for

radio transmitting stations. This calls for an accuracy considerably

better than 0.1 per cent, which is far better than that obtainable

in frequency measurements a year or two ago. This increase in

accuracy has been accomplished through improvements in the primary standards of frequency and in the method of estabhshing the

radio-frequency values.

A harmonic amplifier was developed by which very accurate and

rapid measurements of radio-frequencies can be made in terms of an audio-frequency such as that furnished by a tuning-fork generator.

This method was used to provide new calibrations for the frequency

meters of the laboratory and for a number of quartz plates as fixed

frequency standards. To standardize the quartz plates a sonometer was used as an auxiliary device for measuring small frequency dif- ferences. The laboratory's frequency standards were thus established

to a higher accuracy than ever before for the whole range from 1 to 30,000 kilocycles per second. This work is described in "Establishment of radio standards of frequency by the use of a harmonic

amplifier, " by C. B. Jolliffe and Grace Hazen.

Piezoelectric quartz plates were found to serve very effectively as standards of frequency and as auxiliary calibrating devices. A

paper describing the technique of their preparation and pointing

out their manifold usefulness, with the title "Uses and possibilities

of piezo oscillators" was prepared by A. Hund, and has been published

in the Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers Volume 14,

page 447; August, 1926. The piezo oscillator was developed for
STANDAKDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 169

use as a frequency indicator, which gives a readily available and

extremely convenient standard of frequency for use in transmitting

stations. A piezo oscillator and auxiliary generator were designed

for the use of the radio inspectors of the Bureau of Navigation.

Specifications were prepared for these devices, and the bureau completed the construction and calibrated 12 sets of these instruments.

A number of improvements were made in frequency meters, particularly in the condenser construction. A study was made of the

resistance of the windings of the coils for standard frequency meters

throughout the frequency range 150 to 6,000 kilocycles per second.

An international comparison of frequency standards was made by

sending two piezo electric oscillators to the national laboratories

of England, France, Germany, and Italy. Preliminary results

indicate that the several laboratories are in very good agreement.

Radio Wave Intensity Measurements.—The dependence of progress in radio upon further knowledge of the vagaries of radio-wave

transmission has led the bureau to make a study of the measurement

of radio-wave intensity. Measurements were made on the field intensities of the waves received from various broadcasting stations.

The received waves not only exhibit the well-known phenomenon

of fading, but there is also a surprising variation in the average

field intensities received at night.

It was found that the actual radiating ability of a transmitting

station can not be determined either from the power used or the

antenna current, but is most accurately found by measurements of

the field intensity of the radiated waves. Such measurements must

be made at distances of 50 miles or less so as to avoid the errors introduced by fading and must be made at a number of points in

various directions around the station in order to be highly accurate. The importance of measurements of this kind has been increasingly

felt in the radio-inspection service, and the National Bureau of

Standards was asked to design a portable instrument for measuring

field intensities of broadcasting stations. Such a set was designed,

constructed, and tried under conditions of use on the field car of

the radio inspection service. After trials, the set was redesigned

and purchase specifications for additional sets were prepared.

A study of the effects of high-power broadcasting was made in

cooperation with station WGY. Special transmissions were arranged

in which 50 and 2^ kilowatts were used alternately. A large group

of cooperating observers were requested to record relative signal

intensity, fading, sharpness of tuning, quality, and amount of

interference. It was found that the increase of field intensity was

approximately proportional to the square root of the power used,

and that consequently the area reached with signals of a given

intensity was approximately proportional to the power. The fading,
170 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

when expressed as percentage fluctuation, was the same for the two

amounts of power. Many observers, however, have considered that

the fading was less on the high power because there were fewer

occasions when the signal diminished below audibility.

A field station for measurements of intensity of received waves was established 5 miles north of the bureau's laboratory, and an auto

truck was secured for use as a portable measuring laboratory. This

equipment permitted measurements free from the electrical disturb- ances of various kinds on the bureau grounds. Measurements were made on a number of special transmissions from WGY to test the

effects of various antenna arrangements and to determine the trans- mission possibilities of frequencies in the range from 2,700 to 7,500

kilocycles. In this frequency range, transmission was found to be,

in general, irregular, and the portions of the day for best transmission were markedly different for different frequencies.

Cooperative Study of Radio Fading.—The bureau directed a cooperative program of measurements of fading phenomena by a group of

university and other laboratories. Six series of special tests were

conducted; these consisted of special transmission by station WGY

or WJZ for a period of several hours on each of several successive

days. Simultaneous measurements were made by means of fading

recorders by the cooperating laboratories. In these tests special

study was made of signal intensity and fluctuation during the sunset period. The work also included studies of the variations of

intensity and fluctuation through the whole 24 hours and the characteristic change from day to night.

This work shed a great deal of light on the nature of radio trans- mission phenomena. It was found that there is a degree of regularity in the average intensity of fading signals which has not hitherto

been suspected. The ratio of average night-to-day intensity was

found to have a logarithmic relation to distance; this relation gives

quantitative indication that the earth absorption effective in the daytime disappears at night. Results indicated that the characteristic

fading observed at considerable distances is due to variable absorption in the upper atmosphere, and that the relatively fast fading

observed at distances less than 200 kilometers is largely due to interference between the ground transmitted wave and the wave which

has traveled to the Kennelly-Heaviside layer and undergone variable

changes of intensity, phase, and polarization. Substantially no cor- relation between reception conditions and weather phenomena was

found. In some of the fading records there was a highly regular

periodic type of fading beginning about 15 minutes after sunset. This was produced by interference between waves along the ground

and waves refracted from the rising sunset shadow plane in the

atmosphere. Calculations based upon it throw considerable light on
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 171

the nature and causes of radio wave phenomena near the time of

sunset. Radio Aids to Air Navigation.—A preliminary study was made of

the radio aids that would be useful in air navigation. This included

a study of the radio equipment that would probably be required on

aircraft and at airports. A model of the directive radiobeacon

developed by the bureau in 1922 was constructed, and experiments

with a view to improving it were begun. The work included an

attempt to adapt the beacon to a visual indicator, eliminating the

need of the use of headphones by the aviator; the method involved

the use of a different modulation frequency on each of the two trans- mitting coil antennas. Work was begun on the experimental installation of a directive radiobeacon, marker beacon, and radiotelephone

transmitting equipment.

National Electrical Safety Code.—Since 1913 the bureau has been

engaged in the study of the life hazard in electrical practice and in

the preparation and revision of the National Electrical Safety Code.

This work has been carried on with the cooperation and assistance of

a large number of engineers, many of whom are connected with the

electrical operating and manufacturing companies, others being engi- neers and inspectors of State commissions, municipalities, and insur- ance underwriters. The various national associations connected with

the electrical industry have also cooperated effectively in this work.

The latest revision has been made by a sectional committee under

the procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee.

The fourth section of the code consists of five principal parts as

follows

(1) Rules for installation and maintenance of machinery, switchboards, and wiring in generating stations and substations.

(2) Rules for the construction and maintenance of overhead and

underground lines for the transmission and distribution of electrical

energy and intelligence.

(3) Rules for the installation and maintenance of electrical apparatus and wiring in factories, residences, and wherever electricity is utilized for light, heat, or power.

(4) Rules to be observed by operators in working on or near electri- cal machinery or lines.

(5) Rules for radio installations.

In addition, there are two sections containing definitions and rules

for the protective grounding of circuits and equipment.

The various parts of the new edition, except part 2, have been

issued separately. Part 2 is still under discussion, but should be

ready for publication early in 1927. After its publication all the

parts will be collected into a complete document.

. I - •
172 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The code has served widely not only as a standard of construction

and operation for electrical utility companies, but also as a model for the mandatory rules issued by State officials and commissions, many

of whom have adopted it verbatim. It has been the basis of statutes or regulations in California, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma,

Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Utah, and Wisconsin.

Regulatory authorities concerned with both accident prevention

and fire prevention have felt the need of a single code comprising

both of these features, and such codes have been worked out locally

and adopted in California and Wisconsin. In 1918 the bureau pre- pared a first edition of such a code combining the provisions of part

3 of the National Electrical Safety Code, and of the National Electrical Code as published by the National Board of Fire Underwriters.

This code has been made mandatory in the State of Oregon, and the

bureau has prepared successive editions, the last bearing the date

1926.

Industrial Safety Standards.—As a result of the work on the

National Electrical Safety Code and the numerous points of contact

established with State officials and others interested in such work,

the bureau was called upon to enlarge the scope of its work and to consider safety requirements in other than the electrical industry.

In 1919 the bureau held two conferences in Washington at which

this subject was considered, and agreement was reached to develop

a series of industrial safety codes under the auspices of the American

Engineering Standards Committee. Under this arrangement the

bureau has undertaken sponsorship for the following safety standards

in addition to the electrical codes mentioned above:

Gas safety code (joint sponsorship with the American Gas Association).

Code for the protection of heads and eyes of industrial workers. Safety code for logging and sawmill operations.

Safety code for aeronautics (joint sponsorship with the Society of Automotive

Engineers)

.

Safety code for elevators, dumbwaiters, and escalators (joint sponsorship

with American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the American Institute of Architects)

.

Code for colors and forms of traffic signals (joint sponsorship with National

Safety Council and American Association of State Highway Officials)

.

Code for protection against lightning (joint sponsorship with the American

Institute of Electrical Engineers).

Codes on all of these subjects have been prepared, and all except

the last two have been published after approval by the American

Engineering Standards Committee. The Head and Eye Code and

the Logging Code are issued in handbooks of the bureau, while the

others have been published by the joint sponsors. In general, these codes are intended as guides for safe practice in

the industries concerned rather than as a basis for legal regulations.
STANDAKDS YEARBOOK, 1927 173

In some cases, however, their provisions are made mandatory by

regulatory bodies. For example, the Industrial Commission of Utah

has recently adopted the codes for logging and sawmill operations

and for protection of heads and eyes. Determination of Salinity of Sea Water.—Apparatus was devised

at the bureau some time ago for determining salinity of sea water

by measurement of its electrical resistivity. This has proved so satisfactory in the international ice patrol service that it has been

adopted for regular use, and at the request of the Coast Guard the

bureau has built another set of the apparatus so that both vessels

used for patrol work can be equipped with it. The determination of

salinity and of temperature provides data from which the flow of

water can be calculated.

Automobile Lighting.—The motor vehicle act of the State of

Oregon designates the National Bureau of Standards as the official testing agency for headlighting devices, and the director of traffic of

the District of Columbia has also asked the bureau to make such tests. During the year about 40 devices have been formally tested under the

standard specifications which are used in most of the States, and

many others have been informally examined. Members of the staff have represented the director of traffic on several occasions at meetings of the Eastern Conference of Motor Vehicle Administrators, and

have taken part in the two meetings of the National Conference on

Street and Highway Safety, and at the request of the conference

committees have given technical advice on the lighting sections of the

Uniform Vehicle Code. A report on the use of colored glasses—red,

yellow, and green—in tail lamps, stop lights, and direction signal

lights was prepared for Secretary Hoover in accordance with a request

made by the second national conference.

The bureau has also given assistance on headlighting problems to

officers and committees of the American Automobile Association, the

Society of Automotive Engineers, the Illuminating Engineering

Society, and the Automotive Lighting Association. Circular No. 276,

4 'Motor Vehicle Headlighting," issued in August, 1925, has had a wide circulation, and the folder reprinted from it giving instructions

for adjustment of headlamps has been used by thousands in States

and cities where headlight campaigns have been carried on.

Soil Corrosion.—About 900 specimens of commercial pipe materials buried approximately four years in 46 kinds of soil, representing

soil conditions in nearly all parts of the United States, have been

removed for examination. At the same time about 1,400 specimens

of galvanized material, pipe-fitting materials, and bituminous protective coatings buried approximately two years ago were also re- moved. One thousand two hundred additional specimens of pipe
174 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDAEDS

material and protective coatings were buried. The loss of weight

and depth of pitting for the metallic specimens and the general condition of the bituminous coatings is being determined and progress

reports containing these data will be published in the near future,

although final conclusions will not be drawn for several years. Superconductivity of Metals.—When some metals are brought

down to the temperature of liquid helium their electrical resistivity

practically disappear, but it is restored if the metal is subjected to a

magnetic field exceeding a certain critical value or if electric currents exceeding a critical value are set up in the metal. The bureau's

Scientific Paper No. 307, "Note on Electrical Conduction in

Metals at Low Temperatures," by F. B. Silsbee, suggested that the

fundamental condition was the magnetic field and that currents destroyed the superconducting state only when the current density

and distribution was such as to produce the critical magnetic field. The experimental work on this subject has practically all been

done at Leiden; recently H. Kamerlingh Onnes and W. Tuyn have

published an account of experiments made there as a crucial test of

the Silsbee hypothesis. Different combinations of currents were used

in a wire with the concentric cylinder as a return circuit, and results of

the experiments were considered to be a qualitative confirmation of

the relation suggested. A detailed analysis of the relations between

currents, magnetic fields, and the resistance of the circuit at specified

temperatures has now been carried through for the particular arrangement of conductors used in the experiments. The agreement between

the theoretical results thus obtained and the experimental observations is on the whole very satisfactory. The hypothesis thus seems

to be well established and should prove useful in planning further

experiments on superconductivity. A scientific paper outlining the

theoretical calculations is in preparation.

Fourth Annual Conference of State Public Utility Commission

Engineers.—The principle of State control of utility services, such as water supply, gas, electricity, and telephone service, is thoroughly

established, and more than 40 States have commissions exercising more or less authority over utility companies. While conditions

differ in the several States, there are some .general problems which

arise in all of them, and general principles which all may follow.

In order to promote uniformity of practice and to give a sound

technical basis for service rules, the bureau has for years collected

information regarding utility service problems and requirements,

and has issued several editions of Standards for Gas Service and

Standards for Electric Service. Circular 112, Telephone Service,

likewise gives the results of a preliminary study looking forward to standards of service in that field. As one of the sponsors for the

Code for Electricity Meters, it has during the past year carried out a
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 revision of this standard jointly with the National Electric Light

Association and the Association of Edison Illuminating Companies.

In all of this work the bureau has had the most cordial cooperation

of the engineering staffs of the various State commissions, and in order to facilitate the discussion of common problems an annual

conference of commission engineers is held at the bureau. The

fourth session, May 13 and 14, 1926, was attended by 26 engineers

representing 14 States and 2 Canadian Provinces.

At this session reports were presented by committee chairmen on

the following subjects:

Selection, use, and care of secondary electric standards for commission purposes. J. F. Meyer, National Bureau of Standards, chairman.

Engineer's place in the field of regulation. I. F. McDonnell, Alabama,

chairman.

Service rules for gas, electric, telephone, and water utilities. C. R. Vanneman,

New York, chairman.

Electric rates for cooking. C. B. Hayden, Wisconsin, chairman.

Standardization of valuation terms. C. G. Bennett, Illinois, chairman.

There was also discussion of the development of regulation of

telephone service, of the revison of the National Electrical Safety

Code and the Code for Electricity Meters, and of important special

features of the work of the several commissions. No printed report

of this conference will be issued, but the committee reports were

prepared for circulation in mimeographed form.

Elevator Safety Devices.—In connection with the development of

the Safety Code for Elevators, the bureau several years ago made a survey of elevator interlocks and an analysis of elevator accident

statistics, which was published as Technologic Paper 202, by C. E.

Oakes and J. A. Dickinson. This showed that nearly three-fourths of

all elevator accidents to the public occur at the landing doors. Such

accidents would be practically all avoided by the use of reliable interlocking devices which prevent the car from leaving a landing unless

the hoistway door is closed and locked and likewise prevent the hoistway door from being opened from the landing side unless the car is at rest at that landing. The American standard code, therefore,

makes the use of such interlocks mandatory on passenger elevator

hoistways. In the administration of requirments of this kind it has until

recently been customary to approve interlock equipment largely on

the basis of a visual inspection. When the city of Baltimore, with

the cooperation of the National Bureau of Standards, formulated a new elevator code for its own use, it added the requirement that the

approval of interlocks should be based on their performance in operation as determined by actual reliability tests to be conducted by the

National Bureau of Standards or some other laboratory of similar

standing. Five reliability tests were specified—a life-operation test,
176 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

a test without lubricant, a test in a moist atmosphere, a test in a dustladen atmosphere, and a test of the successful operation of the device,

under conditions representative of the changes in the alignment of

the car and of the hoistway door likely to occur in service.

To carry this provision into practical effect, the National Bureau

of Standards thereupon constructed apparatus for automatically

operating interlocking devices on a full-scale installation, and from

the results of tentative tests of commercial interlocks developed test methods and the detailed test specifications for each of the five

reliability tests provided by the code.

The need for reliability tests is shown by the fact that few of the numerous interlocking devices which have been tested successfully

met the test specifications without changes in design or construction.

Eighteen devices have thus far successfully complied with the test requirements.

The results of these tests are at present used as a basis for approval

by the city of Baltimore, the government of the District of Columbia,

the Office of the Supervising Architect of the Treasury Department,,

the State of Iowa, and a group of casualty insurance companies.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Investigation of Carload Freight-Weighing Facilities.—The weighing of commodities in carload lots is a most important accessory to modern commerce. The chief function of the National Bureau of

Standards concerning it is the control of weighing standards. Evidently a uniform standard of weight over the entire country is the

first essential. The medium of control is a net of 19 master scales used for the calibration of test cars, which are in turn used to test about 12,000 track scales. The bureau undertakes annual calibration of the master scales in terms of the same weight standards. In

this manner, the necessary uniform weight standard for all commercial transactions involving charges based on the weights of commodities in carload lots is maintained.

Tests of Track Scales.—The investigation aspect of bureau

activity comprises actual test and inspection of several hundred

track scales used by carriers for levying freight charges and by

industry owners in selling or purchasing commodities in carload lots. Tests of scales are made with special attention to accuracy, and

inspection of parts follows each test in an endeavor to discover

installation or maintenance faults which may adversely affect the

weighing performance. Data and information are obtained through

such tests and are used by the bureau in developing restrictive

specifications, disseminating beneficial knowledge, and pursuing a consistent program for the improvement of weighing machinery.

Apart from the control and investigation phases of activity, the

bureau has for many years sought to improve the adequacy and accu-
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 177

racy of freight-weighing facilities by direct contact with individual owners of track scales. Formal reports to the owners of scales tested

by the bureau are the chief factors in securing improvement. Results

of tests are furnished in detail. Inspection results are made the

basis of recommendations for repair, replacement, or maintenance

measures as different cases may require.

Three track scale-testing units are operated, and working schedules

and itineraries are prepared with a view to distributing the activity

and its benefits as equitably as possible throughout all sections of

the country. Locations of master scales define primarily the routes

to be followed. Seasonal changes are also a guiding factor. In

general, only a limited number of scales can be tested in each vicinity, and effort is made to include those of major importance or those

for which tests have been formally requested. A number of scales

in different classes of weighing service are usually selected to make

the resulting data truly representative of conditions in that area. For the reasons just stated it will be apparent that not all requests

for test can be complied with, particularly when the location of the

scale involved is remote from the route outlined for one of the units.

Tolerances to which the errors of track scales are referred and

which the bureau applies to revenue-freight and commercial-freight

weighing track scales allow an error equivalent to 0.20 per cent of

the weight of the test load employed. The test loads used by the

bureau are in no case less than 40,000 pounds.

Master Scales.—Fourteen master scale calibrations were made.

All were correct within the very small tolerance prescribed for master

scales. Two master scales in the southern district remain to be

calibrated.

Test Car Calibrations.—Twenty-seven test cars operated by rail- roads and industries at points remote from regular master scale

facilities were standardized during the year. A commendable trend

toward acquisition of approved types of test cars is apparent, and is interpreted as being a response to bureau recommendations for

better testing practice and apparatus.

Hemacytometer Standardization.—An interference comparator

for the measurement of the depths of hsemacytometer chambers

has been in use during the past year. A new comparator embodying

a number of improvements over the original design has been constructed during the past year. The use of these comparators for

the measurement of the depths of the hsemacytometer chambers

enables the bureau to obtain a higher accuracy with a very great

saving of time as compared with older methods. The bureau does no work in the line of counting the corpuscles of the blood with

these chambers, but merely standardizes them as to their dimensions.
178 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Accuracy of Dilution Pipettes and Counting Chambers (Hemacytometers).—Within the past few years many tests of the pipettes and

counting chambers used by physicians in making blood counts have

been carried out by the bureau. While the accuracy of this type of

apparatus is often of the highest importance to the diagnostician*

*t is an alarming fact that much of the commercial apparatus has

been found to be greatly in error. The bureau would point out the

grave danger involved in the use of such apparatus unless it is known

by actual test to be accurate, or at least to be from a manufacturer

in whom confidence can be placed.

Effect of Concentrated Loads on the Length of Measuring Tapes.

An investigation was carried out to determine the effect of concentrated loads on tapes such as are used in precise surveying. This work

served to check experimentally several of the corrections used in

surveying which are calculated from theoretical considerations. The

results are published in S534, by Lewis V. Judson.

Sieve Specifications.—An investigation of sieves was carried out

which showed the desirability of certain changes in the specifications

of the United States standard sieve series. This investigation is covered in T321, by Lewis V. Judson.

The test of a large number of No. 20, 30, and 40 sieves led to the

abandonment by a committee of the A. S. T. M. of old specifications

for these sieves and the adoption of the specifications for the United

States standard sieve series. The sieves tested were used by a number of laboratories approved by the committee in a comDarative

test of the old and the new sieves.

A number of different types of grain screens, other than woven

wire, were tested for the Department of Agriculture. On the basis

of these tests gauges have been made and specifications adopted.

Standardization of Grocers' Paper Bags.—At the request of the

Grocery Bag Simplified Practice Committee, this bureau cooperated

with manufacturers of grocers' paper bags for the purpose of putting

into effect the dimensional standards for this product which had

been adopted by the manufacturers. A large group of manufacturers

agreed upon the use of an emblem as a guaranty that the bags bearing

the emblem were of standard size. National Conference on Weights and Measures.—The legislative

policy of our Government is such as to leave almost entirely to the

jurisdiction of the States the regulation of commercial weights and

measures. While there are a few Federal laws relating to commercial

weights and measures, these are concerned either with the fixing of standards or the regulation of interstate commerce, or sometimes

both. The standard barrel law is an example of the first class; the

net-weight amendment to the food and drugs act is an example of the

second; and the standard lime barrel act and the standard container
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 179

act are examples of the third class, these being standards fixed for

interstate commerce purposes only.

Since commercial weights and measures are, then, almost wholly

regulated by State laws or local ordinances, there is a very urgent

necessity for obtaining some uniformity of requirement if efficiency

of enforcement is to be obtained and if an intolerable burden is not to be placed upon firms doing an interstate business, especially in the

instrumentalities of weighing and measuring. For instance, if all the

different jurisdictions were to promulgate nonuniform requirements

and subject apparatus to different characters of tests, as might

readily be the case if each State arrived at its conclusions independently of the others, the number of varying designs which a manufacturer doing a wide interstate business would be required to produce

would be such that no effective standardization would be possible, the

stocks necessary to be made and carried would be enormously in- creased, and the cost of production and the selling price would be

very much greater than would otherwise be the case. Moreover no

advantage would accrue to anyone and a tremendous economic loss would be the inevitable result. The same conditions would exist if nonuniform-sized packages were to be required for commodities, in

general, if various marking requirements were to be insisted upon, etc. There will shortly be issued by the bureau, the third edition of M20,

" Federal and State Laws Relating to Weights and Measures," containing the text of the weights and measures laws now in force throughout the United States. In view of the power of the States to make

and enforce their own laws, the only method, under our present policy

of legislation, of obtaining uniformity of requirement is by voluntary

cooperation among the various jurisdictions. To this end the National Bureau of Standards, shortly after it was established, was

instrumental in forming an unofficial organization which came to be

known as the National Conference on Weights and Measures. This

organization is composed of State and local weights and measures

officials from all parts of the United States who meet annually in

Washington at the Bureau of Standards for the purpose of discussing

problems arising in connection with their work and arriving at uniform

solutions which can be put into force and effect in their various jurisdictions. These problems broadly cover weights and measures laws

and methods of enforcement, rules and regulations, specifications and

tolerances for commercial apparatus, and methods of tests to be

applied. The proceedings of the conference are published by the

Bureau of Standards, and in this way the material is made available

to every one interested in the conclusions.

Model State Law in Relation to Weights and Measures.—

As one of the outstanding accomplishments tending toward uniformity along the lines mentioned above, may be cited the model State
180 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

law in relation to weights and measures. In cooperation with the

National Conference the Bureau of Standards some years ago (in

1911) drafted the so-called model State law on the subject of weights

and measures and brought this before the National Conference for

action. This was adopted by the Sixth National Conference on

Weights and Measures and recommended by the bureau and the con- ference to the various States for passage. Prior to this time (in 1907), at the third national conference, certain general principles had been

agreed upon, but these were not as a rule in such a form that they

could be presented as a bill to the various legislatures.

The work of drafting a specific bill was done at a very opportune

time for two reasons: First, the Bureau of Standards was then con- ducting an investigation of commercial weights and measures conditions throughout the country and consequently had first-hand

information concerning existing laws and the manner in which these

worked out in actual practice; second, as the results of the investigation of conditions became known a number of States had come to a realization of the inadequacy of the laws then on the statute books

and were anxious to enact comprehensive laws which would correct the conditions found and furnish a better protection to the merchants

and public in their jurisdictions. In the drafting of the law, material

from existing laws, from suggestions adopted prior to this time, and

from bills based on these suggestions, was freely utilized. This model law was amplified and improved in 1913 and has been

amended from time to time since, when it has developed that

improvements could be effected. It is believed that much of the uniformity in State weights and

measures laws which we have to-day is due to the model law. A

number of States have adopted it practically unchanged, others have

laws which differ from it only in minor respects, and still others

have adopted special laws embodying the principles contained in one

or more of its sections. About 29 States are embraced in these

three classes. Among those States more recently enacting legislation

of this character may be mentioned Alabama, Illinois, Indiana, and

Virginia, the last-mentioned State having acted in 1926.

The law is presented in three forms which differ mainly in administrative principles to suit the needs of the various jurisdictions. All

the forms provide that there shall be a state-wide inspection of

commercial weighing and measuring apparatus of all kinds, and

checking of package goods and other amounts of commodities determined and ready for delivery; that dry commodities shall be sold

by measure of length or weight, or, in proper cases, by count, eliminating the dry measure, and liquid commodities by weight or liquid measure; that all weights and measures shall be net; that special

precautions shall be observed in the sale of coal, coke, and charcoal;
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 181

that all commodities in package form shall disclose the amount of

commodity contained therein; that butter in packages and milk in

bottles shall be put up only in standard sizes, and bread baked only

in standard weight loaves; and that barrels for fruits, vegetables,

and other dry commodities, and baskets for berries and small fruits shall be of standard size. Penalties are provided for violations of

the provisions of the law.

Specifications and Tolerances for Commercial Weighing and

Measuring Apparatus.—One other outstanding accomplishment of

the national conference is the development of specifications and toler- ances for commercial apparatus. These cover nearly all classes of apparatus and are designed to procure in commercial use, apparatus

which is accurate, which is permanent in its adjustment and will repeat its indications correctly, and which will not facilitate the per- petration of fraud. The codes adopted are believed excellently to serve their intended purpose, they are being more and more generally

observed in present-day construction, and it is believed that they have

had a very marked effect in improving types of apparatus on the market. The specifications and tolerances have been widely ack>pted, some

15 or 20 States having officially promulgated them, and it is believed

that the considerable uniformity now existing throughout the country

is largely attributable to this activity. The codes more recently

adopted are concerned with vehicle tanks, fabric-measuring devices,

taximeters, portable devices designed for determining the axle loads on loaded trucks on highways (for noncommercial use), and liquidmeasuring devices (revision).

Density of Steels.—In the marketing of alloy steels it would be

desirable to have tables of the weight per foot of bars or shapes, such

as are found in various handbooks for ordinary structural steel. The density of the various alloy steels in various stages of heat treat- ment is also a matter of some commercial interest. Requests for

such data, received from manufacturers, could not be answered with

the necessary degree of precision and, therefore, experimental determination of the density of a comprehensive series of alloy steels in

various conditions is under way.

Gauge Steel Investigation.—The interchangeability of automobile

parts, for example, demands that they be brought to the same dimensions within very close limits. This is accomplished by the use of gauges. If the gauges themselves change dimensions either as a

result of the lapse of time or due to Wear in use, the desired imiformity

in dimensions of the product is not readily attainable.

Work, sponsored by the Gauge Steel Committee, composed of

producers and users of gauges, has been in progress at the bureau

for several years. The study of the dimensional changes occurring in

the hardening, tempering, and aging of the gauges has been com-
182 NATIONAL bUKEAU OF STANDARDS

pleted save for continued measurements on gauges in progress of

aging at room temperatures.

The more important phase at present is the study of the wear of

gauges. With the cooperation of several automobile plants service wear records were obtained on a series of gauges, but the results indicated that conditions of use varied so widely as to obscure small

metallurgical differences which were being sought.

Due to the large number of variables which enter into gauging

operations as carried out in the plant, it was found that obtaining

reliable results on "wear" under such conditions would necessitate

making up a large number of gauges which would entail considerable

expense. In addition, the time consumed in collecting the data from

the various cooperating plants tends to make impracticable such

procedure for the proper study of the wear problem with respect to

gauges. The bureau, accordingly, undertook a laboratory study of

this work wherein gauges were subjected to use approximating that

obtained in the plant. This was accomplished by the use of a machine especially designed and constructed at the bureau for this purpose. In this manner a control of gauging conditions was assured,

comparatively few gauges were required, all tests were centralized at one place, thus permitting of a rapid collection of data and, in general, a more proper study of wear could be obtained than by distributing

the work amongst the plants.

Under conditions of test in which potassium-dichromate was used

(which will be referred to as " metal-to-metal" wear) chromium plate

in the lapped condition showed a wear resistance of about 500 per

cent greater than that exhibited by any of the other metals tested.

When tested with abrasives chromium plate excelled by 35 per cent

in wear resistance. Chromium plate which was not subjected to lapping after plating showed no advantage over the nonfile-hard

gauges which in general showed greater resistance to wear than the

file-hard gauges in the "metal-to-metal" tests. Stellite showed no

advantage in "metal-to-metal" tests over the other materials used

and in fact less than the unlapped chromium plate, but gave good

results on abrasive wear tests.

Publications.—Dimensional Changes Accompanying the Phenomena of Tempering and Aging Tool Steels. H. Scott, Trans. Am. Soc. Steel Treat., vol. 9, p. 277, 1926. Wear of Steels with Particular Reference to Plug Gauges. H. J. French and

H. K. Herschman, for September, 1926, meeting Am. Soc. Steel Treat. Density of Denatured Alcohol.—Samples of ethyl alcohol denatured

in accordance with various formulas approved by the Prohibition

Unit of the Treasury Department were examined by the bureau,

and from the results obtained tables were prepared showing the

density and weight per gallon. The samples were in part furnished
STANDAEDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 183

by the various producers of commercially denatured alcohol, and in

part prepared by the bureau. The results, therefore, furnished the

information desired for the preparation of tables, and at the same

time served as a check upon the accuracy and uniformity of the work

of the commercial denaturing plants. The results were published by

the Treasury Department.

Density Changes Produced in Glass by Various Heat Treatments.

In cooperation with the optics division an investigation has been car- ried out to determine the density changes produced in various glasses

by various heat treatments. This work is of importance in the design

and construction of precision thermometers and lenses. Short Tests for Sets of Laboratory Weights.—The development of a new system of calibration for sets of weights was completed, and a

full description of two forms of this system was published as S 527. One

of these forms uses the fewest possible number of observations, the

other contains a few more observations, thus giving valuable checks on the accuracy of the observations. It is hoped that this relatively

simple system will result in more frequent calibration of laboratory

weights.

Instructions on Testing Standard Weights.—A paper was pre- pared for the National Conference on Weights and Measures of the

United States, on testing both the ordinary office standards and the

standards (commonly called test weights) used in the field testing

of commercial scales and weights.

The paper gives information on equipment needed, on precautions

to be observed both in preparation for and execution of the work, and

describes a very simple short method of substitution weighing by

which the testing can be done.

This paper furnishes information much needed in weights and measures department's of States and large cities, in order that a proper

standardization of commercial weighing apparatus may be maintained

Dental Research.—-Data were secured more rapidly than during

any previous year. Contacts have been made with the dental profession through lectures given at Chicago, Washington, New York,

and Philadelphia. Committees and members of the American Dental

Association have visited the bureau and given unqualified approval

of the work. Papers have been published which give fundamental

data on wrought gold alloys and appliances used in dentistry. Physical Properties of Dental Materials (III), Progress Report of Research on the Dental Casting Process, by R. L. Coleman, was published

in Cosmos, volume 68 (No. 8), page 743, August, 1926. Data are given on many of the important physical properties of materials used

in the dental casting process, including waxes, investments, and gold

alloys. The effects of variations in manipulative techniques are

reported. The methods of testing and the apparatus used are

described.
184 NATIONAL BTJKEAU OF STANDAEDS

Calibration by Light Waves.—The laboratory is equipped for and

is making routine calibrations of strain gauges or similar devices by

using the interferometer and counting light waves for desired length

intervals. This work can be done quickly and accurately. Duplicate equipment was displayed at the Sesquicentennial Exposition in

Philadelphia and is an excellent example of the ease with which the

interferometer can be used as a length-measuing instrument.

Thermal Expansion of Tungsten.—The thermal expansion of

tungsten (99.98 per cent) over various temperature ranges between — 100° and + 500° C. was studied. The expansion of tungsten is given by the following empirical equation

Lt = L [l + (4.28 t + 0.00058 t

2

) 10"6

] where Lt represents the length of the metal at any temperature t between -105° and + 502° C., and LQ the length at 0° C. Results

are published in S515, Thermal Expansion of Tungsten, by Peter

Hidnert and W. T. Sweeney.

Measurements on the Thermal Expansion of Fused Silicon.—Results of an investigation on the thermal expansion of transparent

and ndntransparent fused silica for various temperature ranges

between — 125° and + 1,000° C. are given in S524, Measurements on

the Thermal Expansion of Fused Silica, by Wilmer Souder and

Peter Hidnert; also Silica Rods Expand when Cooled, by Wilmer

Souder and Peter Hidnert, Times of India (Bombay), February 4,

1926. A total of 48 expansion tests were made on 17 samples of

fused silica. A detailed description of the apparatus and the methods used in

this research and a summary of available data obtained by previous

observers on the thermal expansion of fused silica are given.

A critical temperature or minimum length was found at about — 80° C. The average coefficient of expansion between 20° and

1,000° C. is 0.48 X 10~6 per° C. This exact value will serve as a comparison standard for other laboratories wishing to calibrate thermal

expansivity equipment by the use of fused silica as a standard material. Time Investigation and Research.—An apparatus has been designed

and its practical use demonstrated by which it is possible to obtain

time signals from a swinging pendulum without mechanical contact. These signals may be transmitted as desired by use of a relay. The

apparatus makes use of the action of a beam of light on a photoelectric cell, when such beam is interrupted by the pendulum swinging through it. A demonstration apparatus designed by this section was exhibited at the Sesquicentennial Exposition at Philadelphia.

A brief description of this apparatus was prepared for the Jewelers f Circular, and published June 30, 1926.
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 185

HEAT AND POWER

Standard Temperature Scale.—The fundamental temperature scale

is based upon the laws of thermodynamics and is established experimentally by means of measurements with the gas thermometer or

for higher temperatures, by measurements of the radiation emitted

by a black body. For laboratory use it is necessary to have, in

addition to the fundamental scale, a standard working scale, for

calibration of instruments. In practice, such a scale is defined by

a number of thermometric fixed points, such as freezing points or

boiling points, and by specifying the interpolation instruments and

formulas to be used in defining temperatures between the fixed points.

The boiling point of oxygen, —183° C, the freezing and boiling

points of water, 0° and 100° C, respectively, the boiling point of sul- phur, 444.6° C, and the freezing points of silver, 960.5° C, and gold,

1,063° C, suffice for a standard scale. The platinum resistance thermometer serves as an interpolation instrument for the range —193°

to 0° C. and also for the range 0° to 660° C, the platinum if. platinumrhodium (90-10) thermocouple, serves for the range from 660°

to 1,063° C, while the disappearing filament pyrometer is used above

1,063°. A scale such as outlined above is in use by the bureau.

The adoption of such a standard scale has been the subject of negotiation between the International Bureau of Weights and Measures,

the national laboratories of Germany and Great Britain, and the

National Bureau of Standards, and, in general, the scale as outlined

has been found acceptable as a basis for an international scale,

although some details remain to be worked out before formal agree- ment can be announced. In the meantime, each of the several

national laboratories has adopted a standard scale for its own use. These scales conform to the general plan outlined and differ only

in minor details, so that international standardization of the temperature scale will probably be a reality in the near future.

Standardization of Rare-Metal Thermocouples.—The proposed

international temperature scale in the range 660° to 1,063° C. is based upon four fixed points, namely, the freezing points of zinc,

419.45° C, antimony, 630.5° C, silver, and gold, only the two last named being defined points. The scale which has been used by the

Bureau of Standards is based upon three fixed points, the freezing

points of zinc, aluminum 660° C, and copper 1,083° C. The platinum v. platinum-rhodium (90-10) thermocouple is used for interpolation between fixed points, the electromotive force being represented as a function of the temperature by means of a cubic equation

in the former case and by a parabolic equation in the latter. The small departures of the new scale from the old were determined

by calibrating a standard couple at the fixed points of the two scales and comparing the interpolated points obtained.
186 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Pyrometric Cones.—Pyrometric cones are small slender pyramids

of triangular cross section made of mixtures of ceramic materials.

As made, they constitute a graded series of some 60 members, the

compositions of successive members differing in small steps, so that

each member will soften and bend over or "come down" at a slightly

different temperature from its neighbor in the series. The 60 cones cover the temperature range from 550 to 2,000° C. or 1,000 to 3,600° F. In the firing of all sorts of ceramic ware, pyrometric cones are placed in various portions of the kiln and the condition of the kiln

is judged from the behavior of the cones. It has been the practice

in the industry to speak of "cone numbers" very much as one speaks

of temperature and it is of great importance to know what relations

exist between the two. This bureau has completed a determination of the temperature

at which each one of the complete series of pyrometric cones softens

under various conditions in accurately controlled electric furnaces.

It was found that the bending of a given cone depends not only on

its temperature, but also on the rate at which its temperature has

been raised and on the composition of the gases surrounding the cone. The results of this work have been made available in the form

of tables showing the temperatures corresponding to the various cone numbers for two different rates of heating in clean air; with

the corrections to be made for the composition of furnace gases. Standardized Thermometers and Methods of Testing.—Although

a large variety of thermometers are submitted for test, there has been

a considerable increase in the number of instruments made under

standard specifications. The A. S. T. M., through its committee on

thermometers, has been active in standardizing the various types of

thermometers used in industrial testing and in standardizing the

form of the specification itself. This standardized form of specification is coming into general use. A reduction in the variety of

thermometers now made and the adoption of a smaller number of

standardized forms will be of great benefit to both manufacturers

and users. The use of standards identical with the product under

test is becoming more general in laboratories which do their own

testing. There is also a decided tendency toward adoption of a few

standardized forms of partial-immersion thermometers.

Standards for Pressure Measurement.—In the standardization of

precision dead-weight pressure gauges constructed some time ago

it has been found that measurements of dimensions of the piston and

auxiliary measurements involving the viscosity of an oil to determine

the width of the crevice can be made with such accuracy as to provide an improved standard for pressue measurement.
STANDARDS YEAEBOOK, 1927 187

Properties of Refrigerating Brines.—The data relating to thermal

properties of refrigerating brines, published during 1925, are serving

as a basis for standard tables of properties of brines to be issued by

the American Society of Refrigerating Engineers.

Thermal Properties of Petroleum Products.—An extensive investigation, partly experimental partly a review of published data, indi- cates the possiblity of correlating the more important thermal properties, such as specific heat, latent heat, etc., with density of petroleum

products in a simple manner. The standard oil tables, issued by the

bureau as C154, contain in a publication of 175 pages data on

virtually a single property—thermal expansion—as related to density.

Standard data on the other thermal properties are under investigation.

Thermal Conductivity of Insulating Materials.—During the year

measurements of thermal conductivity and density were made on a

large number of thermal insulating materials, primarily those used

for cold storage and house insulation. The method of measurement

developed at the bureau consists essentially in observing the rate of

heat flow and temperature drop through a flat, square specimen of

material of measured thickness confined between two metal plates

between which a constant difference in temperature is maintained by

electrically heating one of the plates and water cooling the other.

Actually the arrangement is more complicated, since means must be

provided to eliminate undesirable heat loss at the edges of the hot

plate and specimen. This method of measurement yields the thermal or heat conductivity, a specific property of a material, upon which

its insulating value depends. Effects due to the resistance to heat

flow between the surface of a material and the surrounding air or other medium are eliminated, since these insulating effects are not

ordinarily utilized in building construction, and in any case they

depend upon the manner in which the material is used.

Differences in the respective insulating values of equal thicknesses

of the various fibrous or cellular materials weighing less than about

15 pounds per cubic foot are rather small, the advantage from the

point of view of insulating value only being with the lighter and least- compressed materials. The thermal conductivities of all such

materials are within the range 0.26 to 0.36 B. t. u. per hour per square

foot and temperature gradient of 1° F. per inch thickness. The

compression and binding of fibers to obtain structural strength

entails some sacrifice of insulating value. Heavy wall boards, consisting chiefly of plaster of one kind or another, are poor insulators,

although they have certain advantages, such as fire resistance and

resistance to air infiltration into the building.

Thermal Conductivity at High Temperatures.—Work on thermal

conductivity of insulating materials at high temperatures up to 36316—27 13
188 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

800° C. is in its preliminary stages, the work thus far having consisted in the calibration and standardization of an apparatus built

in previous years for measuring insulating values.

Heat Transfer Through Building Walls.—Measurements of insulating value of typical building walls have been continued to provide

standard engineering data for use in building construction and

equipment. The method consists in maintaining a constant dif- ference in temperature between the opposite sides of a system

composed of a 3 by 6 foot wall section and a relatively thin panel

of composition cork placed in contact with the warm surface of the

wall panel. When a steady state of heat flow is established, the

rate of heat flow is the same through both panels and the ratio of the temperature drops through the two is a measure of their relative

insulating values. The insulating value of the thin cork layer is readily measured by other means, and the actual insulating value

of the wall panel is thus calculated.

The work this year, aside from construction of accessory equipment, has included various tests on frame construction to determine

the effect of the air spaces and to eliminate certain errors inherent

in testing relatively small panels of hollow construction.

Development and Improvement of Low-Temperature Apparatus

and Technique.—Several very serious accidents in laboratories have

resulted from the use of flammable liquids, such as volatile petroleum

distillates, or toluene, to form the bath of a cryostat. In some

instances, explosions have occurred and burning liquid has been

thrown upon the operator. " Nonflammable Liquids for Cryostats," S520, by Dr. C. W.

Kanolt, sets forth the results of his experiments undertaken to find

nonflammable liquids suitable for use in low temperature (about — 150° C.) cryostats and to study some of their properties.

The materials tried were chlorine and bromine derivatives of

methane, ethane, and ethylene, and mixtures of these liquids. The

eutectic compositions and freezing temperatures of mixtures of two,

three, and four components were determined, and some mixtures of

five components were investigated.

Some of the mixtures become very viscous at temperatures near

their freezing points, and the limits of usefulness of these mixtures were determined by their viscosities rather than their freezing points.

The corrosiveness of the liquids to metals was also studied.

A new type of vacuum flask has been developed for storing liquid

hydrogen. In this flask, the heat leakage from the outside to the

liquid hydrogen was reduced to a minimum by increasing the resist- ance to heat conduction and by reducing the absorbing power of

the flask for external radiation. The flask was made of pyrex glass

for strength. The resistance to heat conduction was increased by
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 189

making the neck of the flask long and narrow. The absorbing power

for external radiation was decreased by surrounding the inner glass

cylinder with several sheaths of bright copper foil separated from

each other. These copper sheaths are more effective than a silver

film in shielding the flask from external radiation. liquid hydrogen

can be kept longer in this type of flask than in other types now in use. A new cryostat is being designed for greater safety and for the

maintenance of a constant temperature.

Properties of Matter at Low Temperatures.—Experimental determinations of the thermal conductivity of lithium, sodium, and lead

at low temperatures were carried out in the low temperature laboratory of the Bureau of Standards.

The method was essentially the bar method of Forbes. The

metal rod, centered in a large test tube, was placed in a constant

temperature bath and heated by a coil at its upper end. The temperature gradient was determined by thermojunctions spaced along

the rod. With the mean temperature not exceeding 15° above the

bath temperature, accurate values of the conductivities were obtained. Values for lead from —250° to +100° C, taken to test the method, agreed well with the best recorded values. Lithium

shows a linear increase in conductivity from 0.15 at 0° C. to 0.20 at -200° C, thereafter rising sharply to 1.00 at -246° C. Above

0° C, a minimum occurs at +40° C. and an increase thereafter to 0.17 at + 140° C. Sodium shows a linear increase from 0.28 at —40° C.

to 0.40 at —240° C. Above —40° C. an increase occurs to 0.35 at 0° C. and thereafter a decrease to 0.28 at +65° C.

Fire Resistive Properties of Building Materials.Fire Tests of

Brick Walls.—The fire tests with brick walls were undertaken to obtain information on which safe and economical use of the material can be based. Municipal building law requirements vary greatly

relative to prescribed wall thicknesses which has been due in part to lack of definite knowledge on the stability and heat insulation

afforded under fire conditions. The fire tests conducted this year were mainly on heavy walls to obtain the ultimate endurance in

ability to support load and protect combustible material on the

unexposed side while exposed to the test fire on the opposite side. This has been found to vary with the wall thickness and the kind of

brick from approximately 1 hour for 4-inch walls to 10 hours or more for 12-inch walls. Through articles published in outside journals giving progress

reports and contact with States, cities, and other bodies formulating

or revising building codes, much of the information obtained has

found immediate application, and it is expected that the full report

of the investigation which is nearing completion will assist essentially
190 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDAKDS

in obtaining uniform standards for design and regulation consistent

with the properties developed in the tests. Hollow Tile Investigation.—The use of clay hollow tile for

load-bearing purposes in walls is of comparatively recent origin, and

building design and public regulation standards show even greater

variance in provisions than for brick. According to some city codes

its use for load-bearing purposes is practically prohibited, while in

other cities it is used within certain limitations on a parity with

brick. Prior to the tests at the National Bureau of Standards there was extant little data from tests other than of individual units.

About 200 fire tests of walls have now been completed, the tests during the present year covering special forms of units and designs

of walls, tests of material from sources not previously covered, 12-inch

and 16-inch plastered and unplastered walls tested to ultimate endurance, as also tests to determine the effect of certain manufacturing

details on fire resistance, such as methods of preparation of the raw

clay and addition to it of various percentages of combustible fillers. On account of tests involving manufacturing details and the wide

scope of the work generally it was found necessary to conduct it in

cooperation with the industry as represented by the Hollow Building

Tile Association. A progress report was presented before the annual

meeting of this association,4 and a paper giving results of the tests from the standpoint of public regulation of building construction was given before the Building Officials' Conference.5 LC113 on

"Fire Resistance of Hollow Tile" was revised to include results from

recent tests. The results of compression, absorption, and freezing

tests of individual units have been utilized in formulating specifications, standard specifications based largely on these tests being

adopted during the year by the American Society for Testing

Materials.

Intensity and Duration of Building Fires.—On account of

the variety in design and materials used in fire resistive construction

and for the protection of structural members, it is difficult to specify

construction details and protection thicknesses in building codes and

the practice is becoming more general of specifying fire-endurance

periods for given constructions, buildings or occupancies, as referred

to performance in standard fire tests. It is therefore necessary to know within limits the probable intensity and duration of the fires such buildings and occupancies can occasion. Examination of fire ruins has given indications of fire intensity through fused metals and

general structural effects, but neither the ruins or records of the fire give any reliable information on the effective duration as referred

* Proceedings Eighth Annual Meeting, pp. 90-114; 1926.

• "The fire resistance of clay hollow load-bearing wall tile" by H. D. Foster, Proceedings, Twelfth Annual Meeting, pp. 103-110; 1926.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 191

to a given part of the building. Tests to obtain such information

for the case of office buildings have been conducted at the Bureau

of Standards during past years, a one-story fire resistive building,

15 by 30 feet in inside lateral dimensions having been burnt out

three times with old office furniture and with or without a wood

top floor, with measurements of temperatures at representative

points within the room and in the debris. In two tests the fire was

given a quick start by burning a large amount of readily combustible

materials in one corner until the temperature over most of the room

was at or above the ignition points of wood and paper, this being

representative of conditions where a fire breaks into a room or building from an adjoining room or building. In the other test the

fire was given a slow start from fire in a waste-paper basket. A

fourth test was conducted with a record storage or reference room

occupancy which is considered as creating the severest fires in office buildings. During the present year the latter test was repeated in a larger structure 30 by 60 feet in inside lateral dimensions in order

to obtain any effects that might be caused by the larger room size. For the same reason a burning-out test of regular office occupancy

with wood furniture and wood top floor was also repeated in the

larger structure. Higher temperatures and longer duration obtained

than in the previous tests with office occupancy, the maximum

temperatures indicated for different points in the room ranging

from 871 to 1,142° C. (1,600 to 2,088° F.). The smaller structure was then burnt out, fitted with steel furniture consisting of filing

cabinets, desks, and open and closed shelving, with contained and

exposed records somewhat exceeding in volume what was present in

the tests with wood furniture. Two tests with slow start for the

fire and one with exposure start were made with Portland cement

top floor finish and one each with slow and exposure start and pine

top flooring. When the temperature data from these later tests have been reduced and considered in connection with that obtained

for the earlier tests, information sufficient to define the range of exposures incident with the given occupancy will be available.

Sheet Steel Garages.—Two burning-out tests were conducted

with steel-framed sheet steel garages to determine the hazard to adjacent construction. The garages were erected by the Sheet Steel

Trade Extension Committee and two old automobiles with other

incidental contents were provided for each test. Wood-finished and

sheet-steel walls were placed 1 to 5 feet away from the garage burnt

out. A brief description of the tests with summary of results has

been published in the Quarterly of the National Fire Protection

Association, vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 60-63; July, 1926. It is expected

that the results will aid materially in securing greater uniformity in
192 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDAEDS

city regulations relative to the required distance from the lot line or adjacent construction for such buildings.

Supercharging of Aircraft Engines.—This activity has as its purpose the determination of the improvement in engine performance

under altitude conditions made possible by supercharging.

The first problem, undertaken last year for the National Advisory

Committee for Aeronautics, was an investigation of the performance

which a Liberty 12 and a Curtiss D-12 engine would give if equipped

with an ideal supercharger; that is, with a supercharger which con- sumed no power in its operation. This was accomplished by testing

each engine in the altitude chamber under conditions of temperature

and pressure corresponding to altitudes up to 25,000 feet, but at

all times maintaining sea-level pressure at the entrance to the car- buretor. These tests were completed in May, 1926, and a report

is being prepared for publication by the National Advisory Committee

for Aeronautics. In the case of the Liberty engine in particular,

the increase in power due to supercharging at high altitudes was

slightly less than that calculated from the corresponding intake and

exhaust pressures. The second problem, undertaken in 1926 for the Army Air Corps,

is the test of the Curtiss D-12 engine, under temperature and pres- sure conditions corresponding to various altitudes, when equipped

with mechanically driven superchargers. The tests should be completed by the end of the year, but no results are yet available. Before

starting this work, tests were made in the altitude laboratory of the

Curtiss D-12 engine equipped with an automatically controlled

carburator designed to supply a constant fuel-air mixture at various

altitudes. Good performance was obtained and a report has been

made to the engineering division of the Air Corps.

Lubrication of Aircraft Engines in Starting.—Numerous engine

failures have been attributed to insufficient lubrication during the

starting period when oil temperatures and engine temperatures are extremely low. At the request of the Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy

Department, lubrication under low temperature conditions has been

studied. For this purpose a 200-horsepower aircraft engine has

been mounted in the cold room and measurements of oil flow made

for various oils and conditions of operation. Many commercial oils meeting the present Navy specification for winter oil have been

tested, and it appears that, in general, the viscosity under operating

conditions rather than the pour point governs flow, provided an

adequate supply of oil is available at the suction side of the pump.

It should be noted, however, that two oils having the same viscosity

at 210° F. may differ materially in viscosity at an operating temperature of 32° F.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 193

In the conventional type of lubrication system the pressure producing flow to the intake side of the pump can not exceed atmospheric

pressure. As atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, the

maximum pressure available for producing flow to the suction side

of the pump must also decrease. It is particularly important in

the case of aircraft engines, therefore, that the suction line to the oil pump be not unduly restricted. In some engines, at least, considerable improvement would result from increasing the area of the passages

within the engine itself. The possibility of inadequate flow at low

temperatures was emphasized by one experiment in which the oil discharge from a conventional pump was 7 pounds per hour at a temperature of 10° F., whereas its capacity at normal operating temperatures was 2,750 pounds per hour.

The operating temperatures of aviation engines do not vary

appreciably with the seasons, the only reason for the present use of a

special winter oil being the difficulty of lubricating the engines at low temperatures while starting. It is believed that a suitable oil for both winter and summer use may be developed as a result of this

investigation. The value of such a development in its relation to problems of supply and distribution is obvious.

Friction of Aviation Engines.—A report of this investigation has

been completed and submitted to the National Advisory Committee

for Aeronautics. The first part of this report deals with the influence

of changes in operating conditions upon the friction of aviation

engines as shown by friction measurements in the altitude laboratory.

The second part presents and discusses the results obtained with a group of pistons so constructed as to differ from each other in a single

respect, such as length, clearance, area of thrust face, location of

thrust face, etc. Phenomena of Combustion.—This project has been supported for

several years by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.

It is primarily an investigation of the kinetics of explosive gaseous

reactions and is furnishing fundamental data as to the influence of

temperature, pressure, and composition on the velocity of such reactions. A soap bubble, filled with the explosive mixture and fired at

its center, serves as a constant pressure bomb and the progress of

the explosive reaction is recorded automatically by photographic means. For pressures other than atmospheric the bubble is still used as a constant pressure bomb by inclosing it in a sufficiently

large container within which the pressure may be brought to the

desired value. Last year the study of the carbon monoxide-oxygen

reaction was extended to pressures as high as 4 atmospheres. In

the current year the same reaction has been studied at pressures less than atmospheric. The methane-oxygen reaction has been studied

in the range from 3j/£ atmospheres down to less than one-half atmos-
194 NATIONAL BUREAU OP STANDARDS

phere. Work has also been done on the reaction with oxygen of carbon monoxide-methane, carbon monoxide-hydrogen, and more

complex mixtures. All the results obtained thus far are consistent

with the theoretical assumption that the linear rate of flame advance

relative to the unburned gas is proportional to the product of the

concentractions (partial pressures) of the active components. The

bubble method also gives accurate thermodynamic data on the

reactions. Preliminary measurements have been made of the rate

of flame spread of mixtures of alcohol vapor and oxygen using a burner and photographing the cone of flame as was done in some

of the early experimental work on this project.

Publications.—The Rate of Flame Propagation in Gaseous Explosive Reactions, F. W. Stevens, Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 48, p. 1896; 1926. Fortpflanzungsgeschiwindigkeit der Fiamme beder Explosion von

Gasen, F. W. Stevens, Zeitschrift des Vereines deutscher Ingenieure, Nr. 20/1926

S. 659. Note on the Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Gaseous Explosive Reactions, F. W. Stevens, National Academy of Sciences. Detonation Survey.—As a step toward greater uniformity in

measuring and rating the antiknock value of fuels, a survey has been

undertaken of the methods now in use, and comparative engine

tests have been run on a number of representative samples of commercial gasoline submitted for the purpose of enabling the American

Petroleum Institute to make a preliminary estimate as to the detonation characteristics of the types of gasoline now commercially

available.

Economic Volatility of Motor Fuels.—For a number of years this

project has been conducted in cooperation with the American

Petroleum Institute, the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce

and the Society of Automotive Engineers. Informal reports of

progress are made to a steering committee and formal reports are presented at the annual meetings of the American Petroleum Insti- tute and at the semiannual meetings of the Society of Automotive

Engineers. The following papers have been published during the

year, based on this project:

Progress Report of Engine Starting Tests. J. O. Eisinger, Journal of the

Society of Automotive Engineers, vol. 18, p. 127; 1926. Effects of Fuel and Engine Design on Starting. S. W. Sparrow, Bulletin American Petroleum Institute (April 12, 1926), p. 121. Progress in the Measurement of Fuel Volatility. T. S. Sligh, jr., Journal of the Society of Automotive Engineers, vol. 18, p. 393; 1926.

Volatility Tests for Automobile Fuels. T. S. Sligh, jr., Journal of the Society

of Automotive Engineers, vol. 19; 1926. Engine Starting.—A marked increase in the use of closed cars and a nation-wide program of road development have increased

greatly the winter operation of automobiles. Starting cars in cold

weather is one of the outstanding difficulties of winter operation.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 195

This problem has been studied both from the standpoint of improvements in fuel and improvements in engine design which would

help the situation. Tests made on a commercial fuel, which con- forms with Government specification for motor gasoline, gave the

following results

Mixture supplied

air-fuel by weight

Starts per gallon at—

30° F. 68° F.

lto 1 116

10486

165 227

221 2tol 3tol The engine employed in the tests was a 4-cylinder truck engine

with a piston displacement of 425 cubic inches.

Methods for Testing Petroleum Products.—Work on methods for

testing petroleum products has been done in cooperation with various

subcommittees of Committee D-2 on Petroleum Products and

Lubricants of the American Society for Testing Materials.

In general, the work has consisted in testing the product for comparison with results obtained by other laboratories to secure information regarding reproducibility and other features essential to a satis- factory method of test. Such cooperative work is preliminary to, and often results in, the adoption of standard methods for testing

petroleum products.

Considerable work has been done with reference to the measure- ment of consistency (viscosity or plasticity). The bureau is now

prepared to furnish standard viscosity samples, thus enabling oil refiners, commercial oil- testing laboratories, etc., to maintain a uniform standard of viscosity. A diagram has been devised by

means of which the Saybolt viscosity of a petroleum oil at any temperature within a wide range may be found from the known viscosity

at one temperature. Two new types of instruments, (1) the viscomparator and (2) the burette consistometer, have been developed.

The viscomparator makes use of the comparison method of determining viscosity, thus avoiding many of the errors of the more usual

types of commercial viscometers. While the viscomparator has not

yet been investigated extensively, it gives promise of being very

convenient, rapid, and accurate and should prove a valuable addition

to standard methods of determining viscosity.

By means of the burette consistometer, flow-pressure diagrams of either viscous or plastic substances can be determined rapidly and

accurately. The instrument is suitable for use with a somewhat

restricted range of materials, inasmuch as the available pressure is that provided by the hydrostatic head in the burette. Because of its speed and accuracy it should, however, be a welcome addition to 36316—27 14
196 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

standard methods of test for those materials to which it is applicable.

Description of the calibration of two instruments of this type may

be found in an article entitled "Calibration of the Burette Consistometer," by Winslow H. Herschel and Ronald Bulkley, to be published

in Industrial Engineering Chemistry early in 1927.

The following articles concerning plastic materials have been

published

"The measurement of consistency as applied to rubber-benzine solutions,"

Winslow H. Herschel and Ronald Bulkley, Kolloid Zeitschrift, vol. 39, p. 291;

1926. "Consistency," by Winslow H. Herschel, being a chapter in a textbook on

Colloid Chemistry, Theoretical and Applied, by Jerome Alexander. See vol. 1 p. 727, published, 1926, by McGraw-Hill Book Co. Automobile Braking Systems.—The Safety Code for Brakes and

Brake Testing has been completed and is now in the hands of the

sectional committee of the American Engineering Standards Committee for presentation to that body for approval as a tentative

American standard. In the past two years the bureau has secured

a considerable amount of technical information which served as a

basis for this code. Figure 36 presents a statistical analysis of

data collected by the bureau as to the performance of hand and

foot brakes on passenger cars and motor trucks in actual service.

The final draft of the code was completed after a thorough canvas of

all interested parties. Every effort was made by the sponsors—the

Bureau of Standards and the American Automobile Association-—to insure adequate consideration of all controversial points, of which

there were a number involved. The code proposes eventually to require for all motor vehicles that the foot brake shall be capable of

stopping the vehicle within a distance of 50 feet from 20 miles an hour and that the hand brake shall be capable of stopping the vehicle

within 75 feet from the same speed. This can be met to-day by the

average passenger vehicle, but greater stopping distances are to be

permitted for a limited time in the case of certain classes of vehicles

which at present have much poorer braking ability.

The type of decelerometer developed at the bureau is being produced commercially, and the bureau's advice is frequently sought by

manufacturers interested in developing other types. It is estimated

that nearly a thousand decelerometers of various makes are now in

service. They are employed for brake testing by police officers,

service stations, automobile clubs, etc., in some 30 eastern cities. Massachusetts and the District of Columbia have been pioneers in

the adoption of scientific methods of brake testing. A number of

commercial decelerometers have been tested at the bureau during

the present year, among them one foreign type not previously on

the market in this country. In every instance there was good
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 197

agreement between the readings of the instrument and computed

values.

An analysis has been made of the causes of automobile skidding,

the forces involved therein, and the dimensional quantities of the

automobile which affect its road stability. This analysis has been

supplemented by experiments on a model car, the weight distribution

of which, as well as the moment of inertia about its center of gravity,

is known.

Automobile Brake Linings.—The experience and information

gained in the testing of materials used for brake linings of automotive

vehicles has made possible further improvements in the testing

equipment and methods. The increased desire of brake-lining manufacturers and car builders to obtain for their own use such test equipment has made it desirable to complete the working out of all details, so that arrangements could be made for making such equipment

available in fully satisfactory form and at a reasonable cost. One

set of improved equipment was put into operation at the beginning

of the year, and after a thorough try out of this it has been possible

to complete and place in service two additional units. The development of automatic pressure adjustment has also been completed,

thus enabling the operator to handle a number of equipment units,

requiring his attention during operation only for the periodic taking

of readings.

The routine tests of new materials have been continued and the

data obtained furnished to Government service departments as a

basis for making purchases and to manufacturers for their information.

The results of this project have enabled manufacturers to increase

the quality of operation and durability of the average brake lining

by approximately 100 per cent. The added equipment has made it possible to carry on experimentation for determining suitable conditions for supplementary

tests. This applies, in particular, to the development of the longplanned " light-service" durability test to supplement the fully

developed " severe-service " test regularly used. Considerable pre- liminary work in this direction has been done, and it is expected that

suitable conditions for a satisfactory "light service" test can shortly

be determined.

Performance of Brake Linings in Service.—A paper by H. H.

Allen, describing the performance of brake linings on an actual car with respect to the influence upon the coefficient of friction of the

temperature of the brake linings, the presence of water, and the

presence of oil, will be published in the Journal of the Society of Automotive Engineers. The experiments indicated that the influence

of temperature upon the coefficient of friction is due almost entirely

to its influence upon the impregnating material used in the lining.,
198 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Brake linings when soaked with oil show rather constant coefficients

of friction, the value being about half that for a normal lining. The

coefficient of friction for a water-soaked lining is usually less than that

for a dry lining, but the value is likely to increase materially in

service within a short period of time.

Antifreezing Solutions for Automobile Radiators.—Last year saw

an unusual number of trade-marked preparations for radiator use

offered to the public in competition with denatured alcohol, and the

bureau's letter circular on this subject was revised in December,

1925, to include the results of additional experimental work on the

relative merits of denatured alcohol, glycerin, and the glycols. During the present year a variety of commercial radiator preparations

have been received for examination and comment, but denatured

alcohol, distilled glycerin, and ethylene glycol appear to be more

satisfactory than any of the others which have been proposed. The

study of commercial grades of glycerin and glycol is being continued

in cooperation with the Federal Specifications Board, which has undertaken to prepare standard purchase specifications for antifreezing

solutions. A paper on " Antifreeze solutions and compounds," by

H. K. Cummings, appeared in the Journal of the Society of Automotive Engineers (Vol. 19, p. 93).

Motor-Vehicle Rating for Taxation.—About two years ago, at the

request of one of the States, an investigation was started with the

purpose of devising a simple and equitable system for determining

motor-truck registration fees. The scope of the investigation was

later enlarged to include the special taxation of all motor vehicles.

A formula for computing registration fees, applicable to all types of motor vehicles and capable of being adjusted to accompany different rates of fuel tax, was recommended. Constants were calculated

to yield the desired revenue, and a final report of the work was

submitted to the State in August, 1926. OPTICS Standard Wave Lengths.—Wave-length standards of light repre- sented by monochromatic spectral lines are fundamental data for

measurements in spectroscopy, astrophysics, metrology, and precision

optics. The first system of standard wave lengths of importance was

the "Preliminary Table of Solar Spectrum Wave Lengths" published by Professor Rowland in 1888. Five years later the absolute

measurements of Michelson and Benoit on cadmium lines in terms of the standard meter at Paris showed that Rowland's wave lengths were too large by 1/30,000 and some redeterminations of solar spectrum standards by Fabry and Perot in 1901 revealed relative errors

of 1/100,000 in Rowland's table. During the past 20 years a con-
STANDAKDS YEARBOOK, 1927 199

certed effort has been made to improve the standards for wave-length

measurements. In 1907 the International Union for Cooperation in

Solar Research adopted the following resolution:

The wave length of the red ray of light from cadmium produced by a tube

with electrodes is 6,438.4696 Angstroms in dry air at 15° on the hydrogen ther- mometer, at a pressure of 760 mm. of mercury, the value of g being 980.67 cm per

sec.2 (45°). This number will be the definition of the unit of wave length.

From time to time the wave lengths of lines in the spectrum of the

iron arc have been compared with this primary standard and the mean

of three values for each line, by independent observers using interferometer methods for making the comparison, was officially adopted as a secondary standard of wave length. In this way, by 1914, a set of

nearly 100 standards was built up, each one of which was believed to be correct to a thousandth of an Angstrom unit. Later investigations on the so-called "pole effect" and' on the iron arc in vacuum showed

that some of the lines were sensitive to operating conditions and more detailed specifications of the manner in which a standard wave

length is produced were required.

Official action has been taken by the International Astronomical

Union, which has replaced the International Union for Cooperation

in Solar Research, and increased precision of standard wave lengths

is aimed at. The Bureau of Standards has remeasured the iron

standards produced according to the revised specification of the iron

arc and found that the adopted values in the red are about 1 part in

1,000,000 too large. Our experience with precise comparisons of wave lengths causes us to favor the use of luminous sources operated

at low pressure. Spectrum tubes containing gases at a few milli- meters of mercury pressure furnish the sharpest and most easily

reproducible lines; and it is probable that a more satisfactory system

of standard wave lengths could be obtained from iron vapor if the

arc were operated at reduced pressure so that disturbing influences

like pressure shift, pole effect, and Stark effect are eliminated. During the past year a newly constructed vacuum arc has been used for

the redetermination of wave-length standards in the spectra of iron,

titanium, and other metals. The vacuum values of these lines are furthermore required for comparison with the solar values of the same lines, since it is now believed that the pressure in the reversing

layer of the sun is only a very small fraction of an atmosphere. For

the purpose of correcting Rowland's table, and in order that the new

laboratory data from vacuum arcs may be compared with solar

values, this laboratory has cooperated for several years with the

Allegheny Observatory on a program of standard solar wave lengths.

During the past year the first installment of our results dealing with wave lengths in the blue portion of the spectrum was published, and

observations on the violet and on the yellow and red regions were
200 NATIONAL BTJKEAU OF STANDARDS

completed. Twelve papers on the subject of standard wave lengths

have been published by members of the bureau staff. Spectral Structures.—Empirical methods of identifying chemical

elements by means of their spectra have shown that among all the

lines of any particular spectrum only a few possess superior spectrochemical sensitivity. These are the last lines to disappear as the

element is progressively diluted until only a mere trace remains. It was suspected that these sensitive lines must be governed by some

general law of spectra and that their explanation would be found in

the structure of the radiating atoms. This has, indeed, been found

to be the case, since the structures of complex spectra have been

successfully analyzed with the aid of interpretations from the quantum theory of spectroscopy. According to this theory each spectrum

line is produced by a change in atomic energy, the change for emission of radiation taking place from a higher to a lower energy level,

each state and the transition being defined by certain quantum numbers. For the production of the most sensitive lines for spectrochemical detection it is the rule that large quantum numbers and

low energy states are involved, and it is important to analyze all the

spectra for the purpose of identifying the energy levels responsible

for these ultimate lines. The spectroscopy section of this bureau

has for several years carried on a program of investigations on struc- tures of complex spectra, and rapid progress has been made in the

classification of spectral lines. During the past year a summary of the work on spectral structures for " Elements of the Second Long

Period (Rb to Pd)" was published and the arc and spark spectra of zirconium and lanthanum were analyzed in detail. For the identification of energy states or spectral terms, special descriptions of

the spectra, such as absorption spectra and Zeeman effects, are of

great importance. Accordingly, the absorption spectra of metals

produced in under water sparks have been investigated and used in

the extension of the classification, in particular of Fe, Co, Ni, Ru, Rh,

Pd, Os, Ir, and Pt lines. Zeeman effects were obtained in cooperation with the University of Nebraska, and results have been compiled for the spectra of yttrium, zirconium, lanthanum, and tanta- lum. The structure of the ionized lanthanum spectrum is represented by Figure 37. Thirteen papers on the structures of spectra

have been published by members of the bureau staff during the past

two years; those of the present year are

"Arc spectrum regularities for ruthenium," W. F. Meggers and O. Laporte,

J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 16, p. 143; 1926. "Spectral structures for elements of the second long period," W. F. Meggers

and C. C. Kiess, J. O. S. A. and R. S. I., 13, p. 417; 1926. " Multiplets in spectrum des ioniziertan vanadiums," W. F. Meggers. Zeits. f. Physik. 33, p. 509; 1925. Ebenda, 39, p. 114; 1926.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 201

"Absorption spectra of the palladium and platinum triads," W. F. Meggers

and O. Laporte, Phys. Rev., 28, p. 642; 1926. "Ueber die grundterme der spectren der ersten und zweiten grossen periode,"

O. Laporte, Zeits. F. Physik., 39, 123; 1926.

" Structure of Lai Spectrum," W. F. Meggers, Wash. Acad.; 1926. Standards of Radiation.—During recent years there has been a marked increase in the use of ultra-violet and visible radiation as stimuli (1) by chemists for producing photochemical reactions,

(2) by biologists and physiologists in their investigations of the

radiant energy upon lower organisms, (3) by psychologists in their

studies of the effect of light upon the eye, (4) by physicists in their

investigations of photoelectric phenomena, and (5) very recently by

the medical profession interested in phototherapy.

In all such investigations it is important to know the energy value

(the mechanical equivalent) of the different radiations (wave lengths)

used as stimuli. For this purpose it is most convenient to measure

the unknown radiation stimulus by means of a nonselective radiometer calibrated by exposure to a standard of radiation.

The Bureau of Standards has the unique distinction of establishing

and issuing such standards, consisting of seasoned carbon-filament

incandescent lamps similar to the well-known light standards.

The original lamp standards of radiation were established early

in 1914. In these radiant flux per cm 2 at 1 meter from the lamp was

established in absolute value (1) indirectly by comparison of the

lamp with a black body in which the coefficient of radiation was

taken as — 5.7X10"12 watts per cm2

, (2) by direct measurement

using radiometric instruments especially devised for the purpose.

These two methods gave values which were in agreement within

0.5 per cent. Hence the standard of radiation as defined by these

incandescent lamps may be considered well established.

Up to the present more than 50 of these standards have been issued

to the public, the demand increasing in magnitude as their utility

becomes better known.

New lamps have been added from time to time to the bureau's

original standards, and jsince the lamps may be intercompared with an

accuracy of 1 to 2 parts in 1,000, and original standards are used but

little, there is no difficulty in maintaining the standard. The

following table shows the values characteristic of these standards:

Amperes Volts Radiation intensity per mm1 at distance of

2.0 meters

0.250 79.9 42. 6X10-8 watt.

.300 94.8 62.7X10-8 watt.

.350 109.8 86.7X10-8 watt.

.400 125.0 114.4X10-8 watt.
202 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Radiometric Measurements on Various Carbon Arcs and Other

Sources Used in Phototherapy.—The therapeutic value of sunshine

is recognized, especially of its ultra-violet component. But sunshine

is limited both as to time and place, hence the search for a source of radiation having the same spectral energy distribution in the ultra- violet as the sun. Cooperative with the research laboratory of the National Carbon

Co., the problem has recently been attacked by two methods—(1) The spectral energy distribution, in the visible and ultra-violet, of the

central line through the arc and the incandescent electrodes was

obtained by means of a quartz spectroradiometer; (2) by means of

properly chosen transmission screens, the spectral radiation components of the whole arc (including reflectors if present) were obtained

in seven steps throughout the entire spectrum.

Publication.—" Radiometric measurements on the carbon arc and other sources used in phototherapy," by W. W. Coblentz, M. J. Dorcas, and C. W. Hughes,

J. Am. Med. Assn. (In press.)

The effect on the ultra-violet component of (a) the kind and size of carbons, (b) carbon electrodes having soft carbon or various metal

cores, and (c) alternating or direct current, was investigated.

From a comparison of the data obtained with those on the sun, the

gas-filled tungsten lamp, the quartz mercury arc, and the arc between

rods of tungsten and of nickel it is concluded that while the carbon

arc approaches nearest the sun in spectral energy distribution (see

fig. 38) it is important to use the proper size of electrodes and magnitude of current to obtain the most efficient operation of the lamp.

Furthermore, the same relative proportions of ultra-violet to total

radiation can be obtained from units operating on 20 to 30 amperes

as with those taking 90 to 125 amperes. The latter type is useful for

large installations, while the cheaper type is of special importance

to individuals who wish to have their own.

Standardization of Eye Protective Glasses.—The National Safety

Code for the Protection of the Heads and Eyes of Industrial Workers

prescribes rules and methods for testing the opacity of goggles material for the various spectral regions of radiation. The ultra-violet

is the most harmful and its presence contributes nothing toward

visual inspection. It has been adequately eliminated from certain

types of glasses for some time past. The infra-red, also, makes no

contribution of value in visual inspection, but its elimination has not

been so rigidly sought as that of the ultra-violet owing to its being a

lesser evil. Accumulation of evidence that the infra-red may have

harmful results has led to the demand for glasses which are also rela- tively opaque to all radiations except the visible, and at the same time

reduce the brightness in the visible to a comfortable working level.
STANDAKDS YEARBOOK, 1927 203

Added to these requirements is the demand on the part of metallurgical furnace workers that the color of the transmitted light be

such that a satisfactory contrast between the melt and the furnace

walls be present, else they are likely to remove the goggles at a critical time and experience the consequent deleterious effects. For such

workers the bureau has developed a blue glass similar in color to the

type which they prefer and at the same time opaque to the harmful

ultra-violet radiation.

Methods of testing eye-protective glasses have also received much

attention. It is necessary that the expense of testing be kept at a minimum consistent with effectiveness. Considerable time has been

given to trying out short methods. The present standard is to use a

gas-filled tungsten filament incandescent lamp in connection with a thermopile for determining the per cent transmission in the total

visible and total infra-red; and for the ultra-violet substituting certain

lines of a quartz mercury arc lamp, and thus determining the per

cent transmission of the material for these lines. The following publication has been issued: "A nonactinic cobalt blue glass/' by W. W.

Coblentz and A. N. Finn (J. Am. Cer. Soc, vol. 9, p. 423; 1926).

A Spectrophotometrie Analysis of the Lovibond Color System.

The Lovibond system of color grading is based on three sets of colored glasses—flashed cobalt blue, gold red, and silver yellow.

The " tintometer " with these glasses is essentially a subtractive

colorimeter in which adjustment to match is made by steps, in- stead of continuously as in a wedge instrument like the Eastman

colorimeter (Jones). Each set of glasses comprises 20 "units"

with numerous subdivisions. The glasses of a given set are in- tended to be "all of one color, but differing in depth, the divisions of difference (that is, the units) being equal throughout * * * The units * * * have also a color equivalence

in relation to each other * * * accomplished when a normal

white light can be gradually absorbed to extinction without the development of any color by successive additions of an equal number of units of red, yellow, and blue glass." (Advertising pamphlet of

Tintometer (Ltd.), pp. 6-7.)

The grading of these glasses as found in actual sets is not as accurate

as indicated by the numbers appearing on them. A spectrophotometric analysis of these glasses is an important step in the Bureau of

Standards' investigation of methods of calibrating the glasses.

Spectral transmission measurements were, therefore, made on the

unit glasses of the bureau set from 1 to 20, inclusive over a range

from 380 to 750 nut. It has been found that for all wave lengths which are of importance

in the determination of the color of the glasses, whether yellow, red,
204 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

or blue, the following relation holds (except for the erratic variations

above implied)

:

Log T=7cN+a

where T is the transmission at a given wave length, N is the Lovibond unit from 1 to 20, and ~k and a are constants. This is the same

relation as is found with wedges if N represents the thickness of the

wedge or the distance measured from the hypothetical position of zero thickness.

Standard Artificial Sunlight for Colorimetric Purposes.—In 1918

(Phys. Rev. (2), 11, p. 502) Priest proposed the use of the rotatory

dispersion filter for obtaining artificial noon sunlight from the gasfilled tungsten lamp at 15.6 lumens per watt (color temp. = 2, 848°K).

At that time this was a mere a priori proposal, untried in actual practice. Since then the filter has been constructed as proposed and has

been in satisfactory service at the Bureau of Standards for some

time. It is used as an integral part of the apparatus for determining

dominant wave length and purity. (See J. 0. S. A. and R. S. I., 8, p. 178.)

The filter consists of a crystalline quartz plate between "crossed

nicols," the plate being 0.500 mm thick and placed so that the path

of light is parallel to the optic axis. These parts are built in a cell which is inserted as a unit near the eye in the optical train of the

colorimeter. The effect is that of a blue filter having a spectral trans- mission such that the spectral distribution of energy delivered to the

observer's eye approximates very closely to average natural noon sun

at Washington. The desired reproduction is much more precise

than can be obtained by blue " daylight glass," dyed gelatin filters, or solutions of selective absorbents.

The Minimum Perceptible Colorimetric Purity as a Function of Dominant Wave Length with Sunlight as Neutral Standard.

In connection with the establishment of color standards, a knowledge of the minimum perceptible purity is important in order that

the standards themselves be fixed with the requisite accuracy.

Method and Conditions.—A 4° square two-part field, symmetrical about a vertical division and viewed through a pupil 3 mm in

diameter, is illuminated in both parts by artificial sunlight, at a constant brightness of about 3 or 4 millilamberts, with a surrounding field of about 0.5 millilambert. Homogeneous light is added to one-half and sunlight simultaneously subtracted so the field remains

matched in brightness. We attempt to make two adjustments of the

mixture: (1) The least purity perceptible with certainty (pmax)', (2) The greatest imperceptible purity (pmin)- Care being taken to correct for stray light, the purity of these mixtures is then measured,

accuracy being obtained by measuring a known large multiple of the

homogeneous brightness.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 205

Results.—(1) For shortest wave lengths, the mean of pmax and

Pmin is very small (0.001 or less); (2) increases slowly to about 0.02

at 550 mix; (3) rises rapidly to a sharp maximum at about 570 and

falls still more rapidly to about 0.02 at 580 ; (4) there is then a gradual

fall to less than 0.01 at 640 mju beyond which we have no data. For

Brickwedde the wave length of the maximum (precisely determined)

is 568 m/x, the values for pmax and pm- n being, respectively, 0.062

and 0.024. The corresponding wave length for Priest (less precisely

-determined) is probably greater but not more than 572 my.

Remarks.—1. Least perceptible purity is largely dependent upon

visibility ; the relative amounts of energy required to introduce a hue

difference show comparatively small variation with wave length.

2. The wave length at which least perceptible purity with sunlight

as neutral is a maximum approximates very closely to the dominant wave length of sunlight referred to equal energy spectrum as neutral.

On the basis of the O. S. A. Colorimetry Committee " excitations'

the latter wave length is 569.0 m/z.

3. Further extensive investigation of least perceptible purity

should be prefaced by a definite adoption of a neutral standard.

Atomic Structure Investigation.—The existence of the 92 chemical

elements presents one of the greatest problems on standardization

confronting the physicist. Nature has constructed every atom of a given species in an exactly identical manner, but how or why the

process is accomplished remains a mystery. Attempts to learn

something of this standardization mechanism for submicroscopic

entities lead to a widely varied field of experimental physics. Each

detailed experiment contributes a little toward the final solution of

the problem.

The discovery of a type of two-electrode tube which gives a large

amplification factor of 100,000 or more for positive charges has made

possible the investigation of ionization of atoms by light as illus- trated by the curve for caesium vapor Figure 39. Two papers

have been published on the photo-electric effect in caesium vapor

and the general methods are being extended to other materials.

Incidentally the photo-electric effect in caesium vapor offers one of

the most sensitive methods for measuring ultra-violet radiation.

Most vapors are not directly ionized by the light transmitted

through glass or quartz apparatus. To investigate the action of

radiation on such gases a rather complicated tube has been designed

inclosing the source of radiation, the gas upon which it operates,

and the measuring device. Considerable data on higher critical potentials of several gases have been obtained in this manner. Another type of electron tube involving crossed electric and magnetic fields has been applied to the investigation of the formation
206 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

of ions in vapors and gases. Very slow electrons are found to combine with certain vapor molecules forming molecular ions. If the

velocity of the impacting electrons be somewhat greater, positive

ions are formed. However, contrary to a prevailing theory, the

splitting of a molecule into two molecular ions of opposite charge was not detected.

The mechanism by which atoms recombine to form molecules is being investigated by studying the radiation emitted in the process

of recombination. In one series of experiments atomic hydrogen is produced by an intense electric discharge and is then pumped into

the observation tube which contains a metal vapor. Spectra characteristic of the metal are thereby excited. Similar experiments have

been completed by use of active nitrogen as the initial source of

energy.

Illustrative of the varied lines of attack upon the problem of atomic

structure, the following completed researches may be mentioned:

Resonance radiation and the Doppler shift of scattered radiation,

excitation of forbidden spectral lines, multiple electron transitions

and primed spectral terms, polarization of radiation excited by elec- tron impact, absorption probabilities, theory of the solid state, rate

of decay of radium E, effect of electric fields on a photographic plate

during exposure, quantum theory of light beats, photoionization in

hydrogen, and fine structure of spectral lines. Apparatus has been developed for investigating several properties

of radioactive atoms. A large beta-ray spectrograph has been constructed by which the velocities of the electrons emitted, when an atom undergoes radioactive transmutation, may be accurately

measured. From such data information is obtained relative to the wave lengths of the high-frequency gamma radiation which, by its photoelectric action, is responsible for the emission of the photoelectrons. Results for the element radium D have been published.

Publications.—"Fine structure and Zeeman effect of complex mercury lines,'

A. E. Ruark, Phil. Mag., 61, p. 977; 1926. "Polarization of radiation excited by electron impact," Ellett, Foote, and

Mohler, Phys. Rev., 27, p. 31; 1926. "Photoionization and relative absorption probabilities of caesium vapor,

Mohler, Foote, Chenault, Phys. Rev., 27, p. 37; 1926. "The natural beta-ray spectrum of Ra D," L. F. Curtiss, Phys. Rev., 27,

p. 257; 1926. "The relation between metallurgy and atomic structure," P. D. Foote, Bull. A. I. M. E. E., Mining and Metallurgy, February, 1926. "Note on decay of Ra E," L. F. Curtiss, Phys. Rev., 27, p. 672; 1926. "A large electromagnet for use with a beta-ray spectrograph," L. F. Curtiss,

J. O. S. A. and R. S. I., 13, p. 73; 1926. "Helmholtz coils for producing uniform magnetic fields," A. E. Ruark, and

M. F. Peters, J. O. S. A. and R. S. I., 13, p. 205; 1926.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 207

"Excitation potentials of the spectra argon II and neon II," F. L. Mohler,

Science, 43, p. 405; 1926. "The effect of an electric field applied to a photographic plate during ex- posure," Ruark and Brickwedde, Science, 63, p. 376; 1926.

" Photoionzation of a gas by a discharge in the same gas," F. L. Mohler. Phys.

Rev., 2$ p. 46; 1926. "A photoionization experiment with hydrogen," F. L. Mohler, Nat. Acad.

Sci., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 12, p. 494; 1926. X-Ray Standardization.—Standardization in the field of X rays

may be considered under three headings according as they are applied

in medical science, physics, or industry.

The increasing use of X rays for diagnostic and thereapeutic

purposes has made urgent the establishment of a unit of X radiation

and the calibration of X-ray machines used in hospitals in terms of

this unit in order to secure uniformity of treatment and reproducibility of results. The Bureau of Standards is now working in co- operation with the radiologists of the country for the establishment

of such a unit. Another important matter in this connection is that

of protecting operators and patients from the deleterious effects of exposure to strong X rays. Tests are continually being made by

the Bureau of Standards on samples of lead glass and lead rubber

which are sent by the manufacturers to have their protective value

determined and thus standardize their product. An investigation on the protective properties of barium sulphate plaster was recently

published, and another series of substitutes for sheets of metallic

lead has been completed.

The more purely scientific aspects of X rays are being considered

at the bureau from the point of view of standardization in the study

of X-ray spectra and measurements of X-ray wave lengths. This

phase of the work is significant, not only to provide accurate data

for use in connection with the medical and industrial applications

of X rays, but also because of its immediate bearing on the interpretation and extension of the recent revolutionary theories of the

constitution of matter. In this connection the bureau is studying

long wave length X rays with the aid of vacuum spectrometers.

The industrial applications of X rays are of ever-increasing scope

and importance. These relate not only to the radiographing of

commercial materials, such as weldings and castings, to detect

flaws, but also the study of the composition and constitution of

industrial materials, such as steels, alloys, and inorganic and organic

chemicals. The bureau has recently installed an up-to-date, highpower radiographic equipment, and is prepared to undertake studies

in this connection. For some time investigations have been under

way, not only on alloys, pure metals, and inorganic substances, but

also on organic materials.
208 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Standardization of Methods of Carbohydrate Analysis.—In the

present complexity of modern industrial life the necessity for standardization of methods of scientific procedure has attained a unique

importance. This is largely due to the fact that a similar result

must frequently be obtained by different workers in laboratories

widely distributed geographically. The effort to make this thing

possible has resulted in the formation of various scientific organizations, one of whose major purposes is the standardization of scientific methods. The bureau has cooperated to the fullest extent possible

in furthering such purposes with regard to methods of analysis of

carbohydrate products.

In connection with the control work carried on for the United

States Customs Service the bureau has been engaged in investigations

relating to the standardization of methods of analysis of sugar

products. This has led to the adoption by the customs service of a number of methods developed at the bureau. In addition, work

on standardization of methods of analysis is being carried out in

collaboration with such organizations as the Association of Official

Agricultural Chemists, the American Chemical Society, the American

Feed Manufacturers Association, and others, as well as with individual manufacturers. This collaborative work has included the

determination of sucrose by the Clerget method, analysis of beet and

cane molasses, determination of moisture and ash in sugar products,

and many others. The results thus far obtained have been of great

value to industry.

Pure Sugars for Standardization.—Sucrose has been issued by the

bureau as a standard sample for a number of years. It is widely

used as a calorimetric standard in the analysis of coal on account of

its high purity and its accurately known fuel value. It is also used

as a saccharimetric standard, as a source of pure invert sugar for

standardizing sugar analysis, and for other miscellaneous purposes.

Similarly dextrose (glucose) in highly purified form has been

issued as a " reducing" sugar standard for use in sugar analysis.

Investigations are continually in progress with the view of increasing the purity of these sugars as well as the members of the rare-sugar

group. Definite standardized products are urgently needed. At

the present stage both sucrose and dextrose are prepared in highly*

purified forms with only minute quantities of impurities present.

Repeated crystallizations under the most favorable conditions have

failed to reduce these small amounts of impurities. In the case of sucrose there remains so-called reducing substances whose magnitude

is less than 0.002 per cent. This apparent impurity may in reality

be due to the chemical action of the sucrose itself in the course of

analysis. The ash content of both sucrose and dextrose is less than

0.003 per cent,
STANDAEDS YEABBOOK, 1927 209

Standardization of Polariscopes and Saccharimeters.—The polariscope or saccharimeter, which is used for testing sugar, makes use of the fact that a solution of sugar has the power of rotating the plane

of polarization of a beam of plane polarized light, the rotation under

standard conditions being directly proportional to the concentration

or amount of sugar present. Inasmuch as practically all raw sugars,

as well as many other sugar products, are bought and sold upon the

basis of their purity as determined by polariscopic test, it is important not only that saccharimeters be accurately standardized,

but also that all be standardized on the same basis. Additional

emphasis must be placed upon the importance of the accuracy of

this standardization by the fact that Congress prescribed that the

import duties on sugars shall be based upon polariscopic test. An

error of one-tenth of 1 per cent in the standardization of the instruments and the carrying out of the tests makes a difference of approximately $140,000 annually in the amount of revenue collected. In addition, it becomes a matter of the first importance to maintain

the various large customs testing laboratories on a parity, so far as the accuracy of their work is concerned.

The bureau's research activities in this field have accordingly

been directed along two major channels—the first, involving investigations to increase the accuracy of the basis of standardization, as well as the carrying out of the standardization itself; and the second,

the maintaining of the laboratories of the various customs ports of

entry on a parity as regards the accuracy of their tests on imported

sugars. For many years the basis of standardization for the 100°

point of the saccharimeter, accepted by the International Sugar

Commission, was the value obtained by joint research of the

Physikalische-Technische Reichsanstalt, and the Institut fur ZuckerIndustrie, in Germany, which resulted in the finding that the normal

sugar solution reading 100° on the saccharimeter was equivalent to a rotation of 34.657 circular degrees for sodium light. An exhaustive

investigation of this fundamental constant was made by the bureau

which resulted in the discovery that the value was over one-tenth of

1 per cent too high, and that the 100° S point of the saccharimeter was actually equivalent to 34.620 circular degrees. As a result the

producers of sugar received less than they were entitled to for their

product and the United States Government was not collecting the

full amount of duty prescribed by the Congress. The monetary

consideration involved in this error amounted to vast sums. In

addition, the results of much published scientific research work in which the saccharimeter was used were invalidated. The bureau is now standardizing all instruments and quartz control plates submitted for test on the corrected value, and the United States Customs

Regulations now specify the corrected value in all customs work.
210 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The sugar testing of the various customs testing laboratories is now

being maintained for the first time on a fairly satisfactory parity

by a check system of testing in which a sample of imported sugar

is sent daily from each laboratory to the Bureau of Standards.

Agreement of the tests between the importing laboratories and the

bureau is successfully held within close limit. Continuous research

in various aspects of this work is being carried on as rapidly as

possible, and it is gratifying to note that recent investigations by

European standardizing institutions have confirmed the bureau's

discovery of the error in the 100° point prescribed by the Inter- national Sugar Commission.

The Development of a Standard Method of Levulose Production.

The general methods which have been employed in the preparation

of levulose have consisted in the isolation of the sugar in the form

of its condensation product, inulin, or in the form of an insoluble

lime compound. Inulin has been converted to levulose by hydrolysis

in the presence of dilute acids; and the lime compound has been

decomposed, with the liberation of levulose, by the addition of suitable reagents such as sulphuric, oxalic, and carbonic acids. From

the levulose sirups thus prepared the sugar has generally been induced

to crystallize by the addition of nonaqueous solvents. Apparently

in all of the experimental work which had been published previous

to that undertaken by the bureau no critical study had ever been

made to determine precisely the conditions under which the various

reactions and operations are to be carried out most efficiently; hence

there could be no standardized practice, and obviously no standard

form of product. Harding's comprehensive history and discussion 6 of the art up to this time reveals nothing which reasonably could be

adopted as a tentative standard of operation, performance, or product.

The bureau's systematic study of the reactions involved and of the operations thus indicated has already resulted in fairly definite

standard methods of procedure and in fairly specific standards of

performance for the laboratory and the small semicommercial scales of production. These methods have resulted in intermediates with

fairly well-fixed standard properties which are subject to laboratory

control; and a final end product of levulose crystallized from water

without the use of nonaqueous solvents which is, in form, a standard

granulated sugar. For further reference, see The preparation of

levulose, Jackson, Silsbee, and Proffitt, 519; 1926. The development

of this standardization of practice and of products has been related

closely to the practices and products which have come to be considered standard in the established branches of the sucrose industry,

with the object always in view of finally working out practical stande Sugar, 35, p. 406; 1923.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 211

ards for commercial scale operations. Intensive work is now in

progress for the further development of this phase of the project.

Development of a Standard Method for Matching Glazes and the

Body Material.—The network of fine cracks often seen in the surface

of glazed products not only mars the surface, but shortens the life and lowers the price of the ware. Since the relative expansivity of

the glaze and body is a very important factor in controlling this

condition, reliable measurements of both are of the utmost importance.

Until recently the difficulty has been that the expansivity of the

glaze has been measured on specimens of the material melted to

glass and drawn into rods or cast in molds of sufficient length. Owing

to the difference between this treatment and that received by the

material when spread on the ware, it was realized that this method

might lead to unavoidable errors. By the interference method, specimens 0.2 mm in length can be

measured with sufficient accuracy. Therefore, in measuring glazes

the samples may be taken directly from the finished ware. In an

investigation of this subject the thermal expansion of glaze materials

prepared in the form of drawn glass or cast rods was compared with

that of the same material taken from the finished ware. From the

measurements the expected divergence was found to be as much as 20 per cent in the case of drawn-glass specimens and 10 per cent for cast specimens.

The comparisons prove that the specimens must be taken from

the ware if reliable data are to be obtained. They also show that

the expansions of the glaze and body must be nearly the same if stresses sufficient to produce crazing are to be avoided.

Photographic Lenses for Airplane Photography.—The rapid topographic surveying of large tracts of territory by the stereoscopic

examination of airplane photographs is becoming more important,

not only for its military values but in industry as well. For this purpose, the tolerances allowable in variation of focal length of the

photographic lens and presence of distortion are much smaller than

those applied by the manufacturer. Accordingly, such lenses must be

obtained by selection and they must be standardized by having their

focal lengths and distortion measured to a high degree of precision.

New equipment has been installed which permits these measurements

to be made readily and with great accuracy.

In addition, for enlarging the original photograph a method has

been developed by which the distortion present in the best of lenses can be compensated by inserting a plane parallel plate of requisite

thickness and refractive power back of the lens. Higher precision at much lower costs is thus attained. In many cases this plate may

also serve as a ray filter.
212 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDAKDS

Lens Design.—A handbook on The Application of the Algebraic

Aberration Equations to Optical Design is in press. This is an ex- tended treatment which sets forth a standard method of optical design.

There has been much information published dealing with optical

systems, but relatively little which describes the method of application of this information to lens design. Even this is scattered for the

most part in scientific periodicals rather than collected in convenient

book form. The algebraic aberration equations are approximate

equations by which the first approach to the final design of an optical

system is made. These equations and their application are treated

fully and explained by illustrative examples in the pages referred to above. Appendixes giving useful mathematical tables to be used in

optical design are included.

New Standards of Planeness,—The practical straight line is the

straight edge formed by the intersection of two planes. The plane is, therefore, the basic standard of straightness as well as planeness.

The fundamental test of planeness is that all planes will fit each other.

Therefore, if each of three surfaces fits the other two at all orientations, all three must be plane. This furnishes a sufficient test for a standard plane.

The degree of precision with which a standard plane can be made

depends upon the material, the skill of the artisan, and the accuracy

with which a misfit can be detected. Fused quartz, which possesses only one-fifteenth the thermal expansion of glass and hence is much

less likely to become warped by temperature irregularities due to handling, has become available in disks up to 11 inches in diameter.

If it be permanent in form, it should be ideal material for standard

flats. Flats were made from three such disks about 10 inches in diameter

and 13^ to 2 inches thick, which under test proved to be less than

one one-hundredth of a lightwave length (that is, less than 1/5,000,000

of an inch) off from a true plane at all points, exclusive of a narrow

margin at the edge.

The following has been published: Making a standard of planeness,

C. A. Skinner, General Electric Review.

Should these disks prove to be permanent in form, which time

alone can reveal, the bureau will be provided with a permanent self- checking standard of planeness, having a precision which should

prove entirely adequate for all demands.

Intermittency Effect in Photographic Exposures.—As a part of the

bureau's work on standardization of sensitometry, a study was made

of the effects of intermittent exposures. This investigation was

prompted by data obtained some years ago which were not in agree- ment with the results of other investigators. It is the accepted view

that, compared with a continuous exposure, intermittency always
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 213

causes a loss in photographic effect. A thorough investigation of

these effects have been carried out, the results of which support and

illuminate those from the earlier series of tests. The intermittency effects were studied by comparing the differ- ences in developed density between continuous exposures and intermittent exposures (the product of time and intensity in both cases being equal) made on adjacent parts of the same test plate. This

procedure gave very good results, as the effects of unequal development and variations in the thickness of the emulsion layer are minimized and the photometric precision in density measurements

Are increased by observing only the differences and not the actual

densities.

The effects studied included variations of intermittence (number of parts into which the exposure is divided), length of the rest periods

between exposures, and illumination.

The most important fact brought out is that the intermittent

exposures may, under certain conditions, exceed the nonintermittent

exposures in photographic effectiveness. The magnitude and di- rection of the intermittency errors are found to vary with different

emulsions, with the illumination, with the total exposure, the number

of parts into which the exposure is divided, and the length of the rest periods between exposures.

When the illumination is above a certain level, dependent upon the

particular emulsion, a greater photographic effect results from the

intermittent exposures, and, conversely, for lower intensities a loss is obtained. The gain or loss, as the case may be, is accentuated by

intermittence. The maximum effect appears to take place at the

exposure value corresponding to the lower end of the straight-line

portion of the characteristic curve. With certain values of illumination some emulsions show prominently both a gain and a loss. When this is the case, the maximum of one effect is at the lower end

of the straight-line portion of the characteristic curve, and the other

effect a maximum at the upper end.

The following analysis of the results is based on the conclusion that

the latent image is modified by the simultaneous presence of two

opposing influences, namely (1) a fading of the latent image after exposure and (2) a growth of the latent image after exposure. Both

of these being distinctly accentuated by intermittence, but only

slightly by long rest periods, indicate that the two actions are a maximum at the instant the exposure ceases and decrease rapidly

from that time. The factors governing the magnitude and the rate

of decay of these actions vary with the emulsion. The variation

with illumination indicates that with a given intermittent exposure

(1) a growth of the latent image results when the illumination exceeds
214 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

a certain value dependent upon the emulsion and (2) a fading of the

latent image results when the illumination is less than this value.

The following has been published: Experimental Study of the

Relation Between Intermittent and Nonintermittent Sector Wheel

Photographic Exposures, by R. Davis. Sci. Paper No. 528.

CHEMISTRY

Distillation of Crude Cresylic Acid.—Under the tariff act of 1922,

crude cresylic acid yielding as much as 5 per cent of tar acids distilling

below 190° C. or as much as 75 per cent distilling below 215° C. is dutiable, while material yielding less tar acids is free of duty. The

methods used in the different customs laboratories did not yield

concordant results, so that the same material was sometimes taxed

at one port and admitted free at another port.

At the request of the Director of Customs, Treasury Department,

the bureau after investigating a number of methods developed a new

method that provided for corrections for variations in atmospheric

pressure, the use of thermometers calibrated for partial immersion,

and determinations by weight. This method, with a few minor

changes, has been adopted as standard by the Customs Service.

See Treasury Decision 41735.

Determination of Chromium in Chrome Pigments.—Since specifications for certain chrome pigments, such as chrome green, prescribe a minimum permissible content of chromium, it is necessary to have

an accurate method of determining chromium in such pigments. It was found both here and elsewhere that the peroxide method for this

determination adopted by the Federal Specifications Board and the

American Society for Testing Materials sometimes failed to give

correct results. The necessary precautions for obtaining correct

results by this method and also for obtaining accurate results by the

persulphate method have been worked out. A paper entitled "A

Study of the Peroxide and Persulphate Methods for Determining

Chromium in Chrome Paint Pigments/' by E. F. Hickson, will be

published as a circular by the Paint Manufacturers Association of the

United States. Hiding Power of Paint.—Most purchasers of paint are primarily

interested in the useful service that the paint will give in actual

practice. However, lack of satisfactory means of defining and determining the important physical characteristics of paint makes it necessary to base standard specifications largely on chemical composition. Researches are, therefore, now being conducted with the

ultimate aim of developing physical methods by means of which the

pertinent properties may be directly specified and more satisfactorily

tested.
STANDAEDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 215

One phase of this investigation has recently been completed,

namely, the development of a method for measuring the hiding

power of a paint. Paints may vary widely in their ability to obscure an underlying surface. Not only is good hiding power essential for

pleasing appearance, but the hiding power is a ready criterion of the

amount and quality of pigment employed in the formula.

The method devised by H. D. Bruce, and published in T306, for

measuring the hiding power may be briefly summarized as follows:

A disk, half black and half white, is coated with a thin film of paint.

Through the thin film the white and black halves can still be dis- tinguished, but their contrast has been greatly decreased by the

presence of the paint coating. The degree of this contrast will be

less the thicker the film and the greater the hiding power of the paint.

An empirical relationship has been worked out so that, if the contrast

is measured by means of a photometer and the film thickness by means of a gauge, from these two measured values the hiding power

of the paint can be readily calculated. This hiding power is finally

expressed in the number of square feet of surface that 1 gallon of paint will cover and hide.

Specifications.—Chemical work was carried out to furnish data to aid the Federal Specifications Board in formulating purchase specifications or standards of quality for materials to be used for cleaning

purposes and for antifreeze solutions for automobile radiators.

Data were furnished to assist the Interdepartmental Lime Conference

and the A. S. T. M. in the preparation of specifications for the grades

of lime used in various industries.

Detergent Value of Soap.—Although a number of investigators

have reported methods to be used in evaluating the detergent power

of soaps, no suitable, generally accepted laboratory test has been

devised for measuring the performance of commercial detergents

under the conditions that obtain in actual washing processes. During

the past year the bureau, in cooperation with the detergents committee of the American Oil Chemists' Society, worked on a practical

small-scale washing test with a view to setting up a performance

standard for commercial soaps. Although progress was made, the

work will have to be continued in an effort to improve the soiling

technique and eliminate the personal factor. The progress report was published in the journal of the above-named society for 1926.

Absorption Spectrum of Dye Solutions.—It is a familiar fact that

sunlight and artificial light are composed of light of the different

colors of the spectrum. When white light falls on any substance, some of the colored rays are absorbed to a greater or less extent. The color of the substance is due to the rays which are not absorbed

but which are reflected from it if it is opaque or pass through it if it is transparent. The color of the substance can be analyzed and
216 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

the amount and kind of light which is reflected or transmitted can

be measured quite exactly by means of a spectrophotometer. The

analysis and measurement of the color of dye solutions are useful in the identification of dyes and furnish a means of fundamental

standardization and enable us to detect certain kinds of impurities

because each colored substance has a characteristic " absorption

spectrum." The method is used in the Bureau of Chemistry,

Department of Agriculture, for identifying and ascertaining the

purity of samples of dyes intended to be used in foods.

Commercial dyes are rarely pure, for reasons inherent in their

method of manufacture, nor are they of full strength, but are diluted

to a greater or less extent with inert matter. Before they can be

identified and their strength measured in the way indicated, it is necessary to know their characteristics when of known purity and

strength. For this reason numerous pure dyes were made and their

absorption studied. The absorption spectrum may differ according

to the liquid in which the dye is dissolved, and a solution when

freshly prepared may not have the same spectrum after it has stood

for a few hours. Also there may be several dyes which are the same

in color to the eye but which are not alike in their chemical structure and therefore have different spectra.

The following papers have a direct bearing upon this problem of

fundamental standardization

:

"The effect of solvents on the absorption spectrum of a simple azo dye,"

W. R. Brode, J. Phys. Chem., 30, p. 56; 1926. "Standardization of agalma black 10B," W. D. Appel, W. R. Brode, and

I. M. Welch, Indust. and Eng. Chem., 18, p. 627; 1926. "Subsidiary dyes in agalma black 10B," W. R. Brode, Indust. and Eng.

Chem., 18, p. 708; 1926. "The absorption spectra of benzeneazobenzene," W. R. Brode, J. Am. Chem.

Soc, 48, p. 1877; 1926. "The absorption spectra of certain monoazo dyes. I. The effect of position

isomerism on the absorption spectra of methyl-substituted derivatives of benzeneazophenol," W. R. Brode. To appear as a Scientific Paper and, in abbreviated form, in Indust. and Eng. Chem.

"The spectral transmissive properties of dyes. II. Ten important textile dyes in the visible, ultra-violet, and infra-red," K. S. Gibson, F. K. Harris, and

W. D. Appel.

Fastness of Dyed Fabrics.—There was close cooperation with the

research committee of the American Association of Textile Chemists

and Colorists for the purpose of standardizing methods for determining the fastness of dyed fabrics to light and to washing. A large

number of washing tests were made, and some 12,000 samples were

exposed to light under various conditions. The association had a research assistant at the bureau during the summer. There was

similar cooperation along nearly the same lines with the joint committee on fast colors of the Converters' Association, the National
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 217

Association of Cotton Textile Merchants, and related organizations.

They are attempting to clearly define the classes of fastness which

are of interest to the trade, and to suggest a basis for an acceptable

" trade practice/' with the ultimate object of guaranteeing the color

fastness of cotton fabrics. The Federal Trade Commission is much

interested in what they are doing.

Standard Samples for Analysis.—In many industries the purchase

of materials, process of manufacture, and sale of the manufactured

product are controlled by analysis and by the use of instruments,

such as pyrometers and saccharimeters. Oftentimes the analysis is difficult because of the chemical complexity of the substance under

test and but little time is available for checking all steps of the

method that is used. If an instrument of uncertain performance is used, defective products may result and thousands of dollars may

be lost. In such cases the simplest and at the same time the best safeguard

lies in the use of standard samples. If, for example, a standard and

a sample of the material under test are analyzed at the same time

and under practically identical conditions, and results are obtained

for the standard corresponding to those shown on the certificate,

the presumption is strong that the figures obtained for the unknown

material are equally accurate. Wide divergence from the certificate

values shows at once something radically wrong, such as an improper

method of analysis or faulty reagents. Thus, in the simplest possible manner and in the shortest possible time, a large number of

variable factors have been simultaneously investigated with almost

the same result as though each had been taken up separately.

Theoretically, there should be provided for the analyst as many

standard samples as he has different kinds of material to deal with.

It is obviously impossible to prepare and issue standard samples of

all such materials. The Bureau of Standards has, however, en- deavored to prepare samples that are representative of different

groups, and such substances as are needed for the standardization

of solutions and the calibration of instruments. The list now in- cludes 69 samples of such diverse materials as limestone, feldspar,

fluorspar, bauxite, phosphate rock, ores of molybdenum, zinc, manganese and iron, glass, cast irons, plain carbon steels such as basic

and acid open hearth, Bessemer and electric, alloy steels, ferroalloys, brass, bronzes, bearing metals, metals of certified melting

points, cements for testing sieves, and chemicals for oxidation, re- duction, acidimetric, saccharimetric and calorimetric values. The

complete list, together with analyses, prices, and other information,

is given in the supplement to C25, which can be obtained free of charge upon application to the Bureau of Standards.
218 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDAKDS

The preparation of a standard sample is usually a laborious undertaking. From 300 to 1,200 pounds of material are used as the

starting point. With steels and alloys care must be taken that

ingots and castings are of uniform composition, that grains of proper

size are obtained by machining and sieving, that the final sample is thoroughly mixed, and that proper methods of analysis are used by

the analysts who participate in its standardization. Samples of ore weighing 300 to 500 pounds must be ground and mixed under conditions of chemical cleanliness. Most of the pure chemicals that serve

as primary standards for various purposes are made or purified on a semiindustrial scale by the use of methods and apparatus that have

been developed at the bureau.

During 1926, 18 standard samples were prepared and issued,

of which 8 were new standards and 10 were renewals of exhausted

standards. Of the new standards, No. 67 is a manganese metal,

No. 68 a ferrotungsten, No. 69 a bauxite, No. 70 a feldspar, No. 71

a calcium molybdate, No. 72 a chrome molybdenum steel, No. 74a

high-carbon cast-iron, and No. 80 a glass. The renewal samples

are No. 7b, cast iron; Nos. 13c, 15b, and 16b, basic open-hearth steels; Nos. 20c and 35a acid open-hearth steels; Nos. 9c and 22b, Bessemer

steels; No. 39c, benzoic acid; and No. 461, cement.

During the fiscal year 1925-26, 5,851 standard samples of a value

of $12,283 were sold. • The kind and number of samples distributed were as follows

:

Irons and steels 3, 379

Ferro-alloys 190

Brass, bronze, and bearing metals 279

Metals for melting points 138

Ores 238

Cements 431

Sodium oxalate- Benzoic acid Naphthalene

Sucrose Dextrose

366

629

76

86

39

Of the valuation, $11,330.75 was received on domestic and foreign

orders. The balance, $952.25, represents samples that were issued

free of charge, of which State institutions and colleges received samples

having a value of $549.75 and Government laboratories, $402.50.

The principal uses of the bureau's standard samples can be summarized as follows:

1. In checking methods of analysis and in standardizing solutions

that are used in controlling the manufacture of certain metallurgical

and agricultural products.

2. In the settling and avoiding of disputes between buyers and

sellers. Such disputes very frequently arise through the selection

of inappropriate or faulty methods of analysis by one of the chemists,

and the analysis of a standard sample usually brings these to light

before the case comes to court.
STANDAEDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 219

3. In standardizing calorimeters for gas and coal tests and polarimeters for sugar tests.

4. In standardizing pyrometers for use in the annealing of steels,

alloy steels, and other metallurgical products.

5. For checking the sieving value of sieves used in the cement

industry.

6. In investigating improved and more rapid methods of analysis.

7. In research work in educational institutions.

Research Bearing on Standardization.—Aluminum is an objectionable constituent in many nonferrous alloys, and numerous specifications either prohibit it entirely or else put very low limits on it. No satisfactory method has been available for the determination of

minute amounts of aluminum in such materials. A study of the

problem was, therefore, made and a satisfactory method has been

developed by G. E. F. Lundell and H. B. Knowles (Ind. Eng. Chem.,

18, p. 60; 1926). By this procedure as little as 0.0005 per cent of aluminum can be determined in an hour, while 0.01 per cent can

be easily detected in 10 minutes.

Analysis of Cast Iron.—At the request of the American Society

for Testing Materials, Committee A-3, on cast-iron methods for the

analysis of cast iron were prepared and accepted. These are intended

to replace the present standard methods of the society and include

methods for the determination of total carbon, graphite, manganese,

phosphorus, sulphur, silicon, titanium, nickel, copper, and arsenic.

Analysis of Dental Gold Alloys.—Gold alloys are used for many

kinds of dental work to provide materials which will not tarnish or corrode in the mouth. Most of these gold alloys must also have

certain physical properties not often associated with the previous

metals, notably stiffness, toughness, and elasticity. They should

also be capable of taking a temper so that the desirable mechanical

properties may be given to the alloy after it has been shaped. Several

constituents are added to the gold to accomplish these purposes.

Usually the alloys contain more than 50 per cent of gold, the re- mainder being silver, copper, and platinum or palladium, or both.

Other base metals, such as tin, zinc, nickel, manganese, and magnesium, are often used in small quantities and occasionally the precious metal rhodium and iridium are also present.

The need for and possibilities of standardization in this field have

been amply demonstrated by the work on physical properties of dental gold alloys. A necessary element in the standardization of these materials is a satisfactory method for the analysis of the alloys

The analysis of precious metal alloys is one of the most difficult fields of analytical chemistry and the dental-alloy industry as a whole has

been greatly handicapped by the lack of adequate analytical methods.

Work begun in 1924 by the bureau, in cooperation with the Wein36316—27 15
220 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

stein Research Laboratories, on a complete procedure for the accurate

analysis of gold alloys, such as are used in dentistry, was completed

in 1926 and published as S532, "The Analysis of Dental Gold Alloys,"

by W. H. Swanger. Besides giving the detailed analytical procedure

and the results of experimental work done in developing some of the

separations, the paper contains a table showing the composition of 13

typical alloys. This work will be of material assistance in enabling

manufacturers to control the composition of their alloys and in the

necessary testing of materials on the market.

Specifications for Analytical Reagent Chemicals.—It is very important in all kinds of chemical work to have the chemical reagents used

of a uniformly high standard or at least of some known standard of purity. The quality of reagent chemicals has always been a serious

problem to chemists and the American Chemical Society for some

years has had a standing committee on this subject. After long

consideration this committee undertook to write specifications for

all those chemicals in common use as analytical reagents, these specifications to set forth both the permissible limits of impurities and to prescribe the methods of test. Specifications for 23 chemicals were published by the committee

in the June and July, 1926, issues of Industrial and Engineering

Chemistry and some 15 others will probably appear in the same

journal late this year. These specifications, recommended as they

are by the American Chemical Society, will be generally used as standards of quality for the materials in question. They are being

put into use by reagent manufacturers as standards in their manufacturing processes. Thirteen similar specifications, published in

1925, already have been adopted by the General Supply Committee,

and thus apply to purchases by the departments and independent

establishments of the Government in Washington and certain

branches of the field service.

The work of the bureau in this connection has been the critical study of many of the methods of test prescribed in the specifications.

In some cases the limits of sensitiveness of existing methods were

determined. In other cases proposed methods were modified or new

methods provided.

Chromium Plating.—In the last two years there has been a great

interest in chromium plating and its possible applications in industry.

Such uses may include its application to printing plates, dies, gauges,

gears, and cams, where its extreme hardness is advantageous; to

reflectors because of its resistance to tarnish, and to automobile and

plumbing fixtures. In 1925 an article by H. E. Haring, of the

bureau, was published in Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering

(329 692; 1925), in which the use of chromium on the printing plates

at the Bureau of Engraving and Printing was described. This proc-
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 221

ess, developed at the Bureau of Standards and described in LC177,

is in successful operation, and has accomplished marked savings.

Further research work is in progress at the bureau.

Measuring Polarization.—In electrodeposition the polarization—that is, the change in potential at an electrode during electrol- ysis—is an important factor in the structure, purity, and distribution

of the metal. The customary methods of measuring polarization

have been complicated and have been little used in industry. A

new and simple method of measuring both the polarization and the

resistivity has been devised and described in an article by H. E,

Haring in volume 49 of the Transactions of the American Electrochemical Society. The method has been adopted by several metal

refineries for controlling the content of addition agents in the baths.

Acid Zinc Plating Baths.—Zinc plating, or "electrogalvanizing,"

is used extensively for protecting iron and steel from corrosion,

such as on tire rims, wire screen, and hardware. It is conducted

either in alkaline cyanide solutions or acid zinc baths. The former

have better "throwing power," but are more expensive and less stable than the acid baths. An extended study of the latter solutions showed that while it is not feasible to materially improve

their throwing power, it is possible by large additions of sodium or ammonium chloride to greatly increase the conductivity and to use much higher current densities than have been customary. The

results have been published in a paper by M. R. Thompson in volume 50 of the Transactions of the American Electrochemical

Society, in the September, 1926, Monthly Review of the American

Electroplaters Society, and in LC208.

Nickel Electrotyping.—A study of nickel electrotyping solutions, completed in 1925, was published in a circular on that subject

by W. Blum and J. H. Winkler, distributed by the Electrotypers

Association. In continuing this research a method for measuring

the rate of covering graphite with nickel was developed and published by J. H. Winkler in the semiannual report of the International

Association of Electrot}7pers, in September, 1926. Several papers

of a series on " Principles of electrotyping," by W. Blum and

J. H. Winkler, have been published in the Monthly Bulletin of this

association.

Analytical Methods.—Continued cooperation with the Natural

Gas Association has resulted in the development of tentative working standard methods for the determination of gasoline in natural

gas. The bureau's part in this undertaking was the accurate analysis

of a large number of gases to be used for the comparison of working

methods. Apparatus was developed for the accurate measurement

of very small volumes of liquid condensates, and for the more rapid
222 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

rectification of liquefied gases. A simplified form of the apparatus

used here for the analytical separation of gases has been built by one

large industrial organization and plans for the apparatus have been

furnished to several others.

The development of an electrical method for determining carbon

dioxide and oxygen in respired ah' for aid in physiological studies

has been completed. The method will probably be adapted to the

control of oxygen supplied to patients under hospital treatment to whatever standard concentration the attending physician may

prescribe.

Service Standards in the Fuel-Gas Industry.—A study has been

made and a paper prepared upon the effect of the large change of

heating value standard in Denver. This change was the greatest ever made in the manufactured-gas industry and its results are of

the utmost importance in determining the probable result of similar

changes elsewhere. A summary of previous work on this subject was also published.

Publications.—"Relation of heating value of gas to its value to the user," by

E. R. Weaver, Chem. Met. Eng., 33, pp. 79-81; 1926. Utilization of Gas.—The work upon the utilization of gas involves

the determination of the essentials of good service, the determination

of what standards of efficiency and safety it is reasonable to require

of commercial appliances, the development of laboratory methods

for the accurate determination of compliance with those standards,

the actual testing of commercial appliances, and the recommendation

of methods for improving appliances which are found to be inferior or defective. The bureau has taken an active part in all of these

phases of the utilization problem during the year. The major work

of the laboratory has been the thorough testing of a large number

of space heaters and water heaters for the purpose of drafting reasonable specifications for commercial appliances of the two classes. These results have had immediate application in the preparation of

approval requirements by the American Gas Association, with which

the bureau has been in active cooperation.

Publications.—Causes of Some Accidents from Gas Appliances, by I. V. Brumbaugh. T303. A Method for Testing Gas Appliances to Determine Their Safety from Pro- ducing Carbon Monoxide, by E. R. Weaver, J. H. Eiseman, and G. B. Shawn.

T304.

MECHANICS AND SOUND

Standardization of Orifice Meters.—Since the orifice meter has come into general use in the gas industries, new investigations of its accuracy have been called for and the Bureau of Standards has participated in the following:
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 223

(a) Experiments by the American Gas Association, at Chicago, in 1923.

(6) Experiments by the Natural Gas Association of America, begun at Cleve- land in 1925 and continued at Buffalo in 1926.

(c) Experiments by the bureau in cooperation with the Chemical Warfare

Service, at Edgewood Arsenal, Md., during 1922-1925. In (a) and (b) the bureau was represented on the directing committee and the observing staff, beside assisting by advice, testing of instruments, etc. An outline of (c) is given below. When the results

of all three investigations have been compared, among themselves

and with previous data, a comprehensive report on the whole subject will be prepared.

In the Edgewood experiments, air from a set of reciprocating compressors, after passing through an ammonia condenser and a tank of 400 cubic feet capacity, entered a line of 4, 6, and 8 inch pipes in

series. An orifice flange was installed in each pipe size, with the

necessary manometers, etc., so that three orifices could be tested at once. The damping by resistance and capacity was enough that no

pulsations could be detected in the line. The 8-inch pipe was followed by a 30-inch drum 30 feet long, with

a nozzle and impact tube at the farther end for measuring the air as

it escaped. The drum was provided with honeycombs for straightening the flow, and contained the wet and dry bulb psychrometer.

The nozzles used were of 1% to 5 inches diameter, and for each one

the distribution of air speed over the section was repeatedly determined at several rates of flow, by traverses with a fine impact tube.

The rate of discharge of air through the nozzle could then be computed from the diameter, the reading of the central fixed impact tube,

and data on the temperature, humidity, and barometric pressure. Several hundred runs were made, each, in general, giving data on

three orifices. The orifices were of various sizes, the range of differ- entials was large, and the static pressures were from near atmospheric

up to 250 lbs. /in. 2 Omitting several subsidiary investigations, some

of the results for square-edged concentric orifices may be given here

in terms of the discharge coefficient C, computed by the "hydraulic"

formula from the downstream static pressure, with the speed of approach factor included in C. This is defined by the equation

TF= 0.525 CJ2 -J(p1 -p2 )p

in which W is the flow in lbs. /sec; d is the diameter of the orifice in

inches; px and p2 are the absolute static pressures in lbs. /in. 2 at the

upstream and downstream taps; and p is the density of air at p2 and

at the upstream temperature, in lbs. /ft. 3 In agreement with previous investigations it was found that, over

the range covered, the value of C depends on the ratios p2 /jh and
224 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

d/D (Z> = pipe diameter), but not on the absolute values of p2 and d;

it also depends on the location of the pressure taps. For taps 1 inch

from the orifice plate, the most useful part of the results is given in

the following table of values of C:

d/D= 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

02=1.00 0. 602 0. 604 0.607 0.615 0. 632 0. 664 Pi= .95 .607 .609 .612 .620 .637 .669 .90 .616 .617 .620 .628 .644 .677 1 .85 .625 .626 .629 .637 .654 .687 .80 .637 .638 .640 .648 .664 . 698

| These values were read from a set of curves adjusted so as to rep- resent the whole mass of observations. They are believed to be

correct within one-half per cent or better, but are subject to final revision.

Standardization of Methods of Testing Electric Fans.—For several

years the Bureau of Standards has had occasion to measure the per- formance of desk electric fans for other departments of the Government and for the General Supply Committee. The input to the fan

is a definite and easily measurable quantity, but there has been no

standard measure of output or standard method of measurement.

The bureau has, therefore, proceeded to compare various methods

of measurement of the volume of air moved by the fan and to study

the character of the air flow. As a result of this study the bureau

suggested an easily measurable quantity, the thrust reaction, as the measure of output. From the value of the thrust, the volume can be

computed within reasonable limits, and the energy output represented

by flow of air parallel to the fan axis also, provided the form of the

velocity distribution curve is known. Apparatus has been devised

for measuring the thrust of fans quickly and accurately.

A number of manufacturers have requested that measurements be

made at the bureau on sets of fan blades which may be used as standards for comparison purposes, and work of this nature will be carried

out when requested.

Standardization of Wind-Tunnel Measurements.—The bureau,

with many other laboratories of the world, has been concerned with

the problem of standardizing wind-tunnel measurements, especially on models of airplane wings and airship hulls. One part of the work

along this line consists of measurements on "standard" models

which are circulated to wind tunnels throughout the world so that the

order of magnitude of differences may be ascertained. This work is

still in progress. Measurements have been made on two models of

airship hulls and on one model of an airplane wing circulated by

the National Physical Laboratory of Great Britain, and measure- ments are contemplated on a number of models circulated by the
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 225

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. Preliminary conferences have been held by the National Advisory Committee for

Aeronautics and it has been found that there exist differences between

the results of measurements in different wind tunnels too large to be

attributed to differences in the method of measurement. There

appear to be actual differences in the airs treams which cause dif- ferences in forces on the same model. These differences remain even when the effects of the diameter of the wind tunnel have been removed

by the practical expedient of small models or by theoretical computation.

At the request and with the cooperation of the National Advisory

Committee for Aeronautics, the bureau has been engaged in a study

of methods of measuring the instantaneous speed, direction, and

pressure of air streams. A satisfactory method of measuring static

pressure at the wall of a wind tunnel has been devised, and in some

instances correlation has been established between the pressure variations and the frequency with which a single propeller blade passes

a fixed point. Work is in progress on the measurement of speed and

direction. The chief result along this line has been to show that in- struments involving the transmission of pressures through tubing

give misleading results due to motions set up in the air columns in the connecting tubes.

Acoustics of Building Materials.—For the past two years measure- ments have been made at the Bureau of Standards of the transmission and absorption of sound by different materials commonly used

in building construction. As a result it is now possible to assign to these different materials numbers representing their relative acoustic

qualities.

A specially constructed building was erected for this work, one of

the rooms being built so that there are no mechanical ties between

its walls and those of the other parts of the building. This room is used as a transmitting room, and contains the source of sound (a

loud speaker) which can be operated at any desired frequency and

intensity by alternating current furnished by an oscillator set. Between the transmitting room and the room adjoining (known

as the receiving room) there is in the walls an opening 6 by 8 feet, in

which is placed the panel whose sound transmission is to be measured.

The relative intensity of the sound in the transmitting and receiving rooms is measured by a telephone receiver. The emf set up in

this receiver by the action of the sound waves upon the diaphragm

is amplified until, when rectified, it will produce a deflection in a galvanometer. The input to the amplifier is then switched over to a potentiometer carrying a current of the same frequency as that

used to produce the sound being measured, and the potentiometer

adjusted to give the same galvanometer deflection as before. This
226 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

gives an emf which is proportional to the square root of the sound

intensity.

The relative intensity of sound on the two sides of the panel is measured by placing the telephone first in the transmitting room

and then in the receiving room. In both cases, the telephone is moved to a number of positions to obtain a representative mean value

of the intensity.

Knowing the relative intensity of sound on the two sides of the

panel, and knowing also the relative intensity in the two rooms when there is no panel in the opening, the fractional part of the

sound energy cut off by the panel can be computed.

It is also possible to rate different materials according to their

sound-absorbing properties, which determine the acoustic qualities

of an auditorium in terms of the materials constituting its interior

finish. This is done by using a brass tube of the proper size for the

frequency at which it is wished to determine the absorption. A loud

speaker is used as a source of sound and operated at the proper fre- quency to set up a standing wave system in the brass tube. The

material whose absorption is to be measured is fastened to the end of the tube farthest from the loud speaker. If the material has no

absorption, the standing wave system will consist of nodes and loops

in which the nodes will be zero and the loops will have twice the

amplitude of those of the down-going wave. If the material has some absorption, then the nodes will not be zero and the amplitude

of the loops will not be twice the amplitude of those of the downgoing wave. By measuring the relative intensity at the nodes and

loops the absorption of the material at the end of the tube can be

computed. The measuring is done as in the case of transmission

except that a small tube is fastened to the telephone which acts as a probe and is inserted in the tube to which the test material is fas- tened. This probe tube must be small enough not to disturb materially the wave system in the larger tube.

Standardization of Sphygmomanometers.—Sphygmomanometers,

or blood-pressure instruments, are used extensively in general

medical practice as well as in the physical examination of military

and naval aviators. In 1917, at the request of the Surgeon General

of the Army, an investigation of several types of sphygmomanometers

was undertaken at this bureau. Later, request was made by several

manufacturers to recommend limits of error which should not be

exceeded by the pressure gauges of the instruments when subjected

to specified tests. These requests resulted in a thorough investigation, in the course of which information was secured from the heads

of hospitals and medical schools and from physiologists as to the

required accuracy in blood-pressure measurement. The infor-
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 227

mation received from these authorities, coupled with the results of

the investigation of a large number of various types of instruments

in the laboratory, were given due weight in specifying the tolerances.

The tolerance of both types of instruments are the same. The

scale error at any point in any of the tests must not exceed 3 mm of

mercury. The difference of pressure necessary to move the pointer

or the mercury meniscus through any 30 mm interval must not be

less than 27 nor more than 33 mm of mercury. Excessively irregular

motion of the pointer or excessive sticking of the mercury column is considered a sufficient cause for the rejection of the instrument.

An informal report of a portion of the investigation of sphygmomanometers was issued in 1921 as Circular No. 51 of the aero- nautic instruments section of this bureau. At the present time work

is in progress on a report entitled "The Use and Testing of Sphygmomanometers," which will be published as a circular of this bureau.

United States Altimeter Calibration Standard.—In the infancy of

aeronautics a standard atmosphere was adopted for the purpose of

calibrating altimeters in which an assumption was made of a constant

or isothermal air temperature of +10° C. This temperature assumption gave results which were sufficiently accurate in view of the low

ceilings of aircraft at that time. For some years, however, it was

well known that altimeters calibrated to this old isothermal atmosphere indicated altitudes which differed greatly from those determined by the relation in which average conditions of free air temperature were assumed. While this condition was recognized on all sides,

it was felt inadvisable to change the basis of calibrating altimeters

until a common standard could be adopted. In December, 1924, a conference was called by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics to consider the entire question and to secure unanimous

action, if possible. The Bureau of Aeronautics of the United States

Navy, the Air Corps of the United States Army, the National

Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, the United States Weather

Bureau, the National Aeronautic Association, and this bureau were

represented. The technical work in connection with this conference was carried out by representatives of this bureau.

Altitude-pressure tables based on the new standard atmosphere

were prepared at this bureau and issued as LC190, in December,

1925. The values of the altitude are given at intervals of 0.1 milli- meter of mercury in the pressure range from 87 to 200 millimeters,

at intervals of 0.2 millimeter of mercury in the range from 200 to 790 millimeters, and at intervals of 0.01 inch of mercury in the

pressure range from 3.4 to 31 inches of mercury. The letter circular

also includes a temperature correction table for use in evaluating the

altitude as determined by both temperature and pressure measurements.

36316—27 16
228 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

This circular, with some revision, has been accepted during the

present year for formal publication as a technical report of the

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics.

Specifications for Aircraft Instruments.—The number of instruments purchased by the air services of the United States Navy and

Army after the war was far below current requirements, due to the

considerable surplus on hand. This surplus is now either used up

or consists of instruments too inferior for use. At the present time,

therefore, instruments are being purchased in greater and greater

quantity and variety.

It is obviously an advantage for the two air services to have com- mon specifications in so far as their respective requirements permitThis fact was recognized and a conference was held in September,

1925, at McCook Field, Dayton, Ohio, by representatives of the

engineering division of the Army Air Corps, Bureau of Aeronautics

of the Navy, and the Bureau of Standards. The specifications of those aircraft instruments commonly designated service instruments were considered in detail at this conference. Since this conference

this bureau has submitted revisions for the consideration of the

military air services of the specifications for instruments or equipment under the following titles: Flexible drive shafts and casings.

Gauge units, supercharger.

Fuel level gauges.

Indicators, bank and turn.

Indicators, flight. Inclinometers. Compasses, magnetic card type.

Manometers, mechanical type.

Oxygen regulators, Prouty type.

Oxygen regulators, manually operated.

Liquid oxygen containers, vacuum walled type.

Eight-day clocks. Thermometers, vapor and liquid filled types. Pressure gauges. Airspeed indicators, Pitot-static type.

Thermometers, thermoelectric.

Altimeters. Rate-of-climb indicators. General specifications for aircraft instruments. Tachometers, chronometric.

Manometers, liquid type.

Engine gauge units. These revisions centered largely around the procedure of testing

and the tolerances to be allowed for the various errors. The toler- ances in many instances required an adjustment between accomplishments possible in production and the performance actually

required in aeronautics. This adjustment was made in any par-
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 229

tieular case after investigational tests on a number of typical instruments of good quality.

The revisions furnished by this bureau have been incorporated

in most instances into the specifications which are now used when

purchases are made. This work represented an effort to standardize

only in the light of the present stage of development of aircraft

instruments. Further improvements in design and performance

may be confidently expected, and therefore reconsideration of the

specifications will be required periodically.

Brick Wall Investigation.—During the year 1926, the Bureau of Standards, in cooperation with the Common Brick Manufacturers

Association of America, has been conducting a series of tests on brick

masonry which from the size and number of test specimens and control and measurement of variables is noteworthy and unique.

While brick masonry is one of the oldest recorded types of construction, there has been a practical absence of data upon which to erect standards. To the lack of fundamental information can be ascribed

the present unsatisfactory state of specification writing as applied to brick and the wide variation in building-code requirements concerning

brick masonry.

The investigation may be considered as being divided into two

sections. The first section consists of an investigation of the properties of individual bricks. These bricks are representative of four

types of commercial production and are believed to be typical. In- formation gained from the results of this work has been already made

use of by one of our national societies devoted to standardization.

The second section consists in the construction and test of walls as

hereinafter described. The results obtained from the individual tests correlated with the results obtained from the masonry tests give in- formation directly applicable to the formulation of standards and

specifications for brick. Description of the wall construction and

tests follow. The program consists of 153 walls, divided into four series. The

variables consist of two types of workmanship, four kinds of clay

brick, three kinds of mortar, and different types of construction covering 8 and 12 inch solid walls and the various 8 and 12 inch hollow

walls used by the Common Brick Manufacturers Association. Tests on the association's 4-inch economy wall are also included.

The results secured from the tests on hollow walls of brick will be

of interest with respect to answering the question as to whether the

traditional solid masonry may not be in part replaced by a more

economic utilization of the material.

The two types of workmanship have several distinctive features,

the chief one being the practical absence of vertical joint filling for

the walls in series 1 as against complete filling of joints in series 2, 3,
230 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

and 4. Series 1 was constructed by contract, to secure a grade of

workmanship comparable to uninspected commercial work. Series

2, 3, and 4 are constructed by day labor with rather careful supervision. However, no laboratory refinements are introduced for the

walls. The mortars are a 1:3 lime-sand, a 1:1:6 lime-cement-sand,

and a 1 : 3 cement-sand, all by volume, though the actual mixing is by weight, correction being made for the moisture content of the sand.

In series 2, 3, and 4 an amount of hydrated lime equal to 10 per cent by volume of the cement is added to the 1 : 3 cement-sand mortar. It was originally intended to have the four grades of brick (one for each

series) correspond to the four grades specified by the American Society

for Testing Materials, viz, soft, medium, hard, and vitrified. On

testing the brick it was found that they graded as follows:

Brick for— A.S.T.M.gradein—

Compression Modulus of rupture Absorption

Series 1 Medium Vitrified Medium.

Soft.Do.

Hard.

Series 2

Series 3 do Hard

Hard

do

Series 4 Vitrified Vitrified

In addition to the American Society for Testing Materials tests, additional tests were made for tensile strength and strength in shear,

and for absorption without boiling and for rate of absorption.

The walls are 6 feet long by approximately 9 feet high, and of nominal thickness of 4, 8, and 12 inches, depending upon the type

of construction. For each wall a corresponding small wall or wallette, 18 inches long by 34 inches high, is built. The walls are tested

by loading concentrically to the maximum in the 10,000,000-pound

compression machine. Strain measurements are taken both horizontally and vertically. On some walls readings are taken for

repeated application of load.

At the time of writing the investigation is incomplete. Hence

only the most general and obvious conclusions can be drawn: (1)

Using brick of the same grade and the same construction, walls having all joints filled give greater strength than walls with open-joint

work. (2) On solid walls, the stronger the mortar the greater the

strength of the wall. (3) For solid walls the strength of the wall

depends upon the strength of the brick; the stronger the brick the

stronger the wall. (4) Uniformity in the size and the shape of the

individual bricks has a bearing on wall strength. (5) The transverse strength of the brick has no definite relation to wall strength for any

type of construction. (6) The ratio between the ultimate stress
STANDAEDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 231

(lb. /in. 2

) in the large walls and the wallettes is not constant for dif- ferent types of construction.

Copper Roofing Investigation.—This investigation is being made at the request of and in cooperation with the Copper and Brass Research

Association. Four major problems are in progress, including corrosion, corrugated sheets, soldered seams, and temperature effects on

flat-seam roofing. The experimental work is about 75 per cent

completed.

Accelerated tests and studies of failures are under way to determine the cause and find a remedy for a peculiar form of corrosion,

rather infrequent in occurrence, affecting copper flashings. It appears probable that such failures can be avoided by slight changes

in construction details. The pitting of soldered seams is also under

investigation.

Copper in the form of corrugated sheets for roofing and siding may

be used advantageously where other metals rapidly deteriorate and

fail under exposure to severe weather conditions or other corrosive

agents. As corrugated sheets are fastened directly to the roof purlins

and no sheathing is used, it is necessary to determine the proper

purlin spacing and a table of safe loads for corrugated copper sheets

of various sizes of corrugations. An extensive series of loading tests for this purpose is nearly completed. The problem is complicated

by the comparatively large increase in deflection which takes place if the sheets are left under continued load.

There are at present no standards of practice for soldered seams on

flat-seam roofing. Comparative tests of seams are being made, the

results of which are expected to form the basis for such standards.

The factors under consideration are the type and size of seam, the

amount and manner of application of the solder, and the kind of flux. So far results indicate that the type of seam most commonly used is quite inefficient. The flux affects the strength of the seam indirectly,

poor flux causing imperfections in the soldering. If the edges of the

sheets are tinned by dipping before delivery to the job, a much greater

uniformity of workmanship is obtainable and with certain types of seam a considerable increase in strength.

Failures or partial failures of flat-seam copper roofing, such as

splitting or buckling, may be ascribed to temperature changes. To

provide the necessary data for tests, continuous records of the temperature of a copper roof at Washington, D. C, are being obtained.

The maximum and minimum temperatures recorded are 147 and 10°

F., respectively. The average daily range for May, 1926, was 63° F. Changes of 40° at the rate of 10° per minute have been observed.

These data are being applied by testing roof panels 7 feet by 10 feet in

size, where the effects of temperature, its rate of change and distri- bution, are being studied in relation to the construction of the roof.
232 NATIONAL BUKEATJ OF STANDARDS

The variables in construction include the size of the sheets, the type

of seam, the type of fastening to the sheathing, and the workmanship.

The object of these tests is to determine the most efficient and eco- nomical method of laying a flat-seam copper roof. Joint Committee on Investigation of the Effect of Phosphorus and

Sulphur in Steel.—This project was begun in 1920 at the initiative of the then existing United States Railroad Administration, the

American Society for Testing Materials, and the Bureau of Standards, and has for its object the determination of the validity of and

necessity for the limits placed upon phosphorus and sulphur in specifications for steel. Representatives of the Bureau of Standards, War Department,

Navy Department, American Society for Testing Materials, American

Railway Association, Society of Automotive Engineers, Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, National Research Council,

Association of American Steel Manufacturers, Steel Founders' Society of America, and the American Foundrymen's Association make

up the joint committee, of which Dr. G. K. Burgess, Director of the

Bureau of Standards, has been chairman since its organization.

The complete program calls for the study of sulphur and phosphorus in steel of all ranges of carbon content. Phosphorus has not

yet been studied, and so far only the work upon the effect of residual

and added sulphur in rivet steel has been fully completed. This one phase of the investigation required over 5,400 tests, which were

carried out in the laboratories of the Watertown Arsenal and the

United States Naval Engineering Experiment Station. The plans

called for check tests to be carried out at the Bureau of Standards

in case of disagreement, but this has not been required owing to the

close agreement of the results. The program of and the progress reports on the work of the committee have appeared in the Transactions of the American Society

for Testing Materials from 1920 on. Up to 1926 the committee

recorded the data obtained, but drew no conclusions. Upon the

completion of the rivet-steel work, the conclusion was arrived at that

sulphur up to at least 0.06 per cent is not detrimental. Even at still higher sulphur contents many properties were not affected. The

impact strength and transverse ductility were lowered somewhat as the sulphur was increased above 0.06 per cent. Shear strength of joints was not injured below about 0.08 per cent sulphur.

These conclusions were strengthened by the results so far of work

in progress on other soft steels. The conclusions should not, however, by any means be taken as applying to harder steels, most

certainly not to rail steels, spring steels, or any heat-treated steel, none of which have yet been studied by the committee.
STANDAKDS YEAEBOOK, 1927 233

While a revised A. S. T. M. rivet-steel specification has not yet

been issued in which the sulphur limit is increased in accordance with

the results of the work of the joint committee, and still stands (A. S. T. M. spec. A13-24) at 0.045 per cent sulphur,7 the Federal Specifications Board master specifications Nos. 351 and 352 allow 0.070 per

cent sulphur in rivet steel. Statical Hysteresis in Bars.—The various types of elastic hysteresis have received considerable attention in the past. Elastic

hysteresis as applied to the closed-load cycle may be defined as the

difference in deflection of an elastic material at a given load when the

material is subjected to a load cycle; that is, the load increased to a maximum and then decreased to the initial value. These phenomena

are of importance in the cases of such instruments and apparatus

as depend upon the elastic deformation of a spring, a diaphragm, or a combination of both. From the viewpoint of a designer of such

instruments or apparatus very little exact information is available.

One type of elastic hysteresis, which may be called statical hysteresis, is invariant with regard to time. It specifically does not include

the type of hysteresis considered by Boltzmann 8 in his well-known

theory of " elastic afterworking," which may be referred to as hereditary hysteresis. Existence of statical hysteresis requires that the

stress-strain diagram of a material for a closed-load cycle shall consist of a loop.9 The publication covering the work is entitled " Statical Hysteresis

in the Flexure of Bars," by G. H. Kenlegan. T332.

Cast-iron Pipe Investigation.—The Bureau of Standards, at the

request of the Consolidated Gas Co. of New York, made comparative

tests on 6-inch cast-iron pipe which is being manufactured in France

and on similar pipe manufactured in this country. It was desired

to obtain information on comparative merits on different methods

of testing cast-iron pipe, because the commonly accepted methods

are considered unsatisfactory. The Consolidated Gas Co. supplied

all the necessary material and prepared the specimens. The Bureau

of Standards planned the program of investigation and made all the

tests. The French pipe was represented by the specimens obtained from

one manufacturer and the American pipe was obtained from seven

different foundries. The following tests were made: (1) Measurement of dimensions; (2) density; (3) chemical composition; (4)

hardness; (5) transverse test

(a) machined coupons, (b) unmachined

? The work of the joint committee is responsible for this liberalizing of the Federal Specifications Board

specification over that formerly in commercial use.

8 L. Boltzmann; Wien K. Akad. d. Wiss, Stiz., 70, 1874; or Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen von L. Boltzmann, 1; p. 616.

9 If hereditary hysteresis is absent, then the shape and the area of the closed loop is independent of the duration of the closed-load cycle.
234 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

coupons, (c) whole sections of pipes; (6) crushing test—(a) machined

rings, (b) unmachined rings; (7) shearing test; (8) impact test; (9) hydrostatic test; and (10) metallographic examination.

The following conclusions were derived from the results of these

tests: (1) The differences in the strengths of these cast irons were

not great. The strength of French pipe was about equal to the aver- age for the pipes of American manufacture. (2) There was a decided

difference in the deflection; the French pipe had much smaller deflec- tion than American pipe. (3) The brittleness of French pipe was

evident from the lower impact values and from the suddenness of

failure in the crushing and transverse tests. (4) The brittleness and

the low deflection of the French pipe were probably due to its high

phosphorous content (1.85 per cent, compared with an average of 0.64

per cent for American pipe). (5) Although no direct tests were made on the arbitration bars required by the American Gas Association specifications for cast-iron pipes, tests made on smaller speci- mens showed that the French pipe would, in all probability, not

satisfy these specifications with regard to deflection. (6) Comparatively few defects were found in any of the cast irons. All the pipes were sound and complied with the American Gas Association specification for hydrostatic test. (7) On the basis of information which was obtained in these tests, practical suggestions are being given

with regard to the testing of cast-iron pipe.

This paper is to be submitted as a Technologic Paper of the Bureau

of Standards.

Compressive Strength of Column Web Plates and Wide Web

Columns.—In connection with the design of the new suspension

bridge spanning the Delaware River from Philadelphia to Camden,

the joint commission of consulting engineers submitted for test 14

special I section plate and angle columns of a so-called silicon- manganese steel. In this test the over-all dimension and construction of all columns were identical, with the exception that the web

thickness was changed. The web thickness varied from threeeighths inch plate to 1^ inches. Up to three-fourths inch in thick- ness they were single webs. The 1-inch thickness consisted of a

series of two single webs and two one-half inch web plates stitchriveted together. The 13^-inch web was composed of two threefourths inch plates stitch-riveted. The principal object of the

investigation was to determine the relative compressive strength of

web plates, with particular reference to the ordinarily accepted

design rule limiting the minimum thickness of plate permissible.

The investigation gave further information relative to the failure of a stiffened column section and the comparative action of single

and double webs. In all tests the column section used to test the

compressive section of the web plate was stiffened laterally by special
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 235

channel stiffeners applied to simulate the supporting conditions found

in the actual tower construction of the bridge.

For further reference see Compressive Strength of Column Web

Plates and Wide Web Columns, by Robert S. Johnson T327, 1926.

Methods of Socketing Manila Rope.—The tensile strength of a

fiber rope, such as manila, sisal, or hemp, is an important property of the rope. Purchase specifications for fiber rope usually give the

minimum breaking strength for each size of rope. In order to determine the strength of rope, the accepted procedure is to make an eyesplice in each end of a short length of rope and then test it in a testing

machine. Because of the fact that a skilled workman is necessary to make a good eye-splice, and because of the large amount of rope used

by this method, experiments have been made of other ways of fastening the ends of the rope. Ropes having the ends socketed in plaster of Paris, Wood's metal,

and a mixture of beeswax and rosin have been tested and the strength

compared with that of rope having eye-splices in the ends.

Breaking Strength of Socketed Rope Compared to Spliced

Rope.—These preliminary tests of socketing fiber rope for tensile tests show that breaking strengths can be obtained about 20 per cent

greater than those for spliced specimens.

Effect of Size of Socket.—The sockets used for these tests were truncated cones with the large bases nearest to the end of the

rope. Satisfactory results were obtained when the length of the

socket was about 10 times the diameter of the rope, the diameter of the large base about seven times the rope diameter and of the smaller

base about four times the rope diameter. It is evident that these

sockets, which were designed for wire rope, were not necessarily of the

most suitable dimensions for fiber rope. The tests on fiber rope having

a diameter of 1 inch, however, indicate quite clearly that these dimensions could not be decreased very much without causing failure in

the socket.

Preferable Socketing Materials.—Wood's metal was the

most satisfactory socketing material. Next came plaster of Paris,

preferably with the yarns of the rope coated with rosin, which

appeared to increase the adhesion of the plaster. Both of these

materials gave higher breaking loads than those for the spliced speci- mens. The rosin-beeswax mixture gave about the same breaking

strength as the spliced specimen, perhaps because the rope failed in or near the socket. Alumina and asphaltic cements do not appear

to be suitable socketing materials.

These tests show that a careful study of methods of fastening,

particularly socketing, the ends of fiber rope for tensile tests is desirable. If sockets are used a fiber rope specimen need be only about

10 diameters longer than the free length. If socketed with Wood's
236 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

metal the breaking strength may be 20 per cent greater than that for spliced specimens.

A paper on the results of this investigation will appear in a technical

periodical within a short time.

Holding Power of Wood Screws.—Tests on the holding power of over 10,000 flathead steel wood screws inserted in the side and end

grain of seven kinds of wood, namely, yellow poplar, cypress, sycamore, North Carolina pine, Georgia pine, hard maple, and white oak,

indicate: (a) That the size of lead hole is important and should be

about 70 per cent of the core or root diameter of the screw, except in

hardwoods, where the lead hole should be about 90 per cent of the core diameter of the screw, (b) That a lubricant, such as soap, may be

used where necessary for easy insertion of wood screws without any

great loss in holding power, (c) That for a given length of screw

axially loaded the holding power increases with the diameter to a cer- tain limit beyond which an increase in diameter decreases the holding

power, (d) That for a given diameter of screw axially loaded the

holding power increases with the length to the limit where the metal

of the screw fails in tension, (e) That wood screws inserted in the

end grain, where splitting can be avoided, should support about 75

per cent of the safe load computed for side-grain conditions.

(/) That wood joints may be made much more efficient by selection

of the proper size and number of wood screws. The results of the above tests should form a basis for standard

practices in the use of wood screws as a fastening device.

Publications.—Holding Power of Wood Screws, by I. J. Fairchild, T319;

Furniture Manufacturer and Artisan, September, October, and November, 1926. Finishes for Builders' Hardware.—Cooperative work with the

manufacturers on the standardization of builders' hardware is being

continued with special emphasis on establishing more nearly fundamental methods of measuring or specifying finishes. A number of

the colors are now controlled by specifying the exact metal mixture

which will produce a standard color; some are controlled by specifying the limit of purity, such as gold, silver, or nickel; and the remainder are being attacked with a view toward specifying the spectral

reflection and colorimetric characteristics under standard conditions

of illumination.

Vitreous China Plumbing Fixtures.—With the cooperation of the

manufacturers, fairly complete nomenclature and definitions have

been recommended for vitreous china plumbing fixtures which will

eliminate much misunderstanding and controversy in the industry.

Grading rules for staple items have been worked out limiting the

character and number of blemishes acceptable for regular selection ware. The manufacturers state that grading rules have resulted in
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 237

an immediate improvement in the average quality of the ware through

a closer control of manufacturing processes to avoid the penalty of

blemishes which place ware in the "cull" classification. The nomenclature, definitions, grading rules, as well as the simplification of variety, approved by a general conference of producers, consumers,

and distributers, will be published shortly as a simplified practice

recommendation.

ORGANIC AND FIBROUS MATERIALS

Guayule Rubber.—In cooperation with the Continental Mexican

Rubber Co., a study is being made of the properties of guayule

rubber. By improved processes in the extraction of this material

from the shrub, lots of crude rubber have been produced with properties approaching those of the plantation Hevea rubber. The use of

guayule in place of Hevea rubber would prove of great economic

value to the United States, as the shrub from which it is produced

can be successfully grown in southwestern United States, California,

and in Mexico.

Pilot Balloons.—The Department of Agriculture uses small

balloons 10 to 16 inches in diameter to determine characteristics of

wind and air currents. As a general thing these balloons will not

remain afloat more than about 12 hours, which was not sufficient for

the purpose for which they are used. Experiments with glue and

glycerin coatings for the rubber showed that by dipping the balloons

in a solution of glue and glycerin the permeability was considerably

reduced, and that the balloons thus treated would then remain afloat two to three times as long as the untreated ones. Endurance Machine for Testing Tires.—A machine for testing the

durability of tires has been developed and checked against road

tests. This machine now affords a method for testing tires which is much cheaper and quicker than a road test, and which can be carried

out under definite, reproducible conditions. The test has been

adopted as a part of the Federal specifications for tires. A complete

description of the machine and test results of 230 cord tires are contained in T318, by P. L. Wormely and W. L. Holt.

Tensile Testing of Rubber.—Heat is generated when rubber is stretched. The resultant rise of temperature affects the strength

of the rubber. This factor is overlooked in the usual routine testing

of the tensile strength of rubber. The report by C. E. Boone and

J. R. Newman was published in Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, May, 1926.

Reclaimed Rubber in Tires.—The recent high price of crude rubber

has stimulated interest in the possibility of using reclaimed rubber in

tires. T. 294, by P. L. Wormley and W. L. Holt, published late in 1925, called attention to some of the pitfalls to be avoided, with the
238 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDAEDS

result that this year the industry has made real progress in the development of tire compounds of satisfactory quality which contain some reclaimed rubber.

Rubber Floor Tile.—Numerous tests have been made for pros- pective purchasers of rubber floor tile. These tests to date have

all been strictly empirical, and can be regarded only as furnishing

general information about the ordinary properties of the material.

A special investigation will be required before any authoritative

statement can be made on this subject.

Specifications For Balloon Tires. -Forty-five balloon tires have

been tested on the endurance machine to collect data as the basis

for a Federal specification. As a whole, the mileages obtained

from these balloon tires have not been far different from those

obtained from high-pressure tires. The method of failure was, however, in most cases different. Whereas failure due to separation is common in high-pressure tires, the breaking of the carcass was the principal cause for failure in balloon tires. Rubber Substitutes.—The recent high price of crude rubber

stimulated interest in the development of materials which might be

used in its stead. The most obvious materials are reclaimed rubber

and synthetic rubber. On the assumption that the inferior quality

of reclaimed rubber is due to its physical structure, an effort is being made to improve this structure by coagulating a colloidal

dispersion of reclaimed rubber in water. Synthetic rubber is being

made in the laboratory by the polymerization of methyl isoprene, a process which takes some months.

Resilience of Cushion Tires.—The cushion tire is neither solid nor

pneumatic. Its classification for taxation purposes has been raised

in several States. A series of static deflection tests reported to the

Rubber Association of America provided facts to be used in deciding

this point.

Heat-retaining Properties of Laundered Cotton Blankets.

xipparatus had been designed and built, as described in two previous technologic papers, to measure the heat-retaining properties

of textile materials. During the past year a study has been made of

the effect of laundering upon the thermal insulating values of cotton

blankets. The laundering was found to cause small losses in thermal

resistance, ranging from to 10 per cent, which were almost completely restored by the subsequent process for raising the nap on

the laundered fabric. It is understood that this renapping process

is used to a large extent by commercial launderies. The net losses

in thermal resistance after four applications of washing and renapping processes were negligibly small, none being over 5 per cent. The results indicate the importance of a process for restoring the
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 239

nap after washing. Shrinkage was also observed to cause a counteracting gain in thermal resistance.

Rope-Yarn Bending.—The rope-bending apparatus described in Technologic Paper No. 300 has been used for testing the variables

of the rope yarn. Samples of rope yarn having different grades of

fiber, twists, sizes, and oil content were submitted by cordage manufacturers (through the Cordage Institute). An extensive study has

been made of these, including, in addition to their resistance to bending, measurement of twist, size, oil content, and breaking strength.

These results show logical groupings in regard to twist, size, and oil content; but thus far the attempts to differentiate between the dif- ferent grades of fiber have been unsatisfactory, the results of some

of the tests on the lower grades overlapping the higher grades. This

would indicate that from the standpoint of bending fatigue there is no justification for the grade system now in use—a conclusion that

will require further proof before it can be safely accepted.

Rayon Properties.—Kesearch work on rayon aroused considerable

interest in the industry, and numerous requests for additional information led the bureau to call a general conference on this subject, at which rayon manufacturers and representatives of various textile associations whose members were using this fabric were present. As

a result of this conference, at which most of the phases of rayon

research were set forth, the bureau began a study of the effect of

moisture on the properties of rayon and the stability or resistance to aging. This project was started in May. The work has consisted

chiefly of a search of the literature and some tests of samples that were

available from preliminary investigations, the purpose being to fix a definite method of procedure for the general investigation.

Parachute Fabric Properties.—Various American manufacturers

have endeavored to produce satisfactory parachute fabric in accord- ance with Government specifications. Twenty-six fabrics were ex- amined during the year, of which seven were found to be satisfactory.

It has been found that the holes made in a parachute when it rubs

against its shroud lines are caused partly by the rubbing itself and

partly by actual burning resulting from heat generated by friction

during the rubbing process. An apparatus has been designed and

set up by means of which the resistance of a fabric to such abrasion

and burning can be studied. It was found that all the fabrics tested were more or less susceptible to abrasion and burning under the conditions of this test, but it was found that dipping the cord in oil before

test greatly decreased the possibility of abrasion or burning. It is recommended that various methods of treating the cord to cut down

the abrasion and the heat generation be studied.
240 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The presence of static electricity during the abrasion process was

studied also, and it was found that although sufficient electric charge

is present to deflect the leaves of an electroscope, in no case was it sufficient to make a spark.

Substitute for Silk Parachute Fabric.—The breaking strength of cotton yarns can be materially increased by treating them with cellu- lose ester dopes. Further increase in both strength and stretch can be achieved through a modified mercerization process. By combining the two treatments it is possible to produce a cotton yarn having

many of the essential properties of silk yarns. The final test of the material lies in the cloth, not in the yarn.

Therefore apparatus has been installed to treat yarn on a semicommercial scale and then to weave it into cloth. This work is being done in cooperation with the National Advisory

Committee for Aeronautics and the Navy Department.

Hosiery Defects.—The research associate of the National Association of Hosiery and Underwear Manufacturers assists manufacturers

with expert advice in case of trouble. Such advice is always based

upon careful analysis of the individual problem. The solution is frequently of general interest to the industry, and is published in the

semimonthly bulletin of the association.

Although some of these problems result from improper dyeing

methods, it has been found that a large factor in streaky or irregular

dyeing is nonuniformity in the raw material, such as variation in the

denier or number of filaments of the silk, irregularities in the twist of cotton, etc. The introduction of rayon during the last few years into

the manufacture of hosiery has presented many new difficulties. These range from actual mechanical difficulty in the handling of the

product to chemical changes resulting from the addition of oil or its removal in the dye bath. The bureau has had many oral and written

statements as to the value of this work, and has found that it is a primary feature in educating hosiery manufacturers regarding the

value of technical research.

Size Standardization.—The bureau has in progress several projects

that will permit the adoption of standard methods of measuring and

standard sizes for the garments manufactured by members of cooperating associations.

Standard lengths of hosiery have been set up this year and have

been adopted by the National Association of Hosiery and Underwear

Manufacturers.

The Associated Knit Underwear Manufacturers of America have

been cooperating with the bureau in the problem of fixing standard

sizes for men's, women's, and children's knit underwear. Standard

sizes have been adopted for men's, boys', and children's ribbed and

flat-knit cotton union suits; men's worsted and worsted-merino and
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 241

wool and wool-cotton mixed union suits (1 X 1 rib); men's ribbed

cotton two-piece underwear (1 X 1 rib); men's flat-knit cotton twopiece underwear; and men's flat-knit wool and wool-cotton two-piece

underwear. Further work is being done on the remaining types.

The underwear association is attempting to standardize sizes of

boxes and containers. An added feature of this work is the endeavor

to work out dimensions for the containers in which underwear is sent

to the trade, so that they may reuse the boxes in which the underwear

yarn is shipped. This feature will accomplish a very large saving if successful.

The National Knitted Outerwear Association has recently established a research associateship to do work along similar lines for that

industry. One tentative proposal has been submitted for shaker

sweaters. Another is in progress for bathing suits. Effect of Dry Cleaning on Silk.—The study of tin-weighted and

unweighted samples of silk after various treatments and exposures to sunlight and storage at standard conditions (of 65 per cent relative

humidity at 70° F. temperature) permits the following conclusions:

(1) No deterioration results from exposures to standard atmospheric

conditions over a period of 2J^ months, even when acid or alkaline

perspirations are applied. (2) Sunlight exposure caused a marked

deterioration in both unweighted (but dyed) and tin-weighted silks,

the loss in strength in 100 hours' exposure amounting to about 25 per cent for unweighted and about 50 to 75 per cent for weighted silks. (3) Acid and alkaline perspiration treatments increase the deterioration when sunlight exposures are given, so that the loss in strength

in 100 hours' exposure is about 35 per cent for unweighted and about

65 to 100 per cent for weighted silk. (4) Dry-cleaning solvents in no case caused any appreciable deterioration of the silk fabrics. It is to be noted that the " 100 hours" mentioned above is the time

exposed to direct sunhght—a condition which, in ordinary service,

would require a year or two to fulfill. This work was done in cooperation with the National Association of Dyers and Cleaners.

Development of Cleaning Processes.—The dyeing and cleaning

industry, through their national association, has been studying the numerous troubles that are encountered in the dry cleaning of gar- ments and other materials. The almost countless number of stains

that may be found on garments in ordinary service, added to the

variety of fibers in use and the methods of dyeing and finishing them,

cause the dry cleaner a great deal of difficulty. For example, it is estimated that there are over 1,500 different kinds of inks used by the

American people. To remove these from even the common textile

fibers, such as cotton, wool, silk, and linen, is a task that requires

highly technical skill.
242 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The results of these studies are published monthly in the technical news bulletin of the National Association of Dyers and Cleaners.

Cleaning of Furs and Leathers.—A preliminary report covering the

work on cleaning of furs and leathers has been prepared and submitted to the National Association of Dyers and Cleaners. This

report covers the cleaning materials used and the substances added

to preserve the pliability of the leather, and includes methods for cleaning, a process for placing fat-liquor in furs, and machine and

hand methods for dry-cleaning dyed leather.

Standard Grades of Wool.—After some years of trial, it was

decided that the official seven grades of wool did not offer sufficient

refinement to meet the needs of the industry. It was necessary to grade the wool more closely, and consequently establish a larger

number of grades. In view of the international market for wool,

there were obvious advantages to be gained by adopting the 12 grades in use in England, together with the British names for them.

Standard samples of each of the 12 grades of both raw wool and

tops have been set up by agreement between the Department of

Agriculture, Department of Commerce, the National Association of Wool Manufacturers, and the British Wool Federation. These have

been promulgated as official United States standards by the Secretary

of Agriculture.

Moisture Content of Cotton Yarns.—Some tests were made to determine the moisture content of carded yarns, combed yarns, and

mercerized yarns at standard humidity conditions. These yarns were the kind most commonly used in the hosiery industry, and it was at the request of the National Association of Hosiery and Under- wear Manufacturers that the project was undertaken. The results

will be used as a basis for purchase in connection with their standard

contract form.

Air-conditioned Testing Cabinet.—Paper is hygroscopic, and as its physical properties are considerably affected by its moisture content,

strength tests and other physical tests must be made under definite

hygrometric conditions. As apparatus for maintaining these conditions in the usual laboratory testing room is quite expensive, most

of the industrial laboratories lack such equipment. To assist in

remedying this situation an inexpensive air-conditioned testing

cabinet has been developed. The testing instrument is placed inside

the cabinet, and the test specimens are handled by means of longsleeved rubber gloves fastened to apertures in the cabinet, this obviating the necessity for exposing the interior of the cabinet to the

surrounding atmosphere. A constant relative humidity is maintained

in the cabinet by circulating the air through a solution of sulphuric

acid, the relative vapor pressure of which is determined by its density.

Details of the cabinet and some results obtained with it are given in
STANDAKDS YEARBOOK, 1927 243

a paper presented by F. T. Carson at the February, 1926, convention

of the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry and

published in the association papers, June, 1926.

Tensile Strength Testers.—In further study of the tensile strength

testers, additional comparative test data have been obtained with

six commercial instruments. Two of these are the small portable

type especially adapted to making tests in the field. Some of the

others were instruments that had been improved in design since pre- vious tests were made. It was found, as before, that concordant

test results were obtained with different instruments of the swinging arm or pendulum type. A type in which the force required to break

the test strip was indicated as pressure within an ordinary hydraulic

cylinder by means of a Bourdon tube pressure gauge gave appreciably

lower results than the pendulum type. The portable instruments

showed fair agreement with similar types of the larger laboratory

instruments. The results of this study led to specification of the

pendulum type of instrument by the Technical Association of the

Pulp and Paper Industry in its official method for determining the

tensile strength of paper.

Measurement of Degree of Sizing of Paper.—Thirty-eight methods

proposed by various investigators for measuring the rate at which

paper absorbs aqueous liquids, relative to its degree of sizing, have

been listed and briefly described for the first time in one publication.

These methods have been critically examined, classified, and compared experimentally. Stress is laid on the essential difference

between the degree of surface sizing and the degree of internal

sizing, the paper dealing with the latter only. The lack of con- cordance of the various methods has been traced to the influence

of selective absorption from solution and of an extraneous resistivity.

A test of the rate at which water penetrates into paper is considered

the most logical and useful method of measurement. This conclusion was confirmed by the results of tests using methods of this t}^pe

developed at the bureau compared with other types of sizing tests commonly employed. For further details see Measurement of the

Degree of Sizing of Paper, by F. T. Carson T326.

Wet-Rub Tester.—In connection with research on currency paper,

it was necessary to find a means of determining the resistance of the

paper to surface abrasion. A test for determining this property is commonly made by rubbing the paper with a moistened finger

and noting the resistance of the surface of the paper to disintegration.

A machine was developed which gives a numerical measure of this property, and with which excellent results in respect to reproducibility have been obtained.

Waterproofed Case-lining Paper.—Investigation of waterproofed

case-lining papers was made at the request of the Bureau of Foreign
244 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

and Domestic Commerce to develop information to aid overseas

shippers in their selection of such papers. The type found most

suitable was duplex asphalted kr'aft paper. As existing methods

of testing the water resistance of such paper were found inadequate,

research was made to find a suitable method of test. This resulted

in the development of the " ground-glass" method, which is considered satisfactory for this purpose. Specifications of water resistance,

strength, and weight were formulated, which are believed to define

paper of suitable quality. The results are reported in T312, A Study

of Test Methods for the Purpose of Developing Standard Specifications for Waterproofed Case-lining Paper, by B. W. Scribner and

F. T. Carson.

Windows of Window Envelopes.—The use of window envelopes

has become extensive, owing to the economy in labor and time

effected by them. This widespread use is a matter of concern to postal authorities and postal clerks, as windows of inferior quality cause delay in handling mail, and considerable eyestrain on the part

of postal clerks. For these reasons the bureau is collecting data to

assist in establishing standard specifications of quality for the

windows.

The main requisites of windows are high transparency or its converse, low opacity, and low gloss, as deficiency in either respect

makes the reading of the address more difficult. With the cooperation of manufacturers, representative samples of practically all domestic window envelopes were secured and the windows tested

for opacity and gloss. Transparency was determined with the bureau

apparatus described in C63. The Ingersoll glarimeter was used

for measurement of gloss. Windows having opacity not greater

than 0.20 contrast ratio and gloss not exceeding 80 per cent are satis- factory. A technologic paper reporting the results is in preparation.

Bamboo Pulp.—Study was made on a laboratory scale of a sample

of unbleached bamboo pulp received through the Bureau of Foreign

and Domestic Commerce from a mill in the Philippine Islands. The

details given as to the manufacture were: The bamboo is cut into

lengths from 1% to 2 feet and the joints removed. These lengths

are crushed between rollers and cooked in a 20 per cent soda solution. The fibers were found to have the following mean dimensions:

Length, 2.62 mm; diameter, 0.017 mm. The best paper-making

results were obtained with a rather mild beating treatment. The

strength of the bamboo paper compared well with that of strong

sulphite pulp. It was concluded that the pulp would be suitable

for such papers as wrapping or board.

Waste Fiber from Manila Rope Manufacture.—The results of laboratory paper-making tests of waste fiber from the manufacture

of manila rope indicate that this material may be employed profit-
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 245

ably for paper making. The tests were made on samples submitted

by the Navy Department from its Boston Navy Yard rope manufacturing plant. Around 200,000 pounds of the material are available

annually. The waste fiber is very fine and bulky and contains 14

per cent of oils, - these being derived from the oils used in the ropemaking process. It was pulped, as received, with various alkaline

chemicals. The best appearing paper was secured by the use of caustic soda. This process gave a pulp yield of 35 per cent. The

paper was suitable for wrapping, comparing favorably with sulphite

manila wrapping in strength. Much better results would no doubt

be obtained by extraction of the oils before pulping.

Caroa Fiber.—Semicommercial paper-making tests of caroa fiber

from Brazil have confirmed the excellent laboratory results previously

reported. (Caroa fiber as a paper-making material, Paper Trade

Journal, Shaw and Bicking, Jan. 8, 1925.) The yield of pulp obtained

from the shredded material is around 50 per cent, using caustic

soda as the reducing agent. In the character of the paper-making

processes required and in its strength and other properties caroa

fiber paper closely resembles high-grade rag fiber paper. Papers

made from pulps produced by various modifications of the pulping

process ranged in bursting strength from 50 to 60 points, and in folding endurance from 1,800 to 3,900 double folds, for 60-pound

paper (basis, 500 sheets, 25 by 40 inches). These results are of particular interest in view of the increasing scarcity of paper-making

rags. Information at hand indicates that with sufficient demand,

caroa fiber could be obtained in ample amount for paper-making

purposes, and at a cost that would allow it to compete with papermaking rags. United States Paper Currency.—Research on United States paper

currency was instituted for the purpose of improving its quality and

fixing standards of quality and of the processes for obtaining them.

This work is being done in cooperation with the Treasury Department, the Bureau of Efficiency, and the manufacturer.

The main problem relates to wearing quality, as the life of the

paper currency had decreased to about one-third of its former life, causing excessive expenditures for replacement. The paper-manufacturing processes are being studied on a semicommercial scale in

the bureau paper mill. Modification of the nature of the beating

treatment of the paper fiber resulted in a marked improvement in

the strength of the currency paper. By brushing out the fibers well and leaving them long, paper of satisfactory printing quality

and having over double the strength of the paper in use was produced.

The manufacturer applied this semicommercial result to commercial

mill practice with satisfactory results. Another line of research

being followed deals with the surface sizing of the printed currency.
246 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

It was found that increased resistance to surface wear could be obtained

by hardening the glue sizing being used, by after-treatment with

formaldehyde.

The work consummated has enabled the Treasury Department ta

so revise the technical requirements of its currency paper specifications as to provide for paper of more than double the strength previously specified, and such paper is now being obtained with no

increase in cost. The following publications will give details of this

research

:

Research on the Production of Currency Paper in the Bureau of Standards

Paper Mill, by M. B. Shaw and G. W. Bicking. T329.

''The glue surface sizing of paper," by G. K. Hamill, V. H. Gottschalk, and

G. W. Bicking, to be published in Paper Trade Journal. Use of Glue in Coating Paper.—As a summary of the research

work in collaboration with the National Association of Glue Manufacturers, a demonstration of the use of glue in coated paper was

given to representatives of the glue and paper industries. Using

formulas that had been evolved for use at room temperatures with

the semicommercial equipment available, four lots of paper were

coated. Three widely different grades of glue were used, and one

lot was made with casein for comparison. On the third day of the

demonstration, samples of the papers coated were printed in the

halftone pressroom of the Government Printing Office.

This research has shown that variations in the type of stock

coated, the materials entering into, and the method of preparing

coating mixtures, equipment, and working conditions of the coating,

drying, and finishing operations, influence the appearance of the

finished coated paper and the amount and proportion of adhesive

required to obtain a coated paper of satisfactory printing qualities.

Variations in inks and in printing conditions and practice have been

noted as affecting strongly the tendency of coated papers to pick or

lift during the printing operation. It was also indicated that with

proper selection of the glue used and adaptations to local conditions

and product requirements the use of glue in coating paper requires

little change in equipment or operating technique from procedure

with casein; and that except possibly in some lithographic or off-set processes where an extraordinary degree of waterproofness is required,

the use of glue-bound paper offers no new difficulties to the printer.

(The Use of Glue in Coated Paper, by G. K. Hamill, V. H. Gottschalk, and G. W. Bicking. T323.)

Strength of Kraft Wrapping Papers.—The use of kraft wrapping

papers is increasing rapidly, due to their great strength and relatively

long life as compared with many other types of wrapping papers.

There is lack of adequate strength data for this type of paper, and as
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 247

strength is one of its main requirements such data are being secured to

assist in formulating strength specifications. All four commonly

applied strength tests—bursting, tearing, breaking, and folding—are being applied. Practically all representative domestic products have

been tested, and samples of foreign papers secured through the foreign

representatives of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce are being tested as rapidly as the papers are received. The results so far

obtained show, in general, little difference between foreign and domestic papers of the same grade. There is wide variation in strength, the

weakest papers being around one-fifth as strong as the strongest. The

bursting, folding, and tensile test results show fairly good agreement

with each other as regards ranking the papers according to strength,

but the tearing test shows no consistent agreement with any of the

other tests applied.

Opacity of Paper.—Results obtained in continued use of the

Bureau of Standards opacity tester, described in C63, show that this

is a very accurate and practical means of measuring the opacity of

paper. It has been used extensively in bureau investigative work on

thin book papers, envelopes, and the windows of window envelopes.

As it is used by several industrial concerns a number of check tests of

results obtained with different instruments and different operators

have been made. The agreement in such case has been found to be

within 1 per cent of the total reading. Scale settings of an instrument can be repeated for any two given areas of a test specimen to

this same degree of accuracy. In the case of thin book papers, the

showing through of printing was found to accord with their opacity

values. The use of this instrument was specified in Government

stamped envelope specifications, and it has been found satisfactory

for this purpose. It is also specified in the tentative specifications

suggested for the windows of window envelopes.

Synthetic Tanning Materials.—Materials derived from coal-tar

crudes are being slowly developed for use in the tanning of hides.

During the year T302, " Investigation of Synthetic Tanning Materials," by Edward Wolesensky, was issued. This report describes

experiments in which products were produced from various coal-tar

crudes and examined for tanning properties. Thus a fairly complete

survey of this field has been furnished the industry, together with

methods of manufacture and classification of those products which

yield materials with tanning properties and those which do not. The

products obtained by condensing the sulphonic acids of the monohydroxy phenols with formaldehyde possess true tanning properties as do the products obtained from the phenol or cresol formaldehyde

resins. The results of tanning tests showed that many of the products were suitable for tanning light leather which was pliable and strong.

No product was found which could be considered a satisfactory sub-
248 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

stitute for the vegetable materials used in producing heavy leather

because of the lack of filling properties characteristic of the latter. Sulphite Cellulose Extracts for Tanning.—Considerable progress

has been made in the studies of the suitability of sulphite cellulose extracts for use in the actual tanning processes. These extracts are prepared from the unlimited supply of waste liquors run off in paper

pulp mills. According to the hide powder method of determining tannins in

materials, these extracts contain amounts comparing favorably with

those found in some of the natural tanning materials, as shown below

:

| Per cent

j of tannin

j (A.L. C. A.

: method)

Sulphite cellulose No. 1

: 28. 33 Sulphite cellulose No. 2 ! 28. 79 Sulphite cellulose No. 3. ._ 22. 74 Sulphite cellulose No. 4 24. 90 Chestnut wood 27.33 Oak bark \ 24.92 Hemlock bark | 27.45 Sulphited quebracho. 1 36. 60 Tanning experiments on hide powder and calfskins showed these

extracts to possess undoubted tanning properties. Like some

of the syntans from coal-tar crudes, these extracts possess the property

of converting a portion of the insolubles in quebracho extract. Whereas leather can be made using these extracts alone, it does

not compare favorably in weight and firmness with commercial

leathers. Satisfactory leather can be obtained by blending these

extracts with the ordinary ones. Tanning experiments in the laboratory with a blend of one-third sulphite cellulose, one-third chestnut

wood, and one-third cutch extracts, gave leather satisfactory as

to color, chemical, and physical properties. The average degree of

tannage for 10 lots was 68, the yield 72, and the tensile strength of

the rough, uncurried leather, 3,300 pounds per square inch.

It is concluded that these materials may be economically used

for tanning heavy leathers. Chrome Sole Leather.—Research to establish the relation between

chrome and vegetable tanned sole leathers with respect to durability,

is described in T286, "The Comparative Durability of Chrome and

Vegetable Tanned Sole Leathers," by R. C. Bowker and M. N. V.

Geib. In general, the results showed that natural and paraffinfilled chrome sole leathers wore twice as long as vegetable-tanned

leather. When other filling materials are incorporated in the chrome

leather in order to secure firmness and water resistance, the ratio of

increased wear is lessened roughly in proportion to the amount of

material added. This standardization of the properties of chrome
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 249

sole leather has stimulated commercial production and experiment on this type of leather.

Composition Soles.—During the year standard methods for evaluating composition shoe soles have been inaugurated with some

apparent success. The properties measured are as follows: Thickness, density, tensile strength, elongation, and resistance to abrasion on the original soles. The soles are then aged in an electric oven

for 14 days at 70° C. and the strength, elongation, and abrasion

resistance again determined. The abrasion tests are made on the

apparatus described in T147 by R. W. Hart and R. C. Bowker.

METALLURGY

Recommended Procedure in Conducting Corrosion Tests.—In

cooperation with the committee of the American Society for Testing

Materials on the corrosion of nonferrous metals and alloys, a very

comprehensive series of laboratory tests has been carried out during

the past two years to determine the relative corrodibility of a set of typical metals by various solutions when applied under different

conditions. The laboratory work has been completed, and on the

basis of the results obtained recommendations as to the proper procedure in carrying out the " total immersion," the " repeated immersion," the " spray," and the " accelerated electrolytic" corrosion

tests will be drawn up. The results obtained clearly illustrate the

difference in the corrodibilty of a metal with the same solution

according to the corrosion conditions which obtain and serve to emphasize the need for standard practice in carrying out corrosion

tests. Work merely following the outlines laid down by the committee

for electrolytic testing was not adequate to show the possibilities

and limitations of that method. Since a majority of the students

of corrosion believe it to be best explained by the electrochemical

theory, electrochemical methods of test deserve further attention.

The bureau is therefore now following, in cooperation with the

electrochemical section of the chemistry division, a program of its own of further study of electrolytic corrosion test methods.

Similar extended tests on zinc-coated (galvanized) sheet material

are now in progress for subcommittees of the committee on corrosion

of iron and steel of the American Society for Testing Materials.

The accelerated laboratory tests are carried out on a variety of zinccoated materials which are also being used in the committee's comprehensive series of exposure tests. When both series of tests are complete, a correlation of the results of relatively rapid laboratory

tests and of those of exposure or simulated service extending over many years, will be possible. The usefulness or useiessness of these

laboratory tests in specifications can then be demonstrated.
250 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

While these corrosion projects are very extensive, requiring a huge

number of tests and a continued program of study for several years, the need of rapid, cheap, reproducible, and dependable methods of

predicting the resistance of metals and alloys to corrosion is so great

and the subject so complex that comprehensive work is the only

kind worth while.

Publications.—Report, Subcommittee VII of A-5, A. S. T. M. Accelerated

corrosion tests for coated metals, Proc. A. S. T. M., 28 pt. 1; 1926. Note on protection of iron by cadmium, H. S. Rawdon, Trans. Am. Electro- chem. Soc, 49; 1926; Metal Industry (London) 28, p. 414; 1926; Korrosion und

Metallschutz, 2, p. 170; 1926. LC 192, Corrosion resistance of iron and steel. Bureau work on the effect of thickness of zinc coating on bend tests is included in tests on galvanized sheets, H. A. Stacy, for October, 1926, meeting,

Am. Inst. Min. and Met. Eng.

Quality of Steel as Revealed by Carburization.—An investigation

of the past several years has for its purpose the stud}?- of the influence

of the initial quality of steel, the so-called " abnormal steel," upon

the results obtained in the commercial process of carburization

(casehardening) . It has been definitely established that the depth

of the carburized layer is greater and the surface hardness is more

uniform in certain carburized steels than others carburized under

identical conditions. Although some of the differences observed are attributable to different variables of heat treatment, such as methods

of heating, rate of quenching and freedom of the quenching baths

from dissolved gases, the character of the steel appears to be an

important factor. One of the most outstanding features of " abnormal steel" is the relatively high aluminum content which accompanies abnormality in much commercial steel, although the pres- ence of aluminum is not essential to abnormality. The investigation

has been extended to include observations on the " finishing" of steel in the steel mill and is still in progress. Testing for abnormality is required in the specifications of many

users of steel for carburizing. A better understanding of the variables affecting abnormality and of methods for its control is desired

by both makers and users of such steels. While there is no formal

committee sponsoring this work, cooperation has been active, especially from automobile companies which are large users of carburizing

steel and from several progressive steel mills. Close contact is also maintained with the Bureau of Mines, which is also concerned with

the problem and actively studying it, because the causes of abnormality may include factors relating to the smelting of the ore itself as well as to the making and handling of the finished steel.

Publication.—Discussion, S. Epstein, Trans. Am. Soc. Steel Treat., 9, p. 920;

1926.
STANDARDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 251

Improvement of Duralumin.—Aluminum alloys of the " duralumin"

type; that is, alloys which can be strengthened by heat treatment,

such as are widely used in aircraft construction, not infrequently

deteriorate very seriously in service, particularly if in sheet form.

The deterioration, which manifests itself most plainly as an embrittlement of the material, is the result of a peculiar corrosive attack

starting at the surface, wherein the "bond" between the constituent

grains is weakened, although the grains as a whole are but little affected. The prevention of deterioration is essential if reliable aircraft of long life is to be produced. Thin, bare commercial duralumin, such

as would be used in the new "metal clad" airships, can be seriously

embrittled in a week in the laboratory with distilled water as the only

corrosion medium. Standard airships and airplanes depend upon

duralumin for much of their structural strength and no substitute

offers promise of as good a combination of strength and lightness.

The Bureau of Aeronautics of the Navy Department, the Army

Air Service, and the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

are, therefore, studying the problem by use of the bureau's equipment and staff. Manufacturers of the alloy and commercial users

are also actively cooperating.

An investigation is under way for the study of the conditions

which favor this type of corrosive attack and the means for guarding

against it. To date, the results indicate that alloys containing considerable copper are most prone to deterioration of this kind, although

the method of heat treatment used is an important factor. Chloride

solutions, particularly under oxidizing conditions, produce corrosion

of this type readily. The various kinds of protective coatings for use on such alloys are being investigated by means of laboratory

corrosion and by out-of-doors exposure tests, the latter in cooperation

with the Institute of Paint and Varnish Research.

Work of the past year has clearly shown that there is hope of decided improvement in the resistance of bare, unprotected duralumin to intercrystalline attack by control of composition and heat

treatment, though it is doubtful if the problem is susceptible of a complete solution along these lines. But it is certain that proper

attention to the protection of the surface by a suitable coating will

solve the problem and no fear need be entertained in the use of duralumin so protected.

Good protection is afforded by various varnish or bitumastic

enamel coatings properly maintained, by the "anodic" coating result- ing from electrolytic treatment in chromic acid, as applied by English

workers, or by the application of a thin coat of pure aluminum

deposited by some of the metal spray processes. The choice among

these will depend on the degree of protection needed, on the weight

36316—27 17
252 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

added by them and on the cost of application. While further information is needed to select the best coating, it is certain even at the

present stage of the work that great improvement in reliability and

life of duralumin parts of aircraft is assured.

Specifications for composition and recommended practice for heattreatment and for the application of protective coatings may have to be modified as a result of the work, when the work is completed.

Publication.—Work dealing with the condition of the duralumin taken from

the wreck of the Shenandoah is included in " Technical aspects of the loss of the U. S. S. Shenandoah/' Jr. Am. Soc. Naval Eng., 38, p. 605; 1926. Etching Reagents for Alloy Steels.—The publication of S. 518,

Metallographic Etching Reagents III, for Alloy Steels, by E. C.

Groesbeck during the year marked the completion of this particular

phase of metallographic investigation which has for its purpose the

obtaining of data which will serve as a basis for " recommended

metallographic practice.'' The use of alkaline etching reagents,

under oxidizing and nonoxidizing conditions was found to be the

most satisfactory means for the identification of the various " car- bides" and other hard constituents occurring in the microstructure

of commercial alloy steels. Electrolytic etching methods are also

useful, whereas the commonly used acidic reagents will not give

results that will serve to identify the different microconstituents.

Publication.—Solutions for carbides, etc., in alloy steels, E. C. Groesbeck

appendix to report of committee E-4 on Metallography, Proc. A. S. T. M., 26,

p.t. 1; 1926. Phosphorus in Wrought Iron.—Specifications for wrought iron

take account of phosphorus only through the effect it exerts on the

physical properties as shown by the tensile and bend tests. A study

of wrought iron made by both hand and mechanical puddling processes showed that marked variations, in phosphorus content occur

in different parts of a bar of wrought iron. Tests taken at each end

of a 12-foot bar showed a variation in impact value from 6.5 to 54

foot-pounds, due to segregation of phosphorus. In order that brittle segregated areas may be avoided the phosphorus content should be

carefully controlled. The distribution of phosphorus may be of

much more consequence than is the average phosphorus content.

Publication.—Observations on phosphorus in wrought iron made by different puddling processes, H. S. Rawdon and S. Epstein, Yearbook Am. Iron and

Steel Inst.; 1926. Properties of Silicon Steel.—A new German structural steel, low

in carbon and high in silicon, was examined and found to have a good combination of properties, which, however, could also be

obtained by the use of manganese, as is more common in American

practice when steel of high yield point is desired, or by a combination

of manganese and silicon. The work emphasizes the fact that more
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 253

attention might well be paid to the possibilities of the cheaper ele- ments, such as silicon and manganese, as alloying agents in steel.

Publication.—"Silicon as an alloy in steel," H. W. Gillett, Iron Age, 118,, p. 481; 1926. Properties of Steels at Elevated Temperatures.—The demands of

engineers for alloys to withstand high temperatures and high pres- sures in such fields as oil cracking, nitrogen fixation, steam power

plants, and so on, have brought out the fact that far too little is known

about the properties of such alloys to allow drawing up specifications,

and that methods of tests, either for inspection and acceptance test purposes or for research purposes are not yet sufficiently settled

upon.

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the American

Society for Testing Materials have, therefore, formed a joint committee on the properties of metals at high temperatures, upon which

the bureau is represented. This committee is unique in that the

metallurgists of firms in active commercial rivalry not only meet

and discuss problems of joint technical interest, but apportion experimental work to each laboratory represented and share all the data

thus secured. They realize that the problem is too complex for

solution by any one laboratory and have accomplished a pooling of

problems, of work, and of results, only too seldom found in industry.

Problems relating to methods of testing at high temperature have

been referred to the bureau by the committee and the work of the

bureau is oriented so as to supplement the work of the other laboratories represented on the committee.

Considerable work has been done to correlate results obtained from

the so-called "short-time" tensile test at elevated temperatures with

results obtained in " long-time" tests in which the material is subjected to a fixed load at approximately constant temperature.

Three steels have been so tested, a 0.24 per cent carbon steel, a high-speed steel, and a 20 per cent Cr., 1 per cent Cu "rustless"

steel. A special steel of 23 per cent Ni., 18 per cent Cr. is now under

test. "Long-time" tests, some of which have to go on for months,,

have been made at room temperature 550°, 800°, 1,100°, and l,350 o F. ? and "short-time" tests at the same temperatures.

Under a fixed total load in tension at approximately constant

temperature, the total flow producing fracture takes place in three

steps, the magnitude and importance of which vary with the applied

load, temperature, and material. These three stages of flow are designated (1) an initial flow, (2) a secondary flow, and (3) a final flow. As the constant applied load is increased, the initial flow and

the rate of flow in the second period increase and the life of the steels decreases. The final rapid flow is the result of stress concentration
254 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

brought about by decrease in cross section accompanying previous

elongation.

Above the temperatures at which strain hardening is observed,

the maximum allowable stress, which is taken as the load permitting

long life with freedom from deformation, is equivalent to what has

been called the "limiting creep stress" by other investigators and

is approximated by the proportional limit of the "short-time" tension tests at corresponding temperatures. Within the temperature

range in which strain hardening is observed, the proportional limit

also approximates the load permitting long life with freedom from

deformation, but is below the "limiting creep stress" which includes

only consideration of long life. A modified Martens extensometer equipped with the Tuckerman

optical lever system was constructed for use in determining the

proportional limits. The smallest direct reading obtainable with

this instrument is equal to approximately four millionths of an inch,

and permits detection of very small departures from the apparent

proportionality between stress and strain, provided suitable loading

equipment and temperature control are available.

A subproject of the main project is that of resistance to erosion by

steam. A miniature steam turbine has been constructed and is being tried out for determining the resistance of different metals to steam erosion. The blades are made of different steels; boiler plate

"rustless" steel, and other special steels and may be removed for

observation and weighing at intervals.

Publications.—" Metals to resist corrosion at high temperatures," H. J. French,

Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc. 50, 1926. "Methods of test in relation to flow of steel at various temperatures," H. J. French, Proc. A. S. T. M., 36, pt. 2, 1926. Temperature Distribution in Quenching.—The heat-treatment of

steel by quenching to harden the metal and reheating or tempering

to soften it to just the desired degree, has been utilized empirically

for centuries, as ancient heat-treated swords testify. The introduction of alloy steel multiplied the problems of the steel treater, and

when he was called upon for quantity production of heat-treated

parts, as in the automobile industry, it became necessary that heat

treating approach an exact science. Seldom in industry is such

exact control of temperature and other variables required as in heat

treating.

With all the advances in the science, the theory of hardening by

quenching and the exact mechanism of quenching are in considerable

doubt. A detailed study of the mechanism of the quenching operation, both as regards the manner of cooling of the steel itself and the

properties of the various quenching media has been undertaken.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 255

By the use of special equipment it is possible to follow the temperature of the metal during the few seconds of quenching, and in

this way the characteristics of quenching curves and the mass effect in quenching have been studied.

In order to understand the manner of cooling throughout the mass

of a sample so that the depth of hardening and physical properties,

in general, may be predicted when any size of the simple shapes is cooled from various temperatures in various media, it is necessary to have a knowledge of temperature distribution, which is the phase at present being studied.

The study of the surface cooling of these simple shapes in air is now being determined. There appears to be a hyperbolic relation

between the cooling velocity at 720° C, and the diameter of sample

cooled, similar to that obtained when cooling curves are taken at the

center. There also seems to be a definite relation between the cooling

velocity at 720° C. and the surface per unit of volume.

Publications.—Some Characteristics of Quenching Curves, by H. J. French

and O. Z. Klopsch, T313; also Trans. Am. Soc. Steel Treat. 9, p. 857; 1926.

Initial Temperature and Mass Effect in Quenching, H. J. French and O. Z. Klopsch. T295; also Trans. Am. Soc. Steel Treat, 9, p. 33; 1926; also Fuels and

Furnaces, 4, p. 435; 1926. Pure Zinc.—A study has been made of the physical properties and

crystal structure of pure zinc. Proof was obtained that zinc has but

one alio tropic form between normal temperatures and the melting

point. The following values were determined:

1. The average coefficient of linear expansion per degree Centigrade of pure cast zinc over the temperature range 20° to 100° C. is 0.0000395 (0.0000220 per ° F.) and over the temperature range 20°

to 300° C. it is 0.0000393 (0.0000218 per F.).

2. The density of pure cast zinc is 7.131 g per cm3 (0.2576 lbs./in. 3 ). There is no appreciable difference between the density of cast zinc

as annealed or quenched from elevated temperatures up to 340° C.

3. The scleroscope hardness of pure cast zinc is not measurably

affected by quenching the annealed material from elevated temperatures. The Brinell hardness of pure zinc decreases uniformly from

approximately 31 at normal temperatures to 6.5 at 200° C.

4. The tensile strength of pure cast zinc is quite varible, but is probably about 4,000 lbs./in.2 at normal temperatures. There are indications of a slight increase in the tensile strength at slightly

elevated temperatures followed by a marked and consistent decrease

beginning approximately at 100° C.

5. Microscopic studies of etched strain-free surfaces of cast speci- mens annealed at temperatures up to 390° C. give no evidence of

recrystallization of grain growth.
256 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

6. The value of the length of side of an elementary prism of the

triangular close packed lattice of zinc (axial ratio 1.86) at normal

temperatures is 2.65A.

7. The density of zinc computed from the X-ray data is 7.19 g/cm3 (0.260 lbs./in.3 ). 8. The crystal form at 250, 380, and 400° C. is the same as at normal temperatures.

9. The data obtained indicate that pure zinc has but one alio tropic

form.

Publication.—Pure Zinc at Normal and Elevated Temperatures, S522, by

J. R. Freeman, jr., F. Sillers, jr., and P. F. Brandt. Soldered Joints.—A brief study was made of the permanence of

soldered joints under definite prolonged application of load. A 50-

50 and 60-40 lead tin solder and pure tin were used.

It was found that pure tin is a stronger solder than either of the

two alloys studied. Pure tin when used as a solder will apparently

sustain indefinitely a unit shearing stress of 400 lbs./in. 2 The leadtin solders will sustain a unit shearing stress of 200 lbs./in. 2 Publication.—"Tensile properties of soldered joints under prolonged stress,"

J. R. Freeman, jr. and G. W. Quick, Metal Industry (N. Y.), 29, p. 7; 1926. Nonferrous Screen Wire Cloth.—This work was carried out by

request of Committee D-14 on screen wire cloth of the A. S. T. M.,

as part of the general program of investigation to develop standard

specifications for screen wire cloth, such as is used for window screens and screen doors. Accelerated corrosion tests were made on wire

cloth of seven different nonferrous alloys. The results of these tests

will be compared with results of actual exposure tests now in progress. The material was mounted in metal and wooden frames under

customary manufacturing conditions. Screens representative of

each of the seven kinds of cloth from different manufacturers in

both types of frames have been set out for atmospheric exposure

in four different locations.

Publication.—''Laboratory tests on nonferrous screen-wire cloth," G. W.

Quick, Appendix to report, Committee D-14, Proc. A. S. T. M., 26, pt. 1; 1926. Sound Ingots and Rails.—The causes for some types of failure of

railway rails in service are obscure, neither the purchase specifications

and inspection tests of the railroads nor the precautions now taken

in rail manufacture by the steel mills being sufficient to prevent

failures. The International Railway Congress at its 1925 meeting

adopted a resolution recommending that provision be made against

segregation by suitable requirements laid down in the specifications

for rails. Segregation was stated to be the probable primary cause

of most rail failures, and a suggested method for avoiding segregation was the use of ingots cast big end up and with an adequate sink head.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 257

Data on the properties of rails made from such ingots in compari- son with those made in the ordinary manner will be helpful when

the suggestion of the congress as to altering specifications is to be

considered.

With the cooperation of the Gathmann Engineering Co. a comparative study of the segregation and the properties of rails made in

both ways is in progress. Other phases of the problem are being

studied in cooperation with the American Railway Engineering

Association.

Vacuum Fusion Method for Oxygen and Hydrogen in Metals.

Many obscure phenomena in the behavior of metals and alloys are often ascribed to the presence of gases. Proof of the relationship

of gas content to good or bad performance of metals requires a knowledge of the amount and kind of gases present. While part

of the gaseous elements are present as compounds and part may be

present in other conditions, the foundation for a consideration of the problem requires accurate methods for the determination of the

total amount present. Such small amounts of these elements are present that very specialized procedure is required for precision

work.

A new vacuum fusion method for determining oxygen and hydrogen in metals has been in process of development in the bureau's

laboratories for several years. In this method the metal sample is melted by high-frequency induction under a vacuum in a gas-free

graphite crucible and the oxygen and hydrogen content of the sample

determined by absorbing and weighing the carbon dioxide, carbon

monoxide, water vapor, and free hydrogen in the gases evolved from

the molten specimen. The method permits the determination of

total oxygen in many metals not before possible, and is already in use in several commercial research laboratories.

Other methods for determination of gases in metals are being

examined, one for oxygen in which the specimen is fused with an

alloy of antimony and tin, in cooperation with a research fellow of

the Swedish Engineers Academy, and several methods for determination of nitrogen.

These methods have found use in research work and it is probable

that when sufficient research has been done fully to establish the

correlation between gas content and the properties of metals, specifications for metals will in some cases include gas content. In cooperation with the University of Michigan the vacuum

fusion method for oxygen was applied to specimens of coke and

charcoal iron. The results did not bear out some of the theories

that have been advanced as to the effect of oxygen.

Still another phase of the work on gases in metals was the study

of the effect of hydrogen on iron and its bearing on a new transfor-
258 NATIONAL BUKEAU OP STANDAKDS

mation which an Italian investigator had claimed to exist, but which was not found when his work was repeated at the bureau. The

phenomena reported by him may, perhaps, be due to hydrogen, but

is not inherent in the iron itself. Publications.—Gases in Metals II. Determination of Oxygen and Hydrogen

by Fusion in Vacuo, L. Jordan and J. R. Eckman, S514. "Determination of oxygen and hydrogen in metals by vacuum fusion," L. Jordan and J. R. Eckman, Ind. Eng. Chem., 18, p. 279; 1926; Metal Ind. (London), 28, p. 387; 1926. "Oxygen affects charcoal iron," J. R. Eckman, L. Jordan, and W. E. Jominy,

Foundry, 54, p. 506; 1926. "Some effects of hydrogen on iron and their bearing on a reported transformation

at 370° C.," H. S. Rawdon, P. Hidnert, and W. A. Tucker, Trans. Am. Soc. for Steel Treating, 10, p. 233; 1926. Physical Constants of Pure Metals.—The physical constants of

pure metals are obviously of fundamental importance both from a purely scientific and from an engineering viewpoint. Each notable

advance in the purity of the more common and widely used metals,

as well as any success in the preparation of the rarer metals in a pure

state, requires new determination of physical properties. The

bureau at present has in progress such work on pure iron prepared in

its own laboratory, on pure nickel prepared by cooperation of the

International Nickel Co. with the bureau, and on pure thorium prepared by the Westinghouse Lamp Co. Work has previously been

done upon pure platinum, and this is being extended to other metals

of the platinum group.

In all this work the melting of very pure metals without contamination by the refractory crucible or container is a task requiring

refractories of special properties. As a by-product of the study of

such refractories it was possible to develop a lining of electrically

sintered magnesite bonded with the same * material hydrated by

grinding with water in a ball mill for use in the bureau's experimental

electric steel furnace, which has given very satisfactory service.

Publication.—"Refractories for melting pure metals—iron, nickel, platinum,"

L. Jordan, A. A. Peterson, and L. H. Phelps, Trans., Am. Electrochem. Soc.

,

50, 1926. Methods for Testing Molding Sands.—The quality of sand castings

depends not only upon the metal poured into the molds, but also upon the quality and suitability of the molding sand.

In recent years the American Foundrymen's Association has

recognized this, and through its joint committee on molding sand

research has been perfecting and simplifying methods for testing sand

and for control of sand in the foundry. A large number of foundries

and of consulting laboratories have taken up sand testing, and it has

been shown of much value in avoiding defective castings.
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 259

While no general specifications for molding sand have yet resulted,

sand testing has made possible the intelligent use of the sands, found

in various localities and the substitution of one sand for another.

The bureau has taken an active part in the whole work of the

joint committee and has done much experimental work upon appli- ances for the methods of testing. This work has been reported to the committee and has been published as part of the committee

reports. Kecent work for the committee has dealt with the spring

type of compression testing apparatus, with a simplified type of

permeability tester and with a simplified method for determining

clay in sand.

Besides the work for the committee a study is in progress upon a method for determining the sintering point of molding sand, and

considerable work has been done in cooperation with the Washington

Navy Yard, both on the installation of methods of control of molding

sand and on the examination of local sources of supply. The yard

hopes in time to be able to set up specifications for sands. The

bureau has also done considerable work in testing sands for The

Panama Canal.

Publication.—Work included in report of subcommittee on tests, joint committee on molding sand research, Am. Foundrymen's Assn. meeting; September,

1926. CLAY AND SILICATE PRODUCTS

Investigation of Feldspar and Its Effect in Pottery Bodies.—For

the past two years an investigation of commercial feldspars has been

conducted by the Bureau of Standards in cooperation with the white- ware division of the American Ceramic Society. The primary object

of this investigation is to obtain the necessary data to make possible a better understanding of the inherent physical and chemical properties of individual representative feldspars in order that they may

be used more intelligently by the manufacturer and also that he may

be able ultimately to purchase materials of desired characteristics on

specification.

The program of the investigation comprises the determination of the

properties of 19 representative commercial feldspars and of their

effects on the firing behavior of typical vitreous and semivitreous

white ware bodies in which they are used. During the past year the

greater part of the outlined program has been carried out, and in

February a progress report was presented at the annual meeting of the

American Ceramic Society. The following properties of the feldspars

have been determined : Softening point, chemical composition, specific

gravity, fineness, and deformation range. In attempting to grade the

feldspars according to the tentative specifications it is found that,

as regards alkali content, 10 of the 19 feldspars do not qualify for any grade and, as regards fineness, three do not qualify. Also, the

36316—27 18
260 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

difference between the results of fineness tests made by the different

laboratories is greater in some cases than the differences limiting the

grades.

A progress report has been published in The Ceramist, Vol. 6, No.

6, September, 1925, p. 708.

This extensive investigation of the physical and chemical properties

of commercial feldspars afforded an opportunity to develop and test microscopic methods for their quantitative analysis. The ceramic

and allied industries have long felt the need of a rapid analytical

method which could be used in the control of feldspar purchased by

them and such a method should be applicable to the checking of the

composition of carload lots of the material as received.

A quantitative method making use of the polarizing microscope was

felt to be practicable since tests of a feldspar by this instrument would

give results in terms of its mineral constituents and could be directly

correlated with variations in the physical properties. Nineteen commercial brands of feldspars which have been analyzed chemically were available for experimentation. The method which finally proved

most satisfactory was one by which the grains of the different constituents were distinguished on the basis of their indexes of refraction

and the amounts present were estimated by counting the grains of

each constituent in several random fields of a specimen as prepared

for microscopic examination. The analyses thus made were compared with chemical analyses, which had been computed in terms of

mineral constituents, and were found to give results which were in

fair agreement. This investigation has been completed and a report

is being prepared for publication.

The Resistance of Ceramic Glazes to Abrasion.—The practical

problem which led to this investigation is the limited usefulness of white wares due to the unsightliness of the glaze which becomes

scratched, abraded, and otherwise disfigured, while the ware is still mechanically serviceable.

The principal features of the investigation were: (a) The development of a suitable method of determining glaze hardness; (b) the

determination and comparison of the hardness of commercial brands

of chinaware; and (c) the study of the effect on glaze hardness of variations in composition, thickness, firing temperature, and body

used.

The method developed for determining hardness consists of:

(a) Abrading the test specimens with standard Ottawa silica sand

which falls through a definite orifice and from a fixed height onto

the glazed surface which is set at a predetermined angle to the vertical,

and (&) measuring the abrasive effect of the sand with an Ingersoll

glarimeter.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 261

A typical white-ware glaze was prepared and its silica and alumina

content varied uniformly and independently to determine the effect on hardness. This study showed that, for a given body and firing

temperature, the maximum hardness for any glaze is obtainable only

when its chemical composition is adjusted carefully and within

comparatively narrow limit?. Glaze thickness had an appreciable effect on the hardness of the

experimental glazes, which was determined from specimens varying

in thickness only. Each glaze reached its maximum hardness at a

definite thickness dependent upon the type (other conditions being

constant), thus illustrating the necessity for controlling this factor

Increasing the firing temperature hardened the experimental

glazes, the more refractory ones being affected more than the less refractory ones for equal increases in temperature.

Both vitreous and semivitreous bodies were used. The experimental glazes were not appreciably affected by the type of body

used upon firing to cone 7, but as the temperature was increased

they became harder on the vitreous than on the semivitreous bodies.

A Study of the Composition and Physical Properties of Specia

Glasses.—This investigation is being carried on with the assistance

of the Navy Department. Its purpose is to determine the conditions

which affect the quality of optical glass during melting, molding,

and annealing. During the course of the work a considerable

quantity of optical glass of excellent quality and of various kinds is made, and most of it is used by the Navy Department for replacement and in constructing new optical instruments. During the past

year approximately 15,000 lens blanks weighing 1,800 pounds were made for these purposes. Small amounts of the glass are used by

this bureau for special scientific apparatus.

The Measurement of the Viscosity of Glass.—Information in regard

to the temperature-viscosity relations of glasses of different composition is of great interest to the glass manufacturer because it is thought

that such data will determine the most advantageous temperatures

for melting, fining, and working glasses.

The apparatus, which is a rotary type viscosimeter, was calibrated

with a mineral oil of naphthene base between 200 and 25,000 poises.

The viscosity of this oil at any given temperature was found from an

empirical equation based on experimental data obtained with a capillary flow viscosimeter. A large number of determinations were made

with the rotary viscosimeter using weights varying from 5 to 25

grams at each temperature.

Attention was then turned toward the determination of the vis- cosity of three kinds of optical glass. It was found that in the case

of the more fluid light barium crown and borosilicate glasses, the

solution of the clay stirring rod would suffice to increase th e viscosity
262 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

by 30 or 40 per cent unless proper precautions were taken. Fairly accurate data could be obtained by working rapidly at the higher

temperatures, although above 1,100° C. corrosion was very difficult to avoid. The corrosive effect of soda-lime glass was not very

pronounced, however, the viscosities of three commerical glasses were also determined.

In order to provide fundamental data from which it is thought

the viscosity of a glass of any composition can be calculated, the

viscosities of a large number of glasses will be determined, beginning

with the simplest glasses (soda-silica) and then modifying these by

adding, singly and in various combinations, the other glass-forming

oxides, such as alumina, lime, magnesia, potash, and the oxides of

lead, zinc, boron, and barium. Up to the present time considerable

difficulty has been experienced in making these special glasses of

satisfactory quality for this work, but persistent effort will probably remove this difficulty.

Microscopic Examination of Boiler Furnace Refractories.—As a part of an investigation of the properties of refractory brick used

for boiler furnaces, microscopic examination was made of six types of

brick which had been used in such an installation. It was hoped that

the microscope would show the differences in the composition and

structure of the brick as well as the factors affecting the depth of

penetration of slag into the brick. The bricks varied in composition from those having a large excess of silica (present as quartz,

tridymite, and cristobalite) fouthose showing an excess of alumina

(present as corundum). Mullite (3Al2 3 .2Si02 ) was a constituent of

all the bricks examined. The results of this microscopic examination

have been incorporated in a paper on " Boiler furnace refractories,"

by E. B. Powell, of Stone & Webster.

Problems Relating to Sagger Clays.—The first of the two phases,

into which this problem has been divided, is being confined to a study of the characteristics of 51 individual representative clays.

The first " Progress report on the investigation of sagger clays,

by R. A. Heindie, appeared in the March, 1926, issue of the Journal

of the American Ceramic Society, vol. 9, No. 3, page 131. A

11 Second

progress report," by R. P. Gelter and R. A. Heindie, covering the

thermal expansions and their relation to results of laboratory quenching tests has been published in the September, 1928, Journal of the

American Ceramic Society, vol. 9, No. 9. A description of the

apparatus used for these observations is given, and the results may

be summarized as follows:

(a) The inversions of uncombined silica were sharply defined in some cases and barely discernible in others.

(b) There appear to be two distinct types of clays as regards

thermal expansion and resistance to sudden temperature change.
STANDAKDS YEARBOOK, 1927 263

One group of clays expand very rapidly between 100 and 200°

and saggers made from these clays crack below 500° C. in an air

quenching test. The second group includes clays of average expansion between 100 and 200° C, and fail in the air quenching test at temperatures above 500° C.

(c) It was shown that repeated burns tend to decrease the expansion between 500 and 600° C. and increase the expansion between

100 and 200° C, indicating a resultant decreased resistance to sudden temperature change.

(d) Supplementary tests of clay-corundum mixtures clearly showed

that artificial corundum, while increasing the total average expansion

of the clays with which it was used, tends to eliminate irregular

expansion due to inversions of uncombined silica. Although the observation of linear thermal expansion of these clays

gave valuable data bearing on the life of the saggers, it appears

advisable to augment this information with an additional study of the characteristics of typical individual clays. For this purpose an

apparatus has been designed and constructed with which it is planned

to determine the following properties at elevated temperatures:

The elastic limit, the modulus of elasticity in shear, deformation

in shear, and transverse strength. The correlation of these data

with those already collected should complete the first phase of this

investigation.

Study of Tank Block.—Tank block are used in the construction of

the bottom and sides of tanks in which glass is melted for the production of all types of glass hollow ware. When tanks first replaced pots

for melting of glass, an average life of from 20 to 24 months was not

unusual. Since this time the speed of production has advanced so that considerably more glass is melted, not only for the same melting

area but also at higher temperatures. This has resulted in the

lowering of the average life of tanks to from 10 to 12 months and made

it desirable to undertake a study of the factors controlling the life of tank block. This has involved the study of not only the physical and

chemical characteristics of various commercial and special block but

also a chemical and petrographic study of the compounds formed by

the reaction of the glass and the clay block. The data obtained to date appear to justify the following general conclusions:

1 . Corundum and mullite, under the physical conditions existing at the contact of tank block and molten glass and with the concentration obtaining, resist solution better than other possible solid phases

and, therefore, refractories made of these materials should show the

greatest resistance to glass attack.

2. The physical structure of the clay block is the predominatingfactor controlling its life in service irrespective of chemical composition. The block should be homogeneous, the pores should be
264 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

small and, if possible, closed or noninterconnecting, and this structure should be obtained with a minimum of interstitial glass.

3. The solution of submerged portions of the block is due primarily

to accelerated attack of the glass on the upper surfaces of pores,

cracks, and laminations rather than to erosion brought about by

movements in the main body of the glass.

4. The use of very high temperatures (1,450° C. and higher) can

be expected to materially shorten the life of tank block, due to the

decreased viscosity of the glass and the increased solubility of the

tank block constituents.

Cast Iron for Enameling Purposes.—This investigation was undertaken in cooperation with the metallurgical division of the Bureau of

Standards and with the American Ceramic Society in an attempt

to determine the possible differences between northern and southern

pig irons which might be the cause of blistering of the enamels when

applied to castings made of northern iron. Some of the ideas as to the causes and elimination of blistering advanced by enamelers have not

been found to hold when tested experimentally in a systematic fashion.

Representatives of the American Ceramic Society have cooperated in working out methods for control of the enameling procedure so that some causes of erratic results due to the enamel rather than the iron,

have been eliminated.

Metallographic examination of blistered and unblistered irons

reveals no sure difference. While much more work will be required to establish the causes of blistering at the present stage it appears that

the problem is more likely to be solved by control of foundry practice

rather than by changing the specifications for the iron. Since the results of enameling seem to indicate that castings of any

iron that are either spongy or pinholed blister during enameling,

while those which are not defective enamel well. These results lead

to a new line of thought, that of fluidity of the cast iron while it is being poured into the molds. The work will be continued by enameling specimens of various irons melted in the cupola and in the electric furnace, using the standard enameling procedure.

Physicochemical Factors Affecting the Properties of Enamel Suspensions.—One of the problems which has received considerable

attention from enamel manufacturers during the past few years is that of obtaining proper methods of controlling the consistency of

enamel slips. This bureau has undertaken a study of the fundamental

factors affecting the consistency of enamels in order to obtain definite

methods for commercial control. The following conclusions have

been drawn from the work thus far completed

:

1. No change in hydrogen ion concentration necessarily accompanies change in consistency of enamel slips.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 265

2. A reagent which brings about deflocculation of the finer particles

of frit and clay reduces the yield value of the slip and facilitates settling

of the coarser particles, while one which causes a flocculation of the

finer particles increases the yield value and retards settling of the

coarser particles.

3. Increasing fineness of grinding of a ground coat increases the

yield value and decreases mobility.

4. Aging a slip lowers its yield value.

5. Artificial increase of the concentration of materials dissolved

from the frit produced a decrease in yield value as great as that

caused by aging, indicating that the cause of the change with aging was solution of the frit. 6. Adding the usual amount of borax to a ground coat nearer the

beginning of the grinding process retards grinding and causes a lower

yield value of the slip.

Physical Properties of Clay Bodies as Affected by Drying Treatment.—The object of this investigation is the securing of such data on the drying behavior of clays and shales as will be of use in standardizing and operating commercial drying equipment for the most

efficient and satisfactory drying of clays. At the request of the

Heavy Clay Products Institute the year's work has been confined

chiefly to those clays used by the Bureau of Mines in their work on

the Burning Problems of Industrial Kilns, 1921-22.

The following conclusions seem justified from the data which have

been obtained to date:

1. Drying of briquettes 1 by 1 by 7 inches gives no indication of

the behavior to be expected of full-sized brick or tile. 2. Successful drying has been found to depend on preserving a

fairly low shrinkage gradient within the drying clay body.

3. For a good drying clay the shrinkage water should not consti- tute over 50 per cent of the water of plasticity, and the shrinkage

should be practically complete at 85° C.

4. Successful drying requires a high relative humidity and a temperature not over 45° C. for the first one-fourth to one-third of the

total drying period.

Problems Relating to the Design of Hollow Tile and Brick Extrusion Machines.—As a result of a conference of Government and

industrial representatives in the fall of 1923, a study of the design

factors of augers and dies for extrusion machines was undertaken.

The investigation as proposed by the Bureau of Standards embodies

a study of the fundamental principles of auger and die design governing efficiency in the manufacture of brick and hollow ware.

It was found that a very slight decrease (2}i per cent) in the

moisture content after the point of optimum plasticity had been

reached caused a decrease of more than 50 per cent in the work-
266 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

ability. The enormous increase in pressure to produce flow, compared with the slight decrease in water content, illustrates the

extreme fluctuations in power requirement in the operation of auger

machines.

In addition to the laboratory tests, all available literature and

Patent Office records dealing with the development of auger machines

during the past 60 years have been reviewed and correlated for future

reference.

Investigations and Recommendations for Stucco Construction.

During the past 15 years the Bureau of Standards in cooperation

with interested manufacturers and associations has been carrying out

a series of investigations for the improvement of stucco construction.

The results of all these investigations have been summarized and a recommended specification for Portland cement stucco construction

has been prepared and will be issued during the year as a bureau

circular under the title "Stucco Investigations at the Bureau of

Standards with Recommendations for Portland Cement Stucco

Construction/

Stevenson Creek, Calif., Experimental Concrete Arch Dam.—The

Bureau of Standards is cooperating with the arch dam research committee of the Engineering Foundation in obtaining the test data on

the experimental arch dam constructed on Stevenson Creek, Fresno

County, Calif. There are practically no physical data as to the

action of the arch dams in existence which accounts for much of the

confusion on the subject of arch design. Lack of proper information

upon which to base such designs is a serious impediment to this

important type of construction and in many dam locations the use

of the arch in place of the heavier gravity types offers the possibility

of combining marked economy with greater safety. The experimental dam has been tested in order to obtain exact information

under working conditions concerning the stresses, movements, and

changes of volume of thin arch dams so that design procedure may

be brought into accord with conditions as found on a full-sized structure. The data obtained are being studied and prepared for

publication.

Proportioning and Grading of Aggregates for Concrete Strengths.

With the increased cost of labor and materials it becomes more and more important to obtain given design strengths for concrete by

proper proportioning and grading of the constituent materials. The

Bureau of Standards is carrying out an extensive study of the effects of different cements, different types of aggregates, proportions of materials, gradation of coarse aggregates, and the ratio of fine to coarse aggregate on the strength of concrete at several ages. Hollow Tile and Concrete Floor Slabs.—An investigation of the

structural value of hollow tile when combined in slabs of hollow
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 267

tile and reinforced concrete has been recently completed at the

Bureau of Standards. The results of this work will be found in

T291, Tests of Hollow Tile and Concrete Slabs Reinforced in One

Direction, by Douglas E. Parsons and Ambrose H. Stang.

Shear Tests of Reinforced Concrete Beams.—During the World

War the great demand for ships led to the construction of reinforced concrete ships. The use of concrete for such a purpose necessitated a new set of standards for design. Under the usual working stresses

it was found necessary to make the wall from 12 to 15 inches thick.

A series of tests were started to find a means of reducing the thickness, and the results showed that by the use of sufficient steel reinforcement properly placed in the walls of the ship it was safe to make the shell only 4 or 5 inches thick instead of 12 or 15. The prospect that the information would be of great value in the

construction of bridges and buildings as well as in ship work led to the extension of the tests to include many additional phases of the

problem. This work has been completed and the bureau has now

prepared the results as T314, entitled " Shear Tests of Reinforced

Concrete Beams," by W. A. Slater, A. R. Lord, and R. R. Zipprodt.

Durability of Concrete in Alkali Soils.—Members of the bureau

staff completed an inspection of the Western alkali field installation

in the fall of 1923. A detailed description of the work and the conditions found at each site has been prepared. Further, the work

previously accomplished has been summarized and while the conclusions already drawn up and presented in other papers by the

bureau are not materially changed, a full report has been published

as it gives the results for a full 10-year exposure period for many of

the installations. This paper was released during the year as T307,

entitled " Durability of Cement Drain Tile and Concrete in Alkali

Soils; Fourth Progress Report," by G. M. Williams and Irving

Furlong.

Concrete Products.—During the year considerable study has been

made of the properties of concrete units. A circular has been pre- pared dealing with the essential factors concerning the manufacture

and properties of concrete building units. This has been released

as C304, entitled " Properties and Manufacture of Concrete Building

Units."

Physical Properties of the Commercial Limestones.—Due to frequent calls for information on the properties of limestones now on

the market a testing program has been undertaken by the bureau

to supply the desired data. Samples have been collected as far as

possible from all the important producing districts and the tests have

been completed. The results of the work which include data on the

compressive strength, transverse strength, shearing strength, elasticity, absorption, porosity, and unit weight are being prepared as a
268 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDAEDS

Technologic Paper under the title " Physical Properties of the Principal Commercial Limestones Used for Building Construction in the

United States," by D. W. Kessler and W. EL Shgh.

Cleaning Stone Work.—In connection with the limestone research

fellowship at the Bureau of Standards considerable time has been

given to the study of cleaning masonry by means of the steam jet.

Actual field cleanings have been carried out, and encouraging results have been obtained. Due to its economical features and freedom

from injury to the stone it seems that this process should be more

generally employed. An article dealing with some of the results

obtained by this method appears in the June 20, 1926, issue of the

American Architect.

Installation and Care of Interior Marbles.—The bureau is cooperating with the National Association of Marble Dealers in a study of several problems in the installation and care of interior marbles.

The problems are the development of protective treatments against

discoloration, methods of removing deep-seated stains due to various

causes, determining the effect on marble and the relative merit of the

several cleaning compounds, and the development of proper methods

for cleaning marble.

Considerable work has been accomplished on the removal of stains

and methods of cleaning and a series of articles by D. W. Kessler

have appeared during the year in the marble dealers' trade journal

Through the Ages, of February, March, April, June, July, and

September.

Colorless Waterproofing Materials.—Exposure tests, on specimens

of sandstone and limestone treated with various types of colorless waterproofing materials, are being conducted to determine the durability of the treatments. The waterproofing treatments under test include all the common types in general use. The tests involve a long exposure to the weather of treated samples of stone which are submitted to absorption measurements at intervals. Some of these

tests have been in progress for six years, which indicate that the

paraffin treatments are the most durable and that this type of treat- ment does not deteriorate appreciably during this period. These

tests are the continuation of the work described in T248, by D. W.

Kessler, entitled " Exposure Tests on Colorless Waterproofing

Materials," which paper was based on the results of exposure tests at the end of two years. Constitution and Hardening of Cement.—In addition to the studies

of cement carried on in cooperation with the Portland Cement

Association, work has been done in the study of cements composed

largely of oxides of titanium or barium. It was found that the former

developed no particular hardening properties unless considerable

amounts of alumina were present. The study of barium silicates and
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 269

aluminates showed that both, and especially the latter, develop

excellent hardening properties. However, neither was hydraulic,

since the large amount of barium hydroxide which crystallized from

the silicate ultimately resulted in disintegration and the large amount

of a reversible very sticky colloid formed from the aluminate in the

presence of water resulted in expansion to such a degree that failure

resulted when the hardened alurninate was placed in water. Some

cements approaching the composition of Portland cement, but

containing varying amounts of iron, were also made, but the data

obtained did not permit of making any positive conclusions.

Many of the quick-hardening Portland cements now on the market

were tested and found to possess this quality in varying degrees.

None showed any marked difference in composition from that of ordinary Portland cement. Generally, they are much finer ground,

and while they show excellent strength in concrete at 72 hours none

approach the strength in concrete of the high aluminate cements at 24 hours.

Considerable time was spent in studying the heat of reaction of Portland cement in an adiabatic calorimeter. The automatic

control for the calorimeter has not yet been worked out, and this is essential as heat is evolved over a long period—60 hours or more. However, the apparatus shows that different Portland cements have

different rates of reaction during the first eight hours and that the

gypsum added to regulate the set retards the rate during this period.

The complexity of the problem dealing with the hardening of cement

has not permitted of much advance in this study. The work was

restricted largely to the aluminates, and while it was found that the

hydrated tricalcium aluminate is one of the products of hydration

there is also evidence that there is a tetracalcium aluminate and

possibly also an aluminate of a low lime-alumina ratio. The reaction

of the aluminates with water containing chlorides and sulphates was

also studied and one calcium chlor-aluminate and two, or possibly

more, calcium sulpho-aluminates were noted.

Use of Lime in Chemical Industries.—During the year one recom- mended specification for lime, namely, for use in the purification of

water, prepared by the Interdepartmental Conference on Chemical

Limer has been issued as C231. Several other specifications have

been prepared by the conference, which include those for lime for use in tanning of leather, the manufacture of soap, and the distilla- tion of ammonia. However, before publication of the latter two the

bureau has been requested to conduct some investigative work to determine the insoluble matter in 1 : 9 hydrochloric acid in hydrated

lime and the fineness of slaked chemical quicklime. For these purposes representative samples of chemical hydrated lime and chemical

quicklime have been obtained from the manufacturers.
270 NATIONAL BUEEAU OP STANDARDS

Bond Between Mortar and Sand-Lime Brick.—An investigation ta determine the strength of the bond between mortar and sand-lime

brick is now being conducted by the bureau. One phase of the problem necessarily consists of a study of the effect of various physical

properties of the brick, such as total absorption, density (including

pores), specific gravity of solids in the brick, and rate of drying, upon

the adhesion of the mortar to the )>rick. Consequently these properties have been determined upon 1,325 individual bricks, repre- senting the product of eight manufacturers. Some very interesting

relationships have been found to exist, including the following:

When sand-lime brick are immersed in water, those of the highest

total absorption show the most rapid rate of absorbing water at the

start, and they are the first to approach a condition of saturation;

the limit of their capacity for absorbing water is nearly reached in 12

hours, and very little more water is absorbed if the immersion is continued for seven days. At the end of seven days' immersion

sand-lime bricks contain on the average 4 per cent less water than

when boiled for five hours. The rates of absorbing water sometimes

vary more between bricks of one make than between the average

rates of bricks of two makes. The specific gravity of the solids in

sand-lime brick is so nearly the same that one can locate a smooth

curve by plotting the points which represent the total absorption

and the density (including pores) of a number of bricks. Such a curve can be used in determining the total absorption of other sandlime bricks without the use of water merely by determining the

density of each. Bricks which are more porous dry out a little faster

than those less porous and retain less water when air dry, which

amount varies from 0.5 to 1.0 per cent or more of water, depending

upon the material of the brick and the relative humidity.

The data obtained were made the basis of a paper entitled "Some

physical properties of sand-lime brick/ by H. V. Johnson, which was presented at the twenty-second annual convention of the SandLime Brick Association and published in the 1926 proceedings.

Some Properties of Gypsum-Lime Mixes.—During the year the

properties of gypsum-lime mixes, such as used in the finish coat in

plastering, with reference to time of set, tensile and compressive

strength, shrinkage and plasticity, have been determined, in which

the composition was varied by 5 per cent increments from 100 per

cent lime to 100 per cent calcined gypsum. The results obtained

indicate the following:

1. Quicklime and hydrated lime, when added in small amounts to calcined gypsum, accelerate the time of set. Maximum acceleration occurs when approximately 10 per cent by weight of hydrated lime is present. When more than 50 per cent hydrated lime is present
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 271

retardation occurs, which becomes marked at about 70 per cent,

when the time of set approaches that of pure lime.

2. Hydrated lime in small amounts increases the tensile strength

of calcined gypsum. A calcined gypsum-hydrated lime mix, rich

in hydrate (in excess of 85 per cent), has a greater tensile strength

than a mix of like composition containing an equivalent amount of

quicklime.

3. The addition of lime to calcined gypsum in all amounts lowers

the compressive strength. The compressive strength of a gypsumhydrate mix is greater than that of a gypsum-quicklime mix, where

the lime content is equivalent.

4. A certain amount of lime may be added to calcined gypsum

without affecting the shrinkage on setting, but above this definite

amount the addition of lime increases shrinkage.

5. Lime in all proportions increases the plasticity of calcined

gypsum.

Weatherproofing of Gypsum.—In attacking the problem of weatherproofing gypsum for outdoor uses three general methods presented

themselves: First, covering the set material with some waterproof

coating in order to keep the moisture from the gypsum. Second,

precipitating on the surface an insoluble compound formed by a

reaction of some material with the gypsum; and third, by the

addition of an integral waterproofing compound to the gypsum,

which when the gypsum has set acts as a water repellent. Among

the more recent compounds used which indicate the possibility of

being successful as a weatherproofing material, blood albumin is by

far the most promising. Cylinders of neat gypsum, to which a small

amount of blood albumin glue was added to the mixing water, are

resisting the weather unusually well. The cylinders that were

treated with barium hydroxide are also weathering satisfactorily.

Rate of Drying of Wall Plaster.—It is the general opinion that in

the decoration of plasters the plaster should be dry, or almost so, for a satisfactory job. The question then arises as to when is a plaster

dry. It is considered to be dry under the existing conditions when

the humidity of the air in the pores of the plaster is the same as the

humidity of the air surrounding the plaster.

To date the rate of drying of gypsum, lime, and cement plasters

of the usual compositions in both sand-float and white-coat finishes

with one-half inch and seven-eighths inch grounds, has been determined at a temperature of 98° F., exposed to both dry and humid

air at a velocity of 80 cubic inches per minute. The results of these

tests indicate that of the three plasters, lime dries the slowest and

gypsum the fastest, with cement intermediate, when the conditions

are the same. However, the difference in time necessary for the

drying of gypsum and cement plasters is almost negligible. With
272 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

seven-eighths inch grounds the difference in time necessary for

drying in the case of the slowest and the fastest is only about 30

hours. The results also show that the time necessary for drying in the case of all of the plasters increases with the humidity. While

four days were required for gypsum plaster of seven-eighths inch

grounds to become sufficiently dry to be satisfactorily decorated

when exposed to dry air, five days were required for the same plaster

when exposed to humid air. The other plasters showed a corres- ponding increase in the time necessary for dryness when exposed

to humid air. Determinations have also been made of the rate of drying of the same type piasters at 86° F., employing humid air at a velocity of

80 cubic inches per minute. Measurements are now being made at the same temperature exposed to dry air with the aforementioned

velocity.

Determinations were made during the past winter of the rate of

drying of the same type plasters at 72° F., using humid air at a

velocity of 80 cubic inches per minute. Under these conditions the

rate of drying of plasters is very slow indeed, some requiring six weeks to dry completely. Next winter the same type plasters will be dried at the same temperature and air velocity, but exposed to dry air. Bibliography on Gypsum.—Although much has been written about

the occurrence, composition, manufacture, technology, and uses of gypsum, the information has been so scattered that to obtain any

data at all from the literature required much time and trouble. A

bibliography on the subject was found to be almost imperative.

Therefore work was started to compile a card index of all the subjects

published on gypsum and several thousand articles have been listed and the bibliography will be completed this year.

SIMPLIFIED PRACTICE

Simplified practice means the reduction of industrial waste through

the elimination of unnecessary diversity in sizes, types, dimensions,

etc., of manufactured products. The advantages to be gained

through the adoption of simplification are: Decreased production

costs, selling expenses, misunderstandings, and costs to user. At the same time, it quickens turnover, permits shipment from stock, and

tends to give the consumer better value for his money. Simplified

practice does not usually lend itself to the style field or individual

creation.

Standardization, involving quality, composition, performance,

methods, dimensions, or types, is based on research before all of the

varying factors are evaluated and brought to bear upon the ideals

represented by such standards. Such research necessarily involves a
STANDAEDS YEAEBOOK, 1927 273

considerable period of time devoted to the technical and scientific aspects of the problem. And to this research simplified practice

offers a short cut in many instances by its concentration on the active

items based on sales in any line of products. This permits the

standardization effort to likewise give greater attention to the needs as indicated by the trend disclosed in the simplified practice development.

To the uninitiated there comes a question as to how a simplified

practice program meets the changing trends of demand due to invention, the improvement of scientific methods, and other forms of progress. In any conference of producers, distributers, consumers, and others

called by the division of simplified practice, there are two actions

which a conference is asked to take in addition to the adoption of such

simplified practice recommendations as it feels are of greatest benefit.

The first of these is to make the recommendations effective for a

definite period, generally a year, and from a definite date. The

effective date is made long enough after a program has been adopted

to enable all groups to prepare for the change, to broadcast the

notice of the change to the public at large, and to clear away stocks

of the eliminated varieties. The second is to provide for means

of making revisions at the end of the period when the recommendations are in effect. This may be done either by another general

conference of all the groups, or it may be accomplished through a standing committee of the industry, such a committee including

representatives of manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers, consuming

groups, and technical or scientific organizations.

The latter is the more common plan. To the standing committee

there are referred all matters dealing with adherence to the program,

suggestions as to needs for reinstatement of eliminated items or the

elimination of further items, information as to new developments

either in methods, invention, or of other factors which would effect the program in any way. Periodical meetings of the standing committee and surveys conducted by the committee afford the means

of developing revisions to be submitted to the industry when a continuation of a simplified-practice program is up for consideration.

In the make-up of such standing committees lies a further opportunity for the trade association to serve its membership as well as the industrial or commercial community by inducing the widest

adherence to the program, and an intelligent study of needed change^

or revisions.

One great contribution made by the trade associations to this

coordination of the waste elimination movement has been the dis- closure of conditions showing the need for simplification and standardization. Notable instances of this include surveys made by the
274 NATIONAL BUKEAU OP STANDAEDS

National Retail Hardware Association and the National Supply

and Machinery Distributers Association. These have brought to

light a surprising variety, and have indicated many opportunities

for simplification.

It is also noteworthy that the trade associations of distributers

and consuming groups have been equally active in their acceptance

of, and support of the simplified-practice programs in various fields. More than 400 such organizations which have accepted such recom- medations include some 60 producer, 90 distributer, and 250 con- sumer trade associations.

One influence of the simplification movement has been to lead to the formation of trade associations in a few industries where simplified practice has been undertaken. The Concrete Steel Reinforcing

Institute is an example of this, its formation having been a sequel

to a simplified-practice conference at which 40 sizes of steel reinforcing

bars were reduced to 11. Another effect has been with respect to trade practices, the co- hesive influence of the simplification program being to improve trade

practices. In some cases it has been revealed by the surveys of

variety that public esteem had been shaken by conditions within the

industry; in others the effect of the movement was to further elevate

standards of practice as they concerned the protection of the con- sumer.

Publications and Standing Committees.—The chairmen of standing

committee for each of the simplified-practice recommendations are given below. Publications are available for all items on the following

list except those indicated by an asterisk (*), and may be obtained

from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, at 5 cents each unless otherwise indicated. Numbers preceded by (x)

indicate those published during 1926.

Simplified practice recom- mendation No.

Item Chairman of standing committee Reduction

Vitrified paving brick (fourth

revision)

.

Beds, springs, and mattresses.. Metal lath _ Asphalt (penetration)

.

Hotel chinaware.

Files and rasps..

j Rough and smooth-face brick. (Common brick Range boilers.

E. J. Mehren, McGraw Hill Publishing Co., New

York, N. Y.

George G. Powers, Union Bed & Spring Co., Chicago,

HI. W. B. Turner, General Fireproofing Building Products, Youngstown, Ohio.

Col. R. Keith Compton, director, department of public works, Richmond, Va.

E. L. Torbert, Onondaga Pottery Co., Syracuse, N. Y.

H. P. Sheets, secretary, National Retail Hardware

Association, Indianapolis, Ind. William Carver, secretary, Common Brick Manufacturers Association, Cleveland, Ohio. Frank Sutcliffe, president, John Wood Manufacturing

Co., Conshohocken, Pa.

Per cent94

95

8187

77

65

97
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 275

Simplified practice recom- mendation No.

Item Chairman of standing committee

fWoven-wire fencing.

11

12 *12

131415 to 16

17

18

20

2122

23

24

25

26

27 to 28

2930

(x) 31a

Woven-wire fence packages Milk bottles and caps

Bottles Caps Milk and cream bottles and

bottle caps (first revision)

Bed blankets (sizes) Hollow building tile

H. Sanborn Smith, first vice president, Gulf States

Steel Co., Birmingham, Ala.

P. C. Dovle. American Metal Cap Co. N. Y.Brooklyn,

i Hollow building tile (first revision)

I Structural slates for plumbing

and sanitary purposes. Roofing slates, descriptive terms, thickness, and sizes,

j Blackboard slates, slab heights, and sizes. Lumber (first revision) ..j Forged tools j Builders' hardware, items, i finishes. [Asbestos paper, sizes, widths,

< weights of rolls; asbestos mill j I board, sizes, thicknesses.

Steel barrels and drums

J. J. Pearce, Pearce Manufacturing Co., Latrobe, Pa.

K. W. Dunwody, Standard Brick & Tile Co., Macon,

Ga. W. S. Hays, secretary, National Slate Association, Philadelphia, Pa.

do....

.do. John H. Kirby, Houston, Tex W. H. Hays, Iron City Tool Works, Pittsburgh, Pa.. W. A. Heizmann, Perm Hardware Co., Beading, Pa.

Brass lavatory and sink traps.. Paper Plow bolts... Hospital beds: Length Width

Height

Hot-water storage tanks.

32

33

3435

36 to 37 (x)38

Steel reinforcing bars, cross- j sectional areas. Cotton duck (widths and j weights)

Sheet steel (first revision) \ Eaves trough and conductor

pipe. Terneplate (weights) Loaded shells (first revision).. Concrete budding units (length,

j width, and height of blocks, ; tile, and brick). Cafeteria and lunch-room | chinaware. Warehouse forms

Steel lockers Mining cutters Commercial purchase forms.. Sand-lime brick Qength, width, and height)

Standing committee to be appointed D. S. Hunter, secretary, Steel Barrel Manufacturers

Institute, Cleveland, Ohio. H. C. Bulkeley, American Sanitary Manufacturing

Co., Abingdon, 111. S. L. Willson, American Writing Paper Co., New

York, N. Y.

Col. O. B. Zimmerman, International Harvester Co., Chicago, 111. Miss Margaret Rogers, superintendent, St. Luke's

Hospital, St. Paul, Minn. C . C . Lanman, President, Novelty Steam Boiler Works

Co., Baltimore, Md. M. A. Beeman, Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, Chicago, 111. Howard Baetjer, Mt. Vernon-Woodberry Mills (Inc.), Baltimore, Md. W. C. Carroll, vice president, Inland Steel Co., Chicago, HI. Louis Kuehn, Milwaukee Corrugating Co., Milwaukee, Wis.

L. D. Brueckel, Weirton Steel Co., Weirton, W. Va...

C. L. Reierson, president, Remington Arms Co., New

York, N. Y.

E. W. Dienhart, Cement City, Mich

(x) 39 Dining car chinaware.

(x) 40 ; Hospital chinaware. to 41 Insecticides and fungicides

(packages)

E. L. Torbert, chairman, manufacturers' committee,

in care of Onondaga Pottery Co., Syracuse, N. Y.

A. M. Howe, chairman, distributers' committee, in

[ care of Mitchell, Woodbury Co., Boston, Mass. Sidney A. Smith, American Warehousemen's Association, Boston, Mass.

C. S. Bergert, The Berger Manufacturing Co., Canton,

Ohio. C. W. Machon, Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Co., Providence, R. I. W. L. Chandler, secretary, National Association of Purchasing Agents, New York, N. Y.

J. M. Porter, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C

[E. L. Torbert, chairman, manufacturers' committee,

care of Onondaga Pottery Co., Syracuse, N. Y.

A. M. Howe, chairman, distributers' committee, care

| of Mitchell, Woodburv Co., Boston, Mass.

do

Ernest T. Triggs, John Lucas & Co. (Inc.), Philadelphia, Pa.
276 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Item Chairman of standing committee Reduction

Paper grocers' bags Paint and varnish brushes. Box board thicknesses. Grinding wheels.. Tissue paper:

Roll tissue Shoe tissue Cut tacks and small cut nails: Packing weights

Shovels, spades, and scoops. Sidewalk lights: Sizes Styles Shapes

Checks, notes, etc Die head chasers (for self- opening and adjustable die heads)

.

Staple viterous china plumbing fixtures. Steel reinforcing spirals... Sterling silver flatware Tinware, galvanized, and

japanned ware. Carbon brushes and brush

shunts. Wrought iron and wrought

steel pipe, valves, and pipe

fittings: Sizes of valves and fittings- Sizes of pipe

Classification of iron and steel scrap. Veneer stock for wire-bound

C. R. McMillen, Union Bag & Paper Corporation, New York, N. Y.

A. S. Polk, Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co., Baltimore, Md.

George W. Gair, Robert Gair Co., New York, N. Y_

George W. Chormann, The Carborundum Co., Niagara Falls, N. Y.

•Z. W. Ranck, Crystal Tissue Co., Middletown, Ohio.

•Herbert S. Hollans, Shelton Tack Co., Shelton, Conn.

J. V. Smith, Hubbard & Co., Pittsburgh, Pa

Per cent

Davis Carpenter, Davis Carpenter Co. & (Inc.), New York, N. Y.

Alexander Dunbar, president, clearing house section, American Bankers' Association, New York, N. Y.

Carl W. Bettcher, Eastern Machine Screw Corporation, New Haven, Conn.

A. M. Maddock, president, Thomas Maddock's Sons

Co., Trenton, N. J. (No standing committee) Edmund C. Mayo, Gorham Manufacturing Go., Providence, R. I. W. S. Smith, Sheet Metal Ware Association, New

York N. Y.

Length Width

Thickness

.

BUILDING AND HOUSING

The work on building and housing seeks to promote a wider application of the best standards for building materials and design to the

$6,000,000,000 of new construction which is being carried out each

year. In this way it helps to widen the practical usefulness of the

laboratory and field research work of the Bureau of Standards and of

other scientific bodies, and to secure a more general adherence to approved specifications and simplified practice programs for elimination of excess dimensional varieties.

The advisory building code committee has been most active and

influential in this field. More than $3,000,000,000 worth of construction work is carried out each year under the conditions prescribed

by local building codes, and each of the committee's six reports gives

concise recommendations suitable for inclusion in such codes. Each

of these reports also contains an appendix which explains the recom-
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 277

mendations and offers much additional information of value to designers and builders. Thus the committee's reports disseminate

knowledge as to good standards of building practice directly, as well as through encouraging more uniform local codes which permit

economical construction and at the same time assure safe and durable

structures. The work has been at all times closely coordinated with that of

simplified practice, in its extensive program covering more than 40

different building materials. It has cooperated with groups interested

in standardizing nomenclature and units used in the sale of building

materials; more uniform State mechanics' lien legislation; and greater

uniformity in the State laws governing city planning and zoning

measures, which endeavor to promote the proper location of buildings,

streets, and public property with respect to one another, and the

social and economic needs of the community.

Building Code Committee.—A large proportion of the more than

$6,000,000,000 worth of construction added to the wealth of the

Nation during the last calendar year was erected, as stated above,

subject to a heterogeneous mass of building-code regulations. These

regulations differ in various cities more because they grew up without

any definite plan than because of any real difference in local conditions.

The result in some places has been to force unnecessary expense upon

owners, particularly home builders, and to legalize unsafe building

in others. The growing body of architects and builders doing business

in several cities, or throughout the country, has had to adapt itself to a new set of requirements in each community. Building cost

differentials have been created between different cities which have

retarded the growth of some to the advantage of others. While this

is only one of several sources of waste in the building industry, it is one with which standardization can deal effectively. Definite steps

are being taken to bring about more uniform and economical building

regulations.

Standardization of building codes took a prominent position in the

public mind as a result of the activities of the United States Senate

Committee 'on Reconstruction and Production appointed in 1920.

Salient facts brought out by this committee were that there was a wide diversity in building-code requirements; that this proceeded

from unscientific methods in preparing codes, and that large savings

appeared to be possible through more uniform requirements. These

were facts already well known to many architects and builders, but

their significance was thrown into relief by the twin evils of inadequate housing facilities and stagnant building conditions existing at the time the Senate committee's report was published.

Practical attack of the problem was commenced in 1921 through

the appointment by Secretary Hoover of a committee of seven
278 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

architects and engineers of high professional standing to undertake

thorough and impartial studies. The committee bore the title of

Building Code Committee of the Department of Commerce.

Through it and through a subcommittee on plumbing, six reports

incorporating recommended code requirements have been issued.

At first the most promising method of promoting reasonable

economies consistent with sound practice appeared to dictate nar- rowing the field of work to those features of building from which

immediate results could be secured. The country needed homes.

The local code requirements for such construction appeared to be

in a chaotic state. The committee, therefore, struck at this vital

point instead of attempting a general survey.

Recommended Minimum Requirements for Small-Dwelling Construction.—The first report, which bore the title " Recommended

Minimum Requirements for Small-Dwelling Construction," was

accepted by Secretary Hoover in 1923 with the following comment:

This report has been built up by cooperation of the Government and the public,

which I feel will appeal to everyone. The committee itself represents the great

voluntary organizations most interested in public service in this direction, but

beyond this you have consulted with many other associations, and incorporated

their criticisms into its final form. I believe this method of intellectual legisla- tion is unique and gives the report a value far beyond any similar work under- taken to date. It presents recommendations for the construction of one and two

family dwellings having exterior walls of solid or hollow masonry,

concrete, and frame, the latter including veneer and stucco surfaces.

The committee recommends that building codes permit 8-inch

solid brick and 6-inch solid concrete walls for two and one-half and

three story dwellings accommodating not more than two families

each; that 8-inch hollow building tile, hollow concrete block, or hollow walls of brick (all rolok) shall not exceed 20 feet in height to the

gable; and that frame construction be limited to two and one-half

stories. Metal lath and plaster on wood studs properly fire-stopped

is approved for party and division walls, but at least every alternate

wall in row houses must be 8-inch solid brick or concrete, or 12-inch

hollow building tile, concrete block, or hollow wall of brick.

Requirements for quality of hollow masonry units agree fairly well

with present practice, but those for brick are somewhat below the

medium grade established by the American Society for Testing

Materials. The report recommends revised working stresses for

timber used in dwellings, based on investigations of the United

States Forest Products Laboratory. Live loads to be required as bases for design are 40 pounds per square foot for floors of wood,

and 30 for those of monolithic type, or of solid or ribbed slabs. Foundation walls of brick are required to be 12 inches thick for excavated

inclosures, and similar concrete walls shall be as thick as the walls
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 279

they support, but not less than 8 inches. Special hollow building

tile 12 inches thick is permitted for foundation walls for frame

buildings.

Recommended Minimum Requirements for Plumbing in Dwellings

and Similar Buildings.—The fact that certain practices in installing

plumbing were employed successfully in some places and forbidden

in others opened up another field where economies appeared possible

through standardization of requirements. No careful investigation

of the subject had been made up to this time. The committee decided

that scientific research under the direction of experienced sanitary

engineers and plumbers was necessary. Accordingly a subcommittee on plumbing was appointed by Secretary Hoover and this outlined a series of tests to be carried out at the bureau. These tests were continued over a period of more than two years and the principles deduced from them were incorporated in the subcommittee's

report, " Recommended Minimum Requirements for Plumbing in

Dwellings and Similar Buildings," published in 1924.

The report contains a recommended code, and, in addition, a complete report of the experiments at the Bureau of Standards, showing

how the committee arrived at its recommendations.

The results indicate that present customary assumptions in the

design of plumbing are considerably on the side of safety and point

the way to substantial economies in future work of this sort. The

committee recommends that 3-inch soil stacks be permitted in sys- tems for dwellings; that the running or house trap now required in many cities be omitted and that a distance of not to exceed 5 feet be

permitted between traps and ventilation pipes. As a result of tests with complete household systems it was found possible to eliminate

much of the expensive vent piping now considered necessary. Economies possible through complete adoption of the committee's recom- mendations are estimated at from $50 to $100 for a two-story dwelling

with the usual number of fixtures, depending on the nature of requirements now obtaining in a given locality.

Consideration was given to the much-discussed subject of plumbing

code administration. The report states that, while the relation of

defective plumbing to disease is much less direct than formerly

believed, the subject in all its branches is not yet fully explored, and

the possibility of direct access of vermin from the interiors of plumbing

systems to those of buildings is sufficiently objectionable to justify

public regulation of plumbing work. The committee recommends a competent official plumbing inspector under jurisdiction of public

safety authorities, to examine and approve plans and specifications,

test, and approve plumbing systems and take such other measures

as will make his control of plumbing work effective. The advisability

is suggested of substituting certificates of competency for the present
280 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

licensing system and of permitting owners to install plumbing personally, provided this is done in accordance with the code and subject

to official permit and inspection.

Plumbing codes.—The following six States have adopted recom- mendations of the Plumbing Code Committee: Florida, Indiana,

Iowa, Maine, New York, and Vermont.

Recommended Minimum Requirements for Masonry Wall Construction.—Up to this point the committee had concentrated its attention on problems connected with small homes. In the course

of its investigations, however, the fact had been brought out re- peatedly that masonry wall regulations for buildings of all types

differed widely in various cities; that allowable masonry stresses and

fire-resistance requirements were based on inadequate knowledge

of service under loading and fire exposure; and that as a result there was a lack of safety in some localities and an unnecessary use of

materials and labor in others. The committee, therefore, decided

to prepare recommendations representing the best information

obtainable on the subject.

The behavior of masonry walls is dependent upon a number of

factors, no one of which can be wholly ignored in drawing up safe

stress requirements. Masonry units vary in individual compression

and transverse strength, depending on the locality from which they come and the method of manufacture. Absorption is another

factor. Walls are built with different mortars, with different bonds,

and with varying quality of workmanship. Some have a definite

mission to perform in supporting the loads imposed by the structure and by their own weight while others merely serve as a protection,

the weight being carried by a steel or reinforced concrete frame. All

these and other considerations make the establishment of fair re- quirements a very complicated task. Some idea of the research

necessary in the preparation of such requirements may be gained from

the fact that the results of over 700 individual tests of compressive

strength of brick masonry, many of them made at the bureau, were

analyzed before making the recommendations for code requirements

.

Extensive tests of the fire resistance of various masonry materials

and combinations made at the bureau and other places were also

summarized and much valuable information not otherwise obtainable

in concise form was presented in the committee's report " Recommended Minimum Requirements for Masonry Wall Construction >** published in 1925.

This report presents a set of building code requirements for the

regulation of masonry wall construction which are recommended

for adoption or adaptation by those writing or revising building codes.

It covers the quality of materials, maximum stresses for which

masonry should be designed, matters of workmanship, and the height
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 281

and thickness of unstayed masonry walls, both bearing and nonbearing. In general, the committee's investigations disclose that thinner

walls than those usually required in building codes are safe except

under abnormal conditions of loading, wind pressure or seismic

disturbances.

Minimum Live Loads Allowable for Use in Design of Buildings.

Early in the committee's work the question was raised of code variations regarding live loads, and efforts were made to collect data on

actual loads which might be used in drafting recommendations.

Investigation disclosed that very little had been published on this important subject, and showed wide variation in the minimum floor

roof, and wind loads for which building codes require buildings to be designed. The extent of this variation, indicates either that

safety is disregarded in many cases or that an unnecessary amount

of building materials and labor is used because of these laws. It was found that live loads assumed in designing many types of buildings were largely matters of tradition and had scant scientific basis.. The result was that accuracy in stress computations was defeated

because of ignorance of the loads causing stresses. The building

professions for years have busied themselves with tests of materials,

but have given little attention to this complementary factor of loads.

With comparison of live-load requirements in over 100 existing

codes, and investigations revealing actual live loads of typical occupancies before it, the committee was able to draw up a report bearing

the title " Minimum Live Loads Allowable for Use in Design of Buildings." This appeared also in 1925. Wind pressures were

fixed after consultation with Weather Bureau officials. The requirements are brief and simpler of application than those

of many building codes. The live load on floor space used for residential purposes, in general, is placed at 40 pounds per square

foot. For office space and assembly places not subject to standing

crowds 50 pounds are specified, and for other floor space in buildings

for human occupancy the minimum limit is 100 pounds. Industrial

or commercial buildings are to be designed primarily for the proposed

occupancy and data are given in the Appendix by which loads

characteristic of different occupancies may be approximated. Roof

and wind load requirements are somewhat less than present code

practice, with emphasis on the influence of local conditions. Allowance is required in certain buildings for movable partition loads, and

floor-to-floor reduction is permitted in transmitting the assumed live loads in high buildings to the footings.

Provision is made for posting of allowable loads in commercia

and industrial buildings and for rigid inspection and regulation of

occupancy change through requirement of occupancy permits.
282 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The report gives extensive data on the live loads found in hospitals,

schools, offices, assembly places, and commercial and industrial

buildings for various purposes, including factories, warehouses, and

garages. Results of impact due to moving crowds also are presented.

Recommended Building Code Requirements for Working Stresses

in Building Materials.—-In spite of the fact that a considerable body

of test data had grown up on the strength of materials, building codes

presented the same picture of variety in working stress requirements

that they did in less technical matters. Apparently this was due

to the influence of tradition and failure to keep abreast of improvements in materials, design, and methods of construction. Following the same course of careful research and expert advice, the

committee has drawn up recommendations for working stresses in

reinforced concrete, cast iron, steel, and timber. It has drawn

freely upon the existing recommendations of such bodies as the joint

committee on concrete and reinforced concrete, the American Insti- tute of Steel Construction, and the Forest Products Laboratory,

departing from them chiefly where the known state of building

supervision seemed to require variations.

Outstanding features of this report, which was published in 1926,

are the adoption of the water-cement ratio as a means of controlling

the ultimate strength of concrete ; an allowable - of 90 for cast-iron

columns; a basic stress of 18,000 pounds per square inch for steel when the material conforms to A. S. T. M. Standard Specifications

for Structural Steel for Buildings, and a revised table of timber

stresses conforming to the basic grading rules of the American

Lumber Standards and derived by methods recently developed at the Forest Products Laboratory.

Emphasis is placed upon competency of design, and the desirability

from an economic standpoint of increased personnel and facilities for

building inspection. r Use of Reports in Local Codes.—The question naturally arises,

how far has standardization of local building codes proceeded as a

result of the committee's work? An incomplete survey shows that its reports have been utilized in whole or in part by 71 municipalities in

29 States when revising their building codes. Bearing in mind that

the work has been going on but 5 years, that some of the reports are very recent, and that municipalities give their codes a thorough over- hauling at intervals variously estimated at from 5 to 10 years, the

results are very encouraging. There are already indications that the

force of example is tending to accelerate the process and that the next

five years will witness larger gains.

Standardized Price Quotations.—Standards of comparison of retail building material prices in cities throughout the country had been
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 283

very difficult to establish in the past because of lack of uniformity

in the form of quotations and failure of any centralized impartial

source to obtain quotations on a comparable basis. By obtaining

prices monthly of some 24 items in about 50 cities and publishing

them, reasonable standards of comparison have been set up, and it is hoped that the work may lead to more uniform practice in regard to the nomenclature and units used in the sale of building materials.

Mechanics' Lien Legislation.—The Department of Commerce is sponsoring a committee representing business and professional groups,

which is attempting to draft a uniform State mechanics' lien act. The need for such an act arises from a lack of uniformity in existing

State acts, which all have as their object the remedy of abuses of unsatisfactory credit relations which are found in the construction

industry in nearly every community. Here again it is believed that a

careful study of the ills to be remedied, and of the nature of a fair solution, will result in the prevention of ill-adapted legislation.

City Planning and Zoning.—The rapid development of city zoning

which means the dividing of cities into classes of districts in which

the height of buildings, the area of the lot which they may cover, and the use to which they may be put are regulated, raised a number

of problems which vitally affected the welfare of home owners, land

owners, commercial and industrial interests, and civic welfare

throughout the country. It was felt that there would be a tremendous gain if the movement could be guided along lines which had

proved sound in practice and in conformity with constitutional law.

An advisory committee on city planning and zoning was appointed

by the Secretary of Commerce, which drafted a standard city zoning

enabling act. This act has been used wholly or in large part in at

least 20 States, and as a result a tremendous amount of litigation

has been avoided, and zoning has been strongly influenced to follow

sound and reasonable lines. More than 450 municipalities, comprising more than half the total urban population of the country,

have adopted zoning ordinances, more than 370 having done so

since January 1, 1922.

The growing need for control of street layout in the growing

sections of cities and of more wisely planned expenditure of public

funds for highways, public works of all types, and public buildings,

and the desirability of better consideration by private owners of the

probable course of city development, also has led to a much wider

demand for soundly guided city planning. The advisory committee

on city planning and zoning has accordingly drafted a standard cityplanning enabling act. This enables cities to appoint planning

commissions to be organized along lines found by experience to be

most advantageous and to control the layout of new subdivisions

by private developers of land. It represents some distinct advances

36316—27 19
284 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

in methods for controlling the small minority of such developers

who are not willing to work in friendly cooperation with planning

authorities, and also lays the groundwork for the development of regional planning. The standards for the State legislation involved

are not derived from physical constants and test data, but in some

respects they are subject to the same type of approach as building

codes. The elucidation of certain legal and practical fundamentals,

based on study of conditions in many States and cities is of great

help to individuals who are trying to solve local problems. Good

planning and zoning makes for stability in the suitable use of urban

land, and thereby helps to eliminate waste from the scrapping of structurally sound buildings which has been so prevalent in American

cities, and provides a stronger incentive for sound and durable

construction.

Lists of zoned municipalities and of State zoning enabling acts have been compiled from time to time, commencing in January, 1923.

These lists have been reprinted widely in periodicals and the daily

press, as well as in the yearly Municipal Index for 1924, 1925, and

1926. The latest list is available in mimeographed form. The

members of the advisory committee on city planning and zoning

have contributed many articles to the published proceedings of the

National Conference on City Planning, and the city-planning division of the American Society of Civil Engineers, and for other

organizations and periodicals.

Zoning enabling acts.—The following 20 States have adopted "a

standard State zoning enabling act," wholly or in large part:

Arizona. Colorado. Delaware.

Florida. Georgia. Idaho.

Illinois.

Iowa.

Louisiana. Nevada.

New Hampshire.

New Jersey. North Carolina. North Dakota.

TESTING

Oklahoma.

Pennsylvania.

Rhode Island. South Carolina. Utah.

Wyoming.

Testing is a primary service of the bureau to insure acceptable

quality and quantity of a vast amount of Government purchases,

and to meet demands for which private laboratories are not equipped.

Testing is the final check for conformity to standard and constitutes

the major means of securing benefit from standards. The bureau

supports branch testing laboratories at Northampton, Pa., Columbus,

Ohio, Denver, Colo., and San Francisco, Calif. Fundamental tests are those of standards for industry or science.

For this the bureau is the only laboratory having direct access to
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 285

the fundamental national standards, and its facilities for such tests are unique.

Routine tests of measures, devices, and materials are the more

numerous. About two-thirds of such work is for the Government.

Such tests are made for the public only when they do not compete

with private laboratories.

Referee tests are made by the bureau in important cases when the

parties to a dispute agree to abide by the decision.

Cooperative tests are made where the results are of mutual concern. The results are open to the public. When done for a manufacturer

to assist in improving his product, a nominal fee is charged.

The bureau made 138,000 tests of all kinds during the year, having

a fee value of about $380,000.

%
VII. MUNICIPAL AND STATE AGENCIES

Although the governments of the States and municipalities purchase great quantities of materials, and a considerable amount of

standardization has taken place in their purchase requirements,

there is a very wide diversity in their methods of formulating specifications and placing contracts. Some information concerning these

various methods is given in the present chapter.

MUNICIPAL PURCHASING AND STANDARDIZING AGENCIES

General purchasing agencies have been established in a number of

cities. In Minneapolis each city department draws up its own

specifications for purchases to be made by the cit}7 purchasing agent,

who is appointed by the civil service commission. In Jersey City

the general purchasing agent, appointed by the board of city commissioners, prepares specifications and proposals for the purchase of

all commodities used by the city except the specifications for fire engines, street paving, and cleaning which are prepared by the city's

engineering department. Specifications are prepared by the Dallas

city purchasing agent for approval by the city commission, consisting

of the mayor and four commissioners.

The chief buyer of Milwaukee purchases all materials, supplies,

and equipment for the city government, upon specifications pre- pared by him in cooperation with the city paving chemist and city

department engineers. Upon the purchasing division of the New

Orleans department of public finances falls the duty of selecting

specifications and making purchases for materials, supplies, and

equipment for use by the city government. In Akron the purchasing agent prepares the specifications and places all contracts for

materials under $1,000, and he makes recommendations for purchases exceeding this amount, the contracts for which are let by

the city's board of control.

A bureau of standards has been organized by the city of Baltimore

to formulate standards and specifications and recommend, but not

compel, their use by the city departments and bureaus. Standards

have been set up for fuel, lubricants, paper, and soap, and numerous

kinds of building materials, special effort being made to have the

specifications conform to the most recent specifications of the

American Society for Testing Materials and the Federal Specifications

Board whenever possible.

The bureau of standards of the city of Portland is conducted

under the authority of the department of public works. It co2 86
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 287

operates with the other city bureaus in the selection and adoption

of specifications and checks the delivery of materials purchased

under specifications. With the bureau of buildings rests the responsibility for the enforcement of the city's " building code" issued by

the department of public works.

The charter of the city of St. Louis provides for the creation of a board of standardization, consisting of the comptroller, who is elected by the people; the supply commissioner, who is appointed

by the mayor; and the president of the board of public service, also appointed by the mayor. Specifications are drawn up by the board

of standardization after study has been made of existing nationally

recognized specifications for the commodities. Specifications have

already been formulated for food stuffs, fuel, fire hose, and paving

and building materials. Contracts are let by the board of public

service for street construction, buildings, etc. In the city of Detroit the street railways are operated by the

municipality. Both the department of street railways and the

department of purchases set up standards, the former for all materials

used in railway construction and maintenance, and the latter for

supplies used by the other city departments. A committee consisting of the mayor, the city controller, and the purchasing commissioner formulates the standards and adopts specifications for

the purchase of materials for the city.

Cincinnati has the city-management form of government. The

city manager, appointed by the city council, exercises control over the

safety department and the service department of the city, and co- operates with the board of health, the board of park commissioners,

and the rapid transit commission in the preparation of specifications

Each department of the city formulates its own specifications which

are coordinated by the city manager in consultation with other

iepartments having similar functions.

Other municipalities having the city-management form of government operate in a somewhat similar manner, for example: Pasadena,

Calif.; Durham, N. C; Norfolk, Va.; Portsmouth,Va. ; Roanoke,Va.

In Los Angeles there are three agencies concerned with the purchase

of commodities under specifications: The city purchasing agent,

the purchasing agent for the harbor department, and the purchasing

agent for the department of water and power. The last-mentioned

department has authority to compile or select specifications and make

purchases for all materials, supplies, equipment, etc., for use by the

bureau of water works and supply and the bureau of power and

light, which two bureaus comprise the department. The city purchasing agent formulates specifications and makes purchases for

all departments except those earning their own revenues.
288 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

Among the municipalities, New York City has formulated and

utilized the greatest number of purchase specifications, more than

1,600 specifications for 42 different classes of commodities having

been prepared for this purpose. Practically all of the work of

standardization is done in the department of purchase, the head of which is appointed by the mayor.

Recommendations for standards are forwarded to the board of estimate and apportionment, which consists of the mayor, the

comptroller, the president of the board of aldermen, and the five borough presidents, all of whom are elected officials. Standards

adopted by this board are compulsory on all city departments.

A considerable amount of effective standardization has been

carried forward by the school boards in numerous localities. In

Cleveland the board of education has established a bureau of

standards to secure agreement on standard schedules of equipment

and supplies required for the schools and make recommendations

as to the standardization of all articles in the schedules for the

approval of the board's committee on housing and supplies.

STATE PURCHASING AND STANDARDIZING AGENCIES

In every one of the 48 States, standards for materials used in the

construction and maintenance of roads and bridges have been established by the State highway commissioners. Much of the present

activity in this line of standardization can be attributed to the aid

given to the States by the Federal Government for the building of the main highways of the country. The specifications used by the

commissions as best suited for the local climatic and traffic conditions

and sources of supply of materials are in conformity with the specifications formulated by the American Society for Testing Materials,

the American Association of State Highway Officials, and the United

States Bureau of Public Roads, and formally approved by the United

States Secretary of Agriculture for use in connection with Federal-aid

road construction.

With few exceptions the State highway commissions are appointed

by the governor usually with the advice and consent of the senate. Members of the Mississippi State highway department are elected

by popular vote, and the State highway commissioner of Michigan is also elected. A considerable number of the State governments have organized

centralized purchasing agencies or adopted uniform specifications, in

all cases independent of the State highway commissions. Condensed outlines of the standardization activities of the agencies, with

addresses of their headquarters and of the headquarters of the highway commissions and the names of the officers in charge are given

below.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 289

Where symbols are used after the name and address of the agency

or body they have the following significance:

(6) = Name and title of officer in charge.

(c) = Body appointed by.

(d) = Authority of body.

(e) = Procedure in formulating specifications.

if) — Types of commodities for which specifications have been prepared.

Alabama State Board of Control and Economy, Mongtomery. Appointed by

the governor to formulate specifications and make purchases for all State depart- ments and for the smaller State institutions. Alabama State Highway Department, Montgomery. John A. Rogers, chair- man.

Arizona Board of Directors of State Institutions, Phoenix. George W. P. Hunt, president. Board is composed of the governor, the State treasurer, and

a member appointed by the governor, to approve specifications recommended

by the State purchasing agent for all State institutions including the State highway department, but not including the State schools. Arizona Highway Department, Phoenix. W. C. Lefebvre, State engineer.

Arkansas State Purchasing Department, Little Rock. H. A. Emerson, purchasing agent. Department was organized by the governor to prepare specifications, supervise erection of buildings for State institutions, and purchase supplies

for the institutions. Arkansas State Highway Commission, Little Rock. Herbert R. Wilson,

chairman.

California State Division of Purchases and Custody, Sacramento, (b) George

G. Radcliff, chief, (c) Governor, (d) Formulate specifications and make purchases for all State departments and institutions unless exempted by the State board of control, (e) Specifications prepared by the State purchasing agent.

California Highway Commission, Sacramento. Harvey M. Toy, chairman.

The Associated Purchasing Agents of the Colorado State Educational Institutions, Boulder. (6) Henry B. Abbett, chairman, (c) Consists of purchasing

agents of State-owned institutions, (d) Standardize on commodities that may

be used in common by the State educational institutions; pool the requirements

and make purchases for the institutions, (e) Studies are made of United States Government master specifications and other nationally recognized specifications to select those best suited for the needs of the institutions. (/) No specifications

have as yet been prepared or formally adopted, although many of the require- ments have been pooled. ' Colorado State Highway Department, State Office Building, Denver. Louis

D. Blauvelt, State highway engineer.

Connecticut State Highway Commission, Hartford, John A. MacDonald,

State highway commissioner.

Delaware State Board of Supplies, Dover. (6) Sylvester D. Townsend,

secretary of board, (c) Composed of governor, State treasurer, and two electors appointed by the governor with the consent of the senate, (d) Formulate specifications and contract for current stationery and miscellaneous supplies and

printing for all State departments and institutions. Delaware State Highway Department, Dover. F. V. du Pont, chairman.

District of Columbia Purchasing Office, Washington, D. C. (6) M. C. Hargrove, purchasing officer, (c) Commissioners of the District of Columbia.

(d) Formulate or select specifications and make purchases for all departments

and institutions of the District government, (e) and (/) Utilize specifications
290 NATIONAL BUREAU OP STANDARDS

promulgated by the Federal Specifications Board. Supplies not covered by

these specifications are usually purchased on the sample basis. Florida Board of Commissioners of State Institutions, Tallahassee. Appointed

by the governor to formulate and adopt specifications and make purchases for

all State institutions. Specifications are prepared by the purchasing agent for approval by the board.

Florida State Road Department, Tallahassee. Fons A. Hathaway, chairman.

Georgia State Highway Department, Box 147, East Point. John N. Holder,

chairman.

Idaho Department of Public Works, Bureau of Supplies, Boise. (6) R. G.

Archibald, State purchasing agent, (c) By the commissioner of public works.

(d) Formulate and adopt specifications for all State departments and State

institutions. Idaho State Bureau of Highways, 205 State House, Boise. H. W. Gregory,

director of highways.

Department of Purchases and Construction, Division of Purchases and Supplies,

Springfield. (6) L. H. Becherer, State purchasing agent, (c) By the governor with the approval of the senate, (d) Formulate and adopt specifications for all State departments and all penal, reformatory, and charitable institutions, and

normal schools. Department of Public Works and Buildings, Division of Highways, Springfield. Frank T. Sheets, chief highway engineer.

Indiana State Joint Purchasing Committee, Indianapolis. (6) Daily E. McCoy,

secretary, (c) Body selected by a majority vote of institution heads, (d) Has

authority to make purchases for State charitable and correctional institutions.

(e) Specifications are formulated by a subcommittee of the purchasing committee. (/) Chinaware, glassware, table cutlery, paints, oils, varnishes, dry

goods and notions, groceries and laundry supplies, coal, gasoline, oils and greases, yeast, automobile tires and batteries, and electric light globes.

Indiana State Highway Commission, Indianapolis. Charles W. Zeigler,

chairman. Iowa State Purchasing Department, State capitol, Des Moines. (6) H. L. Shropshire, purchasing agent, (c) Board of control of State institutions, (d) Formulate specifications, secure bids, and award contracts, subject to the approval

of the board of control (e) and (/) Standard specifications have been prepared

for supplies required by the State institutions. Iowa State Highway Commission, Ames. F. E. White, chief engineer.

Kansas State Board of Administration, Topeka. (6) T. J. O'Neil, business manager. (c) Composed of governor and three electors appointed by him.

(d) Formulate specifications and make purchases for all State institutions.

(e) Specifications are prepared by the business manager for approval of the board of administration. (/) Dry goods, groceries, meats, hardware, electrical supplies, stationery, drugs, and queensware. Kansas State Highway Commission, Topeka. John W. Gardner, chairman.

Kentucky State Board of Charities and Corrections, Frankfort. (6) J. E. Robinson, chairman, (c) By the governor with the consent of the senate.

(d) Establish specifications for public institutions, (e) Specifications are pre- pared by commissioner of public institutions for approval of board of charities and corrections. (/) Meats, groceries, dry goods, clothing, shoes, tableware,

fuel, and lubricants. Kentucky State Highway Commission, Frankfort. E. N. Todd, State highway engineer. „______

Louisiana State Board of Commissioners of the Port of New Orleans, "New

Orleans, (b) Col. Marcel Garsaud, general manager, N. B. Rhoads, supervisor
STANDAKDS YEARBOOK, 1927 291

of purchases, (c) Commission of five men appointed by the governor, (d) Administer the affairs of the port of New Orleans, (e) Specifications formulated

by the engineering department in cooperation with the purchasing department. Use is made of specifications of the Federal Government and the American

Society for Testing Materials when applicable, (f) Building materials, rubber

goods, fuel, paint, conveyer belts, etc. Louisiana Highway Commission, Baton Rouge. W. E. Atkinson, chairman.

Maine State Purchasing Agents Association, Augusta. (6) Samuel N. Tobey,

secretary, (c) Purchasing agents of State-owned institutions, (d) Standardize on commodities that may be used in common by the State institutions and

make purchases for the institutions. Maine State Highway Commission, Augusta. Paul D. Sargent, chief engineer.

Maryland State Central Purchasing Bureau, Whitaker Building, Baltimore.

(6) Walter N. Kirkman, State purchasing agent, (c) Members of central purchasing bureau are heads of institutions and large departments, specified by

law. (d) Determine and formulate standards of all materials, supplies, merchandise, and articles of every description to be purchased for the using authorities

of the State, (e) Meetings are held from time to time to consider commodities

to be standardized. (J) Fuels, food products, and laundry supplies.

Maryland State Roads Commission, Garrett Building, Baltimore, Md. J. N.

Mackall, chairman and chief engineer.

Massachusetts State Department of Mental Diseases, Room 109, State House, Boston. (b) George M. Kline, M. D., commissioner, (c) By the Governor, (d) Standardize for 15 institutions, hospital construction, equipment,

food, and other supplies and administrative procedure, (e) Committee of institutions' superintendents or stewards, may or may not be appointed to sit with or report to the commissioner. Decision of the commissioner is final, if) Printed

forms, administrative reports, foods, institution requirements, plumbing fixtures, beds and other equipment and supplies, layout, etc. Massachusetts State Department of Public Works, Division of Highways,

State House, Boston. William F. Williams, commissioner of public works. Massachusetts State Purchasing Bureau, State House, Boston. (6) George

J. Cronin, State purchasing agent, (c) Heads of various State departments,

(d) Recommend to State purchasing agent articles which can be used in common

by all State departments, (e) When it is found that standardization is expedient, the State purchasing agent requests the heads of the departments to designate

representatives to advise him in regard to standards. (/) Such items as groceries,

fodder, cleaning materials, clothing, rubber footwear, tires, etc. Michigan State Administrative Board, Accounting and Purchasing Division,

Lansing. (6) Fred B. Perry, director of accounting and purchasing, (c) By

State administrative board organized by legislative action, (d) Formulate

specifications and make purchases for all State departments and institutions except Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science and University

of Michigan, (e) Specifications are prepared by the director of accounting and

purchasing. Uniform accounting system established and carried out under his supervision for all State departments and institutions except as above. Michigan State Highway Department, Lansing. Frank F. Rogers, State highway commissioner.

Minnesota State Department of Public Institutions, Bureau of Purchases,

St. Paul, (b) John Coleman, chairman, (c) By the governor, (d) Establish

specifications and make purchases for 18 State charitable and eleemosynary

institutions, (e) Specifications prepared by the purchasing agent for the approval of the board of control. (/) Foodstuffs, laundry supplies, textiles, 36316—27 20
292 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

footwear, rubber hose, brushes and brooms, paints, hardware, clothing, blankets,

beds, mattresses and pillows, and shade cloth and window shades. Minnesota State Highway Department, St. Paul. G. M. Babcock, commissioner of highways.

Mississippi State Highway Department, Jackson. J. C. Roberts, chairman.

Missouri State Highway Commission, Capitol Building, Jefferson City.

Theodore Gary, chairman.

Montana State Purchasing Department, Helena. (6) J. E. Murphy, State purchasing agent, (c) By the governor, (d) Formulate specifications and make

purchases for all State departments and institutions, (e) Specifications prepared

by the State purchasing agent for approval of the governor. Montana State Highway Commission, Helena. Henry Good, chairman.

Nebraska State Board of Control, Lincoln. (6) E. B. Fairfield, secretary.

(c) By the governor with consent of the senate, (d) and (e) Formulate specifica- tions for supplies for all penal, charitable, and educational institutions except

State university and normal school. Nebraska State Department of Public Works, Lincoln. Roy L. Cochran,

State engineer.

Nevada State Department of Highways, Carson City. George W. Borden,

State highway engineer.

New Hampshire State Purchasing Department, Concord. (6) W. A. Stone, purchasing agent, (c) By the governor, (d) Formulate specifications, (e) and

(/) Specifications are formulated, or selected, by the purchasing agent from

various sources. New Hampshire State Highway Department, Concord. F. E. Everett, State highway engineer.

New Jersey State House Commission, Trenton. (6) A. Harry Moore,

Governor of New Jersey, (c) Body consists of governor, State treasurer, and

State comptroller, ex-officio. (d) Establish standards, determine the relation thereto of articles furnished, and use State or other public or private laboratories

for this purpose, (e) In cooperation with advisory board, composed of one

representative of each State using agency, establishes standards and specifications for purchases to be made by the State purchasing agent. (/) Furniture, equipment, materials, supplies, printing, and stationery.

New Jersey State Highway Commission, Broad Street Bank Building, Trenton. Gen. Hugh L. Scott, chairman.

New Mexico State Highway Department, Santa Fe. James A. French, State highway engineer.

New York State Department of Purchase, Albany. (6) Frank R. Utter, super- intendent of purchase, (c) By the governor, (d) Make purchases for all State

agencies, (e) Standards and specifications formulated by the New York State bureau of standards. (/) Food products, fuel, lubricants, textiles, rubber goods, paper, builders' hardware, road materials, etc. New York State Department of Public Works, Bureau of Highways, Albany.

Arthur W. Brandt, commissioner.

North Carolina State Highway Commission, Raleigh. Frank Page, chairman.

North Dakota State Board of Administration, Purchasing Department. (6) M.

E. Maclntyre, State purchasing agent, (c) By the board of administration.

(d) Formulate specifications and make purchases for State institutions and all office supplies for State departments, (e) Specifications prepared by the State purchasing agent for approval of the board of administration. North Dakota State Highway Commission, Bismarck. Governor Arthur G.

Sorlie, chairman, H. C. Frahm, chief engineer and secretary.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 293

Ohio State Department of Finance, Purchases and Printing Division, Columbus.

(6) John P. Brennan, superintendent of purchases and printing, (c) By the

director of finance with the approval of the governor, (d) Formulate specifica- tions and make purchases for all State departments and institutions except the department of highways and public works, (e) Specifications are prepared by

the superintendent of purchases and printing in conjunction with the department

director and in cooperation with departmental officers. Ohio State Department of Highways and Public Works, Columbus. George F.

Schlesinger, director. Oklahoma State Board of Public Affairs, Oklahoma City, (b) Carl L. Rice,

chairman, (c) By the governor with the consent of the senate, (d) Formulate

and adopt standard specifications and make purchases for all State departments

and institutions except agricultural schools and the department of agriculture,

(e) Specifications are prepared by the board. (/) Dry goods, groceries, oil, coal, etc. Oklahoma State Highway Commission, Oklahoma City. Cyrus S. Avery,

chairman.

Oregon State Board of Control, Salem. (6) Carle Abrams, secretary, (c) Consists of the governor, secretary of state, and State treasurer, ex officio, (d) For- mulate specifications and make purchases for State departments and institutions,

(e) Specifications prepared by the secretary for approval by the State board of

control. (/) All commodities required by State departments and institutions. Oregon State Highway Commission, Salem. R. A. Klein, State highway

engineer.

Pennsylvania State Bureau of Standards and Purchases, Harrisburg.

(6) Walter G. Scott, director of standards and purchases, (c) State department

of property and supplies, (d) Formulate and establish standards and specifica- tions for all articles, materials, and supplies to be approved by the administrative

departments, boards, and commissions, and by State institutions, (e) A confer- ence of representatives of the different departments, boards, and commissions,

and State institutions, called periodically, is divided into committees for the purpose of establishing and accepting standards and specifications. Wherever

possible the specifications as established by the Federal Specifications Board are accepted and followed by the above conference. (/) Textiles, groceries, dairy

products, meats, general office supplies, furniture, and numerous items of equip- ment.

Pennsylvania State Department of Highways, Harrisburg. Paul D. Wright,

secretary of highways.

Pennsylvania State Stewards Association, care of Warren State Hospital. Warren. (6) H. A. Ross, president, (c) Created at the request of the governor.

(d) Association is composed of the superintendents and stewards of the State

institutions, hospitals, and normal schools organized to discuss problems relat- ing to institutional operation, and develop specifications for the approval of the

State departments of welfare, public instruction, and properties and supplies

for use by State-owned institutions. United States Government master specifi- fications are adopted when promulgated by the Federal Specifications Board.

(e) No formal procedure has been adopted. (/) Foodstuffs, feeds, fertilizer, footwear, dry goods, and clothing.

Rhode Island State Public Welfare Commission, Purchasing Department,

Providence. (6) C. W. Arnold, State purchasing agent, (c) By the State public

welfare commission, (d) Formulate specifications and make purchases for penal, correctional, and charitable institutions under State board, and for any

department upon request, (e) Specifications prepared by the State purchasing

agent for approval of the public welfare commission. (/) Beef, pork, lamb,
294 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

mutton, provisions, butter, oleomargarine, cheese, lard, compound lard, coal, and gasoline.

Rhode Island State Board of Public Roads, Providence. Abram L. Atwood,

chairman.

South Carolina State Highway Department, Columbia. Ben M. Sawyer, chief highway commissioner.

South Dakota State Department of Finance, Division of Purchasing and Printing, Pierre. (b) E. U. Berdahl, director, (c) State secretary of finance, who is ap- pointed by the governor, (d) Act as purchasing agent for all State departments,

boards, and institutions, (e) Standards and specifications formulated in cooperation with the board of charities and corrections, the board of regents, the State

engineer, the State chemist, the highway engineers, and the several depart- ments. (/) Specifications for printing, stationery, office supplies, office furniture, and equipment have been completed. Work is in progress on specifica- tions for foodstuffs, clothing and d^ goods, paints, janitor and laundry supplies,

and lubricating oils. South Dakota State Highway Commission, Pierre. Gov. W. J. Bulow, chair- man.

Tennessee State Department of Finance and Taxation, Division of Purchasing,

Nashville. (6) Joel B. Fort, State purchasing agent, (c) By the commissioner

of finance and taxation, (d) Select specifications and make purchases for all State departments and institutions, (e) Specifications are prepared by a committee on standardization composed of representatives of each State agency

using supplies for approval of the commissioner of finance and taxation. Tennessee State Department of Highways and Public Works, Nashville. C. N. Bass, commissioner. Texas State Board of Control, Division of Purchasing, Austin. Members of the division are appointed by the board of control to formulate specifications

and make purchases for all State departments and institutions except State

prisons. The specifications are prepared by the chief of the division of pur- chasing for approval of the board of control. Texas State Highway Department, Austin. Eugene T. Smith, chairman.

Utah State Department of Finance and Purchase, Salt Lake City. (6) P. A. Thatcher, director, (c) By the governor, (d) Formulate specifications and

make purchases for all State departments, (e) Specifications prepared by the

director for approval of the department of finance and purchase.

Utah State Road Commission, Salt Lake City. Henry H. Blood, chairman.

Vermont State Department of Finance, Purchasing Department, Montpelier.

(6) William H. Dyer, State purchasing agent, (c) By the governor, (d) For- mulate specifications and make purchases for all State departments and insti- tutions except supplies for military department, (e) The specifications are prepared by the State purchasing agent.

Vermont State Highway Board, Montpelier. Charles W. Gates, chairman.

Virginia State Purchasing Commission, Richmond. (6) Charles A. Osborne,

State purchasing agent, (c) By the governor, (d) Formulate specifications for all State departments and institutions, but purchases by the purchasing

agent are optional with the State departments and institutions, (e) Specifica- tions prepared by the State purchasing agent for approval of the purchasing

commission.

Virginia State Highway Commission, Richmond. H. G. Shirley, chairman.

Washington State Department of Business Control, Division of Purchasing,

Olympia. (6) H. D. Van Eaton, supervisor of purchasing, (c) By the director

of business control, (d) Formulate specifications and make purchases for all
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 295

State departments and institutions, (e) Specifications are prepared by the

supervisor of purchasing in conjunction with the director of business control. Washington State Highway Department, Olympia. J. W. Hoover, State highway engineer.

West Virginia State Board of Control, Purchasing Department, Charleston.

(6) C. A. Jackson, State purchasing agent, (c) By the governor with the consent of the senate, (d) Formulate specifications and make purchases for all State institutions, and, upon specific request, for the State departments, (e) Specifications are prepared by the State purchasing agent in conjunction with

board colleagues. (/) Food and clothing items. West Virginia State Road Commission, Charleston. C. P. Fortney, chairman.

Wisconsin State Board of Control, Madison. (6) John J. Hannan, secretary.

(c) By the governor with the consent of the senate, (d) Formulate specifications

and make purchases for all charitable, curative, and penal institutions, (e) Specifications are prepared by reference to Federal standards and to other avail- able specifications. (/) Groceries, meat, canned goods, blankets, and tires. Wisconsin State Highway Commission, Madison. Al. C. Anderson, chairman.

Wyoming State Board of Supplies, Cheyenne. (6) Board composed ex officio of a body of three, State auditor, State treasurer, and State engineer, (c) Auditor and treasurer elected by popular vote, engineer appointed by the governor.

(d) Formulate specifications and make purchases for all State departments and

institutions except the highway department and the State university, (e) Specifications are prepared by the State engineer for approval of the board of supplies.

Wyoming State Highway Department, Cheyenne. S. W. Conwell, chairman.
VIII. GENERAL STANDARDIZING AGENCIES

In Chapter V have been given outlines of the standardizing agencies

of the Federal Government, including the Federal Specifications Board;

in Chapter VI the standardization work of the National Bureau of Standards has been presented briefly, and that of the State and municipal purchasing agencies has been set forth in Chapter VII. Much

standardization work is being conducted by trade associations and

technical societies in connection with their other activities. Outlines

of their standardization activities are given in Chapter IX.

A limited number of organizations have been created for the sole purpose of carrying on the work of standardization, or work directly

related thereto, namely, the American Engineering Standards Committee, which serves as the clearing house for industrial standardization,

and the American Marine Standards Committee, the American Society

for Testing Materials, and the Central Committee on Lumber Standards, the functions of which are fairly well indicated by their titles. Outlines of the standardization activities of these organizations

are given in the present chapter.

AMERICAN ENGINEERING STANDARDS COMMITTEE

In recognition of the need for some method to prevent duplication

in standardization work and promulgation of conflicting standards,

the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the American Institute of Mining Engineers, the American Society of Civil Engineers,

the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the American

Society for Testing Materials appointed a special joint committee

to formulate a method of cooperation in formulating standards.

This committee held its first meeting on January 17, 1917. The

result of this and subsequent meetings was the organization of the

American Engineering Standards Committee, made up initially of

representatives of these five societies. In 1918 the United States

Government Departments of War, Navy, and Commerce designated

representatives, and in 1919 the constitution was broadened to permit

the representation of other national bodies.

Organized as the national clearing house for engineering and

industrial standardization, the committee serves as the agency

through which standardization by associations, societies, and govern

mental agencies is passing to the stage of standardization on a broadly

national scale. The committee also acts as the official channel of cooperation in international standardization and provides an information service on engineering and industrial standardization matters.

It maintains headquarters in the Engineering Societies Building,

29 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y. Dr. P. G. Agnew is the secretary.

296
STANDABDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 297

Functions.—The American Engineering Standards Committee

itself, usually referred to as the main committee, is primarily an

administrative and policy-forming body. It does not concern itself with the technical details of a standard offered for approval, but

considers the procedure followed in the formulation of the standard,

the adequacy of the representation of the various interests concerned on the sectional committee organized by the sponsor body to for- mulate the standard, and the action by which the standard has been

adopted by the sectional committee and approved by the sponsor.

Sectional Committee Method.—The sectional committee is made

up of representatives officially designated by the various bodies

interested in the particular standardization project in hand. In

order to provide for well-balanced sectional committees, the individual

members are classified according to their principal business affilia- tions. In the case of most specifications a classification of the interests

concerned into producers, consumers, distributers, and general interests has been found sufficient. In the matter of safety codes conditions are more involved, and it is usually necessary to provide for the

representation of six distinct groups. The A. E. S. C. assures itself that the personnel and composition of each sectional committee are authoritative and adequately representative of the various interests

concerned in the standard or group of standards for the formulation

of which the sectional committee is responsible. A. E. S. C. Approval.—Approval of a standard by the A. E. S. C.

means, not that the main committee has itself worked over and

passed upon the technical details of the standard, but that it has

satisfied itself that all organizations concerned have had an opportunity to participate in the work, that the work has been carried out

under a procedure that has been regular, open, and aboveboard, and

that the standard represents a real national consensus on what is best in American engineering and industrial practice. An existing

standard may be approved by the A. E. S. C. if it has been developed

substantially in accordance with A. E. S. C. rules of procedure, or has

by actual practice proved its right to become a standard.

Initiation of Projects.—Work upon a standardization project is undertaken by the A. E. S. C. only upon a formal request from

a responsible body, and then only after the committee has assured

itself that it is the desire of industry that the work shall go forward.

A formal conference or a special committee of representatives of the

bodies concerned with the proposed project is asked to decide (1)

whether the work shall be undertaken; (2) if so, what its scope shall be; (3) how the work shall be organized; (4) how it is to be related to any other work having an important bearing on it. Correlating Committees.—Advisory committees have been organized to suggest subjects for standardization and determine the desirability of standardization in several lines of industry, recommend

sponsors, define and limit the scope of projects, adjust conflicts, clear up ambiguities, follow up and expedite work in progress in the
298 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

development of standards, and report from time to time upon progress

within their fields of activities. Two such committees are now functioning, the mining standardization correlating committee and the

safet3^-code correlating committee, and a similar committee in the electrical field has been organized as the result of formal proposals made

by the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the Electrical

Manufacturers' Council. A similar step has been taken for the

mechanical field by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Sponsorship.—When the development of a proposed standard seems desirable the A. E. S. C. designates a sponsor or joint sponsors

for the work. The sponsor organizes the sectional committee, is responsible for seeing that the work is continuously prosecuted, and

provides for the publication of the standard. The relation of sponsor

to the other cooperating bodies officially represented on the sectional

committee is somewhat similar to the relation of the chairman to the

other members of a committee. The A. E. S. C. will not approve the

recommendations of any sectional committee without the previous

approval of the sponsor or joint sponsors to which the sectional committee makes its report.

Government Cooperation.—Six executive departments of the

Federal Government, Agriculture, Commerce, Interior, Labor, Navy,

and War, and one independent establishment, the Panama Canal,

are represented on the A. E. S. C. Thirty-three branches of the

Government are officially represented on sectional committees. The

National Bureau of Standards is acting as sole or joint sponsor for 13 projects, the Bureau of Mines for 7, the Forest Service for 2, and

the Public Health Service for 1. The Department of Labor desig- nates representatives of labor on all sectional committees dealing

with safety codes, and is publishing approved safety codes as Government documents. The State governments are taking a leading

part in the entire safety-code program through the Association of Governmental Labor Officials and the International Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions. State highway and

traffic commissions are participating in A. E. S. C. activities through

the American Association of State Highway Officials, the regional

conferences of motor-traffic administrators, and the railway and

utility commissions. Prior to the official promulgation of specifications for engineering materials formulated by the Federal Specifications Board these specifications are being circulated by the A. E. S. C.

to determine their acceptability to industry. In order to avoid over- lap or duplication in undertakings, the A. E. S. C. and the division

of simplified practice are so conducting their programs that problems

in the nature of simplification that can be handled by a consideration

of production data alone are referred to the Division of Simplified

Practice, whereas problems in the nature of standardization which

involve technical considerations are referred to the A. E. S. C.

Foreign Cooperation.—The American Engineering Standards

Committee is cooperating actively with all of the national standardiz-
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 299

ing bodies in other countries, of which there are now 19, as follows:

Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark,

Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Holland, Hungary, Italy,

Japan, Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden, and Switzerland. These

bodies keep in active touch with each other by correspondence,

exchanging information in regard to new projects, draft standards,

and general tendencies in the national work in the respective countries. Each national standardizing body acts as a sales agent for the approved standards of the other bodies. A preliminary basis

has recently been laid for a general international organization for industrial standardization, at a conference in New York under the

auspices of the A. E. S. C, at which the national standardizing bodies

of 18 countries were officially represented. The details of this

organization and the nature and extent of American participation

have not yet been determined. It is expected that decisions will be

reached in this and other matters at a conference to take place in

Italy in September, 1927.

Information Service.—Complete sets of standards approved by the

foreign national standardizing bodies and a good majority of the

standards issued by the important organizations in this country are kept on file at the headquarters of the A. E. S. C, which maintains an information service for the benefit of committees working under

its auspices, of members and sustaining members, and of American

industry generally. The A. E. S. C. acts as a central distributing

agent for the standards and specifications of the national technical

societies and trade associations listed in the National Directory of

Commodity Specifications. It issues monthly a mimeographed

bulletin for the benefit of sustaining members, giving information

concerning activities in foreign standardization work and reviewing

proposed and approved American standards and other developments

in the American standardization field. Current Activities.—Under the auspices of the A. E. S. C. 91

standardization projects have been carried forward to completion

and 150 additional projects are in various stages of progress. In

the accompanying table is shown the distribution of these projects

among the industrial groups.

Projects

Industrial groups

Total Approved

Civil engineering and building trades Mechanical engineering . Electrical engineering Automotive

Transportation...

39

66374

11

18

12

10

29 Naval architecture and marine engineering. Ferrous metallurgy _ . Nonferrous metallurgy. Chemical

Textile ...

10

14

133

7

10

10 Mining.

Wood

Pulp and paper

Miscellaneous.

20

5

216

3

35 241 91
300 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDAEDS

Participating in the work through officially accredited repre- sentative are 365 national organizations, technical, industrial, and

governmental. Of these over 170 are trade associations. Subscribing directly to its support are 267 organizations and firms

interested in its work and listed as sustaining members.

Member Bodies.—The main committee is composed of official representatives of member bodies, of which there are now 24, comprising 35 separate national organizations, including 9 national

engineering societies, 19 national industrial associations, and 7 departments of the Federal Government. These are as follows:

American Electric Railway Association.

American Institute of Architects.

American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers.

American Mining Congress.

American Railway Association (engineering division).

American Society of Civil Engineers.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

American Society for Testing Materials.

Association of American Steel Manufacturers.

Electric Light and Power Group (Association of Edison Illuminating Companies, National Electric Light Association).

Fire Protection Group (Associated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance

Companies, National Board of Fire Underwriters, National Fire

Protection Association, Underwriters' Laboratories).

Gas Group (American Gas Association, Compressed Gas Manufacturers' Association, International Acetylene Association).

National Electrical Manufacturers Association.

Safety Group (National Bureau of Casualty and Surety Underwriters, National Safety Council).

Society of Automotive Engineers.

Telephone Group (Bell Telephone System, United States Independent Telephone Association).

United States Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Interior,

Labor, Navy, War, and The Panama Canal.

Additional Sponsor Organizations.—Although not member bodies

of the A. E. S. C, the following organizations are serving as sponsors

for standardization projects under A. E. S. C. auspices: American

Association for the Advancement of Science; American Association

of State Highway Officials; American Automobile Association; American Drop Forging Institute; American Foundrymen's Association;

American Gear Manufacturers Association; American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers; American Society of Refrigerating Engineers; American Society for Municipal Improvements;

American Water Works Association; American Zinc Institute; Association of Electragists, International; Association of Governmental

Labor Officials of the United States and Canada; Association of Railway Electrical Engineers; Electrical Safety Conference; Grinding
STANDAKDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 301

Wheel Manufacturers Association of the United States and Canada;

Heating and Piping Contractors National Association; Illuminating

Engineering Society; Institute of Radio Engineers; International

Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions; Laundryowners National Association; Manufacturers Standardization

Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry; Mine Inspectors Institute

of America; National Association of Amusement Parks; National

Association of Mutual Casualty Companies; National Committee on

Metals Utilization ; National Founders Association ; National Machine

Tool Builders Association; New England Water Works Association;

Plumbago Crucible Association; Society of Naval Architects and

Marine Engineers; Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education; United States Bureau of Mines; United States Bureau of Public

Roads; National Bureau of Standards; United States Government

Federal Specifications Board; United States Forest Service; United

States Geological Survey; United States Bureau of the Public Health

Service.

AMERICAN MARINE STANDARDS COMMITTEE

At the marine exposition held in November, 1922, in New York

under the auspices of the American Marine Association, there was

appointed a committee generally representative of the marine industry which, with the cooperation of the Department of Commerce

and the United States Shipping Board, developed the plan of operation for the American Marine Standards Committee, which was organized to encourage simplification of practice in the shipbuilding, ship

operating, and allied industries by promoting, developing, and promulgating, in cooperation with all concerned, such standards of design

and practice as are deemed in the interest of good economy. The

committee maintains headquarters in the division of simplified

practice, United States Department of Commerce, Washington,

D. C. A. V. Bouillon is the secretary.

An executive board, elected from and by the membership, appoints

and controls the administrative officers and technical committees,

directs the general policies, and defines the technical working program.

The administrative details devolve upon the chairman and the secre- tary, the latter being in direct charge of ail activities. The technical

work is under general control of a technical committee in each of

the divisions. These committees appoint or approve subject committees for study and development of projects put on the active

technical program. The secretary is a member ex officio of every

committee, and it is part of his duties to harmonize the work.

Activities of the committee embrace standards relating to the

design, construction, and manufacture of hulls, machinery, equipment, and fittings for ships and port facilities, also supplies for their

maintenance and operation. There are five technical divisions, the

first three of which have so far been made active, viz, (1) hull details;
302 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

(2) engineering (ship machinery) details; (3) ship-operation details

and supplies; (4) port facilities; (5) manufacture and construction.

When a project (one item or a related group of items) is placed on

the active program the secretary proceeds, in consultation with the

technical committee concerned, to form a committee of qualified

persons to study the subject and make recommendations in regard

thereto. Simultaneously he gathers available data on current

practice for information of the prospective committee. Upon

enrollment of the subject committee and confirmation thereof by

the technical committee the work is proceeded with by meetings,

correspondence, or individal conferences to the point where recom- mendations are made by the subject committee, which are then

submitted to the technical committee or committees concerned

therein. When a proposed standard is tentatively approved by the

technical committee it is submitted to the constituent members and

others deemed to be interested therein. If the resultant criticism or suggestions so warrant the project is returned to the committees

concerned for further consideration, and ultimately it is submitted

to the executive board with a summary of the proceedings and final recommendations of the committees. The action of the board

fixes the status of the completed projects either as (a) Suggested

American marine practice, (b) tentative American marine standard,

and (c) American marine standard. The action of the board is communicated to the membership and copies of approved standards

are distributed to all concerned.

Under present arrangements the administration of the organization is carried on as a distinct unit of the division of simplified

practice, Department of Commerce.

The membership, which now comprises over 300 associate member

bodies and is increasing, is composed of shipbuilders, ship operators,

naval architects, marine engineers, manufacturers, and, generally,

commercial, educational, and Government interests related to the

marine industry, among which are the following:

American Bureau of Shipping; American Marine Association;

American Society of Marine Designers; American Society of Naval

Engineers; American Society of Refrigerating Engineers; American

Steamship Owners Association; American Vitrified China Manufacturers Association; Association of American Steel Manufacturers;

Association of Marine Underwriters of the United States; Atlantic

Coast Shipbuilders' Association; Maritime Association of the Port

of New York; National Association of Cotton Manufacturers;

National Merchant Marine Association; Neptune Association;

Shipbuilders' Club of the Pacific Northwest; Society of Automotive

Engineers (Inc.); Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers;

Underwriters' Laboratories; Underwriters (the board of) of New

York (incorporated with the National Board of Marine Underwriters); United States Salvage Association (Inc.); United States
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 303

Shipping Board, Emergency Fleet Corporation; Commerce Department, Bureau of Lighthouses; Navy Department, Bureau of Construction and Repair; Navy Department, Bureau of Engineering;

The Panama Canal; United States Coast Guard; United States

Public Health Service; United States Steamboat Inspection Service;

War Department, Office of the Quartermaster General; and Office

of the Chief of Engineers.

The organization at present comprises an executive board, 3 administrative committees, 2 active special committees, 3 technical

committees, and 41 subject committees. Participating in the

technical activities of these committees are 278 individuals. Thirtytwo standards have been approved for promulgation, and 3 standards

of other bodies have been officially indorsed.

Coordination with progress in related activities is provided for

through the agency of representatives appointed as advisory to the

executive board by the following organizations: American Institute

of Electrical Engineers, American Society of Civil Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Society for Testing

Materials, National Fire Protection Association, and the National

Bureau of Standards. The committee is officially represented on

20 sectional and special committees functioning under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee.

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS

Organized for the purpose of promoting the knowledge of materials

of engineering and the standardization of specifications and methods

of testing, standardization is a most important function of the

society. Standing committees of the society, of which there are now 45 are appointed by the executive committee either upon recom- mendation of the society at an annual meeting or on the executive

committee's own initiative. The appointment of such committee is preceded by a careful study of the field of work proposed for the new

committee and conferences with industries producing and using the

materials which are to be studied. Assurance is sought of adequate

support by these groups, of research and investigation necessary to promote knowledge of the materials and to develop standards,

before committees are appointed. Nearly all the society's committees deal with subjects having a commercial bearing, and these

are organized so that there is either an equal numeric balance between

representatives of producing and nonproducing interests or the

nonproducing interests are in the majority. The committees are authorized to conduct investigations and to prepare standards for

materials (including specifications, methods of test, definitions, and

nomenclature). The results of their investigations and their recom- mendations as to standards are presented to the society each year

for action, and final authority rests with the society. Practically all of the society's committees are actively engaged in the work of
304 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDAKDS

standardization and preparation of specifications. The headquarters

of the society are at 1315 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, Pa. C. L. Warwick is the secretary-treasurer.

Standards of the society are published triennially in a book of

standards, and supplements to this are issued in intervening years. Tentative standards, which are offered for publication to secure

criticism and comment, are published in the annual proceedings and

collected each year in a book of tentative standards.

Among the current activities of the society the development of the following standards may be cited as of outstanding importance:

For metals for high-temperature service; zinc-coated and other

metallic-coated products for increased resistance to corrosion;

magnetic testing and analysis of metals; ferro-alloys; metallic materials for electric heating; cement, concrete, and concrete products;

ceramic products; preservative coatings; petroleum products; road

and paving materials; waterproofing and roofing materials; electrical

insulating materials; textile materials; slate; naval stores. In the following table are shown the number of standards and

tentative standards adopted in the year 1926 and the total number

adopted to date, the standards being classified in accordance with the

five main heads under which the society's standardization activities are conducted:

A. Ferrous metals

B. Nonferrous metals

C. Cement, lime, gypsum, and clay prod

ucts. D. Miscellaneous materials E. Miscellaneous subjects Total

Adopted in

Standards

Revisions

to stand- ards

Tentative standards

S4

Total adopted to date

Standards

37

I0S

272

Revisions Tentato stand- tive ards standards

67

332022

141

11 227 As one of the five technical societies which united in the founding

of the American Engineering Standards Committee, the A. S. T. M.

has been especially active in the work of the A. E. S. C, to which it has submitted many of its standards for approval. It is sponsor or

joint sponsor for 54 standardization projects or sectional committees

functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure, as follows:

Projects A. Ferrous metals 11 B. Nonferrous metals 18

C. Cement, lime, gypsum, and clay products 6 D. Miscellaneous materials 19 A. Specifications for welded and seamless steel pipe; specifications

for welded wrought-iron pipe ; specifications for carbon steel and alloy

steel forgings; specifications for cold-drawn Bessemer steel screw
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 305

stock; specifications for cold-drawn open-hearth steel automatic

screw stock; specifications for zinc coating of iron and steel; specifications for carbon steel and alloy steel blooms, billets, and slabs for

forgings; specifications for refined wrought-iron bars; specifications

for wrought-iron plates; specifications for stay bolt, engine bolt, and

extra refined wrought-iron bars; numbering of steels (with the Society

of Automotive Engineers) ; specifications for cast-iron pipe and special

castings (with three other organizations).

B. Insulated wires and cables for other than telephone and tele- graph use (with nine other organizations); zinc and zinc ores (with

the American Zinc Institute); specifications for electrolytic copper

wire bars, cakes, slabs, billets, ingots, and ingot bars; specifications

for soft or annealed copper wire; specifications for brass forging rod;

free-cutting brass rod for use in screw machines; specifications for

brass (naval) rods for structural purposes; specifications for brass

ingot metal for sand castings; specifications for solder metal; specification for high sheet brass; specifications for hard-drawn copper

wire; specifications for medium hard-drawn copper wire; tinned soft or annealed copper wire for rubber insulation; methods of chemical

analysis of manganese bronze; methods of chemical analysis of gun

metal; chemical analysis of alloys of lead, tin, antimony, and copper;

methods of battery assay of copper; specifications for Lake copper

wire bars, cakes, slabs, billets, ingots, and ingot bars.

C. Specifications and tests for Portland cement; specifications

and fire tests of materials and construction (with the National Bureau

of Standards and fire protection group); specifications for draintile (with the United States Department of Agriculture); method of test for unit weight of aggregate for concrete; method of test for voids

in fine aggregate for concrete; method of test for organic impurities

in sands for concrete. D. Test for toughness of rock; method for distillation of bituminous

materials suitable for road treatment; method of test for penetration

of bituminous materials (with three other organizations); sampling of stone, slag, gravel, sand, and stone block; test for apparent specific

gravity of coarse aggregates; cement grout filler for brick and stone pavements; methods of testing and specifications for road materials;

tests for specific gravity of sand, stone, and slag screenings; methods

of laboratory sampling and analysis of coke; specifications for linseed

oil (with the Federal Specifications Board) ; method of test for flash point of volatile flammable liquids; methods of routine analysis of

white pigments; methods of routine analysis of yellow, orange, red,

and brown pigments containing iron and manganese; methods of

routine analysis of dry red lead; methods of testing cotton yarns and

fabrics; specifications for rubber-lined fire hose (with the fire protection group); methods of testing wood (with the United States Forest
306 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Service); method of sampling coal; methods of testing petroleum

products and lubricants; specifications for block for granite-block

pavements.

The American Society for Testing Materials is officially represented on 15 additional sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C.

procedure.

The A. S. T. M. is represented officially on the following joint committees: Investigation of the effect of phosphorus and sulphur in

steel (with 10 other organizations); standard specifications for concrete and reinforced concrete (with four other organizations) ; concrete

culvert pipe (with 6 other organizations); girder rail specifications

(with the American Electric Railway Engineering Association);

trolley wire specifications (with the American Electric Railway

Engineering Association) ; definitions of terms relating to heat treat- ment (with the American Society for Steel Treating and the Society

of Automotive Engineers); methods of test for petroleum oils for

wood preservation (with the American Wood Preservers' Association); effect of temperature on the properties of metals (with the

American Society of Mechanical Engineers); molding sand research;

pattern equipment standardization; boiler feed water problems (with

four other organizations).

The A. S. T. M. maintains two research associates at the National

Bureau of Standards doing research work on the correlation of data on cement tests. CENTRAL COMMITTEE ON LUMBER STANDARDS

This organization, made up of 1 1 representatives of lumber manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers, and consumers, was created to act

as an executive steering organization in drafting recommendations

for the simplification of sizes, nomenclature, grades, and trade practices in the softwood and hardwood industries in cooperation with

the United States Department of Commerce and the United States

Department of Agriculture. Its headquarters are in the Transportation Building, Washington, D. C. Harry G. Uhl is the executive

secretary.

Members of the central committee are appointed by their repre- sentative groups. The committee has no judicial authority in the

industry, but serves as a central clearing house between the industry

and the Government in encouraging the putting into practice of

those recommendations which have been indorsed by general conferences representing all branches of the trade and the public.

The central committee is served by two advisory committees,

namely, the consulting committee on lumber standards and the hardwood consulting committee, composed of about 30 members each,

who are official representatives of the following organizations: The
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 307

iAmerican Institute of Architects, American Railway Association,

American Society of Civil Engineers, American Society for Testing

Materials, Associated General Contractors of America, Association

of Wood Using Industries, National American Wholesale Lumber

Association, National Association of Box Manufacturers, National

Association of Purchasing Agents, National Lumber Manufacturers'

Association and regional lumber manufacturers' associations, National Retail Lumber Dealers' Association, Northeastern Retail

Lumbermen's Association, Northwestern Lumbermen's Association,

Society of Automotive Engineers (Inc.), Southwestern Lumbermen's

Association, and the Wholesale Sash and Door Association.

To the advisory committees are submitted all matters to be passed

upon for recommendation by the central committee, and in these

bodies all of the scientific research and study are conducted with the

aid of various governmental agencies. Like the central committee,

members of the advisory committees are selected by the groups they

represent. Recommendations are made by the consulting committees

to the central committee, and if members of the central committee

approve the recommendations they are then docketed for consideration by a general conference of all interested lumber manufacturers,

wholesalers, retailers, and consumers, held annually at the Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C. Recommendations approved

by the general conference are recognized as American lumber standards and published by the division of simplified practice for the

benefit of the trade and the public. The recommendations include

lumber classifications, nomemclature of commercial softwoods, shipping practices, basic provisions for structural material, softwood fac- tory and shop lumber, lumber inspection provisions, and American

standard moldings. Simplification of sizes, nomenclature, grades,

and trade practices has been accomplished in the softwood industry.

In 1926 the central committee completed work on standards for

softwood factory and shop lumber, the determination of singlestandard thicknesses for finished lumber based on the thicknesses of

standard unfinished lumber with allowance for shrinkage and planing,

and the establishment of marketing practice covering short lengths

of lumber.

The central committee is now engaged in the following projects:

Uniform patterns for worked lumber, shipping weights and moisture

content, structural timbers, supply and demand survey of American

standard lumber, and hardwood standardization.
IX. STANDARDIZING ACTIVITIES OF TECHNICAL SOCIETIES

AND TRADE ASSOCIATIONS

A large percentage of the national technical societies, trade associations, and similar organizations make standardization one of the

important activities in their services to their members.

Outlines of the standardization activities of these organizations

are given below.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS

American Association for the Advancement of Science, Burton E.

Livingston, permanent secretary, Smithsonian Institution Building,

Washington, D. C. The only standardization activity of the association is in connection with the survey of scientific and engineering

symbols and abbreviations. The association is joint sponsor, with

four other organizations, for the sectional committee handling this

project, which is functioning under the rules of procedure of the

American Engineering Standards Committee.

American Association of Engineers, M. E. Mclver, acting secretary, 63 East Adams Street, Chicago, 111. Although the work of this

association is confined to problems of economic and social welfare

of engineers and to the encouragement and development of efficiency

in engineering work and the proper usage of the term " engineer,"

it has organized a committee to study standard proposals and contracts for engineers' services and other work of like character.

American Association of State Highway Officials, W. C. Markham,

secretary, 638 Munsey Building, Washington, D. C. This association has been especially active in the promotion of the use of standardized plans and specifications for highway construction throughout

the country. It has adopted a standard form for road plans and

secured its use in practically all of the States. It has issued a standard outline and arrangement for highway and bridge specifications

which is being used as the basis for general highway specifications

by most of the States. It has been active in the promotion of standardized specifications for materials used in constructing highways and

for the design and construction of steel, concrete, and timber bridges.

Standard methods of sampling and testing highway materials have

been adopted by the association and these specifications, together

with all others so far issued through the association, have been approved by the United States Secretary of Agriculture for use in connection with Federal-aid road and bridge construction. To its influence can largely be attributed the present uniformity throughout

308
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 309

the country of road signs and danger signals and the elimination of

misleading "stop" signs. The association is officially represented on the joint concrete culvert pipe committee (with six other organizations). It is joint sponsor for two sectional committees functioning

under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards

Committee, as follows: Method of test for penetration of bituminous

materials (with three other organizations), and colors for traffic signals

(with the National Bureau of Standards and the National Safety

Council). The association is officially represented on 11 additional

sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists, Walter

E. Hadley, secretary, 5 Mountain Avenue, Maplewood, N. J. This

organization concerns itself with research work on chemical processes

and application of dyes and chemicals to materials manufactured in the textile industry. Its standardization activities are carried on by

committees appointed by the president whose functions are to study,

analyze, and prepare reports on methods of tests for adoption by

the association. Methods of fastness of dyed wool and silk to fulling,

scouring, and washing, as well as dyed and printed cotton to scouring,

washing, soaping, laundering, and chlorine treatment have been

revised. Work is also going forward on methods of fastness to perspiration and fastness to light, fastness tests to dry and wet heat,

fastness to acids and alkalies, carbonizing, and sea water. The

research committee is engaged in the formulation of standard methods

of dye testing. This work is being performed in various laboratories,

representing consumers, textile manufacturers, dyestuff manufacturers, and general testing laboratories. The results of these tests

will be embodied in a report to be presented at the association's

annual convention. Progress has been made in the endeavor to establish international standard methods of dye testing, and a joint

committee of European and American members is being organized to study carefully the possibilities and advisability of such an undertaking. In this connection the British Society of Dyers and Colourists

has expressed its desire to cooperate. The association maintains

contact with the National Bureau of Standards in research work on

chemicals applied to textiles. American Association of Woolen and Worsted Manufacturers,

J. J. Nevins, secretary, 45 East Seventeenth Street, New York, N. Y.

All standardization work of this organization is conducted through

a joint committee on research and standardization composed of

representatives of this association, the National Association of Wool

Manufacturers, and the National Association of Woolen and Worsted

Spinners. Recommendations of the association are submitted to the

joint committee before final adoption as standards.
310 NATIONAL BUKEAU OF STANDARDS

American Automobile Association, Ernest N. Smith, general

manager, national headquarters, Washington, D. C. Being interested particularly in the operation rather than the manufacture of

automobiles, this association has taken no part officially in the

formulation of dimensional standards. However, it is serving as

joint sponsor, with the National Bureau of Standards, for the sectional

committee on safety code for automobile brakes and brake testing

and is officially represented on the sectional committee on colors for

traffic signals, functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

American Bureau of Welding, William Spraragen, secretary, division of engineering, National Research Council, 33 West Thirtyninth Street, New York. This bureau acts as an advisory board on

welding of the American Welding Society and of the division of engineering and industrial research of the National Research Council.

The bureau consists of 12 members appointed by the board of directors of the American Welding Society; 2 representatives from

each section of this society, not over 12 members at large appointed

by the executive committee of the society, and 1 representative of

each of the following interested societies, associations, and Government departments: American Bureau of Shipping, American Electrochemical Society, American Electric Railway Association, American

Engineering Standards Committee, American Institute of Electrical

Engineers, American Institute of Mining Engineers, American Insti- tute of Steel Construction, American Physical Society, American

Society of Civil Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,

American Society of Refrigerating Engineers, American Society for

Testing Materials, Navy Department, National Bureau of Standards,

Bureau Veritas, Engineering Foundation, Federal Board of Vocational

Education, Lloyd's Register of Shipping, National Research Council,

New York Academy of Sciences, Society of Automotive Engineers.

Each research committee of the bureau is created by the appointment

of a chairman who appoints the individual members of his committee,

subject to the approval of the executive committee of the bureau,

the American Welding Society, and the National Research Council.

Committees have been organized to deal with the following subjects:

Electric arc welding, gas welding, pressure vessels, welding structural

steel, welded rail joints, and welding wire specifications. The

committee on welded rail joints maintains a research associate at the

National Bureau of Standards doing research work on welded rail joints. Standard specifications formulated by the committees and

approved by the bureau through its executive committee are issued

to the welding industry as publications of the American Welding

Society.

American Ceramic Society, Ross C. Purdy, secretary, 2525 North

High Street, Columbus, Ohio. The actual work of preparing pro-
STANDARDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 311

posed standards and specifications for the society is carried on by its several divisional standardization committees. Standards approved

by the divisional committees are passed upon by the society's committee on standards which has been organized to avoid the adoption

within the society of conflicting standards and to be the medium

through which the divisional committees present their adopted

standards to the society for recognition as the society's standards.

In formulating standards the society has cooperated with the Ameri- can Society for Testing Materials and the National Bureau of Standards, full advantage being taken of the specifications of the

former and the research work of the latter. It has taken an active

part in the industrial waste elimination program of the Department

of Commerce. In cooperation with the American Hotel Association

it inaugurated the movement which resulted in the simplified practice

recommendation relating to hotel chinaware. It has also taken an

active part in the work of the committee for simplification of paving

bricks.

American Chemical Society, Charles L. Parsons, secretary, Mills

Building, Washington, D. C. The committee on guaranteed reagents

of the society published, in 1925, specifications for 14 analytical

reagents, and in 1926 published 23 specifications. The work is still going on. In 1920 and 1921 the committee suggested certain metric

unit weights for packages of reagent chemicals. The society committee on the metric system has advocated the use of these unit

weights, and they have been adopted by several manufacturers of

fine chemicals. The committee on standard apparatus published

in 1921 and 1922 reports on elimination of sizes and shapes of chemical laboratory apparatus. These reports were prepared in cooperation with the committee on standardization of the Association of

Scientific Apparatus Makers of the United States of America, and

have been followed almost completely in the preparation of some

recent catalogues of dealers in chemical apparatus. The committee

has made additional recommendations on elimination and has done

work on the standardization of dimensions of some types of laboratory apparatus. The society committees on revision of methods of

coal sampling and analysis, standard methods for the examination of

water and sewage to cooperate with committee of American Public

Health Association, standardization of biological stains, and standardized methods for vitamin research cooperate with committees of other organizations on the subjects designated, and the supervisory

committee on standard methods of analysis is responsible for the

uniformity of standards for methods of analysis proposed by all committees of the society.

American Concrete Institute, Harvey Whipple, secretary, 2970

West Grand Boulevard, Detroit, Mich. Its by-laws provide for
312 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

the creation by the board of direction of special committees for the

purpose of preparing recommended practice and standards concerning the proper use of cement. Under these by-laws the board of

direction creates the committee and appoints the chairman. Additional committee members are appointed by the president in comsultation with the chairman. Proposed new or revised standard

specifications, standard practice, and standard definitions, when

approved by a majority voting in the committee in which they

originate, are submitted to the secretary of the institute 60 days

prior to the opening of the annual convention at which they are

to be presented. They are printed as proposed tentative standards

and mailed to the full membership of the institute 30 days prior to the opening of the convention. As there amended and approved,

they are published as tentative standards. At a subsequent annual

convention they may again be offered unamended by their originating

committee as proposed standards, and if again approved in con- vention are submitted to letter ballot of the institute membership,

canvassed within 90 days thereafter. Such proposed standards are considered adopted unless at least 10 per cent of those voting vote

in the negative. The institute has issued 14 standard specifications,

2 tentative specifications, and 3 recommended practices. Of these

the following were issued in 1926 : Standard methods for the measure- ment of concrete work and standard specifications and building

regulations for concrete staves. The institute is officially repre- sented on the following joint committees: Standard specifications

for concrete and reinforced concrete (with 4 other organizations); concrete culvert pipe (with 6 other organizations); cement (with

several other organizations); reinforcing spirals (with several other

organizations). It has official representation on 8 sectional committees functioning under the procedure of the American Engineering

Standards Committee.

American Concrete Pipe Association, M. W. Loving, secretary, 33

West GrandfAvenue, Chicago, 111. Although the association has not

officially established any standards or adopted any specifications it cooperates|tofthe fullest extent with the American Concrete Institute,

the American Society for Municipal Improvements, and the American

Society for Testing Materials, and with other organizations repre- sented onfthe joint concrete culvert pipe committee in the preparation

of specifications for concrete pipe, including drain tile, cement,

concrete sewer pipe, reinforced concrete sewer pipe, and reinforced concrete culvert pipe.

American Corn Millers Federation, Keynier Van Evera, secretary,

6 West|Tentlu Street, Kansas City, Mo. Under authority conferred

upon him at a meeting of the federation, the president has appointed

a standardizingJcommittee to cooperate with the United States
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 313

Department of Agriculture in establishing standards and specifications for cream meal. The federation has adopted a symbol to be

licensed by the federation to all millers who will agree to conform to the specifications.

American Cotton Manufacturers* Association, William McLaurine,

703 Commercial Bank Building, Charlotte, N. C. (See National

Council of American Cotton Manufacturers.)

American Drop Forging Institute, with headquarters at 1001

Union Bank Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. Among the stated objects of

this organization is the standardization, so far as practicable, of the

drop-forging industry, including designs, specifications, and contract

forms. It has formulated recommendations concerning good practice

in manufacturing processes and quotation forms. It is serving as

joint sponsor with the National Safety Council for the sectional

committee on safety code for forging and hot-metal stamping functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

American Electric Railway Association, J. W. Welsh, executive

secretary, 292 Madison Avenue, New York, N. Y. Affiliated with

the parent association are certain dependent associations, each interested in certain special phases of the electric railway industry. Of

these the American Electric Railway Engineering Association is the one which deals with standards and specifications which, after

adoption, are published in the association's Engineering Manual.

A committee on subjects is appointed annually by the president to consider and suggest topics for the work of the engineering association.

The executive committee approves those subjects to be studied by

the standing committees, including subjects leading to the possible

adoption of standards or recommendations. Proposed standards

and recommendations are submitted first for approval or disapproval

to the committee on standards, which also is appointed by the

president. Following action by the committee on standards such

proposed standards and recommendations are considered at the

association's annual convention and voted upon by the assembled

delegates. The Engineering Manual, originally published in looseleaf form and revised annually, is now published every third year as a bound book. Supplements are issued ad interim between editions

of the manual, to take care of revisions and new specifications.

Much work during the past year has been done by the committees in

preparation for the current editions of the Engineering Manual. The

association is a member of the American Engineering Standards Committee and, through it, takes active part in the consideration of all proposed standardization and code work affecting the industry,

cooperating chiefly in the preparation of standards with the American

Institute of Electrical Engineers, the American Railway Engineering

Association, the American Society for Municipal Improvements, the
314 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

American Society for Testing Materials, the American Society of

Mechanical Engineers, the American Wood Preservers' Association,

and other organizations. The association is sponsor or joint sponsor

for 13 sectional committees functioning under the rules of procedure

of the American Engineering Standards Committee as follows:

Insulated wires and cables for other than telephone and telegraph use (with nine other organizations); specifications for tubular steel poles; recommended specifications for 600-volt direct-current over- head trolley construction; recommended designs for joint plates for

7-inch and 9-inch girder grooved and girder guard rails; recom- mended designs for 7-inch, 80-pound, 91 -pound, and 102-pound

plain girder rail for use in paved streets; specifications for use in the

manufacture of materials for special track work. The association is officially represented on 35 additional sectional committees functioning under the A. E. S. C.

American Electrochemical Society, Colin G. Fink, secretary,

Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Although standardization

is not a major activity of the society it has organized a radio battery

committee, which has formulated standard tests for dry cells used

in radio receiving sets, in cooperation with the National Bureau of

Standards and the Associated Manufacturers of Electrical Supplies.

American Face Brick Association, R. D. T. Hollowell, secretary,

130 North Wells Street, Chicago, 111. The standardization activities

of the association are confined to those relating to dimensions. A

committee on standard sizes has been appointed by the president to determine approximate dimensions for face brick which will be most

economical and desirable from the point of view of both the public and

the producers, and to embody the dimensions in the form of a recom- mendation to the industry at large. In 1926 the association reaffirmed the resolution adopted at the conference held in 1923 relating

to face-brick sizes, set forth in Department of Commerce Simplified

Practice Recommendation No. 7. The association maintains a research associate at the National Bureau of Standards, doing

research work on the prevention of stains on brick structures. American Forestry Association, O. M. Butler, executive secretary,

1523 L Street, NW., Washington, D. C. This association has

never adopted any specifications, but has cooperated in the standardization movement by official representation on the sectional

committees on safety code for logging and sawmill machinery, and

specifications for wood poles, functioning under A. E. S. C.

procedure.

American Foundrymen's Association, C. E. Hoyt, secretary, 140

South Dearborn Street, Chicago, 111. An effective method of

cooperation with the American Society for Testing Materials in the

establishment of standards for the foundry industry has been placed
STANDARDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 315

into operation. The association is represented on all A. S. T. M.

committees dealing with specifications of interest to its members.

Specifications prepared by these committees are submitted to the

members of the association for consideration as tentative standards

and they are adopted by the association after being adopted as standard by the A. S. T. M. The association is sponsoring the

formulation of standard practices and recommended practices for use in connection with pattern equipment. This work is being

done in connection with the committee upon which eight interested

national bodies are represented. It is sponsoring the joint committee on molding sand research which is standardizing methods of

testing and grading foundry sands. This association is also joint

sponsor with the American Ceramic Society of the joint committee on foundry refractories (with 10 other national organizations),

whose endeavor is to standardize tests for foundry refractories and

to simplify the number of shapes of refractories for foundry furnaces.

It is represented on the joint committee on the investigation of the

effect of phosphorus and sulphur in steel (with 10 other organizations). The association is joint sponsor for two sectional committees

functioning under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee, as follows: Safety code for the protection

of industrial workers in foundries (with the National Founders'

Association); outside dimensions of plumbago crucibles for nontilting furnaces in nonferrous foundry practice (with the Plumbago

Crucible Association). It is officially represented on five additional

sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

American Gas Association, Alexander Forward, managing director,

342 Madison Avenue, New York, N. Y. All committee organization

is subject to the approval of the executive board of the association,

appointments to the committees being made by the president upon

the basis of the technical qualifications of the individuals and the

need for representation of different interests. The activities of each

of the seven sections of the association as well as those of the appliance-testing laboratory are directed by a managing committee

appointed on a representative basis. In the testing laboratory at Cleveland domestic gas-burning appliances are tested and certified as to economy in accordance with specifications covering performance, structural details, and design prepared by committees composed of representatives of the association and a number of other

national bodies cooperating in the undertaking. The work of the laboratory committees is submitted to the executive board in the form of

recommendations of the managing committee of the laboratory. The

standards of the association are adopted by action of a general ses- sion of the association at an annual meeting held not less than one

year after approval as tentative standard by the executive board

36316—27 21
316 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

and following circulation of the tentative standard to the membership for study and criticism. Committees have been organized to deal with such subjects as space heaters, gas ranges, water heaters,

central house-heating appliances, carbonization, gas chemistry,

distribution, and refractories. The gas association is joint sponsor for

three sectional committees functioning under the rules of procedure

of the American Engineering Standards Committee, as follows:

Specifications for cast-iron pipe and special castings (with three other

organizations) ; pipe thread (with the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers) ; and gas safety code (with the National Bureau of Standards). The association is represented on nine additional sectional

committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure. It maintains

a research associate at the National Bureau of Standards doing

research work on the methods of testing gas appliances to determine

their safety.

American Gear Manufacturers' Association, T. W. Owens, secre- tary, 2443 Prospect Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio. Standardization is one

of the stated purposes of this organization which devotes considerable

time to the dimensional standardization of gears. It is serving as

joint sponsor for two sectional committees, as follows: Gears (with

the American Society of Mechanical Engineers) ; transmission chains

and sprockets (with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers

and the Society of Automotive Engineers), and is officially repre- sented on the sectional committee on shafting functioning under

A. E. S. C. procedure.

American Hardware Manufacturers Association, Charles F. Rockwell, secretary, 342 Madison Avenue, New York, N. Y. Such

standardization work as is conducted by this association is carried

forward under the auspices of the American Engineering Standards

Committee. In cooperation with the National Hardware Association of the United States it has been instrumental in reducing the

number of commercial sizes for steel sheets under the auspices of the

division of simplified practice, and it is officially represented on the

sectional committee on bolt, nut, and rivet proportions functioning

under A. E. S. C. procedure.

American Hospital Association, William H. Walsh, M. D., executive

secretary, 18 East Division Street, Chicago, 111. This association

has organized a committee on simplification and standardization

of general furnishings, supplies, and equipment, and a committee on

dietary service and equipment, the functions of which are indicated

by their names. These committees are appointed annually by the

president. All studies undertaken by the committee on furnishings

and supplies have been conducted in cooperation with the division

of simplified practice of the Department of Commerce. The

sizes of hospital beds and hospital chinaware have already been
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 317

simplified, and the standardized sizes have been widely adopted by

the hospitals of the country. A statistical study has been made of

hospital linen to establish standard sizes. American Hotel Association, J. K. Blatchford, secretary, Auditorium Tower, Chicago, 111. This association, in cooperation with

the American Ceramic Society and the American Vitrified China

Manufacturers Association, has been instrumental in launching a program of standardization in table chinaware under the auspices of the division of simplified practice, which has resulted in the formulation of simplified practice recommendations relating to hotel, res- taurant, dining-car, and hospital tableware. It has issued a list of specifications for soaps and cleaning compounds in which are incorporated the standard methods of test developed by the National

Bureau of Standards. The association was officially represented on

the advisory board which cooperated with the Department of Commerce in the preparation of the National Directory of Commodity

Specifications.

American Institute of Architects, Scientific Research Department,

Le Roy E. Kern, technical secretary, 19 West Forty-fourth Street,

New York, N. Y. The institute's standardization work is conducted

almost entirely in cooperation with other national bodies through

its scientific research department. When a request for institute rep- resentation on a technical committee or standardizing committee is received the request is referred to the scientific research department

which investigates the proposed activities of the committee to determine whether the specialized training of the architect equips him to contribute constructively. This department makes its report to a committee of three architects known as the advisory council which

makes a recommendation to the director of the scientific research

department which is forwarded to the board of directors of the

institute for action. If the recommendation is favorably acted upon

by the board, the president of the institute appoints an official representative. Pending the appointment of the official representative

the scientific research department acts as institute representative and

after the appointment of the official representative acts as alternate.

The representative reports to the scientific research department as to whether or not he recommends that the proposed standards be

approved by the institute. His recommendation is referred by the

scientific research department to the advisory council and to the

director and from the director to the board of directors of the insti- tute which gives official approval or disapproval. The institute is represented officially on the National Committee on Metals Utilization, the National Committee on Wood Utilization, and the Building

Code Committee of the United States Department of Commerce; on

committees of the division of simplified practice of the department
318 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

dealing with building materials and appliances; and on committees

of the National Fire Protection Association, the American Construction Council, and the Chamber of Commerce of the United States. The institute is joint sponsor for five sectional committees functioning under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee, as follows: Elevators (with the American Institute

of Electrical Engineers and the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers) ; safety code for elevators and escalators (with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the National Bureau of Standards); safety code for lighting of school buildings (with the

Illuminating Engineering Society); symbols for electrical equipment

of buildings (with the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and

the Association of Electragists, International) ; safety code for walkway surfaces (with the National Safety Council). The institute is officially represented on 12 additional sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

American Institute of Baking, H. E. Barnard, president, 1135

Fullerton Avenue, Chicago, 111. The institute was founded and is conducted by the American Bakers Association for scientific research

and education. It has not established standards or specifications

for the ingredients used in baked products, or for the technical supplies used in the bakery. It emphasizes the necessity for adherence

to the definitions and standards for foods and products promulgated

by the United States Secretary of Agriculture as a guide for the

officials charged with the enforcement of the food and drugs act, and has published bulletins and literature on these standards for the use of the baking industry. It maintains laboratories for the examination and testing of samples of baking ingredients for the advice

and information of bakers and the allied trades, in relation to composition, properties, suitability for use in baking, and compliance

with the Federal and State food laws. In 1921 the institute established a registration or certification plan for baking ingredients and

technical supplies for the purpose of giving the baker information

as to reliable products suitable for use in baking. The plan permits

the manufacturer to make application to the institute for the registration or certification of his products. An application for registration is filed by the manufacturer with the institute, which requires

information on the purpose for which the product is to be used, its analysis or composition, a complete set of labels, circulars, and other

advertising material, and the claims of the manufacturer. A sample

is also submitted by the manufacturer for examination, which is subjected to analysis and required tests in order to determine if it complies with the claims of the manufacturer. The manufacturer's

sample is checked by duplicate tests on a sample obtained on the

market. If the product complies with the claims of the manu-
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 319

facturer and is suitable for use in baking, a certificate of registration

is issued by the institute. A contract is also made between the

institute and the manufacturer governing the use of the "seal of registration." The institute has organized an advisory board for the National Research Council.

American Institute of Electrical Engineers, F. L. Hutchinson,

secretary, 33 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y. All

standardization work of the institute is under the direction of the

standards committee, the members of which are appointed by the

president. This committee is directly responsible to the board of

directors. The committee consists of nine appointed members, the

chairman of A. I. E. E. delegations on other standardizing bodies,

the chairmen of working committees, and the president of the United

States National Committee of the I. E. C. The working committees

may include both institute and noninstitute members. The past

year has marked the completion of the bulk of the work of revision

of the institute standards, a work which has been actively under

way for over three years. The revised standards are being published

in the form of a number of sections, each section dealing with standards for a specific subject. Twenty-one of over forty proposed

sections have been completed, covering the great bulk of material

previously incorporated in the single volume of institute standards.

The institute is a member body of the American Engineering Standards Committee, and is represented on the electrical advisory committee, the organization of which was recommended to the American

Engineering Standards Committee by joint action of the institute

and the Electrical Manufacturers Council. The institute is sponsor

or joint sponsor for 15 sectional committees functioning under the

rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee, as follows: Elevators (with the American Institute of Architects and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers) ; rating of

electrical machinery; insulated wires and cables for other than

telephone and telegraph use (with nine other organizations); symbols for electrical equipment of buildings (with the American Institute

of Architects and the Association of Electragists, International);

electrical properties of aluminum; radio (with the Institute of Radio

Engineers); industrial (electrical) control apparatus (with the Electric Power Club); instrument transformers; alternators, synchronous

motors and synchronous machines in general; direct and alternating

current fractional horsepower motors; induction motors and induction machines in general; direct-current rotating machines, generators and motors; power-line insulators for voltages exceeding 750

(with the Associated Manufacturers of Electrical Supplies); electrical

installations on shipboard; scientific and engineering symbols and

abbreviations (with four other organizations). The institute is
320 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

represented on 19 additional sectional committees functioning under

A. E. S. C. procedure.

American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, H.

Foster Bain, secretary, 29 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York,

N. Y. All standardization work of the institute is conducted through

the cooperation of the mining standardization correlating committee.

It is officially represented on not only this committee but also on 23

sectional committees functioning under the procedure of the American

Engineering Standards Committee. It is serving as sponsor for two

of these sectional committees, as follows: Screening of ores; and

recommended practice for rock dusting of coal mines.

American Institute of Steel Construction (lac), C. F. Abbott,

executive director, 285 Madison Avenue, New York, N. Y.; Lee H.

Miller, chief engineer, 1052 Leader Building, Cleveland, Ohio. The

institute maintains a committee selected from the academic, architectural, and engineering professions, and having no direct financial

connection with the steel industry, to prepare and keep up-to-date

standard specifications for the design, fabrication, and erection of structural steel for buildings. The specifications issued by the

institute are kept in harmony with those of the American Society for

Testing Materials. The institute is officially represented on four

sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

American Malleable Castings Association, Robert E. Belt, secretary, Union Trust Building, Cleveland, Ohio. The association has

adopted specifications for malleable castings similar to those of the

American Society for Testing Materials. It assists members, through

laboratory and engineering work, in the production of a product

which conforms to the requirements of these specifications. Member

plants submit to the association's laboratory test pieces from every

heat. Quality certificates are issued to those members whose products meet the requirements of the specifications. These certificates permit the manufacturers to use the trade-mark of the association,

and to advertise their products as having been certified to by the

association. It publishes regularly the names of members whose

products have met the requirements of the specifications.

American Medical Association, Bureau of Investigation, A. J. Cramp, director, 535 North Dearborn Street, Chicago, 111. Through

its bureau of investigation the association has studied the patent

medicine question, and has published many reports bearing on this

class of products. Information in regard to this branch of the

association's activity is published under the title of Nostrums and

Quackery, two volumes of which have been issued.

American Medical Association, Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry, W. A. Puckner, secretary, 535 North Dearborn Street, Chicago,

111. The council has adopted a set of rules by which to judge proprie-
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 321

tary medical substances to determine which are and which are not

worthy of recognition. Products found to comply with the rules are described in the new and nonofficial remedies department of the

Journal of the American Medical Association; annually, a book, New

and Nonofficial Remedies, is issued, which contains the description

of products which stand accepted on January 1 of the year of issue. The medical profession is informed in regard to the products which

are not found acceptable through reports published in the journal of

the association; these are collected in The Propaganda for Reform,

volumes 1 and 2. American Mining Congress, J. F. Callbreath, secretary, Munsey

Building, Washington, D. C. The standardization activities of the

organization are carried on by the division of standardization, of

which there are two branches—coal mining and metal mining. Committees of these branches prepare reports on assigned subjects which

are presented for discussion at standardization conferences held

annually to bring about the adoption of national standards to eliminate waste in the mining industry, simplify mining methods and

equipment, and insure safety, efficiency, and conservation. The

American Mining Congress is sponsor or joint sponsor for 12 sectional

committees functioning under the rules of procedure of the American

Engineering Standards Committee, as follows: Safety rules for

installing and using electrical equipment in coal mines (with the

United States Bureau of Mines); drainage of coal mines; underground transportation in coal mines; ventilation in coal mines (with

the United States Bureau of Mines) ; ventilation in metal mines (with

the United States Bureau of Mines) ; outside coal handling equipment;

wire rope for mines; ladders and stairs for mines; safety code for coal

mine transportation; firefighting equipment in metal mines (with

the National Fire Protection Association); underground transportation in metal mines; mechanical loading underground in metal mines.

The congress is represented on seven additional sectional committees

functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

American Paper and Pulp Association, Hugh P. Baker, executive

secretary, 18 East Forty-first Street, New York, N. Y. Standardization activities of this association are conducted through its standardization committee whose function is to study the problems of

simplif cation and standardization in the paper industry and to

further standardization among the groups of the industry as repre- sented by the various associations affiliated with the national organization. It has cooperated actively in the recommendations relating

to the standardization and simplification of paper issued by the

division of simplified practice. The association also has an advisory

committee actively cooperating with the National Bureau of Stand-
322 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ards in technical matters relating to the manufacture of pulp aud

paper.

American Petroleum Institute, Division of Standardization, C. A.

Young, director, 1508 Kirby Building, Dallas, Tex. In 1924, the

American Petroleum Institute created a division of standardization

to cooperate with and assist in correlating the standardization and

simplification work already under way. The agencies through

which the work is done are (1) the board of directors, (2) the general

committee on standardization, (3) the special committees on standardization, and (4) the director of standardization. The board of directors is the governing body of the institute, and as such has

authority to direct the work, and to adopt, modify, or reject proposed

A. P. L specifications and standards. It may act through committees

of the board, but no specifications nor standards are considered final except when approved by the board. The function of the special

committees is to canvass the industry as to the desirability and

practicability of standard A. P. I. specifications in relation to the

subjects referred to them, and to recommend to the general committee on standardization what action is to be taken in relation to any proposed standards. The general committee on standardization

consists of the national chairman of the various special committees.

The general committee considers all reports of the various special

committees on standardization, and makes final recommendation to the board of directors. The institute grants to manufacturers the

right to use the official monogram in the manufacturing of certain

standardized equipment upon certifying that the material so marked

complies with all of the conditions and specifications contained in the

official publication of the institute relating thereto. The institute reserves the right to revoke the license to use its monogram for any

reason satisfactory to the board of directors. The institute has

inaugurated a very extensive gauge schedule for casing drill pipe and

tubing threads and case drilling tool joint threads. A complete set of master gauges for cable drilling tool joints, standardized at the

National Bureau of Standards, has been sent to each regional district. American Pharmaceutical Association, E. F. Kelly, secretary, 10

West Chase Street, Baltimore, Md. An important standardization

activity of this association has been the preparation of an authoritative formulary, extra to the United States Pharmacopoeia, containing preparations of a nonsecret character which are used by physicians. The committee on national formulary, consisting originally

of five members of the association and one representative of each

State pharmaceutical association, was appointed in 1886. The

work of this committee consisted in trying various formulas for the

adopted preparations and in harmonizing the desire of the various

sections of the country as to the scope of the formulary. The first
STANDAKDS YEARBOOK, 1927 323

edition of the National Formulary was published in 1888, the second

in 1896, the third in 1906, the fourth in 1916, and the fifth in 1926.

The committee on national formulary is now a standing committee

composed of 15 men from different sections of the country selected

by the council of the association as experts in their respective fields and as representing the different branches of pharmacy. In 1909

the association appointed the committee on standards for unofficial

drugs and chemicals, whose function was to study and provide suitable definitions and tests for ingredients used in the formulas contained in the National Formulary but not standardized in the

United States Pharmacopoeia. This committee is now a standing one and assists the committee on national formulary in the revision

of the book. Work on the revision of this book is similar to the

revision of the United States Pharmacopoeia both as to time and

manner. The passage of the national food and drugs act on June 30,

1906, made the National Formulary a legal standard and placed it on a par with the United States Pharmacopoeia in legal standing.

American Public Health Association, Homer N. Calver, secretary,

370 Seventh Avenue, New York, N. Y. The association has a

council on standards to review reports emanating from sections or committees of the association which propose professional or technical standards. Such proposals are published to the membership

and when approved by the council on standards are reported to the

governing council of the association and when approved by this

council become established as the association's standards. In co- operation with the American Water Works Association, the association formulated standard methods of water analysis, the sixth

edition of which was issued in 1925. The translation of this document into French and German is now being considered by the health

section of the League of Nations. The association has recently

revised its standard methods of milk analysis, which will shortly be

republished. The standardization program covers standard record

forms for health departments, standard forms for the tabulation of

vital statistics, and similar matters. American Railway Association, H. J. Forster, secretary, 30 Vesey

Street, New York, N. Y. Activities of the association are conducted

under seven divisions, the names of which indicate their scope, as follows. I, operating; II, transportation; III, traffic; IV, engineering;

V, mechanical; VI, purchases and stores; VII, freight claims.

Four of these divisions are vitally concerned with standards and specifications, namely, operating, which deals with problems of operation;

engineering, which deals with the location, construction, and maintenance of railroads; mechanical, which deals with the construction

and maintenance of rolling stock; and purchases and stores, which

deals with the purchasing, storing, distribution, and selling of mate36316—27 22
324 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

rials and supplies. (See sketches of the operating, mechanical, and

purchases and stores divisions and the American Railway Engineering Association.)

American Railway Association, Freight Container Bureau, Edward

Dahill, ehief engineer, 30 Vesey Street, New York, N. Y. This

bureau is functioning to develop and prepare standard specifications

for shipping containers for commodities other than explosives and

dangerous articles. The work of the engineers of the bureau is carried on in close cooperation with the shippers, national traffic and industrial organizations, Government agencies, and associations of container

manufacturers. It is not an inspection agency and does not maintain

a corps of inspectors. The basis of the bureau's recommended

specifications is economy, efficiency, safety of the shippers' goods, and

elimination of the causes of loss and damage to freight shipments.

American Railway Association, Mechanical Division, V. R. Hawthorne, secretary, 431 South Dearborn Street, Chicago, 111. This

division is a consolidation of the former Master Car Builders' Association and the American Railway Master Mechanics Association,

and it includes an equipment painting section composed of the former

Master Car and Locomotive Painters' Association. Automatic

couplers and automatic air brakes were adopted as the universal

standards for the railroads of the country through the activities of the

Master Car Builders' Association. This association also adopted

safety appliances for cars which were afterwards approved by the

Interstate Commerce Commission and made compulsory on all rail- road cars. In conjunction with the bureau of explosives this

association developed a series of specifications for tank cars for

transporting inflammable products. It also has developed numerous

standards for the different parts of cars and designs for complete box

cars of both the single sheathed and the double sheathed types. The

American Railway Master Mechanics Association has developed numerous standards for different parts of locomotives. Committees

of the equipment painting section are at work on standards for the

painting of cars and locomotives. Other committees of the division

are working on specifications and tests for materials and standards for

various parts of cars and locomotives. After approval by the

American Railway Association by letter ballot the specifications are printed in the Manual of Standards and Recommended Practice.

The American Railway Association, mechanical division, is represented officially (with 10 other organizations) on the joint committee on

the investigation of the effect of phosphorus and sulphur in steel. It is also represented on three sectional committees functioning under

A. E. S. C. procedure.

American Railway Association, Operating Division, J. C. Caviston,

secretary, 30 Vesey Street, New York, N. Y. The division carries
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 325

on the activities of the operating committees of the American Railway

Association, and, in addition, includes the activities of the former

Association of Railway Telegraph Superintendents, American Association of Local Freight Agents, American Railway Chief Special

Agents and Chiefs of Police Association, and the American Railway

Chief Surgeon's Association. The division now includes the sections

which took the place of the associations mentioned above, as follows:

Telegraph and telephone, freight station, protective, medical and

surgical, and safety. The operating division proper and its predecessor prepared the standard code of train rules, the standard code

of block-signal rules, and the standard code of interlocking rules,

which codes are the basis for all such rules on American railways.

These codes are kept up to date and all questions pertaining to their

interpretation are handled by the division.

American Railway Association, Purchases and Stores Division,

W. J. Farrell, secretary, 30 Vesey Street, New York, N. Y. Work of

the division is carried on by committees dealing with subjects relating

to purchasing and stores department operations such as stores department book of rules, purchasing department rules, classification of material, reclamation of material, material accounting, crossties,

handling material, scrap classification, purchasing-office records,

lumber, buildings and structures, supply-train operation, standardization and simplification of store stock, budget control of material

and supplies requirements, and stationery and printing. Through

the cooperative efforts of the railroads represented on the subject

committees, after investigation of each subject, the best fundamental

methods are recommended, discussed, and adopted at the annual

meetings. This procedure has been the means of providing standard

practices for the purchasing and distribution of materials which has

effected savings for the railroads. The more important recommendations include standard rules for railroad stores department operation

(standard stock book and master stock book), standard rules for

railroad purchasing department operation, standard material classi- fication, standard scrap classification, standard reclamation practices, unit piling of material (a standard practice for storing and caring

for materials and supplies), distribution of materials (standard plan

for efficient handling and distribution of material to the users),

standard types of stores department buildings and facilities, and

standardization and simplification of stores stock.

American Railway Association, Telegraph and Telephone Section,

W. A. Fairbanks, secretary, 30 Vesey Street, New York, N. Y.

This section functioning as a part of the operating division, American

Railway Association, is continuing the activities of the former Association of Railway Telegraph Superintendents. It has prepared

rules and specifications relating to telegraph and telephone com-
326 NATIONAL BTJKEAU OF STANDARDS

munication for railroad requirements. It has made a special study

of the physical hazard and inductive interference of adjacent hightension electrical lines and, in cooperation with the National Bureau

of Standards and the State commissions, has obtained better protection against the hazards to life and property and reduced inductive

interference at high-tension crossings. Sixteen standing committees

are actively engaged in carrying on the work of the section. Consideration is being given to over 100 subjects, including the following

important groups: Outside plant, inside plant, protection against

electrolysis, electrical protection, message traffic, communication

transmission development, and radio and wire carrier systems. A

loose-leaf manual and pocket handbook have been provided for use by engineering and supervisory forces, and field forces. These

publications contain 101 recommendations and specifications.

American Railway Car Institute, W. C. Tabbert, secretary, 61

Broadway, New York, N. Y. Among the objects of the association

is to cooperate with railroads and other purchasers and with allied industries for the purpose of bringing about a standardization of

designs and specifications and a uniformity of methods of purchasing

and inspection. It cooperates with various agencies, such as Government bureaus and related organizations, especially the American

Kailway Association, in working on the standardization of specifications and designs of freight cars. American Railway Engineering Association, E. H. Fritch, secretary, 431 South Dearborn Street, Chicago, 111. This association

functions also as the engineering division of the American Railway

Association. As such it is divided into three sections—construction

and maintenance, electrical, and signal. Each of these sections has

its own committees dealing with special problems which are organized

through a committee of direction, the individual members being

selected from the various railroads. Their reports are considered at annual meetings of the sections, and when approved are submitted

to letter ballot of the section membership and if approved by the

section and the general committee of the division and by the board

of directors of the American Railway Association are issued in the

association's Manual of Recommended Practice. In the construction and maintenance section are committees on roadway; ballast;

ties; rails; track; buildings; wooden bridges and trestles; masonry;

signs, fences, and crossings; records and accounts; rules and organization; water service; yards and terminals; iron and steel structures; economics of railway location; wood preservation; uniform general contract forms ; economics of railway operation ; economics of railway

labor; shops and locomotive terminals; a special committee on stresses in railroad track; and a special committee on standardization. In

the electrical section are committees on electricity, overhead and
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 327

third-rail working conductors and crossings of power and other

service wires. In the signal section are committees on mechanical

interlocking, power interlocking, direct-current automatic block

signaling, maintenance rules and instructions, standard designs,

direct-current relays, alternating-current automatic block signaling,

wires and cables, signaling practice, batteries, contracts, electrical

testing, lightning protection, valuation, oils, pole lines, direct-current

track circuits, electric railway track circuits, electric railway signaling, and highway crossing protection. The association is repre- sented on the joint committee on standard specifications for concrete and reinforced concrete (with four other organizations), on the joint

committee on studies of boiler feed-water problems (with four other

organizations), and on the joint committee on concrete culvert pipe

(with six other organizations). It is joint sponsor for two sectional

committees functioning under the rules of procedure of the American

Engineering Standards Committee as follows: Insulated wires and

cables for other than telephone and telegraph use (with nine other

organizations), and specifications for railroad ties (with the United

States Forest Service). The association and its sections are repre- sented on 32 additional sectional committees functioning under

A. E. S. C. procedure.

American Short Line Railroad Association, T. F. Whittelsey, secretary, International Building, 1319 F Street NW., Washington, D. C.

Although it has not as yet formulated or adopted any standards or

specifications officially, the association has organized a purchasing

department conducted under the name of the Consolidated Purchasing Agency. Moreover it is cooperating in the preparation of standards and specifications through official representation on 16

sectional committees functioning under the procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee.

American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Raymond Oiney,

secretary, St. Joseph, Mich. The society has developed a standard

testing and rating code for farm tractors that has been adopted by the

farm-equipment industry, and its standards committee at the present

time is formulating a very comprehensive program involving all phases rf the application of engineering to agriculture, including farm

power and machinery, farm structures, land reclamation, and rural

electrification. American Society of Civil Engineers, George T. Seabury, secretary,

33 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y. Research and

standardization work of the society is carried on by special committees appointed by the board of direction. Such committees have

been organized to deal with the following subjects: Codify present

practice on the bearing value of soils for foundations; stresses in

railroad track, bridge design and construction, standard construction
328 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDAEDS

contracts, electrification of steam railways, flood-protection data,

hydraulics phenomena, impact in highway bridges, irrigation hydraulics, concrete and reinforced concrete arches, steel column,

cement, engineering contract bonding, and arbitration. A special

committee has been appointed to study the effects of earthquakes on engineering structures, with special reference to the Japanese

earthquake of September 1, 1923. The society is represented on the

joint committee on standard specifications for concrete and reinforced concrete (with four other organizations), and on the joint concrete

culvert pipe committee (with six other organizations). It is joint

sponsor for three sectional committees functioning under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee, as follows: Structural steel shapes (with the Association of American

Steel Manufacturers and the Society of Naval Architects and Marine

Engineers), manhole frames and covers (with the telephone group of the A. E. S. C), and scientific and engineering symbols and abbreviations (with four other organizations). It is officially represented on

19 additional sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C.

procedure.

American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, A. V.

Hutchinson, secretary, 29 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y.

The society has developed and adopted codes for the testing of heating boilers and ventilating fans and has established a method for

testing ventilation. It has received the cooperation of the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers and the Heating and Piping Contractors National Association in the revision of its code for testing

low-pressure boilers. Its present research program includes investigation of a standard method of estimating radiation quantities, determination of pipe sizes for heating systems, heat transmission

through building materials, infiltration of air into buildings, rating of low-pressure heating boilers, and work on heat, humidity, and air motion, at its research laboratory conducted at the Pittsburgh

Experiment Station of the United States Bureau of Mines. In co- operation with this association and the United States Department of

Commerce the society has been able to eliminate the steam type of radiator in favor of the water type, which has been found to be

thoroughly satisfactory for steam heating. In cooperation with the

National Association of Fan Manufacturers and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers it has developed a standard test code

for disk and propeller fans, centrifugal fans, and blowers. It co- operated with the National Education Association in the preparation

of a code on schoolhouse planning. The society is sponsor for two

sectional committees functioning under the rules of procedure of the

American Engineering Standards Committee, as follows: Ventilation safety code and safety code for exhaust systems. It is officially

represented on six sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C.
STANDAEDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 329

procedure. Work has been going forward for three years in the

development of a Code of Minimum Requirements for the Heating

and -Ventilation of Buildings, which probably will be completed and

issued in 1927.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Calvin W. Rice, secretary, 29 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y. The society

has organized a number of professional divisions, each composed of a group of members interested in a particular phase of mechanical

engineering, including fuels, steam power, oil and gas power, machineshop practice, printing machinery, wood industries, textiles, petroleums, railroads, materials handling, and aeronautics. For the purpose of formulating standard specifications for the construction of

steam boilers and other pressure vessels and for their care in service

the society has organized the boiler code committee, which has

formed 10 working subcommittees. Through cooperation with other

organizations the society's boiler code has been officially adopted in

19 States and 15 cities. A main committee on power-test codes has

been organized to determine what codes should be developed, to nominate persons for appointment as members of the individual

working committees, and transmit proposed codes, with recommendations, to the council of the society. Nineteen individual committees

are now working on power-test codes. A standing safety committee

of five members has been organized to supervise the society's safety

promotion work. The society has also organized a main research

committee of five members, under the supervision of which special

research committees have been formed to deal with lubrication,

bearing metals, fluid meters, properties of steam, gears, cutting and

forming of metals, mechanical springs, effect of temperature on the

property of metals, condenser tubes, boiler furnace refractories,

elevator safeties and other devices, boiler feed water (joint committees

of five societies), highway research (advisory board of National

Research Council), nonferrous metals, properties of refractory materials and nondestructive testing of wire rope (advisory committees

of the National Bureau of Standards), and heat treatment of rockdrill steel (advisory board of the National Bureau of Standards and

the United States Bureau of Mines). The main standardization

committee has been organized to supervise the dimensional standardization work of the society, and the work of the sectional committees

functioning under the procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee. It makes recommendation concerning proposed

standards and codes to the council for action after the final draft has

been approved by the proper standing committee subsequent to review of the proposed standards or codes at a regular business session

of the society and circulation to the membership and interested individuals through the medium of the society's monthly journal. The
330 NATIONAL BUKEAU OP STANDAEDS

society is sponsor or joint sponsor for 25 sectional committees, as follows: Identification of piping systems (with the National Safety

Council); elevators (with the American Institute of Architects and

the American Institute of Electrical Engineers); safety codes for elevators and escalators (with the American Institute of Architects

and the National Bureau of Standards) ; pipe thread (with the American Gas Association); plain limit gauges and gauging systems for general engineering work; small tools and machine tool elements

(with the National Tool Builders Association); gears (with the

American Gear Manufacturers' Association) ; safety code for mechanical power transmission apparatus (with the International Association

of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions and the National

Bureau of Casualty and Surety Underwriters); pipe flanges and

fittings (with the Heating and Piping Contractors National Association and the Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and

Fittings Industry) ; national code for compressed air machinery (with

the National Safety Council, American Society of Safety Engineers

engineering section); safety code for conveyors and conveying machinery (with the National Bureau of Casualty and Surety Underwriters) ; safety code for mechanical power control (with the National

Bureau of Casualty and Surety Underwriters) ; screw threads for fire- hose couplings (with the American Water works Association and the

National Board of Fire Underwriters); transmission chains and

sprockets (with the American Gear Manufacturers' Association and

the Society of Automotive Engineers); safety codes for cranes,

derricks, and hoists; scientific and engineering symbols and abbreviations (with four other organizations); standards for drawings and

drafting-room practice (with the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education); standards for graphics; safety code for high

pressure piping; shafting; and the following sectional committees as joint sponsor with the Society of Automotive Engineers: Standardization and unification of screw threads; ball bearings; bolt, nut, and

rivet proportions; pins and washers (machine elements); and wire

and sheet metal gauges. The society is represented on 33 additional

sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure. During 1926 it maintained two research associates at the National Bureau

of Standards doing research work on the properties of steam.

American Society for Municipal Improvements, C. W. S. Sammelman, secretary, 315 Commercial Building, St. Louis, Mo. Committees of the society are at work revising the existing specifications

relating to bituminous brick, cement concrete, stone block and wood

block pavements, sidewalks, and curbs. They have prepared specifications for broken stone and gravel roads and for sewers. A standard municipal contract form has also been prepared. The society's

specifications are used as guides for municipal engineers. They are
STANDAKDS YEARBOOK, 1927 331

kept in harmony with the current specifications of the American

Society- for Testing Materials. These two societies and the American

Association of State Highway Officials and the United States Bureau

of Public Roads are joint sponsors for the sectional committee on method of test for penetration of bituminous materials functioning

under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards

Committee. The society is officially represented on 24 additional

sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

American Society of Refrigerating Engineers, W. H. Ross, secre- tary, 35 Warren Street, New York, N. Y. The society has officially

adopted a test code for steam driven ice manufacturing plants, a

standard ton for refrigeration, specifications for synchronous motors

for direct-connected ammonia compressors, and test code for refrigerating systems. The last mentioned was formulated in cooperation

with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. It is serving

as sponsor for the sectional committee on safety code for mechanical

refrigeration and is officially represented on seven additional sectional

committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

American Society of Safety Engineers. (See National Safety

Council.)

American Society for Steel Treating, W. H. Eiseman, secretary,

4600 Prospect Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio. This society has organized

a recommended practice committee to act in a supervisory capacity

with reference to both the subject matter and the personnel of technical committees of the society. When approved by the recommended

practice committee, the report of a technical committee is issued in

tentative form for a period of about one year. When reviewed,

revised, and approved by the board of directors and the recommended

practice committee, it is adopted as a standard recommended practice

of the society. Technical committees are now at work on the following subjects: Tool steel, measuring case depth, heat treatment of

water and oil hardening gears, hardness testing of metals, mechanism

of cementation, carburization of small parts, and the heat treatment

of crane chains, steel castings, wrought aluminum alloys, carbon

steels, and piston pins. The society is represented on the joint

committee on definitions of terms relating to heat treatment (with

the American Society for Testing Materials and the Society of Automotive Engineers) and other cooperative committees of these

societies and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, National

Research Council, United States Bureau of Mines, the National

Bureau of Standards, and the War Department.

American Specification Institute, Gardner C. Coughlen, acting

executive secretary, 160 North La Salle Street, Chicago, 111. As an

important step in the development of standardized specifications to
332 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDARDS

accompany drawings for building construction and equipment, the

institute issues the Specification Record, comprising bulletins, specifications, outlines of specifications, and other corelated data. Specifications and information collected by the institute from other organizations and sources are made available for the use of institute members

by actual distribution in the form of bulletins and the Specification

Record.

American Vitrified China Manufacturers Association, W. B. Kerr,

president, care of Iroquois China Co., Syracuse, N. Y. This association has taken an active part in the elimination of excess sizes and

varieties of chinaware under the auspices of the division of simplified

practice, having cooperated in the initiation and formulation of simplified practice recommendations relating to chinaware for hotels,

dining cars, hospitals, cafeterias, and restaurants. American Water Works Association Council of Standardization,

George W. Fuller, chairman, 170 Broadway, New York, N. Y. The

association has organized committees to deal with private fire protection services, standard specifications for water meters, standard

brass fittings, and standard form of contract, and is officially repre- sented on the American Committee on Electrolysis. In 1920 it set up the standardization council, which is practically a committee on

committees. The personnel of committees functioning under the

council is generally decided at conventions in conference with officers of the association. The council makes interim replacements when

committeemen are not able to serve. The committees report to the

council as to plan and scope, and the council passes on reports before

they are released. Eight committees are now fuctioning in pre- paring material for a revised edition of the Manual of Water Works

Practice, issued about a year ago, as follows: Methods of water

analysis, practicable loadings for purification processes, industrial

wastes in relation to water supply, pumping station betterments,

physical standards for distribution system, standard specifications

for cast-iron pipe and specials, service connection practice, filter sand

testing and recording, boiler feed water studies. The council has

added committees on steel standpipes and water towers and steel pipe

lines. In cooperation with the American Public Health Association,

the American Water Works Association publishes Standard Methods

of Water Analyses, the sixth edition of which was issued in 1925. In

cooperation with four other organizations the association is making a study of boiler feed water problems. The association is jointsponsor for two standardization projects under the rules of procedure

of the American Engineering Standards Committee, as follows:

Specifications for cast-iron pipe and special castings (with three other

organizations), and screw threads for fire-hose couplings (with the

American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the National Board of
STANDAEDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 333

Fire Underwriters). It is officially represented on three additional

sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

American Welding Society, M. M. Kelly, secretary, 29 West

Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y. Among the stated functions

of the society are that of providing an organization for the promulgation of standards in the welding field, and the bringing about of

the extension of the use of welding through research work. For the

purpose of joining with other societies, associations, and Government

departments in cooperative research and standardization in welding,

the society has organized the American Bureau of Welding, which

coordinates and controls all research and standardization in welding

of the society and also acts as the welding research department of

the National Kesearch Council. (See American Bureau of Welding.)

American Wood Preservers 1 Association, E. J. Stocking, secretary,

111 West Washington Street, Chicago, 111. One of the duties

assigned to the executive committee is the printing of a Manual of

Recommended Practice in which are published the specifications and

standards approved by the association. Proposed standards or

specifications which are embodied in a report of a standing or special

committee are published and distributed to the membership prior to the annual meeting. If approved by the majority of the voting

members present at the annual meeting, the report is submitted to

letter ballot of the association, and is considered approved if it receives a majority of the votes cast by letter ballot. At the 1926

annual meeting, reports relating to the revisions of old material in,

and the addition of new material to, the manual were presented by

committees on the following subjects: Preservatives, ties, treatment

of Douglas fir ties, treatment of car lumber and fir piling, nonpressure

treatment of poles, inspection, tie-service records, posts, and steam

treatments. The association is represented on the joint committee on methods of test for petroleum oils for wood preservation (with

the American Society for Testing Materials), and the national committee on wood utilization. It is represented on three sectional

committees fur^tioning under rules of procedure of the American

Engineering Standards Committee.

American Zinc Institute, Stephen S. Tuthill, secretary, 27 Cedar

Street, New York, N. Y. Standardization activities of the institute are confined to cooperation with other organizations, especially the

American Society for Testing Materials. It is joint sponsor with

the A. S. T. M. for the sectional committee on zinc and zinc ores and is officially represented on four additional sectional committees

under A. S. T. M. sponsorship and functioning under A. E. S. C.

procedure.

Asbestos Paper Manufacturers' Association, Donald Tulloch, jr., secretary, 246 North Seventeenth Street, Philadelphia, Pa. In rec-
334 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDAEDS

ognizition of the desirability of minimizing the number of sizes,

weights, and thicknesses of asbestos paper and millboard this asso- ciation initiated the survey of the asbestos manufacturing field which

resulted in the formulation of the simplified practice recommendation

relating to asbestos paper and asbestos millboard.

Asphalt Association, The, J. E. Pennypacker, secretary, 441 Lexington Avenue, New York, N. Y. This association has no standardizing committee designated as such, its work of standardization

being carried on in cooperation with various interested organizations.

However, its technical advisory committee prepares specifications

for materials and methods of construction, which are distributed

widely and recommended for general use. Wherever possible these

specifications make use of recognized standards adopted by some

national organization. The principal organizations with which the

association is cooperating are the American Society for Testing

Materials, the American Society for Municipal Improvements, and

the division of simplified practice of the United States Department

of Commerce in connection with the elimination of unnecessary

grades of asphalt. The association is conducting research which

will tend toward standardization of certain details of paving mixture

design, this work being done in cooperation with the Association of

Asphalt Paving Technologists.

Asphalt Shingle and Roofing Association, J. S. Bryant, secretary,

285 Madison Avenue, New York, N. Y. Although the association

has formulated no specifications, members of the association have

cooperated actively with the Underwriters' Laboratories, the Federal

Specifications Board, and the American Society for Testing Materials

in the preparation of specifications for roofing products. All of the

members of the association, by official unanimous resolution, have

signified their willingness to supply asphalt and roofing materials

complying with Federal Government master specifications. The

association maintains a research associate at the National Bureau

of Standards doing research work, on the relative value of different

fibers used in roofing felt. Associated Cooperage Industries of America, C. G. Hirt, secretary

and manager, B-20 Railway Exchange Building, St. Louis, Mo.

Organized for the purpose of promoting the cooperage business and

protecting the traffic interests of its members. The association

includes among its various activities the establishment and maintenance of uniform grades for barrel material, and standard specifications for various types of cooperage. It has adopted grade rules

and specifications covering both slack and tight cooperage stock,

which are made effective by vote of a majority of the membership

of the respective groups. Whenever called upon to do so the executive committee investigates any complaint filed by members for
STANDAKDS YEARBOOK, 1927 335

violation of its code of ethics or unfair dealing and takes such action

thereon as the circumstances may require. An inspection service

is maintained to pass upon the quality of cooperage material, in

accordance with the established grade rules and specifications, at

either the mill yard or destination. It is furnished on the request

of members, when made in compliance with the association's inspection rules. Associated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies, Inspection

Department, H. O. Lacount, manager, 184 High Street, Boston 9,

Mass. In connection with its work to improve the construction of buildings, afford better fire protection, and establish a basis for

proper selection, installation, and operation of fire-fighting apparatus,

the association has formulated a large number of specifications for

water-supply equipment, sprinkler systems, fire-protective appliances,

etc. Firms manufacturing apparatus in accordance with the specifications of the association are permitted to use the association's

identification mark on devices specifically approved by the association as to both design and construction. The inspection department

also issues a monthly publication covering the loss experience of the

Factory Mutual companies and matters of special interest from the

standpoint of fire safety. As a member of the fire-protection group

the association is joint sponsor for two sectional committees functioning under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee, as follows: Specifications for fire tests of materials

and construction (with the American Society for Testing Materials

and the National Bureau of Standards) and specifications for rubberlined fire hose (with the American Society for Testing Materials)

This group is represented on one additional sectional committee

functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

Associated General Contractors of America (Inc.)> R. C. Marshall,

jr., general manager, 1150 Munsey Building, Washington, D. C.

This association is pursuing the work of standardization along two

lines: First, the initiation and development of its own standards at present confined construction equipment, and second, cooperating

with other standardizing bodies, such as the American Engineering

Standards Committee, Federal Specifications Board, Department of Commerce, and others. In cooperation with equipment manufacturers who, with each line of equipment, form a bureau affiliated with

the Associated General Contractors, the association is developing

what are known as "A. G. C. standards." So far this work has been

practically completed with respect to concrete mixers, the manufacture of which is governed by "A. G. C. mixer standards." The

unusual feature of the standardization is that the producer group submits its tentative standards to the association as representing the

consumer, and together they work out standard recommendations,
336 NATIONAL BTJKEAU OF STANDARDS

which are mutually agreed upon. The products thus standardized

carry a plate designating that they comply with " A. G. C. standards,"

and the manufacturers desire that the association members act to prevent violation and discarding of the standards, except by mutual

consent. The manufacturers enter into agreement with the association to abide by the "A. G. C. standards," and the association is given the right to deny the use of the name plate by any manufacturer who breaks the agreement. The work of standardizing equipment is not only concerned with the question of mechanics, but is also closely linked with selling practices, which in the past have been

detrimental to both the producer and the consumer. At the present

time the way is being paved for the standardization of power shovels

and cranes, which will probably begin with the matter of sizes. Associated Knit Underwear Manufacturers of America, Roy A.

Cheney, secretary, Union Station, Utica, N. Y. Members of the

standardization committee of the association are appointed by the

president to represent various manufacturing groups. In cases where

problems are of joint interest, associations of jobbers and retailers

appoint one or more members to serve on the standardization committee, the meetings of which are attended by representatives of

the United States Department of Commerce. This committee has

authority to make recommendations to the association concerning

the work done on association problems by the research associate at the National Bureau of Standards, and as to any new problems suggested by members of the association. Its recommendations become

effective when approved by a majority vote at the general meeting

of the association. The association has adopted a standard method

of testing the breaking strength of knitted fabrics and standard sizes for various kinds of cotton, wool, and wool-cotton underwear for men

and union suits for boys. Work is now being done on the standardization of two-piece suits for boys and various kinds for infants; the

development of instructions for washing knit rayon underwear, and

the simplification in sizes of fiber shipping containers. The association has organized a committee to cooperate with the Federal Specifications Board in the preparation of knit underwear specifications.

This committee has assisted in the formulation of standard sizes for

men's, boys', and children's knit cotton union suits. The association

has adopted a standard mark, protected by law, to be used by manufacturers on garments made to measurements certified to conform

to tables compiled by the National Bureau of Standards under license

from the association. A committee composed of jobbers, retailers,

and manufacturers has the right to revoke the license upon due proof

that the use of the standard mark has been wilfully and knowingly

abused. *
STANDAKDS YEARBOOK, 1927 337

Associated Metal Lath Manufacturers, Wharton Clay, commissioner, 123 West Madison Street, Chicago, 111. Standardization

activities of the association have been confined largely to the elimination of excess varieties and sizes of metal lath. In this work it has

cooperated with other organizations through the division of simplified

practice of the United States Department of Commerce. The association is cooperating in the activities of the American Concrete Institute, American Construction Council, American Society for Testing

Materials, National Federation of Construction Industries, and

National Fire Protection Association. The association is represented on two sectional committees functioning under the procedure of the

American Engineering Standards Committee.

Associated Tile Manufacturers, F. W. Walker, secretary, Beaver

Falls, Pa. In recognition of the desirability of establishing uniform

grade nomenclature, formulating minimum grade specifications, and

eliminating excess sizes and varieties of tiles, this association initiated

the movement which resulted in the development of the simplified

practice recommendation relating to white glazed tiles and unglazed

ceramic mosaic, including a color scheme for grade marking and the

issuing of package grade or master grade certificates. Associates for Government Service, The, (Inc.), E. Stagg Whitin,

president, 730 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. One of the important

functions of the associates is to assist State and city governments in

coordinating their purchases under selected commodity specifications. It has formulated specifications for commodities manufactured in the

prisons of one State and sold to purchasing departments of other

States. The association has made special effort to have its specifications conform to those used by commercial organizations in order

to assist State purchasing agents in securing commodities produced

in general industry to supplement prison goods that are uniform in

quality with prison-made goods. The association has compiled a

list of manufacturers of other than prison goods who are willing to

certify that commodities manufactured by them for the purpose con- form to the requnv ments and tests of the prison-made goods specifications. After securing the advice of the trade concerning both the

fairness of price and the ability of these firms to manufacture in

accordance with the specifications, the association agrees to certify

the goods to the State purchasing agents and recommend them for

their use. The agreements made are for a limited period and carry

with them conditions as to inspection at the source of production

with penalties for failure to meet the specifications. The association was officially represented on the advisory board which cooperated with the United States Department of Commerce in the preparation of the National Directory of Commodity Specifications.
338 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Association of American Steel Manufacturers, J. O. Leech, secre- tary, care of Carnegie Steel Co., Pittsburgh, Pa. Standardization

has occupied an important place in the activities of this association for

30 years. It has issued specifications for structural and boiler steel, concrete reinforcement bars, steel rails, and tie plates, and bar steels; and has formulated methods of sampling steel for check analysis

and established permissible rolling variations in the size and weight

of hot-rolled bars and bar sizes of angles, tees, zees, and channels.

The association is represented on the Joint Committee on Investigation of the Effect of Phosphorus and Sulphur in Steel (with 10 other

organizations). It is joint sponsor, with the American Society of Civil Engineers and the Society of Naval Architects and Marine

Engineers, for the sectional committee on structural steel shapes

functioning under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering

Standards Committee. It is represented on three additional sectional

committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

Association of Edison Illuminating Companies, Preston S. Millar,

secretary, Eightieth Street and East End Avenue, New York, N. Y.

While promotion of the work of standardization is not one of the

primary functions for which this association was originated, it is, nevertheless, joint sponsor for two sectional committees functioning

under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards

Committee, as follows: Insulated wires and cables for other than

telephone and telegraph use (with nine other organizations), and

rules for electricity meters (Code for Electricity Meters) (with

the National Bureau of Standards and National Electric Light

Association). As a member of the electric light and power group,

it is sponsor for the sectional committee on miscellaneous line materials. It is also represented on 20 sectional committees functioning

under the A. E. S. C. procedure.

Association of Electragists, International, Laurence W. Davis,

general manager, 15 West Thirty-seventh Street New York, N. Y.

The association is making a survey of the types of rigid conduit used

for electrical installations looking toward simplification to be carried

forward under the procedure of the division of simplified practice

of the United States Department of Commerce. It has organized

a committee on electragists standards for wiring installations. The

association is joint sponsor with the American Institute of Architects

and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers for a sectional

committee on symbols for electrical equipment of buildings, functioning under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee. It is represented on three additional committees

functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

Association of Feed Control Officials of the United States, A. W.

Clark, secretary, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station,
STANADEDS YEABBOOK, 1927 339

Geneva, N. Y. One of the important activities of this organization

is the formulation of standards and the adoption of definitions for

feeding stuffs. Revisions and adoptions of new standards and defi- nitions are submitted by committees in the form of recommendations for approval of the executive committee. The recommendations are then presented by the executive committee to the association

for adoption as standards and definitions, and are published in

pamphlet form under the title of Definitions of Feeding Stuffs. This association has adopted a uniform feed law, which is being used

as a model for adoption by the various States. It is at present

engaged in the preparation of a yearbook which will contain the

definitions and standards, uniform registration forms, uniform

labels for different types of feeding stuffs, recommendations for labeling, and registration of mineral mixture feeds that have been adopted

by the association, as well as other information relating to the work

of the association. It cooperated with the Federal Specifications

Board in the formulation of the United States Government master

specifications for feeds and forage.

Association of Governmental Labor Officials of the United States

and Canada, Louise E. Schutz, secretary, 612 Bremer Arcade, St. Paul, Minn. The association is composed of the officials of the

departments of labor and industry of the various States and Provinces. Its standardization activities have been confined largely to the formulation and promulgation of industrial safety codes. By

formal resolution the president was authorized to appoint a committee on uniform safety laws in order to facilitate the adoption of

uniform safety codes in the States. It has organized a standing

committee on uniform statistical nomenclature, with the United

States Commissioner of Labor Statistics as chairman, to formulate

a standard plan for compiling industrial statistics to assist in accident

prevention. It has urged the adoption by the State departments of the safety codes developed in cooperation with the American Engineering Standards Committee. The association is joint sponsor, with

the Laundryownert National Association and the National Association of Mutual Casualty Companies, for the sectional committee on

safety code for laundries functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

It is represented on 13 additional safety-code sectional committees.

Association of Iron and Steel Electrical Engineers, J. F. Kelly,

secretary, Empire Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. Standardization is an important activity of this association. It has formulated and

adopted rules for the safe operation of electric overhead traveling

cranes, and general specifications for these cranes, and also for engine

stops, commutating pole mill type motors, and alternating-current

motors for main roll drive. It is officially represented on the sec- tional committees on electrical safety code and safety code for the
340 NATIONAL BUKEATJ OF STANDARDS

protection of the heads and eyes of industrial workers, functioning

under A. E. S. C. procedure.

Association of Manufacturers of Chilled Car Wheels, G. E. Doke,

president and secretary, 1847 McCormick Building, Chicago, 111. Although this association has adopted no specifications, it has co- operated with the American Railway Association, mechanical division,

in the formulation of specifications for cast-iron wheels for locomotives, tenders, and cars, and has a completely equipped chemical and

physical research laboratory.

Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, The, W. W. Skinner,

secretary, Box 290, Pennsylvania Avenue Station, Washington, D. C.

One of the important functions of this association is the formulation

of standards and methods of analysis for agricultural products and

other materials used in the agricultural industry. Representatives

appointed by the president serve with members of the American Association of Dairy, Food, and Drug Officials and of the United States

Department of Agriculture, on the joint committee on definitions

and standards for food products. The association cooperates with

the American Public Health Association in the preparation of standard methods of milk analysis, and with the committee on revision

of the United States Pharmacopoeia in the revision of the methods

of tests for medicinal products. This association has published a book of methods of analysis^ and these methods are accepted as authoritative in matters at issue before the Federal and State courts. Association of Railway Electrical Engineers, J. A. Andreucetti,

secretary, 413 Chicago & North Western Terminal, Chicago, 111. Being interested particularly in the operation rather than the manufacture of electrical apparatus used on railroads, this association has

taken no part officially in the formulation of dimensional standards

for such apparatus. However, it has adopted performance specifications for short-time-duty electric motors and has prepared

recommendations concerning the operation of train lighting, locomotive lighting, train-control equipment, manual on standard illumination for railway buildings and standardization of electric construction and maintenance practice, and electric welding and heating

practice. The association is joint sponsor, with nine other organizations, for the sectional committee on insulated wires and cables for

other than telephone and telegraph use and is officially represented on the sectional committee on electrical safety code functioning

under A. E. S. C. procedure.

Better Bedding Alliance of America, S. J. Mills, secretary, 440

South Dearborn Street, Chicago, 111. Among the stated objects of

this association is the encouragement of proper labeling of bedding

and the discouragement of any practice of deception. Its committee

on publicity has been engaged actively in conducting educational
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 341

publicity to show the public what to buy in mattresses. It cooperated

in the establishment of recognized types and sizes of beds, springs,

and mattresses under the auspices of the division of simplified

practice.

Bureau of Explosives, Col. B. W. Dunn, chief inspector, 30 Vesey

Street, New York, N. Y. This bureau functions as an agency for

cooperation between the Interstate Commerce Commission and the

American Railway Association so far as concerns the standardization of containers for explosives and other dangerous articles. Specifications for such containers are published by the bureau in accord- ance with the regulations of the commission. The bureau maintains

a chemical laboratory for the study of explosives and containers, and

a force of traveling inspectors to insure compliance with the requirements of the specifications.

Canners League of California, Preston McKinney, vice president

and secretary, 112 Market Street, San Francisco, Calif. Fruit and

vegetable standards formulated by committees of this organization

appointed by its board of directors have been widely adopted. Its standard contract for canned foods has been formally approved by

the National Wholesale Grocers Association. Working in cooperation with growers' associations and the California Development

Association, the league has secured the passage of a law which re- quires that all canned peaches, pears, apricots, and cherries of a grade

below standards be marked with the word " seconds," embossed in the top of the can. Working in conjunction with the California

State Board of Health, it has secured the passage of the canned vegetable inspection act, which provides protection to the entire industry

against the processing of vegetables susceptible to botulinus in a manner which is not safe. The league has adopted buying sizes for cherries and plums. It cooperated with the California Canning

Peach Growers in further improving the terms of buying contracts,

both as to size of fruit and method of receiving. It has formulated

specifications for canned fruits and issued a booklet containing not

alone standards but digest of the new " seconds" law, prorata delivery rules, etc. Its preserving section has adopted specifications

and instructions to inspectors on strawberries and approved standards on fresh-fruit preserves and jelly.

Chamber of Commerce of the United States of America, Department of Manufacture, E. W. McCullough, manager, Washington,

D. C. During the six years of its existence this department has

been cooperating actively with the United States Department of

Commerce in the movement toward the elimination of waste in

industry through standardization and simplification. Because of its friendly relations with business, the chamber of commerce has maintained contact with over 750,000 firms, corporations, and others
342 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

engaged in business covering practically every avenue of industry.

Through these relations with industry it has been able to act in a

liaison capacity in bringing forward from time to time trade groups,

both organized and unorganized, in which it has stimulated interest

in the program for waste elimination. Many of these groups had

arrived at the point where they were ready to reach a determination

as to a simplified practice program. In the course of the past six years many such groups have been brought in contact with the

division of simplified practice, and the work taken up from that point

and carried on in many instances to successful consummation. It has

assisted the United States Department of Commerce in explaining

to industry the service which it is rendering and has urged the need

for cooperation in many lines of industry in order to carry on the

work. It has suggested to many manufacturing groups concerned

in the establishment of definite standards both as to their materials

and products the advisability of maintaining contact with the

National Bureau of Standards. Through its department of manufacture, the chamber of commerce has in many cases cooperated with

the division of simplified practice in the formulation of simplified

practice recommendations. It is officially represented on the

planning committee acting in an advisory capacity to the division of

simplified practice, and on the advisory board which cooperated

with the United States Department of Commerce in the preparation

of the National Directory of Commodity Specifications. The

organization is officially represented on two sectional committees

functioning under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering

Standards Committee.

Clay Products Association, George C. D. Lenth, secretary, 913

Chamber of Commerce Building, Chicago, 111. This association is made up of manufacturers of vitrified salt glazed clay sewer pipe,

drain tile, wall coping, segmental block, and flue lining. The association maintains a fellowship at Mellon Institute of Industrial Research

where studies are being made on the processes of the manufacturing

of the above, as well as improvements in manufacturing. The

association has several committees, among which is the committee on

standardization, which has been in close cooperation with the National

Bureau of Standards. The association, in addition to having membership in technical organizations of various kinds, is a member of the

American Society for Testing Materials and has adopted that society's

specifications for clay sewer pipe and drain tile. The association has

a staff of engineers for the purpose of promoting its commodities and

for the education of engineers and users of then products.

Coal Mining Institute of America, H. D. Mason, jr., secretary,

Edensburg, Pa. This organization takes an active part in the mining

standardization work going forward under the auspices of the Ameri-
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 343

can Engineering Standards Committee. It inaugurated the move- ment which resulted in the calling of the conference of coal producers,

dealers, and consumers which recommended the formation of a

sectional committee on the classification of coal based upon chemical

and physical characteristics. It is officially represented on 10

sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

Common Brick Manufacturers' Association of America, Ralph P. Stoddard, secretary, Guarantee Title Building, Cleveland, Ohio.

This association, in cooperation with the American Face Brick

Association, submitted to the division of simplified practice the

resolution which resulted in the conference at which the industry

adopted a standard size for face brick and common brick. The

association maintains two research associates at the National Bureau

of Standards investigating the loading capacities of different grades

of brick in an attempt to establish specifications for common brick.

The association cooperated in the initiation of the work on the building

code committee of the United States Department of Commerce.

Compressed Gas Manufacturers Association, J. H. Luening, secre- tary, 120 West Forty-second Street, New York, N. Y. Many standardization activities of this association are conducted under the auspices of the American Engineering Standards Committee. With the

American Gas Association and the International Acetylene Association

it forms the gas group of the A. E* S. C. It is officially represented on the sectional committees on identification of piping systems, and

safety codes for gas, mechanical refrigeration, and compressed air machinery, functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure. The association also cooperates with the Bureau of Explosives in assisting the Interstate Commerce Commission in the preparation of specifications covering

gas transportation equipment. Other standards for equipment used

in the compressed-gas industry are also developed from time to time

as association standards.

Concrete Products Association, D. R. Collins, secretary, 4715

State Street, Milwaukee, Wis. Although this association has not

formulated any standards or specifications, it has devised ways and means for insuring that its members manufacture products to meet

the requirements of certain nationally recognized specifications, such

as those of the American Concrete Institute and the American Society

for Testing Materials. The association issues certificates of quality

to its members when it is found that their products meet the requirements of the American Concrete Institute standards. Before a member can receive a certificate of quality, his product is tested by a representative of the association to ascertain whether or not it meets

the requirements. These certificates are good for only the balance

of the membership year, and renewals can be obtained only upon

tests made of new specimens.
344 NATIONAL BXJEEAU OF STANDAKDS

Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, M. A. Beeman, secretary

,

Tribune Tower, Chicago, 111. This organization initiated the move- ment which resulted in the establishment of a simplified list of sizes of steel reinforcing bars under the auspices of the division of simplified practice; also initiated the movement which resulted in a survey of current practice in steel spiral rods for concrete reinforcement, and is now studying the matter of one grade of new billet reinforcing steel. Copper and Brass Research Association, George A. Sloan, secretary, 25 Broadway, New York, N. Y. The members of this association consist of copper-mining companies and copper and brass

fabricating and distributing companies. The industrial units are represented on committees of the American Society for Testing

Materials and are governed by specifications adopted by that society.

The standardization activities of the association are undertaken in

cooperation with other organizations, especially the A. S. T. M.

It is officially represented on six sectional committees functioning

under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards

Committee. It maintains two research associates at the National

Bureau of Standards doing research work on the investigation of safe

loading of corrugated copper roofing, etc. Cordage Institute, J. S. McDaniel, secretary, 350 Madison Avenue,

New York, N. Y. This organization has formulated and adopted

standards for footage, nomenclature, and tensile strength of sisal,

manila, and java ply and yarn goods. These standards are now

in the process of being reviewed and expanded, the work being done

with the cooperation of the division of simplified practice. A

committee of the institute is working with the American Petroleum

Institute in preparing standards of cordage use in oil-well production.

Cover Paper Manufacturers Association, E. H. Naylor, secretary,

44 Vernon Street, Springfield, Mass. This association has adopted

and promulgated certain trade customs relating to cover paper,

including standard sizes and weights.

Drill and Reamer Society, The, Herbert S. Blake, secretary, 120

Broadway, New York, N. Y. The standing committee on simplification and standardization is actively engaged in the task of eliminating from catalogue lists, sizes and styles of drills and reamers which

the trade no longer demands, and is establishing proper standard

basic mechanical sizes of these tools to be listed in revised catalogues.

The membership acts upon the recommendations of the committee

submitted at general meetings of the society.

Eastern Clay Products Association, Henry T. Shelley, secretary,

Colonial Trust Building, Philadelphia, Pa. Among the committees

appointed by the president to deal with standardization matters are: The standards committee, the Mellon Institute committee, the joint
STANDAKDS YEARBOOK, 1927 345

standards committee, the A. S. T. M. committee, and the Mellon

Institute joint committee. The last mentioned is composed of representatives of the Eastern Clay Products Association and the

Clay Products Association, Chicago, which two associations maintain

two joint fellowships at the Mellon Institute of Industrial Kesearch.

Matters relating to manufacturing problems are considered jointly

by the standards committee of these associations. The Eastern Clay

Products Association works in close harmony with the A. S. T. M.

and has adopted that society's dimensions for sewer pipe, crushing

strength, and methods of test. The association has so standardized

the product of its members that all of them produce sewer pipe or chimney flue lining which meet standard definite requirements.

Electric Hoist Manufacturers Association, E. Donald Tolles, secretary, 165 Broadway, New York, N. Y. Specifications for portable

overhead hoists so formulated as to be in harmony with the specifications of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the American

Society for Testing Materials, and the Electric Power Club have been

formally approved and promulgated by this association.

Electrical Safety Conference, Robert B. Shepard, secretary, 109

Leonard Street, New York, N. Y. The association is composed of representatives of seven cooperating and associate organizations

interested in questions affecting accident hazards arising from the

design, construction, installation, and use of electrical appliances.

Committees are appointed to study and prepare electrical safety

standards. The report of these committees are submitted to the

conference and after approval and acceptance by its cooperating

organizations are published as safety standards. The conference is sponsor for the sectional committee on safety code for electrical power

control functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

Elevator Manufacturers Association of the United States, O. P. Cummings, secretary, 52 Vesey Street, New York, N. Y. This

association has adopted a uniform form of contract, although it has

formulated no specifications for elevators. However, it is officially

represented on the sectional committee on elevators, and safety codes

for elevators and escalators and for walkway surfaces, functioning

under A. E. S. C. procedure.

Grain Dealers National Association, Charles Quinn, secretary,

Toledo, Ohio. The standard grades of grain advocated by the association are those prepared by the United States Department of Agriculture in accordance with the grain standards act passed by

Congress. In its effort to insure adherence to these standards by its members, the association has written into its by-laws a clause,

according to which any member found guilty by the Department of Agriculture of a violation of this act stands expelled automatically
346 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

from the association, and notice of the expulsion is published in the

association's official organ.

Grinding Wheel Manufacturers Association of the United States

and Canada, F. R. Henry, secretary, Summit Street and Negley

Place, Dayton, Ohio. The activities of this association have been

confined to the standardization and simplification of grinding wheels.

It has adopted standard shapes for grinding wheels and attachments

established at a general conference called by the division of simplified

practice at the request of this association. It is joint sponsor with

the International Association of Industrial Accident Boards and

Commissions for the sectional committee on safety code for the use,

care, and protection of abrasive wheels functioning under A. E. S. C.

procedure.

Gypsum Industries, The, H. J. Schweim, chief engineer, 844 Rush

Street, Chicago, 111. This organization appointed a technical problems committee to review all specifications published by the Gypsum

Industries, arrange for the conducting of tests, outline problems, and

investigations for the research associates of this organization at the

National Bureau of Standards, and handle all problems of a technical

nature for the industry. This committee usually holds meetings

about every two months. Through the work of this committee the

organization has prepared and issued literature relating to the properties and uses of gypsum, and certain suggested provisions for

building codes. It has also issued revised specifications for the

application of gypsum plaster to concrete surfaces, and is now en- gaged in reviewing the general specifications for gypsum plaster. It cooperated in the initiation of the work of the Building Code Committee of the Department of Commerce. It is represented on the

A. S. T. M. committee on gypsum, the A. E. S. C. sectional committee on specifications for fire tests of materials and construction,

and the National Fire Protection Association committee on building

construction.

Hardwood Manufacturers Institute, J. H. Townshend, executive

vice president, 1339 Bank of Commerce Building, Memphis, Tenn.

This organization is officially represented on the National Committee

on Wood Utilization, the Central Committee on Lumber Standards,

and the consulting committee on lumber standards. In cooperation with the National Hardwood Lumber Association it has formulated grading rules covering specifications for the measurement and

inspection of hardwood lumber.

Heating and Piping Contractors National Association, Henry B.

Gombers, secretary, 50 Union Square East, New York, N. Y. Two

special committees and one standing committee are carrying on work

of standardization for the association. The special boiler output

committee has been appointed by the president, to formulate a
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 347

method of determining the output of boilers. Through conferences

with boiler manufacturers it has already developed a standard

method, and is now engaged in compiling data to permit the selec- tion of the proper boiler for any chosen installation. The special

committee on certified heating has been appointed by the president

to develop a standard method of procedure for use with the " certi- fied heating" plan, according to which the purchaser is assured that

his heating plant has been designed and installed in compliance with

recognized engineering standards. This plan is now being applied

in Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Cleveland, Denver, Los Angeles, Memphis, Philadelphia, and St. Louis, and the movement is spreading

rapidly. The association's standing committee on standardization,

appointed by the president, has authority, with the consent of the

board of directors, to undertake such standardization projects as

will be of benefit to the heating and piping industry, and to coordinate

the work of other committees of the association wherever it touches

the field of standardization. After conference with representatives

of other interested organizations each proposed standard developed

by the committee is submitted to the board of directors first in tentative form, and later, after other interests involved have been consulted, the revised standard is submitted to the board for adoption.

This committee is now engaged on the standardization of pipe sizes for different installations, and the calculation of exposure factors for

various cities. The list of cities for which exposure factors have been

determined was extended materially during 1926. The committee

developed standard roughing-in dimensions for radiator supply

valves which became effective on January 1, 1926. In cooperation

with the research laboratory of the American Society of Heating and

Ventilating Engineers and the United States Department of Commerce, this committee was able to bring about the elimination of the

steam type of radiator, as it was found that the water type of radiation was just as efficient on steam heating as the steam type of

radiator. The association is joint sponsor, with the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers and the Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings Industry, for the sectional

committee on pipe flanges and fittings, which is functioning under

under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards

Committee. It is represented on three additional sectional committees functioning under the A. E. S. C. procedure.

Hollow Building Tile Association, The, J. S. Sleeper, secretary,

Conway Building, Chicago, 111. For more than seven years this association has been engaged in standardization and simplification

work of hollow building tiles. In cooperation with the National

Bureau of Standards, the association has conducted research relating

to hollow tile and its uses and research on manufacturing problems.

36316—27 23
348 NATIONAL BTJKEAU OF STANDAEDS

It has conducted a series of tests on the following subjects to determine the quality and uses of hollow tile: Fire resistance, strength

of individual units of tile and their related strength in the wall

sound travel through hollow tile walls, insulating value of hollow

tile, research on mortar values, resistance of hollow building tile to weather conditions, absorption tests, adhesion of mortars and stuccos*

effect of grind on both strength and fire resistance, adding grog to improve fire resistance, fire tests on plastered walls, size of units

in fire tests to determine variations in different size units, expansion

determinations, and chemical and mineralogical analyses of a large

number of clays to determine the causes of failure in some tile. Tests

have also been conducted on the addition of sawdust and its effect,

the effect of varying sizes of fillets, the effect of design on fire resistance

and strength, fusing points of typical clays, etc. The results of these research tests are embodied in the reports and publications

issued by the association. Three research associates are maintained

by this association at the National Bureau of Standards doing

research work on the fire resistance of hollow tile walls, acoustics of

hollow tile walls, and adhesion of plasters to hollow tile backings.

The association has arranged with testing laboratories throughout

the country to make tests on hollow building tile in accordance

with the standard method of testing recommended by the National

Bureau of Standards. The association has assisted in the work of

the building code committee of the Department of Commerce on the

following reports: Recommended minimum requirements for small

dwelling construction, and recommended minimum requirements

for masonry wall construction. Its standards committee has been

active in the formulation and adoption of minimum standard sizes for hollow building tile contained in the division of simplified

practice recommendation for this commodity. The association has

cooperated with committees of the American Society for Testing

Materials in the formulation of standards for tile. It is officially

represented on the sectional committee on specifications for fire tests of materials and construction, functioning under the rules of

procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee.

Horological Institute of America, Paul Moore, secretary, care of National Research Council, Washington, D. C. Among the stated

objects of the institute, which was organized by the National Research Council, are the development of standards for horological

schools and the establishment of a system of varying attainments for watchmakers. It gives examinations to watchmakers in both the

theory and practice of watch repairing, and grants certificates to those passing its requirements. The institute maintains a research

associate at the National Bureau of Standards doing research work

on the certification of watchmakers.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 349

Illuminating Engineering Society, L. H. Graves, general secretary,

29 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y. The standardization

work of the society is carried on by four committees which have been

placed on a representative basis with members nominated by and

officially representing various other organizations, and now function

as sectional committees under the rules of procedure of the American

Engineering Standards Committee, with the society serving as sponsor or joint sponsor, as follows: Code of lighting factories, mills,

and other work places; code of lighting school buildings (with the

American Institute of Architects); automobile headlighting specifications—laboratory tests for approval of electric headlighting devices for motor vehicles (with the Society of Automotive Engineers)

and illuminating engineering nomenclature and photometric standards. The society is represented on four additional sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

Institute of American Meat Packers, W. W. Woods, executive

vice president, 509 South Wabash Avenue, Chicago, 111. All standardization and simplification activities of the institute are conducted

through the committee on packinghouse practice and research. As

a result of the original work done by this committee in the elimination

of unnecessary sizes and styles of inner containers such as lard tins,

etc., a subcommittee on standardization was appointed to continue

the work of standardization of other equipment and supplies. The

following commodities have already been standardized: Lard cans;, sausage, lard, and sliced bacon cartons; cheesecloth and muslin;,

paper; nailed wooden crates and boxes; hand trucks; beef and pork

trolleys; woodenware and cooperage. The committee is now working on the following items : Twines, brushes, and autotruck bodies. The

institute conducts a central research laboratory which is supported

by the member companies. Its department of scientific research is now engaged in problems concerning, among other subjects, the

curing and conservation of meats.

Institute of Paint and Varnish Research, Henry A. Gardner,

director of laboratory, 2201 New York Avenue NW., Washington,

D. C. The institute works in close harmony with the National

Bureau of Standards on research problems, and cooperates with the

Federal Specifications Board in preparing specifications for paint and

varnish.

Institute of Radio Engineers, Dr. Alfred N. Goldsmith, secretary,

37 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y. Standardization

represents an important part of the activities of the institute which

has formulated, adopted, and promulgated standard definitions of

terms and standard graphical symbols used in radio engineering.

The institute's committee on standardization is undertaking the

formulation of standard methods of testing radio apparatus in order
350 NATIONAL) BUREAU OF STANDARDS

to determine the important characteristics of such devices, particularly those used in radio-broadcast reception. The committee is conducting its work through five subcommittees covering the following subjects: Vacuum tubes, circuit elements, receiving sets, electroacoustic devices, and power supply. The members of the committee

on standardization are appointed by the president. The committee

works by correspondence and through discussions at meetings of

the committee and its subcommittees. The standards which it recommends are submitted to the board of directors by which final action is taken in behalf of the institute. The institute is joint

sponsor with the American Institute of Electrical Engineers for a

sectional committee on radio, and is officially represented on three

additional sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure. It is a member of the National Fire Protection Association.

International Apple Shippers' Association, R. G. Phillips, secre- tary, 1108 Mercantile Bunding, Rochester, N. Y. This association

has for many years taken a very active part in standardization

matters relating to fresh fruits and vegetables. It was particularly

active in connection with the enactment of the United States apple

grading law approved August, 1912, the national standard barrel

law in effect July 1, 1916, the New York State apple grading law

enacted in 1915, and other pioneer measures relating to standardization of fruits and vegetables. Subsequently the association has

closely followed and interested itself in all Federal and State legislation of this character. It has furthermore rendered effective service

in the general standardization movement by giving publicity in special pamphlet form to the important laws of the State and Federal

Governments, relating to grades, marks, packing, packages, and

standards of fruits and vegetables, and to the Federal food and drugs

act.International Association of Electrotypers of America, H. G.

Guiteras, field secretary, Leader Building, Cleveland, Ohio. Two of

the main activities of this association lead directly to standardization. One is formulating for the industry a uniform method of

determining the cost of producing electrotypes, and the other is conducting research work to establish the best methods of making

electrotypes. The association maintains a research associate at the

National Bureau of Standards doing research work on electrotyping

problems. A cost accountant is employed to install the cost system

and carry on a cost service for members of the association and the

industry in general.

International Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions, Ethelbert Stewart, secretary, Bureau of Labor Statistics,

Washington, D. C. Standardization in the safety code field represents an important part of the activities of this association. It
STANDAKDS YEARBOOK, 1927 351

is joint sponsor for four sectional committees functioning under the

rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee, as follows: Safety code for the use, care, and protection of

abrasive wheels (with the Grinding Wheel Manufacturers Association of the United States and Canada); safety code for mechanical

power transmission apparatus (with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the National Bureau of Casualty and Surety

Underwriters); safety code for rubber machinery (with the National

Safety Council); safety code for woodworking plants (with the

National Bureau of Casualty and Surety Underwriters). It is represented on 21 additional sectional committees functioning under

A. E. S. C. procedure.

International Association of Milk Dealers, R. E. Little, executive

secretary, 139 North Clark Street, Chicago, 111. Standardization

and simplification are important activities of this association. Its committee on standardization of equipment consists of five members

appointed by the president and approved by the board of directors.

The function of this committee is to cooperate with similar committees from the manufacturers' organizations and the Department

of Commerce in the work of standardization and simplification of

milk-plant equipment. The committee's activities are reported to the annual convention in the form of recommendations. In the past

year the association adopted the committee's recommendation for

the standardization of sanitary thermometer connections for various

size Pasteurizing vats and tanks. In cooperation with similar

committees representing the Allied States Creameries Association

and the National Association of Ice Cream Manufacturers, the

committee on standardization of equipment has prepared specifications for standard interchangeable sanitary pipe fittings which

were adopted by the association. All sanitary pipe and fittings used

in the milk plants are now interchangeable. The committee cooperated with committees of bottle manufacturers and the Department

of Commerce in the elimination of various heights of bottles and cap

seats and the establishment of standard sizes. The committee is now engaged in the work of revising the simplified practice recom- mendation for milk and cream bottles with a view toward securing a further reduction in types and looking toward a standard bottle

in each of the respective heights. Interstate Cotton Seed Crushers ' Association, George H. Bennett,

secretary, 914 Santa Fe Building, Dallas, Tex. The association has

adopted definitions of grade and quality of cottonseed, cottonseed

oil, peanut, soya bean, and coconut products, and issued rules

governing the sampling and sale of these commodities. In cooperation with the American Oil Chemists' Society it has formulated

methods of chemical analysis. To render these definitions, rules,
352 NATIONAL BUKEATJ OF STANDAEDS

and analyses effective any member of the association found guilty

of misbranding or a dulteration is dismissed from membership. Action

is now being taken by the refiners' division of the association looking

to a substantial reduction in the number of containers used for vegetable compound.

Laundryowners National Association of the United States and

Canada, W. E. Fitch, general manager, Drawer 202, La Salle, 111. Although the association has no distinct standardization committee,

its departments of research, engineering, and uniform cost accounting carry on work having a direct bearing upon standardization. It has evolved a uniform system of cost accounting now in general use among its membership which represents about 70 per cent of the

volume of laundry business in the United States. The association

compiles operating cost data, and distributes the significant information to such members as have adopted the uniform system of accounting. A manual of standard practice in accounting has been published

for the benefit of the industry. The association has also published

a manual of standard practice for the power laundry washroom, the

development of which is attributable to the fellowship of three textile experts maintained by the association at the Mellon Institute for

Industrial Research. In this work the association has received the

cooperation of the Converters Association of New York, the Lowell

Textile School, the National Association of Dyers and Cleaners, the

National Association of Finishers of Cotton Fabrics, and the National

Bureau of Standards. The association is cooperating with the Good

Housekeeping Institute, the National Better Business Bureau, Home

Economics Department of Columbia University, and Women's Wear

and Daily News Record in the task of establishing standards of fast

color. Through its department of engineering the association is undertaking to standardize building construction, plant layouts,

ventilation, heating, and lighting. In the American Institute of Laundering (Inc.), maintained by the Laundryowners' National

Association of the United States and Canada at Joliet, 111., practical

applications are made of research findings developed at the Mellon

Institute and by the department of engineering and cost accounting.

A standard ratio of costs is being developed in conjunction with the

engineering and uniform accounting departments. The association

is joint sponsor, with the Association of Governmental Labor Officials of the United States and Canada and the National Association of Mutual Casualty Companies, for the sectional committee on safety

code for laundries functioning under the rules of procedure of the

American Engineering Standards Committee.

Leather Belting Exchange, Louis W. Amy, secretary, 119 South

Fourth Street, Philadelphia, Pa. This association collaborated in the

preparation of, and has officially approved, the specifications for
STANDAKDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 353

leather belting promulgated by the Federal Specifications Board. It maintains at Cornell University a research laboratory in order to develop better methods for manufacturing leather belting.

Machinery Builders' Society, W. C. Fulmer, secretary, 50 Church

Street, New York, N. Y. The several sections of the society are active in standardization work. They have formulated standard rules

of obsolescence covering patterns, jigs, and fixtures; standard practice of marking patterns; and a standard accounting and cost system.

The hydraulic section developed a testing code for hydraulic turbines

which formed the basis for the A. S. M. E. code. The marine sec- tion prepared specifications for bronze propellers which have been

formally approved by the society.

Manufacturers Standardization Society of the Valve and Fittings

Industry, Albert C. Taylor, general secretary, 103 Park Avenue,

New York, N. Y. Organized for the purpose of formulating and promulgating standards satisfactory to the valve and fittings industry,

this society issues a series of " standard practices" relating to the

minimum permissible grade or quality of valves and fittings which

have been adopted by the society. It is serving as joint sponsor,

with the American Society of Mechanica) Engineers and the Heating and Piping Contractors National Association, for a sectional committee on pipe flanges and fittings and is officially represented on

four additional sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C.

procedure.

Manufacturing Chemists' Association of the United States, John

I. Tierney, secretary, Investment Building, Fifteenth and K Streets,

NW., Washington, D. C. For more than 50 years this association

has been active in the movement for standardization of practice and

equipment in the chemical industry. It has adopted standard

tables for aqua ammonia, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulphuric

acid, and zinc chloride. In cooperation with representatives of container manufacturers and the railroads, its standing committees have

developed standards for containers which have been incorporated in

the official specifications of the Interstate Commerce Commission.

These committees have completed or are now at work on specifications

for carboys, steel drums and tank cars, and packages for the trans- portation of powdered insecticides and other poisonous articles. In

cooperation with the American Chemical Society and the manufacturers of chemical apparatus a committee of the association

prepares specifications for graduates, thermometers, and other

laboratory apparatus. A committee is now cooperating with rep- resentatives of manufacturers in the development of standards for

earthenware apparatus.

Maple Flooring Manufacturers Association, George W. Keehn,

secretary, Stock Exchange Building, Chicago, 111. Among the stated
354 NATIONAL BUEEAXJ OF STANDAEDS

purposes of the association are the establishment and enforcement of

uniform grades and standards, and the making of the association

trade-mark the symbol of excellence in methods and materials.

Member firms are permitted to use the association's trade-mark on

maple, beech, or birch flooring which is standardized and guaranteed

by the association when passed upon by the association's official inspector.

Milling Cutter Society, The, Herbert S. Blake, secretary, 120

Broadway, New York, N. Y. The standing committee on simplification and standardization is actively engaged in the task of eliminating from catalogue lists, sizes and styles of milling cutters which the

trade no longer demands, and is establishing proper standard basic

mechanical sizes of these tools to be listed in revised catalogues.

The membership acts upon the recommendations of the committee

submitted at general meetings of the society.

Mine Inspectors Institute, Martin Bolt, secretary, department of mines, Springfield, 111. The institute is interested in all phases of standardization relating to the selection, installation, or use of equipment in mines. It is officially represented on the mining standardization correlating committee. The institute is serving as sponsor for a sectional committee on safety code for mine explosives and is rep- resented on 11 additional sectional committees, functioning under

A. E. S. C. procedure, dealing with both coal and metal mining

equipment and the safe operation thereof.

National Association of Brass Manufacturers, William M. Webster,

commissioner, 139 North Clark Street, Chicago, 111. The association

organized a special committee on Government plumbing fixtures

specifications which cooperated with the Federal Specifications Board

in the preparation of the United States Government master specification for plumbing fixtures for land use. Its standardization committee is actively engaged in formulating standards to be included in

its book of standards.

National Association of Cotton Manufacturers, Russell T. Fisher,

secretary, 80 Federal Street, Boston, Mass. (See National Council

of American Cotton Manufacturers.)

National Association of Dyers and Cleaners, Ivan M. Tull, general

manager, Mills Building, Suite 807, Washington, D. C. Work along

standardization lines is carried on by research associates maintained

by this organization at the National Bureau of Standards under the

direction of a research committee appointed by the president. The

recommendations and reports of this committee are submitted to the members of the association at annual conventions. In 1926 the

association with the aid of experienced dry cleaners prepared and

published a book entitled, "Some Standard Practices for Cleansing." It is now engaged in the preparation of a testing method for
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 355

rating fabrics as to maintenance requirements in cleansing by the

commercial dry cleaner.

National Association of Farm Equipment Manufacturers, H. J. Sameit, secretary, 608 South Dearborn Street, Chicago, 111. One of the chief functions of this organization is the work of simplification

and standardization of farm machinery and equipment. The asso- ciation represents many different lines of manufacture and because

of this diversity the organization has been divided into 11 different

departments—9 trade departments and 2 general departments.

The trade departments, operating under their own by-laws and having

their own officers, perform the work of standardization of products

and elimination of unnecessary styles and varieties. One of these

divisions, the plow and tillage implement department, issued a "book

of standards'' in May, 1926, summarizing the eliminations made by

that branch of the industry since 1914, which cover the following

implements: Walking plows, riding moldboard plows, corn planters, tractor moldboard plows, stalk cutters, peg-tooth harrows, disk harrows, land rollers, spring-tooth harrows, drills, seeders, cultivators,

and drill and seeder attachments (disk harrows). The committee on wood materials conservation of the farm-wagon department of

the association has compiled and published a pamphlet on specifications and grading, and inspection rules for wagon material and wagon

stock. These rules have been adopted jointly by this association

and the National Hardwood Lumber Association. At the association's request, the division of simplified practice called a conference

of manufacturers of bolts and nuts for farm equipment. The result

of this conference was the adoption of a certain limited number of

sizes and types of bolts and nuts which are contained in simplified

practice recommendation for plow bolts. National Association of Glue Manufacturers, H. B. Sweatt, secre- tary, 1457 Broadway, New York, N. Y. Methods of test and technical problems of interest to the association are investigated by the

association's technical division, which is composed of one representative from each member firm. The division has formulated and published standard methods for testing the viscosity and jelly strength

of glue. The division directs the activities of two research fellows, one at the National Bureau of Standards and the other at Miner

Labratories, Chicago, 111. National Association of Hosiery and Underwear Manufacturers,

J. N. McCullaugh, national secretary, 334 Fourth Avenue, New York,

N. Y. Standardization and research form the major part of the

work of this association. It has adopted standard methods for measuring stockings; standard sizes for hosiery boxes; and standard

lengths for hosiery for men, women, children, and infants. The

association maintains a research associate at the National Bureau of

36316—27 24
356 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDABDS

Standards who has completed work on seven-eighth's length hosiery,

and is now inaugurating research work on standardization of twist

for all carded and combed yarns used for hosiery and underwear,

and on moisture and oil content for rayon yarns. National Association of Ice Cream Manufacturers, Fred Kasmussen, secretary, 416 Telegraph Building, Harrisburg, Pa. Standardization work of this association is carried on by the committee on

standardization of equipment. This committee is formulating

standards for ice-cream cans. In cooperation with similar committees

of the Allied States Creameries Association and the International

Association of Milk Dealers, it has prepared specifications for a standard interchangeable sanitary fitting which have been accepted

and approved by this association. A standard cost-accounting

system has been developed by the association.

National Association of Manufacturers of Heating and Cooking

Appliances, Allen W. Williams, secretary, Columbus, Ohio. This

association is interested in standardization from the point of view of both simplification and safety. It has organized a gas appliance

safety committee to cooperate in the preparation of a gas-safety

code, and a committee on simplified practice to deal with coal stoves and ranges and gas ranges. Although appointed by the president of

the association the last-mentioned committee is composed of both

members and nonmembers, and serves as the point of contact between

the stove industry and the division of simplified practice. The

association is officially represented on the sectional committee on bolt,

nut, and rivet proportions functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

National Association of Marble Dealers, Victor Mosel, secretary,

648 Rockefeller Building, Cleveland, Ohio. This association has

not as yet formulated any standards or specifications. It does,

however, maintain a research associate at the National Bureau of

Standards doing research work on the use and care of marble for interior installations.

National Association of Mutual Casualty Companies, J. M. Eaton,

secretary, 730 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. Standardization in

the safety code field forms an important part of the work of this

association which is officially represented on the safety code correlating committee. It is joint sponsor for the sectional committee on

safety code for laundries (with the Association of Governmental

Labor Officials of the United States and Canada and the Laundryowners National Association), and is represented on 24 additional

sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

National Association of Purchasing Agents (Inc.), W. L. Chandler,

secretary, Woolworth Building, New York, N. Y. Standardization

and simplification constitute important activities of this organization.

It brought together various bodies interested in standardizing cata-
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 357

logue sizes and developed a standard size. It initiated movements

for the adoption of a national standard invoice form and the promulgation of iron and steel scrap specifications, which have been

widely accepted, and made simplified practice recommendations by the

division of simplified practice. The association also cooperated in

the formulation of simplified practice recommendations for paper

sizes, catalogue sizes, and standard warehouse forms, and in the

promulgation of standard contracts for coal and other fuels. In

cooperation with the American Engineering Standards Committee,

the American Society for Testing Materials, and other national

organizations, it is actively engaged in work on pattern equipment

standardization, naval stores, gear standardization, and other like movements. The association is represented on the following committees of the United States Department of Commerce through which

most of its work on standardization and simplification is done: The

division of simplified practice planning committee, National Committee on Metals Utilization, National Committee on Wood Utilization, committee on simplification of desk sizes, consulting committee on lumber standards, and the committee on simplification of paint and

varnish brushes. It is represented on three sectional committees

functioning under the rules of procedure of the A. E. S. C. The association was officially represented on the advisory board which cooperated

with the United States Department of Commerce in the preparation

of the National Directory of Commodity Specifications.

National Association of Sheet and Tin Plate Manufacturers,

Walter W. Lower, secretary-treasurer, Oliver Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. This organization was one of the first to formulate specifications

for steel scrap. It has also prepared a list of sheet mill tolerances

containing permissible variations in the furnishing of sheet steel. Valuable assistance was rendered by this association in the compilation of material for the division of simplified practice recommendation for sheet steel. Work is going forward on the standardization

of depreciation for the sheet-steel industry in cooperation with the

United States Treasury Department.

National Association of Sheet Metal Contractors of the United

States, W. C. Markle, secretary, 334 Fourth Avenue, Pittsburgh,

Pa. A committee of the association has been compiling specifications

for every branch of sheet metal work in building construction, including warm air furnaces, ventilating systems, metal window frames and

sash, metal ceilings, and various kinds of roofing. The association

has been particularly active in making effective the simplified practice

recommendations relating to the weights and thicknesses of terneplate, and the elimination of lighter than No. 28 gauge sheets for roofing, eaves trough, and conductor.
358 NATIONAL BUEEAU OF STANDAKDS

National Association of Steel Furniture Manufacturers, J. D. M.

Phillips, secretary, Union Trust Building, Cleveland, Ohio. This

association has formulated specifications for various kinds of steel furniture, including bookcases, desks, horizontal and vertical filing cases, wastebaskets, lockers, tables, and cupboards. It has cooperated in the establishment of the standards for safes complying with

the requirements of the Underwriters, Laboratories label service.

National Association of Waste Material Dealers, C. M. Haskins,

secretary, Times Building, New York, N. Y. This association has

been a pioneer in establishing standard classifications for waste

materials, including metals, rubber, paper, and cotton and woolen

rags. In drawing up standard classifications the association follows

its established plan of consulting the associations representing consumers of such material.

National Association of Wooden Box Manufacturers, Paul L. Grady, secretary, 844 Rush Street, Chicago, 111. This association

has been active in promoting scientific research in box construction

and standardization of boxes and crates. Many types of packages

have already been standardized and many others are being studied

with a view to standardization. It has published' a book entitled " Wooden Box and Crate Construction/' containing detailed information relating to the use of wood in box and crate construction, box

design, crate design, box and crate testing, and structure and identification of woods. The book also contains a chapter devoted to box

and crate specifications. The association has compiled and issued a

technical sheet which deals with the proper construction of boxes,

known as the "Nailing Schedule.'' It is officially represented on

the consulting committee on lumber standards.

National Association of Wool Manufacturers, Walter Humphreys?

secretary, 80 Federal Street, Boston, Mass. The activities of this

association relating to standardization are carried on by a joint

committee on research and standardization made up of members of

this association, the American Association of Woolen and Worsted

Manufacturers, and the National Association of W^oolen and Worsted

Spinners. Recommendations are submitted to the joint committee

before final adoption as the association's standards. A committee

of this organization has made a study of the standardization of cost

factors. National Association of Woolen and Worsted Spinners, J. J. Nevins, secretary, 45 East Seventeenth Street, New York, N. Y.

The standardization activities of this association are conducted by a

joint committee on research and standardization composed of members of this association, the American Association of Woolen and

Worsted Manufacturers, and the National Association of Wool

Manufacturers. Recommendations of this organization are sub-
STANDABDS YEABBOOK, 1927 359

mitted to the joint committee before final adoption as the association's

standards.

National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, Alfred Reeves,

general manager, 366 Madison Avenue, New York, N. Y. This

organization has cooperated with the National Bureau of Standards,

Society of Automotive Engineers (Inc.), and the American Petroleum

Institute in the development of most suitable specifications for motor

fuels. It is officially represented on the sectional committees on

colors for traffic signals and safety code for automobile brakes and

brake testing, functioning under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee. It is also cooperating with

the United States Department of Commerce by representation on

the National Committee on Metals Utilization.

National Board of Fire Underwriters, W. E. Mallalieu, general

manager, 85 John Street, New York, N. Y. The standardization

activities of the board are conducted under the direction of its standing committee on fire prevention and engineering standards,

the membership of which is appointed by the president of the board.

This committee has authority to adopt, subject to approval by the

executive committee, regulations which are later printed and issued

by the National Board of Fire Underwriters. Practically all of the

existing regulations have been recommended by the National Fire

Protection Association, and were prepared by the various technical

committees of that association, the membership of which committees

includes in all cases a representative from the engineering department

of the board. During 1926 the committee has given special consideration to specifications for the construction of automobile tank

trucks, regulations on signaling installations, oil-storage rooms and

buildings, pyroxylin finishes, fusion gas welding, the use of compressed gases for lighting, heating, and cooking, and dry-cleaning

establishments. In the standardization of fire-hose couplings the

board has been very active, and to date in about 1,700 cities and

towns standard couplings are used. The regulations of the board

for the installation of hazardous and protective devices as recom- mended by the National Fire Protection Association have been

issued in 42 pamphlets. Work is now going forward on the preparation for issue of nine additional pamphlets on: Municipal fire alarm

systems; protective signaling systems; dust explosions in starch

factories; gasoline vapor gas machines, lamps, and systems; gravity

and pressure tanks; foam extinguishing systems ; dip tanks; spraying

operations; rotary and centrifugal fire pumps. The board is joint

sponsor for two sectional committees functioning under the rules of

procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee, as follows: Screw threads for fire-hose couplings (with the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers and the American Water Works
360 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Association), insulated wires and cables for other than telephone

and telegraph use (with nine other organizations). The board is represented on three additional sectional committees functioning

under A. E. S. C. procedure. As a member of the fire-protection

group, the board is joint sponsor for specifications for fire tests of

materials and construction (with the American Society for Testing

Materials and the National Bureau of Standards) and specifications

for rubber-lined fire hose (with the American Society for Testing

Materials). (See the Underwriters' Laboratories.)

National Building Granite Quarries Association (Inc.), H. H.

Sherman, secretary, 31 State Street, Boston, Mass. This association

has adopted a uniform proposal blank for use by all members in

submitting estimates. This proposal form serves to standardize

the terms and conditions embodied in the estimates. It has also adopted uniform contract forms which are recommended for general

use on contracts for granite work. These contract forms embody

the terms and conditions upon which the proposals are based. The

association has formulated complete granite specifications, which

include standards of workmanship, requirements, and other essential

details. National Bureau of Casualty and Surety Underwriters, H. P. Stell- wagen, secretary, 120 West Forty-second Street, New York, N. Y.

The bureau, which has been intimately associated with the development of industrial safety codes as the basis for the application of

schedule rating, is primarily and principally interested in standardization in the field of safety codes. It is sponsor or joint sponsor for seven sectional committees functioning under the rules of procedure

of the American Engineering Standards Committee, for formulatingsafety codes for the following subjects: Machine tools (with the

National Machine Tool Builders Association); mechanical power

transmission apparatus (with the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers and the International Association of Industrial Accident

Boards and Commissions) ; conveyors and conveying machinery (with

the American Society of Mechanical Engineers) ; mechanical power

control (with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers);

woodworking plants (with the International Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions); tanneries; amusement

parks (with the National Association of Amusement Parks). The

bureau is represented on 31 additional sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure. The other work of the bureau has

to do with standardization in a still more general sense, particularly

the standardization of rating methods and practice for the various

forms of casualty insurance.

National Canners Association, Frank E. Gorrell, secretary; 1739

H Street NW.j Washington, D. C. Standardization committees
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 361

appointed by this association are working in cooperation with the

joint committee on definitions and standards of the United States

Department of Agriculture on standard grades of various food products. The conference committee with wholesale grocers confers

with like committees representing various associations of wholesale

grocers on matters of common interest regarding standard forms of

contracts. The association has developed a standard classification

of accounts for members of the canning industry. Special attention

is being given by the association to proper trade terms in connection

with labeling. It cooperates with Federal and State officials in the

enforcement of uniform regulations pertaining to proper and intelli- gent labeling.

National Coal Association, Harry L. Gandy, executive secretary

; Southern Building, Fifteenth and H Streets NW., Washington, D. C.

All standardization work of the association is conducted under the

supervision of the mining standardization correlating committee.

The association is officially represented on not only this committee

but also 14 sectional committees functioning under the procedure of

the American Engineering Standards Committee.

National Committee on Metals Utilization, W. Chattin Wetherill,

director, United States Department of Commerce Building, Washington, D. C. This committee was organized in 1926 for the purpose

of carrying the principles of simplified practice more deeply into the

metals-using field, unifying specifications, discontinuing certain

trade practices, and acting as a clearing house in bringing together

manufacturers, distributers, and users of the various industries.

The ultimate aim of the committee is to awaken a nation-wide interest

in the need for eliminating industrial waste, and to stimulate mass

action in applying corrective measures. It is now composed of 22

member groups constituting an impartial body working in close cooperation with official and private agencies, and representing all branches of industry and trade interested in closer metal utilization,

better manufacturing, distributing, and metal-using practices. The

following organizations are officially represented on the committee:

The American Electric Railway Association; American Engineering

Council; American Engineering Standards Committee; American

Federation of Labor; American Foundrymen's Association; American

Institute of Electrical Engineers; American Iron and Steel Institute;

American Railway Association; American Society for Testing Materials; American Society of Mechanical Engineers; American Zinc

Institute (Inc.); Chamber of Commerce of the United States of America; division of simplified practice, United States Department

of Commerce; Hollow Metal Door and Trim Manufacturers Association; National Association of Farm Equipment Manufacturers;

National Association of Manufacturers of the United States; National
362 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Association of Purchasing Agents; National Automobile Chamber

of Commerce; National Founders' Association; National Machine

Tool Builders Association; National Metal Trades Association; and

the National Retail Hardware Association. The committee assisted

in the completion of the following recommendations issued by the

division of simplified practice : Grinding wheels, sidewalk lights, die

head chasers, steel reinforcing spirals, carbon brushes and brush

shunts, and wrought-iron and wrought-steel pipe, valves, and fittings. It is assisting in 20 additional projects which are destined for final consideration of all interests, and has accepted 14 definite requests

from industry regarding the desirability of instituting surveys of cur- rent overdiversification. In the field of simplification the National

Committee on Metals Utilization cooperated with the division of

simplified practice in the issuance of the classification of iron and steel scrap. A committee appointed by the industry is at present actively

engaged in a survey of current practice in specifying grades of steel for

reinforced concrete. The committee is cooperating with the foundry

industry in its effort to determine whether or not weights of castings

should be indicated on blue prints and inquiry forms sent to foundries

for estimate. Adequate " hall-marking" of sterling silverware is also under consideration by the committee. The National Committee

on Metals Utilization is sponsor or joint sponsor for two standardization projects or sectional committees functioning under the rules of

procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee, as follows: Spiral steel rods for concrete reinforcement, and dimensions

of wrought-iron and wrought-steel pipe.

National Committee on Wood Utilization, Axel H. Oxholm, director,

United States Department of Commerce Building, Washington, D. C.

This committee was organized in 1925 for the purpose of working for

closer wood utilization and for better manufacturing, distributing, and

wood using practices. The ultimate aim of the committee is to make

reforestation commercially feasible through increased utilization of

the raw materials. The committee is composed of more than 100

members selected from the branches of industry and trade concerned

with the problem of wood utilization. They represent producers,

distributers, and consumers of wood and wood products. The following organizations are officially represented on the committee: The

American Association of State Highway Officials, American Institute

of Architects, American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, American Paper and Pulp Association, American Railway

Association, American Society of Agricultural Engineers, American

Society of Civil Engineers, American Wood Preservers' Association,

Associated General Contractors of America, Building Officials,' Conference, Chamber of Commerce of the United States of America,
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 363

Columbia River Loggers Information Bureau, Council of American

Shipbuilders, Furniture Manufacturers' Association of Grand Rapids,

Longleaf Yellow Pine Manufacturers Association, National American

Wholesale Lumber Association, National Association of Builders'

Exchanges, National Association of Purchasing Agents, National

Association of Railway Tie Producers, National Association of Real Estate Boards, National Association of Wood Turners,

National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, National Grange,

National Lumber Manufacturers' Association and its affiliated regional and species associations, National Piano Technicians Association, National Retail Lumber Dealers Association, National Wood

Chemical Association, New Hampshire Lumbermen's Association,

Pine Institute of America, Plywood Manufacturers Association,

United States League of Local Building and Loan Associations, and

the West Coast Lumber Trade Extension Bureau. The membership

has been divided into various groups representing loggers and lumbermen, manufacturers of small-dimension stock, container producers,

plywood and veneer manufacturers, wood chemical producers, paper

and pulp manufacturers, lumber distributers, and construction

industries. These groups outline the program of work to be trans- acted under the auspices of the committee. The promotion of American lumber standards and the development of efficient uses for short lengths (lumber less than 8 feet long), and for odd lengths and

widths, together with increased uses for end-matched softwood

lumber, are parts of the committee's program. The container group

is at present conducting an investigation of the best methods of

packing and improved container construction in the foreign field. The data compiled will be consolidated with similar information

obtained in this country. The purpose of this investigation and

findings is to arouse among the consumers of containers an interest

in scientific container construction, so as to save as much lumber as possible and, at the same time, decrease the weight of the containers

without impairing their usefulness and strength. The committee

has been the medium of bringing together manufacturers, distributers,

and consumers. In many cases practically no effective contact

existed between manufacturers and consumers. Manufacturers

were not informed of the consumers' needs and the consumers had no knowledge of the problems confronting the manufacturers, and as a

result lumber and wood products as shipped from the producing plants were often manufactured with little regard for ultimate uses. Such

groups as those representing furniture, radio equipment, automobiles, and many others are now in touch with lumber producers

through the committee's efforts and a considerable amount of standardization of the requirements of consumers is under way. This

work has been accomplished through the cooperation of the division
364 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

of simplified practice. Frequently the committee has been called upon by Government agencies and business institutions to give

impartial advice in regard to the utilization of wood and wood

products. It cooperates with the National Bureau of Standards of the Department of Commerce and the Forest Products Laboratory

of the Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture,

concerning problems of wood utilization. The work of the committee lies largely in the direction of applying the results of scientific research with respect to the proper utilization of wood and

wood products, and of securing the cooperation of industry in putting

these recommendations into effect. It has prepared a report on

softwood distillations, which will be published shortly. The report

represents the best practices in the United States and abroad, with

particular attention to the possible adaptation of foreign methods to American conditions. Publications containing the results of the

work of the committee are now being prepared; a report on "The

Marketing of Short-length Lumber" has already appeared.

National Council of American Cotton Manufacturers, W. McLaurine, joint secretary, Charlotte, N. C; Russell T. Fisher, joint

secretary, 80 Federal Street, Boston, Mass. This organization has

established no standards or specifications. However, its constituent

members, the American Cotton Manufacturers' Association and the

National Association of Cotton Manufacturers, have organized a

joint committee on standardization of specifications, composed of three members from each association appointed by the presidents.

This committee receives proposed specifications from the Federal

Specifications Board and distributes copies to manufacturers interested in the particular articles covered thereby. After criticisms have

been compiled, the specifications are revised in accordance with the

majority opinion and submitted for the information of the Federal

Specifications Board.

National Crushed Stone Association, A. P. Sandles, secretary, 405

Hartman Building, Columbus, Ohio. Standardization activities of the association are conducted in cooperation with the American

Society for Testing Materials or under the auspices of the American

Engineering Standards Committee. It is officially represented on

four sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

National District Heating Association, D. L. Gaskill, executive

secretary, 112 West Fourth Street, Greenville, Ohio. This association was organized in 1909 and was created to gather data and

information along the line of district heating, as well as heating in general. It has formulated rules for computing the area of radiating

surfaces required for heating buildings which have been formally

approved by the association. It has also simplified, and made

recommendations in relation to, underground installation and the
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 365

conveying of steam over considerable distances for heating buildings.

It has conducted studies relating to the resistance of materials to temperatures.

National Education Association, J. W. Crabtree, secretary, 1201

Sixteenth Street, NW., Washington, D. C. One of the most important activities of this association has been the publication of a book on

the planning and construction of schoolhouse buildings. This book,

which was prepared by its committee on standardization of schoolhouse planning and construction, in cooperation with the American

Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, American Specification

Institute, National Association of Public School Business Officials,

and the National Fire Protection Association, is entitled " School

House Planning." In it are set forth the steps necessary to plan and

construct a school building, such as appointment of investigating

committee, survey of needs and existing accommodations, determination of number of pupils to be accommodated by proposed building,

appointment of building committee, selection of architect, determination of schedule of rooms, selection of site, preparation and approval

of plans and specifications, securing bids, letting contracts, and supervision of construction and equipment. Although the association

has no authority to compel the use of the book, it is being utilized

voluntarily by school boards throughout the country, and serves to establish uniform standards for the schools.

National Electric Light Association, Paul S. Clapp, managing

director, 29 ¥v

rest Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y. Although

the association does not formally adopt standard specifications its committees formulate drafts of specifications which are offered to the

membership as recommended practices. Among the committees that

have been active in the work are the following technical national

committees: Accident prevention, electrical apparatus, hydraulic

power, inductive coordination, meters, overhead systems, prime movers and underground systems. These committees are appointed

by the president with the approval of the national executive committee and submit their reports at the annual convention of the

association. The association cooperates in the activities of the di- vision of simplified practice of the Department of Commerce, with

the standards committees of Various American societies and with the

International Electrotechnical Commission. It is joint sponsor (with

four other societies) for studies of boiler feed water problems. It is joint sponsor for two sectional committees functioning under the

rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee, as follows: Insulated wires and cables for other than tele- phone and telegraph use (with nine other organizations); rules for

electricity meters (Code for Electricity Meters) (with the Association of Edison Illuminating Companies and the National Bureau
366 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

of Standards). As a member of the electric light and power group

it is sponsor for a sectional committee on miscellaneous line materials

,

and is represented on 26 additional sectional committees functioning

under the A. E. S. C. procedure. During 1926 the association set up a new committee on codes and standards charged with the duty

of formulating principles and practices in the field of standardization.

National Electrical Manufacturers Association, S. N. Clarkson,

executive secretary, 30 East Forty-second Street, New York, N. Y.

This association has been formed by the merging of the Associated

Manufacturers of Electrical Supplies, Electrical Manufacturers'

Council, and the Electric Power Club, the first of which has become

the supply division and the last named the apparatus division. The

membership of these divisions and the radio division is divided into

working sections, each of which embraces all member companies who

manufacture a particular class of product. The standards committee

of the association, appointed by the board of governors, correlates

the development of all its technical standardization, in addition to correlating and supervising proposed simplification affecting products

coming within the scope of the association's activities. Action by the

standards committee on all standardization rules constitutes formal

adoption or rejection by the association, unless an interested member

appeals to the board of governors. Conference committees have

been established in cooperation with the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Association of Iron and Steel Electrical Engineers,

Association of Railroad Electrical Engineers, Compressed Air Society,

Electrical Safety Conference, Hydraulic Society, International Electro technical Commission, Mutual Fire Prevention Bureau, National

Association of Fan Manufacturers, National Association of Oil

Burner Manufacturers, National Electric Light Association, National

Fire Prevention Association, National Machine Tool Builders Association, Refrigerating Machinery Association, Society of Automotive Engineers (Inc.), Underwriters' Laboratories, United States

Department of Commerce, and the United States War Department.

The association is sponsor, or joint sponsor, for the following sec- tional committees functioning under the rules of procedure of the

American Engineering Standards Committee: Standards for insulated wires and cables for other than telephone and telegraph uses

(with nine other organizations), standards for switch boxes and

outlet boxes (with the American Institute of Electrical Engineers),

standards for power-line insulators for voltages exceeding 750

(with the American Institute of Electrical Engineers), standards

for industrial control apparatus (with the American Institute

of Electrical Engineers), and standard terminal markings for

electrical apparatus. The association is also represented on some

30 additional sectional committees functioning under the A. E. S. C.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK; 1927 367

procedure. The association has issued and keeps under constant

revision the following publications covering standards for the manufacture, performance, and test of electrical apparatus and supplies, as well as instructions for their proper installations, operation, and

care: Handbook of Standards (supply division), Handbook of Standards (apparatus division), Power Switching Equipment Handbook,

Transformer Standards, Transformer Instructions, Motor and Generator Handbook, Motor and Control Instructions, Control Handbook, Building Equipment Control Specifications, Terminal Markings for Electrical Apparatus, and Selection d. c. Motors for Ventilating Fans.

National Federation of Construction Industries, W. S. Hays, secre- tary, Drexel Building, Philadelphia, Pa. Organized to promote

closer cooperative relations between producers, manufacturers,

distributers, contractors, architects, engineers, realtors, financiers,

and other construction interests, the federation assisted during its active years, and, through the personal efforts of members of its standardization committee and officers, is constantly fostering the

development and adoption of standards by its member establishments and associations in the construction industry. Although it has not formally adopted any standards, it is officially represented on four sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

National Fence Manufacturers Institute, C. M. Best, secretary,

229 Henry W. Oliver Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. The institute has

organized a standards committee to make recommendations concern- ing standardization activities of interest to the institute membership. It inaugurated the movement which resulted in the formulation of the simplified practice recommendation relating to wovenwire fencing which has been adopted by the industry.

National Fertilizer Association, Charles J. Brand, executive secre- tary, 616 Investment Building, Washington, D. C. A committee of the association is actively engaged in making a study of fertilizer analyses with the view of eliminating the unnecessary varieties.

National Fire Protection Association, Franklin H. Wentworth,

secretary, 40 Central Street, Boston, Mass. In addition to individuals and State and municipal departments and bureaus, the membership of this organization consists of national institutes, societies,

and associations interested in the protection of life and property

against loss by fire. It is therefore largely an association of associations. Thirty-two technical committees have been organized to prepare standards and advisory pamphlets for the association.

These committees are appointed by the president, vice president,

and secretary, subject to the approval of the executive committee,

and submit their reports to the association in annual meeting.

Among the subjects upon which technical committees are now at
368 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

work are: Automatic sprinklers, blower systems, building construction, electric power houses, electric railway car houses and cars, farm fire protection, field practice, fire pumps, fire records, flammable liquids, garages, gases, hazardous chemicals and explosives,

ordnance, manufacturing hazards, marine hazards, wharves,

private fire supplies, protection of records, pyrotechnics, salvaging

operations, signaling systems, storage of combustible fibers, and

zoning. The standards of the association, some of which have been

in existence about 30 years, are kept constantly under review, and

are revised whenever changes are necessary. They are officially

adopted by the National Board of Fire Underwriters and the organizations interested in fire protection or prevention. The association

is represented on the joint fire-protection committee (with the

American Water Works Association and the International Association of Fire Chiefs). It is sponsor or joint sponsor for six standardization projects or sectional committees functioning under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee,

as follows: Safety code for building exits, regulations for electric wiring and apparatus in relation to fire hazard (National Electrical

Code, edition of 1925), insulated wires and cables for other than

telephone and telegraph use (with nine other associations), fire- fighting equipment in metal mines (with the American Mining

Congress), standard threads for small hose couplings, safety codes

for the prevention of dust explosions (with the United States Department of Agriculture). As a member of the fire protection group, it

is joint sponsor for specifications for fire tests of materials of construction and specifications for rubber-lined fire hose. The association is represented on 13 additional sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

National Founders Association, J. M. Taylor, secretary, 29 South

LaSalle Street, Chicago, 111. The membership of this association

includes almost every variety of metal manufacture, such as sanitary ware, stoves, automobiles, builders' hardware, etc., each group of

which is vitaliy interested in standardization, and has a trade asso- ciation of its own through which standardization work is handled.

Standardization, as such, is outside the scope of the activities of the

association. However, it is joint sponsor, with the American Foundrymen's Association, for a safety code for the protection of industrial workers in foundries, formulated by a sectional committee under

the rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee and is represented on two additional sectional committees

under the auspices of the A. E. S. C.

National Hardware Association of the United States, George A.

Fernley, acting secretary, 505 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Pa. This

association, which is composed of wholesale distributers, has never
STANDAEDS YEAEBOOK, 1927 369

adopted any specifications. However, it has been active in the

elimination of excess sizes and varieties of hardware under the

auspices of the division of simplified practice, having cooperated in

the initiation and formulation of simplified practice recommendations

relating to builders' hardware; sheet steel; eaves troughs, conductor

pipe, conductor elbows, and fittings; terneplate; loaded paper shot

shells; and package sizes for insecticides and fungicides.

National Hardwood Lumber Association, Frank F. Fish, secretary,

2008 Straus Building, Chicago, 111. For nearly 30 years the entire

activities of the association have been devoted to the establishment

and maintenance of uniform rules for the measurement and inspection of hardwood lumber. It has formulated, and keeps under constant review, the only rules in use for this purpose. On its inspection rules committee, appointed by the president, there are repre- sentatives of every known hardwood as well as of every producing

center or large market. Objections raised to any proposed changes

in the standards by groups of consumers are given full weight before

they are put into effect. At the annual convention the committee

submits proposed changes in the existing standards which become

effective upon a favorable vote of two-thirds of the members present.

National Hay Association, The (Inc.), Fred K. Sale, secretarytreasurer, South Main Street, Winchester, Ind. The association has

adopted grade rules for hay and straw which form the basis for the

specifications for these commodities promulgated by the Federal

Specifications Board. It has also adopted trade rules and inspection

and weighing rules. When requested to do so it investigates the

qualifications of inspectors and permits approved inspectors to make

record of the association's approval on their official certificates of inspection.

National Lime Association, G. B. Arthur, secretary and general

manager, 927 Fifteenth Street NW., Washington, D. C. Field re- search is an important activity of this association. It has promulgated specifications for lime plaster, lime stucco, lime mortar, and

lime in concrete, as well as for lime in asphalt, concrete, and earth

roads, and has cooperated with the American Society for Testing

Materials in the preparation of specifications for quicklime and

hydrated lime for various purposes. The association cooperated in

the initiation of the work of the Building Code Committee of the

Department of Commerce. It maintains a research associate at the National Bureau of Standards doing research work on the develop

ment of quick-setting lime plaster.

National Lumber Manufacturers Association, Wilson Compton,

secretary-manager, Transportation Building, Washington, D. C.

This organization comprises 13 regional associations of lumber

manufacturers and timber owners. Standardization, one of its
370 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

important activities, is carried on by its manufacturers' standardization committee of one representative from each regional or subscribing

association, which deals exclusively with softwood lumber. The

association also has representation on the hardwood consulting

committee, which is an independent committee made up of hardwood

manufacturers, distributers, and consumers which reports direct to the Central Committee on Lumber Standards, made up of representatives of the entire lumber industry. The actions of the manufacturers' standardization committee are referred by its chairman to the

Central Committee on Lumber Standards or to the consulting committee on lumber standards, which is also made up of representatives

of the entire lumber industry, including representatives of lumber

consumers, such as architects, contractors, engineers, purchasing

officers, etc. At meetings of the manufacturers' standardization

committee a regional association is entitled to only one vote, although more than one representative may be present. This committee is now preparing minor revisions and additions to the national standards

for softwood lumber and assisting in securing their application in

practice. The hardwood consulting committee, consisting of a

fixed number of manufacturers, distributers, and consumers of hardwood lumber, is now formulating grading standards for hardwood

lumber. The association cooperated in the initiation of the work of the building code committee of the Department of Commerce and

the National Committee on Wood Utilization. It has taken a leading

part in the organization and activities of the Central Committee on Lumber Standards and the consulting committee on lumber standards.

It is officially represented on seven sectional committees functioning

under A. E. S. C. procedure.

National Machine Tool Builders ' Association, Ernest F. Du Brul,

general manager, 630 Vine Street, Cincinnati, Ohio. Committees

organized to prepare standards for the association are appointed by

the president upon recommendation of the particular industrial group

concerned. A proposed standardization project is undertaken only

after a survey has been made of current practice to determine what

is probably the most acceptable standard to be adopted, followed in some cases by research work to ascertain if current practice is the

best possible practice. Committees are now at work on various

types of machine tools and machine-tool elements, including T slots,

now ready for issuance as a tentative standard. The association is joint sponsor for two sectional committees functioning under the

rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee,

as follows : Small tools and machine-tool elements (with the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers), and safety code for machine tools (with the National Bureau of Casualty and Surety Underwriters).
STANDAKDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 371

The association is represented on four additional sectional committees

functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

National Paper Box Manufacturers Association, Frank S. Records,

executive secretary, 802 Liberty Trust Building, Philadelphia, Pa.

This association has prepared and issued a dictionary of terminology

for the set-up paper box industry covering several hundred trade

terms, with their synonyms and accepted meanings relating to box

construction, materials, machine processes, and measurements and

types of boxes. It cooperated with the division of simplified practice in the establishment of standard minimum thicknesses of box

board contained in simplified practice recommendation for this

commodity.

National Paper Trade Association, William C. Ridgway, secretary,

41 Park Row, New York, N. Y. This association has cooperated

with the National Association of Purchasing Agents and the division

of simplified practice in developing standard sizes for catalogues

and paper in sheets. Its recommended weights for writing paper

have been adopted by the Writing Paper Manufacturers Association. It has adopted the standard sizes for tissue paper recom- mended by the division of simplified practice of the United States

Department of Commerce.

National Paving Brick Manufacturers Association, Edward E.

Duff, jr., secretary, Engineers Building, Cleveland, Ohio. The

leading part in the movement which has resulted in the standardization of the sizes and varieties of paving brick has been taken by this

association, which initiated the work by requesting the United States

Department of Commerce through the division of simplified practice

to call a conference of representatives of manufacturers, distributers,

and users of paving brick for this purpose. It has acted as the

authorized agent of the Department of Commerce in furnishing

tabulations and analyses of shipments of vitrified paving brick,

upon which have been based the successive steps in the process of

eliminating excessive sizes and varieties. In four years the number

of sizes and varieties has been reduced from 66 to 4. National Petroleum Association, C. D. Chamberlin, advisory

counsel, 1518 Guardian Building, Cleveland, Ohio, and F. B. Dow,

general counsel, 930 Munsey Building, Washington, D. C. The

association has organized a department of standards and tests which

has been active in the preparation of specifications in cooperation

with the American Society for Testing Materials, the Society of Automotive Engineers, and the Federal Specifications Board.

National Research Council, Vernon Kellogg, permanent secretary,

2101 B Street NW., Washington, D. C. The council, which was

established in 1916 by the National Academy of Sciences, is a cooperative organization of the scientific men of America. Its essential
372 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

purpose is the promotion of research in the physical and biological

sciences and the encouragement of the application and dissemination

of scientific knowledge for the benefit of the Nation. It is composed

of 11 major divisions, arranged in two groups. One group comprises

7 divisions of science and technology representing, respectively,

physics, mathematics, and astronomy; engineering and industrial

research ; chemistry and chemical technology ; geology and geography

;

the medical sciences; biology and agriculture; anthropology and

psychology. The other group comprises 4 divisions of general relations, representing Federal relations, foreign relations, States relations, and educational relations. Each of these divisions comprises

a larger or smaller series of committees, each with its special field or subject of attention. There are certain other committees, administrative and technical, which affiliate directly with the executive board

of the council. Related to the executive board' in a similar way is a research information service. In the division of chemistry and chemical technology the following organizations are officially represented

:

The American Chemical Society, American Electrochemical Society,

American Institute of Chemical Engineers, and the American

Ceramic Society. There are 9 committees and 14 subcommittees,

the members of which are engaged in various kinds of work under

this division. The committee on the substitution of sodium compounds for the conservation of potassium compounds is working

with the committee on the revision of the United States Pharmacopoeia and the committee on chemical methods of analsyis of the

Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. The division acts as the American section of the International Union of Pure and Applied

Chemistry. Cooperating with the division of engineering and industrial research are 12 organizations vitally interested in standardization which have appointed official representatives to serve on the

division, as follows: The American Society of Civil Engineers,

American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, American

Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Institute of Electrical

Engineers, American Society of Refrigerating Engineers, American

Society for Testing Materials, American Society for Steel Treating,

American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, Illuminating

Engineering Society, Western Society of Engineers, Society of Automotive Engineers, and the American Welding Society. This latter organization is now engaged in the work of formulating standard

welded rail joints. The work of the division is carried on by 5 special

committees and 10 subcommittees, composed of representatives of State and Federal departments and national organizations. In addition, the division has organized 6 advisory boards on research, each

being sponsered by the national organizations most vitally interested

in the subject, as follows: Civil engineering, mining and metallurgical
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 373

engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, testing

materials, and welding. The following organizations are cooperating

with the division in new investigations of pressure vessels: The

American Society of Mechanical Engineers, American Welding

Society, Association of Tank Manufacturers, American Petroleum

Institute, American Society of Refrigerating Engineers, International

Acetylene Association, and the National Electrical Manufacturers

Association (apparatus division). The only work conducted at the

present time by the council leading directly -to standards is through

the committee on the psychology of the highway of the division of

anthropology and psychology, and its subcommittees on signs and

signals and on tests for drivers. The functions of the subcommittees

are to study the devising of highway signs and signals which will be

in accordance with the correct principles of vision and mental reaction, and to study possible adaptation of systems of mental and

physiological tests to the examination of drivers of automobiles,

public and private. These subcommittees cooperate closely with the

committee of the national conference on street and highway safety on

the study of causes of accidents. The current activities of the subcommittee on signs and signals have consisted in a study of signal

colors with special reference to the dominant wave lengths of the red

and green standards in their relation to color-blind drivers. The

subcommittee on tests for drivers has considered psychological

methods to determine the competency of drivers. This subcommittee

has cooperated with the committee on uniform laws of the traffic conference, and, in the matter of tests for drivers, with the officers of numerous taxicab companies. It has suggested improved parking

signs which have been adopted in part by the Baltimore police

department. Under the auspices of the International Research

Council and the National Academy of Sciences, the National Research

Council has prepared the International Critical Tables of Numerical

Data, Physics, Chemistry, and Technology, being issued in five volumes, the first of which was published in 1926. The council

maintains a research associate at the National Bureau of Standards

doing research work on beta ray velocities. It is officially represented on the sectional committee on safety code for automobile brakes and

brake testing functioning under the rules of procedure of the American

Engineering Standards Committee.

National Retail Dry Goods Association, Lew Hahn, managing

director, 225 West Thirty-fourth Street, New York, N. Y. This

association has cooperated actively with other organizations in the

standardization of bed blankets, radio apparatus, and the size of the United States flag. It has also engaged in the formulation of standards for accounting systems for retail stores, retail trade

terminology, standards of practice for retail advertising, standards
374 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDABDS

of practice for operation of certain nonselling departments in retail stores, and retail store organization. The association at the present

time is engaged in the formulation of standards for packing boxes

and containers, and is also working on a standard form of invoice.

National Retail Hardware Association, H. P. Sheets, secretary,

Meyer-Kiser Bank Building, Indianapolis, Ind. This association

has cooperated with other organizations in eliminating excess varieties

and sizes of hardware under the auspices of the division of simplified

practice. It has been active in the initiation and formulation of

simplified practice recommendations relating to builders hardware,

loaded paper shot shells, and cut tacks and small cut nails. National Safety Council, W. H. Cameron, managing director, 108

East Ohio Street, Chicago, 111. In order to make most effective its accident-prevention work the council has organized a safe practice

conference committee composed of 75 leading safety engineers in

different parts of the country. To this committee are submitted

the draft of each proposed safe practice pamphlet, formulated by

a staff engineer and criticized by other leaders in the field covered

by the pamphlet. The council has issued a total of 73 safe practice

pamphlets, the last 6 in 1926, as follows: Pressure vessels, safety to the commercial driver, maintenance and repair men, handling of chlorine, safety committees, and foundries. During the year there was also issued the final report of the committee of the chemical and

rubber sections of the council on "Health Hazards of Benzol." The

council is sponsor or joint sponsor for 10 sectional committees functioning under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering

Standard Committee, as follows: Safety code for construction work;

identification of piping systems (with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers) ; safety code for floor and wall openings, railings,

and toe boards; safety code for power presses and foot and hand

presses; safety code for forging and hot metal stamping (with the

American Drop Forging Institute) ; safety code for rubber machinery

(with the International Association of Industrial Accident Boards

and Commissions) ; colors for traffic signals (with the American Association of State Highway Officials and the National Bureau of Standards); codes on colors for gas-mask canisters ; ^safety codes for

textiles; safety code for paper and pulp mills; safety code for window

washing. The American Society of Safety Engineers, which functions

as a division of the National Safety Council, is sponsor or joint sponsor

for three additional sectional committees, as follows : Safety code for

ladders, safety code for walkway surfaces (with the American Insti- tute of Architects), safety code for compressed-air machinery (with

the American Society of Mechanical Engineers). The National

Safety Council is officially represented on 35 additional sectional

committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 375

National Sand and Gravel Association, V. P. Ahearn, executive

secretary, Suite 434 Munsey Building, Washington, D. C; Stanton

Walker, director, engineering and research division. The standardization work of this organization is conducted through committees

appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the

executive committee. The functions of these committees are to prepare specifications in the form of recommendations to be submitted to the association at annual conventions. In 1926 the

association published a special bulletin on the Importance of Uniform

Aggregates in Control of Concrete Mixtures, and the committee on washed gravel ballast, in cooperation with the American Railway

Engineering Association, prepared a specification for washed gravel

ballast, which was adopted by the association. Committees on

standard depreciation scale and specifications for standardized

sizes of sand and "gravel have prepared recommendations to be

submitted to the association at its annual convention in 1927.

National Slag Association, H. J. Love, secretary, 933 Leader-News

Building, Cleveland, Ohio. Although this association has not

formulated any standards or specifications, its engineering and

problems committee is actively engaged in the work of gathering

and anaij^zing the results of current tests made of construction

materials. This committee is composed of members, most of whom

in turn are on one or more standing committees of the American

Concrete Institute, the American Society for Testing Materials,

and other technical societies. The association is cooperating not

only with technical societies but also with Government bureaus,

universities, colleges, State departments, firms, and individuals who

possess laboratories in which construction materials are tested. It maintains a research associate at the National Bureau of Standards,

conducting investigations on the durability of slag as a mineral

aggregate.

National Slate Association, W. S. Hays, secretary, Drexel Building,

Philadelphia, Pa. Standardization committees of the association are appointed annually at the slate industry conference to establish

standard methods of producing and utilizing slate. Both producers

and consumers are represented on the committees, and special efforts are made to ascertain the attitude of unorganized groups toward

any proposed standard. The association has issued recommended

specifications for slate roofs, floors, walks, and blackboards; and

slate for electrical, plumbing, and sanitary purposes. It has co- operated with the division of simplified practice in the simplified

practice recommendations relating to structural slate, roofing slate,

and blackboard slate. In 1925 it published its standard specifications

for slate for floors, terraces, and walks in a folder entitled "The

Charm of Slate Floors and Walks. " In 1926 it published its
376 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

standard specifications for slate for flat and sloping roofs in a book

entitled "Slate Roofs. " There is under preparation standard

specifications for structural uses and other possibilities in the use of

slate. National Terra Cotta Society, F. S. Laurence, executive secretary,.

19 West Forty-fourth Street, New York, N. Y. This association

has formulated standard specifications for the manufacture, furnishing, and setting of terra cotta. It has also prepared a short-form

specification for incorporation in the architect's specifications to be

used in connection with standard specifications and the standard

general conditions of the American Institute of Architects. The

association is officially represented on sectional committees on specifications for fire tests of materials of construction, and architectural,

terra cotta and methods of setting, functioning under the rules of procedure of the A. E. S. C. It maintains three research associates

at the National Bureau of Standards doing research work on the

investigation of architectural terra cotta. National Wholesale Grocers' Association of the United States,

M. L. Toulme, secretary, 6 Harrison Street, New York, N. Y.

Although not making standardization a major activity, the association cooperates in making effective many of the standards adopted

by organizations interested in the several kinds of food products. In

cooperation with the Rice Millers' Association it has adopted a standard form of contract for the sale of rice based on the grades and

specifications of the United States Department of Agriculture. It has approved the standard form of contract for canned goods adopted

in cooperation with the Canners League of California, Western

Canners' Association, and many other organizations representing

producers of food products.

Natural Gas Association of America, The, Guy F. Batchelor, general secretary, Oliver Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. This association has

established a code in which are included the standards of procedure

formulated by the association through the recommendations of its several committees. The association, through its several committees,

secures the cooperation of the various interested organizations and

governmental departments before the adoption of each standard.

The code is kept under constant review by committees organized to recommend changes and additions. The following subcommittees,

the names of which indicate the scope of their activities, are functioning for this purpose: Gas utilization, gas measurements, gas trans- portation, and gas distribution. The association has adopted tentative standards for three methods of testing natural gas to determine

gasoline content, namely, compression and cooling, oil absorption,

and charcoal absorption. It has also adopted a tentative standard

for meter connections.
STANDAKDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 377

New England Water Works Association, F. J. Gifford, secretary,

715 Tremont Temple, Boston, Mass. This association is cooperating

with the American Gas Association, American Society for Testing

Materials, and the American Water Works Association in serving as joint sponsors for the sectional committee on specifications for cast- iron pipe and special castings, and is officially represented on the

sectional committee on pipe flanges and fittings functioning under

A. E. S. C. procedure.

Optical Society of America, C. C. Bidwell, secretary, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. This society's committee on color terminology

has conducted an active campaign to enlist the cooperation of all interested organizations and professions in its effort to standardize

the words used to describe the different characteristics of color. Paperboard Industries Association, G. R. Browder, general manager, 608 South Dearborn Street, Chicago, 111. This association,

which has taken over the activities of the following heretofore existing

associations, namely, the Box Board Association, the National

Container Association, and the Folding Box Manufacturers Association, is composed of manufacturers of paper board, corrugated and

solid fiber containers, and folding boxes. It is working along standardization lines through a standardization committee, the functions

of which are to study and recommend changes in or additions to the

existing standards for paper board, containers, and folding boxes

and specifications for such material as tape, adhesives, etc. Subjects

for consideration are referred by members to the association, which

places them before the standardization committee, and recommendations of this committee are in turn submitted to the membership of the association for ratification before being made effective. The

committee is now preparing a book of standards, which will contain

standard gauge lists effective in the paper board, container, and fold- ing box industries; standard mill specifications covering the purchase

of board to be used in shipping containers and folding boxes, as well

as standard trade customs. It is also working on proposed changes

in specifications for shipping containers as prescribed by carriers. Members of the association are privileged to use its insignia in con- nection with the certificates used by manufacturers showing that boxes

bearing these certificates conform to all construction requirements

of the Consolidated Freight Classification or the Official Express

Classification.

Plate Glass Manufacturers of America, P. A. Hughes, secretary,

First National Bank Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. This association

has cooperated in the preparation of specifications for plate glass for

glazing purposes, which are included in the United States Government

master specifications for flat glass for glazing purposes.
378 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Plumbago Crucible Association, C. H. Rohrback, secretary, 90

West Street, New York, N. Y. As the result of investigation extending over several years, the association inaugurated the standardization

of crucible sizes on a scientific basis. It served as joint sponsor with

the American Foundrymen's Association for a sectional committee

which formulated size numbers and outside dimensions of plumbago

crucibles for nontilting furnaces in nonferrous foundry practice,

approved as tentative American standard under A. E. S. C. procedure.

Portland Cement Association, W. M. Kinney, general manager, 33

West Grand Avenue, Chicago, 111. Organized to improve and extend

the use of concrete, this association has cooperated with the A. S. T. M. in formulating specifications and tests for Portland cement

recognized as the American standard, and all of its members manufacture in accordance with these specifications. It is represented,

with four other organizations, on the joint committee on standard

specifications for concrete and reinforced concrete. It cooperated

in the initiation of the work on the building code committee of the

Department of Commerce. It is officially represented on six sectional

committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure. The asso- ciation maintains seven research associates at the National Bureau

of Standards doing research work on phase equilibria, synthetic

cements, pure cement compounds, influence of minor constituents,

catalytic effects, hydrolysis, hydration, disintegration, thermal effects in the setting process, consistency, solution equilibria, petographic

mineral analysis, optical constants of constituents, and the X-ray

examination of clinkers.

Refrigerating Machinery Association, The, Fred Nolde, secretarytreasurer, 23 South Fifty-second Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Through

its standardization committee, the association is officially represented on the sectional committee functioning under the rules of procedure

of the A. E. S. C. under joint sponsorship of the American Society

of Mechanical Engineers, the Heating and Piping Contractors

National Association, and the Manufacturers Standardization Society

of the Valve and Fittings Industry in the preparation of national

standards for flanges, fittings, and valves. It is cooperating with

the structural service committee of the American Institute of Architects on the preparation of standardized specifications for refrigerating equipment. It is officially represented on a joint committee

in the preparation of a national code of pressure piping. It is also represented on a joint committee with the Electric Power Club and

the Compressed Air Society for considering standardized specifications

for synchronous motors for use in connection with air compressors

and refrigerating machines.

Rice Millers* Association, F. B. Wise, secretary, P. O. Box 1289,

New Orleans, La. In addition to establishing standard contract
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 379

forms and rules for sale which are adhered to by practically all rice shippers, the association issues inspection certificates based on the

grades and specifications for milled rice recommended by the United

States Department of Agriculture. It maintains a corps of samplers

in the field and a laboratory equipped to test rice for quality, grade,

and condition.

Rubber Heel Club of America, The, George A. Stetson, secretary,

370 Atlantic Avenue, Boston (9), Mass. As a result of the work

of a joint committee composed of rubber-heel manufacturers of this

organization and members of the National Boot and Shoe Manufacturers Association to consider recommendations for the elimination of various sizes and the adoption of standard sizes, 24 different sizes of

rubber heels for ladies and juniors were adopted. This represents a

reduction of 18 sizes from the current 42 sizes. The number of sizes of men's whole heels and half heels were also reduced from 12 to 8

sizes and 19 to 15 sizes, respectively. The work thus inaugurated

is now being carried on by the rubber heel and sole department of the

Rubber Association of America.

Sand-Lime Brick Association, G. W. Phelps, secretary, Flint, Mich.

This association has not formulated any standards or specifications

for sand-lime brick. However, it cooperated actively in the compilation of data used as a basis for a recommended standard size of and quality specification for sand-lime brick which is contained in the

division of simplified practice recommendation for this commodity.

Sheet Steel Trade Extension Committee, C. L. Patterson, secre- tary, Oliver Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. This committee is made up of representatives of manufacturers of sheet steel. It has established

quality standards for steel sheets and issues licenses to mills to apply its "master brand" to sheet steel complying therewith as to quality and gauge of steel and weight and quality of coatings if galvanized. The product of these mills is subject to regular inspection

by the committee.

Silk Association of America, The (Inc.), Ramsay Peugnet, secre- tary, 468 Fourth Avenue, New York, N. Y. The standardization

and simplification activities of this association are conducted through

several committees appointed by the board of managers or the president and through special departments or bureaus within the association's paid organization. The reports of these committees are submitted to the board which acts officially for the organization. The

raw silk classification committee, with the aid of seven laboratory

experts, is actively engaged in the preparation of a classification for

the grading of raw silk and in the adoption of standard methods of

testing. This committee has also simplified trade terms used for

different kinds and grades of silk. Another committee has been

36316—27 25
380 NATIONAL BUKEAXJ OF STANDARDS

organized to cooperate with the Government in preparing specifications for silk articles sufficiently simple to meet the requirements of

the Government and yet be practical for the manufacturer. The

association is cooperating with the Laundryowners' National Association, textile chemists and soap manufacturers in the development of

formulas for washing silk fabrics, taking into account the necessity

of thoroughly cleansing the fabric without removing the color. Four

special committees have developed further the association's rules and

regulations governing transactions in raw silk, thrown silk, spun silk,

and commission throwing. These rules and regulations aim to standardize trade practices and sales contracts. Another committee

is developing specifications for domestic raw silk waste. All of these

committees are selected in such a way as to make them representatives of all of the different interests within the association. The

association is officially represented on the sectional committee on

rating of electrical machinery functioning under the rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee.

Society of American Foresters, J. H. Fahrenbach, secretary, 314

Takoma Avenue, Takoma Park, Md. Although the society has never formulated or adopted any specifications for materials, it has taken an

active interest in the work going forward under the auspices of the

American Engineering Standards Committee, and is officially repre- sented on the sectional committees on safety code for logging and

sawmill machinery; methods of testing wood; and specifications for railroad ties, wood and steel poles.

Society of Automotive Engineers (Inc.), C. F. Clarkson, secretary

and general manager, 29 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y.

For the formulation of engineering standards and recommended

practices for the automotive and related industries, the council of the society annually appoints a standards committee, the chairman

and vice chairmen of which are designated by the president. At

present the standards committee comprises 25 divisions, the chairman and vice chairman of each being designated by the president.

Nine of the divisions represent distinctive groups of automotive

vehicles and unit plants, 12 various classifications of parts or subunits, 3 materials, and 1 manufacturing operations. Preliminary

reports relating to any proposed standard are published in the

society's journal for criticism. When approved by the division to which the subject has been assigned and by the council and acted

upon favorably at a general business meeting of the society, the

proposed standard is submitted to letter ballot of the society membership, and upon approval is published in the handbook as a society

specification. In the present edition of the handbook, which is revised and published twice a year, are more than 600 specifications.

In 1926, 64 standardization projects were passed upon by the
STANDAKDS YEAKBOOK, 1927 381

society's standards committee and approved by the society for adoption. Among these were specifications for upholstery leather; automobile lighting-ciruit fittings; storage batteries; electric wire and

cable; engine parts and accessories and their mountings; roller bearings; crank-case lubricating-oil specifications; bolts, nuts, and wrench t openings; screw-thread fits and tolerances; low-pressure tire sizes and mechanical parts, such as brake lining and flexible disks for couplings. Advertising in the handbook is limited to automobile

parts made in accordance with the society's specifications, certificates

being signed by proper officials of the manufacturing firms to the

effect that the products advertised comply with the designated

specifications. Of the 116 current standardization subjects, many

include various parts and materials for airplanes; thrust ball bearings; automotive power plants and mountings; material specifications

and tests; automobile headlighting specifications; tires and wheel

equipment; screws, drills, and taps; and a variety of mechanical

parts and fittings; paints, varnishes, and enamels; and materials such

as substitutes for upholstery leather. The society is joint sponsor

for nine sectional committees functioning under the rules of pro- cedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee, as follows: Standardization and unification of screw threads (with the

American Society of Mechanical Engineers); ball bearings (with the

American Society of Mechanical Engineers); bolt, nut, and rivet

proportions (with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers);

pins and washers, and machine-tool elements (with the American

Society of Mechanical Engineers) ; transmission chains and sprockets

(with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the American Gear Manufacturers Association); safety code for aeronautics

(with the National Bureau of Standards); automobile headlighting

specifications—laboratory tests for approval of electric headlighting

devices for motor vehicles (with the Illuminating Engineering Society)

numbering of steels (with the American Society for Testing Materials) ; wire and sheet-metal gauges (with the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers). The society is officially represented on 13 additional sec- tional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure. During

1926 the society was also represented on about 30 other committees or boards of other national organizations or governmental bureaus and

departments, among which are the American Automobile Association; the American Bureau of Welding; American Society for Steel

Treating; various committees of the American Society for Testing

Materials, and committees of the National Bureau of Standards;

Army and Navy aeronautic conferences; consulting committees of the Central Committee on Lumber Standards; National Advisory

Committee for Aeronautics; National Research Council, advisory

board of the Governmental Technical Committee on Lubricants
382 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

and Liquid Fuels; National Screw Thread Commission, and the

National Automobile Chamber of Commerce. The societ}7 maintains two research associates at the National Bureau of Standards

doing research on fuels. Society of Industrial Engineers, The, George C. Dent, executive

secretary, 608 South Dearborn Street, Chicago, 111. The society

has organized a committee on standard management terminology

for the purpose of studying laws and principles of the science of management. It has also appointed a committee to study practical

methods for the elimination of waste in manufacturing, including

standardization and simplification. The society is officially repre- sented on three sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C.

procedure.

Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Daniel H. Cox,

secretary, 29 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y. This

society has taken part in the standardization movement in cooperation

with other interested organizations. It is a member of the American

Marine Standards Committee and is serving as joint sponsor, with

the American Society of Civil Engineers and the Association of American Steel Manufacturers, for the sectional committee on

structural steel shapes functioning under the rules of procedure of

the American Engineering Standards Committee. It is represented on 14 additional sectional committees functioning under A. E. S. C.

procedure.

Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, F. L. Bishop,

secretary, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. The standardization activities of this society are limited to work having a direct

bearing upon the teaching of engineering subjects. It is serving as joint sponsor for two sectional committees functioning under the

rules of procedure of the American Engineering Standards Committee,

as follows: Scientific and engineering symbols and abbreviations

(with four other organizations), and standards for drawings and

drafting room practice (with the American Society of Mechanical

Engineers).

Southern Pine Association, H. C. Berckes, secretary, New Orleans,

La. One of the functions of the association is the maintenance of

standard grades for southern pine lumber and the supervision of the

mills to assure uniformity in their manufactured products. Through

the Central Committee on Lumber Standards and the National Committee on Wood Utilization it has cooperated with the Department

of Commerce in the national wood standardization program. Its standardization activities are conducted under the supervision of its grading committee, appointed annually, which has charge of the

association's inspection department. Its staff of inspectors visit the

plants of the member firms monthly to check up the work of the mill
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 383

graders. Firms receiving this service place the mark of the expert

grader on all of the lumber they make.

Southern Sash, Door, and Millwork Manufacturers 1 Association,

C. B. Harman, secretary, 1621 Candler Building, Atlanta, Ga.

The standardization activities of this association are conducted

through standardization committees appointed by the president.

These committees investigate, consider, formulate, and make reports

of their findings and recommendations for final consideration and

adoption to the members of the association in convention. Recommendations adopted are sent by mail to each member of the association, and, where necessary, are put into printed form for general

circulation and use. The association has set up standards for sizes,

grades, and designs for sashes, doors, and millwork. It has established standard methods for millwork cost accounting. During

1926 the uniform millwork contract committee prepared a uniform

millwork contract and definition of millwork, including standard

specifications of manufacture, which has been adopted by the association.

Steel Barrel Manufacturers Institute, D. S. Hunter, secretary, 428

Bulkley Building, Cleveland, Ohio. Standardization activities of

this organization are conducted by its committee on specifications and

standards. Through this committee, it has adopted minimum

weights for barrels of various types and sizes, and standard threads

for bung openings and standard distances between rolling hoops. It initiated the movement which resulted in the simplified practice

recommendation relating to the sizes of steel barrels and drums. All

members of the institute have pledged themselves to adhere to the

standards developed by the institute or established by the Interstate Commerce Commission.

Steel Founders' Society of America, William J. Corbett, secretarymanager, 511 Magee Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. In addition to its standardization activities which have resulted in promoting the use

of uniform cost-accounting methods throughout, the industry, the

society cooperates with a number of organizations in establishing

standards. It cooperates with the American Society for Testing

Materials in formulating specifications for steel castings, and is represented on the joint committees on pattern equipment standardization; on foundry refractories; and on the investigation of the effect of sulphur and phosphorus in steel. As a result of its request the

National Committee on Metals Utilization has organized a committee on foundry practice to consider as its first problem the subject of

having the weights of castings shown on blue prints sent to foundries.

Structural Service Bureau, A. Lynwood Ferguson, secretary, 112

South Sixteenth Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Although this bureau has

not formulated any specifications, it has actively cooperated in the
384 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

preparation of standards, building codes, and specifications which

have been promulgated by the National, State, and municipal authorities, and in the compilation and issuance of specifications which have

been adopted by the following organizations: The Associated Tile

Manufacturers, Common Brick Manufacturers Association, National

Slate Association, National Lime Association, Eastern Clay Products

Association, and a number of individual firms.

Tap and Die Institute, Herbert S. Blake, secretary, 120 Broadway,

New York, N. Y. The standing committee on simplification and

standardization is actively engaged in the task of eliminating from

catalogue lists, sizes and styles of taps and dies which the trade no

longer demands, and is establishing proper standard basic mechanical

sizes of these tools to be listed in revised catalogues. The membership acts upon the recommendations of the committee submitted at general meetings of the institute.

Telephone Group. In connection with the standardization activities conducted under the auspices and procedure of the A. E. S. C.

the telephone industry operates as a group. The telephone group is sponsor or joint sponsor for two sectional committees functioning

under the rules of procedure of the A. E. S. C, as follows: Manhole

frames and covers (with the American Society of Civil Engineers)

and specifications for wood poles. It is officially represented on two

additional committees functioning under A. E. S. C. procedure.

This group consists of the Bell Telephone System and the United

States Independent Telephone Association. The A. E. S. C. executive committee representative of the group is F. L. Rhodes, of the

Bell Telephone System, 195 Broadway, New York, N. Y. C. C.

Deering, 19 South La Salle Street, Chicago, 111., is secretary of the

United States Independent Telephone Association. Within the

Bell Telephone System the work of standardization of materials

and methods is not performed by committees, but by groups of

experts of the joint staff flexibly organized. The staff has formulated

a sufficiently wide range of standards to meet ordinary needs. From

these standards the operating units of the system make their own

choice of what will best meet their conditions. The standards are kept continually under review, and revisions are made as frequently

as desirable to meet changed economic conditions and considerations of service. The United States Independent Telephone Association has organized a plant division chiefly for the purpose of

acting as a clearing house to gather and promulgate facts of value

to the member companies, and to represent the association in its cooperative work with outside interests, such as the American Engineering Standards Committee, the National Electric Light Association, and the National Bureau of Standards. It has been active in

the organization and work of the American Committee on Inductive
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 385

Coordination, which includes representatives of not only the tele- phone and electric-light groups, but also the electric-railway group

and the steam and the electrified railroad group.

Textile Color Card Association of the United States (Inc.), Margaret

Hayden Rorke, managing director, 50 East Forty-second Street,

New York, N. Y. This association has developed a standard color

card based upon a plan, in accordance with which each color is given

a number consisting of four figures which express as nearly as can

be done the character of the color. The card is used in the textile and allied industries to identify the colors by the number assigned

to them.

Tire and Rim Association of America, The (Inc.), C. E. Bonnett,

general manager, 1401 Guarantee Title Building, Cleveland, Ohio.

This association, composed of manufacturers of vehicle tires, rims,

wheels, bases, or their related parts, was organized for the purpose of

conducting standardization and inspection work. The association

has formulated and adopted standards for rims, and carries on the

work of inspection to see that rims conform to the standards set by it. Tissue Paper Manufacturers Association, E. H. Naylor, secretary,

44 Vernon Street, Springfield, Mass. The association, in cooperation

with the National Paper Trade Association, has adopted and promulgated standard sizes for tissue paper in accordance with simplified practice recommendations of the United States Department of

Commerce. Members of the association are authorized to use

the official label and the seal of the association in guaranteeing the

packages to be in accordance with simplified practice recommendation as to size and count. Underwriters' Laboratories, Dana Pierce, president, 207 East

Ohio Street, Chicago, 111. For about 25 years the laboratories have

been maintained by the National Board of Fire Underwriters for

examining and testing appliances and devices on contracts entered

into with the owners and manufacturers of such appliances and

devices, respecting the recommendation thereof to insurance companies. The technical work of the laboratories is conducted under

the supervision of five councils—the fire council, the electrical council,

the casualty council, the automotive council, and the burglary protection council. Standards are adopted by vote of a council on

recommendations made by the staff of the laboratories generally

after consultation and collaboration with an appropriate industry

conference. Definite specifications relating to design details and

performance characteristics have been formulated by the laboratories,

with special reference to life and fire hazards and accident and theft

prevention. Arrangements are made with manufacturers for the

inspection of devices and materials at the factories by laboratories

inspectors, and standard goods are identified by stamps, transfers,
388 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

labels, or other markings whereby they may be recognized wherever

found. As a member of the fire-protection group of the American

Engineering Standards Committee, the laboratories is joint sponsor

for specifications for rubber-lined fire hose (with the American

Society for Testing Materials) and specifications for the fire tests of materials and construction (with the American Society for Testing

Materials and the National Bureau of Standards). It is officially

represented on 16 additional sectional committees functioning under

A. E. S. C. procedure. In cooperation with the National Board of Fire Underwriters, the National Fire Protection Association, and

many other insurance, technical, and engineering societies, it assists,

through its staff, in the formulating of standards and regulations

covering fire-loss prevention, accident, and theft. United States Pharmacopoeia! Convention, Lyman F. Blebler,

M. D., secretary, 1322 Park Road NW., Washington, D. C. One

of the prime objects of this body is to establish uniform standards

for the use of those engaged in the practice of medicine and pharmacy

in the United States whereby the identity, strength, quality, and

purity of certain recognized medicines and drugs may be accurately

determined. The delegates of this organization represent various

branches of the United States Government; the incorporated State,

medical, and pharmaceutical associations; all incorporated and

eligible medical colleges and schools of pharmacy; and the following

national associations: The American Medical Association; American

Pharmaceutical Association; American Chemical Society; Association of American Dairy, Food, and Drug Officials; Association of

Official Agricultural Chemists; National Wholesale Druggists' Association; National Association of Boards of Pharmacy; National

Association of Retail Druggists; American Drug Manufacturers'

Association; and the National Dental Association. For over 100

years the members of this association have been engaged in the

work of determining and fixing standards for certain drugs, simple

and compound, possessing definite therapeutic merit. Through its committee on revision the convention revises the United States

Pharmacopoeia at intervals of 10 years. The Pharmacopoeia describes and give standards for such drugs as are recognized therein.

It is published by the board of trustees of the convention. The

tenth decennial revision became effective January 1, 1926. Much of

the work on revision is conducted by means of correspondence.

Conferences are also held by the members of the committee on

revision and subcommittees, meeting in different parts of the United

States. Hearings are granted to groups of manufacturers, chemists,

and others interested having special information concerning the

manufacture, quality, purity, test, and standardization of the various

official products. These conferences are of great value in finally
STANDAEDS YEARBOOK, 1927 387

fixing the standards. The companion book, the National Formulary,

the fifth edition of which became official July 1, 1926, is revised by

a special committee, appointed by the council of the American

Pharmaceutical Association and published and controlled by this

association. Its chief purpose is to supply definite formulas for

preparations that are sufficiently used in medical practice, and to provide standards and tests for the identity, quality, and purity of

the essential ingredients used in compounding same not otherwise

provided for by a recognized authority. The United States Pharmacopoeia and National Formulary, official at the time of investigation, are recognized as authorities by the national food and drugs

act of June 30, 1906, and similar laws of many States in the Union.

The term "drug" under the national law includes all medicines and

preparations recognized by these two standards "for internal and

external use, and any substance or mixture of substances intended

to be used for the cure, mitigation, or prevention of disease of either

man or other animals." In former revisions the committees were

very greatly handicapped in procuring important information to provide standards. Manufacturers were particularly jealous of their secrets, but since the passage of the national food and drugs

act information has been freely tendered.

United Typothetse of America, Edward T. Miller, secretary, 600

West Jackson Boulevard, Chicago, 111. This organization has undertaken the preparation of a dictionary of printing terms to include

standard definitions of the various operations in printing and binding.

It publishes a standard form of proposal for printing in which are incorporated the standard printing trade customs. Its research

department has made a special study of printing processes and

methods. The organization has taken an active part in promoting

the standardization of paper sizes, in cooperation with the National

Association of Purchasing Agents and the division of simplified

practice.

Wholesale Sash and Door Association, N. L. Godfrey, secretary,

1210 Steger Building, Chicago, 111. This association has not formulated any specifications. However, it has prepared and issued booklets containing standard lists of designs, sizes, and layouts for open

sash, glazed sash, panel door, outside blinds, and wood moldings.

Writing Paper Manufacturers Association, E. H. Naylor, secretary,

44 Vernon Street, Springfield, Mass. The association has adopted

and promulgated certain trade customs relating to writing paper,

including standard sizes and weights. The weights listed are those

recommended by the National Paper Trade Association. It has

approved a classification of cotton rags promulgated by the National

Association of Waste Material Dealers.
X. TESTING AND CERTIFICATION FOR THE CONSUMER

CERTIFICATION PLAN

Notwithstanding the immense amount of time and labor repre- sented in the formulation of specifications, the fact remains that many

excellent specifications, well recognized throughout industry, are not

being widely used at the present time because of the inability on the

part of most purchasers to determine whether or not commodities

delivered correspond to the specification requirements. A great

impetus to the popularizing of the use of specifications could be given

by eliminating this disadvantage to the small-quantity purchaser.

The so-called "certification plan" has been inaugurated as a solution to the problem of eliminating the above-mentioned disadvantage

and thereby promoting the use of specifications. In carrying out this plan there are compiled lists of manufacturers who have expressed

their desire to supply material in accordance with certain selected

nationally recognized specifications and are willing to certify to the

purchaser, upon request, that the material thus supplied is guaranteed

to comply with the requirements and tests of the specifications.

From time to time the State purchasing agents have sought the

assistance of the Department of Commerce in the formulation of standards, specifications, and methods of tests for their purchases.

With the approval of the State governors, Secretary Hoover called a conference of the purchasing agents of the States on May 25, K'23,

to ascertain in what way the department could best be of service to the

public purchasers in connection with the formulation, selection, or

unification of specifications and in the development of methods of

testing. This conference expressed its approval of the proposal of the

department to review the entire field of standards, specifications,

simplifications, and tests to determine those best adapted for public

purchasers.

Every effort is being exerted to make the certification plan as

effective as possible for "public purchasers"; that is, purchasers for the Federal, State, and municipal governments who are spending the

money collected from the public in the form of taxes. Among the duties assigned to the Federal Specifications Board are not only the compilation and adoption of standard specifications for materials and services but also the bringing of the Government specifications into harmony with the best commercial practice whenever

conditions permit, bearing in mind the broadening of the field of

supply.

Encouraging the maximum possible number of purchasing agents to make use of the specifications of the Federal Specifications Board

388
STANDAKDS YEARBOOK, 1927 389

would broaden the field of supply by inducing the maximum possible

number of producers to manufacture commodities meeting the requirements of the Federal Government. Moreover, the widespread use of specifications of the Federal Specifications Board would serve to draw

attention to such modifications as might well be made therein in order

to render them satisfactory to the buying public and to bring them

into harmony with the best commercial practice.

There have already been compiled by the National Bureau of

Standards 48 lists of such firms as have expressed to the bureau (up

to January 1, 1927) their desire to have their names placed on the

lists of manufacturers willing, when requested to do so, to certify to purchasers that material supplied in accordance with the designated

48 United States Government master specifications complies with

the requirements and tests of these specifications and is so guaranteed

by them. The specifications referred to are as follows:

Specification No. Commodities covered 23. Large tungsten filament incan- descent electric lamps.

36a. Fire-extinguishing liquid (car- bon tetrachloride base)

52. Wood screws.

55. Cutout bases.

57. Flexible nonmetallic tubing.

58. Dry cells. 62. Snap switches.

65. Rubber covered wires and cables

for ordinary purposes.

123. Flat glass for glazing purposes.

124. Hand chemical fire extinguishers

(1 quart carbon tetrachloride type)

175. Knife switches.

191. Brush, blacking and dauber.

192. Brush, casting. 193. Brush, clothes scrubbing.

194. Brush, cuspidor.

195. Brush, dauber, long paddle.

196. Brush, deck scrubbing.

197. Brush, hand floor scrubbing.

198. Brush, hair, military.

199. Brush, radiator dusting.

200. Brush, shaving.

201. Brush, sidewalk.

202. Brush, tooth.

203. Brush, window.

204. Broom, rattan push.

205. Broom, rattan (upright). 206. Broom, scrubbing.

207. Broom, wire push.

Specification No. Commodities covered 208a. Duster, counter.

213. Hand chemical fire extinguisher

(soda and acid type)

242. Wrought iron pipe (welded)

(black and galvanized).

287. Tubing, copper, seamless, and

pipe, copper, seamless, standard

iron pipe size. 291. Friction tape.

292. Rubber insulating tape.

297. Wire rope.

311. Rigid conduit, enameled.

312. Rubber gloves for electrical workers (for use in connection

with apparatus or circuits not

exceeding 3,000 volts to ground)

314. Railroad track scales. 332. Broom, whisk.

333. Broom, corn.

336. Builders' hardware.

342. Pipe, brass, seamless, iron pipe

size, standard and extra strong. 343. Cast-iron soil pipe and fittings, coated and uncoated.

347. Lap-welded and seamless steel boiler tubes.

349. Lap-welded charcoal iron boiler tubes.

362. Liquid measuring devices, retail type.

363. Burglar resisting safes. 411. Tableware, silver plated.
390 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Reference is made herein specifically to Federal Government

master specifications as the lists referred to are those of manufacturers willing to certify to compliance with these specifications.

However, the plan outlined could readily be, and is being, applied to other groups of nationally recognized specifications. It is to be

expected that the application of the plan will be of benefit, not only

in the general promotion of the use of specifications by both the

small and the large consumers, but also in the unification of specifications having national recognition.

Beginning with March, 1926, the Handbook of the Society of

Automotive Engineers has been carrying advertisements restricted

to the products of firms that have certified to the S. A. E. that the

parts and materials advertised have been manufactured in accordance

with S. A. E. specifications. Doubtless the plan will result in furthering the adoption of the standards of the S. A. E. with much benefit

to the automotive industry. It will be beneficial in promoting the use of specifications throughout industry in general.

In view of the fact that the specifications of the Federal Specifications Board and those of the Society of Automotive Engineers are being used rather considerably at the present time, it is believed that no confusion will be created by having the firms certify that the

commodities manufactured and delivered on orders based on these

specifications do actually comply therewith. In fact, the application

of the certification plan to several groups of nationally recognized

specifications will serve to draw attention to the present confusion

and arouse interest in a greater uniformity of standards.

The executive committee of the American Society for Testing

Materials has formally expressed the opinion that the certification

plan should be applied to the specifications approved by the American

Engineering Standards Committee. This proposal is now being

given consideration by a special committee of the A. E. S. C.

That there is nothing revolutionary in the certification plan can

be shown by calling attention to a number of somewhat similar

plans already in successful use. Among the agencies that are now engaged in, or have definitely

planned for, activities tending to bring about a change from the

prevalent hit-or-miss method of specifying, hit-or-miss method of

manufacturing, and hit-or-miss method of testing, to a logical

method of formulating specifications, manufacturing in conformity

therewith, and testing to insure or guarantee compliance, are the

following:

1. American Chemical Society.

2. American Corn Millers Federation.

3. American Gas Association.

4. American Institute of Baking.

5. American Malleable Castings Association.
STANDARDS YEARBOOK, 1927 391

6. American Medical Association.

7. American Petroleum Institute.

S. American Railway Association, Freight Container Bureau.

9. American Society of Agricultural Engineers.

10. American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

11. American Society for Testing Materials.

12. Asphalt Shingle and Roofing Association.

13. Associated Cooperage Industries of America.

14. Associated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies.

15. Associated General Contractors of America.

16. Associated Knit Underwear Manufacturers.

17. Associated Tile Manufacturers.

18. Associates for Government Service.

19. Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (enforced by the Agricultural

Department)

20. Canners' League of California.

21. Concrete Products Association.

22. Eastern Clay Products Association.

23. General Supply Committee, Treasury Department (list of successful bidders).

24. Grain Dealers National Association (polices its members under United

States standard grain grading).

25. Heating and Piping Contractors National Association.

26. Hollow Building Tile Association.

27. Interstate Cotton Seed Crushers Association.

28. Maple Flooring Manufacturers Association.

29. National Board of Fire Underwriters.

30. National Canners Association.

31. National Hay Association.

32. Paperboard Industries Association.

33. Periodicals (such as Good Housekeeping, Modern Priscilla, and Popular

Science Monthly) issue certificates of approval for trade-brand articles. 34. Portland Cement Association.

35. Rice Millers' Association.

36. Sheet Steel Trade Extension Committee.

37. Society of Automotive Engineers.

38. Southern Pine Association (grading under American standards)

39. Steamboat Inspection Service.

40. Steel Barrel Manufacturers Institute (I. C. C. specifications).

41. Tire and Rim Association of America.

42. Vitreous China Plumbing Fixture Manufacturers. The standardization activities of the technical societies, trade

associations, and similar agencies listed above are outlined in

Chapters VIII and IX.

COMMERCIAL TESTING LABORATORIES

In recognition of the desirability under present conditions of independent commercial testing service and hi anticipation of a marked

increase in the demand for such service in both domestic and export

trade, there has been compiled by the National Bureau of Standards

a list of laboratories throughout the country that are prepared to

test various kinds of commodities to determine whether or not they
392 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

comply with purchase specifications. This list is printed as Bureau

of Standards Miscellaneous Publication No. 90, and it can be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing

Office, Washington, D. C.

The existence of a thoroughly classified list of commercial testing

laboratories, together with a list of other reliable " checking agencies,"

will have a number of beneficial effects in promoting the use of specifications not the least important of which will be the inducement

offered to the large number of purchasers who have hitherto hesitated to buy on specifications.

Heretofore purchasers not individually equipped to make their own

acceptance tests have been reluctant to adopt the specification

method of buying commodities because of the fixed belief that many

manufacturers work off "seconds" on such customers. The knowledge that they can at any time, when they so desire, call upon testing

laboratories to check the deliveries made to them on contracts, based on specifications with which certificates have been issued by the

manufacturers, will induce a large number of such purchasers to take

full advantage of the certification plan.

COLLEGE RESEARCH LABORATORIES

It has seemed desirable to supplement the list of commercial test- ing laboratories with a complete list of the laboratories in colleges.

These laboratories are used not only for purposes of instruction, but

also to a considerable extent for research work. In fact, many

important industrial research problems are being solved in the col- lege laboratories.

In almost all of the college laboratories a certain amount of commodity acceptance testing is being done on either a commercial

basis or for the purchasers of the States, municipalities, public

institutions, or the colleges themselves. However, there is a very

wide diversity in the methods of conducting such work with special

reference to the responsibility of the colleges for the tests made in

the laboratories.

In connection with the list of college laboratories, which is to be

interpreted as showing merely that each laboratory listed is equipped

to test the types of commodities indicated for research and instructional purposes, it is suggested that public purchasers and other

persons interested in ascertaining whether or not commodity ac- ceptance testing will be undertaken by certain colleges, and the conditions under which such testing will be carried on, communicate

directly with the proper officers of the colleges or with the individuals

in charge of the laboratories.


Altitude-Pressure

\A v

A—

\VA

V

A r

r—\ v

VA

\ —

V \

\ \

\

\

\ \ \

s \

\

160 2hC Uoo U80 560

PHESSUEE - MILLIKETEES OF MEHCOBT Fig. 1.

Standard for altimetry

Air pressures for all altitudes up to 50,000 feet for the United States standard atmosphere. These depend on a scientifically chosen

altitude-temperature relation Calorimetry

Acidimetry

Fig. 2.

Standard for

acidity measurement

(Pure benzoic acid, C6 H5 COOH)

36316—27 ^-26

Fig. 3.

Standard for heat of combustion

(Pure naphthalene C10EU)
Colorimetry

380 400 420 440 460 460 500 520 540 560 560 600 620 640 660 660 TOO 720

( 1 I —< f- M M H,«N 1Hn itN

u

r S ti

< r

-t

< y

I -t Nr

1Q

—* '—

-4

-i I

I

Smithsonian Data

Noon Sun

Washington

(Abbot etai: AmAstrop.

' Obs. vol. 3, p.135 and

letter of No» 7. 1917 to Bureau of Standards)

High Atmos. Trans., Summer Sol. <i <S <S A _ /Summer Sol. o o O

v Av. Atmos. Trans. < .... . e . (.Winter Sol. • • • [low Atmos. Trans., Winter Sol. ? P ?

0. S. A. Colorim. Com. "Mean" of 1 XXX omunsonian uaia (.^.u.oim. d, p. ?oo) j STANDARD PROPOSED BY PRIEST \

(Artificial Sunlight for Colorimetnc Use) J 000

360 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 5S0 580 COO 620 640 660 680 700 720 WAVE LENGTH rn/u Fig. 4.

Standard of color

(Standard sunlight)Densimetry

Fig. 5.Standard Fig. 6.

Working standards of density for liquids for quantitative (Hydrometers and picnometers) analysis

(Basic open-hearth 0.2 per cent carbon steel)
Electricity

Fig. 7.Standard of electrical capacitance

(The farad)

Fig. 8.

Standard voltameter for measuring electric current

(The ampere)
Electricity

Fig. 9.Standard of electric current

(The ampere)

II ll 1 I

Fig. 10.

Standard of electromotive force

(The volt)
Electricity

Fig. 12.

A standard of radio-frequency

(Wave length of radio waves)
Electricity

Fig. 13.Standards of magnetic permeability

(Typical standard magnetic test bars)

Fig. 14.

Standards of electrical resistance and the standard mercury ohm

(The ohm)

Fig. 15.Latest forms of inclosed electrical resistance standards

(The ohm)
Frequency

(See also Time, fig. 22, and Radio Frequency, fig. 12)

Fig. 16.Working laboratory standard

(Pendulum oscillations)

Frequency

Fig. 17.

Working laboratory standard Fig. 18.

Working

standard offineness

(Tr.ning-fork vibrations) (Portland cement)
Metrology (Fundamental*

x

.- '

'

-

Fig. 19.

Standard of length

(The meter) Mass

I

Fig. 20.

Standard of mass

(The kilogram) Volume

Fig. 21.

Standard of volume

(Liter and other units of capacity)
Metrology

Fig. 22.Standard of time

(Precision clock)

to —ttc -r_Uj'

d

r J5 53

55 5 9 IT

t 4I2N00N

Fig. 23.Chronograph records of time

(a) Notches recording seconds (bureau clock)

(b) Notches recording seconds (Arlington)

(c) Simultaneous records of (a) and (5) (d) Record showing omission of fifty-ninth second to mark end of minute

(e) Record showing omission of five seconds preceding the noon

signal (Arlington)

(/) Record showing the noon signal recording a notch one second in length (bureau and Arlington)
Polarimetry

Fig. 24.

Oxidi- Fig. 25.—Standard for

metric standard optical rotation

(Pure sodium oxalate, (Pure sucrose, C12H22O11) Na2 C2 04) Photometry

Fig. 26.

Standards of luminous intensity

(Candlepower) Planometry

Fig. 27.

Standard of planeness

(Quartz flats)
Polarimetry

1 Of COMMERCE W Oh STANDARDS

DEXTROSE

-

Fig. 28.

Standard reducing substance

(Dextrose, CeH^Oe) Pyrometry

Fig. 29.Standards for temperature fixed points

(Freezing points) Radiology

Hational Primary Standard of Radioactivity

(RaCl* Radium Chloride, 15.375 mg)

Secondary Standards

10 mg 25 mg 50 mg

Fig. 30.Standard of radioactivity

(Radium chloride, R&Ch)
Radiometry

Fig. 31.

Standard of total radiation

(Radiant energy) Saccharimetry

Fig. 32.Standard for optical rotation

(Quartz-control plates)
Spectroscopy

WAVE

LENGTH

(in Angstroms) WAVE

NUMBER

(waves per cm) IONIZED 5TATE OF CADMIUM ATOM

7,D?

(6, P, -7, D2)

6, P,

(5,S -6,P( )

6438.4696

(cadmium

red

radiation)

2288.03

(cadmium

ultra-violet

radiation)

V = 15527.36

V = 43692.21

13319.24

-28846.60

5 i 5o t * 72538.81 NORMAL STATE OF CADMIUM ATOM

Fig. 33.

Energy levels (wave numbers) involved in the electron movement

(small arrow) which causes the cadmium atom to radiate the standard

red light (see line at the right, fig. 34) used to define the angstrom unit

Fig. 34.Standard for wave-length measurements

Visible spectrum of cadmium showing (at right) the red line, the wave length of which is used

to define the angstrom unit
Thermometry

STANCARD

INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE

FH.MGLS MKATED

OPTICU

PYROMETER

DECREES CENTER MX STANDARD

POINTS FOR 40JOOO CALIBRATING

INSTRUMENTS

20D0O

GOLD MELTS

SLIVER MELTS PLATLNUM

INUM

SULPHUR BOLLS -

WATER BCtLS- fd MELTS

-^-tXPLCONGUm

KLOOO*-—=SIMUS

o500j-—SUNS SURPCEoooo :

5500

5000

-TUNGSTEN—

BOLLS

450O:

4000

YyCli r—CARBON MELTS250o|h^'GOLD BOLLS—

2000T—ALIMNA MELTS—

|p—FLATMM MELTS—

1500$*—LRON MELTS—

llOOt—OOPPER MELTS-

:

1000 900

800 70O ^hALJJM^JM-^

600j|

5<X>i

400jj 300

I

-looj —0i

TH ERMG^LETER

-WOi OOGEN BOLLS —

ABSOLUTE ZERO—

h—ZINC MELTS—

LEAD MELTS—

TIN MELTS—

-HELIUM BOLLS

71000

50.000

25000

1L000

10000

9000

( 8000

| 7000

6000

5000

4000

3000 2000

1800

fcOO WOO

1200

1000

800 000 400

200

-200 -too

Fig. 35.

Standard temperature scale
36.9% /WW SM/i'f jurates /fas&r

S.2% NO HAND BRAKE

IS.6* /ZJZr^yfcf

gjO l<pO /MORE THAN WO FEET TO STOP reo* 2Q Af./>M

Fig. 36.

Braking -performance of motor vehicles

WOOOr

30000

20000-

10000

'5 «S «P 'P 'D 'D T 'F '& %

3$

}S3P

3P

3D

3D

3F 'F

}Q Fig. 37.

Energy levels and combinations in the hall spectrum
200 300 "f-OO soo 600 700

Wave Length

Fig. 38.Distribution of radiation from the sun and different- carbon arcs The different curves are brought within the same plot by employment of arbitrary multiplying factors

3600 3500 3400 3300 3200 3100 3000 2900 2800 2700 2600 Fig. 39.

Photoelectric effect in caesium vapor reduced to an

equal energy spectrum

The part of the curve to the right of the maximum measures the primary effect, the

serrated part on the left results from ionization by multiple excitation O