NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS REPORT

3^27

PRINCIPLES OE FIRE DETECTION IN AIRCRAFT

ENGINE SPACES

by

Wr F." Roeser

C.' S/ McCamy

Report to

NTaGHT AIR DEVELOPMENT CENTER

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Sinclair Weeks, Secretary NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

A. V. Astin, Director

THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The scope of activities of the National Bureau of Standards is suggested in the following listing of

the divisions and sections engaged in technical work. In general, each section is engaged in specialized research, development, and engineering in the field indicated by its title. A brief description

of the activities, and of the resultant reports and publications, appears on the inside of the back

cover of this report.

Electricity. Resistance and Reactance Measurements. Electrical Instruments. Magnetic

Measurements. Electrochemistry.

Optics and Metrology. Photometry and Colorimetry. Optical Instruments. Photographic

Technology. Length. Engineering Metrology.

Heat and Power. Temperature Measurements. Thermodynamics. Crvogenic Physics. Engines

and Lubrication. Engine Fuels. Cryogenic Engineering.

Atomic and Radiation Physics. Spectroscopy. Radiometry. Mass Spectrometry. Solid State Physics. Electron Physics. Atomic Physics. Neutron Measurements. Infrared Spectros- copy. Nuclear Physics. Radioactivity. X-Ray. Betatron. Nucleonic Instrumentation. Radiological Equipment. Atomic Energy Commission Radiation Instruments Branch.

Chemistry. Organic Coatings. Surface Chemistry. Organic Chemistry. Analytical Chemistry.

Inorganic Chemistry. Electrodeposition. Gas Chemistry. Physical Chemistry. Thermochemistry.

Spectrochemistry. Pure Substances.

Mechanics. Sound. Mechanical Instruments. Fluid Mechanics. Engineering Mechanics. Mass

and Scale. Capacity, Density, and Fluid Meters. Combustion Control.

Organic and Fibrous Materials. Rubber. Textiles. Paper. Leather. Testing and Specifications. Polymer Structure. Organic Plastics. Dental Research.

Metallurgy. Thermal Metallurgy. Chemical Metallurgy. Mechanical Metallurgy. Corrosion.

Mineral Products. Porcelain and Pottery. Glass. Refractories. Enameled Metals. Concreting

Materials. Constitution and Microstructure.

Building Technology. Structural Engineering. Fire Protection. Heating and Air Conditioning. Floor, Roof, and Wall Coverings. Codes and Specifications.

Applied Mathematics. Numerical Analysis. Computation. Statistical Engineering.

Electronics. Engineering Electronics. Electron Tubes. Electronic Computers. Electronic

Instrumentation. Process Technology.

Radio Propagation. Upper Atmosphere Research. Ionospheric Research. Regular Propagation

Services. Frequency Utilization Research. Tropospheric Propagation Research. High Frequency

Standards. Microwave Standards.

^Office of Basic Instrumentation ^Office of Weights and Measures.
WADG Technical Report No. 54-307

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS REPORT

NBS PROJECT NBS REPORT

1002-20-4821 3427

PRINCIPLES OF FIRE DETECTION IN AIRCRAFT

ENGINE SPACES

¥. F. Roeser

C, S, McCamy

WRIGHT AIR DEVELOPMENT CENTER

<NBS>

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

The publication, repri

unless permission Is ot

25, D.C. Such perm!

cally prepared If thai

Approved for public release by the

Director of the National Institute of

Standards and Technology (NIST) on October 9, 2015.

part, is prohibited

dards, Washington

rt has been specifiirt for its own use.
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Wright Air I)eveio,pjaent Center

Air Eesearch and De\?©Xopmeat Co^aod

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Kx-peuditure Order |lo. E-4o4-“300 BIX. 'XMs report was prepaid hy W. F* Boeser and G.”0. M'cCmsy* * 1?he assistance of

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Mount of liadiaiit Flux . . . Burners and Fuels ......

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1 - Spectral Radiance Curves for Buasea Flai^ aad Blackbody at 2200*F and Internal Tmasmittmce of window 10

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a Fiaaie Spectra of Three Fetroleuja Fuels 11

3 Section of 6** Biataeter l*lat®r Cooled Constant Level

Burner 15

.• 'V • k Laboratory Apparatus for Fla^ liadiometry 16

5 Block Diagram of Hadlatioa Analyzer 19

6 Spectroradiotaeter lieceiver^ i^ar flew of Interior 20

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12 l^tio of Mmrgy Through Quarts aod FliK>x*ide vandows 36

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15 Hatio of Badiaiit i^iergy Through Pyrex aad Quartz

Windows 39

16 Spectral Badiaace Carves far Blackbodie® md latenml

Transmittaaee Carves of Window I'laterials 43

17 Gasoline diffusion Flames in 6 inch Burner 49

16 Wave iinalysis of Natural Gas Biffusion Flam© 51

19 ;V/ave iiualysis of Mm Get Burner Flam 52

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'dO Wave Aaaijsis of Oasolia© Diffusion Flaae 53

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23 oscillograph F^cord of Kadiaat Iiitensity of a

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2h Time Constant as a Function of liass Velocity 62

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Tnls vepoTt gives the results ^f an investigatioxi to

deteriiiiie those characteristics of flames tliat might be

utilised la the deteetioa of accideatal fires ia aii’craft

erxgiue spaces arid aa evaloatioa to deteriaine which of these

alglit be used most advantageously in the development of a

suitable fijre detecting system for Air Force service.

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on the measi^ezaeat of tli® amount of energy radiated by

different flaaies in various _,parts ‘"of the spectrum fend of

the variatloiis With respect "to tiiae (flicker) of these

quantities, otiifer "Characteristics of flails were also

coasidered. . "

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It was concluded ‘that the most reliable fire detecting

system for Air ‘Force service should require both a 'rapid

increase, in the radiant fl'ox which accompanies th© initiation

of a fii’® aiid the flicker that follows for an indication

of fir® and the absence of ^flicker for an indication of

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tli& pi^ysical da-aage «Uid loss of life resulting frooi

accidental fires in aircraft in flight ar# of sufficient

import that aa furt,l"ier iostification for taking reiaedlal

action is needed. It i;ias beau demonstrated In flights

and in fir© tests Uiider simulated flight conditions that

if a fire is detected witJiin a few seconds after its

iiiitlation, it can usuall/ be extinguished without serious

damage or loss of life* It 1ms also been demonstrated

that If a fire is not detected or if a false alarm is

receiifecl wrilie an aircraft is in flight, serious consequences my result* fhm first step, then, toward Iseeplng

the losses from accidental fires I'ow is to obtain onl/

positive indications of those fires which exist and their

locations at the eai’liest possible mmut*

Fire deteetiag systems have been used oa aircraft for

a number of /ears

,

' but the/ .have not been eatireXy satisfactory. From tl^m information that Ims come to our

attention, it appears that tim 3 principal reasons for

dissatisfaction with the exi sting fir# detectini systems

ares (a) false alarmsj

<b) failure to indicate flres|

and (c) long delay la indicating fire. A considerable amtmt

of research ims been carried out by the Armed Services,

the Civil Aeronautics Miministration, and private organisations with the objectives of Improviiig existiag systems

and developing new systems, ilils research Jms not been

fruitless because mm of the more recently devised systems

which are now undergoing **s!mk©-{|owii^* tests In aircraft

are promising and appear to have definite advantages over

th© older systems* Although fire detecting systems operating on widely different principles and utilising different

characteristics of fires have been and still are being

devised and tried in fire tests simulating flight conditions,

none of them appears, as yet, to iaeet satisfactorily all

th© requirements of the Air Force.

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Tim basic ptJtrposes of the present laves tlgatiori weres

(1) to deteriaiije tiiase properties, cimracteristics , or

attULOifestatioas. of flaaies tlmt be utilised in the

tectiou of ,acoidental fires ia aircraft eugii.ie fmcelles or

eagiae " conipartaieats

,

(2) la recoiJif^d to tlje 'Air. l^eseai'ch a;ad, I^velopmat,.

Coatmad the ajethod m&t like!/' to provide a suitable fire

detectiag system for us© ia aircraft based upon the teciiaical

feasibility of developiaeut , the volume and t#el§ht of the

uecessar/ equipaieat , the speed of response . in cietectiou of ^

,

fires aad iu slgimlii^MI “fire -out'* after extiagulsumeut,

and the -freedom from false^ alarms when sub”j acted _ to the

euvirouiaeutal and operational coriditioas euoomti^ed la ' ,,

,

Air Force Aircraft la world-wide operations}, arid

(3) : '^0. report to the Air Besearch aiid Sevelopmeht

^ Cmmud an/ observations or factors found that might be

pertinent to the levelop-ment of any flrc^'letectiug s^rstem.

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3PEHA3!I?K5 PRIHCIPIBS IF FIRE IBIECT JiS

1*0 Since one of the piarposes of ti:ie investigation ^as to reconesend

a method most likely to provide a suitable fire detecting system,

a literature review was mde to obtain information on (1; the

advantages and limitations of the various methods that imve been

used and proposed for use in the detection of fires in aircraft

and (2) the various clmracteristies and effects of flames. The

review covered books, periodicals, patents, and available technical

reports.

Tlie various a^thods used and proposed for fire detection in

aircraft Imve been classified below in accordance with the flame

characteristic or effect which causes the detector to operate.

These have been subdivided further into types of detectors depending

upon tlie physical principle utilized in the operation of the detector.

The extent of coverage provided by the various types of detectors

is referred to as unit or ^*poiat^, continuous or "line” or in the

case of those wliich monitor all parts of a given space, "space" type.

A tew of the inethods described in the literatiare were obviously

impracticable, and Jsave not been listed, hi the other baud, soa^

suggested methods not found in the literature have been included.

Probablj' the oldest method of detecting fire depended upon the

ability of a flaiae to ignite certain combustible materials, the

burning of which triggered or actuated an alarm. Exaa^les are the

burning of a cord which actuates a switch in an electric circuit

and ti^ burning of a fuse or wick which initiates a detonation#

i^tectors ojjprating upon this principle have been of the unit type.

9 3 f ^9

The ability of a flas^ to heat an object by contact to a pre«

determined temperature level or at a rate greater tiian that encountered in normal operation lias been used in far more different types

of fire detectors than any other characteristic of a flame. It

^ ilumbers in brackets indicate ti:»e references at the end of this

report.

m)C TR

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appears that almost ©very readily measurable physical property

of a inatarial that changes significantly with temperature has

been proposed for use in fir© detectors, A number of both unit

and continuous type detectors operating on this characteristic

of a flame have been developed,

i^redetenainsd, Xemcerature Level

detectors operating upon this general principle actuate an

alarm when the temperature of a sensitive element is raised to

some predetermined value, which is set by an adjustment of the

element or is an inlierent property of the material composing the

element.

The temperature sensitive element of tlrils type of detector

consists of 2 materials which have different coefficients of ex~

pa<ision, The elements of the 2 materials are so constructed that

an alarm circuit is actuated when they are heated to a predetermined temperature, borne types are provided with an adjustment

that permits altering the temperature at which the alarm is actuated.

These devices are jisually relatively small, in which case they are

of the unit type ^1,2,3,^511,12,13,14/5 but they may be elongated

into a continuous type i3J*

In detectors of this type, the temperature sensitive element,

which actuates tlw alarm system, consists of a metal, alloy, wax,

or salt that melts at a temperature which is somewhat higher tiian

that attained in normal operation. The is^ltlng temperature is an

inlierent property of tiie jjiaterial used. Detectors operating on

this principle may be either of the unit £3,6,3^ or the continuous

type 2X9^f3f^*

1 , 2 . 1,3

The temperature sensitive element of detectors of this type

consists of 2 metallic electrical conductors separated by a thermistor type material, the resistance of which changes significantly

with temperature. The alarm system is actuated when the resistance

between the 2 metallic conductors reaches soim predetermined value.

Detectors, opera^ng on this principle are usually of the continuous

type. Z5, 15,16a

1.2.1.^- Bmaaslo-i of -Fluids

The teraperature sensitive element in detectors of this type

consists of a liquid, vapor, or a gas in a closed container. The
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a criSfi^a iu t8ai>ei*atare, B©t©et‘.irs l>e elti'iar the

uriit ^,9A57 coiitinuoue tfim

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elemtit wuM- eons 1st of & thmmocoupXe with om Janetlon esfos^ed

ija the f‘:ij»e are^i-. fb© other j^netloa would be^ ioeated at a. eontrol

unit vi'jere ooay®nsat.lmi> could be saade for irarlation in the ajs]fe,ient

TlJe alai^ would be aetuated b^ the eimrige lii

tii© 0*af ia tb® tijersao-coapi® eirealt reiiultliig frois a ehRisg© In tlie

t®i^l>©mt;4.ipe of the exposed J-unet ion, ^teetore operating on ttiis

principle would be of tlm usilt type.

1,13, 1,6 Oggie ifeaperature

Detectors of thl^ t^p# would mplo'g, m a tfiiOperatuiHg u&mltiwo

eleaeat, a lerroue^netie isaterial with a curie tcispereture iulgbei?

tiiau any tei^perature eacauatered In aorml operation, i’be alarLi

would be .actuated bir the chaiige in the sagaetiG permeability''

of the ferroisigiietlc i^erial ^ wiiesi ft ic iaeattd or cooled tcraugia

the curie temperature* _Deteat©rs operatii^ an tula orinelple could

be .of citi^r the unit /l27# the oootlnuous tjpe 4!^*

j^iips.jiiggi£ate.agf,

Ilic temperature senaitlve oXmmt of thiu t^pe of detector would

be 2 i'setallic .clectrodca seperatod bj a ualt la the solid state at

normal operating tempereturee. If tm temperature were raised above

its iablting point# It would baaome an active electr-^ly'te and wxtii

tiie 2 electrodes would form a.'galvania cell* An aiara cistern c^^uld be

actuated by the cell, Xt Might be cither of the unit or obutinucau

t^pe. Xt is; possible that a detector aperatli^ on this principle

would not require an^ other p-ower supply, /5l7*

1 , 2.2 late of ^mpemture Htse

Detectors operating upon this priiaclpie actuate aa alarm wma

the rate of temperatore rise of a t^Maperatoi’e oensitiv© element Is

greater than some predetemined rate established b;/ tiie maximum i^t©

of teaperature rise tlmt oi^^t be attained la liermal oiwatioa.

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ThB tesQ>er&tur@ sensitive element of tills fire-aetecting

9/stem ooasists of a uumber of tl^rmocouples coaaected in series*

)m joaction of each thermocouple is exposed iii the fire area

wliile the other is ther-aall/ lagged* If the rate of temparature

rise is relatively sloW| as in aorml operations, the temperature

difference between the ^ sets of Junctions is not great enough to

generate a£i appreciable emf , but if flames contact the exposed set

of Junctions, the temperature difference between the 2 sets of

Junctions becomes great enough to generate sufficient ©mf in the

tlieraioelectric circuit to actuate m alarm*. Betectors..operating

on this principle are of the unit ./5 , 6 , 12 , 13 , 12/

1*2*2*2 41r„

the temperature sensitive ele^ijsnt of detectors tliis type

consists of air in a system that is closed except for a restriet«d

opening* iiuriag norml rates of fc^atiiig, tine expanding air escapes

through tije restricted opening without building up a very great

pressure, whei’eas an abnormlly high rate of heating will generate

sufficient pressure ia the system to actuate an alarm. J>§.tectors

operating on thisjpi^acipi© may be of either the unit £ 2/ or

continuous t,ype ^

1 * 2 . 2*3

file differential tharaal expansion type of fire detectors,

mentioned la section 1«2*1*1, can be mde to operate also upon the

rate of temperature rise by thermally lagging on© of the faateriais

coaqposiiig tlie temperature sensitive element. In general, detectors

of tills type operate on either the temperature level or the rat^ of

te^eratur© rise* They be either of the unit ^1,6,12,13,21/

or the continuous typo

1.2.2.4 hlactrlcnl.. Eesistanca

lijo temperature sensitive element of this type of fir© detector

would consist of 2 resistors with an appreciable temperature coefficient of resistance, connected in a bridge circuit, resistor

would be exposed in the fir© area and the other would be therially

lagged* Asi abaora^lly rapid rate of tei^rature rise in the fir©

area would unbalajice the bridge circuit sufficiently to actuate an

alarm.

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1*3

tfjfi diJTfei'eut t/p«s detectors :3©:ttloned ia the precediag

sectious were of tbs uiiit or coatixmous t^e and depended upon the

fla?»ie coiitttctl^ig an ele^at. A detector operated hy the energy

radiated by a flaiae !ms a defltiite advantage la that a single unit

caix ^ttOiiitor a relatively large space. Although all flataes radiate

eixergy, this cMracteristic of & fl&m has not been utili^d, until

relatively recently ^ ixi fire-«det0ctixxg s/stems on aircraft, primarily

because of the difficulty ia distinguishing tiie energy eraitted by

the flaiaes froia that by tim background. The characteristics of the

radiant energy emitted by flasks are grouped into the following

categories.

1.3.1 flux fBadlaat Ba.rgy per unit ?,f

one Joetbod of detecting the presence of a flame in a given

space would b© to utilljge the quaxitity of the radiant flux, received

by a detector vlewiiof the space. The detector could be made to respond to the radiant energy in selected wavelength barids by providing

it ^fith suitable filters* ae type of detector that has been proposed responds only to tlxe radiaxit energy at wavelexxgths less tlwi

O.hy micron, rsuige in which there would be no solar or background

radiation. 4kk, 23 , 25t/* Mother type of detector vliich bets been proposed would be higlily responsive to the radiant energy between k and

5

' itiicrons, where the strong 03^ emission 'band of hydrocarbon fla!aes

exists*

1 . 3.2 iiate of Ciiange l.i .iaiilant glux

Since ail accidental fire in an aircraft exigine compartment breaks

out almost iastantly, there is a very rapid increase la the quantity

of the radiant flux from the space in wltlch the fire starts. Tlie

rate of increase in the radiant flux received by a detector viewing

this space could be used to actuate an alarm. It would be nef^sssry

to adjust the circuitry so timt a false alarm would not be gl on by

the slower rate of increase in the radiaxit flux from the ©ngiiie parts.

As mentioned in the previous section, it might advantageous to

utilise the radiant energy in selected wavelength rcgioxis In order

to facilitate in distinguishi.4 between the radiant energy from a

fire and tljat from the backgrouiid.

^*3*3 baMih-alL-^ianMlntansities..ln...fim--Javelen^

The spectral disiributioxi of the radiant energy from a flame is,

in soa» respects, different from that of a continuous radiator. A

fire detector which utilizes the ratio of radlauit intenslties^of the

flame in 2 selected wavelength intervals has been proposed. ^1^, 13/

WADC m 54-307

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Ti^ radiant fluz enaitted by a fla^ depends upon such

factors as Its tasperatur©, its siae, its aove^nts, t'm degree

of aeration 9 etc*

,

which vary rapidly and to som extent periodically with tia®. ^though tm radiant flux fram tm background la aa aircraft e.isi.ae compartsieiit alao varies with tl.aie,

it is usually at a mch lower rate and aoa-perlodic* fhos, a

device that will respond only to the rapid, periodic variations

in the radlcuit flux from fiasies should distinguish between t'tm

radlatioii froa flames and that from the background*

1 . 3 A.1 aifitoc.

:.)o© >aethod of detecting the periodic ^^flicker*'* of flams

utilises photosensitive detectors and filter circuits* A considerable degree of success l:ias been attained with such detecting systems* f??f55S59269aiy,2fl/*

1*3*^*2 i-;-javer

So!ue flames have a tendency to oscillate or waver from

Sid© to side* A photoelectric device claliied to respond eitMr

to this effect or to flicker, has been proposed as a fire

detector.

l.k

Aa abnormally Mgh ioni nation exists in tim reaction zones

of i'i^'drocarbon flaiaes* This flame elmracteristic Ms been

utilised in devices for aionitoring the presence of pilot lights

in boilers and has been proposed as an operational principle

for fire detectors.

If sufficiently separated in air, ao current will flow between two electrodes with a potential difference between tliem,

but if a flaa® contacts both electrodes a current will flow

since the products in the reaction zone of the flmm are lo^^4

Tl^s electric current -nay be utilissed to actuate an alara. £1,2^

1.4.2 i^laae .^ctifl.caMoa

Wmn B. flam contacts two electrodes of unequal area, the

electric current will flow more readily in one dfrection than

th© otlier. fills prixicipie, with suitable electrode^ and eircuitry, I'Aas been used in the detection of fiaaies. ^2,3,13,30,31/

6

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SECTION II

wum EFFECTS mmTIMWD

Since !Tiost of tlie fire detecting systems, that have been

proposed depend \ipon the flames contacting a taii^eratiire sensitive

element, more studies have been made of systems operating on this

priEiseipie than on any other. Although they have been found to be

satisfactory In many respects, there is no asatxranca that the flame®

will always contact the temperature sensitive element. This limittatlon ia not encountered with detectlag systems which depend x^on

the radiant energy from the flames for their operation. In addition

lir^ted testa witla systems which depend vipon tli© ri^llant energy indicate that they respond much more rapidly than those which depend

upon flame contact. Conse<|u®ntly, the major part of the present

work was devoted to studies of the radiant energy from flames.

However, ame atudy was -mm of the contact heating effects by

flames and the ionisation in fli^Re®.

In addition to ttie above studies of flame effects, a few experiments were perforEsed to obtain the ith'onaation rteccssary to

evaluate properly some of the proposed fire detecting systems.

a

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mciiioM III

3»0 Tlw diffea?©iic©s ia color observed iii various fla'aics aad

ill the differeat parts of the saiae flaiJie indicate, to so£^

extent, tli^ variations ia the spectral nature of tiie aaeri^

radia*’ced by flasks* Similar variations in the spectral nature

of the energy radiated also occur in the liifrared portion of

the spectruai which includes, by far, th& maior portion of the

allergy radiated by tjydrocarboa flames* Because of these variations it is i^t possible to assign, accurately, any one value

to the amount of energy radiated by a flame in ai%y particular

part of the spectrum# However, sine© w© were concerned Mre

with the detection of accidental fires, it appeared advisable

to establish the range over which the smomit of energy radiated

in various parts of the spectrum might vary#

The flaiaes produced by buriiing fuel of any given type

radiate selectively in certain wavelength bands wliich are

determined by the composition of tlie fuel# Since !iK>st of the

fuels that constitute a fire im^rd in aircraft erAglne compartments are Imsically liydrocarbons, tliey will produce flaasas

that Imve the same general radiation cimracteristics as «uiy

otl'isr hydrocarbon flariie# The waveleagth bands la which liydrocarlKjn flames radiate selectively are most readily datenaiiied

with ijoa-luiairious flames in which coa^lete combustion ta^s

place#

A typical emission spectrum of a non-lumliious buiiseii flame

is -'Shown in Fig. 1# The strongest ©mission band at aromid 4#-4

microns Is due to the ©mission by carbon dioxide molecules#

The next most pronounced ba.nd at aromd 2.8 microns is attributed largely to carbon dioxide and to some extent to water vapor.

There are other smll baMs neai’ 0#95» 1#^^ and 2. microns.

iUthough emissiOii baMs aiid lines nave been observed at wavelenths

out to 20 microns a^id beyoM, SK>st of the enea^^ emitted by such

flames is at wavelengths less than 7 laicrons iM/#

There are also emission bands &ad lines in the ultraviolet

and visible portioiiis of th© spectrua. ^ace the relative magnitude of these are not sufficleiitly great to show on the scale

used in Fig. 1, tliey are reproduced from photographs in Fig. 2.

The similarity among the emission spectra for 3 different hydrocarbon fuels is shown here. It is seen that fla.ms of this type

emit a small aiaount of radiant energy at wavelengths less than

0.29 micron# The radiatloti from flames in this wavelength region

has been of particular Interest in flame detection because

practically all of the radiant energy from the sun below 0.29

micron is absorbed in the upper atmosphere of the earth#

9

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3DNVIQVd 3AllV33d

FIG. I

SPECTRAL

RADIANCE

CURVES

FOR

BUNSEN

FLAME

AND

BLACKBODY

AT

2200

AND

INTERNAL

TRANSMITTANCE

OF

WINDOW

MATERIALS
I

I
HYDROCARBON

CH

CH

Q>Z

SWAN

FLAME

BANDS

BANDS IoIo

ZZ99

1619

9£99

9919

Z.£Zfr

29£t7 9I£^

006£

t'90£

iiez - 0009 _ 0099 - 0009 - 009fr

-OOOi' - 009£ - 001^£ - 00££ - 002C - OOlC - 000£ - 0063 - 0083 - 00Z3 - 0093 - 0093 § a

FIG. 2

FLAME

SPECTRA

OF

THREE

PETROLEUM

FUELS

(A)

UNLEADED

MARINE

GASOLINE

(B)

GRADE

JP-4

FUEL

(MIL—

F-5624A1

(C)

GRADE

100/130

FUEL

(MIL-F-5572)

EXTRA

LINES

ARE

DUE

TO

LEAD
22551

W
The flanie reaction products to which th© respective emission

bands are attributed are shown in tlie figure, flw relative

strength of th© CH band at about 0*431 micron, compared to that

of the bands at longer wavelengths, accounts for the blue color

of h/drocarbon flasjes in which nearly complete eoabustion takes

place*

In order to have nearly coiiplete combustion, the coaditioa

under which the above mentioned eiaissioa bands are most readily

observed, It is necessary to premix tbi fuel air. Such fla^^s

are called **premixed flames**. If a flaiae is tormd by air supplied

to the fuel by diffusion and nixing with the surrounding atmosphere,

the flame is called a **diffusion Diffusion flacaes have

received much less attention than preniimd flames in funda-aental

research, despite the fact that diffusion flames are !sore fre*»

quently used industrially and are the more contaon in accidental

fires. The primary reason for ti'iis lack of Interest in th© study

of diffusion flails is that they are extrei^ly variable and, greatly

liifluenced by uncontrollable factors which mk& it difficult to

:^asure, accurately, any fuidamsntal property of the flame.

The rate of mixing of the fi:^! and air in the reaction aone

of diffusion flames is insufficient to prevent the formation

of free carbon particles wtdch, being heated in the flaJis, emit

radiaiit energy. The spectral distributimi of the energy radiated

by these particles is similar to tlmt of any other solid in that

it is continuous in iiature a^id de^nds upon tl:ie temperature. (Bee

blackbody curves in Tigs 1 and 16; The radiaiit energy from th©

characteristic flame emission baiids, particularly those in tlie

visible a^id ultraviolet parts of the spectrum, is al^aost, if not

entirely, obscured by the radiant energy from and the scattering

by tiie carbon particles. Thus, the color of diffusion flames

appears red, orange or yellow.

, Ihless provisions are made for obtai:aing nearly complete co;a-» bastion, part of a flaa» taay have the elmracteristics of a pre-

:alxed flail© while another part of tlie Bam flame may have the

characteristics of a diffusion flame. Thus, one part of a

flame may be blue while another part is yellow or orange*

12

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It was pointed out iu tM preeedlag section that the rate

at which e lergy is radiated b/ a flaiae ia aaj part of the

spectruoi varies greatly with the buraer desiga aM txie degree

of aeratioa of the flane 5 axid, in general , it varies fron one

part of a flane to aziother* Irifornation on the saagnitude of

these variations are essential to the design and develop^nt

of any fire detectljig system utilising the rate of energy

emission 'because, for any detecting system to be practical, it

must detect' the fire that gives the weakest signal and yet,

not be ’iiade inoperative by the fire that gives the greatest

sig;ml* Realising that the rate of energy ©mission from so-me flames might be very low, it was decided to measure the rate

of energy ©mission over relatively wide wavelength bands

because it was X'elt that sufficient energy to operate a

practical device for use on aircraft might not be emitted in

a narrow wavelength band* As a consequence, no attempt was

mde to determine the detailed emission spectrum of aiiy pai‘ti«

cular flan^ •

T’fi© cimracteristie spectral emission curve for a buasen

fla.ae, shown In Fig* 1, ls„a composite of the curves given by

Plyler /FiJ and Ga/don 1^2/* 'i'h© fine structure rsported by

Plyler has men o-nittcd* Mso given in Fig* 1 are transmittance

curves for calciua fluoride (F), fused silica (quarts) (w),

aiid pyrex (F) windows or leases, approxlsaately 5

^

thick*

Practically all the energy radiated by tii© is within

the region in which calcium fluoride has a .high ti’ansmissi-oa.

Ihe tra^iSiQission limits of quarts and pyrex are at about 3*b

and 2*6 lal crons, respectively* fhus, with th©se 3 corn'o^r daily

available materials, the radiant energy out to about 10 microns

(the approximate transimissi-on limit of calcium fluoride) c&n

be determi.ied in 3 wide wavelength bs2ids* ^ULso given in Fig. 1

is the spectral emission carve for a blackbody at 2200*^ F. It

vfill be pointed out later that this curve, with the possible

exception of the dotted parts, will approximate the spectral

e'jiissio.a from a diffusion flame.

It should be poiiited out that the radiance values, shown

in Fig* 1 are relative and have been adjusted so that the

maxiiaira value of each cuinr© is unity, line absolute values of

the maxima for tlie two curves -might be qiiite different.

Biace some fir© detecting systems which operate on relatively narrow spectral bands in the wavelength region below

2,5 microns have been proposed studies were made on five

contiguous wavelength bands in this regi-on.

13

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gas fla^aes caii ha eoiivanietitly adjusted to provide different

types of flasies, two mtya’al gas t'orfiars were used In the

develop»it of the -iiethods of iristruj^ntation* >ae vras an

ordinary isimmmi burner* Tm etb«r, shown at A in Fig. 4, consisted of a long v^ertical pipe with a burner tip, 1 13/16 laches

la dlii^sster, an air blower, aa adjustable pre.faixer, and flow

aeters for both gas and air.

two ran-Jet type burners of rectangular croas-sectloa were

used to provide premised tl&mB liquid fuels. Jet hurnar

Jlo* 1 was I in. wide $M 3 with a horiso:ntal flasae

holder at .«ld-l3»ight* Jet barrier 'ic* 2 was ^ in. wide and

2*5 i I* high with a vertical fia^ holcibr at ’lid-width* Facilities were available for burning various pre'm&tM hnmg&n&om

jfiixt ores of different fuels and . air and for injecting litiuid

fuel into prelieated air* llie f-j^Xs used in tu® Jet burners

mre 30 octane gasoline, 100/130 avietiou , arid JP-4

jet fuel. fi?j® followl^ng ranges of operating co:;»ditioas

were obtairjeds

fuel-air ratio C.C^5 to 0.111

Hate of Fuel Cons'aiaption —— 2.0 to 6,6 ll)/?sln

Pre^tixtura iemperet'ore

-TM 291^ to 4o9®F

Fr®faixture felocit/ —— 133 to 39? ft/s@c

‘ypmt coatai.acrt were used as burners to obtain dlffusina

flaac-s fro'^ t^ic varioits liquid fuels. A seetlorihX drmint; of

tJss burner used in ?aost of the vork is shown in Fig. 3* the

side h^allB aad ttie !mffle plate were of 1/16 In* stainless

steel, flm liq'uid fuel was introduce^i througii an inlet iii tm

water cooled hrasB bottom# ffm liquid level was 4Ut-oaatlcally

raaiataiaed at a level about 0.5 In. fro'^ the top* ihe fuels

used in this were 80 octaii© gasoliii^, 100/130 aviation

gasoline, no®. IQIO a/idllOO lubrlcatla.i; oil, and petroleuia

base uydraullc fluid, ^11. dpec. 0-5606* A 30 in. fan was

used to pr^oduee air speeds up to 20 ?ii^h at the burner.

^om m^sam^mats were mde on large diffusion fla:!j®s

produced by i^i-;ilti'if O'le galiou of gasoliu# wlilch had tjeea

poured into a shallow 4 ft square coacret® pit.

14

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various^ flaanes la ^ aifferexit m’reieagta mgiom from 0*^3^'

to 2*5 microns was earriiKl out wlt-h a i-^ultipl© purpose optical

stxid electrical s/stea designed md coastmcted for" tliis particular work* A block diagram of this s/stem, which nja/ he desigaated as a recording abridged spectroradioaeter or a raciiatioii

axial/jger, is &'mmi la Fig. 5* prlacipal component of tlm

system was Urn receiver which comprised the detectors and the

optical filters to isolate the wavelength reglofis. n front

view of the receiver is shown at B in Big. h m& a rear view of

the ixiterior of the receiver Is shown in Fig. 6. l.he enclosure

of the receiver was "light e:^eept for the apertures

which adxaltted radiant energy tb4rough tm filters to the detectors# l>ie apertures were arranged to be as close together as

eonstruction would permit, so tlmt the flam was viewed from

appromlmtely the sam direction by all of them. The spectral

range of the radiant energy admitted to #aeh detector was

limited by an optical filter# The five regions eoverec the

spectru^a from 0.235 to 2.5 microns without significant overlapping, as shqwn in Bigs 0 and 9j where tM relative response

of each detector with its filter is Bhowa* ikll of the detectors were B.C.ii. IP 28 photomultiplier tubes except the

one used for tlie infrared region, which was a -Kodak, Ektroa,

T>pe I, lead sulfide photoca.ndactive cell with a 'kxk am seasitive area. Xii@ filters used for tm vai^lous wavelciigth regions

are described below.

1. Tiie region of shortest wavelengths was the ultraviolet

region from 0.235 to 0.290 micron# :lo eommoo phototube was

available for shorter wavelengths, axid since practically all

radiaxit energy at wavelengtlis below 0#185 iiicron is absorbed in

a s.hort distance in air, shorter waveiaxigtlis wre not considered#

Til® region Just below 0.290 ?aicron was of interest c^cause detectors of energy of these wavoleagthi %?ould not be affected by

energy from the sua, such radiant energy being absorbed in the

earth *s upper atmospBier©.

it was iiiecessary to develop a filter to isolate tMs

spectral region. Tm filter devised was a combisiation of three

liq'oid solutions aim a glass type filter# Tm solutions were

contained in absorption ceils of th© klm used in exieaieal

speetropiiotojuetry. tlie cells Imd windows of fused silica* in©

first cell was two centiliters in length and was filled with an

aqueous solution containing 30 grams of nickel sulfate in 100

.flilliliters of solution. Xae seeo.nd cell was one ceatirmeter Iti

length and contained a solution of 5^0*5 molar 4,4-dia.miaobeaaopheno,a® In 0.001 norml sodium iiydroxide. The third cell was

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RESPONSE METER >ooQ>Oo

hlO

d<

FIG. 5

BLOCK

DIAGRAM

OF

RADIATION

ANALYZER
^r\

':5
FIG. 6 SPECTRORADIOMETER RECEIVER,

REAR VIEW OF INTERIOR
I

!

i
FIG. 7

SCHEMATIC

DIAGRAM

OF

SPECTRORADIOMETER

RELATIVE

RESPONSE

FIG. 8 RELATIVE RESPONSE OF RADIOMETER
w. V-
3SNOdS3d 3AllVn3d

FIG.9

RELATIVE

RESPONSE

OF

RADIOMETER
-V
.liSa centimeter in length and w&s filled v/ith an aqueous solution

contaluini: 20 mg' of 1, 4»diaEepiu0«*2, 3-41l:i/dro~5f 7-di§^tli/l

perchlorate la 100 mi of solution* llsese three llq'uld, filters

were used together with a Coming ”Eed Purple Corex filter

with color specification mmheT 7-5^*

2m flm aecoM spectral region was the near 'oltravlolet

region between 0*30 and 0.4l ?aiero.a. The filter used was mi

^Oltrairialet .filter**,. Catalog umber $26hf obtained from the

Pilotovolt Corporation.

3# Tilt tfiird s|>ectral region was the blue end of the

visible spectrm between 0.^-1 auid 0*55 ^mieroa. A combiimtion

of two Corning glass filters was used, a ^*Light Theatre Blue*'

filter with color specification number a ”.:\*ovioi

ihade A” filter with color specifIcation number 3-73*

hm Tm fourth spectral region was the yellow end of the

visible spectrum betv/een 0.^"5 and 0.70 micron. Tia® filter was

a Cio3p;alag glass B. bantera -ilmde ^llow" filter with color

specification number 3-*^7»

§'• The spectral reiian oi longest wavelengtli was the

infrared miioa from 0*70 to 2.^ microns. The filter was -an "Infre-Bed lUlter" Oatalog llo. 5261 from th@' B's^tovolt Corporation*

Tlie power supply provided a stabilised potential difference

of 700 volts, with an alterimtii^ component of less tlma 0.001^,

for operating the receiving elei^^nts* The sensitivity of tli©

photomultipliers ws about om volt per (iaicrowatt/cm^) but to

assure Hnearltr and i?eproduciMlity, tM receiver was alwa/s

pieced at a sufficient distance from the source to Iceep the

response below 75 millivolts, fhe infrered cell^^had a sensitivity of about wO millivolts per (iaicrowatt/cm‘^). A circuit

diagram of the Instruajent Is shown la Fig. 7, and tly& clrciiit

comp-orients were as follows s

'Cl « 9 ^idcrofai'ads

Cg ® S microfarads

C3

= 16 microfarads

Fi « 3A amp

% ** 2 amp

2k

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=* 34Si:

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^61 , 62 , 63,64 “ 510 ohm

ja^5 a 400K, Iw^

61,2 “ toggl® switch.

« 2#5v“ center tap fiiai^s.it ZT^nstormT lu aap

Tg a plate traiisforiaer 7QO-a-70Gv 180 !aa

^1,2, 3,4 * 1^28 photomultiplier tubes

'/5 a J^odak Klstrou FisC cell, 4x4 mii

'^6f? “ 666a rectliier tubss

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cps

TIMING

TRACE

Tkie « p/a is leiawa as radlaat flax deasit/ at

surface md is &xpmss&d la vatts/car. For & blaekbod,/, « (T fhe rate at wMch radiant eiiergj falls upo.a. a mAt

area of a surface is kaowa as the irradlanc® &iid is also e:^reBsed

In

Ihe rate at which energy is radiated by & b;>d/ throughout

the spectrusa and through a solid aagl© of om stersdiau is kaow.i

as tlj® radiant intensity, J, and Is expressed la watts/sieradiaa*

For a hiackbod/, t h il cr

7T 7T

flie rate at wMch energy is radiated by & body tl'ipo^^^.daut

the spectrum, thro*ugd a solid a-igle of one steradiaa, a-cid per u?iit

of projected area iB^knma as the radiane®, I, and is e;^ress©d ia

watts/ (cis^-steradiaii). ihe radiaxice aiid radiant iuteasity of

radiating surfaces, ia general, depend upon tiie directiori -.^f radia«

tion, whieii must, therefoi’e, he specified* It is often oonve:iient

&iid useful to deal with the ritdianee la the directioa, aorml to

the surface, the aor.iml radiance. 'Xl'ie following relationships

apply to a hlackhody aa«i are derived from the fact tMt the radiaoco

in this case is miforii oyer the entire projected area and is

indepeiiteit of direction-. Jr 4. u <r T

I’i ^ ®* a . ... , - 9B -.., -r.u

. -T-.

^4 ii TT T tr^

It is convenient to use the term radiant intensii/, J, in

expressing t^ie radiant emission in a pcrticolar direction when the

source is simll and t!'i@ spacial distribution of the sotirc© is nonuniform. i.fowever, if tlis dimensicuis of the sooi’ce are large coiapar#d to til© distaace fro^a the receiver to the so-oj^ce, it is -aor©

appropriate to us© the term radiance,

'2tm radiance of a body for a s.mall wavcleagth interval about

a given wavelength is knovxi as the spectral radiance, x that

wavelength SJid is expressed in wettfi/(cm^-steradian-nlcr>.ij. Xhe

spectral radiance of a blackbody is

^1

y<r ^ r

- —.-— . X v5 i -^-1 )

Where Ch and C.-, are constants &.nd X is the wavelengtn. For I

to be exprassel in watts/ (cm^-steradian- aicron) , X in nxer a 3 , U-. « l43dp micron-degrees K, and a lias nu-jierlca.. value

ltl906xl0^* '

Th 54-307
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1*

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<! i.»X a.i X .4 <• Xi7 Ai^lx’V ?SiA j': AXiit .;, £;«;/« v„;A^-

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XXXa..H -i:a

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%

A .~,A
Th© s/ato-ol -fC Xi « X 2 )is used here to denote tlie normal

radiance of the radiatliog source for all wavelengths between Xi

aiid Xz • fh& noriaal radiance from the flams aiod from blackbodies

in tli« wavele^igth regions traisiaitted P/i’ex, quarta, and ealelua

fluoride will be referred t^o as (0-2,6), If (C-3*B), and (0“9,^),

respectively. However, the actual v&Xms of the effective wavelength cutoffs were used in deterniiaing the normal radiance for

blachh:>dies,

3,1.4*

file results obtained for the norml radiance from the Jet

burner flames in widlch the fuel and air were preiaisoed and the mixture preiisated are given in fables i and 2, the observations were

made cm the vertical surfaces of the flames and, since the bur.iers

and fla^uss were different in width and the conditions of operation

different, no direct correlation between the results obtained with

tiie two burners would be expected. In each case, the norisal radiance

in each wavelength band increased as the fuel-air ratio was Increased,

fhe results obtained for ZM Jet burner fla^aes in wlilch the

liquid fuel was injected into a preheated air stream are given in

fable 3* Ihese flajs^s, as well as tii® richer of the other prefixed

flames, were more yellow at tlie tips than at the burner outlet,

Surveys of the aorml radiance were made along these fla'^s, from

the burner outlet to the points wl'iere the flaises s^gma to break up.

Although tlie values of ^J(0-9*5) increased less tfmti 20 percent,

the values of 11(0-2.6) approxi.nat©ly doubled as the more yellow

parts of the flaa© were appro&clied.

Xhe following values of normi radimnc# mm obtained with a

flame produced by boroing a stoichimetric mixture of imtiiral gas and

air with a 1 13/16 in, dlaiaeter burners

1(0-2. 6) 0,0? watt/ (ca^-steradian)

M (0-3 *B) #20 watt/ ( -steradian

)

(0-9• 5 ) * 60 watt/ ( cra^ -steradimi

)

These values are not very different frora those given in Table

1 for a stoicliiometrlc mixture of gasoline and air. These flames

were of approximately the sajie thlclLiess at the location where the

measureaients were made.

29

WADC m 54-30?
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The results obtaineci for the aoraal radiaaoe of various diffusion

flaiaes are given in Table k* The values observed for the large fire

were much liigher than those for any of the other fla^aes. This is

attributed to its greater thickness. The percentage of the energy

in the shorter waelength regions of the diffusion flaaes was appreciably greater than that for the preaixed flanes.

The ranges of values obtained for the normal radiance in the

different wavelength regions of all the flames studied are given in

Table 5*

Table 5. dang© of Values of loraal

studied

•ft

Hadiance for all

'

Wavelength hormi Hatio

Opan

I’herons

Piadianee

. Watts/ (cm^'-Steradiaa) min value

0-2.6 0.02-1.80 90

2. 6-3.8 0.05-0.98 20

3.6-9.

5

0.21-1.09 C'y

0-3-6 , 0.06-2.78 46

0-9.5 ' 0.27-3.87 14

The ratios of the energy radiated in tfw wavelength regions,

0 to 2.6, 0 to 3.8, 2.6 to 3*^9 and 3*8 to 9*5 microns to that la

the region 0 to 9.5 microns are shown in Tigs 11, 12, 13, and l4,

respectively.,^ The values for the ratio l?(0-2.6) to ^^(0-9. 5) Tor

the diffusion'' flame 3 ranged from 0.32 to 0.4o eompai^oa to 0.07 to

0.1^ for the premised flames. The values of the ratio I (0-3.8) to

I (0-9. 5) the diffusion flails ranged from 0.47 to 0./5 compared

to 0.22 to 0.38 for the premiised flames. As shown in Fig. 13, the

values of the ratio H(2.6-3.d) to H(0-9.5) not very different

for the various types of flames, oince the fraction of the energy

radiated in the shorter wavelength regions increased as H(0-9.5)

increased, that in the longer wavelength region, 3*8 to 9*5 microns,

decreased, as shown In Fig. l4.

The values of the radiance in thB different wavelength regions

of a blaekbody at various temperatures are given in Table 6 for

comparison with those observed for flaines. In the wavelength region

0 to 2.6 microns, tii© values for the premloced flails, 0.02 to 0.1

5

watt/(ca^-steradiaii) , corresponded to those of a blaekbody at temperat'oras of 800^ to ll^'^F, and those for the diffusion flames,

0.3^ to 1.80 watts/ (ei»^“Steradiaii), corresponded to those of a blackbody at temperatures of 1330® to lo50®F. In the \-raveleagth region

0 to 3 *8. mi crons, the values for the prefixed flames, 0.06 to 0.47

watt/(ciB^-steradiaii) , corresponded to those of a blaekbody at teaper&tiH'es of 730^ to 1180®F, and those for the diffusion flames,

WADc m 5^307 .

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TEMPERATURE,

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006

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No-9.5)

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FIG. 1

RATIO

OF

ENERGY

THROUGH

PYREX

AND

FLUORIDE

WINDOWS
"b
BLACK

BODY

TEMPERATURE,

N(o-9.5)

,watts/{cm^-steradian)

FIG.

12

RATIO

OF

ENERGY

THROUGH

QUARTZ

AND

FLUORIDE

WINDOWS
>

.1

X'

ill

9PP
BLACKBODY

TEMPERATURE,

in

o>I o

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TEMPERATURE

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rO

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/(CM^-STERADIAN)
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BLACKBODY

TEMPERATURE,

(NJI

00

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,WATTS/(CM^-STERADIAN)

FIG.

15

RATIO

OF

RADIANT

ENERGY

THROUGH

PYREX

AND

QUARTZ

WINDOWS

Table

6,

Radiance

of

a

Blackbod/

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Various

Temperatures

• CN

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to watts/ (ca^-steradiaa) correspoaded to those of a

blackhod/ at temperatures of 1190® to 1620®F. Irj the wavelerigth regiou 0 to microas, the values for the premixed

flaiies, 0#27 to 1.27 watts/(cm«=^-3t©ra4iau) , corresponded to those

of a hlackbod/ at temperatures of 660'^ to 1190*F, auiti those for

the diffusion flaiiaes, 0.77 to 3*3? watts/cm^-steradlati) , corresponded to a hlackbisdy at temperatures of 990® to 17^0®?,

!l^he ratios of il(0-2.6) to .f(0-9*5) a^id fCO-3.^) to ^(C-9.5)

for a blackbod/ at different tei^ratoi'es are also shown la Figs.

11 and 12, respectively, fhese ratios, coiit^red to those observed for the flaaies, are sustmrised in Table 7* Although tlw

greater part of the energy radiated by the premixed flames was

at wavelengths longer than 3*t microns, tbe is true of a

^ blackbody at temperatures belovj 1300® F. in general, the greater

part of energy radiated by the diffusion flames was at wavelengths

shorter than 3*^ microns. Even thot^h a pyrex wi^ow transmits

o.al/ about kO percent of the radiant energy fr-oia a diffusion flam©

it transmits a lauch smaller percentage of the radiant energy from

a blackbody at temperatures below 1300®F. Gonsequeatly, if aircraft accidental fires are expected to be of the diffusion type,

a pyrex wlndov; would appear to be more suitable timi one trans-

. mittlng at longer wavelengths cause it would absorb a relatively

Mgiser p@r,ce.atage of the backgromd radiation* spectral

radiance curves for a blaekbody at diffei^ent temperatures are

sinowa together with the spectral transmittance curves of p/rex

CP), quarts (Q), smi calcii^ fluoride (F) In Fig. 16.

The ratios of the normal radiance in various parts of the

spectrum provide a means of computing the temperature of the solid

radiatiiig particles in the diffiision flaiaes. Since the cisissivity of solid carbon is essentially iMspendent of wavelength,

the diffusion flam-s will radiate esseiitially as a greybody

w,hich, for a given tes^rature, will hav© the distribution

of energy throughout spiectrum as a blackbody. fhe most

appropriate ratio to use for tMs purpose is 11(0-2.6) to n(0-3.8)

because the CO^ band at around 4.4 microns is excluded. Tlie

average value of the ratio il(0-2.6) to 1(0-3# 8) obtained for all

the diffusion flanies was 0.655* The ratio of f(0-2*6) to rK0-3.S)

for a greybody at 2200®F is 0.697* Else© this ratio was approximately the saiae for all the diffusion fla:aes, see Fig. 19, it

would appear timt they were all at approximately the same temperature and that tiie differences In tlie values of the normal i'adia;ice were due primarily to differences in th© tliickness guid

emissivity.

The value for the ratio of 1(0-2. 6) to 1(0-9* 5) 0.46b

for the large gasoline fire a^id is 0.473 for a greybody at

2200®f. The value for the ratio of l(0-3*8) to 1(0-9* 5) was

4l

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Table 7, Hatio Xiadiaat Flux in i>iffereat

of farious Sources

mvelerigth :

doaree — ~

i(o-9.5; j(0-9*5)

Premi^d Flaoies 0.07-0.14 0.22-0.39

^iffucioii FLaaes 0<*3£-0.4B 0. V7-U. 75

Blaekbody at 400®F 0«0066 O.OiQ

Blackbodj at 600®

0.024 0.16

Blaekbod/ at 800®F Q,G59 0.05

Biackbody at iOOO®F O.U

[ 0.35'

Blackbody at 1200*^ F 0.17 0.43

Blackbody at 1300®F 0.£0 0.47

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0.717 tar tim' large gasioli-rie fire aad is 0.720 fox a at

2200®F. liiese values would iadlcat© timt tlie radiaiit 1 etierg/

from tile 0-)2 tsaud at aroutid 4.^ iiilcroas coutributsd v#r;/ little

to the total mwrgy radiated, xloweveri the slightly lover values

obtaiaed for these latter ratios with the Sfualler aad leas sooty

flajues iiidlcat© that theare was soise appreciable amoufit of r&diaat

eaergy in the k,h aicroa baiid* |

1 The above ?aeasure.^nts indicate tl;^ the relative spectral

distribution curve for the radi&at energy from the diffusion,

flasies obtalaed in this work was not very different from tiiat of

a bl&ekbody at 2200'^?, shown In Fig. 1. If tmm were aay peaks

in the regions at around 2.3 and 4.4 microas (dotted l|n the curve),

they \fer© not very proaomced. The value of 2200^F obtained for

tiie temperature of diffusion fla;:^s in this work was for fisuaes

buTiiing ia the open. The temperature of similar flames burning

la a heated eaclosure, such as a xiacella, would be higher.'

If the teiaperature of the radiating particles in t5j@ diffusioii

flames is take.i.i as 2200®F, the effective noriml ©missiVity of the

flame, defined as themtio of the aori»l radiarice of the flaa^

to that of a blaekbody at the same temperature, can be cormputea.

Use computed values ranged from 0.093 for the sraall gasoline fire

in still air to 0.4/ for the large gasoline fire.

I 3. 1.4.2 afcdls.it Ittteiisltj { The values obtained, in ttm 3 wavelength regioas between

Q.235 a'ad 2.f microns, for the radiant intensity of preat^:a

flames are given in fable 8 and those of the diffusion ; flames

in Table 9* Siiice the areas of tli® fla?^s were different, there

is no direct correlation ^mug tin value® obtaiiied for 'th©

' differexit flame®, except In a $®mxBX way. The projected areas

of the Jet hwmx fla^^s, as viewed by tlie receiver, were estimated to rsiige from about 1000 to about 2500 sq cm, wMle, those

of the diffusion flames ranged from about 200 to about bOO $q cm.

The radiant Intensity la tlie wavelength region 0.235^ to

0.290 micron was greater for the liquid injection flaasep tiiaa

for a^ay of the other types of flames. The average value was

about 0.2 watt/steradian. In all the other premlxed flames,

except one, it was of sufficient magnitude to be .a^asured with

the, apparatus used. In tlm diffusion flames, it was less than

10*^ watt/steradlan, the minimum intensity tlmt could be detected with the apparatus used.

44

tR 54-307
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ultraviolet regioa betweeii 0*3C a*id C.4l aicroii was 3*1 wa'cts/steradian for a stoleiiioiaetric mlKtar^ of busoliue aad aii’ ia Jot

barmr io. 2. flie r&diaat iateusit/ in all the otlier fla kjs,

except one, was ^^reater tli&a tins jalniiaaa detectable aaoait,

watt/steradiaa in tixis wavelength region.

1.M mxiiauai value of radiant ixitensity obse3:^ed i:'i t>:ie blue

end of the visible spectrua between 0.4l axid 0.5f^ iJiicron was l.y

watt/steradian for a stoiehioiaetric iaixture of gasoline anti air

in J&t bornar rio. 2. Xh© aiinlaiU4 value ob3©i*v©d in tills range

was 2.9 X 10*3 watt/s teradiaa.

In tne yellow end of the visible spectra^, ' between O.t'5

? and 0.70 micron, the mxiaum val'ua of radiant lateusity observed was watts/steradian for a flam produced by buniinK

hydraulic fluid in a 20 ^h wind. It was less t!mn the miidmum

detectable amou.it, 10*3 wstt/steradian, with the lean preinlxied

flaiaes of gasoliiie md air and, less than watt/steradlaa,

with the blue bonseii

In Vm infrared portion of the spectrasi between 0*7 mid

2.5 microiis the maximua value of tm radiant inte:isit/ ob^rved

was 303 watts/steradi&ii for a flauie produced by burninf; hydraulic fluid f,* & 20 mph wind. Tlie minimum value observed was

?*k watts/steradian for the blue bunsen fla^^.'

lUe results given in fables 8 and 9 show that the amount

of energy radiatad by any of the fia-aes in the ultraviolet and

visible portions of the spectrum is saiail compared to that In

tils infrared portion out to 2.5 microns, fh© results reported

for tlie normal radiance in previous tables show that the amount

of energy i^adiated by aiiy of tlas flames in all wavelengths out

to 2.6 raicroiis was leas tima 50 percent of the total.

The ratio of the amount of energy radiated in the yeU-^ow

portion of tlie spectrum to that In the blue portion is ah'imx in

Urn last column of Table® 8 and 9 for each of the fXaraes. Although this ratio is not a complete color specification for a

flame, it does give som idea of the color of the flam, this

ratio for daylight is rouglily one.

3*^ X’li. SliakBr of yiaaas

tne preceding sectioii dealt with tlie average values of

radiance a^id ri^iant intensity. In tills section tho fluctqaTlie' minimum "detect^^ radlaiit ' lateirsity ' depended' i^oi""tie'

viewing distance which was adjusted to keep the responses of

all cells within the limits of linearity.

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tio/is ia the xadiaiit i/iteiisit/ wlli be considered. For c;:>::..ve iieiice, this fluctuation will- be called flicker, result

of stroboscopic studie* of bunsen fla':ies, dartle.y- reported

la 1932 , “the rar.lations in the cross -sectional ax'ea of suca

flaraes throughout their lengths, and their appearance,

a periodic chaa.;e la velocity of the upvrards flowing ao^s'bustible

gas stream aad a thickening of tin© burning layer of the outer

co,ae.“ The periodic flicker of mst flaiaes was co^J^irm^ h./

high speed claeaatography and associated K^asure-;.^i®;ats wuiet; revealed not o„Alr/ variations in the velocity of to gas stream

but variations in temperature and pro^ectetl area, l^asiirenenrs

imde on consecutive piettires of flanses taken at high speeds i.-idicate that the variations in projected area may acco*o:it for a

large part of t'^e flicker of flames. A series of pict’orsc taken

l/64th of a second apart depicting '-the appsarance of a -gasoline

flame in the six inch burner throughout Wo cycles of flicker

is shown in Fig. 17.

The variations in the radiant intensity in five wavele.igth

regions witlrln the range from 0.235 to 2.5 microns, recorded

simultaneously with a m cps oscillatory tlmlig trace, are shown

in 10. Hie wavelength regions were the suae as tlios© used

in the studies reported la the precediiig section. Hi t.his

figui'©, it may 'be seen timt the radiant intenslt/ in the fiv^

wavelength regions fluctuated with px'actically the saii:^“ foitiamontal fi'equenc;/. file . saw-tooth compoaeut in the trace for t!^

far ultraviolet region appeared because the radiant iitensity

was so Iw that the signal approaclued t!ie noise level of tie

system. Since the flicker frequeacy was found to be esse-itially

the sane in the five wavelength regions, t-ia flicker frequisney

was determned for one region Oiily. fh® i?;tfrared’ cell was used

because it provided the li^gest output sigiial. frcqueicy

response of the iofrared radiometric system was determineu by

metisiaring thB response at known , frequencies pr'O^laced by a steady

iiifrared source and a sector - disc. The response was fouil to

be essentially constant throughout the interval from 1 to :JC cps, d5 percent at 133 cps, a*id 30 percent at 1/OQ cps. ‘x:rus

the response was practically flat for the frequencies liousraliy

found in the flicker of fla:aes. *im frequency responsas of the

resoairiing four radiometric systems were ta?cen to be flat over the

fx’equency range of interest.

The freque-icy of the periodicity of the flicker was determined by aimlyrXng the output of the s]^ctroradlo?J!etor vlt i a

wave avialyser, a de^ierai FAdio Type /bk-b vibration .-^ktlyi^or

imvHiii a frequancy range from 2.5 to 750 cps, shown at b' in

Fi^. 'ton a flame was being viewed by the cell and the

axralyser was tu^sed to a certain frequency, it i.ndicated the

48

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aaplitude of tiie cell response at that frequency. As a result

of the variability of flaaes, tbe iMicsteh amplitude varied

about the average value for a given frequency, fo facilitate

tiae deter*niimtian of this average, the a^ialy^r output was recorded on s General .Slectrie Foteiitiojacter Recorder, as is indicated in Fig. 5>. For each flame, the flicker amplitude was

recorded for a'bout 20 seconds at each of about ^0 different

frequencies beUfeen 2*^ and cps. fh@ i^ave analyses, the

average relative amplitude observed for eachi frequency in the

rao|:e where there were appi’eciable amplitudes, are shown for

several flames in Figs* iB to 22*

Such was made of tlm fliclser of diffusion and

prefuixod flames produced by a biansea burner and the iara;e gas

burglar I ga^olliie, hydraulic fluid, and lubricating oil fires

in tlia six-inch liquid burner b-oth in a closed room and in a

wl-.id| pre;iix®d «uid liquid injection fla^^s ii jet turner

no* 2.

In many cases the flicker amplitude distribution cuinres liad

a sharp maximum at ao^-ie frequency between 3 and 15 cycles per

second. In some cases the peak amplitude was as much as IbO

tiaes the average amplitude" over the mige from 2.5 to ?^Q

cycles per sceond. In the analysis of some fls^s that flicIijcrM

with great reiularity, second and third harmonics were observed*

tmse clmracteristies ;my be seen in fig. ii. 'one of ttse

fla^mes obser*ved fiad 'appreciable flicker amplitude at frequencies

above IfO cycles per second, flm Jet flames were the only ones

having any signtficai.it part of tlie distributio.n above 25 cycles

per second. Tm distributions for the diffusion flitmes ami

sharper peaks and higher relative maxima 'than those for tim

prefixed fla-s^s* The mst broadly and eveiily distributed

flicker curves were those 'for the pre’;sixed jet flame-s, whien

had mxtm only 3 or 4 tiaies the average over a 100 cycle per

second beiid as is show.n in SUg. 19* k ten or twnty mile per

ho'Ui’ wind increased the amplitude and frequency of flicker of

flamC'S lurtiing o.n the surface of liquids, as is shown in Figs.

20, 21, and 22* The pri.neipal flicker ^mxim were at i>equencies

'between 3 aud 10 cycles per second for on liquids, 5

and 10 cycles per seeoM for the gas fl&^^s, and 5 to 25 cycles

per second f^r the jet flames.

In addition to the wave Uiial/ses -of flarae flicker, the

rati'O of flicker to th*e average radiant intensity was ,3S£as5ired.

fl'iia quantity was -obtained by measuring the root-^san-square

value of th© alteruatiag compoasat -a^id - the average direct component of the output of the speetr-oradlometer a^'id taki.ug their

ra'tio. i?br burning liquids, tills quantity ra^igod fr-om C .25 for

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FIG. 18 WAVE ANALYSIS OF NATURAL GAS

DIFFUSION FLAME

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FIG. 21 WAVE ANALYSIS OF HYDRAULIC FLUID

DIFFUSION FLAME
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FIG. 22 WAVE ANALYSIS OF LUBRICATING OIL

DIFFUSION FLAME
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a gasoiiii® fire in & closed roo3j to 0.4l for a hydretaic fluid

fire ill a 20 mph wind* For uatural gas fla^s, t.tiis ratio

raiiged froia 0*08 for a steady low-¥elooit/ blue pre-sil^d flarae

to 0*69 for a 3^X1 diffusloa flmm* Tho ratio ranged from

0,05 to 0*15 for premised Jet flataes bat becatae 0*1 to 0*3 for

the flfiuaes in which liquid fuel was injected*

3«3

Xii tlm pi'eeedliig section, It was shown that ttm variatioas

ia the radiant intensity of fla^s xmwB wry similar in each

of tl^e wavelength regions studied* Oonseqi^ntl/, determi^iations

of tJie race of increase in the radiant ixitc-isity from the instaat

of igoitioxi mm md® in only om wavelength region, 0*7 to 2*5

microxis. .determinations were md& with diffusioun flsui^s of gasolixi® and of hi/drsullc fluid in the 6 in. diai^ter burner* Jsciliograph recording# of the radiant inteiisity were ijsed for this purpose*

Figure 23 shows a typical record of Vm radiant iatensit/ of

a gasoline diffuaioa flame from the instant of igaitlon, together

with a ko cpe timing trace. Tm radiant inteasity of the gasoline

fires Increased to a first maximum value in about 0.2 second

mid timt of !i/draulic fluid fires iiicreased to a first ^aasimum

value in about 0.3 second* ilfter reaclxiag the first mstxi'mm

value, in each ease, tlie radiant intensity began to fXuctuat®.

li some cases, each sueeeedinc; .maidmum increased for about 2

seconds, with %lm maximum val?^ after 2 scco.nds belig about 1.4

times tm first maximum. xMs Increase after t!s© first maxiiaufa

was attributed to an increased rate of evaporation of the liq-old

fuel upon lieating.

lii general, the val\^ of the first recorded maximum value

was approsi.mtely equal to or greeter t!ma the average steady state

value. Conseqt:»ntiy, the approxinate average rate of increase in

the radiaiit Intensity or normal radiance lx #.ny wavele.ngtli region

may be obtained by dividing the average values reported in th©

previous sections by 0.2 or 0.3*

diam %iy& time constant of tb© coiamerelal radiation pyrometer receiver was about 0.5 second, it was not suitable for

determining- the more rapid Increasa li the norml radiance of a

flaa^. However, &om mBssurer^nts were mde of tlj® rate of Inc3E^ase in the indication of tills receiver as recorded by a General

Siectric xiecording Potentiometer, fhe recorder indicated a

first .maximuii value in about 0.7 second after the igiiitloa of

liquid gasoline. Consequently, tiie rate of Increase In the

radiarit intensity of a flame imnsedlately filovlig its initiation

and the rate of response of eoaiaercial receivers are sufficient

to permit tlie detection of a fire in less than one second.

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Msay of tile fire detecting systems that have been proposed

for nse in aircraft depend ax?on a flsme contacting some temperature sensitive elemeiit and heatjjag it to some predetermined temporator© level or at a rat© greater than that enoonntered in normal

operation. ^?he resolts of perforraance teats on the moi’© practioablo

of tiieee systems under simulated flight conditions iiave been reported.

3 5, 12^13^6^ Consequently ^ this section of the i^eport vill

be confined to tiie general considerations of tliB factors involved

-In the heating of teaperature sensitive elemerits by flames.

¥hen a small object such as the teiaperature sensitive elemexit

of a fire detecting device at a tomperatore, ^ is contacted by a

hot gas or a flame at a temperstor©^ f.-,, it will eventually come

to some steady state temperature, ^2 , ^t which it gains and loses

lieat at equal rates, fhis steady state temperature is seldom identical to eitiier the teaperatire, or the temperature, *T^, of th&

surroundings, hince time is aji assentlal factor in detecting and

extinguishing fires, the steady state temperature attained by the

tetiperature sensitive element exposed to a fire is not, in itself,

of particular interest because ti'iis condltioii may not be attained

In less tlian several seconds or minutes, liie factor wMch is of

Interest is the time required for the sensitive element to reach

some predetermined temperature or in other words the rate at which

Its temperature is Increased.

The rate at which tlie temperature of a sensitive element changes

from to is a function of its surface area (A), mass (M), heat

capacity per unit laass (C), and the rate of heat transfer with the

surroundings. This may be expressed as follows

ar/dt « (A/14C) f (1)

Where T is Its temperature at time, t, after its environiaent is

changed, and h is a generalised heat transfer coefficient such that

f describes completely the heat transfer to and from

the elei'aint. This, heat -transfer function depends upon the dimensions

and thermal proxoerties of the temperature sensitive eXemont as well

o,s upon the environmental conditions. Although this function has

not been evaluated theoretically for any general case, certaiLn

simplifying assumptions pei^mit a solution which gives a quantity

that is a measure of tiie rate of heating or cooling of an element

under specified co.nditions.

¥ABC TK 5^-307'

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If h is assufaed a constant for a given set of conditions (this

iaiplies that lewtoa’s law of cooling applies) and if the rate of

heat transfer fro»a the eleiaent to the walls by radiation and conduction is small compared to the rate of heat transfer from the flarae

to the element by convection and conduction, then Tg = 1:2 and Ty can

be neglected, Equation (1) then becomes

dt 1C (Ta “

The solution of this equation gives

(T-Ti)/(T2-Ti) * 1 - e-t;/L

(2 )

(3)

where e is the base of the naperian logarithm system and L - IC/Ah,

When t - L

(T-Ti)/(T2-^i) * 1-1/e « 0.632 (4)

Thus L is the time required for the element to undergo 63.2 percent

of the total_ change in temperature to which it is subjected instantaneously. The time L so defined is generally referred to as the

”tiiae constant^ of the element.

Since M, C, and A are constants for any given element, L is

inversely proportional to the heat transfer coefficient h which

varies in a complex manner depending upon the environa^ntal conditions. However, analyses of available data indicate that, for

a given element, h is essentially dependent on the mass velocity

of the flame products or hot gases to which the element is exposed.

Thus, the time constant of an element exposed to a flame or moving

gas is independent of the temperature and of the temperature differ

ence to which it is subjected, and the same value of L applies

wliether the^ object is being heated or cooled. For elements exposed

to flowing gases, a iiumerical value of the time constant is significant only when the mass velocity is given.

It should be pointed out that the above analysis does not

hold if the predoaainate mode of heat transfer is by radiation.

In the latter case the tiii» constant depends also upon the temperature level, the temperature interval, and upoa^wi^ther the

element is ^ing heated or cooled, (bee hef.

In either case the time constant of an element is directly

proportional to the total heat capacity (MC) and inversely propor—

tioiial to the surface area. Consequently, any method of increasing

the ratio of the surface area to the total heat capacity will reduce L, but such means of reducing L are practicable only within

the limits established by the ability of the element to withstand

the stresses to which it is subjected.

59
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t”m tisi® eo-Eatant a©ns.tt^ve exemeiat

4i®p65-sw^& ui^oa tjii© ®Vij?GajME6i3.t»ai ©ooidxtiiisas f fis weii. &.& t#^ <& ^caX

of ©I^oent itself? theije corKilt tm*is mat be

Into consl4.ei‘S‘tlOQ Ih taeiflsliig jMstbod ton? det©i*?3iiixn0 it

or ot&er <^4£«kUtltj rals.ted to it. 3iBt^ is-ecoitda SkBd fractions

tto©of arc jtiportant la fire detect -on, tbe tiai# i«g m thc_^

aotaatliig systeivi ssuat alto b.s considered, <^nsetju©atiy

>

and lanaborr^r |7^ ^"17^ Hensborr^f .4 farb^ll £ ? and

otiiera imve i‘»'epoVtod tbe over^^X c^peratlQbaX tism of wrioao t^i>C5

of fire ddtedtlas 4eterisl"ii©4 in fire slaal&tiiig

fligiit cQstUt4.-.ib« . $00® of these is’^estlgetors imve aX&a rej^^arted

tiie tcis^cratarae stts^ined bj the bnr« ^anetlans of #1S gag® oiirosjelaXaseX tliar4iocoaplc^ loc®t@d in tn© A X^boratorr test

for detsriiiinlng the tpcretlomX tm^ ©f fir® detectors then

devised^ nfcXiziag a bunsen flasie adintted to give tb® sCiss

cretor© (as ideasared ¥ltb the ismm tjp^ and »ls® of %hBtmoo0mX&)

•md the sase Oi^er-ational tli^ of tM fir® 'deteotors that ¥&s obtaleied in the fall scale tests. ^Qh a iabomtorj test sietiiod for

determining tl;e oparatio.n&l tiH® of fire deteotors has been iscoroorated in sevex^aX b. .S. A. f. fc:-^olflOatio.i3a for fire detectors, £^1^/(7*

7^,7^# as

W*iaa & t€HBpei?&tur® mmitlVQ ele^aent in a steed;^ state condition

vlth its sarromxdlngs Is st^danXy ^^oeed to ^iiaving gases at a Mg^ier

teia'peratoi?®. Its initial rat® of tmaperatnre rise is primarily the

3?03alt of an increax.® in tb® rat® at ¥felcii beat Is gained b^ convection.

fh& ssiae condition applies ^betber; tlie isoring gases are In ohefaical

©qailibriuQ or ia a reactlag state ^ aa in a flasae. MoMms

compiled a siwary of avalXable data ^Icli indicates tMt the co«

efXUcient of heat transfer convection from a floidvng gas to a

amaiX vire Increases liisearl^ ao the 0.52 pemr of the mass veiocity.

From this it caxi be shown that state temperatare

,final.l^ attained by a small wire iis given d;pprccciiiately by

^2 - s + b /W^

l*g ** a + b + c31q + diiy

imere a, b, c, and d are poaltlve canetants, 1® tlxe ssasa velocity, he

end kr are tiio coefficientn of beat transfer to the vails by condiictiOA.

and radiation, respectively, X?g and are the teaperatires of

the moving gas and tix© walls respectively. Ttm^, If Tg and T-y are isain<

tained constant, tixe etcMy state temperature, fg, will increase with

0 as long as there is aiiy heat transfer from the element to the walls

by radiation or condaction.

mm m 5^-307

60
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Dahl and Fiocic presented a iziethod of deterinlnlng the

time constants of temperatare sensitive eiesaents ’Vhexi exposed to moving

^^508 at verlons temperatures and laass velocities* Ttmj also included the results of laeasureiaents of the tim© constants of bare

oiiromel-alumei thermocouples of different sises. One of the sises

included vas #18 gage, the Bmm sise and tjge of thermocouple as

used in expressing the temperaturee of th© flasies in the ¥orh d©~

scribed earlier.

3ince bare #18 gage oJta?omel-aluiael theriaoooupies have been used

in so isuch vorlc on the subject of fire detectlon> some measuremente

were made with them ia the diffusion type flames used in the present

inveBtis&ti<m, ?he time constant 4©t©mined for a bare gage

thermocouple In the flames of burning aviation gasolme m .normally

still air was ii seconds, fhe mas |?eloeity of the burning gases

was estimated to be about 0.18 Ib^ft "-sec) » A time constant of 6

seconds was obtained for the saiBe tfie3?moaoupie when the buruiag

gasoline was placed in a 80 mph wind. The luass velocity of the

burning gases in this case was estimated to be about 0.37

These values together with those obtained by Dahl end Fioch for

tile same ^is0 thei^oouple in gases at much hlglier mass velocities

are plotted in Fig 84 on a log-log scale.

According to this curve tiie time constant decreases linearly as

the 0.55 power of the mmB velocity. Conse<^aeBtly^ the generalised

heat transfer coefficient, h, referred to earlier increases as the

0.55 power of tlie mass velocity. In addition to the bare the3?moooupl©

Junetiona, Dahl and Flooh also studied ti*© heating cMracteristics

of a variety of temperator© sejoeitive ©leanents encased in metal and

ceramic proteetlo.n ti^es and imbedded In insalatiris materials such as

quartz and beryllla. They found tlmt, in general, tb© time constants

of all such censing ©lemoiuta varied with the mass velocity in the same

manner as the bare thei^ocouple Junctions.

The steady state temi>©ratare attained by the^therimacoapXe Junction

In the fiaiaes with a mass velocity of 0,18 lb/ ( ft -sec) was about

900" F above the ^bieat temperature. In the case of the flames with

amass velocity of 0,37 ro/(ft'^-sec) , the steady state temperatiire

attained was about 1000^ F above the ambient, The higher temperatores recorded In the nacelles of aircraft during fire tests under

siiaulated flight conditions \^r© probably caused by higher e^Jbient

tem|>eratures and mass velocities

,

61 ¥ADC TE 54-307
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MASS

VELOCITY

, LB

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6UAGE

BARE

CHROMEL-ALUMEL

THERMOCOUPLE
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Txae steady state temperatures attained by tde Itmetlon ol an

iPldiuiiv^iridiiai«riiodiuia tberiBQOoaple (0.035

^

In th<^ let burner flataen ranged, ^rom 2QQ0^ to ' In tlae jet burner flosies ranged from 2090^ to 3390^ ^ depending

primarily np<m the fuel-air ratio and th& rate of fuel oonsuj^tioa

Ho attempt was made to deteKalue the time eoiMitant of this element

In these flames, ..

1^::;

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63

3?H 5^-307
%^ a^ m*m m>m^t Mi <9tfi^ ol

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It is&G been ka^^wn for some time tlmt flames candact electricity,

Tiie eieetricsl oimraoteriatics of flames were of coaeiderable interest

to ©:xi;erime,atai pixyslciets at tiie begim.iag of tMs century^ since

flames provided oneful conditions .for studying tne behevior^of gaseous

Iona. A large part of tbe early work^ reported by i^eimrd £6g7, Wilson

and imdrade oonoerned ¥itd variables or ooiklitlons

not pertinent to tiie problem of fire detection.' f,nerefore, es,perijiaents

were made to detemine tm factors effecting aieotrical condactioa

in flame® witliln the applioabl© limits of tii© important variables,

iyaong the factors Investigated were applied .potential difference

tl'i© distance between. eloctrodcB, the area of tiie electrodes

in tiia flames, the nature of the tlBm&Bp and the polarity.

‘file equipment represented in Fig 25 was used to observe tlB

effects deseriOed below.

¥hea two wire electrodes 0.04 inciies la diameter were plac^jd

parallel, inoli apart in the outer cone of a him- bunsen flame, tii©

current increased practically linearly from 0,1 to O.T mioroaBiper®

as tlie potential difference was Increased from 100 to pOO volts.

Tm current, for any given experimental arrangement, was not changed

apprecisbXy by changing the fuel-air ratio of blue bunsen flames*

The current 'in tlie yellow buncen fladies also varied approximately

linearly with tm potential difference.

With a similar experimental arrangement, variation of the electrode spaej^ imd little effect on the current If the was

greeter than 1 Inch. The current approximately doubled tm

separation was reduced from i* inch to X/8 incli and rose sharply as

the electrodea wwo brought still clo.s@r togetlier. Bel'ox*c t'm electrodes came together, an electric arc formed between them a,M the

current becam© vei*y large, jju yelXov flames, arcing was oiten imstened

by the rapid aocumulatiaa of ®oot on on© of the olectrodcs, forming

a conductive fUaiaent between the two electrodes.

fhe current was .approximately v>roiK>rtlonal to the area of tl'io

cathode haraersed in the flame but was little effected by variation of

the £U?ea of the aaode. If the electrodes were of different sises,

a larger current was produced wiien. the large electrode was negative

tiian ite.n it wan positive, This efi'eet is Imiowri at rectification

since an alternating, potential differenc© applied to two such

electrodes produces a net direct current. The degree of rectification depended apo.ii tiie ratio of areas of t.h© two electrodes.

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iKlace tm ourrerst 1© e futiction of oat&ua© av^&, tm car2*^at obtaxiiad

111 flaiaoo MiiXch. .ao't IB CQXi%Si>cti ¥xtid ©l©c'&i*od0s vsirxed

ia rndgaltad© hj ^ f&Qto3? of adout XQQ,

iis a steedy ^lu© ijmisoB flaa© wm mov^d toward t¥o stationarj

paraXXdl ©l©ctyod©s lacd apai?t# daviag a potential difference of

200 volts, ourreiit waa detected vden tiae visible part of the flame

wm 3/4 incb from tm cleotrodeo*

^0 si^ilficaat differences were observed in the conduction of

flames vma different isietals were used for the electrodes. It was

noted that the currents jjroduced when the probes were glowing were

gi^eater than those obtained under similar circumstances before tm

probes began to glow.

Diffusion flesaes conducted up to three tlmen__as much current

m blue banson fiae^s under s imilar co.nditlons. In one mpevlsmBt^

50 inches of 1/16 inch stranded stainless , steel aircraft control

cable colled Into a ^ inch fiat loop wa«i used as the anode and tm

6 inch steel burner was used as the cathode. ¥hen gasoline was

burned, a potential difference of 500 volte was applied, and the

loop was harlaontal in the fla» with one part within 1/8 inch of

til© Upper edge of the burner, a current of about 50 microamperes

waS' obtained. Wmn the loop was moved to about two inchas above

tm burner edge, tl^e oura?ent flnctaated iiround 15 aloroamperes

.

66

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IF mmoDS of betbctihg fims

It should be pass! bio to utilise la a fire dotectlog s/sten

&uxy characteristic of a fla^ ttiat can be m^smed* however , if

the fire detecting s/stem is to fulfill the essential requireoierits

of, the XAF, soiae of the characteristics of a fla^ tiiat anight be

utilised appear entire!/ impractical* Soaie cimracteristics of

flasiBS that -might be utilised to good advaritage in one type of

e.aglne comparta^xit ijdght not be suitable In another* Conditions

ia different t/pes of aircraft etiglaes a.nd eiiglne co^i^artments

are so diverse that it is doubtful that the requireasents

of mlaXmm weight, volume, etc*, can be :s^t v/ith a single 'uriiversal

fire detecting sjostem, even though tMs lalght be ver/ desirable.

There ^ire certain basic eharacteristics of a fire detecting

system ulmt are absolutely essential and others that are extremely

desirable to the UBAF. ^ne essential require-^iieat is that tlie

system slmil be c-ompietely dependable in its operation w^n subjected to the environa^xital a.od operational coaditloris encou'itered

la Air Force aircraft in world-wide operatloas. By being completely dependable, it is asaant that the system shall indicate

fire when, and only when, a fire exists and that it shall Indicate

**fire-out^ when, and ortLy wihen, the fire is completely extinguished*

In order for a system to be co^letely dependable it must be able

to distinguish betT-ieen a small localized fire and a general increase la the ambient temperature throughout the fire zone. It

is also aeaxit that the system simll be capable of withstajidiag at

least one complete fire of the most severe t-itenslty wliich flight

noriaally occur luid still be in conditiori to operate should another

fire occur in the same location* The operational conditions Involve temperatures of afc least 600®F, a^id .possibly 1000®!’, la the

eagine co.mpartments*

Mother essential requirement is that the system shall

operate, both in sigtialling **fir©** and ”fire-out”, within a

reasonable time# Three seconds appears to 'be a reasonable time

but a system that would operate in & seconds or less wo'uld be

preferred. My system that would require more tJmn 5 seconds to

signal a fire would be of little value.

It is also essential that tlie equip«it necessary to the

Operation of the system shall be capable of being developed and

packaged for aircraft operation.

It is extremely desirable that the equips^nt nocessai'y to

the operation of the system be light in weight, occupy a

of space, a,nd m simple to operate, :mintai;i , a.na test not only

67

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install iiecessaa?/ equiptaeiit in such a iaaxii-ier that it will not

interfer with aorml iaainteirniice and servleinij^ of the coi^onent

parts of the power plant a!:ad that it will not fee damaged by such

operations*

It is alsv3 iiigiiiy desirable that t)m fire detectiiig system

be such tiiat it be installed in a.^' new type- of iancelle or

©iieine compartment and adjusted to detect aiiy fire in the compart- mal witiput elaborate fire tests, hiaec som fire dstectiiig

s/s't©ms depeiid 'upon the fia:mes contactiiig a seasi^ig element, a

^iowleage of ttis flaiae paths u-ider all operational c-onditions is

necesaary to tiie effective installation of such a system, This

generally i.'.ftroives fire tests under simulated flight conditions

for each new type of #iigine ^lacelle* fhus, in tlie selection of

a soltable fire detecting system the of coverage 5 unit,

continuous, or space, provided by each detecting eleiaeuv ytoconc'ss

an iiaportant factor*

fhe fact tlmt a great number of fire deteetitig systems,

operating on different flame characteristics, 'o&&u devised

aiid Tiaaced dming th© past 11 years is evidence that iio one

system appears to have predominant advaiitages over all otiiers

or to meet satisfactorily all the requirements of tiie iJbhlh

Consequently, it appears advisable to select, fey a process of

alimi/iation, thm s/stem or systems that Mve the least serious

undesirable features,

6,1

bystems which depend upon the burMng of a cord or wick.or

upon the melting of a fusible link to actuate m alarm do not

met the ©s^ntial teqsd.vemxi% that tm system must be able to

indicate ^®fire-out^* and be in coMitioa to operate should a

I second fire occur, Cofiseqi^ntly, we need not give aay fui'ther

bonslderation to fire detecting systems which operate oa this

principle,

6,2

Aliy five detecting system wiiich utilises the pr^oducts of

combustion as an indication of fire in an aircraft engine space

would be subject to false alarms from leaks in e:siiiaust lines.

In addition, it appeal's that tiie equipiaent required woulu be

heavier aiid more bulky than aesired and that the time lag would

be too long* Consequently, we will not give any further consideration to fire detecting systems which operate on tiJlo principle,

68

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Caiisld®re.0le ©xperliiieatal ytork iias b«ea d>ae oa the develop-*

taeat of a mtliod. for deteetias coaibustibl© vapors la aircraf w coiepartijjenta, /iltiiougli a prototype Instrirsent whicd r)set the

requireiMats for sensitivity, aectii^acy, and iadepeadence of altitiule construeted, it heavier, siore balky, and mr^

©laly^rete than. could be tolerated on aircraft. In addition the

tl;i^e la^ was about om raiaute. la spite of the fact that a detectiag systesi tliat would incUcEte the presence of eonbustible

vapors before explosive .aixtures could accumulate ni^ht aid,

materially in preventing fires , we will not ' co.tiaider it any

further here, because \m are lamble to visualise s suitable system

for aircraft.

Fire d©tectin.| systems which utilise tha abnormally high

ioniratlon that exists’ in the reaction zomt of hydroearbon

flames appear very attractive because this effect can be. defloi.-*

tely distingxilshed from any background c-ffeets and because of t!ie

very rapid mspOiWB obtadaed with such systems. .-Sowever, systems

utilising the conduction and rectification effects of flaoje-s have

not proven eiitireli* satisfactory in fire tests simiilatin^ flight

eoriditions ^1*2,3,4,137* unsatisfactory results obtained

with systems operating on this flame effect have been attributed

toi (a) Failure of the system to detect fires ur.ider certain

conditions^ Cb) False alarms resulting from low insulation

jpesistance, (c) ladications of **fire~out*’ when fire still existed In thB compartimkit.

Since e/stems operatii^ 'on this flame effect depend upon

the flame cori^leting an electric circuit between an olectrode and

the craft structure, failure of the system to detect a fire

and Indications of ^i*ire-out** when ,a fire still existed woiild indicate tlmt tl-ic flar«3 ^mth w.s such that It, did .not complete the

circuit or, if it did, the lojti.^ation was not suffieient to oper—

at© t!sg circuit. In otir experisients it was tomifl t^mt for a given

clrc^iit (potential difference, sijse. and spacing of electrodes)

the current varied by a factor of 100 dependlrc primarily upon th©

area of tl^ cathode contacted by the flame.

It is conceivable that false alarms resulting from low i .- sulatloa resistance might be avoided by t.he choice of proper

circuitry or by coating the electrode with & porcelain ©maicl

txmt wo?ild have a very high resistance at normal operating temperatures but a sufficiently resistance to permit the system to

69
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operate at the temperatures attaiaed ia a fir®* fhe latter would

require two flaie effects ia order to operate | (a) heating the

eria?3el on the electrode to a teiaporature .high enough to be

sufficient!/ conducting and (») the ionization effect of the

fla»a@* Although might eliminate false alarms, it would not

give Bj.r/ assuraae© t!mt the system would l3e cof^letely dependable

la toiicating fire because its operation depends upon the flame

coatactiag an insulated electrode and'. the aircraft structure*

Motlier disadvaatage of this s/stem is that the electrode or

contact cable m'ust be mounted on standoff insulators* Ihe system

is, therefore, subject to da>mg© during ^aaiutenaace operations.

Since ionized flam© gases absorb, md sometimes reflect,

very liigli frequency electromagnetic waves, it has been suggested

tlmt this principle isight be utilized in a fire detecting system.

Tm 'problem of developing such a system that would operate in any

engirj© compax*tii@nt , irrespective of size or simp®, appears, from

our knowledge of the subject , too complex. In addition, it does

not appear that such a system would b© suitable for use in military aircraft because of possible intex-ferenc© with radar operations ciai of susceptibility of detection by the eriemy.

^ Since the io.nl zatlon that exists In a flame is on© character

Istic that distinguisl'^a it from, any background effects, the

possibility of utilizing this principle la a fir© detecting,

system should not be completely dismissed. si,mply because we, at

present ti.^, are unable to conceive a practical and reliable system*

6.$ Coataet affect

•iost of the fire detecting systems that liave bee i proposed

for use oil aircraft depend up'On a fla'sa© co.atacting sot^ temperature-sensitive element heati-ag it to some predetermined

temperature level or at a rat© greater tlma that encountered in

normal operation* Fire tests under simulated flight conditions

liav® 'been made on those systems timt appeared to be the m:)r&

practical* It has been clearly demonstrated tImt, for these

systems to operate with my degree of dependability, the flanie

must actually contact tJi® temperature sensitive ele-meat. fiie

rate of heatisig of mi elemat fey a flaa^ coming very close to it

was insufficient to produce a signal within any reasonable period

of time, if at ail*

It was pointed out in Bectloa I? tMt, for any given tempera

ture-sensitive eles»nt, the rate of temperatui^e rise increases

/o

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the teaiperatiire and the amss velocity of tlw heated gas

siirrouiidlrig It. Coasequeatl/, ia order to improve tise probabllitjr of flame eoatactliig ea ele^aieat and to increase its

rate of response, it must be located in the fire sone end at

some distance from the s'orface from wl'iich it is supported* This

means that the ele?i^nts are so located tiiat the/ are most vulaerable to damg© during a fire and during norml mintenanc©

operations. In addition the electrical cable connecting unit

t>i>e detectors is also sub;Ject to fire damge.

It was also pointed out in oeetioa IV that tlw speed of

response of a temperat'ore-seiisitive element is also i.icreased

by iiicreasing the ratio of the surface ax’ea to the total' heat

capacity* r;-.owever, stresses vhich an element must withstand

ia norml service as t?jell ae during a fire, place a practical

limit upon such means of increasing the speed of response.

f?ie probability of a teiiiperature-sensltive element detecting

a fir© and its speed of response can be irxcreased by designing

or adjusting the system to respond to a smller differential

between the heating effects attributable to fire asid those

attributable to uormal operatioxis. However, this method also

Increases the probability of false alarms due to safe but abnormal operations.

Although tlse mecbauical and electrical features of present

fire det.ecti;ng systems tli&t operate on fla^ae contact islght be

improved, it is questionable that any such system can be made

completely dependable in ail angim eompartmnts without elaborate

fire tests to detersiine the flame paths under all operatio.n£tl

conditions. Sven then, the flame paths may be such as to require

more fire detecting elements tlmn can be tolerated.

Any evaluation of fire detecting systems that might make

as a result of our analysis of flame characteristics should not

contravene th© evaluations of fire detecting systems based upon

tests under simulated flight conditions, of the latest

evaluations of this type was made with different fire^detecting

systems in a loekheed constitution by I. S. Tarbell The

general results reported by other investigators of similar fire

detecting systems ta other aircraft are not ixiconsisteut with

those reported by Tarbell. The follotflng quotations viere taken

from this report.

”In general, unit detectors can be used advantageously in

samll enclosed spaces. In large eomparti^ats, unless tiie units

are spaced quite close together, there is a strong possibility

that a fire my pass between two adjacent units without causing

71

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where ij is the solia aa^le subtended 0/ the source at the receiver, ^

is the average spectral radiaxice of the source ia

the direction of the receiver at wavelength X , and is

the spectral traas-uittance of the envelope at waveiength X • v^al'ues of will vary greatly dependlug upon the- tenperatiore

md the iiature of the so’ui‘ce, and those of will also vary

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“ “

'^>^1 -xn ^(Xj. -x^) ^ (^5

where t(X 3_ * average traas®ittaace of thae envelope

ia the wavelength region iXl *"Xg) determined from tlie transmittance curve of the envelope ana th& spectral distribution

of the radiant energy of the so'uree and ’^Xl -Xv),^^

average radiance of the so'orce in the sa.ae wavelength region

in the direction of the receiver.

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el&mat can to© written as

in (Xi - X ( X 1

** X ^ ) X i ^(X] o (c)

wJnere E(Xi -Xo) ds -the average response per

flux density over the wavelength interval (X

distrlbutioa, of radiant flux’ established by

oni’^

t • b * 1 • 1 ?,n.o.Uut. ox -->'«a.ui<a.^j't- ylux. av

1

X

V of radiant

- Xg) for the

and . - ^

•

nlthough tbe amount of radiant flo^c snitced toy

at wavelengths less tnaa 0 * 29, micron is extre^nely small compared to the total eaitted at all wavelengths, it is still

greater than that in sunlight at the earth* s surface and tnat

from any heated parts ixi engine compartments* Consequexitly,

a^thods of utilising the energy emitted toy fla-mes ij.i tills wavelength region have been very attractive* ht the 'present time,

hovrever, there appears to be, at least, one practical disadvsnta.^^e to any .method utilising the energy emitted in this wavele.ngth region, 'and that is, .the absorption of the- radiant

energy by oil and grease films oa the envelope of the detector.

ihe traxismittauc© curves for some very tliin oil films are

shown in Fig. £6. The oil films were formed by eovoriiXg on© .

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TRANSMITTANCE

0.200 0.250 0.300 0.350 0.400 0.450 0.50C

WAVELENGTH, MICRONS

FIG. 26 SPECTRAL TRANSMITTANCE OFOIL FILMS, VISIBILITY,

SOLAR IRRADIANCE AND RESPONSE OF GEIGER- MULLER TUBE

surface of a quai*t2 wiadow with the oil and sapportia^;; it

at roo-ai temperature ia a vertical plaae while the oil draiaed

for x->®riods of tira© iadicated on the curves* The oil films

foriaed with the clean oils were hardl/ detectable with the

unaided e/e* l:ieavler oils and greases trans!jiit less radiant

energy in this wavelength region.

fh© relative response cujpffi. of a Seiger-Muller tub© of

the type described by Weisa ^2£/ is also shown in Fig. 26,

It is seen that some of the tMn oil films (without any dirt)

will absorb practically all the radiant energy below 0.29

micron.

, jSoisie experirijents were mad® with a tieiger-ltoler tube.

When the tube was at atmosptieric temperatures ^ flataes as smil

as those of a lighted .aatch were readily detected in a aormlly

lighted room or in sunlight, -iowever, when the temperature

of the particular d*-M tub© used was raised to 190®F (86^0),

it became completely insensitive to radiant energy from flanks,

Opon cooling to a lower temperature ^ it regained Its sensitivity. Mo other erperiii^ats were mad® with this type of

detector.

Beferriiig to equation (8), S' (0-0. 29) from th® sun at the

earth*® surface and from I'.ieatM engine parts Is negligible,

.‘dthough M(o-o.29) from flmme is ssmll, it is sufficient to 'be

detected with Geiger-^Siller tubes which have an appreciable

response ^(0-^.29) atmospheric temperattjres . However, at

ambient temperatures above l^O^F, K(o-.0,29) l^caiae negligible*.

)il films or soot deposits on the envelope reduces' X(0«o. 29)

to a negligible quantity.

Although the energy eiaitted by diffusion flames In th®

wavelength region below 0,29 micron was readily detected by a

Gelger-Maller no- energy from these ‘blames was detected

with the 1P28 photomultiplier aiid the filter described in

Section 3. 1.2. 2. ')n th© other haM, there was sufficient

energy radiated at these wavelength® by premixed flames to be

measurable by mea.^s of this equipment (see fable 8). Although

the optical properties of the filter described In Section

3. 1.2.2 have been re.markably stable far about one year Uiider

laboratory conditions, no such filter composed of aqi^ous solutions eaii be expected to retain its normal properties at

temperatures much above lOO'^C or below 0*^C, Mb suitable

*It is understood tiriat some experimental tubes have operated

satisfactorily at much higher temperatures.

WADC TE 54-307

75
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stolid filters for tliis region are known to tlie. authors.

Because of these factors, Geiger- -fiiller tut>es are nore

suitable t\m.i filtered photocells for selective response to

energy of tiiese wavelengths, but in either case, the low

transiaittance of oil and soot filfis in this region prevents

direct applications of tiies® devices in engine spaces unless

f^asures are taken to renove such fll^ or prevent their

foriaatloii.

It iiiay be coacluded that no practical s^thod of utilizing

the radiaiit energy frosa flaaes in the wavelength region below

0.29 micron for detecting accidental fire in aircraft eagl-'i©

spaces is apparent to the authors.

6. 6.1.2 4.t

-learly all flames emit -energy in tli© region of the spectrura

from 0.3 to 0.7 micron and tiiaere are a number of methods of

detectiiig such energy, .ibwever, very thin soot films absorb

stroogl/ la this region arid, since tills region contains a

large part of the energy from the sun, the problem of interference from tills source must be considered.

The visible spectrum- InclMes most of tJais region, the

respo-us© of tlie norml eye extending from about 0.?* to about 0.7

.micron with a maximum at about 0.55 micron, fh© radiant flux

density on a surface evaluated In terms of the response of the

e/e is known as the illmimtion and my be expressed in foot

candles, one foot ca-udl© being the illuminatioa at one foot

from a oiie caudlepower source. The imximua illumination just

outside the earth’s atm-ospliere due to the smi >ms been found by

calculation to average about 13,600 foot catidles. At the

earth’s surface, the maximum illumiaatioii on a clear day is

about. 10,000 foot cnadles, about 90 percent of which is due to

direct rays from the sun. ilie remainder, being scattered lig-ht

from the sky, contains practically no i:ifrared. In contrast

to these values, the illuiiiiiation at one from the flaiaes

obtained by burning gasoline in tfm 6 inch bui'iier previously

described was 3*6 foot caridies in still air, 25 foot candles i.-i a 10 mph wind, and 21 foot candles in a 20 ;s^h wind. i0.ein ZI£/

found that the maximum illumination at the locatioa of photovoltaic cells witliln an engine compartment during several fires

was ^0 to 100 foot cftndles. Tills Indicates the necessity of

considering daylight, both skylight and direct sunlight, as a

source of interference in all systems desigaedr to detect radiation In the visible part of the spectrua*

76

WaDC TK 5^-307
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Most recfeivers used for tae raeasure.wit of illir3i:mtioa

are of the photoseusitive type, fhe aaomit of radiant energy

in this wavelength Iriterval caii Ise measured readily in the

laboratory with thermosensitive receivers. 0^ th&rmoseasitive

receiver is one In which radiant energy is converted into heat

that produces a difference in temperature within the receiver.

The magnitude of this teaperature difference is a imeasure of

tlie net. radiant flux received), however, the aisaount of radiant

flux from flames la this wavelength Interval is so small that

the devices are too delicate for aircraft applications. >il/

about 0.05 percent of t!j© total energy radiated by a diffusion

flame is in the wavelength region below 0.7 micron and less

tima this in premixed flames.

6. 6.1.3 .iaoant ofJjadlant g-lixic in the lafrared fegelen.?tb.

Hezlofl

Most of the e-iergy radiated by fl&iaes is in the infra»

red portion of the spectrum. Tm same is true of the energy

radiated by heated engine parts, although the amoimt of radiant

fl'ux from each source in each wavelength band is not necessarily

the sam* Consequently, if a radiation device dei^nding upon

the amomt of radiant flux received is to be used for the detection of fires, it must be provided with means of distinguishlog

between the radiant energy from the fla:mes aM that from the

engia© parts. Althoiagh the amount of radiant flux from an

accidental fire and from the ©ngtne parts at the time the fire

occurs cannot be controlled, it is possible to control, by the

selection of an envelope material a>id/or filters, the wavelength

band of the radiant flux incident upon the receiver and by

the selection of a receiver, the response eharaeteristics of

tlie receiver.

i^ceivers that flight be used in the infrared portion of

%h& spectrum may be divided into two general types s Photosensitive and fhermoseasitiv®. ,)f the ge>-i®ral classes of

photosensitive detectors, the photovoltaic and photoelectric

tyj*es are of no special interest for tl:^ infrared detection of

flames because neither respond to energy of wavelengths greater

than 1.2 microns. There are, however, three well known types

of photoconductlve cells w.hich are sensitive at much longer

wavelengths: lead sulfide, lead selenide, and lead telluride

cells. The last two may be discounted because they do not have

a usable photoconductivity unless cooled to at least -7d®C

£und are generally operated at -190®C in a vacuum. The lead

sulfide cell, sensitive from about 0.5 to about 3*0 microns,

is operable under normal atmospheric conditions and is

//

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tm trn&pr^mm a v»M.^tXm r#««lvear

a;p^A %m mt traasl^r i»f radi&at i'lm irm Um Si^orc® id tim r^-

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^qmtion i7) umm i(\ - Xs) ra^iaiioa of tbe fl«^ a-Ki

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df %im racaivar. la ga:^rali tstmivar® df tids i/i^ ar@ ;%ot mmlvim

id radisuit mi0r^^ fr^m tfm elear ®k/ but tfea/ ara sausitiva id direct

jradlaat a^'iarg/ fraa taa sun# flust d#:-»3iiy df salar rmXw^iX

0mr-:S^ ft 4dFml iueiaaue# da «*4rtli*s surfac# Is ^Irjut 0.13

oatt/©ia^F

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m/ tisai df U^« auiilua farts td 8u©:i t^iat t'w riiaiadt

flux fr-dsa the raealva^ i« -:^fllgil>l# mmpkmh t® tli&t r®c«i’r«d

froa ttm bas^grmv^. Xa tai® case, ilia rsdiaai flux. 4#osit/ at

tbe raealver would X% flreu uffroxl^mial/ b/ a^iuutioa (?)

l(Xi • X«i) tm radi&am of tm Imcs^groum am a is tb# #.->114

smmmmh h/ it* tm f^^sglblllt/ of smu a comitloa mst

ta asaumi, sJUie#, i;i dfdur to b© eoiafletal/ mpama&la, a fir#

mtaetiiig Bys%0% mmb dataet a flra audar tiia aso#t coiiIm or4tr to isffectivei/ utilise of ra4ia;5t flux

fro® m flmm ta m fir« 4at#©tloi s/sta?a» tm a^u-ount i:iel©#.-it

upoa tm ra««iv«r frox a fla:3te -aust alwa/s m graator tma t.h«

mslmum raeaivad fro*m tm Imeftroum. mfarri-'i?;., to aq'uxtioii (S), tm na^i:mra raspoosa for radl&ot e.iarf/ ftm tm mcfsgroom would probafci/ oeeur duriog « quXQk war?s-u|s is^ wbica matod

parts eoi'splat#!/ fill tm field of vi&w of the racslvar

vMa tm racalrar #uv«l:>pe la ©laavi. ih#iJ 4i.ii suss rospo^ide fro4 a

fir© would oeuiSP with a blue fla;^ width o^tly occupied a smll

part of the field of view of tm receiver and with tm vl^iaow

partiall/ covarad vlt^h particles “5f dirt and/or soot# .Uthoug:,

tm siM of fire %H&% '-^dLi^hx occur in aircraft ar*gi.ie

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Ims not established ^ it will be assumed, quite arbltrai^il/,

tlet it will oeeup/ not less than 1/^ the field of view of a

receiver. lu such a case, tiju» aiaiirosi solid at’i^le, h, ia equation

(d) for a fla-ne will h& 1/5 that for tine back^romd.

Values of the radiance of blackhodles at different te?aparatures ere given in Table 6 and those observed for vai'*ious fl^;oes

are given la Tables 1, 2, 3> acid 4, Although tl'^ eagiue parts do

not radiate as a blackbod/, the e*t4#sivit/ of alumitiua covered vitn

aa oil filai is approxiiaatel/ 0.6 ©-aissivit^ of clean

aluaiaua, cast or wrought, la gCiierali/ less than 0.1 at ar^y temperature which .night be encomtered In service). If so'ne dirt pai’ticles are added to the oil filn, the e§d.ssivity will be increased,

possibly to as mch as O.b* Consequently, tlie radiance of heated

©ogine parts will not differ greatly fro® that of & blackbody at

the teiUperature.

Trie transnittanee of the receiver envelope will depend to

soiae extent upon the type and amount of foreign laaterlal which

aecxinjulates on its surface# Th© transniittance of the envelope

In tl^ infrared is 'i^.t^reatly affected by oil fil>as. According

to Fl/ler and Dali /73/, the traiisialttance of a layer of carboa

black (tiiat tr&as^^tted only 0.1 percent in t,he visible spectrjra)

was greater tha^a 70 percent at wavcleiigtlis iron 10 to 39 J2l crons,

however, the transnlttanc© of the sa^ie layer of carbon black decreased from about 5^ pereent at k microns to a negligible amomt

at 0. 7 micron. In the present work Bom raeasuremeats were made of

the traiistaittance of radieu'it energy by soot films deposited on a

quarts plate in a natural gas diffxislon flasae. A film with a

trsuismittance of 1.0 percent ia th© visible spectrum trartsmitted

42 percent of the energy radiated by u gasoline diffusion flaaie

and received through a pyrex window. The same film transmitted

50 percent of such radiant energy received tlirough a quarts

window. Ixi general, the traausialttanees of a film of any tMckness

in tl^iese tiiree x*egions of the spectrum of radiant energy from a

gasoliti© diffusion flame ^re found to be related as follows*

log T,. « 0.80 log fp « 0,15 log Ty

wijere Iq, Xp, end Ty are the transBiittances for the energy received

through quarts &iid pyrex, and the visible region, i^cBpcctively, and

the logaritl^iias fsiay be tai:Den to any base.

Ia the wavel©;igth region 0 to k.6 microns (the approximate

liiaits ©etabllsJ:^d by the transjaittance of a p/rex window), the

noriaal radiance observed for prefixed flajaes ran&ed frou C.C^ to

0.15 watt/ (cmD-steradian) and t'lat for diffusloji fla-mes from

0.3^ to 1»|0 watt/(cm^-steradiaii) , compared to 0*0037, C.072, and

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Q«30 ¥att/(ca^“Steradl&ii) for blackbodies at 600"^, 1000^, and

X300®Fj respectively* Thus, if the factors T (o«2.6 ) j*K0-T,6)

j

aiid S in equatioii (d) were constuiit iu service and the s&m for ti:e

background in the field of view of the receiver as for a fire, the

radiance and consequently the adaimuai response of the receiver for

premixed flames would be approximately 5 times that of a backgr--.>und

at 600 "F, and for diffusion flames approximately 90 times that of

t bi&ckbody at 600®F. ibwever, if the backgromid is raised to

1000®F, these ratios are reduced by a factor of about 20, and if

it is raised to 1300®F, they are reduced by a factor of about dO*

According to reference tiic ratio of the transjaittance

of a clean pyrex wiiidcxw, in the wavelength interval 0 to 2*6

Morons, to that of one with a tMck soot deposit Mght be as

great as 8. If the solid angle, 8, subtended by the flame at the

receiver were only 1/5 the solid angle subtended by the background,

the product, T (0-2.6) could vary by a factor of about 40. Consequently, if tlse backgrouiid does not exceed 600’^F and if it can

be assured timt the flaiae is of the diffusion type and that it will

occupy at least 1/5 tlie field of view, tlie amount of radiant flux

in this wavelength region Mght be used to distioguisli between the

radiant energy from a fire and that from the background, ^-ince an

accidental fire easmot be depended upon to fulfill all the above

req'oireiaeats , tlje use of such a system is not recomnarided.

In the wavelength region 0 to 3*8 microirs (the approximate

limits established by tne transmittance of a fused silica window)

,

t!:^ aor^mal observed for preMxed fla?^s ranged from 0.Q6

to 0.^7 watt/Ccm^-steradian) and tmt for diffusion flails from

0.48 to 2*78 watts/ (cm^-steradian) compared to 0.025, 0.23, and

O./O watt/Ccm^-steradian) for blackbodies at 600®, 1000®, and

1300®F respectively, the minimum radiance for the premixed flames

was about 2.4 times that of a background at 600®F and for the

diffusion flaa»s approximately 20 times that of a blaekboay at

600®F. If the background is raised to 10Q0®F, these ratios are

reduced by a factor of about 10, and if it is raised to 1300®F

they are reduced by a factor of about 28.

li'i tills case, the ratio of the trans^iittance of a cle'^.a fused

silica window, in the wavelength interval 0 to microns, to

tlroat of one with a tMck soot deposit might be as great as 4. If

it is asstamed again that the solid Uiigle subtended by a flame is

V5 if that subtended by the backgrourid, the product, T(o-i o,

might vary by as much as 20. Under the most adverse conditions,

then, the smximuia a?:aou/it of radiant flux received from tiie background at 600®F would be nearly equal to that from a diffusion

flaoe occupying 1/5 the field of view with the receiver envelope

dirty#

80

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la tile wavelength region Q to isilcrons (the aiij^/roxi^aate

Halts established by the transmittance Qt a caloi^aia fluoride wiiidow), tile noiiaal radiance observed for nremijsed fleams ranged

from 0,2'f to l.S? ¥atta/(cm*--et©ra^ari), and timt for diffusion

flames from 0.7? to S.bT^watts/Ccm^-steradiat'i), compared to^0 . 13 , 0.66* and l.>^8 ¥atts/(cm^~steradian) for blaclcbadies at dOO^,

1000^, ai'id 1300*^ Wf respeotively . iJ-he mlni^yia radj.ance for the

premixed flames was about 2 times that of a bXaot;body at 600^ F

ai3d for the diffusion i'lmmB approximately 1 times tnet of a

biacidjody at 600^ F.

In tMfe case the ratio of the transralttance of a elean calcium fluoride window in th® wavele,agtli interval Q to 9* 5 MleroriS>

to tiiat of oh# with a thick soot deposit migiit be as great as 2.

If it is assumed timt the solid angle subtended by a flame Is

1/5 of that subtended by th© background^ tlie product,

might vary by as much as 10. :0.nder the meet adverse conditions,

the maxiiaum amount of radiant flux received from tiic background

at 6C0®F might be licarly 2 timed the mlalaym received, from a

diffusion .fla^e.

In genercl, tlic fraction of tlw radiant energy from a flame

is greater than that of the eiigin® part© in the shorter wavelength

regions. However, in tlwm mvclength regilons, tiie uitcortainty-- in

the transmittanc© of the receiver envelope due to soot depoolts is'

also greater. In the Xo^er wavelength regio,tis where the trsaismittcnco Is .hot so greatly affected by .soot deposits, the fraction

of the radiant energy frfj© ss-xglne parte my be greater ti'jna

that from tiie flame.

Although it is oar belief that an accidental fire m an

alrcrcift engine sphco will be of the dlffo^^ian type with a .aoriaai

radiaaco greater than the wliich we have used in the ahuve

disouasion, we feel that tm aacei*talnty in the transmittance of

til© ©nveiop© ana in the solid dugi© aubtended by the fire is so

great that the reliability of a fire detecting system which utiiis.es the amount of radleiit fl^iK incident uiKai a roeaiver to

ootuate an olam .iis queatlonabie. Tm aocumiilatio,.n of soot on

the ©avelo.p0 dui'ing a fire and the redaction 'la the slse of the

fire during extinguishing •proeedurou may result In a false .Lua^-

oatloB of ^fire-out 'fhe accumulatioa of soot on the envelope

daring a fire a&y be saffloient to pi^vent the ryatem from giV3.ag

an alana if a second fire occurs.

6,6.2 Ihttlo of Xntensitle® in i*va Waveiength intervals

rjinoe the spectral dlctrlbatior of tiie radiant energy fr-risa &

flame is not Ic^^ntical with that of the heated part a or of solsi'*

radiant energy, fire detecting systems wix^cu dopoad v,pon the ratio

61

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of tiie radiant flux in Z selected wavelength intearvals fox their

operation have been proposed* Tests of such detec;ti‘^ ajstexis

have been made under simulated flight coziditio is Zl2 , 13/*

though the results of tests of earl/ experimental mdels appeared

encouraging, and although the principle appears sound, such s/steas

have not been developed to a stage where the/ will withstand the

conditions encountered in aircraft operations* Some of tr^e difficulties are given below*

The 2 different wavelength intervals m/ be established b/

the selection of suitable envelopes and filters, b/ th© selection

of 2 receivers with suitable response characteristics, or a combination of these ii^thods* An/ change in tlie ratio of the traaspittances of the 2 eiivelopes or filters will affect the opei^atioa

of the s/stem, irrespective of the t/pe of receivers emplo/ed*

Enclosing the receivei-’s and filters ia a single envelope vjill not

entirely ©limlnat© the c!mn|es la the ratio of tiie transmittances

for 2 different wavelength intervals because of the selective

absorption of deposits of foreign smterlals on the envelope*

transmittance ctaxves of oil films, Fig. 26, and soot deposits^73/

are examples*

An/ cloanges in the sensitivity of the receivers as a result

of operational conditions, ambieiit temperature, etc*, will affect

the operation of tiie s/stem* llie s/stem must be so balanced that

it will not operate when eocposed to direct radiant energy from

th® sky or heated engine parts or to reflected radiant ©nergy

from selectively reflecting surfaces*

In the present investigation, the approximate ratio of the

radiant intensities la wavelength intervals 0*55 to 0*7 and 0,4

to 0*55 micron ranged from less than 0*01 to 0*5 for the premixed

flames and from 3 to 220 for the diffusion flames. There is no

reason to believe that flames cannot be pr-odueed in which the

ratios of the average intensities is between 0*5 and 3 for these

wavelength intervals* This ratio for daylight is approxiiatcl/

on®* Consequently, it is questionable tJiat a s/stem utilizing

these two wavelength Intervals in th® visible spectrum will detect

both blue and yellow flames and still not operate when exjiosed to

sunlight* heavy soot deposit on the envelope would reixder such

a system inoperative*

iiince most of tlie energy radiated by flaases is iii the lni*rared

portlan of tlm spectrum and since the transrnittance of soot films

is much higher in the i/ifren*©! than in the visible portion of the

spectrum- the possibilities of utilizing the ratio of the radiant

flux in two wavelength inteivals in the infrared warrant consideration*

62

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Figures 11, 12, and 15, give the ratios «(0-2,6)/

>

-^(0-3*^)/^^ (0-^. 5) > ^(0-2.6)/-H0-3e8)> respectiv®l7, observed for dlffereat types of rlanes &iid for a blackbody at

different tejiperatures. It will be noted that each of these

ratios for preiaixed flames is about the same as that for a

blackbody in the teaaperature range 600** to 1000^ F. bwever,

these ratios for diffusion flanks are all higher tlian the

correspaudl^ig ratios for a blackbody at 1300^F, Consequently,

If accidental aircraft fires were always of the diffusion type

and if the ratio of tii© transaittances of the envelopes in*

the different wavelength intervals vfere constaiit, a fire detecting s/sten utilialng any one of these ratios of radiant

flux for its operation should be reliable, for a

soot film such as that referred to in reference

^‘(0-2.6)/* <0-9. 5) equal to about lA and 3-’ (0-3. B)A (0-9.5)

and r (g«2.6)A (0-3.d) each eqi^l to about 1/2. When these

ratios of traiusmittances are multiplied by the con'espondiog

ratios of radiances for diffusion flames, the product is

approximately the sa?ae as that for a blackbody in the temperature ra^ige dOO* to 1C^0®F without soot on th© envelopes. Consequently, if tiie envelope of the receivers is covered with

soot during a fire, the system might i idieat© a ”fire-out’^

when fir© still existed a.id it might not respond to a second

fire.

6. 6.3

fhe aspect of the radiant energy from fla-mes tta&t has received the most attention iii the development of fire detecting

systems for aircraft is tl^is flicker. According reports of

tests under simulated flight conditions. A, 5,^2/ a fire detecting system utilizing a photocondactive cell and frequency

selective circuitry will detect fires when they occur in an

aircraft engine compartment suid will indicate when they are

extlngulslied, as long as the receiver is not raade insensitive

by over^ieating. It has been reported that such systems are

subject to occasional false alar:as under certain conditions

but some of these conditions aiid th© methods of prevention of

false alarms resulting from them seem to be fairly well fciowa.

Except for tliese limitations, this type of fire detecting

system appears to meet most of the requirements of the Air

Force.

In the present work, flicker was readily observed in all

the hydrocarbon flanaes studied* Tm principal flicker maxima

of all flames was between 3 and 23 cps. The ratio of flicker

(hits values) to average radiant intensity was greater than

0*2 for all diffusion flames on liquid fuel. >n the basis of

these observations, it appears that flicker detection is a

somd operating principle.

WilOC Th 54-30/

83
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48
It ms 'ti&Qu c-laised that th© t©MeiicF to giv© teJ.se iiidieatioii of tlT& isi raJUi coaditioas 1ms he&a ©ll'ial£mte«S l,n so.sj©

iiistallations by pi'operXy loeatiiig tii© receivers# Exports

of falsa .alarias oa aircraft fiyiiig over liglited cities at

aight iiave been attributed to uaaecessarily aigh serisitivit/,

a factor wiiieli eaa be controlled.

Tiler© are at least tyro mthods of clreumentlng the overheat problem. now mder consideration is to locate th©

detectors beliind the fire-wall- in the cooler accessory eompartaseat. Aa&tJtmr mtlwd which might be considered is the us©

of thermosensitivo radiation receivers that retain their sensitivity at high temperatures. This would also greatly reduce

the probability of false alarms due to modiU^ed radiant flux

ti^om the sky or other sources outside the engine oompai'tneiit.

however, it would not necessarily eli:siinat@ the possibility

of false alarms resulti^ig from rain conditions. It would he

necessary timt such a receiver imv© a sufficiently small time

constant to respond adei|uately at the required frequencies.

It lias been reported that thermistor type bolometers with ti'me

constants of 3.5 milliseconds have hemi constructed. Tlils

tlm constant is of tlie order required for tlm detection of the

flicker of flames.

at th© present devices utilising tlie flicker

cimracteristics of flames are more liighly developed than

detectors operatii;ig on any other radiation clsaracteristic;

n-oiethetess, it is very likely timt any device wl^ch is sensitive to liiodulated radiant energy in t,he very near infrared

o)oly will 'be sensitive to certain amomits of modulated radiant

energy from the sky and otimr sources as well as to that from

flao^s. ^jfly flight tests mder actual service conditions

will establish the reliability of such systeiss.

.)ne characteristic of an aircraft fire that appears to

warrant consideration as the operating principle of a fire

detecting system is the suddenness with wiiich such a fire

attains its full radiant iatensity. idlthough the rat© of

temperature rise of elements contacted by flames Ims been used

in fire detecting systeits, as far as we know, the use of the

rate of increase in the radiant intensity of flames has not

been juentioned In the literature.

Ifeasure^nts made on diffusion flames of liquid iiydrocarbon fuels indicated that they attained their full intensity

8h

TH 5^-307
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lable 10

Average iiate of Increase %xi ^iorml Badiaace

of

fla^s and Blackbodies

wavelength

laterval

itl crons

Source of

iuEtdiait

Saerg/

l^diance

watt/ (cm^-ateradiaa)

Average in

Increase ; Kadiance^^

0-2.6 Fre'fflixed Flakes 0.02-0.1S>' 0.1-0.75

diffusion Flantes 0. 3^*60 1.7-9.

BB at 600=^F 0.0037 0.00006

BB at lOOO^F 0.072 0.0012

BB at ISOO'^F 0.30 0.005

0-3*^ Breadxed Flames 0.06-0.V7 0*3—2.4-

diffusion Fl,^ises 0.4B-2. 73 2*4—l4.

IB at 600""F 0.02p' O.OOC^

BB at lOOO^F 0.23 0.004

BB at 1300“P 0.70 0.012

0-9.5 Fremlaeed Flakes 0.27-1.27 1. 3-6.3

Diffusion Flames 0.77-3.87 3.6-19.

BB at 600®F 0.15 0.0025

BB at ie00®F 0.46 0.011

BB at 1300“F l.¥s 0.025

upon the radiance of flanges attaining the valiaes in Colunui 3

in 0*2 sec siid that of the blackbodles attaining the values in

Coluan 3 in one ainute*

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If a fire is to be detected as early as possible, the detecting s/stera should initiate its cycle of operation at ttie instant

of igriitioa. Figure 23 shows an oscillographic record of the

radiant intensity of a fire from the iustant of ignition* Two

significant features of tills record are (a) tm rapid rate of

iicreasQ in the intensity duri ig the first 1/4 second after

ignition, a^id (b) the flicker that follows* It is believed that

this coabination of characteristics is peculiar to a fire and

that it would not be duplicated by radiant energy from the

engine parts.

lialii In the engine space isiglit modulate background radiant

flux at th® receiver, slmulatihg the flicker of a flame, but If

so, this plienoisenoa would aeeompa^iy a decrease in radiant flux

rather than an increase*

A sudden break in the sklu of the engin<»^ compartaieat might

produce a rapid increase in the radiant energ," from the sky. If,

by cl'iaace, this energy were iaodalated by som ^^ans or if the aircraft were exposed to gmiflre, simulated flicker could follow.

Most of the radiant energy from the sky would be in the visible

euid near infrared pai'ts of the spectrum and the aaouat of radiant

flux from th© sky incident upon a receiver viewing an engine

space would be far less than tlmt from a flajne within the engixi©

space. Since flaiaes emit considerable ai^unts of energy farther

in th© infrared, it should be possible to dlscriiiiimte between

these circumstances and tiss outbreak of fir© by selecting receivers with th© proper spectral response. A th©raK>sensitive

receiver could have sufficient sensitivity in the infrared to

detect a fir© in an engine compartment and still not be appreciably effected by radiant energy from the sky or from gunfire,

duch a receiver would probably b© appreciably effected if

sighted directly at the sun or a nearby shellburst. iJowever,

since tl*e receiver would rtor^nally be sighted at an engine part,

it would not be sighted directly at these other sources unless

tlse engine part were missiog.

If both the tnltiai rate of increase In the radiant flux

and tiie flicker for several cycles are required to give an

alarm, a flash of flam© in the nacelle without a^ny ensuing fire

would not result in an alarm because of the absence of the

several cycles of flicker.

By corabi*'iiag in a fir© detecting system the initial rate

of increase in radiant flux with th© flicker it should be

possible to ©liainate readily mgbiy of the possible causes of

false alarms in the flicker fire detecting system.

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According to reports, written mitd verbeLl, the exist lag fllcicer

fire detecting system has been reiihble In Indicating ** fire-out”,

provided the photoconduct ive cell was not overheated. If, in

the absence of a suitable thermoseas it Ive receiver, a photoconductive oell is used to detect flicker, it should be ao located that it will not be overheated.

fhe fire detecting system envleioned here would require

two Interlooking circuits i on# wliich ii actuated by the toitial

rat# of increase in the radiant energy the other by the

flicker, fia# cirouita could be arranged to give a warning

signal in case only on# was actuated.

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iiECTlOM VIx

BOMimHY

It ims l^een demonstrated la fire tests under sloaulated flii^xit

conditions tmt fire detecting systems wdleii depend upon e flame

contacting a sensing element for tlielr operation may be used advantageously in oertaiii locations on aircraft. However, in large

compartments, wdere tiie fire may not completely fill tne space

and the flam© paths are uncertain, tlaere Is always a possibility

tlmt the flame may not contact the sensing element sufficiently

to register an alarm. Anotner disadvantage of systems of this

type is that, in order to be reasonably effective, the sensing

elements must be located in the fire sone and separated from the

surfaces from which they are supported. In such locations, the

elements interfere with normal maintenance operations and are subject to damage during such operations, in ^^dltion to being exposed

to the full intensity of a fire. A further disadvantage of such

systems la that eaoli new type of .nacelle must be tasted to determine

the most prob^le flame paths m.6. the most effective locations of

the sensing eXeaents*

It has also been demonstrated tliat fire detecting systems

which utilise the radiant energy' from flames for their operation

have certain distinct advantages and avoid the disadvantages

enumerated above. However, fire deteetlng syatems of this type

imve some disadvantages of their own, A study of the characteristics of flames that might be utilised In fire detecting systems

and an. ©valuation of t'm various systems with due consideration

of tlie requirements of the Air Force revealed that fire detecting

systems which utilised only one characteristic of a flam© were

lacking In soiae respect. donseque.ntly, in order to circumvent

such deficiencies. It Is reeoajaended that two characteristics

of a flame, the initial increase in the radiant intensity of a

flame and tiae flicker of the flame tlmt follows, be utilised in

a fli»© detecting system for Air Force aircraft.

In order to at ilia© these two ilmte oimrecterlsticc Irx a

fire detecting system suitable for Air Force operations, the

radiant energy receivers must withstand ambient temperatures

up to 800^ F (and possibly eventually 1000^ F) and still have

sufficient sensitivity when a fir© occurs, fh© thae constant

of the receiver which responds to the flicker of the flame should

be of the order of O.OO5 second, and, although this is less than

that required of a receiver to respond to the rate of increase

90

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that of fused silica, about 4 ailerons. If theraiosensitiv© receivers are used there would be no need of providing a short

wavelength ** cut-off”.

As a result of studies of reports regarding fire detecting

sjstefas and of discussions with personnel associated with the

developgieiit , manufacture » maintenance , and use of fire detecting

s/steais, we aretleft .with the Impression that most difficulties

. involving aalfunction of systems arise not from the inherent

characteristics of the detectors but from those of the associated

circuit elements aiid wiring. V"

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It is rsoo^snded tlmt a lire detecting system be developed

wltii the following basic requiroiaeats * fbe fire detecting sycteju alaall require tiae following two

odaracteristics of a flaise for the isidication of a flrei one,

the initial increase in. the radiant flux at a radiation receiver

viewing the interior of the .nacelle, and the other, the flieher

of the fiasa© tlmt follows the initial increase*. The oirouite

siiali b© so interlocked that an indication of fire is given anly

when both of the above characteristics occur in the -proper sequence, The circuits mmll also he arranged to give a ¥ar.aing

signal whan only one of the circuits is actuated.

The systeia shall give an Indicatlan of a fire vlthin 2

s©co.nds of its initial appearaace.

The fir© detect ia.g systei^ simll clear the fire signal and

j?etara to an Qperatio.aal ocnditloii within 3 seconds after the

fire is completely extinguished.

Suitable provialoiis for checking the operetion of the

oomglete system almli he provided. This check shall be a positive

one.

The fire detecting system shall .not give fal.ic indications

of fii*e under any clrc^stance, ineluding exposor© of receivers

to radiarit energy from engine parts at temperatures ranging from

-6b to ^ or tmm tim

t

The f:lr© d®tectiJ3ig system sishaXl -perfom satisfactorily when

the radiation receivers are exi^osed to ambient temperatures In

the range -6b^ to SOO^ F.* The fire detection system sliaii operate on If to 29 volts

DC or 100 to 130 volts and 36O to 420 cps AC, or both.

The fire detecting systom siiall detect a fire as small as

that produced by burning gasoline In an open container Ip cm in

diameter, at a distance of 123 e® from the receiver and at a.ny

location such that ail the flame Is within an angle of 43^ with

the noimhl to the receiver.

mm TE 34-30?

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It is furtnor recoameaded that, ta the developaaat of a

fire detect!:^ system to coaipiy with the above reqoireaeats

,

coasideratioii be given to the use of the followings

1* i’iiei'aioseasitive receivers of the theratoelectrie &iid the

boioHieter type.

2m A receiver envelope material with the thermal and optical

properties of fus^d silica.

3* league tie amplifiers in lieu of vacuum tuh© -.aaplifi^jrs.

km Circuit eoapoueuts with the laialaum of weight’ and volume.

5. Simplicity ia operation and mlntmimQBm

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i. Dallas, A. ¥. asal Eaasbe3?2?^, H* L. , D^temlaatioix of Meaas to

^.afegaard Alo^craft Fworplaut FaiXo3?ea In Fllglxt, CAA

feeimicai Developaont Bepo2?t Ho. 33 fart I, 3opt. 19^3

V a. D. L. , Detat^iaatlaa of Maatio to iAfeguard Ai2*o3?Eft

from Poirerplant Failorss ia Flight. GAA. SJeoimical Develox^neat

. H#:po2^ HO. 3? II, Oct. 19^3

3 . Hsasbepa?^, li. L;. , Batcri^iluatioa of Moans to Safeguard Aircraft

from Poworplimt Failures la Fliglit . OiA foelmlcal Developaout

Report Ko. $B XXI, A,pril 19^4

4. farbeil, L. U. and Kaelor, H. K., D^torjalmtiou of Meaas to

safogoaM Aircraft 'from fowrpla^t Feiluroa 1b. Flight. CA^l

fcohnical DemXoj^mnt B.cport Ho. XO7 Fart X?, April I99O

5 . farhcll, D. B,, of Moans to Safeguard Aircraft

from Fovcrplant Failures la Fllgiit. GA4 I’cchnicai Bevolopment

Beport Ho. X0 ?, ApM-l.:19!?3

6. Moore, B* 1. fr.. Aircraft Fire Froteotloii.

Aero Digest 5^, TO (April 19^8)

T. Amu. GostlAuoue Fire Deteotloh.

Aero Digest 54, ^8 {April 1^0

)

S, Hheeler# D, B., Fire De-toctlng Gahle. H. 3.' Fateixt 24E353T

9. Blair, a. A., -Fir® Detecting siritch. 0. -S. ?at#,Et 2322^48

10. erosHF, Fisice,

^

Forster, H. F. F. A. Headbocvk of Fire i'rotectioo

H. F. ?. -A. iBtermatlaaal, Boston, Mass.

11. Denu©, B. A., fhe Problem of Fire Aircraft.

Aircraft Engirieering 4, 98 (April 1932)

12. IPLela, E. A,..,_let ingiae Fire Frotectlon frogx»am. A. F. Tecmlcal

, Beport Ho. 5870 , Air Materiel QomnBudf Wright -F&ttorson Field,

Ohio. (Feb. 1990)

WADC m 54-307 95
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13 . Fir® Squlpaieat Co. Aircraft Po¥er Flaat Fir© rrotectioxi.

Aa?iay Air Foro® Contract Ho. W**33'**033-&c-3^8f , (F©b

X4. Constantine 4 J, Fire Alarm Sfst©ia

U. S. Fstant ^533^4

13. An&Ui^ iCi40e»s Eieotiroic Fire Hetector.

Aviation Week, 34 ^3^ ^ i93i)

16. x"et©rs, M. F.,, Fir© Detector Slement

p, 0,_ ifatent 3533^3

i

/ '/4: 17. Anon., Britlsn islMfelts at rarlt, 0raviaer Mig. Go.,

?n© Aeroi^Xene, 30, fli i^m& 15 » 19^1)

iS. Heat'll,' ¥. tTr.^ BeafOBeive Detector isfataia.,

P, 3. Fatent Ho. 3oI59T3

19. Aunon. , leva of . '4 De¥alci*>©4 Fire Betactor

fn© Aeroplan©, 396, lav. 3, X93I

20. oelfey-Hele, B. B. , Fire Banger in Aircraft.

Aircraft Ingineeriag 22 « 2, (lla^ 3, 1930)

21. Anon., FlgAting Bni.ina Fi.re. Aero Blgest 54, 50 (June 1947)

22.

. ¥©xsa, 'F. B., ile^atrsnic Fir© €^d Flam© Jieteefeer.

Electronics; , Ig,- X^, l^i)

23.

24.

Baavillier, A. , flaai© EeaiJois^$,ivs iilara System.

0. S. Fatent io, .2024X00.

We4el. J. .T., Fiaj®e Betector. MaiTioraates lo. 4-32. Jet

fropolsion LaBoratorj. Oaliforsi-ta Inatitnt© of feolmoxo-gj

.

Jane Xg4a

25 . M.an3B©rrF^ E* B*, How fon Gmi Cat Aircraft Fire Banger. Aviation

Week, 32, 21, {Mai'S, 1950)

26. Anon., PBAF .Bujiag Hew Fir© B^^tcctor

Aviation Week 53 ,» XT. 10, 1930)"

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l4<mov&af2iim Eepcaft Ho. iC3II3^*-66^«4Si^I» -411? ^iato-riei Caji^i^acfed.

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tf. S. fezmit Ifo. ^TT®9S

t^. Bntue* F, 0-., Fii»® ^teetlag ayet^* '“ '' 0 . 0. ' Fat«2St B0» t3^W6 "

30 . y* y,, Fire Bet#otlii^

0 . a4T^73

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aad Hail ltd.# 4anaaii> 1|^ 34 , 135-176

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41. Filler

f

E. Hadlatlaa From a Bimsan Flame. Kesearch

Paper KP i860 Journal of Kesearch of tlie national Bureau of

Standards, 4o, 1X3 (19^)

42. Cravtiiers, J. 4., Xom^ Ileetrom, and lonli^lng Badiatlon.

Longmans, Green and Co., London, 1924 Page 130

43. Bills, 0. 0, D. and Sir^y, W. A., Flames. Metnuen and Co.,,

London, 1936

44. Herzberg, 0., M-oleouiar Spectra and Molecular Bti?uoture.

Prentioe-Hall Inc., Bov York, 1939

49.

Levis, B. (Editor), fkird B-^mpostm on 0.ombuatiQn Flame and

llsploeion Pbens^iexia. WiXliama and Wilkins Co., Baltimore,

1^9 PP S45, 4#-530, 641-680

46' , Lewis, B. and ¥oa lib©, C., G-ois&ustion, WXm<BU end ^.plosions

of Gases. Aoad^io Press Ime., Hew York, I95I

4?. Fearoe, E. W, B. and Ga^don, ii. G. , fde Identlfloatlon of

Molecuiar Spectra. Jolm Wllej and Sons, Hew York, 1,941

45. lawj'er, H. A., Ejcperimental Speetrosoop|-.

Frentlce-HalX Inc., Hew York, 1944

49. Anon., Alroralt Fire Fignting Equii^aaent.

Engineering l43, 236 (August 29, 1951)

50. Anon., Hew Imtaliation for Capital.

Aviation Weak, 3I, 35 (low. 28, 19^9)

51. Anon., Fire Frotection for Aircraft PowerpXants.

Aero .Digest 44 , 86, (Feb. 1944)

32. Anon., I)©.ia¥ed Action 3wlto.li for Airoraft Bnglne Fir© Extinguisiiers

Bleotrleal Hew.iew, l46, 83, (Jan. 13, IppO)

53* Glendeiming, ¥. Q, ami Lriniorater, J. F3re Prevention in

Aircraft. SLell Aviation Hews, 122, 19 (August 1946)

54. Eartlej, Br. H. , Hei»rt on tine Conv©x'‘.sion of tm Potential Energy

of Goal Gas into Eadiant Energy, transactions of tbe Institute

of Gas Engineers 62, 466 (1932-33)

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(19.12) (to,0i?raan)

72 . . Aadri]4©, S, I. da 0w, aos® SSkparBaonta -m tlan BlootrioeO. Behaviour

:':,or mailio TaiK?.ars to Fi«*aea. , mu. M.ag. (6) 24, 13 (191^)

73* Filler, I. .i:, and Ball, J. J., Infra-Edd Abaorption of Bepoalted

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?4. MdAdaas, E., Beat fransgitoalast,

Mcara?f*4iill B^oeOe Oo., Mm XoiNe* 1942

75* Bahl, A. I. and Fio-o^, %, F. , Eoaponae CliaractertotiGs of ^^x>-

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J. Besearoh I. B. 2,92 (1950) 1, 2136

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' V' .
THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

Functions and Activities

The functions of the National Bureau of Standards are set forth in the Act of Congress, March

3, 1901, as amended by Congress in Public Law 619, 1950. These include the development and

maintenance of the national standards of measurement and the provision of means and methods

for making measurements consistent with these standards; the determination of physical constants and properties of materials; the development of methods and instruments for testing materials,

devices, and structures; advisory services to Government Agencies on scientific and technical

problems; invention and development of devices to serve special needs of the Government; and the

development of standard practices, codes, and specifications. The work includes basic and applied

research, development, engineering, instrumentation, testing, evaluation, calibration services, and

various consultation and information services. A major portion of the Bureau’s work is performed

for other Government Agencies, particularly the Department of Defense and the Atomic Energy

Commission. The scope of activities is suggested by the listing of divisions and sections on the

inside of the front cover.

Reports and Publications

The results of the Bureau’s work take the form of either actual equipment and devices or published papers and reports. Reports are issued to the sponsoring agency of a particular project

or program. Published papers appear either in the Bureau’s own series of publications or in the

journals of professional and scientific societies. The Bureau itself publishes three monthly periodicals, available from the Government Printing Office: The Journal of Research, which presents

complete papers reporting technical investigations; the Technical News Bulletin, which presents

summary and preliminary reports on work in progress; and Basic Radio Propagation Predictions,

which provides data for determining the best frequencies to use for radio communications throughout

the world. There are also five series of nonperiodical publications: The Applied Mathematics

Series, Circulars, Handbooks, Building Materials and Structures Reports, and Miscellaneous

Publications.

Information on the Bureau’s publications can be found in NBS Circular 460, Publications of

the National Bureau of Standards ($1.25) and its Supplement ($0.75), available from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office. Inquiries regarding the Bureau’s reports and

publications should be addressed to the Office of Scientific Publications, National Bureau of

Standards, Washington 25, D. C.
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