United States Department of Agriculture

Coronado National Forest 

Land and Resource Management Plan

Cochise, Graham, Pima, Pinal, and Santa Cruz Counties, Arizona, 

and Hidalgo County, New Mexico

Forest Service Southwestern Region MB-R3-05-15 April 2018
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the Coronado National Forest at (520) 388-8300. 

Front cover photos (clockwise from upper left): Meadow Valley in the Huachuca Ecosystem 

Management Area; saguaros in the Galiuro Mountains; deer herd; aspen on Mt. Lemmon; Riggs Lake; 

Dragoon Mountains; Santa Rita Mountains “sky island”; San Rafael grasslands; historic building in Cave 

Creek Canyon; golden columbine flowers; and camping at Rose Canyon Campground.

Printed on recycled paper.
Land and Resource Management Plan 

Coronado National Forest

Cochise, Graham, Pima, Pinal, and Santa Cruz Counties, Arizona

Hidalgo County, New Mexico

Responsible Official: Regional Forester

Southwestern Region 

333 Broadway Boulevard, SE

Albuquerque, NM 87102 

(505) 842-3292 

For Information Contact: Forest Planner 

Coronado National Forest 

300 West Congress, FB 42 

Tucson, AZ 85701 

(520) 388-8300 

TTY 711

coronado-plan@fs.fed.us

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan

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Contents

Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1

Purpose of the Land and Resource Management Plan ................................................................ 1

Overview, Roles, and Contributions of the Coronado National Forest ...................................... 1

Summary of the Analysis of the Management Situation ............................................................. 6

Forest Plan Content ................................................................................................................... 11

Implementation of the Forest Plan ............................................................................................ 14

Changes to the Forest Plan ........................................................................................................ 15

Forest Plan Maps ....................................................................................................................... 16

Chapter 2. Forestwide Management .......................................................................................... 17

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 17

Response to Climate Change .................................................................................................... 17

Vegetation Communities ........................................................................................................... 20

Wetlands.................................................................................................................................... 50

Riparian Areas ........................................................................................................................... 51

Biophysical Features ................................................................................................................. 53

Watersheds ................................................................................................................................ 56

Natural Water Sources .............................................................................................................. 58

Constructed Waters ................................................................................................................... 61

Soil ............................................................................................................................................ 62

Air ............................................................................................................................................. 63

Animals and Rare Plants ........................................................................................................... 65

Invasive Species ........................................................................................................................ 68

Forest Products .......................................................................................................................... 69

Minerals .................................................................................................................................... 71

Public Access ............................................................................................................................ 72

Motorized Transportation System ............................................................................................. 74

Recreation ................................................................................................................................. 76

Scenery ...................................................................................................................................... 80

Special Uses .............................................................................................................................. 84

Cultural Resources .................................................................................................................... 86

Tribal Relations ......................................................................................................................... 88

Range Management ................................................................................................................... 90

Land Ownership Adjustments and Boundary Management ..................................................... 92

Chapter 3. Management Areas .................................................................................................. 97

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 97

Land Use Zones ........................................................................................................................ 97

Wild Backcountry ..................................................................................................................... 99

Roaded Backcountry ............................................................................................................... 100

Developed Recreation ............................................................................................................. 101

Motorized Recreation .............................................................................................................. 102

Designated Wilderness Areas ................................................................................................. 103

Plan Components for All Designated Wilderness Areas ........................................................ 103

Individual Wilderness Area Direction .................................................................................... 109

Recommended Wilderness Areas and Wilderness Study Areas ............................................. 118

Eligible Wild, Scenic, and Recreational Rivers ...................................................................... 120

Research Natural Areas, Botanical, Zoological, and Other Special Areas ............................. 122

Arizona National Scenic Trail ................................................................................................. 125
Contents

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

ii

Chapter 4. Geographic Areas ................................................................................................... 127

Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 127

Douglas Ranger District .......................................................................................................... 127

Nogales Ranger District .......................................................................................................... 137

Sierra Vista Ranger District .................................................................................................... 145

Safford Ranger District ........................................................................................................... 151

Santa Catalina Ranger District ................................................................................................ 161

Chapter 5. Suitability ................................................................................................................ 167

Suitability of Uses and Special Use Permits ........................................................................... 167

Grazing Capability and Suitability .......................................................................................... 169

Timber Suitability ................................................................................................................... 171

Chapter 6. Monitoring and Evaluation ................................................................................... 175

Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 175

Monitoring Strategy ................................................................................................................ 176

Glossary ...................................................................................................................................... 181

References .................................................................................................................................. 193

Appendix A. Climate Change Trends and Coronado National Forest Land 

Management Planning ................................................................................................. 195

Appendix B. Proposed and Probable Management Practices ............................................... 229

Appendix C. Communications Sites ........................................................................................ 237

Appendix D. Animal and Plant Species ................................................................................... 239

Appendix E. Other Sources of Information ............................................................................ 251

List of Preparers ........................................................................................................................ 270

Tables

Table 1. Major vegetation communities within the Coronado National Forest boundary ............ 20

Table 2. Proposed ecosystem management area acreages of land use zones and 

management areas ............................................................................................................ 98

Table 3. Designated wilderness areas .......................................................................................... 103

Table 4. Major vegetation communities of the Chiricahua Wilderness ...................................... 110

Table 5. Major vegetation communities of the Galiuro Wilderness ............................................ 111

Table 6. Major vegetation communities of the Miller Peak Wilderness ..................................... 112

Table 7. Major vegetation communities of the Mount Wrightson Wilderness ........................... 113

Table 8. Major vegetation communities of the Pajarita Wilderness ............................................ 114

Table 9. Major vegetation communities of the Pusch Ridge Wilderness .................................... 115

Table 10. Major vegetation communities of the Rincon Mountain Wilderness .......................... 117

Table 11. Major vegetation communities of the Santa Teresa Wilderness ................................. 118

Table 12. Eligible wild, scenic, and recreational river segments ................................................ 121

Table 13. Special management areas ........................................................................................... 123

Table 14. Suitability of selected activities by management areas ............................................... 168

Table 15. Grazing capability calculations for the Coronado National Forest ............................. 169

Table 16. Areas not suitable for grazing on the Coronado National Forest ................................ 170

Table 17. Timber suitability assessment of Coronado National Forest lands ............................. 171

Table 18. Suitability of select special uses on the Coronado National Forest ............................. 174

Table 19. Monitoring and evaluation .......................................................................................... 178

Table 20. List of plan objectives ................................................................................................. 232

Table 21. Examples of projects recommended by the Resource Advisory Committee ............... 235
Contents

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

iii

Table 22. Communications sites on the Coronado National Forest ............................................ 237

Table 23. Plant and animal species common and scientific names ............................................. 239

Figures

Figure 1. Location of the Coronado National Forest ....................................................................... 2

Figure 2. Location of five ranger districts on the Coronado National Forest and the 

ecosystem management areas (EMAs) contained within them .......................................... 3

Figure 3. Map of wildlife linkages interface ................................................................................. 66

Figure 4. Map of wilderness areas ............................................................................................... 104

Figure 5. Chiricahua Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas ............... 129

Figure 6. Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas ................... 133

Figure 7. Peloncillo Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas ................ 135

Figure 8. Santa Rita Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas ................ 138

Figure 9. Tumacacori Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas ............. 142

Figure 10. Huachuca Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas ............... 146

Figure 11. Whetstone Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas ............. 150

Figure 12. Galiuro Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas .................. 152

Figure 13. Pinaleño Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas................. 154

Figure 14. Santa Teresa Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas .......... 158

Figure 15. Winchester Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas ............ 160

Figure 16. Santa Catalina Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas ....... 162
Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

iv

Forest Plan Organization

The forest plan is organized as follows: 

Chapter 1: Introduction describes the Coronado National Forest, summary of the analysis of 

the management situation, the purpose of this plan, its content, and organization. This chapter 

does not contain any plan decisions. 

Chapter 2: Forestwide Management contains plan decisions and other content that are 

applicable throughout the Coronado National Forest. 

Chapter 3: Management Areas contains plan decisions, suitability of areas, and other content 

that is applicable to particular management areas. The Coronado National Forest is divided 

into six management areas, including wilderness areas and land use zones. 

Chapter 4: Geographic Areas describes management direction that applies to unique 

geographic areas called ecosystem management areas.

Chapter 5: Suitability describes suitable uses of specific resource management practices and 

special use permits for particular areas of land. 

Chapter 6: Monitoring and Evaluation contains the monitoring plan decisions and provides 

a framework for subsequent monitoring and evaluation. 

Glossary: Provides definitions of select words from this forest plan. 

References: Literature and documentation referenced in the plan.

Appendix A: Climate Change Trends and Coronado National Forest Land Management 

Planning provides regional and national guidance related to climate change and forest 

planning, and describes the relationship between both. 

Appendix B: Proposed and Probable Management Practices are projections of what 

actions may take place in the future at the project or activity level to achieve the desired 

conditions. 

Appendix C: Communications Sites identifies the designated communications sites located 

on the Coronado National Forest. 

Appendix D: Animal and Plant Species, with both common and scientific names, mentioned 

in this plan.

Appendix E: Other Sources of Information is provided to aid in implementation of this 

plan. 
Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

1 

Chapter 1. Introduction

Purpose of the Land and Resource Management Plan

This land and resource management plan (referred to primarily as the “forest plan”) is a guide for 

management of the Coronado National Forest for approximately the next 15 years.1

 This plan: 

• Is strategic in nature. It does not include project and activity decisions. Those decisions are 

made later, only after more detailed analysis and further public involvement. 

• Is adaptive in that new knowledge and information can be analyzed and the forest plan can be 

amended, if appropriate, at any time. 

• Honors the continuing validity of private, statutory, or pre-existing rights.

This forest plan represents a revision of the 1986 Coronado National Forest Land and Resource 

Management Plan. The revision was conducted under the legal framework of the National Forest 

Management Act, and the provisions of the 1982 Planning Rule, as allowed by the 2012 Planning 

Rule language.2

Overview, Roles, and

Contributions of the Coronado National Forest3

The Coronado National Forest is an administrative component of the National Forest System. It 

administers approximately 1.78 million acres of National Forest System lands. National forests 

across the United States were established to provide natural resource-based goods and services to 

American citizens, and to protect timber and watershed resources. Management of national 

forests is jointly based on the principles of conservation and multiple use. The Coronado National 

Forest contributes a wide range of goods and services to its visitors and communities.

The present day Coronado National Forest has its origins in 1902, when the Santa Rita, Santa 

Catalina, Mount Graham, and Chiricahua Forest Reserves were established to protect timber and 

watershed resources. Over the years, national forest units were combined, expanded, and reduced 

to result in the current configuration, which was established in 1953 (figure 1). It is now 

organized as five ranger districts and the supervisor’s office. Each ranger district administers one 

or more ecosystem management areas (figure 2), with the supervisor’s office providing oversight 

for all administrative functions on the Coronado. The Douglas Ranger District (located in 

Douglas, Arizona) administers the Chiricahua, Dragoon, and Peloncillo Ecosystem Management 

Areas. The Nogales Ranger District (located in Nogales, Arizona) administers the Santa Rita and 

Tumacacori Ecosystem Management Areas. The Safford Ranger District (located in Safford, 

Arizona) administers the Galiuro, Santa Teresa, Winchester, and Pinaleño Ecosystem 

Management Areas. The Sierra Vista Ranger District (located in Sierra Vista, Arizona) 

administers the Huachuca and Whetstone Ecosystem Management Areas. The Santa Catalina 

Ranger District (located in Tucson, Arizona) administers the Santa Catalina Ecosystem 

Management Area.

 

1 May be revised sooner if needed because of important changed conditions.

2 Refer to 36 CFR 219.7(b)(3) 3 Parts of this section are excerpted from The State of the Coronado, Sky Island Alliance in 2008.
Chapter 1. Introduction

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Figure 1. Location of the Coronado National Forest
Chapter 1. Introduction

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Figure 2. Location of five ranger districts on the Coronado National Forest and the ecosystem 

management areas (EMAs) contained within them
Chapter 1. Introduction

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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The Coronado Forest Plan covers all National Forest System lands within the boundary of the 

Coronado National Forest. While management direction is limited to national forest 

administrative boundaries, broader scales are also considered in the forest plan.

Communities with Ties to the Coronado

There are 12 federally recognized Native American Tribes with a potential interest in natural, 

historical, cultural, and other resources of the Coronado National Forest. These Tribes include the 

Ak-Chin Indian Community, Fort Sill Chiricahua-Warm Springs Apache Tribe, Gila River Indian 

Community, Hopi Tribe, Mescalero Apache Tribe, Pascua Yaqui Tribe, Salt River Pima-Maricopa 

Indian Community, San Carlos Apache Tribe, Tohono O’odham Nation, White Mountain Apache 

Tribe, Yavapai-Apache Nation, and the Pueblo of Zuni.4

Counties that surround the Coronado National Forest include Cochise, Graham, Pima, Pinal, and 

Santa Cruz Counties in the State of Arizona and Hidalgo County in the State of New Mexico. The 

southernmost portion of the Coronado National Forest shares a contiguous international border 

with Mexico. 

The Sky Islands 

The lands of the Coronado National Forest consist of 16 widely scattered mountain ranges 

representative of basin and range topography, and are often characterized as “sky islands.” These 

sky islands form distinct land masses located in southeastern Arizona and western New Mexico. 

They offer an unusual range of vegetation types and climates; the tree-covered mountains rising 

from grassy savannas and the Sonoran and Chihuahuan Desert lowlands are home to plant and 

animal communities described as among the most diverse found on Earth. The mountains of this 

region are part of the “Madrean Archipelago,” which describes the chain of sky islands that 

stretch from the southern latitudes of the Sierra Madre Occidental to the northern latitudes of the 

Rocky Mountains (DeBano et al. 1995). The Sonoran Desert and Chihuahuan Desert also come 

together in this region, creating an overlap zone where many plants and animals are at the edge of 

their ranges (Gelbach 1981). 

The regional landscape began to take form between 70 and 40 million years ago during a period 

of intense folding and faulting. The activity was of volcanic and igneous intrusive origin, and of 

greatest importance in the placement of major ore bodies. Most of the present ranges were 

uplifted during the basin and range disturbance between 30 and 25 million years ago. The basin 

and range development exposed older rocks derived from a diverse geologic past: multiple 

marine invasions, volcanic explosions and lava flows, and metamorphic core complexes. Each 

sky island is a remarkable mixture of rock types including granite, rhyolite, dacite, basalts, gneiss, 

schists, quartzite, limestones, shale, and conglomerates. This great mix of rock types has led to an 

assortment of soils that support a huge diversity of grasses, shrubs, and trees; talus slopes that 

support a remarkable diversity of snails; limestone slopes and outcrops that greatly increase the 

diversity of plants; and vegetation growing in unexpected climatic zones. The erratic ridgelines, 

subtle tones of blue-gray limestone, speckled granite, and pastel volcanics are a visual reminder 

of the many forces that shaped the sky islands. 

 

4

A map of Arizona Tribes is available at: http://edrp.arid.arizona.edu/Tribes.html
Chapter 1. Introduction

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

5 

Ecosystems of the Coronado

The 12 ecosystem management areas that make up the Coronado National Forest range in size 

from approximately 18,937 acres in the Winchester Ecosystem Management Area to 284,619 

acres in the Chiricahua Ecosystem Management Area (figure 2). Each ecosystem management 

area supports a unique combination of vegetation, habitats, and wildlife, thus harboring an 

amazing amount of biological diversity. Distinct species have evolved within the Coronado’s sky 

islands due to barriers to movement. Mountain ranges harbor numerous endemic and rare species 

such as Mount Graham red squirrel, Peloncillo talussnail, Huachuca water umbel, and Chiricahua 

squirrel. 

The Pinaleño Ecosystem Management Area supports as many as 18 species of plants and animals 

found nowhere else in the world. Sheltered canyons in the Huachuca, Chiricahua, Santa Catalina, 

and Santa Rita Ecosystem Management Areas support a remarkable variety of bird species that 

attract birdwatchers from around the world. 

Because of the north-south axis of the mountain ranges and their great variation in elevation, the 

Madrean Archipelago spans three major climatic zones (temperate, subtropical, and tropical). 

Following the recession of glaciers in North America, the climate of southeastern Arizona became 

warmer and drier, shifting the distribution of vegetation. Conifer forests that were once in the 

valleys as well as the mountains, disappeared from lower elevations. They hung on only in higher 

elevations where the air was cooler and precipitation more frequent. Arizona cypress, also 

common on hillsides and lowlands, retreated to cooler canyon bottoms. Sonoran and Chihuahuan 

Desert vegetation, able to endure the warmer, drier conditions filled in the valleys and low 

elevations. Because of warming, plants left from this period are arranged on mountain slopes with 

species requiring less moisture and able to stand more heat at the lowest elevations, and species 

requiring the coolest and most moist conditions at mountain summits, sheltered canyon bottoms, 

or on north-facing slopes. 

The vertical stacking of life zones5 in these steep mountains packs tremendous species diversity 

into the space of each slope. In a day’s walk, one can climb through desert and scrub habitats 

characteristic of central Mexico, up to spruce-fir forests characteristic of Canada. Madrean 

encinal savanna and woodland are widespread at middle elevations in this region, forming one of 

the distinguishing features of the sky islands of the Coronado National Forest. Encinal

communities bear strong affinities with flora of the Sierra Madre, and are strikingly different from 

oak-dominated communities in other parts of the United States. Floral surveys of several U.S. sky 

island ranges have found species diversity at the community level to be higher in encinal 

woodlands than in virtually any other resident plant community, with roughly twice the number 

of species than is typical for temperate plant communities. Oak woodlands also support some 43 

percent of the tree species known from the entire bi-national region. The Coronado National 

Forest manages the highest proportion of Madrean pine-oak woodlands and Madrean encinal 

woodlands across all major landowners in Arizona. 

The sky island region has received national and international recognition for its conservation 

value. In 1999, World Wildlife Fund recognized the greater Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion as 

globally outstanding in its biological distinctiveness and named the ecoregion a top continentallevel conservation target. The Coronado National Forest is located in the northwestern part of the 

Apachean Subregion of the Chihuahuan Desert Ecoregion. In 2001, Conservation International 

 

5

 Environments characterized by particular groupings of plants and animals.
Chapter 1. Introduction

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

6 

recognized the Madrean pine-oak woodlands and sky islands of Mexico and the United States as 

conservation hotspots. 

Cultural and Historic Values

The Coronado National Forest retains remnants from its complex historic and cultural legacy. 

From pictographs, petroglyphs, and pottery shards left by ancient peoples; to remains of old 

mines and ranches, the lands of the Coronado harbor a wealth of cultural values. Place names 

across the Coronado are reminders of cultures and people who have lived in the sky island region 

and shaped the character of the land. Native American Tribal interest in the region remains strong. 

Despite having been nearly pushed out of the area in the late 19th century, Apache families 

continue to travel into the mountains of the Coronado National Forest to collect food products, 

medicinal plants, and to visit sacred sites. Today, many of the mountains managed by the 

Coronado are regarded as Apache homeland, and as such, are meaningful and sacred. 

Recreational Opportunities

A wide variety of year-round recreational opportunities is available within the Coronado National 

Forest. Higher elevations are more popular during the summer, offering temperatures 20 or more 

degrees cooler than the desert. Lower elevation recreation areas are located in scenic canyons and 

foothills; these are most popular during the fall, winter, and spring. Special places that are popular 

include Sabino Canyon Recreation Area, Mount Lemmon, and Madera Canyon. Recreation 

opportunities on the Coronado include over 1,100 miles of trails (including the Arizona Trail, a 

national scenic trail), three scenic byways, five lakes, rental cabins, a state park,6

 and dozens of 

developed campgrounds and picnic areas. Recreational opportunities also include skiing, historic 

interpretation, and private cabins. 

Social and Economic Contributions

The social and economic environment surrounding the Coronado National Forest is as diverse as 

the natural environment. It includes large urban areas, international border cities, and many rural 

communities. Goods and services provided by the Coronado National Forest include forage for 

livestock production, fuelwood, and forest products such as beargrass for baskets, fiddleneck 

ferns for flower arrangements, and manzanita branches for birdcage perches. The lands within 

what is now the Coronado National Forest continue to provide sustenance and spiritual values to 

Native American Tribes. Outfitting and guiding services provide an important link between 

visitors and the ecological treasures of the Coronado. Many areas of the Coronado are highly 

mineralized, and the Forest Service has an important role in administering mineral exploration 

and extraction while minimizing surface resource impacts, consistent with mining regulations and 

policy. Of primary and increasing importance are the watersheds and the ability to capture the 

precipitation that recharges aquifers, supplying domestic water sources to the cities and towns 

surrounding the Coronado National Forest. 

Summary of the Analysis of the Management Situation

The management situation is described in the “Comprehensive Evaluation Report” (USDA FS

2009a) and Supplement (USDA FS 2010). Together these documents meet the content 

requirements of the “Analysis of the Management Situation,” as required by the procedures of the 

1982 Planning Rule, by describing the social, economic, and ecological conditions and trends in 

 

6 The State of Arizona operates Catalina State Park within the proclaimed boundary of the Coronado National 

Forest under a special use permit.
Chapter 1. Introduction

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

7 

and around the Coronado National Forest. The Comprehensive Evaluation Report integrates key 

findings from the “Ecological Sustainability Report” (2009), the “Social and Economic 

Sustainability Report” (USDA FS 2009c) and input from the public and Forest Service 

employees. The Comprehensive Evaluation Report notes where the 1986 forest plan does not 

provide adequate management guidance for the present and future, and it identifies where the 

conditions and trends indicate a need for change from the 1986 plan. 

The Comprehensive Evaluation Report and Analysis of the Management Situation identified five 

primary areas where there are priority needs for change in program direction; ecosystem 

restoration, safety and information, public access and travel patterns, preservation of open space, 

and collaboration and partnerships. These need for change categories eventually defined five 

topics for forest plan revision:

• Ecosystem Restoration and Resiliency 

• Visitor Experiences

• Access to National Forest System Lands

• Preservation of Open Space

• Communities, Collaboration, and 

Partnerships

Ecosystem Restoration and Resiliency

Conditions have changed since the forest plan was issued in 1986, including the recognition that 

vegetation conditions (structure, composition, and function) are divergent from reference 

conditions, forest conditions indicate a substantial departure from the natural fire regime, and 

there are plant and animal species that need further consideration in the planning process. There 

are also emerging issues not addressed by the 1986 plan (such as nonnative invasive plants and 

animals and climate change).

The following are needs for change to the 1986 plan. They include the need to:

• Develop desired condition statements and objectives that provide adequate guidance for 

sustaining and restoring ecosystems. 

• Change plan components to reflect new scientific knowledge and updated language. 

• Integrate plan components for ecological attributes, where possible, to reflect the 

interconnectedness between physical and biological resources. 

• Change to include objectives and guidelines that reflect systematic observation and analysis 

of treatment results and adaptation of treatment methods based on those results. 

• Reflect knowledge and uncertainties associated with changing climate. 

• Develop plan components for reducing the threat of invasive species and for conserving 

native species. 

• Develop plan components for sustaining aquatic habitats that are at risk. 

• Develop place-based geographic area plan components where it makes sense to do so.

Visitor Experiences

The social environment surrounding the Coronado National Forest has changed significantly 

since 1986. Although the current plan anticipates negative impacts associated with regional 

population growth and increased urbanization, it does not identify strategies for sustaining the 

national forest resources and experiences in the face of these changes. 

Other unanticipated forces have come to bear in the region, notably illegal activity associated 

with the international border with Mexico. Undocumented immigrants crossing into the United 
Chapter 1. Introduction

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

8 

States through the Coronado National Forest from Mexico, as well as drug smuggling activity, 

cause unprecedented resource damage as well as public and employee safety issues. 

The topic of off-highway vehicle management is addressed in the current forest plan. However, it 

is still a prominent issue and updated management direction is needed. The collaborative process 

for forest plan revision reflects desires for increased enforcement of rules for off-highway vehicle 

use and concerns about effects on visitors’ experiences and natural resources. The Forest Service 

has identified the significant increase in illegal off-highway vehicle activity as a major 

component of unmanaged recreational use. A related concern is the slow loss of opportunities for 

quiet recreation. The Coronado National Forest is currently implementing the Travel Management 

Rule, which is an opportunity to increase control of motorized vehicle use and decrease user 

conflicts and resource damage. The forest plan needs to be changed to provide the overall desired 

conditions for motorized use that the Travel Management Rule will reflect, as well as to address 

the general suitability of motorized uses in different areas of the Coronado. 

The current forest plan is organized around the concept of management areas that are largely 

based on the capability of an area to produce certain types of vegetation. This was consistent with 

the resource “output” based plans of the 1980s. As such, it does not address social uses—such as

motorized vehicle use and recreation—in much detail. The revised forest plan needs to do a better 

job of defining social uses, especially those that are being compromised by increasing use and 

those that are destructive. One way to address this topic is to define land use zones that are based 

on social uses rather than vegetation production communities. This type of strategy will guide 

managers in focusing resources to address social problems, as well as to take advantage of 

opportunities to improve safety and protect resources. Place-based plan components will also help 

to focus management strategies. 

The following are needs for change to the 1986 plan. They include the need to: 

• Identify new strategies for sustaining the forest resources and experiences in the face of 

changes in population, behavior, and increased development. 

• Develop place-based geographic area plan components where it makes sense to do so.

Access to National Forest System Lands

The need for legal rights-of-way to allow public and administrative access to the Coronado 

National Forest is identified as an issue in the current forest plan. Although progress has been 

made toward the goal of obtaining rights-of-way, the issue has become more complicated and 

updated management direction is needed. Currently, less than 100 of the approximately 300 

access points to the Coronado National Forest’s 1.7 million acres from outside its proclaimed 

boundaries have permanent legal access. 

The rapid growth of Arizona’s population has led to a much greater need for public access to 

National Forest System lands. At the same time, population growth has led to increased 

development and impacts on interior and adjacent private lands, resulting in more restricted 

public and administrative access. Many public roads and highways (county, State, and Federal) 

pass between administrative units (12 units in 6 counties and 2 states), with private or State Trust 

lands residing between those public roads and highways and Coronado National Forest lands. If 

access across those private lands is denied, the public and Forest Service are left without legal 

access. 

Public access issues are not easily solved, particularly when dealing with differing opinions from 

multiple users. A range of concerns has been expressed by the public, including rights-of-way 
Chapter 1. Introduction

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

9 

issues, damage and liability issues for private landowners, the ability to use forest trails, roads, 

and facilities, and considerations to restrict vehicular access in some areas. Flexibility as well as a 

comprehensive, coordinated, and collaborative public access effort is central to resolving many of 

this Coronado’s public access needs. 

To meet the challenge of providing adequate and appropriate access to the Coronado National 

Forest in the future, the forest plan needs to be changed to include desired conditions and 

objectives that emphasize and prioritize public and administrative access needs. These need to be 

structured around a particular area within or adjacent to the Coronado National Forest. This is 

different from the current approach, which identifies specific individual access points, roads, or 

trails. By assessing needs based on areas rather than specific points, roads, or trails, flexibility and 

opportunities to resolve public access issues are increased. Land use zoning as described in the 

previous section will also help to focus the efforts for providing adequate and appropriate access 

to the Coronado National Forest. 

The following are needs for change to the 1986 plan. They include the need to: 

• Include desired conditions and objectives that emphasize and prioritize public and 

administrative access needs.

• Identify management approaches that facilitate comprehensive, coordinated, and flexible 

collaborative solutions for resolving public access needs.

Preservation of Open Space

Preservation of open space is a particularly important land use issue given both the public’s desire 

to maintain the “rural character” of county lands and the need to accommodate rapidly growing 

populations and municipalities. This issue has been identified by the Forest Service as one of the 

four greatest threats to ecological sustainability (USDA FS 2005a); however, it is not addressed in 

the current forest plan. If ecosystem sustainability is to be realized, management direction for the 

Coronado National Forest will need to consider land uses beyond the national forest boundary 

(USDA NRCS 2008). The concept of preserving open space is widely recognized as a primary 

tool for sustaining ecosystem components and processes across landscapes.

This theme overlaps with needs for change identified for ecological sustainability in the 

recognition of ecological services provided by private lands managed as open space, and the need 

to protect and provide wildlife corridors between the sky islands of the Coronado National Forest. 

It also reflects the increased difficulty in managing planned and unplanned fires due to increased 

development along and within the boundary of the Coronado National Forest. In addition, 

development and subdivision of private land and the resulting loss of open space leaves large 

tracts of National Forest System lands without legal access and inaccessible to the public.

The forest plan needs to be changed to include desired condition statements that reflect the role of 

the Coronado National Forest in preserving open space by providing forage for livestock grazing, 

a land use that is compatible with preserving open space, and reducing fragmentation by 

consolidating National Forest System lands and private lands with high resource values within its 

boundaries. Desired condition statements could also reflect the role of the Coronado National 

Forest as a cooperating stakeholder in local government land use planning processes, providing 

information on how growth decisions will affect public land resources and public access, and 

including local communities in planning for National Forest System lands to help coordinate local 

land use with the forest plan. Other possible changes could include guidelines, based on the 

Scenery Management System, to protect scenic natural landscapes.
Chapter 1. Introduction

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

10

The following are needs for change to the 1986 plan. They include the need to: 

• Develop desired condition statements that reflect the role of the Coronado National Forest in 

preserving open space. 

• Develop guidelines, based on the Scenery Management System, to protect scenic natural 

landscapes.

• Develop management approaches for participating in county and community land use 

planning efforts.

Communities, Collaboration, and Partnerships 

In recent years, the Forest Service has placed increasing priority on the relationships between 

national forests and surrounding communities, as well as communities of interest. There is a 

growing realization that the Coronado National Forest will need to work in partnership with other 

entities to sustain the natural and social environment within its boundaries. For example, the 

effort to sustain species diversity, as with the effort to sustain ecosystem diversity, will require 

working across jurisdictional boundaries. All agencies and nongovernmental organizations that 

manage wildlife, fish, rare plants, and their habitats need to work together as complete partners, 

rather than relying on an individual group or agency to bear the burdens of management and 

conservation. The current forest plan does not provide guidance for the type of collaborative 

conservation efforts that will be needed in the future.

Native American Tribes have expressed desires for more accommodation of traditional uses and 

cultural uses in decisionmaking and planning. They would like clarification of the role of cultural 

and other noneconomic values in decisionmaking about such issues as Mount Graham located on 

the Pinaleño Mountain Range; the incorporation of traditional knowledge in management and 

planning; attention to site protection and privacy issues in the management of cultural resources; 

and a desire for cooperative management of resources of mutual interest to the Tribes and Forest 

Service. The current forest plan addresses cultural resources in one section, separate from the 

others, and provides no real guidance for incorporating traditional knowledge. 

The following are needs for change to the 1986 plan. They include the need to: 

• Include desired conditions that reflect, where possible, outcomes that are based on 

collaborative processes.

• Develop management approaches that emphasize collaboration.

• Reflect an integrated approach to management of traditional uses and cultural resources.

Other needs for change have been and will continue to be identified. New information and 

changing conditions will necessitate changes in management. As these become ripe for action, 

iterative and adaptive management may result in changes to the plan. For example, following the 

large wildfires of 2011, a changed condition assessment was conducted and the information was 

used in the development of this plan. 
Chapter 1. Introduction

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

11

Forest Plan Content

This plan includes “plan decisions” and “other content.” Once approved, any substantive changes 

to plan decisions will require a plan amendment. A change to other content may be made using an 

administrative correction process. Administrative corrections are also used to make 

nonsubstantive changes to plan decisions such as corrections, updates of data and maps, and to fix 

typographical errors. The public is notified of all plan amendments and administrative 

corrections.

Forest Plan Decisions

Forest plan decisions include six main elements: goals (hereafter referred to as desired 

conditions), objectives, standards, guidelines, the designation of special areas and management 

areas, the identification of management suitability, and monitoring and evaluation. Throughout 

the document, plan components (plan decisions) are displayed within gray borders. Texts outside 

of these areas are not plan decisions; such text is composed of general descriptions, background 

material, explanations, or descriptions of management approaches. 

Desired conditions set forth the desired social, economic, and ecological attributes of the 

Coronado National Forest. They attempt to paint a picture of what we (the public and Forest 

Service) desire the national forests to look like and the goods and services we desire them to 

provide. Desired conditions are normally expressed in broad, general terms and are timeless in 

that there is no specific date by which they are to be completed. Desired conditions may only be 

achievable over a long timeframe (in some cases, several hundred years). In some cases, a desired 

condition matches the current condition, and the goal is to maintain it. Desired conditions are 

aspirations and are not commitments or final decisions to approve projects 

To be consistent with the desired conditions of the plan, a project or activity, when assessed at the 

appropriate spatial scale described in the plan (such as landscape scale), must be designed to meet 

one or more of the following conditions: 

• Maintain or make progress toward one or more of the desired conditions of a plan without 

adversely affecting progress toward, or maintenance of, other desired conditions; or 

• Be neutral with regard to progress toward plan desired conditions; or 

• Maintain or make progress toward one or more of the desired conditions over the long term, 

even if the project or activity would adversely affect progress toward or maintenance of one 

or more desired conditions in the short term; or

• Maintain or make progress toward one or more of the desired conditions over the long term, 

even if the project or activity would adversely affect progress toward other desired conditions 

in a negligible way over the long term.

The project documentation should explain how the project is consistent with desired conditions 

and describe any short-term or negligible long-term adverse effects the project may have on the 

maintenance or attainment of any desired condition. 

Objectives are concise, time-specific statements of measurable planned results that make 

progress toward or maintain desired conditions. An objective forms the basis for further planning 

to define the precise steps to be taken and the resources to be used in achieving desired 

conditions. The objectives represent just some of the expected outcomes or actions required to 

accomplish movement toward desired conditions. Not every action or objective the Coronado 

National Forest may initiate is identified in the plan, just the primary ones.
Chapter 1. Introduction

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

12

Variation in achieving objectives may occur during the next 15 years because of changes in 

environmental conditions, available budgets, and other factors. Objectives are strongly influenced 

by recent trends, past experiences, anticipated staffing levels, and short-term budgets. 

A project or activity is consistent with the objectives of the plan if it contributes to or does not 

prevent the attainment of any applicable objectives. The project documentation should identify 

any applicable objective(s) to which the project contributes and document that the project does 

not prevent the attainment of any objectives. If there are no applicable objectives, the project 

must be consistent with the objectives decisions of the plan, and the project document should 

state that fact. 

Standards are constraints upon project and activity decisionmaking. A standard is an absolute 

requirement to be met in the design of projects and activities. A project or activity is consistent 

with a standard when its design is in accord with the explicit provisions of the standard; variance 

from a standard is not allowed except by plan amendment. 

Guidelines are components with which a project or activity must be consistent, in either of two 

ways:

• The project or activity is designed exactly in accord with the guideline; or

• A project or activity design varies from the exact words of the guideline, but is as effective in 

meeting the purpose of the guideline to contribute to the maintenance or attainment of the 

relevant desired conditions and objectives.

Guidelines must be followed, but they may be modified somewhat for a specific project if the 

intent of the guideline is followed and the deviation is addressed in a decision document with 

supporting rationale. When deviation from a guideline does not meet the original intent, however, 

a plan amendment is required. 

Special areas are lands that have designations by Congress or another delegated authority. 

Special areas are designated because of their unique or special characteristics. This plan provides 

direction for the following special areas: scenic byways, national recreation trails, eligible and 

suitable wild and scenic rivers, botanical areas, zoological areas, proposed and designated 

research natural areas, and recommended and designated wilderness.

Where the plan provides plan decisions specific to a special area, a project or activity must be 

consistent with those area-specific decisions. The project documentation should describe how the 

project or activity is consistent with the area-specific decisions of the plan.

Management areas are spatially defined areas for which a unique set of plan components are 

defined. The Coronado forest plan proposes three types of management areas: special areas, land 

use zones, and ecosystem management areas (otherwise known as “geographic areas”). Special 

areas are established at a national level either through legislation (congressional designation) or at 

a regional or local level through administrative action (administrative designation). The forest 

plan may recommend the establishment of new special areas. Land use zones are defined by the 

types of uses and desired settings that would occur in them under the forest plan. They occur 

across districts, mountain ranges, and ecosystems but have commonalities that make their 

overarching land uses similar. Ecosystem management areas are defined geographically to 

include one or more mountain ranges. These mountain ranges are used to distinguish the 

ecosystem management area’s unique social and ecological issues with appropriate plan 

components.
Chapter 1. Introduction

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

13

Suitability describes the appropriateness of applying certain resource management practices 

(uses) to a particular area of land. A unit of land may be suitable for a variety of individual or 

combined uses. 

A project with the purpose of timber production may only occur in an area identified as suitable 

for timber production.7

 The documentation for the project should confirm the project area meets 

the suitability requirements.

Except for projects with a purpose of timber production, a project or activity can be consistent 

with plan suitability determinations in either of two ways:

• The project or activity is a use identified in the plan as suitable for the location where the 

project or activity is to occur; or

• The project or activity is not a use identified in the plan as suitable for the location (the plan 

is silent on the use or the plan identifies the use as not suitable), but the responsible official 

determines that the use is appropriate for that location’s desired conditions and objectives.

The project documentation should describe that the project or activity is either (1) a use for which 

the area is specifically identified in the plan as suitable, or (2) not a use for which the area is 

specifically identified in the plan as suitable, but is nonetheless appropriate for that location. 

Monitoring and Evaluation consists of key elements that will be monitored as implementation 

of the forest plan progresses (future site-specific actions). Monitoring is part of an adaptive 

management process that measures the performance of plan implementation against the goals and 

desired conditions and objectives to which it aspires. It also evaluates whether the implementation 

of standards and guidelines are producing the desired results. 

Other Plan Content

Other content in this plan includes the contents of chapter 1, certain sections of chapters 2 

through 6 (background, other sources of direction, management approach, related plan content) 

and all appendices. 

In addition to plan components, there are sections of the forest plan that include general 

descriptions, and management approaches. 

General Descriptions: Explanatory narrative, descriptions of place, and other important 

information that supports the understanding of, or gives context to, plan decisions are 

described throughout the forest plan under this heading. General descriptions help managers 

and the public apply the direction within each of the plan components. 

Management Approaches: Most sections of the forest plan include this additional content, 

which briefly describes the principal approaches to management that the responsible official 

is inclined to take. Management approaches do not make commitments of resources. They 

may illustrate suggestions as to how desired conditions or objectives could be met, convey a 

sense of priority among objectives, or indicate a possible future course of change to a 

program; partnership opportunities and collaborative arrangements may be discussed, as well 

as potential processes such as further analysis or inventory. The wording structure of 

management approaches is characterized with a verb ending in “ing” (such as managing, 

cooperating, conducting, or collaborating). 

 

7 Refer to 16 U.S.C. 1604(k)
Chapter 1. Introduction

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

14

Implementation of the Forest Plan

The following transition direction is provided to ensure the orderly implementation of the revised 

forest plan that is specified in the record of decision. The new direction will apply to all project 

decisions made on or after the effective date of the record of decision. The new direction does not 

apply to any project decisions made prior to the effective date of the record of decision. Projects 

currently under contract, permit, or other authorizing instrument are not affected by the decision; 

however, projects may be modified to adopt all or part of this direction where Forest Service 

managers deem appropriate. Reissuance of existing authorizations will be treated as new 

decisions, which must be consistent with the new direction described in this revised plan subject 

to valid existing rights. 

As required by the National Forest Management Act and the 2012 Planning Rule, subject to valid 

existing rights, all projects and activities authorized by the Forest Service after approval of this 

revised forest plan must be consistent with the applicable plan components (16 U.S.C. 1604(i)) as 

described at 36 CFR 219.15 of the 2012 Planning Rule. (Although the transition provisions at 36 

CFR 219.17 of the 2012 Planning Rule allow revision of this plan under the 1982 regulations, 

subsequent projects or activities approved on units with plans revised under a prior planning rule 

must comply with the consistency requirement at 219.15 of the current planning rule.) 

Consistency with this plan will be attained by developing management activities that are designed 

specifically to achieve the desired conditions and objectives of the plan and are guided by 

relevant standards and guidelines. To the extent practicable, documentation for such projects 

should identify the elements of the desired conditions, goals, or objectives to be achieved by the 

project. It should not be expected that all projects or activities would contribute to all desired 

conditions, goals, or objectives, but rather to a limited subset. It should also be recognized that 

some projects designed to contribute to some desired conditions, goals, or objectives may have 

consequences considered adverse to the achievement of other desired conditions, goals, or 

objectives. In this situation, the responsible official for the project needs to identify and disclose 

these effects in the project documentation and make a decision that balances these considerations.

A project or activity approval document must describe how the project or activity is consistent 

with the forest plan by the criteria listed at 36 CFR 219.15(d) in the 2012 Planning Rule. Where a 

proposed project or activity would not be consistent with plan direction, the responsible official 

has the following options as described in section 219.15(c) of the Rule:

1. Modify the proposed project or activity to make it consistent with the applicable plan 

components; 

2. Reject the proposal or terminate the project or activity;

3. Amend the plan so that the project or activity will be consistent with the plan as 

amended; 

4. Amend the plan contemporaneously with the approval of the project or activity so that the 

project or activity will be consistent with the plan as amended. This amendment may be 

limited to apply only to the project or activity, and may be adopted at the same time as 

the approval of the project or activity (see section 219.15(c)(4) of the Rule).

Any resource plans (such as travel management plans) developed by the Forest Service that apply 

to the resources or land areas within the planning area must be consistent with the plan 

components. Resource plans developed prior to the plan record of decision must be evaluated for 

consistency with the plan and amended if necessary (see section 219.15(e) of the Rule).
Chapter 1. Introduction

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

15

Authorizations for occupancy and use made before the final record of decision may proceed 

unchanged until time of reauthorization. At time of reauthorization, all permits, contracts, and 

other authorizing instruments must be made consistent with the revised plan, subject to existing 

valid rights, as provided at section 219.15(d) of the Rule.

A forest plan is used as a direction source for future projects, plans, and assessments. It is not 

expected that this new direction be used to reevaluate or change decisions that have been made 

under the 1986 forest plan. A smooth and gradual transition to the new forest plan is anticipated, 

rather than one that forces an immediate reexamination or modification of all contracts, projects, 

permits, and other activities that are already in progress. As new project decisions, contracts, 

permits, renewals, and other activities are considered, conformance to the revised forest plan 

direction is expected.

Changes to the Forest Plan

A change to the forest plan requires either administrative correction or amendment. The following 

summarizes circumstances that warrant corrections or amendments to the forest plan.

Administrative changes are minor changes to the forest plan that do not substantively affect the 

management direction or create additional environmental consequences. These minor changes 

include the following:

• Corrections of clerical errors to any part of the plan; 

• Conformance of the plan to new statutory or regulatory requirements;

• Changes to elements of the plan that are not plan decisions as described in the “Other Plan 

Content” section above; 

• Changes to the plan monitoring strategy, after notice is made to the public of the intended 

change and consideration has been given to public comment and feedback; 

• Corrections and updates of data published in the forest plan and minor changes to maps of 

management areas; and

• Changes in projections of timber management activities expected to occur during the plan 

period. 

An administrative change must be initially published as a proposed change either on the 

Coronado National Forest website or in a local newspaper of record. The proposed change must 

identify the language or map to be corrected, the proposed change, and the reason for the 

correction. The public will have an opportunity to comment on the proposed change within a 30-

day period following publication. After reviewing the comments received, the final change may 

be similarly published and the forest plan corrected. 

Site-specific forest plan amendments occur to allow specific projects or other activities to 

deviate from certain forest plan direction. These amendments occur only for a specific area or a 

specific project. They do not lead to permanent changes in forest plan language, and if changes 

(project-specific variances) are made to management area map layers, they are made only for the 

area affected. Such amendments are usually proposed with appropriate National Environmental 

Policy Act environmental analysis for the site-specific project proposal. The procedures for 

processing a site-specific plan amendment are outlined in the applicable planning regulation.

Programmatic forest plan amendments permanently change the text and language of the forest 

plan decisions identified in the earlier section “Forest Plan Decisions” for all future projects. The 
Chapter 1. Introduction

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

16

procedures for addressing a programmatic plan amendment are outlined in the applicable 

planning regulation. 

Forest Plan Maps

The forest plan includes maps throughout the document. The following statement applies to all 

maps found within the forest plan. 

DISCLAIMER: Acreage calculations are dependent on data sources, projections, methods of calculation, and 

changes in technology. Data sources have changed over the years. The sources of data have improved with 

technology like GPS and digital survey equipment. Data projections have changed over the years giving us better 

measurement of length and area. Map data is almost always measured in a planer (flat, maps are flat) projection 

that yields accurate measurement of area for small areas, but returns a less accurate area calculation over large 

areas because the curvature of the earth is not accounted for in a planer projection, because of this inaccuracy 

many small area calculations don’t always add up to the sum of a larger single area. Many times the difference is 

only fractions of an acre, other times with large areas the difference can be a few aces. With this GIS acreage,

calculations may vary over time depending on data, projections, and technology. The current GIS area calculations 

are the best we have with the available data and technology at this time and may not reflect the same exact 

numbers of past or future calculations.
Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

17

Chapter 2. Forestwide Management

Introduction

This chapter describes management direction (plan decisions and other content) that applies to 

each resource or subject area wherever it occurs across the Coronado National Forest. Each 

subject area includes a general description followed by one or more plan components and 

recommended management approaches. See chapter 1 for descriptions of plan decisions and other 

content. 

Throughout this chapter, forest plan decisions (desired conditions, objectives, standards, and 

guidelines) are displayed within gray borders. Text outside of these areas are not plan decisions; 

such text consists of other plan content such as general descriptions, background material, 

explanations, and/or descriptions of management approaches. 

In the event of conflicts with other sections of this plan, the more restrictive plan decision 

generally applies. However, a project- or activity-level evaluation may be required to resolve the 

conflict. Plan decisions and other content for management areas (chapter 3), geographic areas 

(chapter 4), and suitability (chapter 5) should also be consulted. 

Response to Climate Change

General Description

The climate of the southwestern United States is often referred to as dry and hot, but variation in 

topography, seasonal monsoons, and the strong influence of the El Niño Southern Oscillation and 

other large-scale circulation patterns add complexity to this region (see appendix A). While low 

deserts of the Southwest experience heat and drying winds in the early summer, forested 

mountain areas and plateaus may experience cold and drifting snow during winter. Monsoon 

thunderstorms in July and August are often accompanied by flash flooding, while from fall to 

spring, the weather can be warm with clear skies. Precipitation patterns are characterized by two 

peaks each year; winter precipitation is produced primarily from large frontal systems moving 

over the region, whereas summer precipitation results largely from thunderstorms within the 

North American monsoon circulation. The Southwest also experiences periods of short- and longterm drought, often linked to anomalies in El Niño. 

Data shows that average air temperatures across the globe are rising (IPCC 2007). Details and 

supporting literature regarding impacts of climate change for the Southwest are summarized in 

appendix A. In summary, by the end of the 21st century, the Southwest, including the Coronado 

National Forest, is likely to experience:

• temperature increases of 5 to 8 degrees Fahrenheit (or about half a degree Fahrenheit per 

decade on average);

• an increase in the number of hot days, with summer heat waves lasting 2 weeks or longer;

• warmer winters with reduced snowpack; 

• a later monsoonal season;

• a 10 percent drop in annual precipitation in southern Arizona, and 

• an increase in extreme flood events following an overall increase in tropical storms.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Management

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

18

The potential ecological implications of climate change trends in the Southwest indicate the 

following (see appendix A):

• More extreme disturbance events, including wildfires, intense rain, flash floods, and wind 

events.

• Greater vulnerability to invasive species, including insects, plants, fungi, and vertebrates. 

• Long-term shifts in vegetation patterns. Cold-tolerant vegetation moving upslope or 

disappearing in some areas. Migration of some tree species to the more northern portions of 

their existing range. 

• Potential decreases in overall forest productivity due to reduced precipitation.

• Shifts in the timing of snowmelt (already observed) and increases in summer temperatures 

affecting the survival of fish species and efforts to reintroduce species into their historic 

range.

• Effects on phenology and changes in the date of flowering and associated pollination and 

food chain disruptions. 

• Ecosystems and species that may be particularly vulnerable to climate change include:

♦ Sky island forests (spruce-fir, dry and wet mixed conifer, ponderosa pine-evergreen 

oak, Madrean pine-oak woodland). These high elevation systems contain plant and 

animal species that are adapted to cooler climates. They are highly fragmented, so species 

cannot easily migrate to areas that are more suitable. They could become more 

fragmented in the future as suitable climates shift upward in elevation, reducing overall 

habitat size. These systems also contain many threatened and endangered species, and 

can be at particular risk for severe wildfires and insect outbreaks. 

♦ Aquatic, wetland, and riparian systems. These systems also contain many threatened 

and endangered species. They are highly dependent on water and, thus, are highly 

vulnerable to shifts in precipitation regimes. They may be further threatened by increased 

human demand for water used in grazing, agriculture, and municipal drinking water. 

Many species are also physiologically dependent on narrow temperature ranges as well.

♦ Species expected to be negatively affected by climate change. A recent wildlife 

vulnerability assessment found several vertebrate species to be vulnerable to climate 

change, including the Tarahumara frog, Mount Graham red squirrel, Chiricahua squirrel, 

elegant trogon, and Chiricahua leopard frog (Coe et al. 2011). Additional species, 

including plants and invertebrate species may also be vulnerable, especially those with 

narrow ranges that are not adapted to frequent disturbance. 

Potential social and economic effects of climate change trends in the Southwest and the Coronado 

National Forest indicate the following (see appendix A):

• Potential decrease in forage and water availability for livestock. 

• Increased recreation on the Coronado National Forest, where cooler temperatures will attract 

people to higher elevations as a refuge from increasingly hot summers.

• Greater numbers of diseases that favor warmer climates, heat-induced illnesses, reduced air 

quality, and increased cases of respiratory illness.

• Greater energy demands for cooling systems that could place greater pressure for permits for 

alternative energy on National Forest System lands.

• Increased pressures on the region’s already limited water supplies.
Chapter 2. Forestwide Management

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

19

Based on current climate model projections and research, the climate change factors that appear 

most likely to affect desired conditions in the revised land management plan on the Coronado 

National Forest are ecological, weather-related disturbances, and socioeconomic demands: 

• Projected increase in frequency of extreme weather events (intense storms).

• Projected increase in wildfire risks.

• Projected increase in outbreaks of insects, diseases beyond endemic levels, and nonnative 

invasive species.

• Projected increase in demand for deceasing upland water supplies.

Desired Conditions for the

Coronado National Forest’s Response to Climate Change

Ecosystems retain their functions under changing and uncertain future environmental conditions. 

Coronado National Forest landscapes retain the capacity to survive natural disturbances and 

threats to sustainability such as those driven by climate change and an increasing human 

population with local and regional needs. Ecosystem functions (such as nutrient cycling, water 

infiltration, and carbon sequestration) are sustained as forests, woodlands, grasslands, and desert 

communities adapt to warmer, drier conditions. Ecosystems are resilient to changing natural 

disturbance regimes (such as drought, wind, fire, insects, and pathogens), allowing for adaptation 

of plant communities, structure, and ages across the landscape. 

Ecological conditions for habitat quality, distribution, and abundance contribute to self-sustaining 

populations of terrestrial and aquatic plants and animals. Conditions provide for the life history, 

distribution, and natural population fluctuations of species within the capability of the ecosystem. 

Contiguous blocks of habitat are interconnected, support a wide array of native species, and allow 

for genetic and behavioral interactions. Ecological processes allow connectivity of predator-prey 

relationships, metapopulations, and interactive wildlife species throughout the landscape. Habitat 

quality, distribution, and abundance exist to support recovery and/or stabilization of federally 

listed and other species.

The Coronado continues to provide services for human uses, including recreation, grazing, forest 

products, and water resources. Recreation sites, such as campgrounds, are located in areas not at 

risk to flash flooding. Increased visitation to the Coronado to escape the summer heat is done so 

in a sustainable way so as not to decrease the natural character of the landscape. Water resources 

are made available for multiple uses and used sustainably.

Management Approaches

• Anticipating and planning for disturbances from intense storms. Planning for intense 

storms includes controlling soil erosion, relocating high-risk roads and trails, and constructing 

appropriately sized culverts and stream crossings. It includes using a suite of adaptation 

options to manage ecosystems in the face of uncertainty. Options include increasing 

resistance to disturbances by preventing fires in nonadapted desert communities and pest 

invasions, promoting resilience of ecosystems so they return to their previous condition 

following a disturbance, and allowing ecosystems to respond to climate change by facilitating 

species and ecosystem migration. 

• Increasing water conservation and planning for reductions in upland water supplies.

This includes identifying the water rights status of water resources (for range, wildlife, public 

drinking systems), water for fire management activities, recreational uses, and aquatic 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Management

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

20

habitats; and reviewing the status of State and regional water plans, forest and watershed 

health plans, and integrated regional water planning efforts.

• Anticipating increased forest recreation use. This includes planning for higher visitor use 

to escape the summer heat and making facilities and roads available to accommodate 

demands. It also includes anticipating changes in types of recreational uses, such as a 

decrease in snow related recreation due to a shorter snow season. 

• Monitoring climate change influences and the effectiveness of adaptation approaches.

This includes taking advantage of existing monitoring plans to look for climate change 

related signals and making use of research natural areas to monitor additional impacts. It also 

includes monitoring the effectiveness of adaptation approaches so adjustments can be made 

when needed. 

Vegetation Communities

General Description 

Nine major vegetation communities are identified within the Coronado National Forest boundary 

(includes lands that are not national forest). Table 1 displays the acreage and relative percentage 

of these vegetation communities. Forest vegetation maps are located on the Coronado National 

Forest website under background documents at:

https://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/coronado/landmanagement/planning/?cid=fswdev7_018702

Table 1. Major vegetation communities within the Coronado National Forest

boundary

Vegetation Community Percent Composition Acres

Madrean encinal woodland 43.0 738,693

Grassland communities 23.7 407,477

Desert communities 10.2 175,452

Interior chaparral 8.8 151,181

Madrean pine-oak 

woodland

8.3 142,047

Mixed conifer (wet and 

dry)

3.2 55,451

Ponderosa pine-evergreen 

oak

2.3 39,477

Spruce-fir forest 0.2 3,014 

Montane meadows, 

wetlands, and riparian areas

0.2 5,142

Total 100.0 1,717,934

Desert communities include both the Sonoran and Chihuahuan Deserts. The grassland vegetation 

community includes desert, plains, and savanna grasslands. The term “encinal” refers to oak 

communities. Mixed conifer includes both dry and wet mixed conifer types. Desert communities, 

grasslands, interior chaparral, Madrean encinal woodlands, and Madrean pine-oak woodlands 

compose approximately 94 percent of the total area of the Coronado National Forest. Of this, 

Madrean encinal woodlands account for approximately 43 percent, and grasslands represent about 
Chapter 2. Forestwide Management

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

21

23.7 percent. In contrast, the combined area of montane meadows, wetlands, riparian areas, 

ponderosa pine-evergreen shrub, mixed conifer forest, and spruce-fir forest compose around 

6 percent of the total area of the Coronado National Forest. 

Riparian communities range across all elevation gradients, from deserts to subalpine forests, 

spanning a variety of characteristic vegetation communities. Therefore, riparian communities are 

composed of various plant species dependent upon the elevation and upland vegetation 

community type in which they are found. There are three primary riparian associations on the 

Coronado National Forest: cottonwood-willow riparian forest (in deserts and grasslands), mixed 

broadleaf deciduous riparian forest (in oak and pine woodlands), and montane willow riparian 

forest (in mixed conifer forests). 

Vegetation desired conditions are described at multiple scales when possible. The three scales 

used herein are landscape scale, mid-scale, and fine scale. Descriptions at these various scales are 

necessary to provide adequate detail and guidance for the design of future projects and activities 

that will help achieve the desired conditions over time. In some cases, not enough information is 

available to provide descriptions at multiple scales. Descriptions begin with the landscape scale to 

provide the “big picture” desired conditions across the larger land area. Descriptions at the midscale and fine scale provide additional detail necessary for guiding future projects and activities. 

Landscape scale is typically composed of variable elevations, slopes, aspects, soils, plant 

associations, and ecological and disturbance processes. On the Coronado National Forest, 

multiple vegetation communities make up the landscape scale. Almost no community is 

monotypic at this scale, but each gradually merges with the surrounding vegetation communities. 

An area at the landscape scale is comprised of multiple mid-scale units. Mid-scale is composed of 

assemblages of fine scale units that have similar biophysical conditions. Fine scale is composed 

of individual biophysical features, such as a group of trees or shrubs, natural springs, or other 

features. 

Desired Conditions

Landscape Scale

Landscapes provide for the full range of ecosystem diversity at multiple scales and are composed 

of multiple vegetation communities. Each vegetation type contains a mosaic of vegetative 

conditions, densities, and structures. This mosaic occurs at a variety of scales across landscapes 

and watersheds. The distribution of physical and biological conditions is appropriate to the 

natural disturbance regimes affecting the area. Vegetative conditions are resilient to the frequency, 

extent, and severity of disturbances under a changing climate, especially fire. Natural and human 

disturbances (such as planned and unplanned fire, mechanical vegetation treatments) provide 

desired overall plant density, structure, species composition, coarse woody debris, and nutrient 

cycling. Desired disturbance regimes are restored. 

Native plant communities dominate the landscape, while invasive species are nonexistent or in 

low abundance. Establishment of invasive plant species new to the Coronado National Forest is 

prevented, even as climate change may favor new invaders. In the event of nonnative insect and 

pathogen establishment, native vegetation communities are preserved and ecosystem function is 

maintained. Vegetation attributes, including appropriate densities, provide favorable conditions 

for water flow and quality. The composition, abundance, and mosaic of organic ground cover and 

herbaceous vegetation protects soil, provides moisture infiltration, and contributes to plant and 

animal diversity and ecosystem function. 
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22

Vegetation provides socially and economically valued products, such as wood fiber or forage, for 

local and regional needs. Managed herbivory (the act of feeding on plants) aids in sustaining or 

improving native vegetation cover and composition. Livestock grazing and wood fiber harvest 

activities contribute to aspects of the social, economic, and cultural structure and stability of rural 

communities. 

Ecological conditions provide habitat characteristics necessary for associated federally listed 

species and rare and culturally important plant species. Habitat conditions provide for survival 

and recovery of species listed under the Endangered Species Act, and contribute to their delisting. 

Mid-Scale

The composition, density, structure, and mosaic of vegetative conditions minimize the threat of 

uncharacteristic wildfire hazard to local communities and ecosystems (see “Wildland-Urban 

Interface” on page 23). In woodland and forested vegetation communities, declining trees provide 

snags and coarse woody debris. Snags and coarse woody debris are well distributed throughout 

the landscape. The condition and characteristics of habitats for proposed or candidate species help 

preclude species listed as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act. Potentially 

suitable habitat for sensitive plant species helps retain functional stability of the species.

Forest conditions in goshawk post-fledging areas are similar to general forest conditions, except 

that these forests contain 10 to 20 percent higher basal area in the mid-age to old tree groups than 

goshawk foraging areas and the general forest. Goshawk nest areas have forest conditions that are 

multi-aged, but are dominated by large trees with relatively dense canopies. 

Fine Scale

Endemic rare plant communities are intact and functioning. Unique plant communities (such as

limestone cliffs, margins of seeps and springs, talus slopes, mesquite bosques, cienegas, sacaton 

riparian grasslands, montane meadows, canyons, cliffs, and ledges) are present and provide 

habitats and refugia for associated native plant species in a changing climate.

Native plants, including rare plant species, provide nectar, floral diversity, and pollen throughout 

the seasons that pollinator species are active, and promote pollinator success and survival.

Standards

1. Public and firefighter safety will be the highest priority during all fire management activities.

2. The maximum size opening that may be created in one harvest operation to create an evenaged stand shall not exceed 40 acres except when it is following a large-scale disturbance 

event such as a stand-replacing fire, wind storm, or insect or disease outbreak. 

3. When openings are created with the intent of regeneration, effort shall be made to ensure that 

lands can be adequately restocked within 5 years of final harvest.

Guidelines

1. Project design should provide for wildlife movement between treated and untreated areas to 

increase available habitat.

2. Only native or nonpersistent, non-native seed and plant materials will be used when 

revegetating disturbed sites.

3. Management activities should favor the development of native grasses in areas where they 

have the potential to establish and grow.
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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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4. Even-aged silvicultural practices may be used as a strategy for achieving the desired 

conditions over the long term, such as bringing mistletoe infection levels to within a 

sustainable range.

Management Approach

Prioritizing existing invasive plant, insect, and pathogen species for eradication, containment, or 

control. Developing resistance in host species when eradication, containment, or control is not 

possible. 

Wildland-Urban Interface

General Description

The wildland-urban interface includes those areas of human populations and their residences at 

imminent risk from wildfire, as well as human developments having special significance. The 

wildland-urban interface is represented in all vegetation communities on the Coronado. These 

areas may include critical communications sites, municipal watersheds, high-voltage transmission 

lines, church camps, scout camps, research facilities, and other structures that, if destroyed by 

fire, would result in hardship to communities. These areas encompass not only the sites 

themselves, but may also include the continuous slopes and fuels that lead directly to the sites, 

regardless of the distance involved. These areas may be particularly susceptible to increases in 

severity and intensity of wildfires and flash floods that are projected under a changing climate.

Desired Conditions

As a result of vegetation management, most wildfires in the wildland-urban interface are low- to 

mixed-severity fires that result in limited loss of structures or ecosystem function. Patterns of 

treatments are effective in modifying fire behavior.

Wildland-urban interface residents and visitors are knowledgeable about wildfire protection 

measures for their homes and property, including defensible space. People using wildland-urban 

interface areas are educated about the potential danger of wildlife, particularly black bears and 

mountain lions, and measures they can take to prevent encounters.

Access to wildland-urban interface areas allows for increased safety and efficiency of wildfire 

suppression operations. 

Objective

1. Treat 5,000 to 10,000 acres in the wildland-urban interface using wildland fire (planned and 

unplanned ignitions), prescribed cutting, and mastication every year to reduce fire hazard and 

risk to communities and the national forest.

Management Approaches

• Supporting the development and implementation of community wildfire protection plans. 

• Encouraging landscape-scale planning for wildland fire management across jurisdictional 

boundaries. 

• Educating property owners on the need to take primary responsibility for maintaining a 

defensible space around their property.
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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Desert Communities

General Description 

Desert communities range in elevation from 2,600 to 3,200 feet, although they may extend 

beyond this range on steep southern exposures. Annual precipitation averages from 10 to 13 

inches. The predominant species are shrubs, desert trees, and succulents, with lesser amounts of 

grasses and forbs. Common plant species occurring in desert communities include catclaw acacia, 

triangle bursage, littleleaf paloverde, mesquite, desert ironwood, creosote bush, desert broom, 

desert willow, brittlebush, desert zinnia, barrel cactus, hedgehog cacti, cholla and prickly pear 

cacti, saguaro, threeawn grasses, bush muhly, and club moss. Animal species occurring in the 

desert communities include desert bighorn sheep, kit fox, black-tailed jackrabbit, round-tailed 

ground squirrel, canyon bat, cactus wren, Gila woodpecker, Gambel’s quail, desert tortoise, 

zebra-tailed lizard, Gila monster, desert spiny lizard, Sonoran coralsnake, Sonoran Desert toad, 

red-spotted toad, giant hairy scorpion, desert orangetip, and tarantulas. Gravel and rock cover 

ranges from 5 to 65 percent in flood plains, and from 35 to 85 percent on upland sites. Bedrock 

outcrops can be as high as 10 percent in uplands. Active erosion and sedimentation occurs in 

channels on flood plains.

Based on projections of future climate change for the region, conditions may favor desert 

communities as they are adapted to the hot, dry conditions that are likely to increase in the area. 

However, they are susceptible to increases in insect attacks, colonization by invasive species, 

longer and more severe fire seasons, and altered frequency, severity, timing, and spatial extent of 

disturbance events (such as droughts, fires, flash floods, landslides, and windstorms). 

Desired Conditions

Landscape Scale

The predominant plant species are native shrubs and succulents. There is sparse to dense 

vegetation cover that includes cacti and agave species, desert grasses, desert scrub, and varying 

amounts of annual species. Fires are rare, with mean fire return intervals estimated at over 100 

years. Ground cover consists primarily of gravel, cobble, and rock. Perennial plant basal area is 

low and ranges from 1 to 3 percent of the soil surface. Ephemeral cover of annual forbs and 

grasses can be high after exceptionally wet winter or summer seasons. Plant litter occupies 5 to 

30 percent of the soil surface. There are no signs of compaction or accelerated erosion. The 

ability of soil to maintain resource values and sustain outputs is high. Native vegetation structure 

and composition provide habitat for animal species that live in this vegetation community. 

Traditional food and material plants thrive here, including bluedicks, careless weed, sotol, 

ephedra, yucca, buckhorn cholla, tulip prickly pear, limberbush, creosote bush, mesquite, and 

saguaro.

Mid-Scale

On steep hillslopes, ridgetops, and moderately sloping pediments where soils have formed in 

place on acid igneous and related metamorphic parent materials like granite, gneiss, and rhyolite, 

the predominant species are foothill paloverde, saguaro, prickly pear, cholla, hedgehog cactus, 

ocotillo, coursetia, limber bush, false mesquite, brittlebush, triangle bursage, bush muhly, 

tanglehead, slender grama, purple threeawn, janusia, and spike moss. 
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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Annual forbs and grasses fluctuate with precipitation from nearly nothing in dry years to several 

hundred pounds per acre in wet years.8 Plant basal cover ranges from 1 to 3 percent, and cover by 

plant litter ranges from 5 to 30 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 0 to 10 percent for grasses, 1 

to 10 percent for forbs, and 2 to 15 percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree canopy cover is 1 to 

10 percent.

On moderately steep hillsides and fan piedmonts where alkaline soils are formed in alluvium 

from mixed parent materials, the predominant species are foothill paloverde, saguaro, prickly 

pear, cholla, barrel cactus, ocotillo, false mesquite, triangleleaf bursage, bush muhly, slender 

grama, curly mesquite, spidergrass, tanglehead, purple threeawn, janusia, ayenia, and globe 

mallow. Annual forbs and grasses fluctuate with precipitation from nearly nothing in dry years to 

several hundred pounds per acre in wet years. Plant basal cover ranges from 1 to 3 percent, and 

cover by plant litter ranges from 10 to 75 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 1 to 20 percent for 

grasses, 1 to 15 percent for forbs, and 5 to 20 percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree canopy

cover is 1 to 10 percent. 

On moderately steep hillsides and fan piedmonts where nonalkaline soils are formed in alluvium 

from mixed parent materials, the predominant species are foothill paloverde, saguaro, prickly 

pear, cholla, ocotillo, whitethorn acacia, creosote bush, false mesquite, range ratany, desert zinnia, 

bush muhly, black grama, slim tridens, fluff grass, janusia, desert senna, and twinberry. Annual 

forbs and grasses, an important part of this plant community, fluctuate with precipitation from 

nearly nothing in dry years to several hundred pounds per acre in wet years. Plant basal cover 

ranges from 1 to 3 percent, and cover by plant litter ranges from 5 to 45 percent. Canopy cover 

ranges from 1 to 10 percent for grasses, 1 to 10 percent for forbs, and 5 to 20 percent for shrubs 

and succulents. Tree canopy cover is 1 to 10 percent.

On nearly level floodplains, low stream terraces, and canyon bottoms where soils are formed in 

recent alluvium from mixed parent materials, the predominant species are foothill and blue 

paloverde, mesquite, catclaw acacia, desert willow, desert hackberry, wolfberry, big bursage, 

burrobrush, desert honeysuckle, bush muhly, sand and spike dropseed, sideoats grama, 

tanglehead, spidergrass, and mesa threeawn. Annual forbs and grasses fluctuate with precipitation 

from nearly nothing in dry years to several hundred pounds per acre in wet years. Plant basal 

cover ranges from 2 to 5 percent, and cover by plant litter ranges from 5 to 45 percent. Canopy 

cover ranges from 10 to 20 percent for grasses, 1 to 15 percent for forbs, and 5 to 15 percent for 

shrubs and succulents. Tree canopy cover is 10 to 15 percent. 

Objective

1. Suppress or eradicate buffelgrass9 on 1,000 to 1,500 acres of Sonoran Desert every year using 

herbicides and manual methods. 

 

8 Quantitative bounds for production of annual grasses and forbs are site specific and can be found in the 

appropriate NRCS Ecological Site Description. Refer to appendix D of the forest plan environmental impact 

statement for more information. 9 Buffelgrass (Penisetem ciliare) is an aggressive invasive perennial African grass that has infested thousands of 

acres of the Sonoran Desert in southern Arizona, including the lower elevations on the Coronado National 

Forest. It threatens native communities by competitive exclusion and increased frequency of uncharacteristic 

fires.
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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

26

Guidelines

1. Ground-disturbing activities that occur in an area occupied by buffelgrass should include 

measures to eradicate or limit the spread of buffelgrass during or following the activity and 

implement measures to limit the potential for its spread into unoccupied areas. 

2. Wildland fire (planned or unplanned ignitions) should not be used as a management activity 

in desert communities, except as a strategy to control invasive vegetation.

3. Vegetation treatments in desert communities should provide for maintaining a sustainable 

population of paniculate agaves. 10

Management Approaches

1. Considering the Arizona Interagency Desert Tortoise Team’s Recommended Standard 

Mitigation Measures when designing projects. 

2. Supporting or assisting partners in monitoring Sonoran Desert plants and animals and their 

habitats in areas within or near the national forest boundary. 

Grassland Communities

General Description

Grasslands11 on the Coronado National Forest include semidesert, plains, and savanna grasslands. 

Elevations range from 3,200 to 4,600 feet in the semidesert grassland communities, although they 

may extend beyond this range on steep southern exposures. Annual precipitation averages from 

12 to 16 inches. Ground cover consists mainly of gravel, cobble, and rock, ranging from 15 to 65 

percent on steep and moderate slopes, and 10 to 35 percent in bottom lands. Bedrock outcrops can 

be as high as 15 percent on steep and moderate slopes, with the exception of moderate slopes with 

limestone parent material where bedrock outcrops range from 0 to 5 percent. In washes and 

bottom lands, bedrock outcrops are 2 percent or less. Channel areas are active with both erosion 

and sedimentation. 

Elevations range from 4,000 to 5,500 feet in the plains grassland and savanna communities, 

although they may extend beyond this range on steep southern exposures. Annual precipitation 

averages from 16 to 20 inches. Ground cover by gravel, cobble, and rock ranges from 10 to 57 

percent, except in bottom lands with loamy soils. Bedrock outcrops can be as high as 10 percent 

in steeper areas.

Animal species occurring in the grassland communities include pronghorn, American badger, 

plains harvest mouse, scaled quail, black-throated sparrow, Botteri’s sparrow, ornate box turtle, 

Mexican hog-nosed snake, round-tailed horned lizard, desert grassland whiptail, Sonoran spotted 

whiptail, Great Plains toad, plains spadefoot, and horse lubber grasshopper. Based on projections 

of future climate change for the region, habitat suitable for grasslands could increase as warmer, 

drier conditions will most likely be more common. However, grassland ecosystems are 

susceptible to decreases in plant productivity from water limitations and increased heat, increases 

in insect attacks, colonization by invasive species, longer and more severe fire seasons, and 

altered frequency, severity, timing, and spatial extent of disturbance events (such as droughts, 

 

10 Paniculate agaves are species in the subgenus Agave having branched inflorescence with flowers born in 

umbellate clusters on lateral branches. 11 The grassland community spans a wide range of precipitation zones within the Coronado National Forest. The 

gradient from semidesert to plains to savanna grasslands correlates incrementally to higher precipitation zones.
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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

27

flash floods, and landslides). Grasses make use of moisture in the upper soil layers. Intense 

precipitation events may lead to increased runoff, but decreased effective water infiltration. This 

could decrease vigor of native plants and lead to increased colonization of nonnative invasive 

plant species.

Desired Conditions: Semidesert Grassland 

Landscape Scale 

In the semidesert grassland communities, the predominant species are native grasses. There is 

moderate to dense vegetation cover that includes desert grasses and forbs, succulent species, 

subshrubs, and some herbaceous cover of annuals. Species include hairy grama, black grama, 

blue grama, sideoats grama, tanglehead, plains lovegrass, curly mesquite, spidergrass, purple and 

blue threeawn, slim tridens, spreading ratany, false mesquite, velvet-pod and catclaw mimosa, 

prickly pear, agave, ocotillo, shin-dagger, and sotol. Fires are common, with mean fire return 

intervals estimated between 10 and 25 years. Plant basal area ranges from 5 to 15 percent of the 

soil surface. Plant litter occupies 5 to 45 percent of the soil surface. Tree canopy and shrub cover 

averages 0 to 10 percent. There are no signs of compaction or accelerated erosion. The ability of 

soil to maintain resource values and sustain outputs is high. Native vegetation structure and 

composition provide habitat for animal species that live in this vegetation community. Traditional 

food and material plants thrive here, including pigweed, coyote melon, canaigre, sacaton, agave 

species, sotol, ocotillo, soaptree and banana yuccas, staghorn cholla, Engelmann prickly pear, 

oneseed juniper, and mesquite. 

Mid-Scale

On steep hillslopes and ridgetops where soils have formed in place on acid igneous and 

metamorphic parent materials like granite, rhyolite, gneiss, schist, and quartzite, the potential 

native plant community is dominated by perennial grasses and subshrubs, with lesser amounts of 

large shrubs and succulents. The predominant species are black, sideoats, slender, sprucetop, 

Santa Rita and hairy gramas, tanglehead, cane beardgrass, plains lovegrass, ocotillo, sotol, 

kidneywood, mimosa species, false mesquite, shrubby buckwheat, dalea, shin-dagger, agave, wire 

lettuce, penstemon, and ferns. Plant basal cover ranges from 5 to 12 percent, and cover by plant 

litter ranges from 25 to 40 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 20 to 50 percent for perennial 

grasses, 1 to 10 percent for forbs, and 10 to 15 percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree canopy 

cover is 0 to 2 percent and may include species like oneseed juniper, mesquite, and Arizona 

rosewood. 

On moderately sloping pediments where soils have formed in place on acid igneous and 

metamorphic parent materials like granite, gneiss, schist, and rhyolite, the potential native plant 

community is dominated by perennial grasses and subshrubs, with lesser amounts of large shrubs 

and succulents. The predominant grama species are black, sideoats, slender, sprucetop, Santa 

Rita, and hairy grama; other species include tanglehead, Arizona muhly, curly mesquite, ocotillo, 

false mesquite, range and spreading ratany, shrubby buckwheat, dalea, agave, mimosa species, 

wire lettuce, penstemon, trailing four o’clock, spike moss, and shrubby deervetch. Plant basal 

cover ranges from 6 to 15 percent, and cover by plant litter ranges from 25 to 40 percent. Canopy 

cover ranges from 20 to 50 percent for perennial grasses, 0 to 3 percent for forbs, and 10 to 25 

percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree canopy cover is 0 to 2 percent and may include species 

like oneseed juniper and mesquite. 

On steep hillslopes, ridgetops, and mesas where soils have formed in place on basic and 

intermediate igneous parent materials like basalt, andesite, and welded volcanic tuff and ash, the 
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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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plant community is dominated by native perennial grasses, with lesser amounts of shrubs and 

succulents. The predominant species are sideoats grama, cane beardgrass, plains lovegrass, green 

sprangletop, purple and hairy gramas, curly mesquite, tanglehead, ocotillo, mimosa species, false 

mesquite, shrubby buckwheat, shin-dagger, agave, prickly pear, penstemon, bluedicks, globe 

mallow, and ferns. Plant basal cover ranges from 5 to 15 percent, and cover by plant litter ranges 

from 25 to 55 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 25 to 65 percent for perennial grasses, 1 to 10 

percent for forbs, and 5 to 15 percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree canopy cover is 0 to 2 

percent and may include species like oneseed juniper, mesquite, and netleaf hackberry. 

On steep hillslopes and ridgetops where soils have formed in place on limestone parent materials, 

the plant community is dominated by native perennial grasses, shrubs, and succulents. The 

predominant species are sideoats grama, black grama, slim tridens, tanglehead, Hall’s panic, New 

Mexico feathergrass, ocotillo, mariola, false mesquite, feather dalea, whitethorn acacia, sandpaper 

bush, creosote bush, twinberry, sotol, shin-dagger, banana yucca, prickly pear, bahia, dogweed, 

croton, bladderpod, and ferns. Plant basal cover ranges from 3 to 8 percent, and cover by plant 

litter ranges from 10 to 25 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 15 to 30 percent for perennial 

grasses, 1 to 10 percent for forbs, and 15 to 40 percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree canopy 

cover is 0 to 5 percent and may include species like oneseed juniper, mesquite, and rosewood. 

On moderately steep hillsides and fan piedmonts where soils have formed in loamy alluvium 

from mixed sources, the plant community is dominated by native perennial grasses and 

subshrubs, with lesser amounts of large shrubs and succulents. The predominant grama species 

are sideoats, slender, black, sprucetop, and hairy grama; other species include tanglehead, cane 

beardgrass, plains lovegrass, wolftail, spidergrass, purple threeawn, false mesquite, range ratany, 

shrubby buckwheat, agave, prickly pear, barrel cactus, banana yucca, globe mallow, bluedicks, 

and wire lettuces. Plant basal cover ranges from 6 to 15 percent, and cover by plant litter ranges 

from 10 to 50 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 20 to 60 percent for perennial grasses, 1 to 15 

percent for forbs, and 2 to 20 percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree canopy cover is 0 to 1 

percent and may include species like oneseed juniper, catclaw acacia, and mesquite.

On moderately steep hillsides, fan piedmonts, and ballenas where soils have formed in coarse 

loamy, calcareous alluvium and colluviums, the plant community is dominated by native 

perennial grasses, shrubs, and succulents. The predominant species are sideoats grama, black 

grama, bush muhly, slim tridens, tanglehead, Hall’s panic, spike pappusgrass, blue threeawn, 

ocotillo, condalia, mariola, false mesquite, range ratany, feather dalea, Wright’s beebrush, 

Mormon tea, twinberry, desert zinnia, banana yucca, prickly pear, bahia, dogweed, croton, 

paperflower, and trailing four o’clock. Plant basal cover ranges from 6 to 15 percent, and cover 

by plant litter ranges from 10 to 50 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 20 to 60 percent for 

perennial grasses, 1 to 5 percent for forbs, and 5 to 30 percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree 

canopy cover is 0 to 1 percent and may include species like oneseed juniper and mesquite. 

On nearly level flood plains, low stream terraces, and canyon bottoms where soils are formed in 

recent alluvium from mixed parent materials, the plant community is dominated by native trees 

and shrubs with lesser amounts of perennial grasses, vines, and forbs. The predominant species 

are mesquite, catclaw acacia, desert willow, blue paloverde, netleaf hackberry, western soapberry, 

burrobrush, desert honeysuckle, clematis, greythorn, sacaton, bush muhly, sand and spike 

dropseed, sideoats grama, shortleaf tridens, tanglehead, green sprangletop, plains bristlegrass, 

spidergrass, mesa threeawn, coyote melon, canaigre, pigweed, morning-glory, ragweed, and 

wishbone bush. Plant basal cover ranges from 6 to 17 percent, and cover by plant litter ranges 

from 30 to 75 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 15 to 50 percent for grasses, 1 to 15 percent for 
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forbs, and 2 to 20 percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree canopy cover ranges from 15 to 30 

percent. 

Desired Conditions: Plains Grassland and Savanna Grassland 

Landscape Scale 

In the plains grassland and savanna communities, the predominant species are native perennial 

grasses. There is moderate to dense vegetation cover that includes mid-sized and short grasses 

and forbs, succulent species, subshrubs, taller shrubs, and some trees. Species occurring in plains 

grassland and savanna communities include sacaton, sideoats grama, purple grama, blue grama, 

hairy grama, black grama, curly mesquite, plains lovegrass, bullgrass, cane beardgrass, green 

sprangletop, Texas bluestem, crinkleawn, wooly bunchgrass, beggartick threeawn, spreading 

ratany, false mesquite, velvet-pod and catclaw mimosa, Parry agave, Palmer’s agave, beargrass, 

sotol, cliffrose, mountain mahogany, oak, and juniper species. Fires are common, with mean fire 

return intervals estimated between 5 and 20 years. Plant basal area ranges from 10 to 20 percent 

of the soil surface. Plant litter occupies 20 to 70 percent of the soil surface. Tree canopy and shrub 

cover average 0 to 10 percent. There are no signs of compaction or accelerated erosion. The 

ability of the soil to maintain resource values and sustain outputs is high. Native vegetation 

structure and composition provide habitat for animal species that live in this vegetation 

community. Traditional food and material plants thrive here, including sacaton, yerba mansa, 

Hopi tea, skunkbush, yerba de pasmo, annual sunflower, sotol, agave, yucca, beargrass, oak, 

walnut, mesquite, and juniper. 

Mid-Scale

On steep hillslopes and ridgetops where soils have formed in place on acid igneous and 

metamorphic parent materials like granite, rhyolite, gneiss, schist, and quartzite, the plant 

community is dominated by an open canopy of oak with an understory of native perennial grasses 

and subshrubs and lesser amounts of large shrubs and succulents. The predominant species are 

Emory oak, Mexican blue oak, Arizona white oak, sideoats grama, cane beardgrass, plains 

lovegrass, bullgrass, Texas bluestem, crinkleawn, wooly bunchgrass, ocotillo, beargrass, sotol, 

mimosa species, manzanita, Gregg’s dalea, California bricklebush, coralbean, skunkbush, 

turpentine bush, shrubby buckwheat, Palmer’s agave, trailing fleabane, and ferns. Plant basal 

cover ranges from 10 to 18 percent, and cover by plant litter ranges from 35 to 70 percent. 

Canopy cover ranges from 15 to 45 percent for perennial grasses, 1 to 10 percent for forbs, and 1 

to 5 percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree canopy cover is 5 to 25 percent, composed primarily 

of live oak species but including species like alligator and oneseed junipers, border piñon, 

mesquite, and Arizona rosewood. 

On moderately sloping pediments where soils have formed in place on acid igneous and 

metamorphic parent materials like granite, gneiss, schist, and rhyolite, the plant community is 

dominated by native perennial grasses and subshrubs, with lesser amounts of large shrubs, trees, 

and succulents. The predominant species include oak and juniper, black, sideoats, slender, 

sprucetop, Santa Rita, and hairy gramas, wolftail, Arizona muhly, bullgrass, plains lovegrass, 

Orcutt’s threeawn, ocotillo, false mesquite, spreading ratany, shrubby buckwheat, Gregg’s dalea, 

yerba de pasmo, Palmer’s agave, mimosa species, manzanita, skunkbush, beargrass, wire lettuce, 

penstemon, and snake cotton. Gravel and rock cover ranges from 15 to 65 percent. Plant basal 

cover ranges from 7 to 15 percent, and cover by plant litter ranges from 20 to 70 percent. Canopy 

cover ranges from 20 to 50 percent for perennial grasses, 0 to 2 percent for forbs, and 5 to 25 

percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree canopy cover is 0 to 7 percent and may include species 

like Emory oak, Arizona white oak, alligator and oneseed junipers, and mesquite. 
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On steep hillslopes, ridgetops, mesas, and moderately sloping pediments where soils have formed 

in place on basic and intermediate igneous parent materials like basalt, andesite, and welded 

volcanic tuff and ash, the plant community is dominated by native perennial grasses, with lesser 

amounts of shrubs, trees, and succulents. The predominant species include Emory oak, Arizona 

white oak, alligator juniper, sideoats grama, cane beardgrass, plains lovegrass, green sprangletop, 

bullgrass, Texas bluestem, purple and hairy gramas, curly mesquite, tanglehead, ocotillo, mimosa 

species, whiteball acacia, yerba de pasmo, shrubby buckwheat, Palmer’s agave, banana yucca, 

prickly pear, penstemon, bluedicks, vetch, and lotus. Plant basal cover ranges from 8 to 18 

percent, and cover by plant litter ranges from 25 to 70 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 15 to 

65 percent for perennial grasses, 1 to 15 percent for forbs, and 2 to 15 percent for shrubs and 

succulents. Tree canopy cover ranges from 5 to 15 percent, composed primarily of live oak and 

juniper species but including species like border piñon, mesquite, and netleaf hackberry. 

On steep hillslopes, ridgetops, and scarps where soils have formed in place on limestone parent 

materials, the plant community is dominated by large native shrubs, with an understory of native 

perennial grasses, subshrubs, and succulents. The dominant species are mountain mahogany, 

cliffrose, Mearn’s sumac, desert ceanothus, sideoats grama, wooly bunchgrass, crinkleawn, 

bullgrass, purple muhly, black grama, blue threeawn, rough tridens, tanglehead, Hall’s panic, 

New Mexico feathergrass, ocotillo, false mesquite, feather dalea, sotol, banana yucca, prickly 

pear, Parry’s agave, pectis, acalypha, blue penstemon, and ferns. Plant basal cover ranges from 5 

to 10 percent, and cover by plant litter ranges from 20 to 50 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 

15 to 40 percent for perennial grasses, 1 to 10 percent for forbs, and 10 to 30 percent for shrubs 

and succulents. Tree canopy cover ranges from 1 to 10 percent and may include species like 

alligator and oneseed juniper, Emory, Arizona white and Mexican blue oaks, mesquite, and 

rosewood. 

On moderately steep hillsides, ridgetops, and saddles where soils have formed in loamy alluvium 

from mixed sources, the plant community is dominated by native perennial grasses and 

subshrubs, with lesser amounts of succulents and trees. Palmer’s agave reaches its highest density 

on these areas. The predominant grama species are sideoats, sprucetop, and hairy grama; other 

species are wolftail, tanglehead, cane beardgrass, plains lovegrass, Texas bluestem, bullgrass, 

green sprangletop, false mesquite, yerba de pasmo, shrubby buckwheat, Palmer’s agave, talinum, 

bundleflower, rosary bean, sida, evolvulous, bluedicks, and lotus. Plant basal cover ranges from 8 

to 18 percent, and cover by plant litter ranges from 20 to 50 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 

30 to 70 percent for perennial grasses, 1 to 20 percent for forbs, and 4 to 20 percent for shrubs 

and succulents. Tree canopy cover ranges from 0 to 10 percent and may include species like 

Emory, Arizona white and Mexican blue oaks, and alligator and oneseed junipers. Most trees 

occur on north aspects.

On moderately steep hillsides where soils have formed in coarse loamy, calcareous alluvium and 

colluviums, the plant community is dominated by perennial grasses, shrubs, and succulents. Sotol 

and beargrass are dominant and reach their highest densities on these sites. Other dominant 

species are sideoats grama, black grama, slim, rough and shortleaf tridens, tanglehead, Hall’s 

panic, New Mexico feathergrass, wooly bunchgrass, crinkleawn, blue threeawn, ocotillo, false 

mesquite, range ratany, feather dalea, bahia, Hopi tea, blue penstemon, croton, scurfpea, and 

trailing four o’clock. Plant basal cover ranges from 8 to 18 percent, and cover by plant litter 

ranges from 10 to 50 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 30 to 70 percent for perennial grasses, 1 

to 5 percent for forbs, and 4 to 30 percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree canopy cover ranges 

from 0 to 5 percent and may include species like Emory, Arizona white and Mexican blue oaks, 

and alligator and oneseed junipers. Most trees occur on north aspects.
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On fan terraces, plains, and piedmonts where soils have formed in loamy alluvium from mixed 

sources, the plant community is dominated by perennial grasses and subshrubs, with lesser 

amounts of succulents and trees. The predominant grama species are blue, black, sideoats, 

sprucetop, and hairy grama; other species are wolftail, vine mesquite, cane beardgrass, plains 

lovegrass, green sprangletop, false mesquite, yerba de pasmo, shrubby buckwheat, Palmer’s 

agave, talinum, bundleflower, rosary bean, sida, evolvulous, bluedicks, and lotus. Plant basal 

cover ranges from 7 to 20 percent, and cover by plant litter ranges from 20 to 65 percent. Canopy 

cover ranges from 30 to 75 percent for perennial grasses, 1 to 5 percent for forbs, and 1 to 5 

percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree canopy cover ranges from 0 to 5 percent and includes 

species like Emory oak, Arizona white oak, and alligator and oneseed junipers. 

On fan terraces, ridgetops, and piedmonts where soils have formed in mixed, calcareous 

alluvium, the plant community is dominated by native perennial grasses, shrubs, and succulents. 

Soaptree yucca is a dominant species and reaches its highest densities on these sites. Other 

dominant species include beargrass, sotol, sideoats grama, black grama, slim tridens, plains 

muhly, Hall’s panic, New Mexico feathergrass, wooly bunchgrass, blue threeawn, ocotillo, false 

mesquite, range ratany, feather dalea, bahia, Hopi tea, blue penstemon, croton, scurfpea, and 

trailing four o’clock. Plant basal cover ranges from 5 to 17 percent, and cover by plant litter 

ranges from 10 to 40 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 20 to 45 percent for perennial grasses, 

1 to 5 percent for forbs, and 2 to 20 percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree canopy cover ranges 

from 0 to 2 percent and includes species like Emory oak, Arizona white oak, and alligator and 

oneseed junipers.

On nearly level flood plains, low stream terraces, alluvial fans, and canyon bottoms where soils 

are formed in recent alluvium from mixed parent materials, the plant community is dominated by 

trees, with lesser amounts of native perennial grasses, vines, and forbs. The predominant species 

are Arizona sycamore, Arizona white oak, Emory oak, alligator juniper, Arizona walnut, Arizona 

ash, mesquite, desert willow, netleaf hackberry, western soapberry, wild grape, sacaton, sideoats 

grama, green sprangletop, plains bristlegrass, Orcutt’s threeawn, buffalo gourd, canaigre, 

pigweed, morning-glory, ragweed, and camphor weed. Channel areas are active, with natural 

rates of erosion and sedimentation. Plant basal cover ranges from 4 to 15 percent, and cover by 

plant litter ranges from 50 to 85 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 20 to 60 percent for grasses, 

1 to 10 percent for forbs, and 0 to 5 percent for shrubs. Tree canopy cover ranges from 20 to 50 

percent. 

On nearly level flood plains, swales, and low stream terraces where soils are formed in recent 

alluvium from mixed parent materials, the plant community is dominated by native perennial 

grasses and grass-like plants and forbs. The predominant species are sacaton, sideoats grama, vine 

mesquite, mat muhly, blue grama, sedges, rushes, yerba mansa, xanthocephalum, annual 

sunflower, goldeneye, pigweed, and ragweed. Plant basal cover ranges from 20 to 40 percent, and 

cover by plant litter ranges from 25 to 65 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 30 to 85 percent for 

grasses, 0 to 10 percent for forbs, and 0 to 2 percent for shrubs. Trees can include species like 

Arizona white oak, Emory oak, and desert willow, and canopy cover ranges from 0 to 2 percent. 

Objective

1. Every 10 years, treat at least 72,500 acres of grasslands using wildland fire (planned and 

unplanned ignitions), thinning, and mastication. 
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Guidelines

1. Some patches of shrubby species, such as mesquites and yuccas, should be retained during 

fuel reduction projects on sites where they are appropriate under the desired conditions. 

2. Vegetation treatments in semidesert grasslands should provide for maintaining a sustainable 

population of paniculate agaves. 

Interior Chaparral

General Description

Interior chaparral occurs throughout the Coronado National Forest as a discontinuous band of 

vegetation. The majority of this vegetation type exists at mid-elevations (3,000 to 6,000 feet). It is 

bordered and intermixed with Madrean encinal woodland at the upper elevations and semidesert 

grassland or Sonoran desert at the lower elevations. Shrub live oak and manzanita shrubs are the 

most common species within interior chaparral; however, a wide range of other shrubs and trees 

are also found. Animal species occurring in interior chaparral include American black bear, 

javelina, cliff chipmunk, white-throated woodrat, scrub jay, rufous-sided towhee, Arizona 

alligator lizard, and Sonora mountain kingsnake. 

Based on projections of future climate change for the region, interior chaparral ecosystems are 

susceptible to decreases in plant productivity from water limitations and increased heat, increases 

in insect attacks, colonization by invasive species, longer and more severe fire seasons, and 

altered frequency, severity, timing, and spatial extent of disturbance events (such as droughts, 

flash floods, landslides, and windstorms). 

Desired Conditions

Landscape Scale 

The interior chaparral varies from widely scattered pockets within grasslands and woodlands to 

more extensive areas on steep mountain slopes. Species composition and dominance vary across 

the broad range of soils and topography, but are dominated by shrubs, including one or some of 

the following: shrub live oak, birchleaf mountain mahogany, pointleaf manzanita, desert 

ceanothus, pringle manzanita, and yellow leaf silktassel. The canopy is nearly closed in about 90 

percent of the community. Where it is more open, there is a grass and forb component, including 

native species found in the adjacent grassland and woodland communities. Ground cover consists 

primarily of shrub litter covering 35 to 45 percent of the soil surface. Natural disturbances 

provide landscape diversity, wildlife habitat, and maintain a variety of vegetation densities and 

age classes. Fire occurs at intervals of 20 to 100 years, and is usually stand replacing in nature.

Fine Scale

Soil condition indicators (35 to 45 percent of total ground cover provided by litter and plant basal 

area and no signs of compaction or accelerated erosion) signify that soil function is being 

sustained and soil is functioning properly and normally. The ability of soil to maintain resource 

values and sustain outputs is high. Vegetation structure in chaparral stands immediately adjacent 

to high-risk components of the wildland-urban interface are more open with widely scattered 

groups of shrubs and trees. Typical fire behavior is dramatically reduced as a result of these 

conditions. 
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Objective

1. Treat at least 5,000 acres of interior chaparral every 10 years using wildland fire (planned and 

unplanned ignitions) and mechanical treatments.

Guideline

1. Vegetation treatments in interior chaparral should provide for maintaining a sustainable 

population of paniculate agaves. 

Madrean Encinal Woodland

General Description

Madrean encinal, or oak, woodland occurs throughout the Coronado National Forest 

discontinuously distributed in the mountain foothills at elevations ranging from 3,600 to 6,500 

feet. These woodlands grade into grasslands at lower elevations and pine-oak woodlands at higher 

elevations. Emory oak is present throughout the range of Madrean encinal; however, Mexican 

blue oak and Arizona white oak are the most common oak species. Alligator and single-seed 

junipers are also common. Madrean encinal woodland plant species (such as manzanita, 

silktassel, ceanothus, skunkbush sumac, catclaw acacia, mountain mahogany, and rosewood) are 

common understory shrubs. Warm season perennial bunchgrasses (such as sideoats grama, blue 

grama, hairy grama, plains lovegrass, deer grass, and longtongue muhly) dominate the understory. 

Animal species occurring in Madrean encinal woodland include Coues’ white-tailed deer, , 

yellow-nosed cotton rat, lesser long-nosed bat, white-nosed coati, acorn woodpecker, Mexican 

jay, hepatic tanager, Clark’s spiny lizard, Gila spotted whiptail, eastern patch-nosed snake, green 

ratsnake, rock rattlesnake, Arizona eyed click beetle, and great purple hairstreak. Based on 

projections of future climate change for the region, Madrean encinal woodland ecosystems are 

susceptible to decreases in plant productivity from water limitations and increased heat, increases 

in insect attacks, colonization by invasive species, longer and more severe fire seasons, and 

altered frequency, severity, timing, and spatial extent of disturbance events (such as droughts, 

flash floods, landslides, and windstorms). 

Desired Conditions

Landscape Scale

The Madrean encinal woodland is dominated by an open stand of oaks (5 to 25 percent) with 

denser stands of oaks on north-facing slopes and in drainages (25 to 50 percent canopy). Species 

composition of the overstory is dominated by Emory oak, Mexican blue oak, Arizona white oak, 

gray oak, alligator juniper, and single-seed juniper. Ground cover is dominated by grasses such as 

threeawns, blue grama, sideoats grama, Rothrock grama, Arizona cottontop, plains lovegrass, 

curly-mesquite, green sprangletop, deergrass, longtongue muhly, or Texas bluestem. These native, 

perennial, generally warm-season bunchgrasses in the understory create a wide overlap with the 

grasslands. Additional ground cover consists primarily of tree and grass litter covering 10 percent 

of the soil surface in the open stands to 40 percent of the soil surface in the denser stands. Fires 

occur on average every 3 to 7 years. Fires are of low and mixed severity and occur between April 

and July, resulting in an overstory canopy of less than 20 percent on about 60 percent of the 

landscape.
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Declining trees provide snags and coarse woody debris. Snags and coarse woody debris are well 

distributed throughout the landscape. Logs (greater than 6-inch diameter at midpoint and more 

than 2 feet long) average 3 logs per acre within the forested area of the landscape. Coarse woody 

debris, including downed logs, ranges from 1 to 5 tons per acre.

Mid-Scale

On steep hillslopes, ridgetops, pediments, and scarps where soils have formed in place on 

limestone parent materials, the native plant community is dominated by trees and large shrubs 

with an understory of perennial grasses, subshrubs, and succulents. The dominant species are 

mountain mahogany, alligator juniper, Emory oak, Arizona white oak, border piñon, cliffrose, 

manzanita, Mearn’s sumac, wavy-leaf oak, desert ceanothus, sideoats and hairy gramas, piñon 

ricegrass, bullgrass, purple muhly, rough tridens, cliff muhly, New Mexico feathergrass, 

southwestern stipa, false mesquite, feather dalea, sotol, banana and Schott’s yuccas, Parry’s 

agave, bouvardia, hairy goldaster, and ferns. Plant basal cover ranges from 2 to 10 percent, and 

cover by plant litter ranges from 20 to 50 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 5 to 40 percent for 

perennial grasses, 1 to 5 percent for forbs, and 1 to 10 percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree and 

large shrub canopy cover ranges from 10 to 40 percent and includes species like mountain 

mahogany, border piñon, and alligator juniper. Other species occur in lesser amounts, such as 

Emory oak, Arizona white oak, oneseed, Utah and redberry junipers, and Arizona rosewood. 

Mountain mahogany forms treelike woodlands on southern exposures with more oak species on 

cooler exposures. Mixed piñon-juniper woodlands dominate on pediments and steep north 

exposures at higher elevations. Small canyon inclusions in this bedrock unit have sufficient extra 

moisture for riparian tree, shrub, grass, and forb species to persist. These areas are the conduit 

that provides for the safe capture and release of sediment and water.

On fan terraces, plains, and moderate to steep slopes where soils have formed in loamy alluvium 

from mixed sources; soils are old, loamy to clayey, deep, and slightly alkaline to slightly acid in 

reaction. The potential native plant community here is dominated by trees, with lesser amounts of 

perennial grasses, forbs, shrubs, and succulents. The predominant species are Emory and Arizona 

white oaks, manzanita, beargrass, Schott’s yucca, blue, sideoats, and hairy gramas, Orcutt’s 

threeawn, bullgrass, Texas bluestem, cane beardgrass, plains lovegrass, green sprangletop, 

crinkleawn, piñon ricegrass, prairie junegrass, bottlebrush squirreltail, false mesquite, yerba de 

pasmo, shrubby buckwheat, Palmer’s agave, bouvardia, psoralea, rosary bean, trailing fleabane, 

and lotus. Plant basal cover ranges from 2 to 10 percent and cover by plant litter ranges from 20 

to 75 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 5 to 50 percent for perennial grasses, 1 to 5 percent for 

forbs, and 0 to 5 percent for shrubs and succulents. Tree canopy cover ranges from 10 to 45 

percent, consisting primarily of Emory oak, Arizona white oak, and alligator juniper. 

On nearly level flood plains, low stream terraces, alluvial fans, and canyon bottoms where soils 

are formed in recent alluvium from mixed parent materials, the plant community is dominated by 

trees, with lesser amounts of perennial grasses, vines, shrubs, and forbs. The predominant tree 

species are Arizona sycamore, Arizona cypress, Arizona white oak, Emory oak, grey oak, 

alligator juniper, Arizona walnut, Arizona ash, madrone, bigtooth maple, alder, ponderosa pine, 

Apache pine, Chihuahuan pine, and Douglas-fir. Understory species include wild grape, Virginia 

creeper, thimbleberry, redosier dogwood, Godding’s yew-leaf, coyote and arroyo willows, poison 

ivy, Arizona wildrye, deergrass, sideoats grama, bulb panic, green sprangletop, Orcutt’s threeawn, 

sedges, rushes and bullrushes, wood sorrel, geranium, tickclover, goldenrod, and meadow rue. 

Channel areas are active with both erosion and sedimentation. Streambanks are well protected by 

dense stands of trees, shrubs, and vines. In places, these areas have perennial streamflow. In other 

areas, flows are intermittent, but all areas receive extra water in the form of runoff from adjacent 
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35

watersheds and have streamflow in the fall and spring for prolonged periods. Plant basal cover 

ranges from 4 to 10 percent, and cover by plant litter ranges from 30 to 65 percent. Canopy cover 

ranges from 5 to 40 percent for grasses, 1 to 10 percent for forbs, and 0 to 5 percent for shrubs. 

Tree canopy cover ranges from 30 to 70 percent. Tree canopy in dry or intermittent stretches is 

dominated by sycamore, pine, cypress, juniper, and oak species. Tree canopy in perennial 

streamflow areas is dominated by sycamore, walnut, ash, willow, maple, alder, and dogwood. 

On gently rolling pediments to steep hillslopes and ridgetops where soils have formed in place on 

igneous and metamorphic parent materials like granite, rhyolite, andesite, gneiss, schist, and 

quartzite, the plant community is dominated by trees, including Emory oak and Arizona white 

oak. Other trees include grey oak, border piñon, and oneseed and alligator junipers, with an 

understory of perennial grasses and forbs, subshrubs, shrubs, and succulents. The primary 

understory species include sideoats grama, hairy grama, cane beardgrass, plains lovegrass, 

bullgrass, Texas bluestem, crinkleawn, wooly bunchgrass, Orcutt’s threeawn, piñon ricegrass, 

prairie junegrass, beargrass, Schott’s yucca, mimosa species, manzanita, Toumey oak, turbinella 

oak, silktassel, California bricklebush, coralbean, skunkbush, shrubby buckwheat, Palmer’s 

agave, trailing fleabane, bouvardia, blue curls, and ferns. Plant basal cover ranges from 5 to 10 

percent, and cover by plant litter ranges from 35 to 70 percent. Canopy cover ranges from 5 to 45 

percent for perennial grasses, 1 to 10 percent for forbs, and 1 to 5 percent for shrubs and 

succulents. Tree canopy cover ranges from 10 to 50 percent and consists primarily of Emory and 

Arizona white oaks. Understory species and density are unaffected by tree canopies from 10 to 35 

percent, but are limited as tree canopy cover approaches 50 percent. Small canyon inclusions 

have sufficient extra moisture for riparian tree, shrub, grass, and forb species to persist there. 

These areas are the conduit to provide the safe capture and release of sediment and water in these 

mountain systems.

Fine Scale

Within patches, single large trees or small groups of trees are widely spaced between large 

expanses of grasses and shrubs. Total ground cover by litter and plant basal area is 15 to 65 

percent, and the lack of signs of compaction or accelerated erosion indicates that the soil is 

functioning properly. The ability of soil to maintain resource values and sustain outputs is high. 

Some large-diameter trees, snags, and shrubs are retained following fuel treatments, fuelwood 

gathering, and prescribed fire. 

Objective

1. Treat at least 367,000 acres of Madrean encinal woodlands using wildland fire (planned and 

unplanned ignitions) and mechanical treatments (thinning and mastication) every 10 years.

Guidelines

1. Fuel reduction and habitat restoration projects should leave clusters of live trees, snags, and 

shrubs to benefit species that require these structures for breeding, feeding, shelter, and other 

habitat needs. 

2. Vegetation treatments in Madrean encinal woodland should provide for maintaining a 

sustainable population of paniculate agaves.
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Madrean Pine-Oak Woodland

General Description

Madrean pine-oak woodlands are bounded by Madrean encinal woodlands, plains, and savannah 

grasslands at the lowest elevations. The upper elevations are bounded by ponderosa pineevergreen shrub and dry mixed-conifer communities. Elevations range from 6,000 feet to over 

8,000 feet. Annual precipitation averages from 20 to over 30 inches. Some plant species occurring 

in woodland communities include sideoats grama, blue grama, hairy grama, plains lovegrass, 

bullgrass, deergrass, longtongue muhly, mountain muhly, Texas bluestem, crinkleawn, prairie 

junegrass, piñon ricegrass, bouvardia, silktassel, manzanita, Fendler’s buckbrush, Parry’s and 

Palmer’s agave, beargrass, sotol, mountain mahogany, pine, fir, oak, piñon, and juniper species. 

Ground cover consists primarily of organic layers (duff) of pine needles and/or oak leaves and 

twigs. Gravel, cobble, and rock cover ranges from 20 to 40 percent. Bedrock outcrop ranges from 

5 to 40 percent of the surface. Disturbances in the Madrean pine-oak woodland community 

include fire, insects, and diseases. Fires are typically of low and mixed severity causing frequent, 

larger scale disturbances. Insects are generally small-scale disturbance agents, but have the 

potential to cause large-scale disturbances. Dwarf mistletoes, parasitic plants found on several 

coniferous species, are chronic disturbance agents. Animal species occurring in Madrean pine-oak 

woodland communities include Coues’ white-tailed deer, Arizona gray squirrel, Chiricahua 

squirrel, common hog-nosed skunk, Gould’s wild turkey, painted redstart, acorn woodpecker, redfaced warbler, whiskered screech-owl, mountain skink, striped plateau lizard, ridge-nosed 

rattlesnake, Sonoran mountain kingsnake, and Huachuca giant skipper. The acorn woodpecker is 

a management indicator species for this vegetation community. Based on projections of future 

climate change for the region, Madrean pine-oak woodland ecosystems are susceptible to 

decreases in plant productivity from water limitations and increased heat, increases in insect 

attacks, colonization by invasive species, longer and more severe fire seasons, and altered 

frequency, severity, timing, and spatial extent of disturbance events (such as droughts, flash 

floods, landslides, and windstorms).

Desired Conditions

Landscape Scale 

In Madrean pine-oak woodland communities, the predominant species are native trees. There is 

moderate to dense vegetation cover that includes mid-sized and short perennial grasses and forbs, 

subshrubs, shrubs, and trees. The Madrean pine-oak woodland varies from generally open (with 

large trees providing 10 percent canopy with a grass understory) to groups of 50 percent canopy. 

Approximately 30 percent of the area is in the open condition; the remainder is closed. The 

predominant tree species are Arizona white oak, Emory oak, silverleaf oak, Apache pine, and 

Chihuahua pine. The oaks are generally tree form and do not dominate the community. Other 

commonly occurring trees include alligator juniper, Arizona madrone, Arizona cypress, and 

border piñon. A shrub layer is present and often contains species such as beargrass, littleleaf 

sumac, evergreen sumac, yellow leaf silktassel, birchleaf buckthorn, and ceanothus species. 

Grasses are common, including long tongue muhly and bullgrass. Ground cover is sufficient to 

carry fire through the landscape. Fire is of mixed severity and occurs at variable intervals, 

dependent on conditions within the community and within adjacent vegetation types. Plant basal 

area ranges from 0 to 10 percent of the soil surface. Plant litter occupies 20 to 90 percent of the 

soil surface. Litter and plant cover values represent the range from after disturbance events (like 

fire or drought) to the time at which site equilibrium is reached. There are no signs of compaction 

or accelerated erosion. 
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Declining trees provide snags and coarse woody debris. Snags and coarse woody debris are well 

distributed throughout the landscape. Downed logs (greater than 10-inches diameter at midpoint 

and more than 8 feet long) average 3 logs per acre within the forested area of the landscape. 

Coarse woody debris, including downed logs, ranges from 3 to 10 tons per acre. 

The ability of soil to maintain resource values and sustain outputs is high. Native vegetation 

structure and composition provide habitat for animal species that live in this vegetation 

community. Traditional food and material plants thrive here, including pine, fir, oak, walnut, 

piñon, juniper, manzanita, skunkbush, agave, yucca, beargrass, monarda (oregano), and terragon. 

Mid-Scale

At elevations between 6,000 and 7,400 feet, the plant community is dominated by trees, primarily 

silverleaf oak and lesser amounts of alligator juniper and Arizona white oak. Other trees include 

Emory oak, grey oak, border piñon, and Arizona, Apache and Chihuahuan pines, with a sparse 

understory of perennial grasses, forbs, and shrubs. The main large shrubs include turbinella oak, 

netleaf oak, Toumey oak, manzanita, silktassel, narrowleaf hoptree, and mountain mahogany. 

Perennial forbs and grasses occur in minor amounts and include bullgrass, longtongue muhly, 

sideoats grama, trailing fleabane, bouvardia, verbena, and ferns. Plant basal cover ranges from 3 

to 5 percent. Cover by plant litter (primarily oak leaves and twigs) ranges from 55 to 90 percent. 

Canopy cover ranges from 0 to 5 percent for perennial grasses, 0 to 5 percent for forbs, and 1 to 

15 percent for large shrubs. Tree canopy cover ranges from 50 to 70 percent, consisting primarily 

of silverleaf oak. The life form of silverleaf oak is virtually all multistem, resulting from repeated 

fires and coppice sprouting. Pine species come into this plant community on cooler northern 

aspects in long fire-free intervals. At elevations between 6,500 and 8,900 feet, the plant 

community is dominated by Arizona pine, Apache pine, Chihuahuan pine, Arizona white oak, and 

Gambel oak. Perennial grasses in the understory plant community include longtongue muhly, 

mountain muhly, bullgrass, screwleaf muhly, pine dropseed, Arizona fescue, piñon ricegrass, 

nodding brome, muttongrass, prairie junegrass, and Pringle needlegrass. Perennial forbs include 

sneezeweed, columbine, geranium, wood sorrel, verbena, meadow rue, goosegrass, gentian, mule 

ears, and groundsel species. Common shrubs include netleaf oak, Fendler’s buckbrush, Palmer’s 

oak, New Mexico locust, turbinella oak, creeping mahonia, mountain snowberry, flame sumac, 

wild rose, and wax currant. Plant basal cover ranges from 5 to 10 percent. Cover by plant litter 

ranges from 40 to 80 percent and includes both grass litter and a duff of pine needles. Canopy 

cover ranges from 5 to 25 percent for perennial grasses, 0 to 5 percent for forbs, and 0 to 10 

percent for large shrubs. Tree canopy cover ranges from 20 to 60 percent, consisting primarily of 

pines. 

Fine Scale

Patches of single, large trees or small groups of trees are widely spaced between large expanses of 

grasses and shrubs. Total ground cover by litter and plant basal area ranges from 20 to 100 

percent, and there are no signs of compaction or accelerated erosion. The soil is functioning 

properly, and the ability of soil to maintain resource values and sustain outputs is high. 

Objective

1. Treat at least 25,000 acres of Madrean pine-oak woodlands using wildland fire (planned and 

unplanned ignitions), prescribed cutting, and mastication every10 years. 
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Guidelines

1. Vegetation treatments in Madrean pine-oak woodlands should provide for maintaining a 

sustainable population of paniculate agaves.

2. Clusters of trees, shrubs, and snags should be maintained in treatment areas to benefit species 

that require these structures for breeding, feeding, shelter, and other needs. 

3. Slash piles should be burned in locations and at times that will minimize scorching of 

adjacent trees and shrubs.

4. An uneven-aged forest management approach should be emphasized; however, both evenaged and uneven-aged systems may be used where appropriate to provide variation in 

existing stand structure and species diversity.

5. Surveys for reforestation needs should be completed within 2 years following a wildfire or 

other natural disturbance greater than 2,000 acres. 

6. Natural regeneration of disturbed areas should be allowed where feasible unless the following 

circumstances exist: (1) endangered species habitat needs to be restored, (2) the time period 

of recovery is deemed excessive due to the large size of deforested area and/or lack of nearby 

seed sources, or (3) there is concern for loss of site capacity from soils loss or extreme 

competition with early-seral species.

Management Approaches

1. Maintaining a seed inventory for each major conifer species based on a seed collection plan 

approved by the regional geneticist. 

2. Developing an overall framework for economic analysis to determine the types of 

reforestation investments (treatments) needed, determining the least costly manner of 

executing a treatment, and determining priorities when funding prevents treatment of all 

acres.

3. Striving to complete identified reforestation projects within 10 years.

Ponderosa Pine-Evergreen Shrub

General Description

The ponderosa pine-evergreen shrub ecosystem generally occurs as a discontinuous band of 

vegetation at elevations ranging from approximately 5,000 to 10,000 feet. This community is 

dominated by ponderosa and Arizona pines and is interspersed in the transition between the 

Madrean pine-oak woodland and mixed-conifer vegetation types. Ponderosa pine-evergreen shrub 

has two subclasses: one with a more continuous layer of perennial grasses and a relatively minor 

shrub component, and one with an understory of primarily evergreen shrubs (including 

manzanita, turbinella oak, sumac species, and mountain mahogany species). Disturbances in the 

ponderosa pine-evergreen shrub community include fire, insects, and diseases. Fires are typically 

of low and mixed severity causing frequent, larger scale disturbances. Insects are generally smallscale disturbance agents, but have the potential to cause large-scale disturbances. Dwarf 

mistletoes, parasitic plants found on several coniferous species, are chronic disturbance agents. 

Animal species occurring in this community include North American porcupine, Abert’s squirrel 

(nonnative), striped skunk, white-breasted nuthatch, Gould’s wild turkey, Grace’s warbler, 
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flammulated owl, Yarrow’s spiny lizard, Arizona black rattlesnake, twin-spotted rattlesnake, and 

Chiricahua white butterfly. Under changing climate conditions, ponderosa pine-evergreen shrub 

ecosystems are susceptible to decreases in plant productivity from water limitations and increased 

heat, increases in insect attacks, colonization by invasive species, longer and more severe fire 

seasons, and altered frequency, severity, timing, and spatial extent of disturbance events (such as

droughts, flash floods, landslides, and windstorms). High-risk occurrences could include 

uncharacteristically intense wildfire, increased rate of insect or disease attack due to warming 

temperatures, and increasing challenges to regeneration of ponderosa pine, especially on warmer, 

drier areas such as south-facing slopes.

Desired Conditions

Landscape Scale

At the landscape scale, the ponderosa pine-evergreen shrub is composed of trees from structural 

stages ranging from young to old. Forest appearance is variable but generally uneven-aged and 

open; areas of even-aged structure are present. The forest arrangement is in small clumps and 

groups of trees interspersed within variably sized openings of moderate to high density shrubs 

and limited grass cover. Openings typically range from 10 percent in more productive sites to 70 

percent in less productive sites. Size, shape, number of trees per group, and number of groups per 

area are variable across the landscape. All structural stages of oak are present, with old trees 

occurring as dominant individuals or in small groups. Denser tree conditions exist in some 

locations, such as north-facing slopes and canyon bottoms. 

Old growth occurs throughout the landscape, generally in small areas as individual old-growth 

components, or as clumps of old growth. Old-growth components include old trees, dead trees 

(snags), downed wood (coarse woody debris), and structural diversity. The location of old growth 

shifts on the landscape over time as a result of succession and disturbance (tree growth and 

mortality).

The ponderosa pine-evergreen shrub is composed predominantly of vigorous trees and shrubs, but 

declining trees and shrubs are a component. Declining trees provide snags and coarse woody 

debris. Snags and coarse woody debris are well distributed throughout the landscape. Ponderosa 

pine snags are typically 18 inches or greater diameter at breast height and average 1 to 2 snags per 

acre; large oak snags (greater than 10 inches diameter) are a well-distributed component. Downed 

logs (greater than 12-inches diameter at midpoint and more than 8 feet long) average 3 logs per 

acre within the forested area of the landscape. Coarse woody debris, including downed logs, 

ranges from 3 to 10 tons per acre. 

The composition, structure, and function of vegetation conditions are resilient to the frequency, 

extent, and severity of disturbances and climate variability. The landscape is a functioning 

ecosystem that contains all its components, processes, and conditions that result from natural 

disturbances (such as insects, diseases, fire, and wind), including old growth. Dwarf mistletoe 

occurs in less than 15 percent of trees in uneven-aged forest structures and less than 25 percent in 

even-aged forest structures. Limited grasses, forbs, and a moderate density of shrubs, needlecast, 

and small trees maintain the natural fire regime.

Organic ground cover and herbaceous vegetation provide protection of soil, moisture infiltration, 

and contribute to plant and animal diversity and ecosystem function. Low- to mixed-severity fires 

(fire regimes I and III) are characteristic in this type. Natural and human-caused disturbances are 

sufficient to maintain desired overall tree density, structure, species composition, coarse woody 

debris, and nutrient cycling. 
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Mid-Scale

At the mid-scale, the ponderosa pine-evergreen shrub community is characterized by variation in 

the size and number of tree groups, depending on elevation, soil type, aspect, and site 

productivity. The more biologically productive sites contain more trees per group and more 

groups per area. Openings typically range from 10 percent in the more productive sites to 70 

percent in the less productive sites. Tree density within forested areas generally ranges from 20 to 

80 square feet basal area per acre.

The mosaic of tree groups comprises a mix of even-aged and uneven-aged patches with all age 

classes and structural stages present. The mix of natural disturbances sustains the overall age and 

structural distribution.

Fires are of low to mixed severity, burning on the forest floor as well as in the overstory. Crown 

fires occur in small patches.

Forest structure in the wildland-urban interface may have smaller, more widely spaced groups of 

trees than in the areas that are not wildland-urban interface. There are no stand-replacement fires 

in the wildland-urban interface. As ignitions occur, flame lengths will typically be less than 4 feet. 

Forest stands are able to withstand and recover from periodic wildland fires. 

Forest conditions in goshawk post-fledging family areas are similar to general forest conditions 

except these forests contain 10 to 20 percent higher basal area in the mid-age to old tree groups 

than goshawk foraging areas and the general forest. Goshawk nest areas have forest conditions 

that are multi-aged but are dominated by large trees with relatively denser canopies than other 

areas in the ponderosa pine-evergreen shrub type.

Fine Scale

Trees typically occur individually or in small groups in which they are variably spaced, with 

some tight clumps. Crowns of trees within mid- to old-age groups are interlocking or nearly 

interlocking. Openings in between tree groups are variably shaped and comprised of shrubs, 

forbs, and grasses. Some openings may contain a high density of shrubs and/or individual trees, 

including large oaks. Trees within groups are of similar or variable ages and may contain species 

other than ponderosa pine. The size of tree groups is typically less than 0.5 acre. Occasionally 

ponderosa pine occurs with a bunchgrass understory instead of a shrub-dominated understory.

Objective

1. Every 10 years, treat at least 12,500 acres of ponderosa pine-evergreen shrub using wildland 

fire (planned and unplanned ignitions) and mechanical treatments (prescribed cutting and 

mastication). 

Guidelines

1. .Vegetation treatments reflect the characteristic structure stage proportions in order to provide 

continuous representation of old growth and all structure stages on the landscape.

2. Slash piles from harvest activities should be burned in locations and at times that will 

minimize scorching of adjacent trees and shrubs.

3. Fuel reduction or fuelwood gathering projects should retain some large-diameter trees, snags 

and shrubs, and these should be protected well enough from scorching to survive subsequent 

burn treatments.
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4. Surveys for reforestation needs should be completed within 2 years following a wildfire or 

other natural disturbance greater than 2,000 acres. 

5. Natural regeneration of disturbed areas should be allowed where feasible unless the following 

circumstances exist: (1) endangered species habitat needs to be restored, (2) the time period 

of recovery is deemed excessive due to the large size of deforested area and/or lack of nearby 

seed sources, or (3) there is concern for loss of site capacity from soils loss or extreme 

competition with early-seral species.

Management Approaches

1. Maintaining a seed inventory for each major conifer species based on a seed collection plan 

approved by the regional geneticist. 

2. Developing an overall framework for economic analysis to determine the types of 

reforestation investments (treatments) needed, determining the least costly manner of 

executing a treatment, and determining priorities when funding prevents treatment of all 

acres. 

3. Striving to complete identified reforestation needs within 10 years. 

Mixed-Conifer Forest

General Description

The mixed-conifer forest type is an upper elevation coniferous forest composed of multiple 

species. Douglas-fir is common throughout this type. Composed of both wet and dry mixedconifer forest types, this vegetation community generally occurs at elevations ranging from 

approximately 5,500 to 10,000 feet. The mixed-conifer vegetation community is transitional, 

merging with the ponderosa pine-evergreen shrub community at lower elevations and with 

spruce-fir forest at higher elevations in the Pinaleño Mountains. As mixed conifer transitions from 

dry to wet conditions along elevational gradients and varies by topographic aspect, ponderosa 

pine and Gambel oak become less abundant while aspen, white fir, and southwestern white pine 

become more abundant. The mixed-conifer forest typically occurs with understories of grasses, 

forbs, shrubs, and young trees. On the Coronado National Forest, the transition between dry and 

wet mixed-conifer forests is gradual and difficult to define both on the ground and through aerial 

mapping techniques. The distinction between wet and dry mixed-conifer is typically determined 

through both a shift in dominant seral species and disturbance regime. Disturbances in the mixedconifer community include fire, insects, diseases, and wind. On drier sites, fire is the primary 

disturbance agent, which historically occurred frequently. Fire is generally not limited by lack of 

fuel connectivity or high fuel moistures. Insects are generally small-scale disturbance agents, but 

have the potential to cause large-scale disturbances. Dwarf mistletoes, parasitic plants found on 

several coniferous species, are chronic disturbance agents. 

Conversely, on wetter sites, fire is more limited by higher fuel moistures, occurring as larger 

scale, less frequent disturbances usually during periods of long-term drought. Historically on the 

Coronado National Forest, insects, diseases, and wind have caused frequent, small-scale 

disturbances. However, elsewhere in the West, insects cause large-scale disturbances in wet 

mixed-conifer. Animal species occurring in the mixed-conifer vegetation community include 

Mount Graham red squirrel (Pinaleño Mountains only), American black bear, Allen’s big-eared 

bat, long-legged myotis, northern goshawk, Mexican spotted owl, brown creeper, broad-tailed 

hummingbird, Madrean alligator lizard, greater short-horned lizard, wandering gartersnake, twin-
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spotted rattlesnake, pine satyr, and Weidemeyer’s admiral butterfly. The Mexican spotted owl is a 

management indicator species for both the wet and dry mixed-conifer communities. Based on 

projections of future climate change for the region, mixed-conifer forest ecosystems are 

susceptible to decreases in plant productivity from water limitations and increased heat, increases 

in frequency, intensity and severity of insect attacks, colonization by invasive species, longer and 

more severe fire seasons, and altered frequency, severity, timing, and spatial extent of disturbance 

events (such as droughts, flash floods, landslides, windstorms, and ice storms). Extended drought 

from delayed monsoons or earlier onset of spring conditions could lead to increased tree 

mortality, resulting in increasing risk of intense wildfire.

Dry Mixed-Conifer Forest

General Description

This forest type is transitional with increasing elevation between ponderosa pine-evergreen shrub 

and wet mixed-conifer forest types and generally occurs at elevations ranging from approximately 

5,500 to 9,500 feet. The dry mixed-conifer forest characterizes the majority of the greater mixedconifer community, representing approximately 88 percent of the Coronado National Forest’s 

mixed-conifer forest. Dry mixed-conifer forests are dominated by tree species such as ponderosa 

pine, southwestern white pine, Douglas-fir, and Gambel oak, with a lesser and localized presence 

of aspen, white fir, corkbark fir, and Engelmann spruce. This forest type typically occurs with 

understories of grasses, forbs, shrubs, and young trees. Fires occur frequently and are generally 

not limited by lack of fuel connectivity or high fuel moistures. Insects are generally small-scale

disturbance agents, but have the potential to cause large-scale disturbances. Dwarf mistletoes, 

parasitic plants found on several coniferous species, are chronic disturbance agents.

Desired Conditions: Dry Mixed-Conifer

Landscape Scale 

At the landscape scale, the dry mixed-conifer type is a mosaic of forest conditions composed of 

structural stages ranging from young to old trees. Forest appearance is variable, but generally 

uneven-aged and open; occasional patches of even-aged structure are present. The forest 

arrangement is in small clumps and groups of trees interspersed within variably sized openings of 

grass, forb, and shrub vegetation associations similar to historic patterns. Openings typically 

range from 10 percent in more productive sites to 50 percent in less productive sites. Size, shape, 

number of trees per group, and number of groups per area are variable across the landscape. 

Where they naturally occur, groups or patches of aspen and all structural stages of oak are 

present. Denser tree conditions exist in some locations, such as north-facing slopes and canyon 

bottoms. 

Old growth occurs throughout the landscape, generally in small areas as individual old-growth 

components, or as clumps of old growth. Old-growth components include old trees, dead trees 

(snags), downed wood (coarse woody debris), and structural diversity. The location of old growth 

shifts on the landscape over time as a result of succession and disturbance (tree growth and 

mortality).

The dry mixed-conifer type is composed predominantly of vigorous trees, but declining trees 

provide snags and coarse woody debris. Snags and coarse woody debris are well distributed 

throughout the landscape. Snags are typically 18 inches or greater diameter and average 3 per 

acre. Downed logs (those greater than 12 inches in diameter at midpoint and more than 8 feet 
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long) average 3 per acre within the forested area of the landscape. Coarse woody debris, 

including downed logs, ranges from 5 to 15 tons per acre. 

The composition, structure, and function of vegetative conditions are resilient to the frequency, 

extent, severity of disturbances, and to climate variability. The landscape is a functioning 

ecosystem that contains all its components, processes, and conditions that result from endemic 

levels of disturbances (such as insects, diseases, fire, and wind), including snags, downed logs, 

and old trees. Grasses, forbs, shrubs, needle cast (fine fuels), and small trees maintain the natural 

fire regime. Organic ground cover and herbaceous vegetation provide protection of soil, moisture 

infiltration, and contribute to plant and animal diversity and to ecosystem function. Frequent, 

low-severity fires (fire regime I) are characteristic in this type, including throughout goshawk 

home ranges. Natural and human-caused disturbances are sufficient to maintain desired overall 

tree density, structure, species composition, coarse woody debris, and nutrient cycling. 

Mid-Scale

At the mid-scale, the dry mixed-conifer type is characterized by variation in the size and number 

of tree groups, depending on elevation, soil type, aspect, and site productivity. The more 

biologically productive sites contain more trees per group and more groups per area. Openings 

typically range from 10 percent in more productive sites to 50 percent in less productive sites. 

Tree density within forested areas generally ranges from 30 to 100 square feet basal area per acre. 

The mosaic of tree groups generally consists of an uneven-aged forest with all age classes and 

structural stages. Occasionally, small patches (generally less than 50 acres) of even-aged forest 

structure are present. Disturbances sustain the overall age and structural distribution. 

Fires burn primarily on the forest floor and do not spread between tree groups as crown fire.

Forest structure in the wildland-urban interface has smaller and more widely spaced groups of 

trees than in the areas that are not wildland-urban interface. 

Forest conditions in goshawk post-fledging family areas are similar to general forest conditions 

except these forests contain 10 to 20 percent higher basal area in mid-aged to old tree groups than 

in goshawk foraging areas and in the general forest. Goshawk nest areas have forest conditions 

that are multi-aged but are dominated by large trees with relatively denser canopies than other 

areas in the dry mixed-conifer type.

Fine Scale 

Trees typically occur in irregularly shaped groups and are variably spaced with some tight 

clumps. Crowns of trees within the mid-aged to old groups are interlocking or nearly interlocking. 

Openings surrounding tree groups are variably shaped and composed of a grass, forb, and shrub 

mix. Some openings contain individual trees or snags. Trees within groups are of similar or 

variable ages and represent one or more species. Tree groups typically are less than 1 acre in size. 

Groups at the mid-age to old stages consist of 2 to approximately 50 trees per group. 

Objective

1. Treat at least 13,800 acres of dry mixed conifer using wildland fire (planned and unplanned 

ignitions) and prescribed cutting every 10 years. 

Guidelines

1. Vegetation treatments reflect the characteristic structure stage proportions in order to provide 

continuous representation of old growth and all structure stages on the landscape. 
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2. Slash piles should be burned in locations and at times that will minimize scorching of 

adjacent trees and shrubs. 

3. Fuel reduction or firewood gathering projects should retain some large diameter trees, snags 

and shrubs, and these should be protected well enough from scorching to survive subsequent 

burn treatments.

4. Surveys for reforestation needs should be completed within 2 years following a wildfire or 

other natural disturbance greater than 2,000 acres. 

5. Natural regeneration of disturbed areas should be allowed where feasible unless the following 

circumstances exist: (1) endangered species habitat needs to be restored, (2) the time period 

of recovery is deemed excessive due to the large size of deforested area and/or lack or nearby 

seed sources, or (3) there is concern for loss of site capacity from soils loss or extreme 

competition with early-seral species.

Management Approaches

1. Maintaining a seed inventory for each major conifer species based on a seed collection plan 

approved by the regional geneticist. 

2. Developing an overall framework for economic analysis to determine the types of 

reforestation investments (treatments) needed, determining the least costly manner of 

executing a treatment, and determining priorities when funding prevents treatment of all 

acres.

3. Striving to complete identified reforestation needs within 10 years. 

Wet Mixed-Conifer Forest

General Description

The wet mixed-conifer forest type generally occurs at elevations ranging from approximately 

5,500 to 10,000 feet, representing only 12 percent of the greater mixed-conifer vegetation 

community. Tree species composition varies, depending on seral stage, elevation, and moisture 

availability. This forest type can be composed of early-seral species such as aspen, Douglas-fir, 

New Mexico locust, southwestern white pine, and Rocky Mountain maple, and late-seral species 

such as white fir and Engelmann spruce. Ponderosa pine may be present in minor proportions, 

decreasing with increasing elevation gradients. This forest type transitions with the spruce-fir 

forest type at its upper elevation range (Pinaleño Mountains only), with ever increasing amounts 

of Engelmann spruce and corkbark fir in the later seral stages. Disturbances in this type typically 

occur at two spatial and temporal scales: large scale, infrequent disturbances and small scale, 

frequent disturbances. Fire in this type is generally limited more by higher fuel moisture than by 

lack of woody fuels, occurring as larger scale, less frequent disturbances usually during periods of 

long-term drought. Historically on the Coronado National Forest, insects, diseases, and wind 

cause small scale, frequent disturbances; however, elsewhere in the West, insects cause largescale disturbances in this vegetation community. Wet mixed conifer has an understory of a wide 

variety of shrubs, grasses, forbs, and young trees depending on soil type, aspect, elevation, 

disturbance, and other factors. 
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Desired Conditions: Wet Mixed-Conifer

Landscape Scale 

The wet mixed-conifer forest type is a mosaic of structural and seral stages ranging from young to 

old trees. The landscape arrangement is an assemblage of variably sized and aged groups and 

patches of trees and other vegetation associations similar to historic patterns. Tree groups and 

patches are composed of variable species composition, depending on forest seral stages. An 

approximate balance of seral stages is present across the landscape; each seral stage is 

characterized by distinct dominant species composition and biophysical conditions. Canopies are 

generally more closed than in dry mixed conifer. An understory consisting of native grass, forbs, 

and/or shrubs is present. Aspen is occasionally present in small patches.

Old growth generally occurs over large areas as stands or forests where old growth is 

concentrated. Old growth includes old trees, dead trees (snags), downed wood (coarse woody 

debris), and structural diversity. The location of old growth shifts on the landscape over time as a 

result of succession and disturbance (tree growth and mortality). 

The wet mixed-conifer vegetation community is composed predominantly of vigorous trees, but 

older declining trees provide snags and coarse woody debris. Snags and coarse woody debris are 

well distributed throughout the landscape. Number of snags and the amount of downed logs 

(greater than 12 inches diameter at mid-point, greater than 8 feet long) and coarse woody debris 

(greater than 3 inches diameter) vary by seral stage. 

The composition, structure, and function of vegetation conditions are resilient to the frequency, 

extent, and severity of disturbances and climate variability. The forest landscape is a functioning 

ecosystem that contains all its components, processes, and conditions that result from endemic 

levels of disturbances (such as insects, diseases, wind, and fire), including snags, downed logs, 

and old trees. Organic ground cover and herbaceous vegetation provide protection of soil, 

moisture infiltration, and contribute to plant and animal diversity and to ecosystem function. 

Mixed-severity fire (fire regime III) is characteristic. High-severity fires (fire regimes IV and V) 

rarely occur. Natural and human-caused disturbances are sufficient to maintain desired overall 

tree density, structure, species composition, coarse woody debris, and nutrient cycling. 

Mid-Scale

At the mid-scale, the size and number of groups and patches vary, depending on disturbance, 

elevation, soil type, aspect, and site productivity. Patch sizes vary but are frequently in the 

hundreds of acres and occasionally in the thousands of acres. Groups and patches of tens of acres 

or less are relatively common. A mosaic of groups and patches of trees, primarily even-aged and 

variable in size, species composition, and age, is present. Grass, forb, and shrub openings created 

by disturbance may cover 10 to 100 percent of the mid-scale area depending on the disturbances 

and the time since disturbance. Aspen is occasionally present in large patches.

Density ranges from 20 to 180 square feet basal area per acre, depending upon time since 

disturbance and seral stages of groups and patches. Snags 18 inches diameter or greater range 

from 1 to 5 snags per acre, with the lower range of snags of this size associated with early-seral 

stages and the upper range associated with late-seral stages. Snag density in general (greater than 

8 inches diameter at breast height) averages 20 per acre. Coarse woody debris, including downed 

logs, varies by seral stage, with averages ranging from 5 to 20 tons per acre for early-seral stages, 

20 to 40 tons per acre for mid-seral stages, and 35 tons per acre or greater for late-seral stages.

Mixed-severity (fire regime III) and high-severity (fire regime IV) fires and other disturbances 

maintain desired overall tree density, structure, species composition, coarse woody debris, and 
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nutrient cycling. High-severity fires generally do not exceed 1,000-acre patches of mortality. 

Other smaller disturbances occur more frequently.

Forests in the wildland-urban interface are dominated by early-seral, fire-adapted species growing 

in an overall more open condition than the remainder of the national forest. These conditions 

result in fires that burn primarily on the forest floor and rarely spread as crown fire. 

Forest conditions in goshawk post-fledging family areas are similar to general forest conditions 

except these forests contain 10 to 20 percent higher tree density (basal area) than goshawk 

foraging areas and the general forest. Nest areas have forest conditions that are multi-aged but are 

dominated by large trees with relatively denser canopies than other areas in the wet mixed-conifer 

type.

Fine Scale 

In mid-aged and older forests, trees are typically variably spaced with crowns interlocking 

(grouped and clumped trees) or nearly interlocking. Trees within groups can be of similar or 

variable species and ages. Small openings (gaps) are present as a result of disturbances.

Objective

1. Treat at least 2,400 acres of wet mixed conifer using wildland fire (planned and unplanned 

ignitions) and prescribed cutting every 10 years. 

Guidelines

1. Vegetation treatments reflect the characteristic structure stage proportions in order to provide 

continuous representation of old growth and all structure stages on the landscape.

2. Slash piles should be burned in locations and at times that will minimize scorching of 

adjacent trees and shrubs.

3. Vegetation treatments should be designed to create stand conditions that enhance cone 

production of white fir, corkbark fir, Engelmann spruce, and Douglas-fir in order to provide a 

reliable Mount Graham red squirrel food source.

4. Fuel reduction or fuelwood gathering projects should retain some large diameter trees, snags 

and shrubs, and these should be protected well enough from scorching to survive subsequent 

burn treatments.

5. Surveys for reforestation needs should be completed within 2 years following a wildfire or 

other natural disturbance greater than 1,000 acres. 

6. Natural regeneration of disturbed areas should be allowed where feasible unless the following 

circumstances exist: (1) endangered species habitat needs to be restored, (2) the time period 

of recovery is deemed excessive due to the large size of deforested area and/or lack or nearby 

seed sources, or (3) there is concern for loss of site capacity from soils loss or extreme 

competition with early-seral species.

Management Approaches

1. Using chemical pheromones if necessary to control pests and disease before they affect 

forests at the stand level.

2. Striving to complete identified reforestation needs within 10 years. 
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Spruce-Fir

General Description

The spruce-fir forest type occurs only in the Pinaleño Mountains, though spruce and fir species 

are present at multiple scales elsewhere on the Coronado. The spruce-fir community occupies the 

coldest, wettest, and highest elevation sites on the Coronado, occurring at elevations ranging from 

approximately 8,500 to 10,720 feet. This community can be subdivided into lower elevation and 

upper elevation spruce-fir, each with differing disturbance regimes and subdominant species 

composition. At the lower elevations, spruce-fir resembles the wet mixed-conifer community 

except with a different composition of tree species, due to colder and wetter conditions, and it is a 

transition zone between wet mixed conifer and the upper elevation spruce-fir community. At these 

elevations, the spruce-fir community is discontinuous and often occurs as elongated stands in 

drainages. The majority of the spruce-fir vegetation community occupies upper elevation sites 

ranging from 10,000 to 10,720 feet. 

Spruce-fir is often dominated by Engelmann spruce but contains other species depending on 

elevation. In lower elevations, the common tree species are aspen, Douglas-fir, white fir, and 

southwestern white pine. The late-seral forest is dominated by Engelmann spruce. Subdominant 

species may include corkbark (subalpine) fir. In the upper elevation range of spruce-fir, the 

dominant tree species are Engelmann spruce and corkbark fir. Patches of aspen are occasionally 

present but are usually absent. Douglas-fir and southwestern white pine are accidental. 

Understory plant species commonly include currants, maples, honeysuckle, whortleberry, alpine 

clover, and sedges. Animal species occurring in spruce-fir include Mount Graham red squirrel, 

long-tailed vole, cordilleran flycatcher, warbling vireo, Clark’s nutcracker, Steller’s jay, Yarrow’s 

spiny lizard, and twin-spotted rattlesnake.

On the Coronado National Forest, the spruce-fir vegetation community is dominated by earlyseral stages. A large portion of the community burned in the 1996 Clark Peak Fire or the 2004 

Nuttall-Gibson Fire. Severe insect outbreaks affected the remaining spruce-fir. Patches of 

unburned, late-seral forest exist. In some places, the late-seral forest is growing vigorously and in 

other areas, it is declining due to fire, dwarf mistletoe, decay, and insect disturbances. 

Disturbances in this type typically occur at two spatial and temporal scales: large scale, infrequent 

disturbances (mostly fire or insects) and small scale, frequent disturbances (fire, insect, dwarf 

mistletoe, disease, decay, and wind). In the lower elevation spruce-fir, fires occur infrequently and 

are of mixed severity. In the higher elevation spruce-fir, a decay regime dominates with large, 

very infrequent, catastrophic fires punctuating the regime. Insects are a common disturbance 

throughout the spruce-fir community. After disturbance, the spruce-fir community generally 

recovers slowly, often requiring hundreds of years to reach a late-seral community. Recovery is 

accelerated when abundant advanced regeneration and seed-bearing trees are present.

Based on projections of future climate change for the region, spruce-fir forest ecosystems are 

susceptible to decreases in plant productivity (from water limitations and increased heat), 

increases in insect attacks, colonization by invasive species, longer and more severe fire seasons, 

and altered frequency, severity, timing, and spatial extent of intense disturbance events (such as 

droughts, flash floods, landslides, windstorms, and ice storms). Spruce-fir on the Coronado 

National Forest occurs at the highest elevations and, thus, is among the most susceptible to loss 

under warmer climatic conditions. Extended drought from a delayed monsoonal season or earlier 

onset of spring conditions could lead to increased tree mortality and increasing intensity and 

severity of wildfire.
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Desired Conditions

Landscape Scale

The spruce-fir forest vegetation community is a mosaic of structural and seral stages ranging from 

young trees to old and is composed of multiple species. The landscape arrangement is an 

assemblage of variably sized and aged groups and patches of trees and other vegetation similar to 

historic patterns. Tree canopies are generally more closed than in mixed conifer. An understory 

consisting of native grass, forbs, or shrubs is present.

Old growth generally occurs over large areas as stands or forests where old growth is 

concentrated. Old growth includes old trees, dead trees (snags), downed wood (coarse woody 

debris), and structural diversity. The location of old growth shifts on the landscape over time as a 

result of succession and disturbance (tree growth and mortality). 

The spruce-fir forest vegetation community is composed predominantly of vigorous trees, but 

older declining trees are a component and provide snags, top-killed trees, lightning- and firescarred trees, and coarse woody debris, all well distributed throughout the landscape. The number 

of snags and amount of downed logs (greater than 12 inches diameter at mid-point, greater than 8 

feet long) and coarse woody debris (greater than 3 inches diameter) vary by seral stage.

The composition, structure, and function of vegetation conditions are resilient to the frequency, 

extent, and severity of disturbances and climate variability. The forest landscape is a functioning 

ecosystem that contains all its components, processes, and conditions that result from endemic 

levels of disturbances (such as insects, diseases, fire, and wind), including old trees, downed logs, 

and snags. Organic ground cover and herbaceous vegetation provide protection to the soil, allow 

moisture infiltration, and contribute to plant and animal diversity and ecosystem function. In the 

lower spruce-fir type, mixed-severity fires (fire regime III) occur infrequently. In the upper 

spruce-fir type, high-severity fires (fire regime IV and V) occur very infrequently. Natural and 

human-caused disturbances are sufficient to maintain desired overall tree density, structure, 

species composition, coarse woody debris, and nutrient cycling.

Mid-Scale

At the mid-scale, the size and number of groups and patches vary depending on disturbance, 

elevation, soil type, aspect, and site productivity. Patch sizes vary but are mostly in the hundreds 

of acres. There may be frequent, small disturbances, resulting in groups and patches of tens of 

acres or less. A mosaic of groups and patches of trees, primarily even-aged, that are variable in 

size, species composition, and age, is present. Grass, forb, and shrub openings created by 

disturbance may comprise 10 to 100 percent of the mid-scale area, following major disturbance 

and depending on time since disturbance. Aspen is occasionally present in large patches.

Density ranges from 20 to 250 square feet basal area per acre, depending upon disturbance and 

seral stages of the groups and patches. Snags 18 inches diameter or greater range from 1 to 3 

snags per acre, with the lower range of snags this size associated with early-seral stages and the 

upper range associated with late-seral stages. Snag density in general (greater than 8 inches 

diameter) averages 20 per acre with a range of 13 to 30. Coarse woody debris, including downed 

logs, varies by seral stage, ranging from 5 to 30 tons per acre for early-seral stages, 30 to 40 tons 

per acre for mid-seral stages, and 40 tons per acre or greater for late-seral stages.

Mixed-severity fires (fire regime III) and other disturbances maintain desired overall tree density, 

structure, species composition, and coarse woody debris, while less frequent high-severity fires 

(fire regimes IV and V) reset this forest type to an early-seral stage. Decay processes tend to be 

the primary nutrient-cycling route in this community. 
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The wildland-urban interface is comprised primarily of grass, forb, and shrub vegetation. 

Structures in the wildland-urban interface are surrounded by grassy openings with very few or no 

trees. These conditions generally result in surface fires. 

Forest conditions in goshawk post-fledging family areas are similar to general forest conditions 

except these forests contain 10 to 20 percent greater tree density (basal area) than goshawk 

foraging areas and the general forest. Nest areas have forest conditions that are multi-aged but are 

dominated by large trees with relatively denser canopies than other areas in the spruce-fir type.

Fine Scale

Mid-aged to old trees grow tightly together with interlocking crowns. Trees are generally of the 

same height and age in early group/patch development but may be multilayered in late 

development. Small openings (gaps) are present as a result of disturbances. Following 

disturbance, patch structure may recover slowly. 

Guidelines

1. Vegetation treatments reflect the characteristic structure stage proportions in order to provide 

continuous representation of old growth and all structure stages on the landscape.

2. Slash from firewood harvest should be managed to a level compatible with the Forest 

Service’s ability to protect the remaining resources.

3. Surveys for reforestation needs should be completed within 2 years following a wildfire or 

other natural disturbance greater than 200 acres. 

4. Natural regeneration of disturbed areas should be allowed where feasible unless the following 

circumstances exist: (1) endangered species habitat needs to be restored, (2) the time period 

of recovery is deemed excessive due to the large size of deforested area and/or lack of nearby 

seed sources, or (3) there is concern for loss of site capacity from soils loss or extreme 

competition with early-seral species.

Management Approaches

1. Treating forest pests and diseases, using chemicals if necessary, before they affect forests at 

the stand level.

2. Preparing for emerging threats such as the spruce aphid and white pine blister rust by 

surveying for resistant populations, collecting seed, and developing progeny tests (spruce-fir 

only). 

3. Maintaining a seed inventory for each major conifer species based on a seed collection plan 

approved by the regional geneticist. 

4. Developing an overall framework for economic analysis to determine the types of 

reforestation investments (treatments) needed, determining the least costly manner of 

executing a treatment, and determining priorities when funding prevents treatment of all 

acres.

5. Striving to complete identified reforestation needs within 10 years. 
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Montane Meadows

General Description

High-elevation, or montane, meadows generally occur only within mixed-conifer and spruce-fir 

vegetation types. Meadow size ranges from less than 1 acre to 30 acres. Montane meadows may 

have a defined channel system, generally at the lowest elevations. Animal species occurring in the 

montane meadows include the Graham Mountains pocket gopher, long-tailed vole, wild turkey, 

Atlantis fritillary butterfly, and Weidemeyer’s admiral butterfly. 

Based on projections of future climate change for the region, montane meadows are susceptible to 

decreases in plant productivity from water limitations and increased heat, colonization by 

invasive species, longer and more severe fire seasons, and altered frequency, severity, timing, and 

spatial extent of disturbance events (such as droughts, flash floods, landslides, windstorms, and 

ice storms). Montane meadows on the Coronado National Forest occur at the highest elevations 

and are highly fragmented, making them among the most vulnerable to a changing climate. 

Desired Conditions

Vegetation composition includes junegrass, various sedges and docks, hemlock-parsley, native 

iris, native onion, and false hellebore. Trees are not common, with the exception of alder, which 

may be present near the edges of meadows. Soil is not compacted, and over 70 percent of the 

surface is occupied by plant basal area and herbaceous litter.

Guidelines

1. Management activities in meadows should not be allowed unless impacts to meadow soils 

and hydrologic function and native plant assemblages can be mitigated. 

2. Meadows should not be used as long-term staging areas for off-highway vehicles or 

livestock, or for storage of equipment or forest products. 

3. When meadows are enlarged through restoration treatments in areas that contain large trees, 

the resultant meadow edges should retain trees or snags that satisfy wildlife habitat needs, 

especially for bat roosting.

Wetlands

General Description

Wetlands are characterized by low waterflow and soils that are frequently or periodically 

saturated by ground or surface water. Wetland habitats contain a distinctive native plant 

community typical of saturated soils. Plants may include sedges, rushes, mosses, monkey flowers, 

lilies, and algae. These plants occur at wetlands throughout the Coronado National Forest. Animal 

species occurring in the wetlands include northern raccoon, Arizona treefrog, Northern Mexican 

gartersnake, and Huachuca springsnail, among other specialized aquatic invertebrates.

Wetlands and cienegas have historic and contemporary significance to area Tribes due to the 

cultural value of water and because they contain traditionally used resources that are rare on the 

landscape. In addition, wetland areas provide important recreational opportunities for the public. 

Historically, wetlands have also been developed and used for agricultural or other cultural needs. 

In recent times, there has been an emphasis on restoring wetlands due to changes in general 

perceptions and cultural values regarding wetlands. Therefore, wetlands across the Coronado 
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National Forest have reverted or have been restored to a functional state that is more 

representative of natural, benchmark conditions. 

Based on projections of future climate change for the region, wetlands are susceptible to 

decreased soil moisture from increased evaporation and decreased surface water inputs during 

drought periods. Increased extreme precipitation events could lead to flash floods that could 

damage vegetation and be too rapid to be absorbed by underlying soils. Decreased rainfall and 

overall drier conditions can lead to a decreased extent of wetlands and wetland vegetation. It can 

also cause a change in plant species that are present and/or their distribution within a wetland.

Desired Conditions

Waterflow patterns and recharge rates in wetlands are similar to or vary from historic patterns 

within expected tolerances due to changes in precipitation under an altered climate. Wetlands 

infiltrate water, recycle nutrients, resist erosion, and otherwise function properly. Plant and animal 

species that require wetland habitats have healthy, extant populations within the natural 

constraints of the particular wetland community. Native macroinvertebrates are abundant and 

diverse. Endemic populations are stable. Nonnative wetland species are nonexistent, or do not 

significantly impact native species; nonnative grasses are not present, or are present in amounts 

that do not alter the fire regime.

Objective

1. Restore native vegetation and natural waterflow patterns on at least 10 wetland sites every 10 

years. (Other relevant objectives are located under “Natural Water Sources.”)

Standard

1. The total acreage of existing wetlands will not be diminished due to management activities.

Guideline

1. Management activities should only be allowed in wetlands, including wet meadows, if 

vegetative communities (except noxious and/or invasive plants), soil function and structure, 

and hydrologic function are kept the same or improved. 

Management Approaches

1. Acquiring, if and when possible, water rights to diversions that are currently limiting wetland 

recharge and restoring waterflow to as near the natural pattern and volume as possible.

2. Cooperating with conservation groups and agencies to leverage resources and implement 

projects that remove invasive plants, plant native vegetation, or otherwise assist to restore 

wetlands. 

Riparian Areas

General Description

Riparian areas occur throughout all vegetation and stream types. Vegetation supported within 

riparian areas varies with watershed size, geology, elevation, and aspect. Riparian area health is 

largely dependent on the storage and movement of sediment and water through the channel 

system. Natural disturbances (including flooding, scouring, and desiccation) result in changes that 
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promote a diverse community structure necessary for recruitment of riparian species. Animal 

species occurring in riparian areas include Arizona gray squirrel, white-nosed coati, gray hawk, 

elegant trogon, eared quetzal, sulphur-bellied flycatcher, rose-throated becard, canyon spotted 

whiptail, Northern Mexican gartersnake, Tarahumara frog, and wet canyon talussnail. 

Based on future climate projections, riparian areas are susceptible to changes in the frequency, 

intensity, timing, and spatial extent of extreme weather events (such as droughts, flash floods, 

landslides, and windstorms). These events, coupled with increased ambient air and soil 

temperatures, can create corresponding shifts in plant evapotranspiration rates, water quanitity, 

water infiltration, overland flow, erosion, sediment delivery, and loss of organic ground cover. 

Desired Conditions

Streams and their adjacent flood plains are capable of filtering sediment, capturing bedload, 

developing and maintaining an appropriate floodplain, improving floodwater retention, and 

increasing groundwater recharge. Vegetation and root masses stabilize streambanks against the 

cutting action of water currents. All trees and ground vegetation are native. The ecological 

condition of riparian areas is resilient to animal and human use. Tree canopy cover is between 30 

and 100 percent except where flooding has reduced tree canopy in a post-disturbance community. 

Soil banks are 60 to 100 percent protected by vegetation, gravel, cobble, rock, or bedrock. 

Where water is perennial or intermittent for sufficient duration, streamflows and water quality 

characteristics (as described in the desired conditions for “Natural Water Sources”) support 

aquatic wildlife. Riparian areas have characteristics, processes, and features in low departure 

from reference condition. Water quality, stream channel stability, and aquatic habitats retain their 

inherent resilience to natural and other disturbances, including climate variability and change.

Native fish and other aquatic species are present, and habitat conditions are capable of providing 

self-sustaining populations. Native fish and amphibian populations are free from, or minimally 

affected by, nonnative predation and diseases. Habitat and ecological conditions are capable of 

providing self-sustaining populations of native, riparian-dependent plant and animal species. 

Fire rarely burns through this vegetation type, and fire in the surrounding watershed periodically 

provides slight increases in sediment and water that cause minimal channel modification.

Objective

1. Treat 2,500 to 10,000 acres of uplands every 10 years with vegetation treatments or soil and 

watershed restoration treatments to maintain watershed stability and, thereby, the structure 

and function of streams, flood plains, and riparian vegetation. 

Guidelines

1. New road construction in riparian areas should be avoided, except to cross drainages, unless 

alternate routes have greater overall resource impacts. If road construction in riparian areas is 

unavoidable, it should be designed and implemented to minimize effects to natural waterflow, 

aquatic species, channel morphology, and native vegetation communities. 
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2. Management activities should only be allowed in riparian areas if soil function and structure, 

hydrologic function and riparian plant communities (except noxious and/or invasive plants) 

are kept the same or improved.

12

3. Vegetation treatments should favor the retention of snags, large diameter woody debris, 

and/or growth of large riparian trees along stream channels.

Management Approaches

1. Cooperating with neighboring agencies and landowners when making decisions about 

managing riparian areas.

2. Developing riparian area classification and condition assessment criteria consistent with the 

regional riparian mapping project (RMAP) and terrestrial ecological unit inventory. 

Biophysical Features 

General Description

Biophysical features include natural structures such as caves and karst, cliffs, talus slopes, rocky 

outcrops, rock cavities, and manufactured structures such as abandoned mines. Caves include any 

naturally occurring void, cavity, recess, or system of interconnected passages beneath the surface 

of the Earth or within a cliff or ledge and which is large enough to permit a person to enter, 

whether the entrance is excavated or naturally formed. This definition includes any fissure (large 

crack), lava tube, natural pit, sinkhole, or other opening which is an extension of a cave entrance 

or which is an integral part of the cave. Karst features are geological landforms that 

predominantly result from shaping process controlled by soluble bedrock, usually calceric in 

nature. Karst landscape is characterized by closed depressions, disappearing streams, and 

solutional shaping. Karst features create unique microhabitats and are important areas for rapid 

subsurface drainage and aquifer recharge. Cliffs are any high, steep, or overhanging rock or Earth 

face. Talus slopes are the accumulation of rock piled up at the base of a cliff, chute, or slope.

Cave resources include any material or substance occurring naturally in caves such as plant and 

animal life, paleontological deposits, sediments, minerals, cave formations, and cave relief 

features. Most cave resources are not replaceable and not renewable. 

The Coronado National Forest contains many significant caves and karst resources. The Federal 

Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988 defines a significant cave as a cave located on National 

Forest System lands that has been evaluated and shown to possess features, characteristics, 

values, or opportunities in one or more of the following resource areas: biota; cultural; geologicmineralogic-paleontologic; hydrologic; recreational; or educational-scientific for scientific, 

educational or recreational purposes; and which has been designated “significant” by the forest 

supervisor. The Coronado National Forest references the Arizona National Forest Cave and Karst 

Management Plan, Appendix F – Biophysical Features, current literature, and the best available 

science when making site-specific decisions relevant to project planning. 

Biophysical features occur in all vegetation types and at all elevations throughout the Coronado. 

These features provide specialized seasonal and year-round habitats for a variety of wildlife 

species including bats, cliff-nesting birds, talussnails, and several unique montane reptiles and 

amphibians. Several species of rare plants are adapted for growth on rocky sites and cliff faces. 

 

12 Plant species present within riparian areas vary with site characteristics such as elevation and slope.
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Underground features such as caves may contain unique geological, archaeological, and 

biological resources. Animal species found in caves and mines range from cave-obligate 

pseudoscorpions to many species of bats to opportunistic users like black bear, ringtail, and 

black-tailed rattlesnake. Species associated with rocky areas and cliffs include desert bighorn 

sheep, peregrine falcon, Yarrow’s spiny lizard, rock rattlesnake, twin-spotted rattlesnake, barking 

frog, and talussnails. Rare plant species found in rocky sites include Bartram’s stonecrop, 

Catalina beardtongue, and many others. 

Desired Conditions

Cliffs and rock outcrops support nesting, roosting, and feeding habitats of birds of prey, desert 

bighorn sheep, bats, snails, western barking frogs, and other species. Rock climbing and related 

recreational activities are compatible with the protection of resident wildlife and plant species, 

and do not diminish the quantity or quality of specialized vegetation and wildlife habitat. 

Rockslides and talus slopes are undisturbed, providing habitat for wildlife such as lizards, snakes, 

and land snails. Talus slopes maintain near-historic levels of moisture and are free from excessive 

sedimentation. Rocky habitats occupied by species of conservation concern are maintained. 

Standing dead trees, tree hollows, cavities, loose bark, and downed woody debris are available in 

all vegetation communities for retention of wildlife values.

Caves provide habitat for species that require specialized conditions for roosting and 

overwintering, such as bats. Caves maintain moisture and temperature levels consistent with 

historic conditions. Archaeological, geological, paleontological, and biological features of caves 

are not disturbed by visitors. Cave formations and relief features continue to develop or erode 

under natural conditions. Caves known to be important for species of conservation concern are 

intact or provide habitat for these species. Water flowing into, from, or within the cave system is 

not altered or diverted in its flow; contains normally fluctuating background levels of sediment, 

organic matter, and dissolved minerals; and is not polluted. New bat diseases, such as white-nose 

syndrome (Pseudogymnoascus destructans), are not introduced in caves. 

Significant cave resources’ aesthetic, cultural, and scientific values remain intact, and are 

protected from damage to provide for use by people and wildlife. Some caves provide a range of 

recreational and educational opportunities without diminishing the cave resource. 

Archaeological, geological, paleontological, hydrological, and biological features of caves are not 

disturbed by visitors. Cave formations and relief features continue to develop or erode under 

natural conditions. 

Objective

1. Install an average of two wildlife-friendly closures at mines, caves, or adits13 when necessary 

to protect resources or for public safety each year over a 10-year period. 

Standards

1. When closing mine features and caves to public entry, pre-closure inspections shall be 

conducted to determine if cave dependent or other species are present. Closures will be 

 

13 An entrance to an underground mine that is horizontal or nearly horizontal, by which the mine can be entered, 

drained of water, and ventilated.
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designed and implemented to address the needs of resident or historically occurring wildlife 

within the constraints of meeting public safety needs. 

2. For caves that have been designated or nominated as “significant,” manage to perpetuate 

those features, characteristics, values, or opportunities for which they were designated. 

Guidelines

Relevant guidelines and standards are also found in the “Vegetation Communities,” “Animals and 

Rare Plants,” and “Minerals” sections of this plan. 

1. Talus slopes should not be altered and materials should not be removed from them. In areas 

that harbor talussnails, vegetation treatments should be designed to retain microhabitat 

characteristics for endemic snails and other talus-dependent species unless as needed to meet 

statutory requirements, such as mining law or laws to protect public health and safety. 

2. Management activities should be designed to avoid or minimize the alteration of naturally 

occurring rocky outcroppings or cliff faces. 

3. Environments in caves and abandoned mines should not be altered except where necessary to 

protect associated natural resources or to protect health and safety. Where mine closure is 

necessary to protect human health and safety, closures should preserve habitats for roosting 

bats and avoid direct impacts to bats. 

4. Surface management activities, including drilling, in the vicinity of cave and karst features 

should avoid actions that would significantly impact underground ecosystems by modifying 

drainage patterns, subsurface water and airflow, or other natural processes.

5. Identified bat roosts should be managed to provide for the enhancement and protection of bat 

populations. Protection measures may include seasonal closures, public education, and 

wildlife-friendly gates.

Management Approaches

The following management approaches will help to achieve desired conditions and objectives for 

biophysical features:

1. Managing bat roosts in consultation with State and Federal wildlife agencies. 

2. Preparing management prescriptions for caves with important resource, educational or 

recreational values; hazardous conditions; or heavy use; including information on appropriate 

use, necessary restrictions, and monitoring requirements. Planning priority is for those caves 

currently under permit. 

3. Engaging caving organizations in cave management activities, such as seasonal surveys, 

closures, and wildlife-friendly gate development at specific sites. 

4. Engaging climbing organizations in cliff management activities, such as seasonal surveys, 

closures, and education.

5. Monitoring significant caves or other biophysical features to determine visitor impacts and 

the conditions of key resources in order to protect the ecology of the feature or resource. 

6. Periodically updating the list of significant caves on the Coronado.
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7. Fostering the collaboration and exchange of information between governmental agencies, 

partners, and other stakeholders to address conservation, interpretation and education 

management for cave resources, grottos, and associated species.

8. Educating the public on disease prevention “best practices” for caves.

9. Managing resources to reduce occurrence of vandalism.

Watersheds

General Description

The Coronado National Forest generally provides the headwaters and primary source areas for 

many of the streams in southeastern Arizona. Streams and rivers offer habitat to numerous aquatic 

and riparian dependent species; provide water for municipal, commercial, and agricultural uses 

outside of the national forests, and contribute to recharging groundwater aquifers. Watershed 

conditions and watershed health on the national forests vary depending upon the amount of 

disturbance that has occurred within each watershed, and the effect of the disturbance on the 

natural integrity of the watershed as a whole.

All of the surface waters on the Coronado are within Region 15 (Lower Colorado River Region 

HUC 1),14 in which three subregions (HUC 2) are represented: 1504 (Upper Gila), 1505 (Middle 

Gila), and 1508 (Sonora). Subregions are divided into basins (HUC 3), basins are divided into 

subbasins (HUC 4), and subbasins are divided into watersheds (HUC 5). Project level analysis is 

typically conducted at the subwatershed level (HUC 6). The Coronado contains 13 subbasins, 51 

watersheds, and 249 subwatersheds (HUC 6). Subwatersheds are typically between 10,000 and 

40,000 acres in size. Forest subbasins are listed in appendix C of the “Coronado National Forest 

Ecological Sustainability Report” (USDA FS 2009b).

The Watershed Condition Framework (USDA FS 2011) is the Forest Service procedure for 

prioritizing watershed restoration at the subwatershed scale. All subwatersheds on the Coronado 

National Forest have been assessed. Twelve indicators assessed included condition of water 

quality, water quantity, aquatic habitat, aquatic biota, riparian and wetland vegetation, road and 

trail networks, soil, fire regime or wildfire effects, rangeland vegetation, terrestrial invasive 

species, forest cover, and forest health.15 Each indicator was assessed a numerical score of 1 to 3 

based on its condition. Class 1 is defined as functioning properly, class 2 is functioning at risk, 

and class 3 is impaired function. Each subwatershed was then given an overall rating of 

functioning properly, functioning at risk, or functionally impaired based on the indicator scores. 

The results of this assessment are at the following website: 

http://apps.fs.usda.gov/nfs/nrm/wcatt/WCFMapviewer/. 

The Watershed Condition Framework is used to identify priority watersheds for restoration 

treatments. The Framework also provides a basis for landscape-scale assessments and 

coordination with other agencies or other private landowners. 

 

14 HUC = hydrologic unit code; see Glossary 15 http://www.fs.fed.us/publications/watershed/Watershed_Condition_Framework.pdf 
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Watershed desired conditions, objectives, guidelines, and management approaches are also 

outlined elsewhere within the forest plan. Collectively, these plan components help set the desired 

condition and function for the watershed.16

Desired Conditions 

Watersheds on the Coronado National Forest are functioning properly or moving toward 

functioning properly. Watersheds are dynamic and resilient, and are capable of responding to 

natural and human-caused disturbances while maintaining the integrity of their biological and 

physical processes. 

Floodplains are functioning properly such that flood impacts to human health, welfare, and safety 

are reduced. Vertical downcutting and embeddedness are absent in drainages.

Surface runoff, sheet, rill, and gully erosion, and subsequent sedimentation into connecting waters 

downstream is minimal. Vegetation condition, distribution, density, and amount of litter maintains 

or improves downstream water quality and quantity. Noxious and/or invasive plant species are 

nonexistent, or do not significantly affect native plant and animal species or alter the fire regime.

Habitat connectivity is maintained.

Water quality meets Arizona and New Mexico water quality standards and supports designated 

beneficial uses and native and desired nonnative aquatic species.

Short-term exceedance of water quality standards (temporary periods of declining water quality) 

due to management activity occurs only in the anticipation of long-term improvement of 

watershed condition and water quality.

Vegetation and root masses stabilize streambanks against the cutting action of water currents. The 

ecological condition of riparian areas is resilient to animal and human use. Riparian tree canopy 

cover is between 30 and 100 percent except where flooding has reduced tree canopy in a postdisturbance community. Soil banks are 60 to 100 percent protected by vegetation, gravel, cobble, 

rock, or bedrock. 

Soil condition is satisfactory at all representative test sites on the Coronado National Forest.

Objective

1. Complete essential projects identified in a watershed restoration action plan for at least one 

identified priority watershed every 10 years.

Guidelines

1. The watershed condition framework and classification system should be used to prioritize and 

assess watersheds.

2. Watershed restoration action plans should be used to guide completion of essential watershed 

projects.

 

16 Desired watershed conditions, objectives, and management approaches are also in the “Vegetation 

Communities,” “Natural Water Sources,” “Constructed Waters,” “Soil,” “Animals and Rare Plants,” “Invasive 

Species,” “Motorized Transportation System,” “Recreation,” and “Range Management” sections of this plan. 
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Management Approaches

1. Managing watersheds to reduce the potential for catastrophic fire. Projects that reduce 

catastrophic fire risk and restore the natural vegetative and fuels composition also restore 

watersheds.

2. Cooperating with conservation groups and agencies to leverage resources, implement 

projects, and monitor projects that improve vegetative composition, reduce erosion, and/or 

otherwise improve watershed function. 

3. Assessing watershed condition and establishing priority areas for restoration activities.

4. Promoting projects that assist in the protection of municipal supply watersheds. 

Natural Water Sources

General Description

There are approximately 100 miles of perennial streams on the Coronado National Forest. 

However, most streams have surface water flowing only periodically. They are the ephemeral and 

intermittent tributaries to more major streams and drainages, and provide functions relating to 

hydrologic connectivity, water quality, plant and wildlife habitat, and flood regime in an arid 

climate. Streams mentioned in this section and elsewhere include ephemeral, intermittent, and 

perennial streams. 

There are about 1,500 springs and seeps on the Coronado National Forest. All streams, springs, 

and seeps are small, with a low volume of surface water generally present. They are commonly 

centers of high biological diversity in arid landscapes, and the ecological health of these resources 

is important for forest ecosystem sustainability. Wildlife is more concentrated around open water 

sources than in the general landscape. Collectively, streams, springs, and seeps contribute to 

habitat connectivity for wildlife across the landscape. 

Natural waters are also culturally important. Many springs and seeps are developed in a manner 

that diverts water from the natural source for uses such as providing water for livestock and 

wildlife, and for domestic use. These uses are important for domestic and commercial interests in 

and around the Coronado National Forest. In addition, natural waters provide cultural and 

recreation opportunities. 

Natural waters provide water sources that are vital to wildlife. Some species also need natural 

waters for other critical life history components (such as food, shelter, and reproduction). These 

include lowland and Chiricahua leopard frogs, Arizona treefrog, Couch’s spadefoot, tiger 

salamander, Northern Mexican gartersnake, checkered gartersnake, black-necked gartersnake, 

Gila chub, Gila topminnow, desert sucker, Huachuca springsnail, Stephan’s riffle beetle, 

predaceous diving beetle, giant water bug, and many species of insects with aquatic larvae. The 

Sonoran mud turtle is a management indicator species for natural water sources and can be found 

in the grasslands, Madrean encinal woodlands, and Madrean pine-oak woodlands vegetation 

communities. 

Based on projections of future climate change for the region, natural water sources are susceptible 

to increased evaporation from warmer temperatures and altered frequency and severity of both 

droughts and flash floods. Water resources are also at risk due to increased drawdown of aquifers 

and competing demands for multiple uses. These conditions place additional stress on native 

species that depend on surface water for their life histories, especially if these species also rely on 

a narrow range of water temperatures.
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Desired Conditions

Landscape Scale 

Watersheds, streams, wetlands, springs ecosystems, and riparian areas have characteristics, 

processes, and features in low departure from reference condition. Physical and biological 

properties such as cover, water, shelter, breeding and nesting areas, and forage provide habitat for 

a diverse community of plant and animal species. Habitat connectivity is maintained. Water 

quality, stream channel stability, and aquatic habitats retain their inherent resilience to natural and 

other disturbances, including climate variability and change. Water resources maintain the 

capability to respond and adjust to disturbances without long term adverse changes. Native fish 

and amphibian populations are free from, or minimally affected by, nonnative predation and 

diseases. Vegetation conditions (as described in each section above) contribute to maintaining 

downstream water quality, quantity, and aquatic habitat features. Upland soil erosion contributes 

sediment in amounts that do not impair stream function or water quality. 

Mid-Scale

Springs and ponds have the necessary soil, water, and vegetation attributes to be healthy and 

functioning. Spring developments or other natural waters that have been modified for livestock, 

wildlife, or human consumption purposes remain operational when needed. Developed springs 

that are no longer needed are dismantled, shut down, and restored to their natural function. They 

do not create or add to natural resource problems. Instream flows provide for recreational uses 

and wildlife habitat, including fish. They also provide for channel, floodplain, and riparian 

maintenance, and recharge of groundwater aquifers. Streamflows provide natural movement 

among native aquatic species populations. Within the natural capabilities of the water source, 

water quantity and quality meet the needs of beneficial uses and authorized activities such as 

domestic and municipal water use, irrigation, stockwater, recreation, wildlife (including fish), 

road construction and maintenance, and fire management activities. Water is used efficiently with 

minimal or no waste. Stream channels and flood plains are dynamic and resilient to disturbances. 

Stream channel morphology reflects changes in the hydrological balance, runoff, and sediment 

supply appropriate to the landscape setting. High and low flow events maintain a normal and 

expected sediment and water balance between streams and their watersheds. Flood plains are 

functioning and lessen the impacts from floods on human health and safety by dissipating some 

flood energy and absorbing flood water volume. Water quality meets or exceeds relevant State of 

Arizona, State of New Mexico, and Environmental Protection Agency standards for designated 

uses. Water quality meets critical needs of aquatic species. Nonpoint-source loading of streams 

and lakes from sediment, excessive nutrients, or hazardous chemicals does not reduce water 

quality below the State standards for Arizona and/or New Mexico.

Fine Scale

Infiltration at outflows allows for soil moisture recharge, supporting the native assemblages of 

vegetation. 

Objectives

1. Every 10 years, apply for at least 10 instream flow water rights on streams for recreation and 

wildlife purposes, prioritizing locations necessary for sustaining native fish populations and 

species of conservation concern.

2. Reconstruct at least 3 developed springs every 10 years to provide aquatic habitat for the 

recovery of plant and/or animal species.
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3. Complete 3 stream restoration and/or development projects to benefit aquatic species of 

conservation concern every 10 years.

Guidelines

1. Projects in upland habitats adjacent to streams should be designed to minimize input of 

sediment to streams.

2. Water quality, quantity, soil function and structure, and wildlife habitat (including aquatic 

species habitat) should be protected or enhanced at natural springs and seeps.

3. Fuel buildup should be reduced around natural water sources to protect them from 

uncharacteristic fire effects.

4. Management activities should not impair soil moisture recharge at outflows of natural water 

sources.

5. Vegetation treatments should favor the retention of snags, large-diameter woody debris, and 

growth of large riparian trees along stream channels. 

6. Fences constructed around natural waters should allow bats and other desirable wildlife to 

pass through unharmed.

7. New road construction near springs and seeps should be avoided, unless alternate routes have 

greater overall resource impacts. If road construction near springs and seeps is unavoidable, it 

should be designed and implemented to minimize effects to natural water flow and aquatic 

species.

8. Projects affecting perennial streams should be designed and constructed to allow for natural 

instream movement of aquatic species, except where barriers are necessary to preclude the 

movement of nonnative species. 

Management Approaches

1. Cooperating with Arizona Department of Environmental Quality and New Mexico 

Environment Department to meet water quality standards. 

2. Actively working with agencies and partners to acquire and maintain water rights, including 

instream flow water rights.

3. Actively participating in the Gila River water rights adjudication to meet water needs for 

beneficial uses such as stockwater, recreation, wildlife, irrigation, domestic water use, and 

other authorized activities.

4. Considering all available techniques for eradicating undesirable aquatic species. 

5. Coordinating with conservation groups and agencies to do spring inventory, assessment, 

restoration, monitoring, and research. 

6. Implementing total maximum daily load plans to enable the Coronado to meet or exceed 

State of Arizona, State of New Mexico, or Environmental Protection Agency water quality 

standards for designated uses.
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Constructed Waters

General Description

There are approximately 400 developed springs, 300 wells, and 1,100 stock ponds on the 

Coronado National Forest. These constructed water features provide surface water resources, in 

many cases perennial sources, which augment natural water resources. Structures include earthen 

stockponds, reservoirs, such as tanks, wildlife drinkers,17 and concrete or steel storage tanks or 

watering troughs fed by a natural spring, groundwater well, or stream diversion. These facilities 

can often provide valuable habitat features for native wildlife such as Sonora tiger salamander, 

but can also harbor invasive aquatic species such as American bullfrogs, crayfish, and green 

sunfish that prey on or compete with native wildlife. Poorly designed waters can entrap native 

wildlife or be inaccessible. The Sonoran mud turtle is a management indicator species for 

constructed waters and can be found in the grasslands, Madrean encinal woodlands, and Madrean 

pine-oak woodlands vegetation communities. Based on projections of future climate change for 

the region, constructed water sources are susceptible to increased evaporation from warmer

temperatures and altered frequency and severity of both droughts and flash floods. Water 

resources are also at risk due to increased drawdown of aquifers and competing demands for 

multiple uses. These conditions place additional stress on native animal species that depend on 

surface water as a water source. However, a reduction in water availability could lead to a 

reduction in or slowing of nonnative aquatic species invasions. 

Desired Conditions

Artificial structures for holding standing water (such earthen stock ponds, reservoirs, wildlife 

drinkers, concrete or steel storage tanks or watering troughs, and habitat restoration ponds) are 

distributed across the landscape in a pattern and density sufficient to sustain wildlife and 

livestock. Water sources are perennial where possible, providing a high-quality supply of water 

and aquatic habitat for plants and animals.

Constructed waters that are used for livestock watering are available for and used by native 

species. They provide environments that encourage the reproduction of native aquatic organisms 

and provide important refugia for native wildlife during periods of drought, which are projected 

to be more frequent under future climate conditions. If aquatic invasive species, such as American 

bullfrogs, northern crayfish, green sunfish, nonnative tiger salamanders, nonnative mollusks, and 

nonnative aquatic plants are present, their numbers are low and can be controlled. Waterborne 

diseases, if present, do not spread among ponds. Water quality is high, and organic pollutants 

such as nitrates, nitrites, phosphates, and sulfur compounds are at levels that are nontoxic to 

native species. 

Objective

1. Install wildlife escape ramps in all aboveground constructed waters within 10 years of plan 

approval. 

 

17 Tanks of various sizes that can be installed in various locations and environments to collect and store water for 

use by wildlife.
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Guidelines

1. Wildlife escape ramps should extend to the bottom and near the edge of aboveground 

constructed waters, and at an angle to avoid entrapment of wildlife in constructed water 

facilities. 

2. Artificial waters constructed for livestock should be designed and/or retrofitted to provide a 

year-round drinking and habitat resource for native wildlife. 

3. Overflow should be diverted to allow for soil moisture recharge and creation or maintenance 

of wetland habitat features.

Management Approaches

1. Working closely with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and State wildlife management agencies 

to ensure the viability of native aquatic species.

2. Cooperating with range permittees and State wildlife management agencies to maximize the 

benefits of artificial water developments for all uses.

3. Considering all available techniques for eradicating undesirable aquatic species.

4. Seeking opportunities to educate the public about the threats posed to native species by 

invasive aquatic species.

5. Incorporating access features for bats (vegetation and fencing considerations, for example) 

into designs and layout of new constructed water facilities where feasible and appropriate.

Soil

General Description

Soil is the mineral and organic matter that occurs on the land surface throughout all vegetation 

types. It is characterized by horizons or layers that are distinguishable from the parent material 

beneath as a result of weathering of that parent material, additions of organic matter, and 

chemical and physical processes. It is the transition area between air and the parent material 

beneath, and makes a site capable of supporting vegetation. Soil can be shallow (less than 20 

centimeters) or deep (200 centimeters) and may contain varying amounts of sand, silt, and clay 

particles, as well as all sizes of unweathered rocks. Regardless of the depth, the surface is 

extremely important, as it must provide for the exchange of gases and water infiltration. 

Compaction of the surface, removal of the surface layer (erosion), or removal of vegetation can 

all affect the processes soil carries out in its role of supporting vegetation communities. 

Based on projections of future climate change for the region, soils are vulnerable to having 

decreased water available for plant growth, groundwater recharge, and stream recharge due to 

increases in evaporation and decreases in precipitation. Longer and more severe fire seasons, and 

altered frequency, severity, timing, and spatial extent of disturbance events (such as droughts, 

flash floods, landslides, windstorms, and ice storms) could make soils more susceptible to 

erosion. 
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Desired Conditions

Ecological and hydrologic functions are not impaired by reduced soil quality. The soil quality is 

satisfactory across the national forest. Vegetation and litter limit the formation of rills, gullies, and 

pedestals; excessive soil deposition, and topsoil loss. Soils provide for diverse native plant 

species. Vegetative ground cover is distributed across the soil surface as described for forestwide 

vegetation community desired conditions and promotes nutrient cycling and water infiltration. 

Objective

1. Every 10 years enhance or restore 2,500 to 15,000 acres of uplands with vegetation 

treatments or soil and watershed restoration treatments to attain necessary ground cover by 

litter and ground cover by plant basal area. 

Management Approach

1. Prioritizing watershed improvement projects based on implementing objectives for vegetation 

communities. 

Air

General Description

In 1955, Congress passed the first Federal Clean Air Act (P.L.84-159) with later amendments in 

1967, 1970, 1977, and 1990. Implementation of this Federal law is largely the responsibility of 

the states, which may develop programs that are more restrictive than the Clean Air Act requires 

but never less. The State of Arizona has developed a state implementation plan, and the State of 

New Mexico has developed a smoke management program; each outlines how the states are 

implementing the goals of the Clean Air Act, and contains statutes that regulate burning, 

including use of wildland fire on Federal and state lands. Two types of air quality impacts are 

addressed by these laws and regulations: health hazards from pollutants and visibility impacts in 

class I airsheds. 

The Clean Air Act establishes National Ambient Air Quality Standards for six principal pollutants 

that pose health hazards: carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter less than 10 

microns in size (PM10), particulate matter less than 2.5 microns in size (PM2.5), ozone, and sulfur 

dioxide. The major pollutant of concern in smoke from wildland fire, both planned and unplanned 

ignitions, is fine particulate matter (Ottmar 2001). Particles larger than 10 microns in size tend to

settle out of the air; smaller particles remain airborne and can cause respiratory problems. Studies 

indicate that 90 percent of smoke particles emitted during wildland fires are PM10, and about 90 

percent of PM10 is PM2.5 (Ward and Hardy 1991). 

Human health studies on the effects of particulate matter indicate that PM2.5 is largely responsible 

for health effects (Dockery et al. 1993). The small size of PM2.5 is why it has an especially long 

residence time in the atmosphere and penetrates deeply into the lungs (Ottmar 2001). The Clean 

Air Act defines the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for PM2.5 as an annual mean of 15 

micrograms per cubic meter, and a 24-hour average of 35 micrograms per cubic meter. At this 

concentration or above, PM2.5 is considered to have a detrimental effect on public health. It is 

important to note that it is not the total amount of emissions from a fire that have effects on 

human health, but how concentrated pollutants in ambient air are for a period of time. 

Atmospheric conditions during a fire have a considerable influence on how particulate matter is 

distributed through the ambient air and its potential to affect public health. Wind speed and 
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64

direction, height of atmospheric mixing, atmospheric temperature profile, and atmospheric 

stability all affect where and how well smoke will disperse.

Regional haze is air pollution that is transported long distances, causing reduced visibility. The 

same particulate matter that poses human health risks is also largely responsible for impairments 

to visibility. 

In addition to establishing standards for national ambient air quality for airsheds within the U.S., 

the Clean Air Act established special goals for visibility in many national parks, wilderness areas, 

and international parks. Through the 1977 amendments to the Clean Air Act, Congress set a 

national goal for visibility as “the prevention of any future, and the remedying of any existing, 

impairment of visibility in mandatory class I Federal areas, which impairment results from 

manmade air pollution.” The amendments required the Environmental Protection Agency to issue 

regulations to assure “reasonable progress” toward meeting the national goal. 

Through the 1999 Regional Haze Rule, the Environmental Protection Agency directed states to

establish goals for each affected class I area to: (1) improve visibility on the haziest days, and (2) 

ensure no degradation occurs on the clearest days over the period of each implementation plan. 

Air above the Coronado National Forest is divided into five airsheds, four in Arizona, and one in 

New Mexico. Airsheds are used to describe air quality-related values and impairment by 

pollutants, including smoke and emissions from permitted activities. The Clean Air Act as 

amended assigns Federal land managers—in this case the forest supervisor—the responsibility to 

protect air quality-related values in class I airsheds, and to protect human health, plant and animal 

health, and visual quality in all areas. There are two class I airsheds within the Coronado National 

Forest: the Chiricahua Wilderness and Galiuro Wilderness. Two additional class I airsheds are 

adjacent to the Coronado National Forest: Saguaro National Park and Chiricahua National 

Monument. Of the various Coronado National Forest programs, fire management has the most 

notable activities that involve air quality.

Based on projections of future climate change for the region, airsheds are susceptible to increased 

levels of pollutants (particulates and aerosols) resulting from longer, more severe fire seasons, 

increased occurrence of warmer air masses that can suspend higher concentrations of pollutants, 

and frequent or intense windstorms that can transport pollutants and fugitive dust short and long 

distances.

Desired Conditions

Air quality above the Coronado National Forest meets Federal and State air quality standards, 

including standards for visibility and health hazards from pollutants. Air quality-related values, 

including high quality visual conditions, are maintained within the class I airsheds over the 

Galiuro and Chiricahua Wilderness areas.

Guideline

1. Class I and class II airsheds should be considered when determining the response to wildland 

fires.

Management Approaches

1. Managing and coordinating the timing, duration, and frequency of planned ignitions 

throughout the Coronado to minimize regional impacts to air quality. 
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2. Participating with the States of Arizona and New Mexico in the air quality regulatory process 

by reviewing air permit applications for new and modified industrial facilities to ensure that 

their air emissions do not adversely impact the air quality-related values (such as visibility) of 

federally protected wilderness areas.

3. Coordinating with Arizona Department of Environmental Quality and New Mexico 

Environmental Department regarding all particulate matter and fugitive dust issues associated 

with Forest Service activities.

Animals and Rare Plants

General Description

The Coronado National Forest has the highest biological diversity of any national forest in the 

western United States. This is because it is situated at a convergence zone of ecological regions, 

and has a wide variety of vegetation communities and steep elevation gradients. Biological 

diversity is further enhanced by a long growing season, bimodal precipitation, and the 

evolutionary consequences of isolation in the sky island mountain ranges. 

The number of species inhabiting the Coronado National Forest and adjoining lands is not 

precisely known, and new species are periodically described. Conservative estimates include 

about 2,100 species of plants, 466 species of birds, 110 species of mammals, 91 species of 

reptiles, over 240 species of butterflies, and nearly 200 species of mollusks. 

Based on projected future climate change, terrestrial wildlife species are susceptible to habitat 

loss and fragmentation resulting from more frequent or extreme disturbance events, including 

wildfires, droughts, flash floods, landslides, and windstorms. Wildlife species are also susceptible 

to alterations in the timing of plant phenology events (greenup, flowering, and fruit ripening), 

especially those that influence critical life behaviors (migration, breeding, and dispersal). 

Based on projected future climate change, aquatic species are susceptible to increased water 

temperatures, altered seasonal discharge events, increases in drought severity during summer 

flows, and increased predation pressure. There may be decreases in waterflow and, possibly, a 

shorter period of sustained flows in the spring due to reduced winter snowpack. Sustained flows 

and desired temperatures in the spring are needed for successful spawning. There also may be the 

potential for fragmentation of habitat, with resulting increases in competition and predation in 

pools due to little or no waterflow in some stream segments. 

Desired Conditions

Naturally occurring native ecosystems are present and sustainable across the Coronado National 

Forest, providing habitat to support a full complement of plants and animals, including sensitive 

and rare species. Habitats are interconnected within the national forest boundary while the 

interspaces between ecosystem management areas allow for movement of wide-ranging species 

and promote natural predator-prey relationships. 

Forest boundaries are permeable to animals of all sizes and offer consistent, safe access for 

ingress and egress of wildlife. In particular, segments of the national forest boundary identified in 

figure 3 remain critical interfaces that link wildlife habitat on both sides of the boundary.18

 

18 Boundary areas were selected using data from Arizona’s Wildlife Linkages Assessment, an interagency effort 

available at http://www.azdot.gov/Highways/OES/AZ_WildLife_Linkages/assessment.asp
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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Figure 3. Map of wildlife linkages interface
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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Fences, roads, recreational sites, and other manmade features do not impede animal movement or 

contribute to habitat fragmentation. 

The collection of animals and plants (such as butterflies) does not negatively affect species 

abundance. Native species that are known to have been present during the first decade of the 21st 

century continue to exist. 

In fire adapted ecosystems, fire adapted native plants are abundant when fire is the critical 

catalyst used to establish the natural ecosystem process. Trees in terrestrial and riparian areas 

provide structural features that accommodate arboreal species such as cavity-nesting birds. 

Naturally occurring ground structures similarly allow for resting, breeding, and foraging activities 

by a variety of species. Bats and other cave-dependent wildlife have high-quality habitat in caves 

and abandoned mine features. Permitted activities—such as livestock grazing, outfitter guiding, 

and ecotourism guiding—do not compromise healthy populations of native species, nor do they 

adversely impact habitat components. Hunting, fishing, and other wildlife-based recreation 

activities are encouraged where wildlife populations are flourishing. Human-wildlife conflicts are 

rare. Nonnative species occur only where populations are manageable and/or desirable; generally, 

they are rare across the Coronado.

Guidelines

Guidelines for protecting animals and rare plants are also found in various other sections of 

chapters 2, 3, and 4. 

1. Activities occurring within federally listed species habitat should apply habitat management 

objectives and species protection measures from approved recovery plans. 

2. Where the Forest Service has entered into signed conservation agreements that provide 

guidance on activities or actions to be carried out by national forest staff, those activities or 

actions should be undertaken consistent with the guidance found within those conservation 

agreements. 

3. Guidelines for protecting northern goshawks include the following: 

a. A minimum of three goshawk nest areas and three replacement nest areas should be 

located per goshawk territory. Goshawk nest and replacement nest areas should generally 

be located in drainages, at the base of slopes, and on northerly (northwest to northeast) 

aspects. Nest areas should generally be 25 to 30 acres in size. 

b. Goshawk post-fledging areas of approximately 420 acres in size should be designated 

surrounding nest sites. 

c. In goshawk foraging areas and post-fledging family areas, groups of three to five reserve 

trees should be retained within management created openings greater than 1 acre in 

ponderosa pine-evergreen oak and dry mixed-conifer communities, and six reserve trees 

should be retained within management created openings greater than 0.5 acre in wet 

mixed-conifer and spruce-fir communities. 

d. In occupied goshawk nest areas, human presence should be minimized between March 1 

and September 30 (Reynolds et al. 1992). 

4. Active raptor nests on cliff faces should be protected from disturbance during the nesting 

season. 

5. Trashcans and food storage boxes at developed recreation areas should be wildlife resistant.
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68

6. Identified bat roosts should be protected from disturbance during periods of bat occupancy. 

During nonoccupancy periods, activities should not modify biophysical features that 

contribute to roost habitat quality or contribute to the spread of diseases harmful to bats 

unless unavoidable in order to meet statutory requirements, such as mining law or laws to 

protect public health and safety. 

Management Approaches

1. Maintaining strong partnerships between the Forest Service, State and Federal agencies, 

county and local governments, and nongovernmental organizations to accomplish 

conservation planning and management. 

2. Using results from the monitoring of management indicator species to design adaptive 

management strategies to meet species conservation needs.

3. Cooperating and collaborating with State and Federal wildlife management agencies and 

other partners to monitor and restore wildlife, fish, and rare plant species occurring on 

National Forest System lands. 

4. Coordinating with Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Wildlife Services and State 

and Federal wildlife agencies to resolve wildlife resource conflicts on Forest Service 

administered lands. 

5. Cooperating with State and Federal agencies, counties, and municipal governments, and 

nongovernment organizations to reestablish extirpated species, recover federally listed

species, and to manage Forest Service sensitive species in a way that prevents trends toward 

Federal listing.

6. Coordinating with county, municipal, State, and Federal agencies, adjacent landowners, and 

nongovernmental organizations to ensure habitat connectivity between sky islands is 

preserved, restored, and enhanced for wildlife using corridors between ecosystem 

management areas of the Coronado. In particular, forest boundaries identified as being critical 

for wildlife ingress and egress (see figure 3) are prioritized during coordinated efforts. 

7. Considering potential changes in climate when designing projects and analyzing the effects of 

proposed projects on wildlife species, especially those species that have been identified as 

being sensitive to change.

8. Considering the reintroduction of extirpated species to habitats that are reasonably assured to 

remain suitable through climate change.

Invasive Species

General Description

The Forest Service defines invasive species as “alien species whose introduction does or is likely 

to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health” (Executive Order 13112). 

Alien refers to species that are nonnative to the ecosystem they have infested. Both terrestrial and 

aquatic invasive species are a growing threat to native species, ecosystem function, and the 

quantity of forest goods and services. Invasive plants, such as buffelgrass, threaten native plant 

communities by competing for resources and increasing the frequency and intensity of fire 

regimes. Even though complete eradication of invasive species is not always possible, aggressive 

control of existing populations is important to protect native ecosystem diversity. 
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Based on projections of future climate change for the region, conditions could favor the spread 

and establishment of invasive species, which are often more widely adapted to a range of climates 

and often early colonizers following disturbances. 

Desired Conditions

Infestations of invasive exotic plants do not contribute to the loss of native species or impairment 

of ecosystem function. Invasive animals are nonexistent or occur in low numbers and do not 

significantly affect the productivity or sustainability of native wildlife.

Objective

1. See objective for “Desert Communities” on page 24. 

Guideline

1. Habitat improvement and aquatic restoration projects within or adjacent to water sources 

occupied by ranid frogs (see glossary), Northern Mexican Gartersnake, Sonora tiger 

salamanders, or native fish should include provisions to remove nonnative invasive animals.

Management Approaches

1. Detecting and treating new populations of invasive species before they become established.

2. Eradicating or managing invasive species with a coordinated approach using integrated pest 

management.

3. Coordinating the integrated pest management approach with the plans and efforts of other 

Federal, State, and local agencies, nongovernmental organizations, volunteers, partners, and 

landowners. 

4. Developing treatment plans and actions that are responsive to current guidance regarding 

public and ecosystem health, which contribute to the protection and recovery of federally 

listed and Forest Service sensitive wildlife and plant species.

5. Following the “Forest Service Guide to Noxious Weed Prevention Practices.”19

19 The “Forest Service Guide to Noxious Weed Prevention Practices” describes practices for preventing weed 

infestations during fire management activities, timber harvest, grazing management, mineral development, 

recreation, road maintenance, and special use projects. These practices include equipment cleaning, using 

weed-free hay, seed mixes, and fill materials, and requiring these practices in contracts and special use 

permits.

 

6. Working with local governments and communities to discourage the use of non-native species 

for vegetation and landscaping projects adjacent to the national forest.

Forest Products

General Description

Common forest products available from the Coronado National Forest include sawlogs, 

fuelwood, cactus, and beargrass. Sawlogs and fuelwood are generally available as byproducts of 

forest restoration or forest fuels reduction projects. Other less common forest products include 

manzanita, ferns, and mushrooms. 

 
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It is unclear how a changing climate may alter the availability of forest products in the future. 

Some species that are more adapted to drier climates may be more abundant, while others may 

become less abundant. An increased need for fuels reduction and restoration projects to restore 

ecosystem resilience may increase the availability of sawlogs and fuelwood during some periods. 

Desired Conditions

A sustainable supply of wood products (small roundwood, sawlogs, biomass, fuelwood) and other 

products (Christmas trees, beargrass, cactus, ferns, and fungi) are provided within the capacity of 

the land to produce these goods. Results of silvicultural treatments reflect natural disturbance 

regimes and contribute to ecosystem sustainability. Forest products, particularly those related to 

wood fiber, are made available as part of fuel treatment projects and restoration activities. 

Standards

1. Harvesting systems should be selected based on their ability to meet desired conditions and 

not on their ability to provide the greatest dollar return. 

2. On lands classified as not suited for timber production, timber harvesting should only be used 

for making progress toward desired conditions or for salvage, sanitation, public health, or 

safety, or if needed to meet statutory requirements, such as mining law. 

Guideline

1. Timber harvest activities should be carried out in a manner consistent with maintaining or 

making progress toward the desired conditions in this plan. 

Management Approaches

1. Making timber and other forest products available for the public through personal use permits 

or commercial sales.

2. Working with agencies and private organizations to promote forest product use where it is 

available as a result of forest management activities.

3. Encouraging use of forest products through stewardship contracting in lieu of onsite burning 

or chipping.

4. Ensuring the continued sustainability of special forest products, such as tree boughs, 

fuelwood, posts and poles, wildflowers, mushrooms, grasses, seeds, nuts, cones, and berries 

through monitoring commercial sales and free use permit harvest levels. 

5. Recognizing the rights of members of Tribes whose aboriginal territories include the land 

now administered by the Coronado National Forest to collect forest materials for traditional, 

cultural, and religious uses. 

6. Collaborating through government-to-government agreements with Tribal governments on 

the management of species important to maintaining the social and cultural well-being of 

Tribes.
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Minerals

General Description

There are three categories of minerals potentially found on the Coronado. These are referred to as 

locatable, leasable, and salable minerals; each is subject to different laws and implementing 

regulations. Locatable minerals such as gold, silver, and copper are subject to location under the 

mining laws. The Forest Service role in managing such resources is to provide reasonable 

protection of surface resources. The agency does not have the authority to outright deny locatable 

mineral activities providing they follow applicable laws and regulations. Leasable minerals 

include oil and gas, coal, and certain other commodities such as potash, which is a solid leasable 

mineral. The Forest Service role in managing such resources is to recommend or consent to the 

Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management whether leases for these commodities 

should be issued, and specify any surface resource protections that may be needed. The last 

category, salable minerals, applies to mineral materials such as sand and gravel for which the 

Forest Service has total discretion to manage. It is Forest Service policy to support responsible, 

environmentally sound energy and mineral development and reclamation on the Coronado 

National Forest.

The potential for locatable minerals within the boundaries of the Coronado National Forest is 

high because the geology of the area is conducive to their creation, and the fault block mountain 

ranges expose these mineralized zones in a number of places. Locatable mineral resources occur 

on all ranger districts on the Coronado National Forest. There are numerous active mining claims 

throughout the Coronado, but most prominently within the Sierra Vista and Nogales Ranger 

Districts. Pursuant to Federal mining laws, the Forest Service is required to respond to proposals 

for conducting exploration and mining operations. The Forest Service must determine whether to 

approve the preliminary plan of operations submitted, or to require changes or additions deemed 

necessary to meet the requirement of the regulations for environmental protection. All proposals 

must comply with Federal and State laws and regulations, and should be managed to reduce 

adverse environmental impacts to the extent practicable on National Forest System lands.

The potential for leasable minerals such as oil or gas is low. However, there is potential for 

leasable potash minerals bearing the commodity of potassium on the Coronado. The Forest 

Service would make a recommendation for a lease to the Bureau of Land Management, which is 

the lead agency for solid leasable potash minerals. Stipulations to protect surface resources would 

be made for exploration or mining. 

Common variety, or salable, minerals have never been a significant component of minerals 

operations on the Coronado, and there is only one saleable mineral operation in 2013. The 

Coronado has a handful of active rock pits used for aggregate road base and fill.

Desired Conditions

Opportunities for environmentally sound minerals development are available. Important wildlife 

habitats20 and areas where appropriated funds have been expended are protected through legally 

appropriate methods from locatable mineral activities. Adverse surface resource impacts are 

minimized through the appropriate administration of mineral laws and regulations. 

All mineral exploration and mining activities are operating in environmentally sound ways 

through protection and mitigation measures, including adequate post-mining reclamation 

 

20 Habitat of species having a very limited range and specific habitat requirements not found elsewhere where 

law and regulation alone do not adequately protect the resource. 
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assurances, to minimize environmental impacts to other national forest resources. Abandoned and 

inactive mines disturbed by past mineral exploration and mine development have been returned to 

stable conditions and an appropriate, functioning, vegetative state, and do not pose health, safety, 

or environmental hazards. 

Standards

1. Permanent structures and/or occupancy for mining purposes are limited to only those that are 

necessary and incidental to approved mining operations. 

2. Only native or nonpersistent non-native seed and plant materials will be used when 

revegetating disturbed sites.

Guidelines

1. Talus slopes should not be used as a common variety mineral materials source where 

disturbance would destabilize the talus slopes and alter any endemic or rare species habitat or 

presence. 

2. Mine reclamation should use a geomorphic approach that results in landforms similar to 

adjacent natural terrain and hydrologic functions similar to natural systems to minimize longterm monitoring and maintenance requirements. 

3. Mining activities should incorporate reclamation measures that reduce contrasts with the 

surrounding landscapes. 

Management Approach

1. Using operating plans and bonds for reclamations to protect and restore surface resources.

2. Coordinate with operators, permittees, other agencies, and stakeholders during the 

environmental review of proposed mineral operations. 

Public Access 

General Description

Public access to the Coronado National Forest is provided through a system of arterial, collector, 

and local roads and trails, which are interconnected with public roads, highways, and trails (local, 

county, State, and other Federal) within, adjacent to, and adjoining the national forest. Within the 

Coronado National Forest boundary, there are numerous scattered private inholdings with roads 

and trails often crossing these inholdings to access National Forest System lands adjacent to and 

adjoining them. At the national forest boundary, there are about 300 motorized access points; less 

than one-third of these provide permanent legal access. Most access points are located at an 

interface of National Forest System and non-Federal lands (State, county, private, and other 

ownerships). A number of trailheads located at the national forest boundary provide nonmotorized 

access to wilderness and National Forest System lands. Many private roads and trails that provide 

access to National Forest System lands across non-Federal lands (State, county, private, and other 

ownerships) within and adjacent to the Coronado National Forest have no legal right of public 

access (written and unwritten title) and may be closed without notice.
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Desired Conditions 

Permanent legal access to and within the Coronado National Forest for public and administrative 

users is available and easily accessible on a system of forest arterial, collector, and local roads 

and trails that are interconnected with public roads, highways, and trails (local, county, State, and 

other Federal) adjacent to, adjoining, and within the national forest.

Legal status deficiencies of the existing system of forest roads and trails have been resolved; 

these roads and trails are available for use by public lands users, unless restricted for 

administrative purposes. 

Objective

1. Increase the number of permanent legal access routes to and within the Coronado National 

Forest by resolving the legal status deficiencies of 40 to 50 existing and proposed National 

Forest System roads and trails, using a variety of methods every 10 years.

Standard

1. Where an existing road through non-Federal lands (State, county, private, and other 

ownerships) to and within the Coronado National Forest, which has traditionally provided 

public access to National Forest System roads and trails, is closed to public use by a nonFederal landowner or agency (State, county, private, and other ownerships) and a right of 

public access (written or unwritten title) does not exist:

a. Limit the use of the road(s) across National Forest System lands to administrative 

purposes or only where specifically authorized under the terms of a permit. 

b. Do not allow ancillary uses of roads that are not open to the public outside the terms of a 

permit.

Guidelines

1. Where no legal right of public or administrative access exists (written or unwritten title) or 

can’t be determined, needed right-of-way easements for existing and proposed roads and 

trails through non-Federal lands (State, county, private, and others) adjacent to, adjoining, 

within, or a combination thereof, should be acquired using a variety of methods. 

2. If a non-Federal landowner or agency (State, county, private, and other ownerships) is 

unwilling to grant needed right-of-way easements for an existing or proposed road or trail 

alignment, the road or trail should be realigned and/or reconstructed. Construction around the 

non-Federal land onto National Forest System, other Federal, and non-Federal lands (State, 

county, private, and other ownerships), or a combination thereof, where a permanent legal 

right of public access exists should be secured unless it is not needed.

3. Exclusive motorized and nonmotorized access routes to the National Forest System roads and 

trails from adjacent private developments, and subdivisions, and other non-Federal 

ownerships (State, county, and others) should not be authorized. 

4. Access routes to National Forest System roads and trails from adjacent private developments, 

subdivisions, and other non-Federal ownerships or agencies (State, county, and others) should 

be available for use by the public. If access is not available to the public, access to the 

national forest from adjacent private developments, subdivisions, and other non-Federal 

ownerships should not be authorized. 
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5. Legal public access to National Forest System lands should not be decreased, unless 

restricted for Forest Service administrative purposes.21 

Management Approaches

1. Determining the legal status of an existing forest road and trail that has been closed by a nonFederal landowner or agency (private, State, county, and other ownerships). 

2. Working closely and in partnership with private landowners, county, State, and other Federal 

agencies, third parties, interested organizations, and individuals to resolve public access 

issues and to ensure permanent legal public access to the various parts of the Coronado on 

local, county, State, or permanent National Forest System roads and trails that meet Forest 

Service management objectives.

Motorized Transportation System

General Description

The motorized transportation system available for public use is displayed on motor vehicle use 

maps. The motor vehicle use maps include designated roads, trails, and areas for each ecosystem 

management area. The designations include vehicle class, time of year of use, and any 

designations for motorized use associated with dispersed camping. Motor vehicle use maps are 

reviewed and updated as needed on an annual basis. The Coronado National Forest motorized 

transportation system also includes National Forest System roads that are only available for 

administrative and permitted use. This system of roads is not displayed on the motor vehicle use 

map. 

Based on projections of future climate change for the region, roads are susceptible to the altered 

frequency, severity, timing, and spatial extent of disturbance events (such as flash floods and 

landslides). Increased recreational use to escape summer heat could lead to additional wear and 

tear and heavy use of roads in some areas.

Desired Conditions

The Coronado National Forest has a designated system of routes open for motor vehicle use by 

the public. The motorized transportation system is environmentally sustainable and meets public 

needs and desires under a changing climate. It provides access to National Forest System lands 

for public and administrative use (see “Public Access”). All roads including access roads to 

wilderness trailheads or wild backcountry trails and routes are maintained for safe travel by trail 

users. Visitors are respectful and stay on designated routes: they do not create new routes or 

expand existing trails, they avoid sensitive habitats like wetlands and meadows, and they cross 

streams only at fords where the road or trail intersects the stream and redundancy is minimized. 

Class of vehicle is appropriate for a given road level, and user conflicts are minimal. Arterial 

access roads are readily identifiable and have surfaces that are suitable for passenger car use and 

emergency vehicles. There is adequate signing to assist travelers with finding their destination. 

The occurrence of gullies, washouts, or slides is minimal. Road edges are intact and safe even in 

excessive traffic areas. There are adequate turnouts or passing areas and adequate sight distances 

available.

 

21 This does not apply to temporary closure orders due to road conditions or public safety.
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High-clearance roads and motorized trails are available for exploring the Coronado in offhighway vehicles in a responsible and respectful manner. Users do not cause unacceptable 

resource damage or create unauthorized routes. Roads are suitable for low traffic volume and low 

speed. Road surfaces are primarily rough or primitive, but most are available for use by the more 

experienced traveler with a high ground-clearance vehicle. These roads provide opportunities in 

appropriate places for safe, responsible motorized recreation and provide varying backcountry 

touring experiences for a variety of vehicle classes. Long distance loop routes provide 

opportunities for extended day trips with varying levels of challenge. Where appropriate, 

motorized trails provide a distinct backcountry touring experience for motorcycles, all-terrain 

vehicles, and utility-terrain vehicles and minimize conflicts with other visitors.

The existing road system provides adequate access for resource management activities, sufficient 

legal public access to the Coronado and its amenities such as campgrounds and trailheads, and 

access for homeland security purposes near the international border. Trailhead parking adequately 

accommodates vehicles and trucks pulling trailers, where appropriate. 

There is an ongoing road maintenance program to prevent damage to resources from roads and to 

support safe travel by the public in a variety of vehicle types. Unneeded roads, as identified 

through the transportation analysis planning process, are closed and rehabilitated to reduce human 

disturbance to wildlife and to reduce soil erosion. 

Objectives

1. Complete maintenance on at least 150 miles of high-clearance (maintenance level 2) roads 

annually. 

2. Complete maintenance on at least 200 miles of passenger car (maintenance levels 3, 4, and 5) 

roads annually throughout the plan period, based on a safety prioritization. 

3. Decommission, close, and restore 3 to 10 miles of unneeded nonsystem roads annually 

throughout the plan period, except for roads identified for potential public access routes.

4. Install at least one hardened road surface each year at drainage crossings where erosion, 

sedimentation, or risks to water quality from road-stream crossings are affecting wildlife 

habitat in order to prevent downstream effects.

5. Realign or remove 2 miles of roads in wetlands or meadows within 10 years of plan 

implementation.

Standards

1. Motor vehicle use is allowed on the designated system of roads and motorized trails shown 

on the motor vehicle use map that is available at each ranger district office. Motor vehicle use 

is prohibited in all other locations, unless it is specifically authorized by law, permit, and/or 

orders issued by the Forest Service in conjunction with resource management and public 

safety actions.

2. Within inventoried roadless areas, roadless character shall be maintained.

Guidelines

1. Where impacts to archaeological sites from road maintenance are unavoidable, they should be 

mitigated by adding fill to protect sites, ensuring leadout ditches and other features are not 

excavated within sites, or by conducting archaeological data recovery (see “Cultural 

Resources” section). 
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2. New road construction in meadows and wetlands should be avoided where physically or 

financially feasible. If these activities are unavoidable, they should be designed and 

implemented to minimize effects to waterflow, wetland recharge, and ecosystem function.

3. New road construction in riparian areas should be avoided, except to cross the riparian area, 

unless alternate routes are physically or financially infeasible or have greater overall resource 

impacts. If these activities are unavoidable, they should be designed and implemented to 

minimize effects to natural waterflow and native vegetation communities.

4. Construction of roads across highly erodible soils and areas of high and very high scenic 

integrity should be avoided unless as needed to meet statutory requirements, such as mining 

law or laws to protect public health and safety. 

Management Approaches

1. Seeking easements and road maintenance agreements with local government agencies and 

private organizations to supplement Forest Service funded maintenance. 

2. Conducting road maintenance activities with the priorities of maintaining public access, 

protecting the road investment, protecting other resources, user safety, and user economy. 

3. Establishing partnerships with local off-highway vehicle user groups and the Arizona State 

Parks Off-highway Vehicle Ambassador Program to encourage safe, responsible off-highway 

vehicle use and to improve public outreach and education. 

4. Evaluating travel routes (authorized, unauthorized, or closed) to designate motorized trails 

that provide a distinct backcountry touring experience for motorcycles, all-terrain vehicles, 

and utility-terrain vehicles where compatible with other resource objectives. 

5. Prioritizing road decommissioning for areas that will function as high quality wildlife habitat 

and quiet areas.

6. Following existing memorandums of understanding, agreements, and guidelines with public 

road agencies and cooperators regarding operation and maintenance in easements on National 

Forest System land.

Recreation

General Description

The Coronado National Forest offers a rich variety of year-round recreational opportunities in 

diverse settings, which contributes to the quality of life enjoyed by residents and visitors alike. 

Some of the most popular recreation activities on the Coronado include hiking, viewing natural 

features and wildlife, relaxing, driving for pleasure, nature center activities, nature study, 

picnicking, visiting historic sites, camping, off-highway vehicle riding, fishing, and hunting 

(USDA FS 2015b). Higher elevations on the Coronado are most popular during the summer, 

offering temperatures 20 or more degrees cooler than the desert. Higher elevations provide shady 

conifer forests, lush streams, mountain meadows, and awe-inspiring views across southeastern 

Arizona. These mountaintop sites also provide opportunities to ski and play in the snow during 

the winter months. Many of the low elevation recreation areas are located in scenic canyons or 

foothills, and these sites are most popular during the fall, winter, and spring. Some of the special 

places on the Coronado National Forest include Sabino Canyon Recreation Area, which hosts a 

visitor center and a shuttle system, and Mount Lemmon, a scenic byway that climbs from deserts 

to pines and offers numerous vista points, several campgrounds, and a ski area. There are four 
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lakes on the Coronado National Forest, providing fishing, boating, and lakeside camping. Madera 

Canyon and Cave Creek Canyon offer world-renowned birdwatching opportunities. In several 

locations on the Coronado, visitors can rent historic cabins. Visitors can explore numerous scenic 

drives on the Coronado National Forest, and three designated scenic byways. Eight wilderness 

areas provide places to explore and experience quiet and solitude, and there are over 1,100 miles 

of trail available, including the Arizona National Scenic Trail.

The recreation opportunity spectrum provides a framework that allows the Forest Service to 

manage a variety of recreation environments for visitors to enjoy. The settings are defined by a 

number of indicators: access, remoteness, naturalness, facilities and site management, social 

encounters, visitor impacts, and visitor management. Opportunities are provided along the 

spectrum from a very high probability of solitude, self-reliance, challenge, and risk (primitive) to 

very social experiences where self-reliance, challenge, and risk are relatively low (rural or urban)

(USDA FS 1986). 

Based on projections of future climate change, some recreation sites and transportation networks 

are susceptible to increased use for relief from increased temperatures in urban areas, and to 

damage from altered frequency, severity, timing, and spatial extent of disturbance events (such as

fires, droughts, flash floods, landslides, and windstorms). Winter activities, such as skiing, may be 

reduced due to a reduction in snowpack under higher temperatures.

Desired Conditions

The diverse landscapes of the Coronado National Forest offer a variety of settings for a broad 

range of recreational opportunities and a place for visitors to escape from busy urban life into 

quiet, natural, wild places. Landscapes range from primitive settings that provide opportunities 

for solitude to more developed, rustic settings that provide opportunities for social interaction and 

greater human comforts. Although development and population in the region continue to grow, 

recreation settings on the Coronado National Forest are stable, retaining their natural character, 

and loss of remote, undeveloped settings does not occur. Recreation activities are balanced with 

the ability of the land to support them and create minimal user conflicts. The Coronado National 

Forest fulfills a unique and vital role as a place of learning and caring about the environment. 

Demand for recreation is accommodated within the capacity of the land to support it, and areas 

that can accommodate additional use, such as at Peña Blanca Lake, are fully utilized. Recreation 

on the Coronado National Forest enhances the quality of life for residents and provides tourist 

destinations, which contribute to local economies. Interpretation and visitor education programs 

help visitors understand how to reduce their impacts on ecosystems, and visitors actively help 

support the Coronado National Forest’s efforts to protect natural resources and wilderness values. 

Low-impact recreation principles are promoted and widely practiced by the visiting public. 

Developed recreation facilities such as campgrounds and picnic areas provide a range of visitor 

needs; most areas have simple facilities like picnic tables and vault toilets, while some offer 

additional amenities such as paved roads, flush toilets, and recreational vehicle hookups. 

Recreation facilities are clean, in good repair, and provide a safe setting for visitors. Most meet 

accessibility guidelines. Visitor centers are open to the public on busy days and provide places 

where visitors can find information and learn about natural and cultural resources on the 

Coronado National Forest. Heritage sites provide unique opportunities for visitors to connect with 

the past. Interpretive features help people learn about the special places they visit. Facilities and 

infrastructure are maintained and replaced as needed. Developed sites blend with the natural 

setting, and uses in these places do not cause damage to ecologically sensitive areas. 
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Special use permits augment the variety of suitable outdoor recreation experiences on the 

Coronado National Forest. Permitted facilities blend well into the natural landscape.

Dispersed recreation activities on the Coronado National Forest include hiking, viewing natural 

features and wildlife, relaxing, driving for pleasure, nature study, picnicking, camping, offhighway vehicle riding, fishing, and hunting, among others. Visitors use off-highway vehicles 

responsibly, staying on designated routes and in identified camping areas. Forestwide dispersed 

recreation sites are small and clean, and resource damage is minimal. Managed activities such as 

paintballing, geocaching, and rock climbing do not permanently detract from the natural character 

of the national forest or adversely affect resources. 

Opportunities exist for motorized recreation where designated, with varying experiences for a 

variety of vehicle classes. Forest visitors can enjoy semiprimitive motorized recreation and 

explore the backcountry in off-highway vehicles along designated routes. Noise from motorized 

vehicles is infrequent in locations away from areas of higher road density. In other areas, the 

presence and impact of people and machines is unobtrusive. These areas offer nonmotorized 

recreation opportunities in a variety of settings that provide differing levels of challenge and 

seclusion, while limited primitive or high-clearance roads allow for motorized access. 

Places such as Redington Pass that receive heavy dispersed recreation use and are within easy 

driving distance of urban areas provide opportunities for safe, well-managed recreation. Visitors 

to these areas can enjoy the outdoors in clean, natural settings without conflicts with unsafe or 

illegal activities, or exposure to excessive noise and disturbance.

A system of well-marked and well-maintained nonmotorized trails provides opportunities for 

visitors to explore the Coronado’s wilderness areas and other places without roads. Wilderness 

and other settings where visitors can experience quiet and solitude are well dispersed throughout 

the national forest and easily accessed. Roads to trailheads are open and maintained, and 

trailheads provide adequate parking and vehicle turnaround space. Damage to resources from 

trailheads and trails is minimal. Historic trails are preserved and reestablished where appropriate 

and feasible. Unauthorized user-created (“wildcat”) trails are rare.

Visitors enjoy the beautiful scenery, while understanding that fire and vegetation management 

projects are necessary for the health of vegetation communities within the forest landscape. 

Recreation sites and settings along the international border with Mexico are clean and border 

security infrastructure blends well with the landscape. Visitors understand the risks associated 

with illegal border activity and are informed about appropriate safety precautions. 

Objectives

1. Install wildlife-resistant trash cans at all developed recreation areas and wildlife-resistant 

food storage boxes at all developed campgrounds within 10 years of plan approval. 

2. Evaluate 5 percent of recreation sites annually for conformity with Region 3 Sustainable 

Recreation Strategy Performance and Accomplishment Measures as applicable.

3. Provide opportunities for volunteers to participate in recreation planning, project 

implementation, or operations and maintenance at 15 to 30 recreation sites or facilities 

annually. 

4. Manage wilderness areas to minimum stewardship level within 10-years of plan 

implementation.
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Guidelines

1. The recreation opportunity spectrum framework for guiding recreation planning and 

management and the Coronado National Forest recreation opportunity spectrum maps should 

be incorporated into project designs as they are planned and implemented. 

2. Recreation sites should be managed for capacities that do not cause unacceptable resource 

damage or affect the landscape character.

3. When possible, activities that affect visitors should be scheduled outside of the major 

recreation season.

4. The Coronado National Forest paint color guidelines, the Forest Service’s “Built 

Environment Image Guide” (USDA FS 2001) and the “Coronado National Forest 

Architectural Guidelines for Recreation Residences” (USDA FS 2015a) should be used for 

public and private facilities across the Coronado.

5. In recreation areas popular with Spanish-speaking visitors, information should be provided in 

both English and Spanish. 

6. Rock climbing should be managed to balance demand for the activity and the need to protect 

plants, animals, and other natural resources.

Management Approaches 

1. Using recommendations from various recreation plans (such as concept plans,22

22 Concept plans are mid-level plans for managing recreation activities and facilities within an area such as 

Sabino Canyon or Mount Graham.

 corridor 

management plans, and interpretive plans).

2. Completing recreation management plans as needed. This includes concept plans, corridor 

management plans, interpretive plans, wilderness plans, and others.

3. Encouraging local communities, partnerships, volunteers, and permit holders to help manage 

a sustainable recreation program, and ensuring that partners are recognized for their roles in 

providing recreational opportunities. 

4. Improving an ongoing trail maintenance program and increasing the capacity of long-term 

partnerships to help the Forest Service maintain trails.

5. Establishing an ongoing trail maintenance program and developing long-term partnerships to 

help the Forest Service address international border related impacts such as trail damage and 

trash.

6. Visiting campgrounds and dispersed sites on a regular basis to make public contacts and 

ensure fee compliance, provide information, and promote responsible recreation principles.

7. Considering partnership opportunities to promote stewardship and provide sustainable 

recreation opportunities on the Coronado National Forest. 

8. Working closely with the Department of Homeland Security and Border Patrol to manage 

recreation settings near the international border to ensure visitor safety and reduce associated 

impacts such as trail damage and litter especially in high use recreation areas such as Cave 

Creek, Madera Canyon, Pena Blanca Lake, Parker Canyon Lake, and Carr Canyon).

 
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9. Using the “Coronado National Forest Transition Plan” (USDA FS 2006), “Forest Service 

Outdoor Recreation Accessibility Guidelines” (USDA FS 2013a), and “Forest Service Trail 

Accessibility Guidelines” (USDA FS 2013b) to improve accessibility for visitors.

10. Following the “Coronado National Forest Guidelines for Visitor Information Signs” (USDA 

FS 2014) and developing sign plans as needed for scenic byways and other popular areas to 

provide improved visitor information and a consistent Forest Service image. 

11. Applying for and supporting special area designations (such as National Recreation Area and 

National Recreation Trail) when appropriate to help manage recreation or enhance recreation 

opportunities. 

12. Developing interpretive facilities and conservation education programs to provide 

opportunities for visitors and the increasingly urban population in southeastern Arizona to 

learn about and appreciate nature and wild places.

13. Implementing Travel Management decisions to expand semiprimitive nonmotorized 

opportunities, allocated motorized vehicle access points for dispersed recreation, increase 

fiscal efficiencies, reduce environmental impacts, and support quiet recreation experiences. 

14. Increasing recreation opportunities within the capacity of the land and fiscal resources to 

accommodate forest visitors by expanding existing developed recreation sites and 

encouraging use at underutilized recreation sites.

15. Considering the use of permit and reservation systems to preserve the integrity of the 

Coronado’s natural and cultural resources and to reduce visitor conflicts where recreation 

impacts cannot otherwise be reasonably managed. Examples include activities in wilderness 

areas, popular rock climbing locations, and dispersed activities with the potential for resource 

damage or visitor conflicts. 

16. Exploring options for improving off-highway vehicle opportunities by developing or 

connecting motorized trails. 

17. Improving nonmotorized travel opportunities where such access is currently unavailable by 

constructing new trails or improving existing historic trails. 

18. Working with adjacent landowners to maintain the Arizona National Scenic Trail corridor and 

the condition and character of the surrounding landscape. 

19. Working with adjacent landowners to maintain the Arizona Trail corridor and the condition 

and character of the surrounding landscape.

20. Implementing a sustainable recreation approach consistent with the “Coronado National 

Forest Sustainable Recreation Action Plan” (USDA FS 2015d). 

21. Managing for quiet recreation settings in wilderness, wild backcountry, semi-primitive nonmotorized recreation opportunity settings, and other areas. 

22. Finding opportunities for creating quiet recreation along level 3, 4, and 5 roads and dispersed 

camping areas accessible by low clearance vehicles.

Scenery

General Description

The Coronado National Forest sky islands are unique among the lands in southeastern Arizona. 

Scenery on the Coronado National Forest enhances the quality of life for residents and provides 
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81

tourist destinations, which contribute to local economies. The mountains provide a spectacular 

backdrop for residents living in desert cities, and visitors travel into the Coronado to enjoy the 

natural beauty of these special places year-round. Based on projections of future climate change, 

scenic landscapes are susceptible to increased use for relief from increased temperatures in urban 

areas and to damage from altered frequency, severity, timing, and spatial extent of disturbance 

events (such as fires, droughts, flash floods, landslides, and windstorms).

The Forest Service’s Scenery Management System provides a framework for the inventory, 

analysis, and management of scenery. Five levels of desired scenic integrity are used to manage 

the Coronado National Forest (scenic integrity objectives): very high, high, moderate, low, and 

very low. These objectives determine how much alteration from the landscape character is 

permissible, according to USDA Handbook 701 “Landscape Aesthetics: A Handbook for Scenery 

Management” (USDA FS 1995). Although scenic natural landscapes are the most valued, 

buildings and structures are not always considered negative elements. When they add to the sense 

of place or reflect cultural legacy of an area, they contribute toward scenic integrity. For instance, 

well-designed campgrounds can enhance recreation opportunities and enjoyment of scenery. The 

intent of scenic integrity objectives is to achieve the highest possible scenic integrity. Some areas 

of the Coronado may require restoration in order to move toward or maintain the conditions 

described in the desired conditions. 

Desired Conditions

Scenic resources on the Coronado National Forest are in excellent condition and are sustainable 

and resilient to short-term disturbances and climate change. Visitors enjoy vast open spaces and a 

variety of natural landscapes, including deeply carved desert canyons, riparian corridors with 

towering sycamores and cottonwoods, rolling native grasslands, oak woodlands, and mountaintop 

conifer forests. The Coronado’s sky islands provide a visual backdrop to cities and roads in the 

surrounding deserts. 

Structures and facilities required for serving public use of scenic and recreation resources include 

roads, campgrounds, trails, visitor centers, and observation points. To be functional, these 

facilities are normally visible in immediate foregrounds, but they harmonize with the natural 

setting. Widely scattered, minor deviations in the landscape character are occasionally seen, such 

as distribution and telephone lines and range improvement facilities. In the rare instances where 

visitors see larger utilitarian structures (such as communications towers, transmission lines, 

astrophysical facilities, and administrative sites), these elements blend into the landscape well 

because their design and siting follows the line, form, color, texture, and pattern common in the 

desired landscape character. Mined areas and quarries have been reclaimed and naturalized. 

Most landscapes on the Coronado National Forest feature a mosaic of plant species, structures, 

ages, and densities. Vegetation communities reflect the desired conditions for the associated 

vegetation type. Mature vegetation and large trees are well distributed on the landscape. 

Disturbances, including insect and disease outbreaks and wildfire, occur within their natural scale 

and do not diminish large viewsheds or major portions of any ecosystem management area. Longterm soil and plant productivity, proper functioning ecosystems, and clean water are considered 

important components of scenic quality. Scenic quality is affected for short periods by vegetation 

management projects that benefit long-term ecosystem health. Management activities such as 

vegetation treatments and prescribed fire appear as part of the natural landscape over time and 

management created debris, such as slash along concern level 1 and 2 travelways, are located and 

arranged to minimize their visual disturbance in the immediate foreground (up to 300 feet, unless 

visibility modeling shows that it is less). Treatment boundaries are naturally shaped and blend 
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with existing vegetation patterns and landscape character and encourage vegetation that screens 

unsightly elements (such as administrative buildings, communication sites, and mines) from 

sensitive viewing areas such as campgrounds and trails.

Along scenic byways and other popular travel routes, visitors find occasional developed 

recreation sites that provide desired amenities (restrooms, picnic tables, and so forth), but these 

facilities are in character with the National Forest System setting. Occasionally, visitors see 

unique historic sites; these areas are positive scenic elements, providing a glimpse of times past. 

Private cabins appear rustic and blend with the landscape. New facilities are rare, and they blend 

well into the landscape. Landscapes away from roads provide opportunities for dispersed 

recreation, solitude, and spending time in pristine wildlands with minimal evidence of human 

activity.

Standard

1. Only native or nonpersistent non-native seed and plant materials will be used when 

revegetating disturbed sites.

Guidelines

1. Projects should use the Coronado National Forest Scenery Management System maps (USDA 

FS 2015c) (including scenic integrity, scenic class, and concern levels) and meet scenic 

integrity objectives. 23 Additionally, projects should use the scenery management system 

implementation guide during project design and planning. 

2. Facilities should be designed to complement the landscape by siting them to reduce scenic 

impacts, using dark, neutral colors, and repeating the line, form, texture, pattern, and scale of 

the landscape to blend structures into their surroundings. This applies to public recreation 

sites, administrative sites, facilities owned by other government agencies (except for 

Department of Homeland Security), and permitted structures. Facilities associated with 

locatable mining activities should blend with the natural background. 

3. Department of Homeland Security should attempt to use mitigation measures at their 

facilities24 to minimize impacts to scenic quality. 

4. For vegetation management and forest health improvement projects:

a. Scenic integrity objectives may be temporarily lowered in the short term if necessary to 

meet project objectives, but should meet scenic integrity objectives over the long term.25

b. Vegetation management projects should mimic natural vegetation patterns, design 

treatment boundaries to blend with surrounding landscape, avoid even spacing of retained 

trees, leave a diversity of tree species and sizes, avoid damage to vegetation that will 

remain, avoid removing or burning vegetation that screens unsightly facilities, and 

naturalize disturbed areas. 

c. Prescribed slash treatment in the immediate foreground (up to 300 feet) of concern level 

1 and 2 travelways should be completed as soon as conditions permit. 

 

23 https://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/coronado/landmanagement/resourcemanagement/?cid=stelprdb5123248 24 Department of Homeland Security facilities may be noticeable throughout the ranger districts along the 

international border. Locations are not shown on the scenic integrity objectives map. 25 Provide written documentation in the project-level analysis and decision that defines “short term” and “long 

term” for the project, and describes the timeline for completion and final expectations for appearance.
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d. Healthy large trees should be favored as a larger proportion of the immediate foreground 

along concern level 1 and 2 travelways, unless doing so would not achieve project goals. 

e. In the immediate foreground along concern level 1 and 2 travelways, trees should be 

marked in a manner that minimizes long-term visual effects and stumps should be treated 

to reduce their visibility by methods such as cutting as low as possible (no more than 6 

inches above ground on uphill side) and angling large stump faces away from viewing 

locations unless doing so would pose a safety hazard. 

f. Log decks should be removed, and actions should be taken to naturalize disturbed areas 

such as skid trails landings, and temporary roads as soon as conditions permit. If trails are 

used as skid trails or haul roads, trail should be cleaned up and rehabilitated. 

5. Effects from prescribed fire should be considered during project planning and 

implementation. Blackened and scorched vegetation may be visible in project areas in the 

short term following treatments, but scenic integrity objectives should be met in the long 

term, though blackened trunks may remain visible. 

6. Range facilities26 are allowed in all scenic integrity objectives, but should use mitigation 

measures to minimize impacts to scenic quality.

7. New facilities added to communication sites, astrophysical complexes, and administrative 

sites should be clustered within existing areas. Facility colors and materials should blend with 

the landscape, structures should generally be below the height of vegetation, and vegetation 

that screens views to facilities should be protected and encouraged unless doing so would not 

achieve project goals.

8. Activities that affect scenic quality should be scheduled outside of the major recreation 

season, unless doing so would not achieve project goals or would conflict with wildlife 

restrictions.

9. New utility lines should be buried in areas with sensitive scenic resources, such as areas 

along scenic byways, nationally designated trails, and within recreation areas unless as 

needed to meet statutory requirements, such as mining law or laws to protect public health 

and safety. Existing utility lines that do not meet scenic integrity objectives should be buried 

or relocated to reduce scenic impacts whenever opportunities become available (such as when 

poles are replaced).

10. Active mineral exploration may not meet the scenic integrity objectives in the short term.27

Exploratory mining drill pads and temporary access roads should be reclaimed by 

recontouring topography and revegetating sites so they mimic adjacent landscapes after 

project completion to meet scenic integrity objectives.

11. Mines and quarries should be reclaimed by shaping topography and vegetating sites so that 

they blend with adjacent landscapes unless doing so would cause greater resource impacts. 

 

26 Range facilities may be noticeable throughout ranger districts on the Coronado National Forest. Locations are 

not shown on the scenic integrity objectives map. 27 Provide written documentation in the project-level analysis and decision that defines “short term” and “long 

term” for the project, and describes the timeline for completion and final expectations for appearance.
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Management Approaches

1. Restoring scenic quality in areas where it has been negatively impacted as other project work 

is accomplished and/or funds are available.

2. Applying for and/or supporting special area designations (such as scenic byways and national 

scenic trails), where appropriate, to help protect scenic resources.

3. Considering the use of interpretive signs at the site of vegetation treatments and natural 

disturbances to inform the public about the nature and consequences of such projects or 

events.

4. Cooperating with other entities, such as the Arizona Department of Transportation, local 

governments, and commercial and private entities to protect scenic integrity on and adjacent 

to the national forest, including along scenic byways. 

5. Improving areas with poor existing scenic conditions (areas with existing scenic integrity of 

low, very low, or unacceptably low) by removing unwanted facilities and revegetating bare 

ground. 

6. Removing facilities (buildings, utility poles/lines, and other structures) that are no longer 

useful, unless they are historic or desired features.

7. Working with landowners, communities, local governments, and partners to promote 

voluntary open space conservation. 

8. Updating the corporate scenic integrity objective map if there are permanent changes to 

scenic integrity objectives.

Special Uses

General Description

The Coronado National Forest administers over 620 special use authorizations. These uses 

include such activities as outfitting and guiding, research, various types of utility lines, 

communications sites, road permits and easements, and recreation residences. Also included are 

permits for campground, marina, and store facilities; filming; and numerous recreation events. 

The Coronado National Forest also supports, through the permitting process, military, local law 

enforcement, and Department of Homeland Security activities.

Desired Conditions

Special use activities on National Forest System lands provide needed services to communities 

that cannot be reasonably accommodated on non-Federal lands. These activities supplement and 

complement services that the Coronado National Forest provides. Environmental, social, and 

visual impacts are minimized; the permit area and duration are the minimum necessary to 

accommodate the use.

Objective

1. Phase out permits for isolated cabins and privately owned residences that are not part of the 

recreation residence program by 2028. 
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Standards

1. A special use permit is required for collection of plants or animals for commercial purposes.

2. Major utility corridor development is confined to the area identified and mapped in the 2008 

“West-wide Energy Corridor Programmatic EIS.” 

3. Communications sites will be managed to the following standards:

a. Maximize the colocation of new and existing buildings and structures. 

b. Site use shall be allocated to users on a facility-need basis.

c. Maintenance of National Forest System roads and trails to access communication sites, 

above and beyond normal Forest Service maintenance, or use and maintenance of private 

roads, will be carried out by the facility owner or association only after obtaining the 

proper authorizing document (such as a road use permit). 

d. Clearing of vegetation will be limited to that which poses a hazard to facilities and 

operational efficiency (see the communication site plan for further direction). 

e. High- and low-power communication uses will be authorized only where designated as 

such in the communications site plans. Any potential electromagnetic interference must 

be resolved by the site users before construction can proceed. Senior uses on a site have 

priority over new or proposed uses. Microwave corridors will be protected from 

electromagnetic interference.

f. All new and replacement towers must be self-supporting.28

g. New and replacement antennas and towers will be below the height for which the Federal 

Aviation Administration requires lights because of the interference with the fire lookout 

tower and aesthetics.

h. All utility lines connecting to communications sites will be buried underground. 

i. All buildings and towers will meet color requirements set forth in the Coronado National 

Forest’s “Architectural Guidelines for Recreation Residences” (USDA FS 2015a). 

Microwave dishes will use dark grey/brown covers. Other antennas will be dark 

grey/brown, when available through the manufacturer. 

4. Limit motorized special use activities to existing National Forest System roads and motorized 

trails. 

5. Require obliteration of non-National Forest System trails created by activities authorized 

under special use permits when the permit expires. 

Guidelines

1. Facilities should be sited and designed to blend into the landscape as much as possible. 

Whenever possible, heights of structures should be kept below the height of surrounding 

vegetation, and vegetation that screens views to utilitarian facilities should be protected and 

encouraged.

 

28 Self-supporting towers do not have supporting structures or wires and, therefore, minimize land area impacts.
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2. Phone and power distribution lines that cross National Forest System lands to access private 

inholdings or Forest Service facilities should be located and designed so as to be screened by 

topography or vegetation as much as possible. 

3. Phone or power distribution line requests to cross National Forest System lands to access 

private lands outside the national forest boundary should not be permitted outside of existing 

utility corridors.

4. New or reconstructed utility lines should be placed underground when possible to protect 

scenic resources, unless this is not feasible because of overriding environmental concerns or 

technical considerations.

5. New electric transmission lines and natural gas pipelines should be located in existing 

corridors that meet the scenic integrity objective. Existing corridors that do not meet the 

scenic integrity objective should be relocated when construction becomes necessary.

6. Public road or trail access to special use areas such as communication sites should not be 

restricted unless there are security, safety, or other concerns.

7. Requests for permits or easements for private gates, driveways, trails, or roads to cross 

National Forest System lands to access private lands located outside the national forest 

boundary should be denied unless a public benefit can be shown, such as a reciprocal 

easement.

Management Approaches

1. Maintaining existing communications sites and completing site management plans for all 

sites with the cooperation of communication site user groups.

2. Continuing to establish user groups or organizations for each site. 

3. Using the policy for management of recreational residences as outlined in the “Architectural 

Guidelines for Recreation Residences on the Coronado National Forest” (USDA FS 2015a) 

(the guidelines). Managing items not covered in the guidelines with input from a committee 

consisting of the district rangers of Douglas, Safford, and Santa Catalina Ranger Districts and 

the forest supervisor or deputy forest supervisor.

Cultural Resources

General Description

Coronado National Forest heritage resources provide the public with opportunities to gain a 

broader understanding of the 12,000-year history of human habitation in southeastern Arizona. 

Cultural resources help people connect with the past, not only to enhance their sense of time and 

place, but also to illuminate aspects of Arizona history that are relevant to modern life and land 

use decisions. The unique geographical configuration of the Coronado National Forest, with its 

relatively small isolated mountain ranges, has strongly influenced the patterns of human use 

throughout the region. Major occupation sites by Native American peoples are concentrated in the 

lower elevations of the ranges in adjacent valleys, while the mountainous portions of the ranges 

are the focus of more limited activities such as resource gathering. The Coronado National Forest 

also has a rich historic period record of mining, ranching, and Forest Service administration. 
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Desired Conditions

Cultural resources on the Coronado National Forest, including known Native American sacred 

sites and traditional cultural properties, are preserved, protected, and/or restored for their cultural 

and scientific importance. Efforts are made to avoid adverse effects to historic properties, and to 

develop appropriate mitigation measures in cases where adverse effects cannot be avoided. 

Landscapes, sites, traditions, and stories contribute to the community’s appreciation of the diverse 

human communities who have lived in the region and how they adapted to the cultural and 

physical environment. As appropriate, historically significant cultural properties are listed on the 

National Register of Historic Places. The Coronado’s priority cultural resource assets are 

protected and preserved. Archaeological, ethnographic, and historical data guide efforts to 

manage current ecosystems and, in some cases, restore historic ones.

Forest facilities that are eligible for the National Register of Historic Places are available for 

continued use, for Forest Service administration, public recreation and interpretation, and Tribal

events, as appropriate. Collaborative partnerships and volunteer efforts are developed and 

maintained to assist the Forest Service in managing its cultural resources. Important 

archaeological artifacts are protected, either in place in their original contexts or in secure 

curation facilities. The Coronado’s historic documents, including photographs, maps, journals, 

and program management records, are available for research and interpretation by the Forest 

Service, other agencies, universities, Tribes, and the public. 

Objectives

1. Complete 200 acres of nonproject inventory each year, so that the Coronado’s currently 

unidentified cultural resources can be recorded, evaluated, and protected. 

2. Nominate at least five individual sites or at least two districts to the National Register of 

Historic Places within 10 years of plan approval. 

3. Conduct stabilization or preservation activities at one or more priority heritage assets29 each 

year. 

4. Host, sponsor, or participate in at least two interpretive events for the public every year.

5. Provide opportunities for volunteers to participate in heritage resource conservation activities 

at two to five archaeological sites or historic properties every year.

6. Within 10 years of plan approval, enter at least two historic sites in the Arizona “Rooms with 

a View” cabin rental program.

7. Inspect each priority heritage asset at least once every 5 years.

Guidelines

1. Contracts, permits, and leases that have the potential to affect cultural resources should 

include appropriate clauses on protection responsibilities and liability for damage. 

2. Historic values should be considered in the development and modification of facilities. 

 

29 Priority heritage assets are historically significant cultural resource sites or buildings that the 

Coronado has invested funds in to preserve, provide interpretation, or use.
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Management Approaches

1. Maintaining and enhancing coordination and cooperation with other land management 

agencies, Tribes, and public-private alliances that advance the stewardship of the Nation's 

diverse heritage. Cooperative efforts can include: (1) fostering the educational, aesthetic, 

inspirational, cultural, and economic benefits of historic preservation and conservation as 

outlined in the Arizona State Historic Preservation Plan; (2) encouraging public interpretation 

at historic sites where it contributes to the region’s sense of community and intercultural 

understanding; and (3) facilitating cross-boundary heritage tourism to contribute to the 

region’s economy and sense of place. 

2. Maintaining and enhancing the partnerships with Tribes, universities, professional 

organizations, and volunteers who play an integral role in the management of cultural 

resources. 

3. Developing appropriate measures to protect cultural resources from deterioration due to 

natural forces, visitor use, and vandalism. Protective measures may include signing, fencing, 

administrative closure, patrolling, interpretive signs, landscape treatments and revegetation 

projects, and stabilization or data recovery.

4. Pursuing opportunities to interpret cultural resources to the public. Onsite interpretation can 

include interpretive trails, signs, exhibits, or self-guided and specialist-guided tours at historic 

and prehistoric sites. Offsite interpretation can include lectures, professional publications, 

brochures, programs, and displays. Interpretation of cultural resources can be integrated with 

other resource interpretation and with recreation facilities and programs. The Forest Service 

can pursue opportunities to develop cooperative efforts with other Federal and State agencies 

interested in cultural resource interpretation, such as the Bureau of Land Management and 

other national forests, and with private partners.

5. Managing architectural properties that are listed on or eligible for the National Register of 

Historic Places for maintenance, rehabilitation, and reuse, in accordance with the Secretary of 

the Interior’s standards and guidelines.

6. Prioritizing areas for nonproject-related survey as follows: (1) areas suspected to have high 

site density; (2) areas suspected to have underrepresented site types; (3) areas of traditional 

importance to Tribes; (4) areas where site densities or ongoing impacts are unknown and need 

to be assessed; and (5) areas subject to future development and disturbance.

7. Developing a database of fire sensitive sites and structures that would be available for fire 

management planning purposes and for facilitating resource protection. 

8. Incorporating digitized historic maps or plats into a geographic information system database.

Tribal Relations

General Description

The Coronado National Forest maintains a governmental relationship with 12 federally 

recognized American Indian Tribes that have aboriginal territories and traditional ties to the land 

now administered by the Coronado National Forest. Federally recognized American Indian Tribes 

are sovereign nations; therefore, the Forest Service strives to establish and maintain governmentto-government relationships with each Tribe. The Coronado National Forest carries out its 

government-to-government trust responsibilities under a variety of Federal authorities. The Forest 

Service has Federal trust responsibilities to American Indian Tribes. In meeting these 
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responsibilities, Coronado National Forest managers consult with Tribes when proposed policies 

or management actions may affect their interests. Many Tribal members regularly visit these 

lands to gather traditional resources and to visit traditional cultural properties and sacred sites. 

Therefore, Tribes share an interest in protecting important natural and cultural resources.

Tribes with cultural ties to the land now administered by the Coronado National Forest include 

the Ak-Chin Indian Community, Fort Sill Apache Tribe, Gila River Indian Community, Hopi 

Tribe, Mescalero Apache Tribe, Pascua Yaqui, Pueblo of Zuni, Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian 

Community, San Carlos Apache Tribe, Tohono O’odham Nation, White Mountain Apache Tribe, 

and Yavapai-Apache Nation. All Tribes with traditional connections to lands that are now part of 

the Coronado National Forest are recognized as having roles in the stewardship of the land. 

Under a changing climate, some forest products for traditional Tribal uses may be vulnerable to 

more frequent or extreme disturbance events, including wildfires, droughts, flash floods, 

landslides, and windstorms. 

Desired Conditions

Traditional lands on the Coronado provide a setting for education in culture, history, and land 

stewardship. Interpretive and educational exhibits, events, and other media that focus on the 

history of the lands now managed by the Coronado National Forest provide the public with a 

greater understanding and appreciation of native history, culture, and traditions. 

Traditional Tribal uses such as the collection of medicinal plants, wild plant foods, basketry 

materials, and fuelwood take place on the Coronado National Forest. Tribal members have access 

to sacred sites for traditional ceremonies and rituals, and the integrity of sacred sites is maintained 

or improved whenever feasible. When available, Forest Service administrative sites can be used 

by Tribal families and organizations through government-to-government agreements. 

Management Approaches

1. Consulting with Tribes to identify sacred sites or traditional cultural properties and to develop 

a strategy for appropriate recognition and management, including honoring Tribes’ requests 

for maintaining confidentiality. 

2. Upholding the Federal trust responsibilities and government-to-government relationships 

with Tribes through agreements.

3. Working together with Tribes to build respectful, collaborative relationships; to develop ways 

of accomplishing mutual desired conditions and objectives; and to collaborate in ecosystem 

restoration efforts. 

4. Cooperatively develop a memorandum of understanding with neighboring Tribes for routine 

Tribal consultation, policy development, proposed plans, projects, programs, and forest 

activities that have a potential to affect Tribal interest.

5. Making recreational or administrative sites available for use by Tribal families and 

organizations through government-to-government agreements.

6. Consulting with Tribes at early stages of planning and project design, so that Tribal

perspectives, needs, and concerns—as well as traditional knowledge—can be incorporated 

into project design and decisions.
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7. Collaborating with Tribes, Federal and State agencies, private foundations, and landowners to 

emphasize management by landscape rather than jurisdiction, so that Tribes, the public, 

contractors, and researchers can cross from one Federal agency’s jurisdiction to another. 

8. Identifying opportunities where locations on the Coronado can provide a setting for the 

education of Tribal youth in culture, history, and land stewardship. 

9. Developing interpretive and educational exhibits or other media that focus on the history of 

the Coronado in collaboration with Tribes to provide the public with a greater understanding 

and appreciation of our shared history, culture, and traditions. 

10. Providing Forest Service employees opportunities to receive training so they understand the 

unique legal relationship between the Federal government and Indian Tribes, set forth in the 

U.S. Constitution, treaties, statutes, executive orders, and court decisions. 

11. Providing opportunities for Tribal members to engage in traditional activities, such as the 

collection of medicinal plants, wild plant foods, basketry materials, and fuelwood for 

personal use.

12. Ensuring that Tribal members have access to sacred sites for individual and group prayer and 

traditional ceremonies and rituals, and that the integrity of sacred sites is maintained or 

improved whenever feasible.

Range Management

General Description

The focus of range management on the Coronado National Forest is the production of a diverse 

array of tangible and intangible products. Tangible products include forage for grazing and 

browsing livestock and wildlife. Intangible products include natural beauty and quiet places. 

Livestock grazing is permitted on about 90 percent of the Coronado National Forest. Grazing use 

is administered through a grazing permit system on designated livestock grazing allotments. 

Based on projections of future climate change, conditions may be preferable for grassland habitat. 

However, suitable forage for grazing or browsing and availability of water for livestock may be 

reduced during extended drought periods, and increased disturbances could favor nonnative 

species that are not suitable for grazing. 

Desired Conditions

The Coronado National Forest provides forage for grazing in support of domestic livestock 

production as a viable, sustainable economic activity. Communities surrounding the Coronado 

National Forest benefit from the interactions of livestock production activities with other 

economic sectors, and from the social, cultural, and ecological values tied to conservation 

ranching. 

Domestic livestock grazing does not move the landscape away from the desired composition and 

structure of plant communities. Rangeland ecosystems are diverse, resilient, and functioning 

within a healthy, sustainable landscape in the face of a changing climate. Areas that are grazed 

have stable soils, functional hydrology, and biotic integrity, while supporting healthy, diverse 

populations of native wildlife.

By supporting livestock production on working landscapes with an extensive, low impact land 

use, the Coronado National Forest contributes to preserving large areas of unfragmented open 
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space. These open spaces sustain biological diversity and ecological processes and help to 

preserve the rural cultural heritage of southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. 

Standards

1. Grazing permits for domestic goats and/or sheep will not be issued in the Santa Teresa, 

Winchester, Galiuro, and Santa Catalina Ecosystem Management Areas to prevent the 

transfer of disease from domestic goats and sheep to wild populations of bighorn sheep. 

2. New issuance, renewal, modification, and management of grazing permits shall comply with 

the Coronado National Forest’s “Stockpond and Aquatic Habitat Management and 

Maintenance Guidelines for the Chiricahua Leopard Frog.” Additionally, for the San Rafael 

Valley and surrounding areas, permits shall comply with the Coronado National Forest’s 

“Stockpond Management and Maintenance Plan for the Sonora Tiger Salamander.” 

3. In areas occupied by lowland leopard frogs, stock ponds will be managed according to the 

general guidance, as applicable, of the Coronado National Forest’s “Stock Pond and Aquatic 

Habitat Management Guidelines for Chiricahua Leopard Frog” (if lowlands are included in 

the revised guidelines, then this no longer applies). 

Guidelines

1. Forage utilization should be based on site-specific resource conditions and management 

objectives, but in general should be managed at a level corresponding to light to moderate 

intensity (15 to 45 percent of current year’s growth). Exceptions may be allowed in order to 

meet objectives related to scientific studies, fuels reduction, invasive plant control, or other 

targeted grazing or site-specific objectives.

2. Burned areas should be given sufficient deferment from grazing, especially during the 

growing season, to ensure plant recovery and vigor. 

3. Construction or reconstruction of livestock fencing and replacement of nonpermeable fencing 

where wildlife movement is restricted should be consistent with the appropriate state wildlife 

agency standards30 for safe passage of wildlife and/or species-specific fencing guidelines 

developed at the local or regional level.31 

4. Grazing management practices should be designed to maintain or promote ground cover that 

will provide for infiltration, permeability, soil moisture storage, and soil stability appropriate 

for the ecological zone. Additionally, grazing management should retain ground cover 

sufficient for the forage and cover needs of native wildlife species.

5. Within riparian areas, structures used to manage livestock should be located and used in a 

way that does not conflict with riparian functions and processes. 

6. Treatments for restoring rangelands should emphasize the use and perpetuation of native 

plant species. 

7. Grazing intensity, frequency, occurrence, and period should provide for growth and 

reproduction of desired plant species while maintaining or enhancing habitat for wildlife.

 

30 For Arizona Game and Fish Department, refer to the most recent Wildlife Water Construction Standards

section on standard wildlife fencing; for New Mexico Game and Fish Department, use available habitat or 

species-specific guidelines. 31 Examples include those found in products developed by working groups or collaboratives of wildlife agencies, 

academics, and research or management organizations.
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8. Management practices to achieve desired plant communities should consider protection and 

conservation of known cultural resources, including historical sites, prehistoric sites, and 

plants of significance to Native American peoples.

Management Approaches

1. Following the monitoring protocols found in the Forest Service’s Southwestern Region 

“Rangeland Management Training Guide,” “Technical Interagency Guide,” and “Principles of 

Obtaining and Interpreting Utilization Data on Rangelands.” 

2. Collaborating with permittees, other agencies, University of Arizona Cooperative Extension, 

and other stakeholders to develop consistency in monitoring protocols and to leverage 

resources to accomplish landscape-scale monitoring.

3. Reviewing current management of each active allotment at a minimum prior to the reissuance 

of an expiring permit to identify consistency with current grazing authorization decisions 

(completed according to National Environmental Policy Act requirements).

4. Annually meeting with permittee to discuss timing, intensity, duration, and frequency of 

livestock use, as well as infrastructure needs.

5. Establishing, where feasible, grass reserves to help facilitate restoration work, while 

providing for permittee considerations. 

Land Ownership Adjustments and Boundary Management 

General Description

The sky islands nature of the Coronado National Forest combined with the current complex land 

ownership pattern within and next to the Coronado leads to the need for an intensive and 

extensive land ownership adjustment and boundary management program. This program includes 

land ownership adjustments (donation, purchase, land exchange, and limited sales), withdrawals, 

right-of-way acquisition, landline location, and boundary modifications. Landline location 

surveys ensure that boundary lines are accurate. All of these programs ensure that public access, 

watershed protection, wildlife habitat, recreation, open space, and scenic resources continue to 

flourish on the Coronado National Forest. 

Desired Conditions

The land ownership pattern within the boundaries of the Coronado National Forest is 

characterized by large contiguous blocks of National Forest System land. Complex and 

fragmented land ownership patterns have been consolidated through collaborative land 

adjustments with non-Federal landowners or agencies (State, county, private, and other 

ownerships). 

Lands acquired are valuable for public access, watershed protection, wildlife habitat, recreation, 

open space, and scenic resources. Administrative complexes costly to maintain and manage (with 

a backlog of deferred maintenance) or National Forest System lands encumbered by long-term 

land occupancy commitments and authorizations that have lost their national forest character and 

provide minimal benefit to the public have been disposed of through land ownership adjustments. 

Road and trail right-of-way easements have been acquired to maintain the integrity of forest 

resources and provide public access to National Forest System lands for all existing or proposed 
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road or trail alignments through non-Federal lands (state, county, private, and other ownerships; 

refer to the “Public Access” section on page 72).

Property lines between National Forest System and non-Federal lands (state, county, private, and 

other ownerships) and boundary lines of special areas, such as the National Wilderness 

Preservation System, are easily identified and recognized by public land users, private 

landowners, and Forest Service personnel.

Existing National Forest System unit boundaries have been modified to provide national forest 

status to lands acquired, or lands to be acquired from non-Federal (state, county, private, and 

other ownerships) landowners, located outside unit boundaries, to provide logical exterior unit 

boundaries, and facilitate current and future management and administration of the Coronado 

National Forest.

An interconnected network of undeveloped open space within and adjacent to the national forest 

provides opportunities for legal public access and corridors for wildlife movement and supports 

healthy ecosystems.

Guidelines

Land Exchanges

1. Land exchanges should result in an improved land ownership pattern, more effective 

management of National Forest System lands, and foster sound community development. 

2. Land exchanges should not result in the creation of isolated National Forest System parcels 

surrounded by non-Federal lands or isolated non-Federal parcels surrounded by National 

Forest System lands, unless it is found to be a public benefit. 

3. The non-Federal lands considered for exchange into Federal ownership should meet one or 

more of the following criteria:

a. Lands that provide needed public and administrative access, protect public lands from 

fire or trespass, or prevent damage to Coronado resources. 

b. Lands that contain vital threatened and endangered species habitat or vital wildlife 

habitat. 

c. Lands providing services to the public (such as developed and dispersed recreation or

open space).

d. Wetlands, riparian areas, and other water-oriented lands. 

e. Lands that contain unique, natural, or cultural values. 

f. Lands within designated wilderness. 

g. Lands that will improve public land management, meet specific administrative needs, or 

benefit other national forest programs. 

h. Lands that meet programs prescribed or endorsed by acts or reports of Congress or the 

Department of Agriculture. 

4. Federal lands offered by the United States in a proposed land exchange should meet one or 

more of the following criteria: 

a. Lands needed to meet the needs of communities and the public. 

b. Lands that provide improved public land management. 
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c. Lands that will improve management, benefit specific resources, or increase management 

efficiency. 

d. Lands that have lost their wildland characteristics.

e. Lands with long-term land occupancy commitments, high management and operating 

costs, do not contribute significantly to achieving management objectives, have minimal 

benefit to the public, and would not create an isolated non-Federal parcel surrounded by 

National Forest System lands such as, but not limited to, recreation residence areas and 

administrative sites.

Landline Location

1. Landline location surveys should be prioritized by the following criteria: 

a. Where known litigation is pending, a title claim has been asserted, encroachments are 

suspected, or the probability of encroachment can be reduced. 

b. Where significant resource values exist and use or manipulation of resources is planned 

(this includes the location, by survey, of right-of-way easements necessary for resource 

management).

c. All remaining property lines.

2. A Bureau of Land Management (BLM) resurvey should be requested where there has been an 

extensive loss or obliteration of original corner monuments and/or where the potential for 

future litigation regarding the property boundaries between the national forest and private 

lands are high. 

3. Painting and excessive clearing of property lines should be avoided. 

Locatable Mineral Withdrawals

1. When recommending a new withdrawal or renewing an existing withdrawal, alternative 

protection opportunities such as the issuance of a right-of-way under Title V of the Federal 

Land Policy and Management Act or notation in the public land records should be explored 

and sufficient analysis, justification, and determination of need provided. 

Management Approaches

Landline Location

1. Minimizing future encroachment cases and resolving present encroachments should be 

considered a priority. 

2. Considering opportunities to resolve boundary issues permanently at a substantial cost 

savings by consolidating non-Federal (State trust, county, private, and other ownerships) and 

National Forest System lands through the land adjustment program. 

3. Acting on cooperative and joint land surveying opportunities with adjoining non-Federal land 

owners (State trust, county, private, and other ownerships). 

Land Ownership Adjustments

1. Consolidating the National Forest System land ownership pattern through exchange, 

purchase, or donation, and other land ownership adjustment authorities. 

2. Acquiring non-Federal lands or interest in lands from non-Federal land owners (state, county, 

private, and others ownerships) that resolve public access issues, contain vital threatened and 
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endangered species habitat or vital wildlife habitat, are water oriented and/or provide 

additional public recreational opportunities.

Land Exchanges

1. Considering opportunities to consolidate small private land inholdings into economically 

viable units.32

32 Economically viable units refer to a more efficient way to manage assets where the revenue is sufficient to 

fund and sustain itself.

2. Evaluating the Federal lands to determine the merits of exchanging them into non-Federal 

ownership. 

Rights-of-way

1. Ensuring administrative and public access to National Forest System lands by acquiring road 

and trail rights-of-way needed to meet public access objectives using various acquisition 

methods. Priority for road and trail rights-of-way acquisitions should be as follows:

a. Public access to National Forest System lands.

b. Administrative access to National Forest System lands.

Boundary Modification

1. Recommending modification of the existing proclaimed national forest boundary to: 

a. Provide national forest status to acquire lands located outside the proclaimed boundary or 

to facilitate potential land ownership adjustments with landowners (state, county, private, 

and other ownerships) and land management agencies.

b. Provide logical exterior boundaries and facilitate current and future management and 

administration of the Coronado National Forest. 

Open Space

1. Working with willing landowners, communities, local governments, and partners to promote 

voluntary open space conservation. Participating in local planning efforts regarding 

development or use of non-Federal lands as an information provider to help promote

appropriate open space, access and recreation opportunities as well as to reduce ecological 

impacts and wildfire risks for communities.

Locatable Mineral Withdrawals

1. Requesting new withdrawals and the extension or continuation of a needed existing 

withdrawal when necessary to:

a. Preserve a unique resource area where no reasonable alternative to a withdrawal will 

provide adequate protection and the area will not survive without undue damage or 

impacts caused by mineral development. Examples of unique resource areas are research 

and experimental areas, botanical and zoological areas, cultural, historical, and 

archaeological areas, paleontological and geological areas, and other areas with special 

characteristics or unique values.

b. Protect high value Federal improvements where relocation or replacement is impractical. 

Impractical means there would be an added cost or inconvenience to the Forest Service 

 
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that could not be adequately compensated for in a plan of operations, drilling permit, or 

lease.

c. Recommend the continuation of withdrawals at least 3 years prior to an existing mineral 

withdrawal’s expiration date.

d. Recommend revoking withdrawals that no longer serve the purpose for which they were 

withdrawn or lack sufficient justification of need.
Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Chapter 3. Management Areas

Introduction

This chapter describes management areas, which are areas that have similar management intent 

and a common management strategy. The plan decisions and other content are described for each 

management area. See chapter 1 for descriptions of plan decisions and other content. This 

direction does not substitute for or repeat direction that applies to the entire national forest. The 

management areas described in this chapter occur in more than one place on the Coronado. They 

include land use zones, designated wilderness areas, wilderness study areas, recommended 

wilderness area, and eligible wild and scenic rivers, research natural areas, botanical, zoological, 

and other special areas. 

Throughout this chapter, forest plan decisions (desired conditions, objectives, standards, and 

guidelines) are displayed within gray borders. Text outside of these gray borders are not plan 

decisions; such text consists of other plan content such as general descriptions, background 

material, explanations, and descriptions of management approaches. 

In the event that a plan decision in this section and the plan decision in another section conflict, a 

project- or activity-level evaluation may be required to resolve the conflict; but generally the 

more restrictive plan decision prevails. Plan decisions and other content for forestwide 

management (chapter 2), geographic areas (chapter 4), and suitability (chapter 5) should also be 

consulted. 

Land Use Zones

Land use zones were developed by the Coronado National Forest as a way to more successfully 

manage the lands that fall outside of federally designated land and national processes, such as 

wilderness areas and research natural areas. They were generated to encompass multiple 

strategies and resources all in one cohesive and comprehensive system. 

There are four land use zones on the Coronado National Forest: wild backcountry, roaded 

backcountry, developed recreation, and motorized recreation. See table 2 and “Geographic Areas” 

(on page 127 of chapter 4) for more details about ecosystem management areas and how the land 

use zones were distributed throughout the national forest.
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

98

Table 2. Proposed ecosystem management area acreages of land use zones and management areas

Ecosystem 

Management 

Area (EMA)

Developed 

Recreation 

Land Use 

Zone

Motorized 

Recreation 

Land Use 

Zone

Roaded 

Backcountry 

Land Use 

Zone

Wild Backcountry 

Land Use 

Zone

Wilderness 

Areas

Wilderness 

Study Areas 

Recommended 

Wilderness

Special 

Management 

Areas Total Acres

Reference 

Map 

Location

Chiricahua 4,623 0 81,155 79,630 87,169 0 31,258 786 284,619 Page 129

Dragoon 696 0 23,440 28,331 0 0 0 0 52,467 Page 133

Peloncillo 0 0 22,988 30,936 0 31,225 0 0 85,149 Page 135

Santa Rita 2,701 824 72,386 35,905 25,121 0 0 0 136,937 Page 138

Tumacacori 1,616 0 124,937 66,853 7,523 0 0 0 200,929 Page 142

Huachuca 3,789 619 170,629 57,458 20,238 0 0 631 253,364 Page 146

Whetstone 0 0 12,178 15,889 0 0 16,317 0 44,384 Page 150

Galiuro 0 0 20,139 36,183 77,529 0 0 0 133,851 Page 152

Pinaleño 8,187 883 25,584 98,954 0 61,315* 61,315* 3,278 198,201* Page 154

Santa Teresa 0 0 4,225 17,786 26,891 0 0 0 48,902 Page 158

Winchester 0 0 2,612 16,325 0 0 0 0 18,937 Page 160

Santa Catalina 15,654 2,537 35,224 111,877 93,847 0 0 1,057 260,194 Page 162

Total Acres** 37,264 4,863 595,497 596,127 338,318 31,225 108,890 5,752 1,717,934** 

* The Graham Wilderness Study Area (61,315 acres) in the Pinaleño EMA is a wilderness study area and a recommended wilderness. Therefore, this area is only counted once for total 

acres of the Pinaleño Ecosystem Management Area. This reflects the correct acreage under recommended wilderness to be accounted for under various management approaches. 

**Due to rounding, total acres are slightly less than total acres of the Coronado National Forest. For more information on special management areas, refer to the “Research Natural 

Areas, Botanical, Zoological, and other Special Areas” section on page 122. 
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

99

Wild Backcountry

General Description

The wild backcountry land use zone is managed to maintain natural features and landscapes with 

minimum infrastructure necessary to support a range of nonmotorized uses. Motorized access is 

available via primitive, infrequently maintained roads. It includes inventoried roadless areas, 

areas adjacent to wilderness, and other relatively pristine, sparsely roaded areas. This zone offers 

recreational opportunities in the primitive to semiprimitive recreation opportunity spectrum. This 

means settings can be primitive, with wilderness-like areas that are natural and provide many 

opportunities for nonmotorized recreation that include challenge and solitude. It also includes 

roadless areas that provide many dispersed nonmotorized recreation opportunities such as hiking, 

camping, and birdwatching, but are closer to roads and have more visitors than the most primitive 

settings. Additionally, this land use zone offers similar areas that are accessed by primitive roads 

or motorized trails and are used for a wide variety of activities, both recreational and other, 

including enjoyment of scenery, escape from the crowded areas, hunting, off-highway vehicle 

use, dispersed camping, hiking, horseback riding, mountain biking, mining, and cutting firewood. 

Generally, the only facilities in these areas are primitive roads and trails. This land use zone 

makes up 596,127 acres, or about 35 percent of the Coronado National Forest. 

Desired Conditions

The wild undeveloped character of these areas is preserved. Settings are natural, and the sights 

and sounds of motorized vehicles are infrequent along roads and nonexistent in unroaded areas. 

Crowds or other urban elements are not evident. Motorized access is available via a few primitive 

or high-clearance roads. Motorized vehicle access is allowed into limited areas. Dispersed 

camping sites are available to those who seek them, but they are used infrequently. Recreational 

impacts on the landscape are minimal. Vegetation within these sites is vigorous and quickly 

recovers from the impacts of camping activities. Opportunities for solitude and quiet recreation 

are readily found. Hunters enjoy a challenging and remote experience. Visitors are able to explore 

and discover remote portions of the Coronado via primitive backcountry motorized routes. Quiet 

experiences are available in this entire zone, with the exception of areas directly adjacent to the 

small number of access roads.

Guidelines

1. Recreation opportunity spectrum classes in this land use zone should be primitive, 

semiprimitive nonmotorized, and semiprimitive motorized except in areas where the 

recreation setting is influenced by motorized access in adjacent land use zones or by private 

inholdings. 

2. Temporary roads should be allowed only for administrative access, national security, Tribal

needs, forest health projects, or fires, except in inventoried roadless areas. 

3. New roads or motorized trails should be allowed only as needed to restore motorized public 

access to National Forest System land or for resource protection.

4. Scenic resources should be managed so that human activities are minimally visually evident, 

as per the Coronado National Forest scenic integrity objective map. 

5. New utility structures and power lines should not be allowed. 
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

100

Management Approaches

1. Exploring opportunities for creating and preserving quiet recreation areas through vehicle 

class designations on specific roads (limiting use to vehicles that produce noise within a 

decibel range compatible with quiet recreation goals). 

2. Removing roads and temporary facilities when they are no longer needed. 

Roaded Backcountry

General Description

The roaded backcountry land use zone is managed for a balance of dispersed motorized, 

nonmotorized, and quiet recreation uses. The natural character and recreation settings are retained 

and development is limited. This zone offers a range of recreation opportunities. Remote areas are 

roadless, have no facilities other than trails, and are available only for nonmotorized recreation 

where encounters with other visitors are infrequent. This setting offers many opportunities for 

privacy and challenges to visitors’ self-reliance and outdoor skills. The most accessible areas are 

near roads and contain settings that, while predominantly naturally appearing, show some 

evidence of resource modification and utilization. Road densities tend to be higher and roads are 

better than primitive. In these settings, the number of interactions between users may be moderate 

to high and evidence of other users can be prevalent. Self-reliance on outdoor skills is only of 

moderate importance with little opportunity for challenge and risk. Roaded backcountry makes up 

595,497 acres, or about 35 percent, of the Coronado National Forest. 

Desired Conditions

Settings are natural and there are very few permanent facilities, except where needed for 

homeland security or to meet statutory requirements. Opportunities for quiet recreation exist both 

away from roads and along many less heavily used routes. Dispersed campsites are clean, and 

impacts from campers are minimal. National Forest System roads provide access to trailheads; 

remote, undeveloped camping areas; and occasionally developed recreation facilities or 

administrative sites. Most roads are unpaved. Forest visitors can enjoy semiprimitive motorized

recreation and explore the backcountry in off-highway vehicles along designated roads or 

motorized trails. Recreation opportunity spectrum classes in this land use zone are semiprimitive 

nonmotorized, semiprimitive motorized, roaded modified, and roaded natural except where there 

are small, remote administrative sites, developed recreation sites, and permitted facilities.

Guidelines

1. The level and type of development should be limited in order to protect the natural character 

inherent in this zone. 

2. Managers should consider expanding the uses of existing facilities before proposing new 

facilities.

3. New roads may be constructed, reconstructed, or relocated for a variety of public and 

administrative uses and needs.

4. Scenic resources should be managed so that human activities are visually subordinate or 

blend into the landscape, as per the Coronado National Forest scenic integrity objective map. 
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

101

5. New utility structures and power lines should be located within existing communications sites 

and utility corridors except as needed to meet statutory requirements, such as mining law or 

laws to protect public health and safety. 

Developed Recreation

General Description

This land use zone includes the major of public access corridors into the Coronado National 

Forest. The roads in this zone are mostly paved and are popular sightseeing routes. In some cases, 

the main roads are designated as scenic byways. Visitors often spend the day in these areas, and 

destinations include campgrounds, picnic areas, vista points, visitor centers, and lakes. 

Organization camps and recreational residences are found in some areas. There are many popular 

trailheads in these areas, and hiking trails generally provide access to roaded backcountry and 

wild backcountry zones and wilderness areas. Utilitarian facilities such as communication sites 

and astrophysical facilities found in this area have limited or no public access and sometimes are 

considerably different in terms of setting from the surrounding landscape and public facilities. 

This land use zone covers 37,264 acres, or about 2 percent, of the Coronado National Forest. 

Desired Conditions

Facilities are in good condition and blend into the national forest setting.33 Visitors can enjoy 

natural settings with a high level of comfort and safety. Roads are well maintained and 

accommodate all types of vehicles. Astrophysical facilities occupy a minimal area within this land 

use zone. 

Guidelines

1. Recreation opportunity spectrum classes in this land use zone should be roaded natural, 

roaded modified, rural, and urban unless conflicting with wilderness management or needed 

to support the larger forest setting. 

2. As public facilities are constructed or renovated, they should be made more accessible to 

meet or exceed accessibility guidelines. 

3. Scenic resources should be managed so that human activities are visually subordinate and 

blend into the landscape as much as possible, as per the Coronado National Forest scenic 

integrity objective map and recreation opportunity spectrum classes. Utilitarian facilities that 

would not meet this guideline because of their functional requirements should be mitigated to 

minimize their contrast with line, form, color, texture, and scale of the surrounding landscape 

and built environment. 

4. New utility structures and power lines should not be allowed, and upgrades to existing 

overhead lines should be buried when replaced. 

5. Livestock grazing should not be permitted within developed recreation zone sites, except 

where designated allotments overlap with recreation area boundaries or for the purposes of 

targeted grazing for vegetation management. 

 

33 Except for utilitarian facilities under special use permit that cannot fully mitigate scenery impacts because of 

their functional requirements.
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

102

Management Approach

1. Managing these areas in accordance with guidance provided in existing and future plans 

(such as corridor management plans, recreation concept plans, and others).

Motorized Recreation

General Description

This land use zone is assigned to areas that have a high level of motorized use. Two different 

types of motorized use areas are included in this zone: highway corridors that cross Coronado 

National Forest lands (where vehicles are traveling at high speeds and most travelers are simply 

passing through the national forest) and off-highway vehicle corridors (where facilities for offhighway vehicle use are provided). This zone provides a wide variety of recreational 

experiences—including driving for pleasure—while mitigating effects of motorized use and 

minimizing conflicts with other users. This land use zone covers 4,863 acres, or less than 1 

percent, of the Coronado National Forest. 

Desired Conditions

In highway corridors, forest visitors have opportunities for driving for pleasure. Visitors can 

enjoy natural settings beyond the roadway, and roads are paved, well maintained, and 

accommodate all types of vehicles. The sights and sounds of highway traffic are only incidentally 

apparent outside of these areas.

In off-highway vehicle (OHV) corridors, forest visitors can enjoy semiprimitive motorized 

recreation and explore in OHVs along designated roads and routes. Long distance loop routes 

exist that provide varying experiences for different vehicle classes. Separate motorized trails 

(such as single-track motorized trails for dirt bikes and all-terrain vehicles (ATVs)) exist to 

minimize conflicts among OHV types. Where nonmotorized trails traverse this land use zone, 

adequate signing and enforcement deters motorized use of these trails. OHV and ATV use is 

concentrated in defined areas that promote a high quality, motorized use experience. The sights 

and sounds associated with OHV use are only incidentally apparent outside of these areas. 

Recreation opportunity spectrum classes in this land use zone should be semiprimitive motorized, 

roaded natural, and rural. 

Guidelines

1. In OHV corridors, development of OHV facilities should protect natural resources and 

mitigate OHV impacts. 

2. Scenic resources should be managed so that human activities are visually subordinate and 

blend into the landscape, as per the Coronado National Forest scenic integrity objective map.

3. Facilities determined to be obsolete or no longer needed should be removed if feasible, except 

for facilities with historical significance.

Management Approach

1. Assisting other agencies with highway corridor maintenance.
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

103

Designated Wilderness Areas

Eight designated wilderness areas totaling 338,318 acres comprise approximately 19 percent of 

the Coronado. Table 3 displays the size of the wilderness areas and geographic areas (hereafter 

referred to as ecosystem management areas) that each is located within (see chapter 4 for 

descriptions of ecosystem management areas). 

Figure 4 on page 104 shows the locations of the wilderness areas on the Coronado National 

Forest. The acres in the chart below reflect the most current mapping and Geographic Information 

Systems data available. In the 1986 plan, the wilderness acres were calculated based on 

topographic maps and were an approximation of the area within the existing boundaries. All 

wilderness boundaries were carried forward from the 1986 plan to the current plan. 

Table 3. Designated wilderness areas

Wilderness Area Acres

Ecosystem Management 

Area 

Chiricahua Wilderness 87,169 Chiricahua

Galiuro Wilderness 77,529 Galiuro

Miller Peak Wilderness 20,238 Huachuca

Mount Wrightson Wilderness 25,121 Santa Rita

Pajarita Wilderness 7,523 Tumacacori

Pusch Ridge Wilderness 56,919 Santa Catalina

Rincon Mountain Wilderness 36,928 Santa Catalina

Santa Teresa Wilderness 26,891 Santa Teresa

TOTAL 338,318 

Plan Components for All Designated Wilderness Areas

Wilderness Character

Desired Conditions

The ecological systems within wilderness areas across the Coronado National Forest vary 

naturally over time and space. Wilderness areas provide a wide variety of opportunities for 

exploration, solitude, natural risk, challenge, and primitive and unconfined recreation. Wild 

landscapes harbor the Coronado’s richest concentration of quiet places, with the sights and 

sounds of humankind substantially unnoticeable. Developments (such as fences, structures, and 

water containment features) are rare; those that exist offer visitors a glimpse of past cultures and 

traditional land uses.

Guidelines

1. Wilderness character should be maintained or improved. This includes untrammeled, natural, 

and undeveloped qualities, as well as opportunities for solitude or primitive and unconfined 

recreation.

2. Restrictions on visitor freedom (such as closures, permit systems, area quotas) should only be 

used when less invasive measures have proven insufficient to meet management objectives.
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

104

Figure 4. Map of wilderness areas
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

105

Management Approach

1. Completing and implementing wilderness management plans for each existing wilderness 

area.

2. Coordinating with local user groups to develop a volunteer wilderness stewardship program, 

emphasizing non-confrontational education and information sharing. 

Scenic Quality in Wilderness

Desired Conditions

Visitors find exceptional aesthetic value in wilderness areas across the Coronado. Scenic 

conditions are natural, unaltered, and wholly intact. Landscape character and sense of place are 

evident at the highest possible level.

Standard

1. Wilderness areas shall be managed for a scenic integrity objective of very high, except when 

specified otherwise in an individual wilderness management plan. 

Guidelines

1. When trees or other materials are used for building trails, fences, signage, or other structures, 

materials should be harvested out of view from trails and campsites. Cutting or removing 

materials should not be evident. 

2. Construction of additional structures should be limited in wilderness areas and should use a 

limited amount of nonnative materials when native materials are available.

Vegetation in Wilderness

Desired Conditions 

Vegetation communities in wilderness areas are consistent with those across the Coronado and 

represent native conditions for each type. Distribution, abundance, and diversity are sufficiently 

maintained through natural disturbance processes (such as fire, insects, or disease), and 

vegetation alterations are unnecessary to sustain communities. Invasive plants do not occur at 

levels that disrupt ecological functioning. Ecosystems that were once departed from a sustainable 

state have been restored to functioning systems that are resilient to a changing climate. 

Guidelines

1. Vegetation treatments should only be used to restore or maintain communities to functioning 

systems that are sustainable and resilient under changing climate conditions and disturbance 

regimes.

2. Gathering of dead and downed fuelwood should be limited to recreational campfire use. 
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

106

Fire in Wilderness

Desired Conditions

Fire plays a natural ecological role in wilderness areas, acting as a disturbance that contributes to 

each area’s natural character. Fire in wilderness areas varies in size and severity. Fires within an 

acceptable level of risk span into and across delineated wilderness boundaries. Fires rarely require 

physical human intervention, except in the wildland-urban interface. Wildfires do not threaten the 

natural characteristics of an area, nor do they threaten other resources, structures, or values at risk 

adjacent to wilderness areas.

Guidelines

1. Natural unplanned ignitions should be used to obtain resource benefits. 

2. Prescribed fire should be used to create conditions that enable naturally occurring fires to 

return to their historic role or to achieve wilderness area desired conditions. 

3. Minimum impact suppression tactics should be used in wilderness. 

Management Approach

1. Consulting a wilderness resource advisor during all fires that enter or start within wilderness 

areas, and for any fires with the potential to enter wilderness areas or affect the character of 

an adjacent wilderness area.

Insects and Disease in Wilderness

Desired Conditions 

Indigenous insects and diseases are recognized as natural disturbance mechanisms in wilderness 

areas. The scientific value of observing the role of indigenous insects and diseases as a natural 

dynamic in the ecosystems is exceptionally high. 

Guideline

1. Human controls should not be applied to insect and disease life cycles, except to protect 

resources on adjacent lands, to protect threatened and endangered species, or when human 

health and safety are a concern.

Wildlife in Wilderness

Desired Conditions 

Wilderness contributes to preserving the natural processes and habitats that sustain native species. 

Wildlife and fish populations in wilderness areas are thriving. Wilderness habitats are an 

important component of naturalness and are particularly valuable to threatened and endangered 

species, where the factors that threaten their existence are greatly minimized. Native species are 

present and supported by properly functioning habitat conditions. Human-wildlife interactions do 

not lead to wildlife habituation to human food sources. 
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

107

Standards

1. Non-indigenous34 species shall not be introduced into any wilderness area.

2. Reintroductions shall only occur when a species is determined to be indigenous to the area. 

Guideline

1. Non-indigenous species should not be introduced into areas adjacent to wilderness areas 

when it is likely that individuals of that species will spread to wilderness areas during 

ordinary life processes.

Management Approach

1. Cooperating with State game management agencies as outlined in policies and guidelines for 

fish and wildlife management in wilderness. 

Soil and Water in Wilderness

Desired Conditions 

Natural processes dominate soil and water cycles in wilderness areas. Water quality is high. Trails 

and campsites do not contribute soil sediment to downstream water resources.

Standard

1. Water quality measurements shall be made with temporary use of portable equipment. 35

Guideline

1. Designated camping areas should be located on durable surfaces, and should be contained by 

using natural materials to create perimeter boundaries to prevent from increasing in size or 

compaction. 

Management Approach

1. Working with local hiking and equestrian groups to maintain trails and to close and restore 

user-created trails.

Recreation and Education in Wilderness

Desired Conditions 

Educational materials on minimum-impact camping and travel skills and wilderness etiquette are 

available to visitors through the Coronado National Forest Web site, printed materials, trailhead 

information boards, personal contacts (both pre-trip and in the field), and other means. Once 

inside wilderness areas, there are no information boards and interpretation of the environment is 

primarily through self-discovery or facilitated in a group setting. Recreational structures (such as

fire rings, improvised camp furniture) are temporary and easily dismantled. Recreational use does 

not result in the deposition of trash or other manmade items, or cause excessive noise or visual 

impacts that detract from the wilderness character. Outfitter-guide and recreation special use 

permit holders operate in compliance with their permit and do not negatively impact wilderness 

 

34 Determination of whether a species is indigenous will be made in consultation and coordination with State 

game management agencies. 35 Transportable impermanent devices used to measure water quality parameters.
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

108

character. When traveling on trails, there is very low interaction between users; when traveling 

cross country, almost no human encounters occur. 

Standards

1. The existing recreation opportunity spectrum classification composition shall be maintained 

at primitive, unless specified otherwise for an individual wilderness area.

2. Outfitter-guide operating plans shall include appropriate wilderness practices, such as “leave 

no trace” principles, and incorporate awareness for wilderness values in their interaction with 

clients and others.

Management Approaches

1. Completing visitor use estimates and capacity studies for each area if resource conditions are 

unacceptably impacted by permitted uses. 

2. Adjusting group size if visitor use threatens the wilderness character.

3. Using education to prevent the unlawful collection of cultural artifacts. 

4. Completing inventories of solitude, primitive, and unconfined recreation experiences. 

Trails and Signage in Wilderness

Desired Conditions

An interconnecting system of trails provides visitors with delineated access into, through, and out 

of wilderness areas, as well as to certain destinations within each area. Heavily used trails are 

well marked and maintained, while more remote trails offer a more primitive experience. Trails 

blend into the landscape and do not dominate the viewshed. User-created trails are rare. Signage 

is durable and easy to locate without dominating the natural backdrop. Trail and trailhead 

development emphasizes wilderness recreation and watershed condition while maintaining 

wilderness resource values. Visitors engage in primitive and unconfined recreation.

Guidelines

1. Trail maintenance should be coordinated to avoid anticipated high use visitor periods to 

minimize encounters.

2. New trail construction should only be considered if the objective is to enhance wilderness 

character (to control overuse or limit resource degradation).

3. Bridges should not be constructed or installed. 

4. Signs within wilderness areas should provide directional information only, unless a specific 

need exists for an individual wilderness area.

5. Natural and preferably locally available materials should be used in the construction and 

signing of trails within wilderness areas, except when specified otherwise for an individual 

wilderness area.

Management Approaches

1. Prioritizing trail reconstruction based on potential for loss of wilderness values, impacts to 

wilderness recreation experience, access to wilderness, and amount of use.
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

109

2. Engaging hiking and equestrian groups in collaborative trail maintenance and construction 

projects and long-term partnerships. 

3. Evaluating trails that are minimally used for their need and impact on wilderness character to 

support decisions to decommission unused trails. 

Land Ownership and Boundary Adjustment in Wilderness

Desired Conditions 

Boundaries are posted and noticeable to visitors. The location of private lands within wilderness 

areas is identified.36 Employees and visitors are educated about land owner rights. Wilderness 

character and experiences appear seamless across agency boundaries where Coronado wilderness 

areas border other agency wilderness areas.

Management Approaches

1. Communicating with landowners regularly to ensure that visitor-landowner conflicts are 

minimized.

2. Partnering with other Federal agencies to ensure management is as consistent as possible for 

contiguous wilderness areas. 

Research in Wilderness

Desired Conditions 

Wilderness areas provide an ideal outdoor laboratory for studying the natural environment in its 

most pristine form. Scientific studies allow for discovery of wilderness dependent information. 

Research contributes to the understanding of complex ecosystem interactions and disturbances, 

and aids managers in improving wilderness management strategies. Field studies do not detract 

from wilderness character.

Individual Wilderness Area Direction

All of the above desired conditions and plan components for general wilderness areas apply to 

each of the individual wilderness areas discussed below. The individual wilderness area direction 

is supplemental to the general wilderness desired conditions and plan components. 

Chiricahua Wilderness

General Description

At the heart of the Chiricahua Ecosystem Management Area lies the 87,169-acre Chiricahua 

Wilderness. This wilderness area was designated by the 1964 Wilderness Act and expanded by 

the 1984 Arizona Wilderness Act. More than a century ago, the Chiricahua Apache Tribe called 

the area of the Chiricahua Wilderness home. This mountainous landscape rises to an elevation of 

9,797 feet at Chiricahua Peak. The Chiricahua Wilderness contains eight of the nine major 

vegetation communities.

 

36 Private lands within wilderness areas were owned lands prior to the Wilderness Act of September 3, 1964, 

Section 5, Rights of Non-Forest Lands Ownership.
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

110

Table 4. Major vegetation communities of the Chiricahua Wilderness

Vegetation Community Percent of Chiricahua Wilderness

Madrean encinal woodland 45.4

Mixed conifer (wet and dry) 19.4

Madrean pine-oak woodland 14.2

Interior chaparral 10.0

Desert communities 7.1

Ponderosa pine-evergreen oak 2.0

Grasslands 1.7

Riparian areas 0.3

The terrain of the Chiricahua Wilderness supports diverse plant life and populations of birds most 

often observed in Mexico. Dense brush, steep elevations, precipitous canyon walls, and an 

undependable water supply limit recreational use of the wilderness to the 13 established trails. 

Portions of Rucker Canyon, Turkey Creek, and Cave Creek are contained within the wilderness 

boundary. To the north, the Chiricahua National Monument Wilderness, managed by the National 

Park Service, augments the wilderness character of the mountain range.

Desired Conditions

Air quality is consistent with the area’s class 1 Clean Air Act designation. The Cima 

Administrative Site and Monte Vista Cabin provide opportunities for wilderness education and 

historic preservation. 

Objective

1. Remove trash along 4 miles of National Forest System trails annually during the first decade 

following plan approval. 

Standard

1. The existing recreation opportunity spectrum classification shall be maintained at primitive.

Guideline

1. Trailhead parking areas, adjacent to the wilderness area, should be designed to passively limit 

visitor use to levels that maintain the wilderness character.

Management Approaches

1. Coordinating management strategies with Chiricahua National Monument Wilderness 

managed by the National Park Service.

2. Considering a permit system to facilitate pre-trip education, limit visitor use to a level 

compatible with wilderness values, and inform managers of the numbers, type, and spatial 

distribution of visitors in the Chiricahua Wilderness.

3. Integrating wilderness ethics education with information pertaining to wildlife-watching 

opportunities to limit adverse effects on wilderness character, particularly within the South 

Fork of Cave Creek and near the Rustler Park area.

4. Determining the capacity and need for outfitter and guide services within the Chiricahua 

Wilderness to meet increasing demand for special use permit requests.
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

111

5. Working with volunteer groups and educational organizations to preserve historic structures 

and restore degraded wilderness character where evidence of past human activities persist.

Galiuro Wilderness

General Description

Much of the Galiuro Ecosystem Management Area was designated as wilderness by the 1964 

Wilderness Act. This 77,529-acre wilderness abuts the Bureau of Land Management administered 

Redfield Canyon Wilderness to the south. The highest elevation is 7,671 feet on Bassett Peak. 

The Galiuro Wilderness contains six of the nine major vegetation communities. 

Table 5. Major vegetation communities of the Galiuro Wilderness

Vegetation Community Percent of Galiuro Wilderness

Madrean pine-oak woodland 34.6

Madrean encinal woodland 26.1

Interior chaparral 20.6

Mixed conifer (wet and dry) 11.4

Grasslands 6.8

Desert communities 0.5

The Galiuro Wilderness preserves the primitive and wild character of the area for future 

generations. Within it, the precipitous, rocky, and brushy Galiuro Mountains rise abruptly in 

block-like uplifts from desert plains. At 19 miles in length and 6 miles in width (on average), 

these mountains are almost entirely within the designated wilderness. The area is characterized by 

many rugged cliffs displaying brightly colored rocks and exposed soils, the result of mostly winddriven erosion. Bisected by two main canyons (Redfield and Rattlesnake), the Galiuro Wilderness 

supports vegetation that varies from semidesert grasslands; piñon, juniper, oak, and brush; and 

mixed conifers and aspens at high elevations. Lightly used trails traverse the ridges and valleys, 

accessing the few springs that provide the only sources of water in a range where there are no 

perennial streams.

Desired Conditions

Air quality is consistent with the areas class 1 Clean Air Act designation. Powers Cabin provides 

opportunities for wilderness education and historic preservation. 

Management Approaches

1. Coordinating management strategies with the Redfield Canyon Wilderness managed by the 

Bureau of Land Management. 

2. Working with volunteer groups and educational organizations to preserve historic structures 

and restore degraded wilderness character where evidence of past human activities persist.

Miller Peak Wilderness

General Description

Named for the highest point in the Huachuca Mountains, the Miller Peak Wilderness was 

established in 1984 by the Arizona Wilderness Act and encompasses 20,238 acres in the upper 
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

112

elevations of the Huachuca Ecosystem Management Area. The Miller Peak Wilderness contains 

seven of the nine major vegetation communities.

Table 6. Major vegetation communities of the Miller Peak Wilderness

Vegetation Community Percent of Miller Peak Wilderness

Madrean encinal woodland 51.4

Mixed conifer (wet and dry) 21.3

Desert communities 10.1

Interior chaparral 9.6

Madrean pine-oak woodland 4.9

Grasslands 2.6

Riparian areas 0.1

From atop 9,466-foot Miller Peak, the views extend into Mexico and across southeastern Arizona, 

with countless mountain ranges in all directions. The Arizona National Scenic Trail traverses the 

wilderness (and a major portion of the ecosystem management area) before reaching its southern 

terminus at the international border with Mexico. The Arizona National Scenic Trail and other 

trails crisscross slopes and ridgelines, navigating sheer cliffs and deep canyons, geographic 

features that collectively support over 170 species of birds, 78 species of mammals, and over 60 

lizard species.

Desired Conditions

Historic structures are not damaged or destroyed by natural and human-caused disturbances.

Objectives

1. Annually remove trash along 5 miles of National Forest System trails within the Miller Peak 

Wilderness.

2. Restore 1 mile of user-created trails each year to a condition where it is not noticeable to 

visitors.

Guideline

1. Signs should be constructed from durable materials to sustain the impacts associated with the 

international border. In some cases, manmade materials for signs or signposts may be the 

most appropriate for this purpose, although natural-appearing materials suitable for a 

primitive recreation opportunity spectrum setting should be favored. 

Management Approaches

1. Coordinating with the U.S. Border Patrol and private landowners to develop strategies that 

ensure illegal immigrants and traffickers are not funneled into the Miller Peak Wilderness as 

enforcement activities ensue.

2. Working with volunteer groups, partners, and agency personnel to clean off-trail sites where 

discarded refuse from illegal immigrants has collected and degraded the wilderness character.

3. Communicating with U.S. Border Patrol officers to maximize safety awareness when large 

groups are present and during the high visitor use season. 
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

113

4. Considering a permit system to reduce and contain visitor impacts.

5. Coordinating with the U.S. Border Patrol to ensure that agents are aware of wilderness 

policies and mindful of the wilderness characteristics unique to this area. 

6. Making cautionary information related to the international border available at all trailheads.

7. Encouraging impact and restoration studies in this wilderness area. 

Mount Wrightson Wilderness

General Description

The Mount Wrightson Wilderness was designated by the 1964 Wilderness Act. A focal point of 

the Santa Rita Mountains, the 25,121-acre Mount Wrightson Wilderness is characterized by rough 

hillsides, deep canyons, and lofty ridges topped by 9,452-foot Mount Wrightson. The Mount 

Wrightson Wilderness contains seven of the nine major vegetation communities.

Table 7. Major vegetation communities of the Mount Wrightson Wilderness

Vegetation Community Percent of Mount Wrightson Wilderness

Madrean encinal woodland 46.8

Madrean pine-oak woodland 21.1

Interior chaparral 10.4

Desert communities 7.7

Mixed conifer (wet and dry) 7.6

Grasslands 5.1

Riparian areas 1.2

Ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir dominate higher reaches of the area, while lower and more 

exposed slopes are oak woodlands. Stream-fed canyons support an abundance of plant and animal 

life, including many montane Mexican plants that grow nowhere else north of the international 

border. This diversity that characterizes the Mount Wrightson Wilderness attracts nature 

enthusiasts who value wildlife viewing as vital to their wilderness experience. Madera Canyon 

offers world-renowned bird watching opportunities along trails within the wilderness. 

Objective

1. Remove trash along 3 miles of National Forest System trails annually.

Standard

1. Wilderness areas within Madera Canyon shall be managed at the highest possible scenic 

integrity level, with a level of very high.

Guidelines

1. Trailhead parking areas should be designed to passively limit visitor use at levels that 

maintain the wilderness character. 

2. The existing recreation opportunity spectrum classification composition should be maintained 

at semiprimitive nonmotorized, or increased to primitive. 
Chapter 3. Management Areas

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Management Approaches

1. Considering a permit system to facilitate pre-trip education, limit visitor use to a level 

compatible with wilderness values, and inform managers of the numbers, type, and spatial 

distribution of visitors in the Mount Wrightson Wilderness. 

2. Encouraging the wilderness dependent research to include wilderness values and to limit 

adverse impacts into the wilderness resource.

Pajarita Wilderness

General Description

The 7,523-acre Pajarita Wilderness is in the Tumacacori Ecosystem Management Area and was 

designated in 1984 by the Arizona Wilderness Act. The Pajarita Wilderness contains five of the 

nine major vegetation communities. 

Table 8. Major vegetation communities of the Pajarita Wilderness

Vegetation Community Percent of Pajarita Wilderness

Madrean encinal woodland 38.0

Desert communities 36.4

Grasslands 23.5

Riparian areas 1.9

Interior chaparral 0.2

The Pajarita Wilderness encompasses a large portion of Sycamore Canyon, California Gulch, and 

the Goodding Research Natural Area. More than 660 species of plants have been identified within 

its borders, 17 of which are found nowhere else on Earth. Pajarita means “little bird” in Spanish, 

and more than 160 species of birds have been identified here along with more than 200 species of 

butterflies. Two major trails lead into the Pajarita Wilderness: Sycamore Canyon Trail runs south 

from Hank and Yank Spring, and the Border Trail skirts the international border from Summit 

Motorway, a rough four-wheel-drive road that parallels the eastern edge of the wilderness. 

Objective

1. Remove trash along 1 mile of National Forest System trails annually within the Pajarita

Wilderness.

Guideline

1. Signs should be constructed from durable materials to sustain the impacts associated with the 

international border. In some cases, manmade materials may be the most appropriate for this 

purpose, although natural appearing materials should be favored.

Management Approaches

1. Coordinating with the U.S. Border Patrol to develop strategies that ensure illegal immigrants 

and traffickers are not funneled into the Pajarita Wilderness as enforcement activities ensue.

2. Working with volunteer groups, partners, and agency personnel to clean off-trail sites where 

discarded refuse from illegal immigrants has collected and impaired wilderness character, and 

to restore user-created trails.
Chapter 3. Management Areas

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115

3. Preventing buffelgrass outbreaks invasion into the wilderness by treating infestations outside 

of the wilderness boundary before they have a chance to spread into the wilderness.

4. Communicating with U.S. Border Patrol officers to maximize safety awareness when large 

groups are present and during the high visitor use season.

5. Considering a permit system to reduce and contain visitor impacts.

6. Coordinating with the U.S. Border Patrol to ensure that agents are aware of wilderness 

policies and mindful of the wilderness characteristics unique to this area. Further, working to 

ensure that actions taken by the U.S. Border Patrol are guided by the Forest Service’s intent 

to maintain or improve wilderness values. 

7. Making cautionary information related to the international border available at all trailheads.

Pusch Ridge Wilderness

General Description

Pusch Ridge is one of the most prominent geographic features of the Santa Catalina Mountains. It 

forms the backbone of the 56,919-acre Pusch Ridge Wilderness designated in 1978. The Pusch 

Ridge Wilderness contains seven of the nine major vegetation communities. 

Table 9. Major vegetation communities of the Pusch Ridge Wilderness

Vegetation Community Percent of Pusch Ridge Wilderness

Madrean encinal woodland 32.1

Desert communities 27.3

Madrean pine-oak woodland 19.8

Grasslands 11.3

Interior chaparral 5.8

Mixed conifer (wet and dry) 2.1

Riparian areas 1.6

Elevations range from 2,800 to 8,800 feet, creating a diverse biological community that extends 

from desert up to mixed conifer forest. Topography consists of razorback ridges, precipitous 

canyons, and mountaintops that support a few mountain meadows. The wildlife community 

inhabiting this varied setting is diverse as well. Black bear, coatimundi, Steller’s jay, cactus wren, 

saguaro cactus, and Douglas-fir are all present in this wilderness. Finger Rock Canyon harbors a 

well-studied collection of xeroriparian vegetation, a common and important habitat type used by 

many species here and across the Coronado. The extensive trail network in Pusch Ridge and its 

proximity to a major metropolitan area make it the Coronado’s most heavily visited wilderness 

area.
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

116

Objective

1. Annually, treat 200 to 1,000 acres of exotic invasive grass populations (primarily buffelgrass 

and fountain grass) on the southwest slopes of the Pusch Ridge Wilderness.

Standards

1. Wilderness areas near Sabino Canyon Recreation Area, Mount Lemmon communication sites, 

and along the General Hitchcock Highway shall be managed at the highest possible level, 

with a scenic integrity level of very high.

2. The existing recreation opportunity spectrum classification shall be maintained at 

semiprimitive nonmotorized in areas near heavily used trailheads and primitive elsewhere.

3. All areas treated for exotic invasive grass populations shall be monitored and re-treated as 

often as necessary to prevent reestablishment of the target invasive species.

Guidelines

1. Recreation facilities should not be developed in the Pusch Peak area.

2. Trailhead parking areas should be designed to passively limit visitor use at levels that 

maintain wilderness character. 

3. Natural appearing materials suitable for a primitive recreation opportunity spectrum setting 

should be favored. Manmade materials should only be used in the construction and signing of 

trails when natural materials cannot be obtained at, or transported to, the site. 

4. Cross-country travel should be discouraged to limit impacts to vegetation, soils, water, and 

wildlife.

Management Approaches

1. Considering a permit system to facilitate pre-trip education, limit visitor use to a level 

compatible with wilderness values, and inform managers of the numbers, type, and spatial 

distribution of visitors in the Pusch Ridge Wilderness. 

2. Encouraging wilderness dependent research to include wilderness values and to limit adverse 

impacts to the wilderness resources.

3. Using the most effective combination of treatments available for invasive species 

containment and eradication to maximize effectiveness and minimize the amount of time 

required for management intervention. 

4. Maintaining favorable habitat conditions for bighorn sheep within the entire wilderness area, 

and especially within the Bighorn Sheep Special Management Area (see page 163 for more 

information).

5. Supporting enforcement of restrictions on dogs, domestic sheep, and domestic goats in the 

Bighorn Sheep Special Management Area within the wilderness area.
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

117

Rincon Mountain Wilderness

General Description

The Rincon Mountain Wilderness was designated in 1984 at the southeastern edge of the Santa 

Catalina Ecosystem Management Area. This wilderness area spans 36,926 acres along the 

national forest boundary, and the highest elevation is 7,325 feet. The Rincon Mountain 

Wilderness contains six of the nine major vegetation communities.

The Rincon Mountain Wilderness is contiguous with the larger Saguaro Wilderness, which is 

administered by the National Park Service as part of Saguaro National Park-East. There are a few 

rough four-wheel-drive roads leading to the northern boundary and some trails leading into it 

from the national park. The Rincon Mountain Wilderness is accessible primarily by a single twowheel-drive road (National Forest System Road 35) along its eastern boundary. 

Table 10. Major vegetation communities of the Rincon Mountain Wilderness

Vegetation Community Percent of Rincon Mountain Wilderness

Madrean encinal woodland 38.7

Grasslands 26.7

Desert communities 25.5

Interior chaparral 6.6

Madrean pine-oak woodland 2.1

Riparian areas 0.4

Guideline

1. Trailhead parking areas should be designed to prevent motorized trespass beyond the 

wilderness boundary. 

Management Approaches

1. Coordinating management strategies with the Saguaro Wilderness managed by the National 

Park Service.

2. Encouraging visitors to limit off-trail group size (including cross-country travel and at 

dispersed camping areas) to no more than six people and six riding/pack stock animals per 

group. 

Santa Teresa Wilderness

General Description

The 26,891-acre Santa Teresa Wilderness covers just over half of the Santa Teresa Ecosystem 

Management Area; it was designated in 1984. Adjacent to the northeast boundary is the North 

Santa Teresa Wilderness, managed by the Bureau of Land Management. This is one of the more 

remote and lightly visited wilderness areas on the Coronado. Elevations rise to 7,481 feet on the 

summit of Cottonwood Peak. The Santa Teresa Mountain Wilderness contains six of the nine 

major vegetation communities. 

Caves and alcoves have hollowed out eroded cliffs into picturesque formations. Thick chaparral 

vegetation covers the terrain with stands of ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir on the north flanks 

and the crest of Cottonwood Peak. Black bear coati, javelina, and mountain lion are present. 
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

118

Several foot trails traverse the deep canyons and bald summits, but are lightly used and may be 

difficult to follow. The most frequent use of these trails is by ranchers during periodic livestock 

drives. Water is available year round at several springs.

Table 11. Major vegetation communities of the Santa Teresa Wilderness

Vegetation Community Percent of Santa Teresa Wilderness

Interior chaparral 31.9

Madrean encinal woodland 30.0

Madrean pine-oak woodland 13.1

Grasslands 12.7

Ponderosa pine-evergreen oak 12.1

Desert communities 0.2

Management Approaches

1. Coordinating management strategies with the North Santa Teresa Wilderness managed by the 

Bureau of Land Management. 

2. Coordinating with the Bureau of Land Management and San Carlos Apache Tribe to maintain 

and improve access to wilderness trailheads.

Recommended Wilderness Areas and Wilderness Study Areas

General Descriptions

The proposed action includes four areas totaling 108,889 acres to be managed as recommended 

wilderness: Ku Chish, the Mount Graham Wilderness Study Area, Whetstone, and Chiricahua 

Addition North (Figure 4). Two other wilderness study areas on the Coronado are not being 

recommended for wilderness designation: Bunk Robinson and Whitmire Canyon Wilderness 

Study Areas. Both recommended wilderness and wilderness study areas are managed to maintain 

their wilderness character. 

Ku Chish Recommended Wilderness Area. The 26,245-acre Ku Chish Recommended 

Wilderness Area is located at the north end of the Chiricahua Ecosystem Management Area. 

Approximately 22,450 acres (86 percent) of this area are in inventoried roadless area. This 

recommended wilderness area is adjacent to the Chiricahua National Monument Wilderness, 

which is managed by the National Park Service. Steep terrain and an undependable water supply 

limit recreational use mainly to the three established trails in the recommended wilderness area. 

Mount Graham Recommended Wilderness Area. The 61,315-acre Mount Graham Wilderness 

Study Area circles the high peaks of the Pinaleño Ecosystem Management Area. This wilderness 

study area was designated as such by the Arizona Wilderness Act of 1984, and was recommended 

for formal wilderness designation in the 1986 “Coronado National Forest Land and Resource 

Management Plan.” This area was never established by Congress as a designated wilderness area;

therefore, it currently maintains its wilderness study area status and management. The 61,315-

acre Mount Graham Recommended Wilderness Area represents the wilderness study area with 

boundary adjustments that provide for increased manageability without diminishing wilderness 

character. The portions of the wilderness study area that are not included in the Mount Graham 

Recommended Wilderness Area will continue to be managed as a wilderness study area. The area 

is characterized by steep mountainsides and canyons. Because of the areas unusual shape, access 
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

119

is most readily available from Swift Trail Parkway, in its interior, rather than from trailheads 

around the base of the ecosystem management area. One access point at the end of Marijilda 

Canyon Road (National Forest System Road 57) allows hikers to follow a rare, perennial drainage 

into the wilderness study area, a canyon believed to support the highest diversity of lizard species 

in the United States. The Mount Graham Wilderness Study Area occurs entirely within 

inventoried roadless area.

Whetstone Recommended Wilderness Area. The Whetstone Potential Wilderness Area 

encompasses 16,317 acres. This area is located in the Whetstone Mountain Range, which is part 

of the Sierra Vista Ranger District of the Coronado National Forest in southeastern Arizona. The 

Whetstone Potential Wilderness Area is overlapped by 13,619 acres of the Whetstone Inventoried 

Roadless Area, comprising 83 percent of the potential wilderness area. 

Chiricahua Addition North Recommended Wilderness Area. The Chiricahua Addition North 

Potential Wilderness Area encompasses 5,012 acres. The area is located adjacent to the existing 

Chiricahua Wilderness. This area would be an expansion of the Chiricahua Wilderness that is now 

87,169 acres, bringing the overall acres to 92,181 if designated. This area is located in the 

Chiricahua Mountains, which is part of the Douglas Ranger District of the Coronado National 

Forest in southeastern Arizona. The Chiricahua Addition North Potential Wilderness Area is 

overlapped by 1,624 acres of the Chiricahua Inventoried Roadless Area, comprising 32 percent of 

the potential wilderness area. 

Bunk Robinson and Whitmire Canyon Wilderness Study Areas. The New Mexico Wilderness 

Act of 1980 created both the Bunk Robinson and Whitmire Canyon Wilderness Study Areas, 

which occupy a large portion of the Peloncillo Ecosystem Management Area. Each was enlarged 

with the Arizona Wilderness Act of 1984, for a total of 19,062 acres in the Bunk Robinson 

Wilderness Study Area and 12,163 acres in the Whitmire Canyon Wilderness Study Area. To 

allow for flexibility in managing wildlife habitat—and because their ecosystems are well 

represented in other Arizona wilderness areas—both wilderness study areas were recommended 

for nonwilderness designation in the 1986 forest plan. Until Congress makes a decision, Bunk 

Robinson and Whitmire Canyon Wilderness Study Areas will continue to be managed to maintain 

their existing wilderness character.

Desired Conditions

Wilderness study areas and recommended wilderness are natural in appearance. They provide 

unconfined opportunities for exploration, solitude, natural risk, challenge, and primitive 

recreation. When traveling on trails, human encounters are generally limited; when traveling 

cross country, almost no human encounters are expected. There is little evidence of human 

developments or human activities. Ecological disturbance processes such as fire, insects, and 

disease are the primary factors affecting landscape patterns in wilderness study areas. 

There is little or no evidence of camping activity, unauthorized trails, or trash. Where needed, 

outfitters and guides provide services to visitors seeking a wilderness experience. Visitor use is in 

balance with wilderness characteristics.

Standard

1. Salable minerals extraction will not be allowed.
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

120

Guidelines

1. Wilderness study areas and recommended wilderness areas should be managed to maintain 

and enhance their wilderness character, which includes scenic resources, primitive recreation 

settings and fish and wildlife habitats. 

2. Wilderness study areas and recommended wilderness should be managed to preserve or 

enhance scenic resources.

3. Wilderness study areas and recommended wilderness should be managed for primitive 

recreation settings.

4. New recreation facilities other than trails should not be constructed. 

5. Timber harvest should not be permitted. 

6. Gathering of forest products for sale should not be permitted. 

7. Mechanized or motorized trails should not be designated. 

8. New roads should not be constructed. 

Eligible Wild, Scenic, and Recreational Rivers 

General Description

There are no designated wild, scenic, or recreational rivers on the Coronado National Forest. 

However, in 1993, all rivers on the Coronado National Forest were evaluated to determine their 

eligibility as wild, scenic, or recreational rivers. This evaluation resulted in 16 river segments 

being eligible for designation. In 2008, the 16 river segments were reevaluated and all were 

determined still to be eligible. These 16 segments will be managed to maintain their eligibility. 

Table 12 (next page) displays the potential classification and outstanding remarkable values for 

each eligible segment.

Desired Conditions

These rivers exist in a free-flowing condition with a range of flows that provide optimum 

conditions for native fish and wildlife and scenic quality. Healthy and diverse stands of riparian 

vegetation thrive along the banks and flood plain, reflecting the potential of the river’s habitats 

and maintaining the channel at a higher level of stability. Recovery of channel and habitat 

conditions following scouring floods is not hindered by management activities within the wild 

and scenic river corridor. The river corridor provides important consumptive and nonconsumptive 

wildlife use opportunities for visitors. The public is aware of these opportunities as well as 

species protection requirements. The public is aware of the importance of native fish and releases 

listed species when caught. Aquatic habitat is maintained in a condition with low substrate 

embeddedness, abundant aquatic food supply, and stable streambanks (see “Riparian Areas” on 

page 51 for more desired conditions). 
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

121

Table 12. Eligible wild, scenic, and recreational river segments

Eligible River 

Segment Classification

Outstandingly 

Remarkable Values

Area 

(acres)

Length 

(miles)

Ecosystem 

Management 

Area

Ash Creek Recreation Scenic, recreation, wildlife, fish, 

historic, cultural, and ecological

2,019 6.2 Pinaleño

Grant Creek Recreation Scenic, recreation, wildlife, fish, 

historic, cultural, and ecological

1,800 5.0 Pinaleño

Lower Cañada 

del Oro

Recreation Scenic, wildlife, fish, and 

historic

1,329 3.4 Santa Catalina

Lower Cave 

Creek

Recreation Scenic, recreation, geologic, 

fish, wildlife, historic, cultural, 

ecological, and riparian

2,329 7.0 Chiricahua

Lower 

Romero 

Canyon

Recreation Recreation, wildlife, fish, 

historic, and cultural

728 2.2 Santa Catalina

Lower Sabino 

Canyon

Recreation Scenic, recreation, wildlife, fish, 

historic, and cultural

1,094 3.2 Santa Catalina

Cima (Winn 

Falls) Creek

Wild Scenic, recreation, wildlife, 

historic, cultural, and riparian

844 2.5 Chiricahua

Upper Cañada 

del Oro

Wild Scenic, wildlife, and fish 2,060 6.0 Santa Catalina

Upper 

Romero 

Canyon

Wild Scenic, recreation, wildlife, fish, 

and cultural

2,163 6.1 Santa Catalina

Upper Sabino 

Canyon

Wild Scenic, recreation, wildlife, 

historic, and cultural

2,629 8.0 Santa Catalina

Upper South 

Fork Cave 

Creek

Wild Scenic, recreation, wildlife, fish, 

historic, and riparian

2,227 6.2 Chiricahua

Rucker Creek Wild Scenic, recreation, wildlife, fish, 

and geologic

2,048 5.9 Chiricahua

Lower South 

Fork Cave 

Creek

Scenic Scenic, recreation, wildlife, fish, 

geologic, cultural, riparian, and 

ecological

439 1.4 Chiricahua

Post Creek Scenic Scenic, recreation, wildlife, fish, 

and cultural

785 2.2 Pinaleño

Redfield 

Canyon

Scenic Scenic and wildlife 2,159 9.1 Galiuro

Sycamore 

River

Scenic Scenic, recreation, wildlife, fish, 

historic, cultural, and ecological

1,759 5.0 Tumacacori

Total Area and Length 26,412 79.4
Chapter 3. Management Areas

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122

Wild rivers are free of impoundments and free flowing. The shoreline is essentially primitive with 

little or no evidence of human activity. The area is inaccessible except by trail and no developed 

recreation facilities exist. The water quality meets or exceeds State standards.

Scenic rivers are free of impoundments and free flowing. The shoreline is largely primitive and 

undeveloped, and there is no substantial evidence of human activity. Evidence of human activities 

generally diminishes over time. Roads may reach or bridge the river. Improvements that occur are 

minimally intrusive in the landscape. 

Recreation rivers are generally readily accessible by road or trail. Encounters with people are 

expected and recreation opportunities vary depending on their compatibility with the 

outstandingly remarkable value of the eligible segment. Vegetation management is used to 

enhance recreation river values. Improvements (such as primitive roads, trails, bridges, fences, or 

signs) may dominate the landscape. Facilities are visually complementary with the landscape. 

Roads and trails provide access within the river corridor consistent with protection and 

enhancement of scenic, cultural/historic, wildlife, and fish outstandingly remarkable values, and 

protection of soil and water quality. The transportation system supports interpretation, recreation, 

and resource management activities.

Standard

1. The conditions that support the classification and outstandingly remarkable values will be 

maintained when implementing projects.

Research Natural Areas,

Botanical, Zoological, and Other Special Areas

General Description 

Research natural areas and botanical and zoological areas are designated to ensure protection of 

specific biological and zoological communities. Research natural areas are areas that the Forest 

Service has designated to be permanently protected and maintained in natural condition, so they 

may serve as experimental research controls and monitoring sites for the particular ecosystem 

they represent and used for education. 

There are six existing research natural areas on the Coronado National Forest: Pole Bridge, 

Goodding, Elgin, Goudy Canyon, Butterfly Peak, and Santa Catalina Research Natural Areas. 

The Pole Bridge, Santa Catalina, Goodding, and Goudy Canyon Research Natural Areas overlap 

with designated wilderness areas. The Coronado National Forest currently has three proposed 

research natural areas, two of which are expansions of existing research natural areas: Canelo, 

Goodding Extension, and Pole Bridge Extension. The Goodding and Pole Bridge Extensions 

overlap with designated wilderness areas. All three of these areas were proposed by the 1986 

plan, but were never established. In the 1986 plan, it was proposed that the Santa Catalina 

Research Natural Area would be reduced from 4,040 acres to 634 acres, but this reduced area was 

never established.

37 The revised plan proposes one new research natural area—Finger Rock 

Canyon—which falls almost entirely within designated wilderness. All current and proposed 

research natural areas within existing wilderness areas will be managed in accordance with 

 

37 The 1986 plan states the Santa Catalina Research Natual Area will be reduced from 4,131 acres to 890 acres. 

Improved mapping technology shows that the existing Santa Catalina Research Natual Area is 4,040 acres and 

the proposed reduced area is 634 acres. The revised plan carries forward the identical proposed boundary 

reduction with the corrected acreages. 
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

123

Agency policy on retaining wilderness character. Direction for research natural areas should be 

applied to both proposed and established research natural areas. 

Botanical and zoological areas are designated for a special feature such as a rare plant or animal. 

There is one existing botanical area on the Coronado, Wild Chile Botanical Area, and one 

designated zoological area, Wet Canyon Talussnail Zoological Area. There are two existing 

zoological-botanical areas on the Coronado National Forest: Guadalupe Canyon and South Fork 

of Cave Creek. The revised plan recommends one proposed area, Cave Creek Canyon Birds of 

Prey Zoological-Botanical Area. Three other areas on the Coronado have special designations: 

Bighorn Sheep Management Area, Appleton-Whittell Research Ranch, and Mount Graham 

Astrophysical and Biological Research Area. Guadalupe Canyon is almost entirely contained 

within a wilderness study area. The Cave Creek Canyon Birds of Prey and the Bighorn Sheep 

Management Area overlap designated wilderness areas. 

Table 13 on the next page displays the size and status of the research natural areas, botanical, 

zoological, and other special areas and the ecosystem management area that each is located 

within (see chapter 4 for descriptions of ecosystem management areas). The acres in the table

reflect the most current mapping and GIS data available.

Desired Conditions

All special areas are characterized by generally unmodified environments in which unique natural 

features are preserved. Each special area provides an example of one or more unique features 

within the Coronado National Forest. Scenic conditions are natural, unaltered, and wholly intact. 

Landscape character and sense of place are evident at the highest possible level. Research and 

monitoring activities do not disturb archaeological sites.

Research natural areas have excellent examples of the ecological features for which they were 

designated, with little evidence of human activity or disturbance. Visitor access and use occurs at 

environmentally acceptable levels to maintain the research values of the research natural area. 

Special use permits within these areas are inappropriate unless they are related to research for 

which the area is designated. Fire management mimics natural fire processes and is compatible 

with ongoing research. 

Botanical areas protect the plants and plant communities for which they are designated. Plants 

and plant communities within these areas are resilient and are not negatively impacted by human 

activities. Nonmotorized recreation is allowed on a limited basis on designated trails to protect 

soil conditions and hydrologic flow. New trails are discouraged. 

Zoological areas protect the unique wildlife and associated habitat for which they are designated. 

These areas contain unique or significant animals, animal groups, or animal communities, habitat, 

location, life history, ecology, environment, rarity, or other features. 

Standard

1. Salable minerals extraction will not be allowed.
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Table 13. Special management areas

Special Management 

Area Type Status Acres

Ecosystem 

Management Area

Wild Chile Botanical Area Designated 2,836 Tumacacori

Page 142 

Wet Canyon Talussnail Zoological Area Designated 1,218 Pinaleño

Page 154

South Fork of Cave Creek Zoological-Botanical 

Area

Designated 786 Chiricahua

Page 129

Guadalupe Canyon Zoological-Botanical 

Area

Designated 3,436 Peloncillo

Page 135

Cave Creek Canyon Birds 

of Prey

Zoological-Botanical 

Area

Proposed 25,764 Chiricahua

Page 129

Bighorn Sheep 

Management Area

Other Designated 21,184 Santa Catalina

Page 162

Appleton-Whittell 

Research Ranch

Other Designated 1,746 Huachuca

Page 146

Mount Graham 

Astrophysical and 

Biological Research Area

Other Designated 2,937 Pinaleño

Page 154

Sabino Canyon Recreation 

Area

Other Designated 1,423 Santa Catalina

Page 162

Elgin Research Natural Area Designated 245 Huachuca

Page 146

Goudy Canyon Research Natural Area Designated 558 Pinaleño

Page 154

Santa Catalina (proposed 

reduction from original 

4,040 acres to 634) 

Research Natural Area Designated 634 Santa Catalina

Page 162

Goodding Research Natural Area Designated 540 Tumacacori

Page 142

Goodding Extension Research Natural Area Proposed 1,673 Tumacacori

Page 142

Butterfly Peak Research Natural Area Designated 1,058 Santa Catalina

Page 162

Pole Bridge Research Natural Area Designated 460 Chiricahua

Page 129

Pole Bridge Extension Research Natural Area Proposed 122 Chiricahua

Page 129

Finger Rock Canyon Research Natural Area Proposed 1,103 Santa Catalina

Page 162

Canelo Research Natural Area Proposed 386 Huachuca

Page 146

Total Acres 68,109
Chapter 3. Management Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

125

Arizona National Scenic Trail

General Description 

The Arizona National Scenic Trail (Arizona Trail) is a nonmotorized, largely primitive trail that 

stretches over 800 miles across Arizona to connect deserts, mountains, forests, wilderness, 

canyons, historic sites, communities, and people. It passes through some of the most renowned 

landscapes in the State of Arizona and is the only national scenic trail in the State. The Arizona 

Trail showcases Arizona’s diverse life zones and scenery, and is enjoyed by a wide variety of 

nonmotorized recreationists, including hikers, equestrians, mountain bicyclists, cross-country 

skiers, and others. Starting in the Coronado National Memorial on the border between the U.S. 

and Mexico, the Arizona Trail climbs and descends from one Coronado National Forest “sky 

island” to another. It traverses the Huachuca Mountains, Canelo Hills, Patagonia Mountains, 

Santa Rita Mountains, Rincon Valley, Rincon Mountains, and Santa Catalina Mountains. There 

are 144 miles of Arizona Trail on the Coronado National Forest. North of the Coronado, the 

Arizona Trail continues across rolling Sonoran Desert hills and mountains, crosses the Gila River, 

then winds through the Superstition Mountains and on to the Mogollon Rim and the forests of 

northern Arizona. It crosses the Grand Canyon on the South and North Kaibab Trails, then 

continues across the Kaibab Plateau to end at the Utah border next to the Vermillion Cliffs 

National Monument. About 70 percent of the trail lies on National Forest System land, but the 

Arizona Trail also crosses Bureau of Land Management, National Park Service, Arizona State 

Parks, Arizona State Trust Land, county, private, and municipal lands. 

Desired Conditions 

The Arizona National Scenic Trail provides both short and long distance nonmotorized recreation 

opportunities in mainly remote and primitive settings representative of the dramatic natural 

landscapes and varied vegetation of Arizona. Along most of the trail, infrastructure and facilities 

are few and are constructed in such a way as to be compatible with the scenic, natural, historic, 

and cultural qualities for which the trail was established. In remote areas, the sights and sounds of 

roads, motorized trails, utility corridors, and other facilities are rarely encountered. Near towns 

and developed recreation facilities, the Arizona Trail may become a more accessible and highly 

developed route with access to amenities via connector trails. Recreation and other activities on 

or adjacent to the Arizona Trail do not negatively impact cultural and natural resources, scenic 

integrity, or the nonmotorized recreation experience. User conflicts are infrequent. Signage, while 

unobtrusive, is sufficient to help long-distance travelers find nearby developed sites, trailheads, 

recreation facilities, and drinking water sources. Trailheads are conveniently placed and, where 

equestrian use is common, sufficient parking space for vehicles pulling trailers exists.

Guidelines

1. Management actions within 1⁄2 mile of the Arizona National Scenic Trail should not result in 

recreation setting changes from less to more developed unless for the purpose of constructing 

or improving trail access or trail related facilities

2. Permitted recreation special use authorizations should be managed to protect the desired 

recreation setting for a nonmotorized trail. 

3. New road or motorized trail construction across or adjacent to the Arizona National Scenic 

Trail should be avoided unless needed for resource protection or to meet statutory

requirements, such as mining law or laws to protect public health and safety. 

4. Placement of new utility corridors and communication facilities should be avoided by 

choosing alternate locations or co-located with existing utility corridors and facilities. 
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5. Utility lines should be buried when feasible to mitigate visual impacts.

6. Forest health projects should be managed to minimize long-term visual impacts within and 

adjacent to the Arizona National Scenic Trail corridor. 

7. Fire on or in the foreground of the Arizona National Scenic Trail should be managed using 

minimum impact suppression tactics, or other tactics appropriate for the protection of values 

and resources for which the trail was designated. 38

38 Jolly, D.F. 1993. Minimum impact suppression tactics guidelines for the northern region of U.S. Department of 

Agriculture Forest Service, Missoula, Montana. 

Management Approaches

1. Working with the Arizona Trail Association and adjacent landowners and agencies to 

maintain the trail corridor and the condition and natural character of the surrounding 

landscape.

2. Managing the Arizona National Scenic Trail and corridor consistent with the 1995 Arizona 

Trail Management Guide, where applicable, until the comprehensive management plan is 

completed. 

3. Managing the Arizona National Scenic Trail and corridor consistent with the comprehensive 

management plan when completed. 

 
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Chapter 4. Geographic Areas

Introduction

This chapter describes management direction that applies to unique geographic areas called 

ecosystem management areas or EMAs. Twelve ecosystem management areas are defined here, 

based on the major mountain ranges that comprise the Coronado National Forest. There is a 

description of each ecosystem management area and one or more plan components, as well as 

recommended management approaches. This chapter also includes management direction for 

special areas within ecosystem management areas, such as research natural areas or zoologicalbotanical areas. The management direction described in this chapter applies to the identified 

geographic area, in addition to the forestwide and management area-specific direction described 

in chapters 2 and 3. This chapter is organized by grouping ecosystem management areas by 

ranger district (Douglas, Nogales, Sierra Vista, Safford, and Santa Catalina Ranger Districts). See 

figure 2 on page 3. 

The plan decisions and other content are described for each ecosystem management area. See 

chapter 1 for descriptions of plan decisions and other content. This direction does not substitute 

for or repeat forestwide direction. 

Throughout this chapter, plan decisions (desired conditions, objectives, standards, and guidelines) 

are displayed within gray borders. Text outside of these gray borders are not plan decisions; they 

consist of other plan content such as general descriptions, background material, explanations, or 

descriptions of management approaches. 

In the event that a plan decision in this section and the plan decision in another section conflict, a 

project- or activity-level evaluation may be required to resolve the conflict; and the generally the 

more restrictive plan decision prevails. Plan decisions and other content for forestwide 

management (chapter 2), management areas (chapter 3), and suitability (chapter 5) should also be 

consulted. 

Douglas Ranger District

The Douglas Ranger District consists of three ecosystem management areas: Chiricahua, 

Dragoon, and Peloncillo. The Douglas Ranger District is the only district that extends into the 

State of New Mexico.

Chiricahua Ecosystem Management Area

General Description

The Chiricahua Ecosystem Management Area includes 284,621 acres of National Forest System 

land, encompassing nearly all of the Chiricahua Mountains. Steep canyons with densely timbered 

slopes dissect the range, radiating in all directions from 9,797-foot Chiricahua Peak. The Barfoot, 

Long, and Rustler Parks are world renowned for uncommon bird and reptile species, including 

the largest known population of twin-spotted rattlesnakes. Rock formations are visible from many 

vantage points throughout the ecosystem management area. At the heart of the Chiricahua 

Ecosystem Management Area lies the 87,169-acre Chiricahua Wilderness and 5,012-acre

Chiricahua Recommended Wilderness Addition; and at the north end lies the 26,245-acre Ku 

Chish Recommended Wilderness Area.

Several four-wheel-drive roads cross the Chiricahua Ecosystem Management Area at the northern 

and southern extents. A single two-wheel-drive accessible road crosses the range from east to 
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west over Onion Saddle, but it is usually closed in winter. Numerous developed sites have 

camping and picnicking facilities and all are accessible with a two-wheel-drive vehicle. Dispersed 

recreation areas are also available throughout the Chiricahua Ecosystem Management Area. In 

particular, the ridges and drainages surrounding Cochise Head (the single largest rock outcrop on 

the Coronado National Forest) remain rugged and remote with access limited primarily to on- and 

off-trail travel. West of this landmark, within the northern portion of the ecosystem management 

area, Chiricahua National Monument (managed by the National Park Service) is contiguous with 

the Coronado on three sides. 

The Chiricahua Mountains, along with all the lands in the southeastern corner of Arizona, were 

once part of the Chiricahua Apache Reservation, and the mountains continue to be a special place 

for descendants of the Chiricahua Apaches. Many of these descendants now live in Oklahoma and 

New Mexico as part of the Mescalero and Chiricahua-Warm Springs-Fort Sill Apache Tribes, 

though the San Carlos Apache Tribe in Arizona also counts Chiricahua descendants among its 

members. Ancestors of members of the White Mountain and San Carlos Apache Tribes 

frequented the mountain ranges of the Douglas Ranger District, and Apache Scout camps were 

located in the Chiricahua Mountains in the 19th century. Today, members of the Mescalero Apache 

Tribe make trips to the Chiricahua Ecosystem Management Area to teach Tribal youth about their 

history and heritage. 

Pole Bridge Canyon Research Natural Area. This 460-acre research natural area was 

established in 1931 to feature distinctive tree populations of the Mexican pine-oak ecosystem, 

particularly Apache pine, southwestern white pine, border piñon, and Arizona pine. An additional 

122 acres have been proposed for inclusion as the Pole Bridge Canyon Research Natural Area 

Extension. The addition includes examples of two Chihuahua pine habitat types, Chihuahua 

pine/Arizona white oak and Chihuahua pine/silverleaf oak, providing a more complete 

representation of the Sierra Madrean pine-oak ecosystem within this research natural area. Both 

the Pole Bridge Canyon Research Natural Area and the proposed extension are encompassed by 

the Chiricahua Wilderness.

South Fork of Cave Creek Zoological-Botanical Area. Located in the eastern portion of the 

Chiricahua Ecosystem Management Area, the 786-acre South Fork of Cave Creek ZoologicalBotanical Area was designated in the 1986 forest plan. This special area supports unique flora and 

fauna, including essential habitats for threatened and endangered plants and animals. The area is 

completed surrounded by the proposed Cave Creek Canyon Birds of Prey Zoological-Botanical 

Area and overlaps the Chiricahua Wilderness.

Barfoot National Natural Landmark. Designated in 2011, the 680-acre Barfoot Park provides 

one of the best Madrean-influenced ponderosa pine forests in the U.S. The site supports an 

unusually high amount of plant diversity and includes one of the largest concentrations of welldeveloped talus slopes in the region, supporting plants and animals not found elsewhere at the 

site.

Proposed Cave Creek Canyon Birds of Prey Zoological-Botanical Area. The 25,764-acre 

proposed Cave Creek Canyon Birds of Prey Zoological-Botanical Area is located in the eastern 

portion of the Chiricahua Ecosystem Management Area. This special area highlights a diverse 

assemblage of migratory and year-round wildlife, as well as the rare riparian setting that attracts 

these species. Recent research has found that Cave Creek Canyon harbors the densest known 

population of breeding raptors in the U.S. World-class birding is a highlight of the area. The 

proposed Cave Creek Canyon Birds of Prey Zoological-Botanical area completely surrounds the 

existing South Fork of Cave Creek Zoological-Botanical Area.
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Figure 5. Chiricahua Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas
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Desired Conditions

The Chiricahua Ecosystem Management Area offers a wide spectrum of developed recreation 

opportunities for a growing population, while large tracts of undeveloped areas remain available 

for primitive and dispersed recreation. The landscape has recovered from resource damage caused 

by illegal activities. Trash is not commonly found. Pinery Road over Onion Saddle provides a 

scenic driving experience and vehicular access to high elevations. Recreation facilities are 

sufficient in size and number to accommodate demand while supporting a high quality, outdoor 

experience. Administrative sites, such as Rucker, Pinery, Rustler Park, and Cima Administrative 

Sites, are in good condition and available as appropriate for Forest Service, Tribal, and public use 

as part of the “Rooms with a View” cabin rental program. Recreation residences and the 

organization camp blend well with the natural landscape and do not expand beyond their 

authorized footprint. Permanent legal public vehicular access to National Forest System lands

within the ecosystem management area is established and is easily accessible by public land and 

administrative users. Watersheds provide high quality surface and ground water flows. 

Cultural and historic properties (such as Camp Rucker, Rustler Park, Cima Cabin, Barfoot 

Lookout, and Monte Vista Lookout Cabin) retain integrity of setting, location, association, 

materials, design, workmanship, and feeling to provide the public and Forest Service employees a 

long-term perspective on the region’s spirit, character, and identity, and to impart information 

about the past history of the mountain. Historic Apache scout camps have been identified and are 

protected in partnership with the White Mountain and San Carlos Apache Tribes. Archaeological 

sites of the Chiricahua Mountains provide Tribes, researchers, and the public with scientific data 

about, as well as tangible links to, the long and diverse history of southeastern Arizona. The Pole 

Bridge Canyon Research Natural Area and its proposed extension retain the characteristics of the 

Mexican pine-oak ecosystem, including populations of Apache pine, southwestern white pine, 

border piñon, and Arizona pine. 

Descendants of the Chiricahua Apaches feel welcome in their traditional homeland and make use 

of campgrounds, dispersed camping areas, and administrative sites for cultural and educational 

events. Medicinal plants, wild plant foods, ceremonial plants, basketry materials, and other 

traditional resources are available for collection by Tribal members. Sites that have been 

identified as sacred or holy for the Chiricahua Apache are available to Chiricahua Apache 

descendants and members of the Fort Sill and Mescalero Apache Tribes for individual and group 

prayer, and traditional ceremonies and rituals. 

High-elevation meadows are dominated by native grasses and grasslike plants and are relatively 

free of trees and shrubs. The wildlife and vegetation species in the area surrounding Barfoot Park 

are perpetuated. Elements of spruce-fir communities, including stands of Engelmann spruce, exist 

in the mixed conifer forests above 8,500 feet. Cave Creek Canyon supports a full cohort of native 

nesting birds, particularly cavity-nesting birds, and provides opportunities for world-class birding. 

Unique wildlife and vegetation species are perpetuated in the South Fork of Cave Creek 

Zoological-Botanical Area and the Pole Bridge Research Natural Area. The unique resources that 

provide habitat for the highest number of birds of prey in the U.S. are maintained or enhanced in 

the Cave Creek Canyon Birds of Prey Zoological-Botanical Area. Recreation activities and other 

uses do not degrade these values. Cave Creek and the South Fork of Cave Creek retain the 

characteristics required to be designated an “outstanding Arizona water” by the Arizona 

Department of Environmental Quality. 
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Objective

1. Every 10 years treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 20 percent of the Chiricahua Ecosystem 

Management Area to create resiliency to disturbances. Treatments will be consistent with the 

objectives for forestwide vegetation communities and resources.

Standards

1. Within the Pole Bridge Research Natural Area and Proposed Pole Bridge Research Natural 

Area Extension:

a. Vegetation cutting is prohibited, including harvest of forest products and firewood. 

b. New roads or other improvements are prohibited; the use of existing roads and trails is 

allowed for fire management purposes.

c. Camping is prohibited. 

2. Within South Fork of Cave Creek Zoological-Botanical Area:

a. A special use permit is required for any plant or animal collection.

b. A special use permit is required for scientific research that would involve placing 

anything on National Forest System lands within the proposed zoological-botanical area.

Guidelines

1. Cattle should be excluded from Camp Rucker to foster protection of the historic buildings 

and ruins. 

2. During vegetation treatments, considerations of mesic microenvironments for woodland and 

talussnails endemic to the Chiricahua Ecosystem Management Area (such as trees near rocky 

features, islands of shrubs within talus slopes, riparian colluvia, large logs, and scattered

rocks on shady hillsides) should be incorporated. 

3. Management activities involving ground disturbance, vegetation management, or both should 

incorporate site-specific design features to benefit habitat for, or mitigate impacts to, rare or 

unique vertebrate, invertebrate and plant populations. For the Chiricahua Ecosystem 

Management Area, these species include, but are not limited to:

• Chiricahua fleabane

• Chiricahua gentian

• copper mine milk-vetch 

• Hinkley’s Jacob's ladder

• Porsild’s starwort

• purple-spike coralroot 

• Rusby’s hawkweed 

• smooth baby-bonnets 

Management Approaches

1. Consulting with the Mescalero, Ft. Sill, San Carlos, and White Mountain Apache Tribes to 

develop stewardship plans for archaeological sites and other traditionally important places 

and to foster collaborative stewardship with Ft. Bowie. Establishing a memorandum of 

understanding between the Forest Service and Mescalero Apache Tribe to facilitate Tribal

events in the Chiricahua Ecosystem Management Area.

2. Collaborating with Friends of Cave Creek Canyon. 

3. Collaborating with the Southwest Research Station to facilitate the flow of scientific 

information that can be used to inform natural resource management. 
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Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area

General Description

The rugged Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area contains 52,467 acres of the Dragoon 

Mountains and adjoining semidesert grasslands and savannahs. Elevations range from 4,600 feet 

to the 7,519-foot Mount Glenn. The Dragoon Mountains, and specifically Cochise Stronghold 

(both East and West Stronghold Canyons), have long been recognized as a special place for the 

descendants of the Chiricahua Apaches (including Mescalero, San Carlos, and Chiricahua-Warm 

Springs-Fort Sill Apache Tribes). Members of the four southern Tribes collect basketry materials 

at the lower elevations of the Dragoons as their ancestors probably did centuries ago.

The natural fortress of Cochise Stronghold’s granite domes and rock formations attracts rock 

climbers, photographers, wildlife viewers, and hikers from around the country. East Stronghold 

Canyon offers developed recreation opportunities while West Stronghold Canyon features a more 

dispersed recreational experience. The rugged terrain does not lend itself to additional road 

developments. The soils within this ecosystem management area are fragile and easily damaged 

by vehicles driving off roads. Access throughout much of the ecosystem management area is via 

unpaved roads. 

Desired Conditions

The Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area offers a wide spectrum of developed recreation 

opportunities for a growing population, while large tracts of undeveloped areas remain available 

for dispersed recreation. The unroaded core of the ecosystem management area is wild in 

character and opportunities for quiet recreation exist. Geologic features and rock formations that 

dominate the Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area provide outstanding rock climbing 

opportunities. Rock climbers and other visitors do not cause permanent resource damage and 

abide by restrictions needed for wildlife protection. Well-contained motorized dispersed 

campsites are available along the western edge of the ecosystem management area, and campers 

do not cause permanent damage to soils or vegetation. The East Stronghold Canyon area offers 

opportunities for safe developed recreation and interpretation of the history and ecology of the 

area. The number of miles of trails is sufficient to provide nonmotorized access, and users do not 

create unauthorized trails. The landscape has recovered from resource damage caused by illegal 

activities. Trash is not commonly found. Watersheds provide high quality surface and ground 

water flows.

Stands of Arizona cypress exist in the cool drainages on the east side of the Dragoon Ecosystem 

Management Area. An open savanna vegetation structure occurs along portions of the west flank 

of the Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area.

Permanent legal public vehicular access to National Forest System lands in the ecosystem 

management area is established and easily accessible by public and administrative users.

Objective

1. Within 10 years of plan approval, treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and 

unplanned ignitions), prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 15 percent of the 

Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area to create resiliency to disturbances. Treatments will

be consistent with the objectives for forestwide vegetation communities and resources.
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Figure 6. Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas
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Guidelines

1. During vegetation treatments, considerations of mesic microenvironments for woodland and 

talussnails endemic to the Dragoon Ecosystem Management Area (such as trees near rocky 

features, islands of shrubs within talus slopes, riparian colluvia, large logs, and scattered

rocks on shady hillsides) should be incorporated. 

2. Areas disturbed by unauthorized motorized camping (outside of the defined dispersed 

camping areas) on the west side of the ecosystem management area should be revegetated 

and protected from new disturbance. 

3. Management activities involving ground disturbance and/or vegetation management should 

incorporate site-specific design features to benefit habitat for, or mitigate impacts to, rare or 

unique vertebrate, invertebrate and plant populations. For the Dragoon Ecosystem 

Management Area, these species include, but are not limited to:

• Coleman’s coral-root and purple spike coral-root 

Peloncillo Ecosystem Management Area

General Description

The Peloncillo Ecosystem Management Area is one of the most remote portions of the Coronado 

National Forest. Access is limited to primitive roads, primarily Geronimo Trail (National Forest 

System Road 63), and there are no developed recreation sites. Large unroaded areas are valued 

for their solitude and unconfined recreation opportunities. The relatively narrow range of 

elevation (from 4,593 to 6,624 feet) supports a surprising diversity of wildlife, most notably 

reptile and amphibian species. 

Although mostly xeric, Cloverdale Cienega is one of the Peloncillo’s rare aquatic features. The 

ecosystem management area’s 85,149 acres straddle the Arizona-New Mexico border, with 81 

percent in New Mexico. Situated southeast of the Chiricahua Mountains and just north of the 

U.S.–Mexico border, this southern portion of the Peloncillo range was occupied for millennia by 

farmers and foragers who had trading and cultural ties with neighboring groups, and was within 

the heartland of Chiricahua Apache territory. The 19,062-acre Bunk Robinson Wilderness Study 

Area and 12,163-acre Whitmire Canyon Wilderness Study Area flank Geronimo Trail to the south 

and north, respectively.

Guadalupe Canyon Zoological Area. This area was designated in the 1986 forest plan to protect 

3,436 acres of habitat for unique wildlife associations. The area complements the Bureau of Land 

Management’s outstanding natural area in lower Guadalupe Canyon, which is recognized for its 

exceptional birding habitat. The Guadalupe Canyon Zoological Area forms part of the Peloncillo 

Ecosystem Management Area’s southern boundary and is almost entirely contained within the 

Bunk Robinson Wilderness Study Area. 
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Figure 7. Peloncillo Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas
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Desired Conditions

Recreation opportunities are primarily undeveloped, and the entire ecosystem management area is 

available for primitive and dispersed recreation. Geronimo Trail (National Forest System

Road 63) provides opportunities for scenic driving and vehicular access through the ecosystem 

management area. The landscape has recovered from resource damage caused by illegal 

activities. Trash is not commonly found. Watersheds provide high quality surface and ground 

water flows.

The Cloverdale Cienega is dominated by perennial graminoid species such as spike rush, 

deergrass, and sedges. Flood flows, when they occur, are spread across the flood plain and not 

concentrated in channels. Unique wildlife species are perpetuated in the Guadalupe Canyon 

Zoological Area. Other uses do not degrade these unique values. Species that have historically 

moved freely between habitat in Mexico and within the Peloncillo Ecosystem Management Area 

continue to do so. 

Permanent legal public access to the northern end and southeastern corner of the ecosystem 

management area is established, easily accessible by public land and administrative users, and 

interconnected to State, county, local public, and other Federal roads and trails. The complex land 

ownership patterns (checkerboard ownership) on the eastern (New Mexico) side of the ecosystem 

management area are consolidated into contiguous blocks of private land surrounded by National 

Forest System land and are easily identifiable and recognizable by public land users, private 

landowners, and Forest Service personnel. Permanent legal public vehicular access to National 

Forest System lands is established and is easily accessible by public land and administrative users 

in the Deer Creek, Starvation, and Skeleton Canyons, Whitmire and Deer Flat, Foster Draw and 

Black Mountains, Crescent and Cordy Cowen Tanks, and other areas within the ecosystem 

management area.

Objective

1. Every 10 years treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 35 percent of the Peloncillo Ecosystem 

Management Area to create resiliency to disturbance. Treatments will be consistent with the 

objectives for forestwide vegetation communities and resources.

Standards

1. Within Guadalupe Canyon Zoological-Botanical Area:

a. A special use permit is required for any plant or animal collection.

b. A special use permit should be issued for scientific research that would involve placing 

anything on National Forest System lands within the proposed zoological area. 

Guidelines

1. During vegetation treatments within Skull Canyon, considerations of mesic 

microenvironments for talussnails endemic to the Peloncillo Ecosystem Management Area 

(such as trees near rocky features, islands of shrubs within talus slopes, riparian colluvia, 

large logs, scattered rocks on shady hillsides) should be incorporated.

2. Management activities involving ground disturbance, vegetation management, or both should 

incorporate site-specific design features to benefit habitat for, or mitigate impacts to, rare or 

unique vertebrate, invertebrate and plant populations. For the Peloncillo Ecosystem 

Management Area, these species include, but are not limited to:

• Chiricahua mudwort, copper milk-vetch, and New Mexico bitterweed
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Management Approaches

1. Collaborating with the Malpai Borderlands Group. 

2. Cooperate with other agencies to survey for Chiricahua mudwort. 

Nogales Ranger District

The Nogales Ranger District consists of two ecosystem management areas: Santa Rita and 

Tumacacori. This ranger district shares 29 miles of the international boundary with Mexico.

Santa Rita Ecosystem Management Area

General Description

The Santa Rita Ecosystem Management Area takes its name from the mountain range it 

encompasses, the summit of which is 9,462-foot Mount Wrightson. Its distinctive pyramid-shaped 

profile rises above the surrounding savannas and deserts, visible from much of southeastern 

Arizona, and creates a striking backdrop for travelers along Interstate 10 and Highways 82 and 

83. In 1985, these two state highways were designated “Patagonia-Sonoita Scenic Road” by the 

Arizona Department of Transportation. The 136,936-acre Santa Rita Ecosystem Management 

Area is visible from metropolitan Tucson and second only to the Santa Catalina Mountains in 

terms of recreational appeal. Madera Canyon, a popular birding area, offers developed recreation 

opportunities, including rental cabins at the Santa Rita Lodge and a gift shop. The east side of the 

ecosystem management area offers opportunities for off-highway vehicle use and dispersed 

recreation (such as camping, hunting, and foot trail based pursuits). An unmistakable geologic 

feature known as Elephant Head, at the ecosystem management area’s northwest extent, attracts 

backcountry rock climbers and serves as an attractive goal for cyclists along the Elephant Head 

Mountain Bike Route. The Arizona National Scenic Trail traverses the range from south to north.

At the core of the Santa Rita Mountains is the 25,121-acre Mount Wrightson Wilderness.

The Santa Rita Ecosystem Management Area has a long history of human use prior to its 

development as a popular recreation area. Archaeological sites dating back thousands of years 

testify to hunting, farming, and plant collecting practices; members of the four southern Tribes, 

the San Carlos Apache Tribe and Pascua Yaqui, continue to visit the range to collect important 

traditional plants. The Santa Rita Mountains, or Ce:wi Duag (Long Mountain in O’odham), have 

been a recognized traditional cultural property as a place of continuing cultural importance to 

nearby Tribes. Extensive mining and ranching became prevalent in the late 19th century and 

continues at a smaller scale today. 

Forest Service administration and Federal relief projects of the Great Depression are visible in old 

ranger residences and a Civilian Conservation Corps camp. A century-old partnership between the 

Forest Service and University of Arizona resulted in construction of the Florida Station, which 

serves as headquarters for the Santa Rita Experimental Range (managed by the University of 

Arizona College of Agriculture), located just beyond the northern boundary of the ecosystem 

management area. Another joint venture between the University of Arizona and Smithsonian 

Institution has placed a telescope and observatory at the top of the ecosystem management area’s 

second highest peak, Mount Hopkins, where research and public education continue today. 
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Figure 8. Santa Rita Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas
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Onyx Cave National Natural Landmark. In 1974, roughly 50 acres surrounding Onyx Cave 

were designated in recognition of the cave’s numerous and beautifully developed shield 

formations within a series of passageways and rooms that honeycomb an outcropping of 

limestone. It is considered to be one of the finest caves in Ariona.

Town of Patagonia Municipal Supply Watershed. The 128,000-acre Sonoita Creek watershed 

is a municipal supply watershed. Sonoita Creek and its subterranean aquifer provides the only 

source of potable water for the town of Patagonia with over 900 residents and over 300 private 

well users within a 3-mile radius of town. The shallow depth of the aquifer, combined with the 

nature of the soils and underlying geology, make the relationship between the surface and ground 

water watersheds a particularly close and interconnected one. 

Desired Conditions

The Santa Rita Ecosystem Management Area offers a wide spectrum of developed recreation 

opportunities for a growing population, while large tracts of undeveloped areas remain available 

for primitive and dispersed recreation. In Madera Canyon, there are opportunities to camp in a 

developed recreation facility or in undeveloped campsites. Trailheads are well marked and lead to 

a network of well-maintained hiking trails. World-class bird watching opportunities exist along 

roads and trails. The Santa Rita Ecosystem Management Area offers an environment in which to 

recreate where risks are predominately natural and visitors do not feel threatened. The landscape 

has recovered from resource damage caused by illegal activities. Trash is not commonly found.

Kentucky Camp National Historic District is preserved and interpreted to provide the public with 

an understanding of the role mining and ranching has played in the development of southeastern 

Arizona. The Kent Springs Center and Kentucky Camp are available to the public and Tribes for 

a variety of recreational and educational experiences. Areas around Kentucky Camp and along the 

Greaterville Road continue to provide Tribes with places to collect traditional basketry materials 

and plant foods. The historic Florida Station is preserved, and its functionality as an 

environmental education center for youth and adults is expanded and enhanced, while continuing 

in the collaboration the station fosters. 

The Santa Rita backcountry touring routes offer motorized and dispersed camping recreation 

opportunities. Elephant Head Mountain Bike Route offers a combination of lightly traveled roads 

and remote trails designed to both challenge a rider’s skill and to provide a scenic, backcountry 

experience. The Arizona National Scenic Trail and Patagonia-Sonoita Scenic Road provide 

excellent opportunities to recreate and enjoy the scenery. 

Water quality in Mansfield Canyon meets the State of Arizona’s water quality standards. The 

Sonoita Creek watershed provides clean surface waterflows.

The dark skies above the Santa Rita Ecosystem Management Area present conditions conducive 

to astronomical research. The Smithsonian Mount Hopkins telescopes offer educational 

opportunities and promotes scientific discovery. 

Outstanding split mineral interests (50 percent non-Federal/50 percent Federal ownership) have 

been acquired and consolidated into a contiguous block of subsurface Federal ownership 

affording more efficient management as well as greater protection of valuable natural resources 

and desired forest landscape conditions. The complex land ownership pattern (fragmented 

checkerboard ownership intermingled with irregular shaped parcels) within the ecosystem 

management area are consolidated into contiguous blocks of National Forest System and private 

land and are easily identifiable and recognizable by public land users, private landowners, and 
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Forest Service personnel. Legal status deficiencies of needed existing forest roads and trails 

systems have been resolved.

Objective

1. Every 10 years treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 20 percent of the Santa Rita Ecosystem 

Management Area to create resiliency to disturbances. Treatments will be consistent with the 

objectives for forestwide vegetation communities and resources. 

Guidelines

1. During vegetation treatments, considerations of mesic microenvironments for woodland and 

talussnails endemic to the Santa Rita Ecosystem Management Area (such as trees near rocky 

features, islands of shrubs within talus slopes, riparian colluvia, large logs, and scattered

rocks on shady hillsides) should be incorporated. 

2. Management activities involving ground disturbance, vegetation management, or both should 

incorporate site-specific design features to benefit habitat for, or mitigate impacts to, rare or 

unique vertebrate, invertebrate and plant populations. For the Santa Rita Ecosystem 

Management Area, these species include, but are not limited to:

• Arizona eryngo 

• Arizona Manihot 

• Ayenia

• beardless chinch weed

• Chisos Coralroot 

• Cochise woolwort 

• Huachuca cinquefoil 

• Pima pineapple cactus 

• purple-spike coral-root 

• Santa Rita yellowshow

• Southwest monkeyflower 

Management Approach

1. Collaborating with the Friends of Madera Canyon and Friends of Kentucky Camp. 

Tumacacori Ecosystem Management Area

General Description

The Tumacacori Ecosystem Management Area is the Coronado’s most southwesterly 

administrative land unit, encompassing 200,929 acres. It is bounded by the Santa Cruz River on 

the east and the Altar Valley on the west. The Tumacacori Ecosystem Management Area shares 29 

miles on its southern boundary with the U.S.-Mexico international border. At 6,422 feet, Atascosa 

Peak forms the summit of the ecosystem management area, presiding over the rugged and rocky 

Atascosa Mountains and Tumacacori Highlands. Vast rolling landscapes of grasslands and oak 

woodlands cascade in all directions from these dominating features. Water is a comparatively 

abundant feature of this ecosystem management area. Aliso Spring, on the northwest slope of the 

Tumacacori Mountains, provides rare habitat for lowland leopard frogs and other aquatic 

obligates. Further south, canyons of the Pajarito Mountains open into Mexico, harboring riparian 

vegetation and a fantastic diversity of birds, mammals, and reptiles. One such drainage, Sycamore 

Canyon, has long been world-renowned for bird watching opportunities and was recognized in 

2003 as an important birding area by the Arizona Chapter of the Audubon Society. The 

Tumacacori Ecosystem Management Area generally remains wild in character, with developed 

recreation focused on Pena Blanca and Arivaca Lakes and dispersed recreation abundant within 
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its boundaries. The 7,523-acre Pajarita Wilderness lies in the southern portion of the ecosystem 

management area.

In addition to outstanding biophysical features, the Tumacacori Ecosystem Management Area is 

also rich in cultural history. The area was associated primarily with the O’odham people. They 

were the group living in and around the area when Europeans arrived, and though decimated in 

the 1st century of direct contact, they were still using the area on a regular basis into the 20th

century. Other groups (including Apaches and particularly western Apaches)39 visited often in the 

18th and 19th centuries and lived just east of the ecosystem management area at the presidio 

community of Tubac in the 19th century. The Yaquis, or Yoemem, are best known for their use of 

the Highlands area in the early 20th century, but their presence dates to the time of initial Jesuit 

entry into the region. Other groups have more limited historic period connections with the area. 

Both the Hopi and Zuni have connections from the standpoint that they consider some of the 

ancestors of Tribal members to have migrated from southern Arizona. The O’odham occupation 

of the Tumacacori Ecosystem Management Area ended abruptly in 1916 when the main Papago 

Indian Reservation was created and those Tohono O’odham living outside the boundaries were 

forced to leave the area and move to the reservation.

Wild Chile Botanical Area. This 2,836-acre area within the Rock Corral Canyon subwatershed 

was designated in 1999 to provide additional notoriety, protection, and research opportunities for 

the wild chile (Capsicum annuum var. aviculare) and other plants of economic importance or 

conservation concern. Primarily consisting of oak woodlands, interspersed with semidesert 

grasslands and deciduous riparian vegetation, the area harbors wild chile plants occurring at the 

northernmost edge of wild chile populations found anywhere in the world.

Known as chiltepines in Mexico, where they are more common, wild chiles have been 

traditionally harvested in the area for decades, if not centuries, and are an important food crop 

worldwide. Wild cotton, tepary beans, and two species of wild gourds are also found in the Wild 

Chile Botanical Area.

Goodding Research Natural Area. Originally established as Sycamore Scenic Area in 1962, the 

540-acre Goodding Research Natural Area was renamed and given research natural area status in 

1970. All but 7 acres are located within the Pajarita Wilderness. Widely recognized for its 

aesthetic and biological diversity, Leslie N. Goodding, the renowned Arizona botanist for whom it 

was named, called Goodding Research Natural Area a “hidden botanical garden.” Besides 

sustaining rare and varied riparian vegetation and wildlife, the area was designated for its 

representation of the oak savannah vegetation community. An additional 1,673 acres were later 

proposed as the Goodding Research Natural Area Extension, with 1,472 of these acres located 

adjacent to the southern boundary of the existing research natural area, all within the Pajarita 

Wilderness. The remaining 201 acres straddle the wilderness boundary beyond the northern edge 

of the existing research natural area, and 51 acres of this portion are within the Pajarita 

Wilderness. The existing and proposed Goodding Research Natural Area combine to equal 2,213 

acres. The proposed Goodding Research Natural Area Extension would further protect additional 

populations of rare plants and animals, including the supine bean.

 

39 Western Apache refers to the Apache peoples living today primarily in east central Arizona. Most live within 

reservations. The Fort Apache, San Carlos, Yavapai-Apache, Tonto Apache, and Fort McDowell MohaveApache Indian reservations are home to the majority of western Apache and are the bases of their federally 

recognized Tribes.
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Figure 9. Tumacacori Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas
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Desired Conditions

The Tumacacori Ecosystem Management Area offers a wide spectrum of developed recreation 

opportunities for a growing population, while large tracts of undeveloped areas remain available 

for primitive and dispersed recreation. The core mountainous and roadless area has a wild and 

rugged character. Ruby Road (NFS Road 39) provides scenic driving and vehicular access 

through the Tumacacori Ecosystem Management Area. Fishing and boating opportunities are 

provided at Pena Blanca and Arivaca Lakes. Well-maintained visitor facilities (including a boat 

ramp, lakeshore trail, overnight accommodations, picnic areas, and fishing docks) are available at 

Pena Blanca Lake. Water based recreational activities do not contribute to the spread of invasive 

aquatic species. California Gulch and Sycamore Canyon offer outstanding bird watching 

opportunities. Aliso Spring provides habitat for native aquatic species. The Tumacacori 

Ecosystem Management Area offers an environment in which to recreate where the risks are 

predominately natural and visitors do not feel threatened. The landscape has recovered from 

resource damage caused by illegal activities. Trash is not commonly found. Watersheds provide 

high quality surface and ground water flows. 

Plants that are traditionally important to the O’odham people (including acorn bearing oaks, 

agaves, banana yucca, beargrass, walnuts, mulberry, chiltepines, and sayas) are available for 

sustainable traditional and cultural uses. 

Historically significant buildings are maintained and rehabilitated for continued use. Multiple-use 

management of the Wild Chile Botanical Area perpetuates the existence of wild chiles. 

Traditional uses of wild chiles do not threaten existing populations. 

Activities related to the international border minimally impact natural resources including scenic 

quality. Species that have historically moved freely between habitats in Mexico and within the 

Tumacacori Ecosystem Management Area continue to do so. 

Permanent legal public access to the northern and eastern side of the ecosystem management area 

has been established, is easily accessible by public land and administrative users, and is 

connected to State, county, local public, and other Federal roads and trails. The complex land 

ownership patterns (fragmented checkerboard ownership intermingled with irregular-shaped 

parcels) within the ecosystem management area have been consolidated through land ownership 

adjustments, and boundaries are easily identifiable and recognizable by public land users, private 

landowners, and Forest Service personnel.

The Goodding Research Natural Area and its proposed extension retain the characteristics of the 

rare and varied riparian vegetation and wildlife, including the oak savannah vegetation 

community. 

Objective

1. Every 10 years treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 25 percent of the Tumacacori Ecosystem 

Management Area to create resiliency to disturbances. One-third of this treatment should 

target the area east of the Goodding Research Natural Area to Nogales, from the international 

border to the vicinity of Ruby Road. Treatments will be consistent with the objectives for 

forestwide vegetation communities and resources.
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Standards

1. Within Goodding Research Natural Area and the proposed Goodding Research Natural Area 

Extension: 

a. Do not permit livestock grazing.

b. Do not permit harvest of forest products, including fuelwood. 

Guidelines

1. Fuel reduction and vegetation treatments should leave islands of mesic microenvironments 

around riparian areas, colluvium, and woody debris on side slopes and stream channels 

(ephemeral and perennial).

2. In rocky stream areas where large granitic boulders occur, projects should be designed to 

minimize or avoid impact to Mannia californica and Plagiochasma wrightii habitat.

3. Within the Wild Chile Botanical Area:

a. Planned and unplanned ignitions should be used seasonally prior to wild chile flowering 

and fruiting. 

b. Livestock grazing should be deferred during the growing season of wild chiles, 

approximately August to November. 

c. Wild chile plants should be protected when high-severity fire threatens the population.

d. A special use permit should be issued for any plant or animal collection (excluding 

traditional uses).

e. A special use permit should be issued for scientific research that would involve placing 

anything on National Forest System lands within the proposed zoological area 

4. Management activities involving ground disturbance and/or vegetation management should 

incorporate site-specific design features to benefit habitat for, or mitigate impacts to, rare or 

unique vertebrate, invertebrate and plant populations. For the Tumacacori Ecosystem 

Management Area, these species include, but are not limited to, the following:

• Cochise woolwort, recurved corycactus, soft Mexican-orange, and Whisk fern

Management Approaches

1. Fostering collaborative research to explore Native American history and heritage, such as 

working with the Pascua Yaqui to investigate the historic battle site near Bear Valley Ranch.

2. Supporting continued research and monitoring of wild chiles by Native Seeds/Southwestern 

Endangered Aridland Resource Clearing House40 and other nonprofit or educational 

organizations. Providing opportunities for Tribes and the local communities to collect 

mesquite wood for personal use as part of vegetation management treatments.

3. Coordinating with the Department of Homeland Security in the protection of archaeological 

sites during law enforcement activities.

 

40 Native Seeds/Southwestern Endangered Aridland Resource Clearing House conserves, distributes, and 

documents adapted and diverse varieties of agricultural seeds, their wild relatives, and the role these seeds play in 

cultures of the American Southwest and northwest Mexico. They promote the use of these ancient crops and their 

wild relatives by gathering, safeguarding, and distributing their seeds to farmers and gardening communities.
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Sierra Vista Ranger District

The Sierra Vista Ranger District consists of two ecosystem management areas: Huachuca and 

Whetstone. This ranger district shares 26 miles of the international boundary with Mexico. 

Huachuca Ecosystem Management Area

General Description

An expansive area containing 253,364 acres of land, the Huachuca Ecosystem Management Area 

includes the massive Huachuca Mountains, the smaller Patagonia Mountains and Canelo Hills, 

and the vast, rolling grasslands of San Rafael Valley. Fort Huachuca shares the ecosystem 

management area’s northeastern border, and the entire south edge of the ecosystem management 

area lies on the international boundary with Mexico. The Miller Peak Wilderness encompasses 

20,238 acres of the ecosystem management area’s upper elevations in the Huachuca Mountains. 

Several perennial streams—including Bear Canyon, Scotia Canyon, and Red Rock Canyon—

provide year-round habitat for aquatic species. These streams generally have at least permanent 

pools of water, even when continuous flows cease during the driest seasons. 

Ancestors of the Chiricahua Apache, western Apache, and O’odham once used the entire 

ecosystem management area and continue to visit areas near Fort Huachuca for acorn collection. 

Noted by 17th century Spanish Captain Juan Mateo Manje, the Huachuca range (or Sierra de 

Huachuca) most likely got its name from a nearby Piman village.

Numerous access roads penetrate the Huachuca Ecosystem Management Area, connecting to a 

network of unpaved roads within. The route from Montezuma Pass to Sonoita, via Parker Canyon 

Lake, is a favorite scenic drive navigable to two-wheel-drive vehicles despite having a dirt 

surface in most sections. Visitors concentrate along Carr Canyon, within campgrounds and picnic 

areas surrounding Parker Canyon Lake, and at eastside access points near the thriving community 

of Sierra Vista. Highway 82 closely borders the west side of the ecosystem management area, 

providing additional access for visitors to the Patagonia Mountains. 

Town of Patagonia Municipal Supply Watershed. The 128,000-acre Sonoita Creek watershed 

is a municipal supply watershed. Harshaw Creek and their subterranean aquifers provide the only 

source of potable water for the town of Patagonia with over 900 residents and over 300 private 

well users within a 3-mile radius of town. The shallow depth of the aquifers combined with the 

nature of the soils and underlying geology make the relationship between the surface and ground 

water watersheds a particularly close and interconnected one. 

Appleton-Whittell Research Ranch. Just south of Elgin at the north-northeastern edge of the 

ecosystem management area lies the Appleton-Whittell Research Ranch, a cooperative 

partnership among the National Audubon Society, Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, 

the Nature Conservancy, Swift Current Land and Cattle Co., LLC, and the Research Ranch 

Foundation. Of a total 7,543 acres, 1,746 are National Forest System lands managed by the 

Coronado National Forest. The Appleton-Whittell Research Ranch is managed under a 

memorandum of understanding that emphasizes research, education, conservation, and 

restoration; it is particularly valued as a scientific control area. Special area designations on 

National Forest System land within the Appleton-Whittell Research Ranch contribute to these 

objectives, including the Elgin Research Natural Area. The Appleton-Whittell Research Ranch is 

not designated as an official research natural area but will be managed under a memorandum of 

understanding to meet similar objectives. Some vegetative manipulations will be allowed for 

research projects.
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Figure 10. Huachuca Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas
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Elgin Research Natural Area. This research natural area was created in 1974 to provide 

opportunities to research shortgrass open grassland associations near the southwestern extremity 

of their normal range. Additionally, since domestic livestock have been absent for much of the 

latter half of the 20th century, the research natural area offers an excellent opportunity to study 

natural trends in vegetation composition and soil stability following removal of livestock grazing. 

The 480-acre tract of land is a mixture of State, Federal, and private land ownership, all within 

the Appleton-Whittell Research Ranch boundary; 245 acres are National Forest System lands.

Proposed Canelo Research Natural Area. Proposed for designation in the 1986 forest plan, the 

proposed Canelo Research Natural Area would set aside 386 acres of National Forest System 

lands within the southern portion of the Appleton-Whittell Research Ranch. Like the Elgin 

Research Natural Area, this proposed research natural area will be managed to allow for 

monitoring long-term ecological changes in the absence of livestock grazing. Canelo Research 

Natural Area would feature open oak (encinal) woodlands vegetation community. Turkey Creek 

flows perennially through the western portion of the proposed Canelo Research Natural Area, 

supporting diverse riparian habitat and rare aquatic species.

Desired Conditions

The Huachuca Ecosystem Management Area offers a wide spectrum of developed recreation 

opportunities for a growing population, while large tracts of undeveloped areas remain available 

for primitive and dispersed recreation. Parker Canyon Lake provides developed recreation 

opportunities, including boating, sport fishing, camping, and picnicking. Recreational activities 

do not contribute to the spread of aquatic invasive species. Vistas from the Montezuma Pass route 

are highly scenic. The Arizona National Scenic Trail offers opportunities for hiking, cycling, and 

horseback riding across the ecosystem management area along a continuous north-south trending 

transect. A well-maintained road network provides many opportunities for vehicle-related 

activities without compromising the wild character of adjacent unroaded areas. World-class 

birding opportunities exist throughout the ecosystem management area. Acorn collection is 

facilitated for cultural, personal, and traditional use.

Perennial streams, including Bear Canyon, Scotia Canyon, and Red Rock Canyon, provide yearround habitat for aquatic species. These streams generally have at least permanent pools of water, 

even when continuous flows cease during the driest seasons. The Sonoita Creek watershed 

provides clean surface water flows.

The Elgin Research Natural Area retains the characteristics of the transition zone between 

southwestern grasslands and oak savanna. The proposed Canelo Research Natural Area protects 

the ecological integrity of an open oak (encinal) woodlands vegetation community, and it is a 

control for research on ecological changes in the absence of livestock grazing. 

The Huachuca Ecosystem Management Area offers an environment in which to recreate where 

risks are predominately natural and visitors do not feel threatened. The landscape has recovered 

from resource damage caused by illegal activities. Trash is not commonly found. Activities 

related to the international border minimally impact natural resources including scenic quality. 

Wildlife species that have historically moved freely between habitats in Mexico and within the 

Huachuca Ecosystem Management Area continue to do so.

The legal status deficiencies of existing forest roads and trails to and within the ecosystem 

management area have been resolved and all needed roads currently providing public access to 

the ecosystem management area remain open, unless restricted for administrative purposes. The 

complex land ownership patterns of fragmented checkerboard ownership intermingled with 
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irregular-shaped parcels within the ecosystem management area have been consolidated through 

land ownership adjustments.

Scientists from colleges and universities, State and Federal agencies, nonprofit organizations, and 

independent associations use the Appleton-Whittell Research Ranch as a control or reference area 

to evaluate the effects of various land uses, including ranching, hunting, restoration activities, and 

recreation on grassland ecosystems.

Objective

1. Every 10 years treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 25 percent of the Huachuca Ecosystem 

Management Area to create resiliency to disturbance. Treatments will be consistent with the 

objectives for forestwide vegetation communities and resources.

Standard

1. Within Elgin Research Natural Area and the proposed Canelo Research Natural Area:

a. Livestock grazing will not be permitted.

b. Harvest of forest products, including fuelwood, will not be permitted. 

Guidelines

1. In aquatic habitats occupied by Arizona treefrog, water levels should be maintained or 

enhanced during breeding season to a level adequate to support reproduction. 

2. Impacts from management actions such as grazing, vegetation treatments, and recreation 

should be mitigated within Arizona treefrog habitat. 

3. During vegetation treatments, mesic microenvironments for woodland and talussnails 

endemic to the Huachuca Ecosystem Management Area (such as trees near rocky features, 

islands of shrubs within talus slopes, riparian colluvia, large logs, and scattered rocks on 

shady hillsides) should be protected. 

4. Management activities involving ground disturbance, vegetation management, or both should 

incorporate site-specific design features to benefit habitat for, or mitigate impacts to, rare or 

unique vertebrate, invertebrate and plant populations. For the Huachuca Ecosystem 

Management Area, these species include, but are not limited to:

• beardless chinch weed

• Cochise woolwort 

• elusive browallia

• Huachuca cinquefoil 

• Huachuca milkvetch

• Huachuca water umbel

• Pima pineapple cactus

• purple-spike coralroot 

• Rusby’s hawkweed

• smooth baby-bonnets 

Management Approach

1. Collaborating with Friends of Brown Canyon Ranch and Friends of the Huachucas. 
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Whetstone Ecosystem Management Area

General Description

At 44,384 acres, Whetstone Ecosystem Management Area is the Coronado’s second smallest 

administrative land unit. Its namesake range, the Whetstone Mountains, provides a scenic 

backdrop for travelers along Interstate 10, with precipitous cliff bands rising dramatically from a 

sea of desert scrub and semidesert grassland. Apache Peak is the range’s focal point, 

appropriately named for the western Apaches that considered these mountains part of their 

territory. Historically, the Whetstone Mountains were also within the territory of the Chiricahua 

Apache, and archaeological sites indicate long use by Hohokam, ancestral O’odham. Today, 

access is via primitive roads and trails, as this is one of the least developed ecosystem 

management areas on the Coronado. Trails originating in Karchner Caverns State Park at the 

northern border of the ecosystem management area are popular. There are no developed 

recreation sites, but opportunities for dispersed recreation abound. 

Desired Conditions

The wild character of the Whetstone Ecosystem Management Area is preserved, and there are 

many opportunities for solitude and quiet. Recreation opportunities are primarily undeveloped, 

and the entire ecosystem management area is available for primitive and dispersed recreation and 

hunting. The landscape has recovered from resource damage caused by illegal activities. Trash is 

not commonly found. Watersheds provide high quality surface and ground water flows. Riparian 

resources of French Joe Canyon provide a refuge for migratory birds and other riparian species.

The ecosystem management area is one contiguous block of Federal land within its proclaimed 

boundaries. There is permanent legal public road and trail access into the north, south, east, and 

western sides of the ecosystem management area. The ecosystem management area is easily 

accessible for public and administrative purposes and connected to State, county, local public, and 

other Federal roads and trails. Permanent legal public vehicular access to National Forest System 

lands in Anderson Canyon, Easter Mountain, and Cottonwood Canyon, Middle and Guindani 

Canyons, and other areas within the ecosystem management area is established.

Objective

Every 10 years treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 15 percent of the Whetstone Ecosystem 

Management Area to create resiliency to disturbances. Treatments will be consistent with the 

objectives for forestwide vegetation communities and resources.

Guideline

During vegetation treatments, mesic microenvironments for woodland and talussnails endemic to 

the Whetstone Ecosystem Management Area (such as trees near rocky features, islands of shrubs 

within talus slopes, riparian colluvia, large logs, and scattered rocks on shady hillsides) should be 

protected. 
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Figure 11. Whetstone Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas
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Safford Ranger District

The Safford Ranger District consists of four ecosystem management areas: Galiuro, Pinaleño, 

Santa Teresa, and Winchester. 

Galiuro Ecosystem Management Area

General Description

The Galiuro Ecosystem Management Area encompasses 133,851 acres of primarily undeveloped 

lands, including 714 acres of private inholdings. Two major canyons, Rattlesnake and Redfield, 

and twin ridges running northeast to southwest form the dominant geologic features of the area. 

From golden grasslands, 7,651-foot Bassett Peak rises up to form the ecosystem management 

area’s highest point. Access is mainly via gravel and dirt roads, mostly lying on the east side of 

the mountain, with travel generally restricted to foot and horseback in the interior of the range. 

There is one developed recreation area in the Galiuro Ecosystem Management Area. Dispersed 

areas throughout the mountains offer a wealth of opportunities for backcountry hiking, camping, 

and solitude. The 77,529-acre Galiuro Wilderness abuts Bureau of Land Management 

administered Redfield Canyon Wilderness to the south. 

The Galiuro Mountains are rich in both cultural and natural history. The ecosystem management 

area was historically within the territory of the western Apaches. The Hopi Tribe and Zuni Pueblo 

have ancestral sites in the San Pedro Valley to the west, and likely used the Galiuro Mountains in 

centuries past. At Power’s Cabin deep within the mountain range, a famous old west shoot-out 

took place in 1918. Wolves roamed the range until the mid-1950s, and black bear and mountain 

lion are still plentiful today.

Desired Conditions

The wild character of the Galiuro Ecosystem Management Area is preserved, and there are many

opportunities for quiet recreation and solitude. Recreation opportunities are primarily 

undeveloped, and the entire ecosystem management area is available for primitive and dispersed 

recreation. Watersheds provide high quality surface and ground water flows. Powers Cabin is 

preserved as an historic site.

Land adjustments result in one contiguous block of Federal land from its original boundaries to 

the Winchester Ecosystem Management Area. The proclaimed national forest boundary at the 

southeast corner connects with the northwest corner of the Winchester Ecosystem Management 

Area. 

There is permanent legal public road and trail access into all sides of the ecosystem management 

area, it is easily accessible by public land and administrative users, and it is connected to State, 

county, local public, and other Federal roads and trails. Permanent legal public vehicular access to 

National Forest System lands in the Schoenholzer Canyon, Copper Creek, Keilberg Canyon, and 

YLE Canyon area, Fourmile Canyon, First Trail Canyon, Rattlesnake Mesa and Willow Creek 

area, and other areas within the ecosystem management area is established and easily accessible 

by public land and administrative users. 

Objective

Every 10 years treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 40 percent of the Galiuro Ecosystem Management 

Area to create resiliency to disturbances. Treatments will be consistent with the objectives for 

forestwide vegetation communities and resources.
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Figure 12. Galiuro Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas
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Pinaleño Ecosystem Management Area

General Description

The Pinaleño Ecosystem Management Area encompasses a massive mountain range of 198,200 

acres. The Pinaleño Ecosystem Management Area has elevations well over 10,000 feet and 

dwarfs surrounding ranges. This ecosystem management area rises from the surrounding 

semidesert grasslands up to the Coronado’s only representative spruce-fir vegetation community. 

Residents of Gila Valley (Safford, Thatcher, and other communities) consider Mount Graham a 

special place, part of a tradition of retreating to the mountain for relief from summer heat. The 

entire range (or Dził Nchaa Si’an) has been formally recognized as a traditional cultural property 

important to the western Apache groups, including White Mountain, San Carlos, and Yavapai 

Apache, and as a place of outstanding significance in western Apache religion, culture, and 

history. The mountain continues to play a vital role in western Apache lifeways and Tribal wellbeing. Dził Nchaa Si’an is home to mountain spirits, serves as a source of natural resources and 

traditional medicine for ceremonial uses, and is used as a place of prayer and a source of power to 

western Apache people. The Hopi Tribe, Pueblo of Zuni, and the Four Southern Tribes of Arizona 

also have sacred sites and shrines within the Pinaleño Mountains. The entire ecosystem 

management area has been determined eligible for listing on the National Register of Historic 

Places. Primary access into the mountains is via State Highways 366 (which was designated 

“Swift Trail Parkway” by Arizona Department of Transportation in 1992) and 266 (over Stockton 

Pass). Nonmotorized trails penetrate the range for travel by foot and horseback. One of these, 

Arcadia Trail (328), was named “Arcadia National Recreation Trail” by the Chief of the Forest 

Service in 1979.

Visitor facilities include developed campgrounds, picnic areas, and a visitor center that is staffed 

partly by volunteers. There are also many popular locations for dispersed recreation. Large 

unroaded areas, including the Mount Graham Wilderness Study Area, offer opportunities for 

backcountry hiking and solitude. Additionally, three special management/emphasis zones 

contribute to the uniqueness of the ecosystem management area: the Goudy Canyon Research 

Natural Area, Wet Canyon Talussnail Zoological Area, and Mount Graham Astrophysical and 

Biological Research Area. University of Arizona’s Mount Graham International Observatory has 

become an important astrophysical research facility and contributes to the rich multiple-use 

history of the range. The 61,315-acre recommended Mount Graham Wilderness Study Area 

circles the high peaks of the ecosystem management area.

Goudy Canyon Research Natural Area. A 558-acre portion of the ecosystem management 

area’s mixed conifer forests within Goudy Canyon was designated a research natural area in 1972 

to provide opportunities to study Mexican white pine (now considered Southwestern white pine) 

and Douglas-fir in near optimal stand conditions. The recommended Mount Graham Wilderness 

Area overlaps the entire research natural area. Motorized access to the northern boundary of 

Goudy Canyon Research Natural Area is easily available via the Swift Trail, providing 

opportunities for wilderness-oriented recreation to occur.
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Figure 13. Pinaleño Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas
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Wet Canyon Talussnail Zoological Area. On the eastern slope of the Pinaleño Mountains, 1,218 

acres of the Wet Canyon talussnail’s (Sonorella macrophallus) optimal habitat and the watershed 

that surrounds it is protected within this special area, recognized in a 1998 forest plan 

amendment. As the name implies, this land snail is restricted to talus slopes in canyon bottoms, 

and is barely more than a half an inch in diameter. It is endemic to the Pinaleño Mountains, and 

perhaps even to the Wet Canyon watershed. Five other talussnails are also endemic to the 

Pinaleño Mountains; they share common habitat requirements and therefore, mutually benefit 

from the existence of the Wet Canyon Talussnail Zoological Area.

Mount Graham Astrophysical and Biological Research Area. Designated in 1989 by the 

Arizona-Idaho Conservation Act, this area encompasses 2,937 acres in the highest elevations of 

the Pinaleño Ecosystem Management Area. Management of the Mount Graham Astrophysical and 

Biological Research Area places emphasis on biological research for the Mount Graham red 

squirrel and spruce-fir vegetation type at the Mount Graham Red Squirrel Refugium, and 

astronomical research at the Mount Graham International Observatory. 

Desired Conditions

The Pinaleño Ecosystem Management Area offers a wide spectrum of developed recreation 

opportunities for a growing public, while large tracts of undeveloped areas remain available for 

primitive and dispersed recreation. The Swift Trail Parkway, a State designated scenic byway, 

provides vehicular access to the ecosystem management area’s primary recreational opportunities 

year round and access to high elevations from spring to fall. The scenic, natural qualities valued 

by visitors are retained. Interpretive signs along Swift Trail provide educational information about 

the surrounding natural and cultural resources. Trails in the Mount Graham Astrophysical and 

Biological Research Area are open to hikers and visitors who are provided with information about 

the cultural significance of the area and the ways to be respectful. 

Recreation facilities are sufficient in size and number to accommodate demand and support a 

high-quality outdoor experience. Riggs Lake and Frye Mesa Reservoir offer opportunities for 

fishing and other lake-based recreation. These activities do not contribute to the spread of 

invasive aquatic species. Up-to-date, locally focused, and science based natural and cultural 

information is available to visitors at the Columbine Visitor Center. Horse corrals at several 

recreation sites along Swift Trail offer equestrians places to organize rides and camp. Recreation 

residences and the Columbine organization camp blend well with the natural landscape and do 

not expand beyond their authorized footprints. Permanent legal public vehicular access to 

National Forest System lands in the ecosystem management area is established and easily 

accessible by public land and administrative users.

The integrity of the western Apache Traditional Cultural Property is retained or improved 

wherever feasible. Members of Tribes have access to Dził Nchaa Si’an, Mount Graham, for 

ceremonial, religious, collecting, and gathering activities. The mountain provides a setting for the 

education of Tribal youth in culture, history, and land stewardship. When available, national 

forest administrative sites may be used by Tribal families and organizations through governmentto-government agreements. Interpretive and educational exhibits or other media that focus on the 

history of the Coronado, provide the public a greater understanding and appreciation of Apache 

history, culture, and traditions. Traditional uses, such as the collection of medicinal plants, wild 

plant foods, basketry materials, and fuelwood, are available for collection by Tribal members.

The dark skies above the Pinaleño Ecosystem Management Area present conditions conducive to 

astronomical research. Existing telescopes offer educational opportunities and promote scientific 

discovery. Researchers, employees, students, volunteers who visit the Mount Graham 
Chapter 4. Geographic Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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International Observatory, and observatory employees are informed about the importance of Dził 

Nchaa Si’an to western Apache people and how to be respectful when visiting, living, residing, or 

working on the mountain. 

High-elevation meadows are dominated by native grasses and grasslike plants and are relatively 

free of trees and shrubs. The spruce-fir vegetation community is regenerating with species 

representative of a healthy mix of spruce-fir seral stages. The Wet Canyon watershed provides 

habitat for the Wet Canyon talussnail. Watersheds provide high quality surface and ground water 

flows. The Mount Graham Astronomical and Biological Research Area provides habitat for the 

Mount Graham red squirrel and astrophysical research at the Mount Graham International 

Observatory. Recreational uses or management activities do not degrade these special habitats. 

The Goudy Canyon Research Natural Area retains the characteristics of Mexican white pine and 

Douglas-fir stands.

Objective

1. Every 10 years treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 25 percent of the Pinaleño Ecosystem 

Management Area to create resiliency to disturbances. Treatments will be consistent with the 

objectives for forestwide vegetation communities and resources.

Standards

1. Within the Goudy Canyon Research Natural Area: 

a. Wildlife habitat improvement, water yield improvement, and related improvement 

projects are prohibited.

b. Vegetation manipulation, including timber sale and harvest of forest products, will not be 

allowed except for approved research purposes.

2. Within habitat for the Mount Graham red squirrel, no new recreational residence or 

developed recreation areas will be established.

Guidelines

1. Management activities involving ground disturbance, vegetation management, or both should 

incorporate site-specific design features to benefit habitat for, or mitigate impacts to, rare or 

unique vertebrate, invertebrate and plant populations. For the Pinaleño Ecosystem 

Management Area, these species include, but are not limited to:

• broad-leaf ground-cherry, leafy Jacob’s ladder, Rusby’s hawkweed, and white-flowered 

cinquefoil

2. Planned and unplanned ignitions should be used to reduce the risk of uncharacteristic 

wildfires that can cause sedimentation, diminished water quality, and soil erosion in talussnail 

habitat. 

3. Within habitat for Mount Graham red squirrel:

a. Red squirrel habitat needs should supersede the needs of all other species of plants and 

animals.

b. Hiking use levels should not negatively impact Mount Graham red squirrel habitat or 

individuals. 

c. Vegetation treatments should be designed and implemented to avoid disturbance of 

Mount Graham red squirrel middens.
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Management Approaches

1. Considering mesic microenvironments for woodland and talussnails endemic to the Pinaleño 

Ecosystem Management Area (such as trees near rocky features, islands of shrubs within 

talus slopes, riparian colluvia, large logs, scattered rocks on shady hillsides) when doing 

vegetation treatments.

2. Managing for the protection and physical integrity of the ecosystem management area as a 

traditional cultural property in full partnership with western Apache Tribes. 

3. Encouraging western Apache Tribal members to pursue careers in the Forest Service and 

contribute to the Coronado National Forest’s ability to adapt traditional knowledge to modern 

land management practices.

4. Working with the University of Arizona and western Apache Tribes to mitigate or reduce the 

effects of the Mount Graham International Observatory on the traditional cultural property. 

5. Encouraging scientific investigation of talussnail life history traits (including reproduction, 

recruitment, mortality, population trends, ecology, and so forth) to increase understanding of, 

and the ability to manage, this unique taxon. 

6. Using education to improve understanding of special management areas. 

7. Acquiring and maintaining instream water rights on Wet Canyon Creek.

8. Collaborating with the Pinaleño Partnership in their area of interest.

Santa Teresa Ecosystem Management Area

General Description

The 48,902-acre Santa Teresa Ecosystem Management Area comprises the Coronado’s most 

northerly administrative land unit, located just beyond and between the Galiuro and Pinaleño 

Mountains. The ecosystem management area’s Santa Teresa range is a network of rugged 

mountains with bald summits, deep canyons, and sprawling mesas. Extremely rugged Holdout 

Canyon typifies the Santa Teresa Mountains; abundant caves and alcoves hollow into eroded 

cliffs with picturesque formations. Vegetation is predominantly thick chaparral with forests of 

ponderosa pine occupying high ridges. A stand of Douglas-fir grows on the sheltered north slope 

of Cottonwood Peak, the highest in the range at 7,481 feet. The 26,891-acre Santa Teresa 

Wilderness encompasses more than half of the ecosystem management area.

Bordering the ecosystem management area to the north is the San Carlos Apache Reservation, 

also part of the Santa Teresa range. These mountains also lie within the aboriginal territories of 

the western Apaches and the Four Southern Tribes, and may have been part of the migration 

routes used by ancestral pueblo groups. As one of the least developed ecosystem management 

areas within the Coronado National Forest, access into Santa Teresa Ecosystem Management 

Area is via gravel and dirt roads or by hiking trails. There are no developed recreation areas, 

although opportunities for backcountry hiking, camping, and picnicking are abundant. 
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Figure 14. Santa Teresa Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas
Chapter 4. Geographic Areas

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Desired Conditions

The wild character of the Santa Teresa Ecosystem Management Area is preserved, and there are 

many opportunities for quiet recreation and solitude. Recreation opportunities are primarily 

undeveloped. The entire ecosystem management area is available for primitive and dispersed 

recreation. Watersheds provide high quality surface and ground water flows. Permanent legal 

public vehicular access to National Forest System lands in the ecosystem management area is 

established and easily accessible by public land and administrative users.

Objective

Every 10 years treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 40 percent of the Santa Teresa Ecosystem 

Management Area to create resiliency to disturbances. Treatments will be consistent with the 

objectives for forestwide vegetation communities and resources.

Winchester Ecosystem Management Area

General Description

Less than half the size of the next largest ecosystem management area, Winchester Ecosystem 

Management Area contains 18,937 acres. The administrative boundary is considerably larger, yet 

a significant portion of that acreage is owned by the State of Arizona. The mountains that give 

this ecosystem management area its name are a small range situated just southeast of the Galiuro 

Mountains; Reiley Peak forms the apex of the Winchester Mountains, rising to over 7,500 feet in 

elevation. Part of the Apache territory when Euro-Americans entered the region, this range was 

evidently visited by Native American groups for thousands of years. Winchester Ecosystem 

Management Area offers opportunities for primitive recreation and solitude. Access is via 

primitive roads, with much of the ecosystem management area accessible only by hiking cross 

country. There are no developed recreation areas in the ecosystem management area, although 

there are good opportunities for backcountry hiking, camping, and solitude. 

Desired Conditions

The wild character of the Winchester Ecosystem Management Area is preserved, and there are 

many opportunities for quiet recreation and solitude. Recreation opportunities are primarily 

undeveloped. The entire ecosystem management area is available for primitive and dispersed 

recreation. Watersheds provide high quality surface and ground water flows. Permanent legal 

public vehicular access to National Forest System lands in the ecosystem management area is 

established and easily accessible by public land and administrative users.

Objective

1. Every 10 years treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 10 percent of the Winchester Ecosystem 

Management Area to create resiliency to disturbances. Treatments will be consistent with the 

objectives for forestwide vegetation communities and resources.
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Figure 15. Winchester Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas
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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Santa Catalina Ranger District

The Santa Catalina Ranger District consists of only one ecosystem management area, the Santa 

Catalina. 

Santa Catalina Ecosystem Management Area

General Description

The 260,194-acre Santa Catalina Ecosystem Management Area wraps around the northern and 

eastern sides of the Tucson basin, dominating the viewshed from most parts of the city of Tucson. 

Elevations range from 2,200 feet at the valley edges to 9,157 feet on Mount Lemmon. The 

ecosystem management area is comprised of two mountain ranges, the Rincon Mountains and 

Santa Catalina Mountains. Nearly all of the Coronado’s vegetation communities are represented 

within the Santa Catalina Ecosystem Management Area. Historically, both ranges were within the 

aboriginal territories of the O’odham and Apaches. Large archaeological sites in the foothills and 

small shrines atop peaks are important to the Zuni and Hopi. There are two designated wilderness 

areas in the ecosystem management area, the 56,919-acre Pusch Ridge Wilderness in the Santa 

Catalina Mountains and the 36,926-acre Rincon Wilderness in the Rincon Mountains. The 

boundary of the Rincon Wilderness is shared with Saguaro National Park. 

The north-facing portion of the Santa Catalina Mountains exhibits a number of natural features of 

interest. Samaniego Ridge and Reef of Rocks dramatically rise to the crest of the range, parallel 

ridges that harbor Santa Catalina’s longest drainage, Cañado del Oro, at nearly 25 miles in length. 

This canyon and Sabino Canyon are the only known drainages in this range to have historically 

contained native fishes. Alder Canyon, on the east slope of the Santa Catalina Mountains, is 

notable for its large deposits of limestone and dolomite, which are uncommon within the range at 

these concentrations. An interrupted perennial stream flows from multiple springs and seasonal 

snowmelt, making Alder Canyon particularly lush; it is probably second only to Sabino Canyon 

in terms of biological diversity. Lowland leopard frogs, canyon tree frogs, coatimundi, and 

riparian vegetation are abundant.

This ecosystem management area receives more visitors than any other area of the Coronado 

National Forest. It provides a sanctuary to desert dwellers during the intense heat of summer and 

an opportunity to enjoy snow each winter. Mount Lemmon’s Ski Valley is the southernmost ski 

area in the continental U.S., offering rare skiing opportunities and a popular “sky ride” during 

months without snow. Trails wander the many canyons, ridges, valleys, and forests of the Santa 

Catalina Ecosystem Management Area, including the Arizona National Scenic Trail that traverses 

both mountain ranges. The primary access route into the Santa Catalina Mountains is the Catalina 

(or General Hitchcock) Highway. The highway was designated a scenic route by Pima County, 

the “Sky Island Scenic Byway” by the Chief of the Forest Service in 1995, and “Sky Island 

Parkway” by the Federal Highway Administration (USDOT) in 2001. Visitor facilities are 

concentrated along the Catalina Highway, in Sabino Canyon, and in Catalina State Park, which is 

managed by the State of Arizona and administered by the Forest Service. Dispersed recreation is 

abundant within designated wilderness areas, as well as on the north and east aspects of the Santa 

Catalina Mountains and throughout the Rincon Mountains. 
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Figure 16. Santa Catalina Ecosystem Management Area land use zones and special areas
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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Sabino Canyon Recreation Area. This designated recreation area covers 1,423 acres in Sabino 

and Bear Canyons. The area serves as a popular recreational gateway into the nearby Pusch Ridge 

Wilderness and Santa Catalina Mountains. The peak visitation season at the Sabino Canyon 

Recreation Area falls between the months of November and April, with lower visitation in the 

summer months. An estimated 1.25 million visitors use the recreation area every year; primarily 

uses include hiking, walking, running, shuttle riding, picnicking, wildlife observation, 

photography, and nature study. Of the 18 trails originating in the recreation area, the majority 

extend beyond the boundary of the designated recreation area into the Pusch Ridge Wilderness 

and Santa Catalina Mountains. The area has several intermittent and flowing water sources, 

including the Sabino Dam and the pools at Seven Falls. 

Butterfly Peak Research Natural Area. The 1,058 acres of land at the head of Alder Canyon on 

the eastern slope of the Santa Catalina Mountains were set aside in 1935 as Butterfly Peak 

Research Natural Area. The area was noted to contain one of the largest varieties of trees and 

shrubs in any one place in the Southwest, including at least 7 coniferous species, 11 broadleaf 

species, and a wide range of shrubs and herbs. Steep topography naturally limits timber harvest, 

livestock grazing, and mineral exploration, and the only trail that enters the area would be 

considered strenuous by most hikers. As such, visitation is low, making it an ideal place to 

conduct research within the ponderosa pine-evergreen shrub vegetation community. 

Santa Catalina Research Natural Area. This area was designated in 1927 as the Nation’s first 

research natural area. The Pusch Ridge Wilderness overlaps the area entirely and is dominated by 

widely dispersed ponderosa pines. The original 4,464 acres were advocated by the Tucson 

Natural History Society for the study of flora, as well as for appreciation of the outdoors and 

other purposes. Adjustments to the original size have been made since establishment. In 1962, a 

small reduction was made for special uses that were in conflict with research natural area system 

intentions and the research natural area was reduced to 4,040 acres. In 1986, it was proposed in 

the forest plan to reduce the research natural area to 634 acres to eliminate a large area heavily 

used for dispersed recreation. Until the Rocky Mountain Research Station director and the 

regional forester act on the recommendation to reduce the size of the research natural area, the 

existing 4,040 acres will continue to be managed as a research natural area.

Proposed Finger Rock Canyon Research Natural Area. The proposed research natural area 

covers 1,103 acres and includes the 5-mile Finger Rock Trail. It encompasses a xeroriparian 

system that is biologically rich, provides a corridor for wildlife movement, and is a refugium for 

rare flora and fauna. The Pusch Ridge Wilderness overlaps almost the entire proposed research 

natural area. Wilderness management applies to the proposed research natural area and 

recreational use within the area will continue. 

Bighorn Sheep Management Area.41 This special management area covers 21,184 acres in the 

Santa Catalina Mountains. The entire Bighorn Sheep Management Area lies within the Pusch 

Ridge Wilderness. An amendment to the 1986 forest plan established this area to be specially 

managed to maintain bighorn sheep habitat. A program emphasis is to manage the risk of disease 

transmission from domestic sheep and goats to bighorn sheep. Risk of disease transmission comes 

 

41 The Bighorn Sheep Management Area is the name of a special management area located in the Santa Catalina 

Ecosystem Management Area. It is different than the forestwide management areas described in chapter 2. For 

more information on special management areas, refer to the “Research Natural Areas, Botanical, Zoological, 

and Other Special Areas” section on page 121. 
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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

164

from grazing as well as packing. To manage that risk, a standard is applied for domestic sheep 

and goats within the national forest.

Desired Conditions

The Santa Catalina Ecosystem Management Area offers a wide spectrum of developed recreation 

opportunities for a growing population, while large tracts of undeveloped areas remain for 

primitive and dispersed recreation. In the Sabino Canyon Recreation Area, developed recreation 

opportunities exist along the roadways, including access to the biologically rich Sabino Creek, 

and opportunities for dispersed and quiet recreation exist away from the main travel corridors. In 

the Redington Pass area, backcountry-touring routes are available for visitors who operate offhighway and all-terrain vehicles responsibly. Visitors to this area can enjoy the outdoors in clean, 

natural settings without conflicts with unsafe or illegal activities or exposure to excessive noise 

and disturbance. Recreational target shooting occurs in safe and well-monitored locations. The 

Sky Island Scenic Byway retains the qualities that earned national designation as a scenic byway. 

It provides year-round vehicular access to outstanding natural scenery and high elevations for a 

variety of developed and undeveloped recreational opportunities, as well as access to the 

community of Summerhaven. Interpretive signs help visitors learn about conservation of the 

natural and cultural resources in the area.

Fishing opportunities at Rose Canyon Lake are available to the public. Water based recreational 

activities do not contribute to the spread of invasive aquatic species. Up-to-date, locally focused, 

and science based natural and cultural information is available to visitors at the Palisades and 

Sabino Canyon Visitor Centers. Watersheds provide high quality surface and ground water flows. 

Recreation residences and organization camps blend well with the natural landscape and do not 

expand beyond their authorized footprints. The geologic features and rock formations that 

dominate the Santa Catalina scenery sustain a rich heritage of rock climbing. Recreation user 

groups use practices that decrease the likelihood of resource damage and abide by restrictions 

needed for wildlife protection. Ski Valley offers periodic snow based and other year-round 

recreation opportunities. The Arizona National Scenic Trail offers opportunities for hiking, 

cycling, and horseback riding across the ecosystem management area along a continuous northsouth trending transect. The dark skies above the Santa Catalina Ecosystem Management Area 

present conditions conducive to astronomical research. Existing telescopes offer educational 

opportunities and promote scientific discovery.

Small stands of corkbark fir exist on cool, wet sites at the highest elevations. A complex 

assemblage of endemic pine trees exist in the Santa Catalina Ecosystem Management Area. 

Buehman Canyon retains the characteristics required to be designated an “Outstanding Arizona 

Water” by Arizona Department of Environmental Quality. Sabino Creek supports a diverse 

assemblage of native aquatic species. Habitat exists for bighorn sheep, Gould’s wild turkey, and 

Santa Catalina gray squirrel. Unique vegetation species are perpetuated in the Santa Catalina, 

Butterfly, and proposed Finger Rock Canyon Research Natural Areas. The unique values of Alder 

Canyon are perpetuated. 

Objective

1. Every 10 years treat vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 25 percent of the Santa Catalina Ecosystem 

Management Area to create resiliency to disturbances. Treatments will be consistent with the 

objectives for forestwide vegetation communities and resources.
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Standard

1. Within the Santa Catalina and Butterfly Peak Research Natural Areas, and the proposed 

Finger Rock Canyon Research Natural Area:

a. Livestock grazing will not be permitted.

b. Timber cutting is prohibited. 

2. Within the Bighorn Sheep Management Area:

a. Use of domestic sheep and/or goats for grazing or packing will not be permitted. 

Guidelines

1. During vegetation treatments, mesic microenvironments for woodland and talussnails 

endemic to the Santa Catalina Ecosystem Management Area (such as trees near rocky 

features, islands of shrubs within talus slopes, riparian colluvia, large logs, and scattered

rocks on shady hillsides) should be protected. 

2. Management activities involving ground disturbance, vegetation management, or both should 

incorporate site-specific design features to benefit habitat for, or mitigate impacts to rare or 

unique vertebrate, invertebrate and plant populations. For the Santa Catalina Ecosystem 

Management Area, these species include, but are not limited to:

• Aravaipa woodfern, 

• Arizona eryngo, 

• Arizona manihot, and 

• Rusby’s hawkweed

Management Approaches

1. Developing a management plan for the Redington Pass Area in collaboration with the Friends 

of Redington pass and others. 

2. Collaborating and working with partner groups such as Sabino Canyon Volunteer Naturalists, 

the Friends of Sabino Canyon, Sabino Mounted Patrol, and Sabino Canyon Bicycle Patrol. 

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

167

Chapter 5. Suitability

Suitability of Uses and Special Use Permits

Introduction

This section describes the appropriateness of applying certain resource management practices to a 

particular area of land. A unit of land may be suitable for a variety of individual or combined 

management practices. The land units considered in the suitability determinations are the land use 

zones and special areas, both described in chapters 3 and 4. Table 14 provides information on 

selected activities that may be allowed on the Coronado National Forest and is not inclusive of all 

activities that may be considered over the planning period. Existing special uses may be 

reauthorized where they are not suitable on a case-by-case basis, except for uses that are not 

suitable forestwide. Table 15 and table 16 show information on grazing capability and suitability 

and table 17 and table 18 show information on timber suitability and the suitability of activities 

that require special use permits issued by the Coronado National Forest. Definitions of special use 

permit categories can be found in the Forest Service Manual (FSM 2720 - Special Use Permit 

Administration). The analysis of suitability for all these uses can be found in the final 

environmental impact statement in topic 5 (Special Use Authorizations), and appendices C 

(Timber Suitability) and E (Range Suitability).
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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

168

Table 14. Suitability of selected activities by management areas

Suitable Uses

Wild 

Backcountry

Roaded 

BackcountryMotorized 

Recreation

Developed 

Recreation

Wilderness Area, 

Wilderness 

Study Area, and 

Recommended 

Wilderness Area

Arizona 

National 

Scenic 

Trail

Research 

Natural 

Areas

Wet 

Canyon 

Talussnail 

Zoological 

Area

Mount 

Graham 

Astrophysical 

and Biological 

Research 

Area

AppletonWhittell 

Research 

Ranch

Wild Chile 

Botanical 

Area

Motorized access Yes 

(Limited)

Yes Yes Yes No Administrative onlyNo Yes No Yes Yes

Off-highway 

vehicle-focused 

recreation

No No Yes No No No No No No No No

Dispersed 

motorized 

camping

Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No No Yes Yes

Recreation 

facilities

No Yes Yes Yes No Yes No No No No No

Timber harvest 

(for ecosystem 

restoration)

Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes By 

exception1

Yes Yes Yes Yes

Livestock 

grazing

Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes By 

exception2

No No Yes Yes

Forest products 

(commercial)

Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No No No

Forest products 

(traditional)

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Fuelwood 

products

Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No No Yes Yes

1. Only if allowed in the establishment record for the research natural area.

2. Only in established livestock grazing allotments.

3. Livestock grazing is generally not suitable in the Developed Recreation Land Use Zone except for approximately 12,206 acres within existing designated livestock grazing 

allotments.
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Grazing Capability and Suitability

Introduction

Procedures in the 1982 Planning Rule require that the suitability and capability of National Forest 

System lands for producing forage for grazing animals be determined in forest planning. 

Suitability is the appropriateness of applying certain resource management practices to a 

particular area of land in consideration of the relevant social, economic, and ecological factors. 

Capability is the potential of an area of land to produce resources and supply goods and services. 

Capability depends upon current conditions and site conditions such as climate, slope, landform, 

soils, and geology. 

The capability of Coronado National Forest lands to produce forage for grazing animals was 

determined in the 1980s for the 1986 forest plan. Landscape scale conditions that determine 

capability (such as landform, geology, slope, and climate) have not changed significantly since 

the first evaluation; therefore, capability determined in the original analysis is still applicable. 

Cyclical or temporal fluctuations in climatic conditions such as El Niño cycles or drought periods 

are not cause for reanalyzing capability, but are considered by Coronado National Forest staff

when making project level grazing decisions and responded to through adaptive management. 

Current climate conditions and trends have not been shown to be outside of historical norms for 

the Southwest. What has changed since the original analysis is the availability of more accurate 

data and analysis tools. Capability for this plan was reassessed using corporate GIS data. 

The Coronado National Forest constrains capability of lands for producing forage for livestock 

based on slope (less than 40 percent) and forage productivity (more than 100 pounds per acre per 

year). Forage productivity is not currently mapped at a scale fine enough to detect areas with less 

than 100 pounds per acre per year, and so capability is identified and mapped using slope as the 

sole criteria. However, lands with slopes greater than 40 percent are intermingled throughout 

grazing allotments and livestock will intermittently utilize these lands as they pass through them 

while traveling to other capable portions of the allotments. This intermittent use may, and often 

does, contribute in a limited way to the forage base for domestic livestock. The results of the 

analysis are displayed in table 15. 

Table 15. Grazing capability calculations for the Coronado National Forest 

Grazing Capability Analysis Acres

Gross Area of the Coronado National Forest 1,783,934

Slopes Greater than 40% 719,999

Lands tentatively capable for livestock grazing 1,063,935

Suitability is determined based on compatibility with desired conditions and objectives in the plan 

area. Lands within the plan area are not identified as suitable for a certain use if that use is 

prohibited by law, regulation, or policy; would result in substantial and permanent impairment of 

the productivity of the land or renewable resources; or if the use is incompatible with the desired 

conditions for the relevant portion of the plan area. The determination of an area as suitable for a 

particular use does not mean that the use will occur over the entire area. Likewise, a 

determination that a particular use is not suitable in a management area does not mean that the 

use will not occur in specific areas. The identification of an area as suitable for various uses is 

guidance for project and activity decisionmaking and is not a resource commitment or final 

decision approving projects and activities. Final decisions on resource commitments are made at 
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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

170

the project level. The final decision to authorize livestock grazing would be made at a project 

(allotment) level.

Suitability determinations for livestock grazing are consistent with desired conditions, objectives, 

standards, and guidelines for the various management areas described in this plan. Management 

areas determined to be suitable for livestock grazing range in size from 786 acres to almost 

600,000 acres, and all contain both capable and not-capable lands due to the complex topography 

of the Coronado National Forest. Table 16 identifies those areas of the Coronado that are not 

suitable for livestock grazing. Of the approximately 1,063,935 acres identified as tentatively 

capable for livestock grazing, 47,708 acres were identified as not suitable due to incompatibility 

with desired conditions. See “Appendix E. Range Suitability” in the accompanying 

environmental impact statement for a description of the range suitability evaluation process. 

Table 16. Areas not suitable for grazing on the Coronado National Forest

Management Area Acres

Developed Recreation* 36,774

Elgin Research Natural Area 245

Goudy Canyon Research Natural Area and proposed extension 558

Canelo Research Natural Area 386

Santa Catalina Research Natural Area 634

Butterfly Research Natural Area 1,058

Proposed Finger Rock Research Natural Area* 1,103

Wet Canyon Talussnail Area 1,218

Mount Graham Astrophysical and Biological Research Area 2,937

Pole Bridge Research Natural Area and proposed extension 582

Goodding Research Natural Area and proposed extension 2,213

Total area of Management Areas determined to be not suitable for 

Livestock Grazing

47,708

Tentatively capable lands that are not suitable for livestock grazing due to 

incompatibility with desired conditions. 

31,730

* Livestock grazing is generally not suitable in the Developed Recreation Land Use Zone except for approximately 

12,206 acres within existing designated livestock grazing allotments. 
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Timber Suitability

The National Forest Management Act of 1976 requires that National Forest System lands be classified as 

to their suitability for various uses, including timber production. National Forest System lands were 

reserved with the intent of providing goods and services to satisfy public needs over the long-term, among 

them is a sustainable supply of forest products. The 1982 Planning Rule provisions require the 

Responsible Official to identify lands not suitable for timber production within the area governed by the 

forest plan (36 CFR 219.14). 

Forest Service Manual (FSM) 1900 defines “forest land” as that which has at least 10 percent tree cover, 

or which had such tree cover in the past, and which is not currently developed for nonforest uses, such as 

agriculture, providing improved pasture, residential or administrative areas, improved roads of any width, 

and adjoining road clearing and powerline clearing of any width. It defines timber production as “the 

purposeful growing, tending, harvesting, and regeneration of regulated crops of trees for cutting into logs, 

bolts, or other round sections for industrial or consumer use.” 

Forest land may be considered as “unsuitable” for timber production if any of the following apply: 

(a) Congress, the Secretary, or the Chief has withdrawn it from the public domain, 

(b) it is not producing or capable of producing crops of industrial wood, 

(c) there is no technology available to prevent irreversible damage to soil productivity and/or 

watershed conditions; 

(d) there is no reasonable assurance based on existing technology and knowledge, that it is possible to 

restock lands within five years after final harvest, as reflected in current research and experience; 

(e) there is currently a lack of adequate information about responses to timber management activities; 

and/or 

(f) timber management is inconsistent with, or not cost-efficient in meeting, the management 

requirements, and multiple-use objectives specified in the forest plan.

Table 17 shows the results of a timber suitability analysis for the Coronado. In the table, various 

categories of forest land are described, and the acres suitable (or unsuitable, negative numbers) for timber 

production are reported. See FEIS, Volume 2, Appendix C for the full timber suitability analysis. 

Lands having potential commercial-grade timber are located at very high elevations of mountain ranges 

on four ranger districts. These areas are isolated and difficult to access, making it extremely unlikely for a 

single processing facility to develop a feasible business model that could incorporate most timbered lands. 

None of the ranges contains more than 15,000 acres of commercial-grade timber, and most contain much 

less. Even within each range, timber lands are often separated by major topographic features and/or have 

little or no road access. 
Chapter 5. Suitability

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172

Table 17. Timber suitability assessment of Coronado National Forest lands 

Category Description Acres

Coronado National Forest (total land) All acreage comprising the national forest 1,778,077

Non-forested lands Non-forested (less than 10% occupied by 

forest trees)

–1,538,340

Lands withdrawn from public domain Designated wilderness areas, inventoried 

roadless areas, and private ownership 

–180,171

Lands having irretrievable resource damage Lands having a 40% or higher slope and 

posing a severe erosion hazard

–1,496

Lands where there is no assurance of adequate 

stocking 

General ecosystem survey shows low 

stocking

–12,413

Lands tentatively suitable for timber production 45,657

Recommended as wilderness areas Acres not already substracted above -55

Not cost efficient in meeting timber production 

objectives 

Located in the Santa Rita, Huachuca, 

Pinaleño, Santa Catalina, and Chiricahua 

Ecosystem Management Areas

–45,602

Land suitable for timber production 0*

Land not suitable for timber production 1,778,077

* Because the Coronado National Forest has zero acres suitable for timber production, the long-term sustained yield calculation 

(LTSYC) and allowable sale quantity (ASQ) are zero as well.

Lands and Special Uses

Data and information related to the use of Coronado National Forest lands for permitted special uses were 

obtained from the Forest Service special uses database, Coronado Geographic Information System (GIS) 

database, special use program records and permit files, and Federal, State, and local databases. The 

special uses database provided the legal coordinates of various special use areas to determine the 

compatibility of current use with recommended new wilderness and other special areas.

The special uses database provided the type, number, and status of special use authorizations on the 

Coronado National Forest. Some use codes were combined into the general categories listed in Forest 

Service Handbook 27091.11, “Chapter 50 – Terms and Conditions Use Chart.” Current special use 

authorizations were tallied for applications approved, pending signature, and to be issued 

contemporaneously with preparation of this plan. Inaccuracies in the database tally include accounting for 

permits that have expired but remain reported as issued and may not be reissued or closed, and expired 

permits for which uses are ongoing but are currently not authorized or counted. Short-term permits are not 

separated from long-term permits in the total authorizations. 

Various acreages and miles of specific features were obtained from the Coronado GIS database. Reviews 

of private property in relation to proposed wilderness and other special areas used information and data 

from the counties in which the Districts are located and the Coronado GIS land ownership files. 

Suitability of lands on the Coronado for various special uses was determined primarily based on revised 

plan direction for specific management areas and staff on-the-ground experience with over 40 years of 

special uses administration experience. Each special use was also evaluated relative to the needs of the 

public user and resource conditions in each management area.

The columns in table 18 show the suitability of specific management areas for select special use 

categories. Energy corridors are linear strips of land identified for the present or future location of a utility 

right-of-way (such as above- or below-ground electric transmission line, gas pipeline). Other energy 
Chapter 5. Suitability

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

173

developments include the infrastructure associated with the provision or transport of energy (such as 

dams, biomass power generation, wind turbines, and solar panels). Communication sites acceptable on 

National Forest System lands used are identified in appendix C. Motorized outfitter-guide uses are 

conducted by various types of vehicles and include hunting, fishing, and ecotours for wildlife viewing. 

Military training includes tracking classes, frequency testing, unmanned aerial vehicle use and testing, 

and downed pilot search and rescue. Treasure trove is the exploration for buried treasure. Department of 

Homeland Security, Customs and Border Protection uses includes foot, equestrian, vehicular and aerial 

patrols; vehicle mounted camera deployment, and forward operating camps. 
Chapter 5. Suitability

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Table 18. Suitability of select special uses on the Coronado National Forest

Management Area

Energy 

Corridor Other Energy

Comm. Site1

(Excl. DHS)6

Motorized 

Outfitting & 

Guiding

Military 

Training

Recreation 

Event

DHS/CBP

Activities6 

Wild Backcountry Not suitable Not suitable Suitable1 Not suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable3

Roaded Backcountry Suitable Suitable Suitable1 Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable

Motorized Recreation Suitable Suitable Not suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable Suitable

Developed Recreation Not suitable Not suitable Suitable1 Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Suitable

Wilderness Area, 

Wilderness Study Area, 

and Recommended 

Wilderness Area

Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Suitable2 Suitable3

Arizona National Scenic 

Trail (within 1/2 mile)5

Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Suitable2 Suitable3, 4

Research Natural Areas Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Suitable Suitable2 Suitable4

Wet Canyon Talussnail 

Zoological Area

Not suitable Not suitable Suitable1 Not suitable Not suitable Suitable2 Suitable4

Mount Graham 

Astrophysical and 

Biological Research Area

Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Suitable3, 4

Appleton-Whittell 

Research Ranch

Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Suitable Suitable2 Suitable4

Wild Chile Botanical 

Area

Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Not suitable Suitable2 Suitable4

1. Communication uses at approved sites only, excluding Department of Homeland Security

2. Approved on a case-by-case basis

3. Nonmotorized use only, helicopter landings at authorized sites.

4. No forward operating camps.

5. Uses that will not substantially interfere with the nature and purposes of the trail.

6. DHS/CBP = Department of Homeland Security/Customs and Border Protection
Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Chapter 6. Monitoring and Evaluation

Introduction

Monitoring and evaluation are separate and sequential activities required by National Forest 

Management Act regulations to determine how well the forest plan is working. Monitoring42

involves collecting data by observation or measurement. Evaluation involves analyzing and 

interpreting monitoring data. 

Monitoring and evaluation activities provide ongoing feedback about management effectiveness 

and are essential elements of an adaptive management cycle that includes problem identification, 

solution, and implementation. Monitoring and evaluation activities keep direction found in the 

forest plan up to date and relevant by being responsive to changing conditions and issues—

including public desires—and to new information, such as research results or outcomes from 

management activities. 

The 2012 Planning Rule requires that forest plans developed under prior planning regulations, 

including the 1982 Planning Rule, follow the updated 2012 rule guidance on the required content 

in the monitoring plan. The Coronado developed its plan monitoring program consistent with the 

requirements of the 1982 rule, but also with an eye towards meeting the 2012 rule monitoring 

requirements. A monitoring program, consistent with 2012 rule monitoring requirements, is to 

contain one or more monitoring questions and associated indicators addressing the following 

monitoring categories: 

1. The status of select watershed conditions; 

2. The status of select ecological conditions, including key characteristics of terrestrial/aquatic 

ecosystems; 

3. The status of focal species to assess ecological conditions; 

4. The status of a select set of ecological conditions that contribute to the recovery of threatened 

and endangered species, conserve proposed and candidate species, and maintain a viable 

population of species of conservation concern; 

5. The status of visitor use, visitor satisfaction, and progress toward meeting recreation 

objectives; 

6. Measurable changes on the plan area related to climate change and other stressors; 

7. Progress toward meeting desired conditions and objectives (including those for multiple 

uses); 

8. The effects of management systems so that they do not substantially and permanently impair 

the productivity of the land; 

9. The plan contributions to communities, social and economic sustainability of communities, 

and multiple uses of the plan. 

 

42 The general purpose of monitoring is to detect changes or trends in a resource. Detection of a change or trend 

may trigger a management action, or it may generate a new line of inquiry. Monitoring data are most useful 

when the same methods are used to collect data at the same locations over time. It is important to note that 

cause-and-effect relationships usually cannot be demonstrated with monitoring data, but monitoring data might 

suggest a cause-and-effect relationship that can then be investigated with a research study.
Chapter 6. Monitoring and Evaluation

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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The majority of the nine items listed above are addressed in the plan monitoring and evaluation 

table on the pages that follow. Two 2012 rule requirements, that are not requirements of the 1982 

rule, are not directly addressed: species of conservation concern and focal species. Item 4 of the 

above list requires that plan monitoring be consistent with 2012 rule monitoring requirements to 

monitor a “select set of ecological conditions” to maintain viable species of conservation concern 

populations. The monitoring identified in the table that follows does monitor a “select set of 

ecological conditions” but for the purposes of maintaining the viability of the Coronado’s 1982 

rule “planning species.” Planning species are a much larger set of species than species of 

conservation concern, with those species that would be considered species of conservation 

concern being a subset contained within the planning species set. In addition, focal species (item 

number 3 above) are a 2012 rule monitoring concept, not part of the 1982 rule requirements and 

thus not currently included in the plan monitoring table. Soon after the revised Coronado plan is 

approved, a monitoring transition process will be undertaken to identify focal species that should 

be part of the Coronado plan monitoring requirements. 

Monitoring Strategy 

A strategy for forest plan monitoring and evaluation has been designed to answer these three 

basic questions: 

Did we do what we said we were going to do? This question answers how well the direction 

in the forest plan is being implemented. Collected information is compared to objectives, 

standards, and guidelines. 

Did it work how we said it would? This question answers whether the application of 

standards and guidelines is achieving objectives, and whether objectives are achieving 

desired conditions. 

Is our understanding and science correct? This question answers whether the assumptions 

and predicted effects used to formulate the desired conditions and objectives are valid. 

The following guiding principles are key elements of the monitoring strategy and serve as a 

framework for implementing an effective monitoring and evaluation program: 

• Monitoring efforts are efficient, practical, and affordable, make use of the best available 

science, and do not duplicate the collection of data already underway for other purposes. 

• Monitoring tasks are scaled to the desired condition, objective, or management area direction 

to be monitored. 

• Monitoring is not performed on every single activity, nor does it need to meet the statistical 

rigor of formal research. 

• A monitoring action plan is prepared each year to identify specific items that should be 

monitored in the coming year. The annual monitoring action plan identifies and schedules 

various site-specific, on-the-ground monitoring activities. It also describes the methods, 

locations, responsible persons, and estimated costs. 

• Budgetary constraints may affect the level of monitoring that can be done in a particular 

fiscal year. If budget levels limit the Coronado National Forest’s ability to perform all 

monitoring tasks, then those items specifically required by law are given the highest priority. 

• Opportunities to complete monitoring and evaluation activities through partnerships and 

citizen collaboration are examined on a regular and ongoing basis. 
Chapter 6. Monitoring and Evaluation

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

177

• A monitoring and evaluation report is prepared each year that summarizes the results of 

completed monitoring and evaluates the data for indicators of trends or effects. 

• The forest supervisor annually evaluates the monitoring information displayed in the 

evaluation reports through a management review and determines if any changes are needed in 

management actions or the forest plan itself. 

• The public is given timely, accurate information about forest plan implementation. This is 

done through the release of the annual monitoring and evaluation report. 

In some cases, the monitoring question directly assesses accomplishment of desired conditions. In 

other cases, they gauge objectives or guidelines associated with the desired conditions.

For each monitoring question or performance measure listed in table 19, additional monitoring 

descriptors are included to provide context for the type of information to gather and how often to 

gather it. These descriptors are defined here:

Possible Monitoring Methods and Data Sources: The type of data that may be used to 

answer the question. Forest plan monitoring data collection can include methods that: 

• generally are well accepted for modeling or quantitative measurement and have a high 

degree of accuracy and precision; or 

• methods or measurements that are based on project records, personal communications, 

visual estimates, informal visitor surveys, and similar types of assessments that are more 

qualitative and less precise.

Frequency of Monitoring: Describes how often information is gathered or measured such as 

annually, every 5 years, or every 10 years. 
Chapter 6. Monitoring and Evaluation

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

178

Table 19. Monitoring and evaluation

Resource Area Monitoring Question

Possible Monitoring Methods and 

Data Sources

Frequency of 

Monitoring 

(Years) Monitoring Category

Desert and Grassland 

Communities

How has the distribution of non-native invasive 

grasses changed? Have changes in climate affected 

the spread of invasive grasses to new niches?

Monitor total infestation acres and 

treatment acres; climate data and 

interpretation from research partners

2 6. Climate Change

7. Plan Components

Grassland 

Communities, Interior 

Chaparral, Madrean 

Encinal Woodland, 

Madrean Pine-Oak 

Woodland, Ponderosa 

Pine-Evergreen Shrub

At the mid-scale, is the percent of uplands in open 

canopy states appropriate for the potential natural 

vegetation types present?

Midscale vegetation, FACTs, RAV, 

interpretation of aerial photography - 

Percent acres in open canopy 

(consider using 5th-code watersheds 

for scale).

5 1. Watershed Conditions

7. Plan Components

Forestwide Vegetation 

– All Types

How has the scale and severity of disturbance (such 

as wildfires, insects, and disease) and vegetative 

response to these disturbances demonstrated 

changes in wildland ecosystems due to climate 

change across the Coronado? 

Fire regime condition class, forest 

health surveys and reports, stand 

exams, project inspections and 

reviews, remote sensing, incident 

mapping for wildfires, large fire 

occurrence map, rangeland health 

assessments, surveys, and reports.

1-5 6. Climate Change

Wet and Dry Mixed 

Conifer

The Mexican spotted owl is identified as a 

management indicator species in these vegetation 

communities. At the project level, are stand posttreatment conditions consistent with or moving 

toward desired conditions for coarse woody debris, 

large diameter trees, and snags? How have 

populations and distributions of Mexican spotted 

owl changed?

Post-treatment monitoring of habitat 

elements, Mexican spotted owl 

monitoring.

1 4. Species Viability

Ponderosa PineEvergreen Shrub, Dry

and Wet Mixed 

Conifer, Spruce-fir

How many acres are predicted to support active 

crown fire as modeled under typical peak fire 

danger conditions at the midscale?

LANDFIRE, BEHAVE modeling 5 4. Species Viability

6. Climate Change

7. Plan Components

Madrean Encinal 

Woodland

What percent of the understory community is 

formed by the groups of native grasses, grasslike 

species, forbs, and shrubs appropriate to the 

ecological site description units or terrestrial 

ecosystem units?

Rangeland health monitoring 5 1. Watershed Conditions

7. Plan Components
Chapter 6. Monitoring and Evaluation

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

179

Resource Area Monitoring Question

Possible Monitoring Methods and 

Data Sources

Frequency of 

Monitoring 

(Years) Monitoring Category

Madrean Pine-Oak 

Woodland

The acorn woodpecker is identified as a 

management indicator species in the Madrean pineoak woodland. How have populations and 

distribution of acorn woodpeckers changed?

Population: numbers; distribution: via 

habitat.

5 2. Terrestrial and Aquatic 

Habitat

Soil Are long-term soil health and productivity measures 

at or moving towards desired conditions?

Rangeland health soil condition 

assessments of effective ground cover 

from litter and plants and evidence of 

erosion

3-5 1. Watershed Conditions

7. Plan Components

8. Productivity

Watersheds What projects have been implemented to improve 

watershed conditions?

Number of projects implemented 

annually

1 1. Watershed Conditions

Riparian Areas Are riparian areas on the Coronado National Forest 

at or moving toward desired conditions?

RASES transects 

(approximately 97)

10 1. Watershed Conditions

2. Terrestrial and Aquatic 

Habitat

7. Plan Components

Natural Water Sources Are springs and streams showing a decrease in 

water availability due to increases in air 

temperature, an increase in extreme weather events, 

and increased drought?

Instream gauge flow data; climatic 

data including average daily and 

monthly temperatures, precipitation 

amount, distribution, and intensity; 

wet and dry stream segment 

assessments; water source inventory 

5 1. Watershed Conditions

2. Terrestrial and Aquatic 

Ecosystems

6. Climate Change

Natural Water Sources, 

Constructed Waters

What has been the change in distribution and 

relative abundance of American bullfrogs? 

Acres of habitat and number places 

where American bullfrogs occur. 

5 2. Terrestrial and Aquatic 

Habitat

4. Species Viability

Natural Water Sources, 

Constructed Waters

The Sonoran mud turtle is identified as a 

management indicator species in natural and 

constructed water sources and can be found in the 

grasslands, Madrean encinal woodlands, and 

Madrean pine-oak woodlands vegetation 

communities. How have populations and 

distribution of Sonoran mud turtles changed?

Acres of habitat and number places 

where Sonoran mud turtles occur.

5 2. Terrestrial and Aquatic 

Habitat

Natural Water Sources How many stream or spring restoration projects 

have been completed for the benefit of species of 

conservation concern?

Track project workplans for natural 

water source restoration projects. 

2 1. Watershed Conditions

4. Species Viability

Constructed Waters Are there bat escape ramps on elevated artificial 

water sources? 

Track grazing allotment inspection 

reports.

2 4. Species Viability
Chapter 6. Monitoring and Evaluation

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

180

Resource Area Monitoring Question

Possible Monitoring Methods and 

Data Sources

Frequency of 

Monitoring 

(Years) Monitoring Category

Public Access How many permanent access roads and trails have 

been established through resolution of legal status 

deficiencies? 

Track access establishments in lands 

records.

5 5. Recreation

7. Plan Components

Land Ownership 

Adjustments and 

Boundary Management

How many acres of non-Federal land within the 

property lines of the Coronado National Forest have 

been acquired?

Track acres acquired in lands records. 5 7. Plan Components

Recreation Is the Coronado National Forest providing high 

quality and sustainable recreation opportunities? Is 

the Coronado National Forest meeting public 

recreation demand according to indicators and 

visitor satisfaction surveys? 

NVUM and other visitor surveys, 

INFRA data, and qualitative 

assessments.

5 5. Recreation

7. Plan Components

Scenic Quality What are the impacts and improvements to scenic 

quality across the Coronado National Forest? 

Existing scenic integrity inventories 

and qualitative assessments.

10 7. Plan Components

Range What number of livestock are being authorized to 

graze on the Coronado each year to be in balance 

with forage supplies? 

Range billing information 1 9. Social & Economic 

Sustainability 

Cultural Resources Are cultural resources being protected? Stabilization or preservation activities 

conducted

3-5 9. Social & Economic 

Sustainability

Special Uses How many special use permits are being issued or 

renewed each year for events and activities on the 

Coronado? 

Special use databases 1 9. Social & Economic 

Sustainability
Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Glossary

Accuracy: is a measure of how close a measurement is to the actual value of the variable being 

measured. Example: a land surveyor collecting survey grade data for a project will have high 

accuracy and be close to a perfect match to what is actually on the ground. 

Administrative use: Use by the Forest Service. 

Air quality related values: A feature or property of an area that is affected in some way by air 

pollution. Identified values are visibility, odor, flora, fauna, soil, water, geologic feature, and 

cultural resources.

Ancillary uses: a subsidiary use connected to the main use of a building or a piece of land. 

Aquatic: Relating to water; living in or near water; taking place in water; opposite of terrestrial.

Aquifer: Rock or soil bodies that store and transmit ground water in economic quantities.

Basal area: The cross-sectional area at breast height (4.5 feet above the ground) of trees 

measured in square feet. Basal area is a way to measure how much of a site is occupied by trees. 

The cross-sectional area is determined by calculating the tree’s radius from its diameter 

(diameter÷2 = radius) and using the formula for the area of a circle (π x radius2 = cross-sectional 

area). Basal area per acre is the summation of the cross-sectional area of all trees in an acre or in a 

smaller plot used to estimate basal area per acre. Diameter at root collar (the part of a tree where 

the main roots join the trunk, usually at or near ground level) is used to calculate the crosssectional area of multi-stemmed trees such as juniper and oak. 

Cave: Any naturally occurring void, cavity, recess, or system of interconnected passages that 

occurs beneath the surface of the Earth or within a cliff or ledge, including any cave resource 

therein, but which is large enough to permit an individual to enter, whether the entrance is 

naturally formed or manmade. Such a term must include any natural pit, sinkhole, or other feature 

that is an extension of the entrance. 

Cave resource: Any material or substance occurring in caves, including but not limited to those 

that are biotic, cultural, mineralogic, paleontologic, geologic, and hydrologic.

Biomass: see “woody biomass” 

Class I airshed: An airshed classification where areas require the highest level of protection 

under the Clean Air Act of 1963. 

Class II airshed: An airshed classification representing National Forest System land that is not 

classified as a class I airshed. These areas may receive a greater amount of manmade pollution 

than class I areas. 

Clump: A tight cluster of two to five trees of similar age and size originating from a common 

rooting zone that typically lean away from each other when mature. A clump is relatively isolated 

from other clumps or trees within a group of trees, but a stand-alone clump of trees can function 

as a tree group. 

Coarse woody debris: Woody material, including logs, on the ground greater than 3 inches in 

diameter; a component of litter. Large coarse woody debris is often considered downed logs at 

least 12 inches in diameter and 8 feet in length. 

Colluvium (colluvia plural ): a heterogeneous mixture of soil and debris that accumulates, 

typically at the base of a slope, as a result of mass wasting, overland flow, sheet erosion, freezethaw cycles, or other erosional processes.
Glossary

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

182

Concern level: A measure of degree of public importance placed on landscapes (scenery) viewed 

from travelways (roads and trails) and use areas. There are three levels: concern level 1 (high), 

concern level 2 (moderate), and concern level 3 (low).

Communications site: An area of National Forest System land used for telecommunications 

services. A communications site may be limited to a single communications facility, but most 

often encompasses more than one facility. 

Connectivity: The arrangement of habitats that allows organisms and ecological processes to 

move across the landscape; patches of similar habitats are either close together or linked by 

corridors of appropriate vegetation; the opposite of fragmentation. 

Declining: The senescent (aging) period in the lifespan of plants that includes the presence of 

dead or dying limbs, snag tops, and other characteristics that indicate the later life stages of 

vegetation. 

Defensible space: An area either natural or manmade where material capable of allowing a fire to 

spread has been treated, cleared, reduced, or changed to act as a barrier between an advancing 

wildland fire and property or resources. In practice, “defensible space” is defined as an area a 

minimum of 30 feet around a structure that is cleared of flammable brush or vegetation. 

Developed recreation site: A distinctly defined area where facilities are provided by the Forest 

Service for concentrated public use (such as campgrounds and picnic areas). 

Diameter: The diameter of a tree species, usually measured by two primary methods:

• Diameter at breast height (d.b.h.): The diameter of a tree at the bole (or trunk) typically 

measured at 4.5 feet above ground level. 

• Diameter at root collar (d.r.c.): The diameter of a woodland tree species typically measured at 

the root collar (the part of the tree where the main roots join the trunk, usually at or near 

ground level) or at the natural ground line, whichever is higher.

Dispersed motorized camping: Camping with motorized vehicles outside of developed 

campsites.

Dispersed recreation: Outdoor recreation in which visitors are spread over relatively large areas 

outside developed recreation sites. Where facilities or developments are provided, they are more 

for access and protection of the environment than for the comfort or convenience of the visitors.

Ecosystem management area (EMA): Unique geographic areas based on the major mountain 

ranges that make up the Coronado National Forest (see map on page 3).

Ecosystem: A spatially explicit, relatively homogeneous unit of the Earth that includes all 

interacting organisms and components of the abiotic environment within its boundaries. An 

ecosystem is commonly described in terms of its: (1) composition—major vegetation types, rare 

communities, aquatic systems, and riparian areas; (2) structure—successional stages, water 

quality, wetlands, and flood plains; (3) function—ecological processes such as streamflows and 

disturbance regimes. 

Ecosystem services: Ecosystem services are benefits that people obtain from ecosystems. The 

Coronado National Forest provides: (1) services such as food, fresh water, fuel, and fiber; (2) 

regulating services such as climate, air quality, water pollination, disease regulation, and a diverse 

wildlife habitat; (3) supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling; and (4) 

cultural services such as educational, aesthetic, and cultural heritage values as well as recreation 

and tourism opportunities.
Glossary

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

183

Even-aged: A stand or group of trees composed of a single age class in which the range of tree 

ages is usually less than 40 years, or in which the range of tree ages is within 20 percent of the 

mean tree age, whichever is greater.

Federally listed species: Threatened or endangered species listed under the Endangered Species 

Act (ESA) of 1973, as amended. 

Fire regime: The patterns, frequency, and severity of fire that occur over a long period of time 

across a landscape and its immediate effects on the ecosystem in which it occurs. There are five 

fire regimes that are classified based on frequency (average number of years between fires) and 

severity (amount of replacement of the dominant overstory vegetation) of the fire. These five 

regimes are: 

Fire Regime I: 0- to 35-year frequency. Generally low-severity fires replacing less than 25 

percent of the dominant overstory vegetation; can include mixed-severity fires that replace up 

to 75 percent of the overstory. 

Fire Regime II: 0- to 35-year frequency. High-severity fires replacing greater than 75 percent 

of the dominant overstory vegetation. 

Fire Regime III: 35- to 200-year frequency. Generally mixed severity; can also include lowseverity fires. 

Fire Regime IV: 35- to 200-year frequency. High-severity fires.

Fire Regime V: 200+ year frequency. Generally replacement severity; can also include any 

severity type in this frequency range. 

Fire Severity: In fire regime methodology, this is the effect of fire in terms of upper layer canopy 

replacement. The severity classes are:

Low: 6 to 25 percent replacement

Mixed: 26 to 75 percent replacement

High/Replacement: More than 75 percent replacement

Forest product: Plants or plant part harvested under a forest products permit or contract.

Firewood products: Wood removed for firewood.

Geographic area: Areas of the Coronado National Forest that have their own distinct 

characteristics and conditions reflected in geographic area specific plan components. The 

Coronado National Forest is divided into 12 geographic areas. 

Geology/geologic: The study of the Earth, including all its subdisciplines, such as historical 

geology, mineralogy, paleontology, seismology, geomorphology, speleology, structural geology, 

hydrogeology, and so forth.

Geomorphology: The study of classification, description, nature, origin, and development of 

present landforms and their relationships to underlying structures, and of the history of geologic 

changes as recorded by these surface features. Geomorphology has three primary components: 

geomorphic process, landform, and morphometry.

Geomorphic process: The dominant internal or external geologic force that has interacted with 

the existing geologic structural framework to shape the Earth’s surface at a given location or area.
Glossary

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Goshawk foraging areas: The areas that surround goshawk post-fledging family areas that 

northern goshawks use to hunt for prey. They are approximately 5,400 acres and do not include 

the post-fledging family area or nesting area acres. 

Goshawk nest areas: The areas immediately around a nest that are used by northern goshawks in 

relation to courtship and breeding activities. They are approximately 30 acres and contain 

multiple groups or patches of large, old trees with interlocking crowns. 

Goshawk post-fledging family areas: The areas that surround nest areas. They represent an area 

of concentrated use by the northern goshawk family until the time the young are no longer 

dependent on adults for food. Post-fledging family areas are approximately 420 acres, not 

including the nest area. 

Grass reserve: An area that is normally not allocated for livestock grazing, although it may be 

used when an authorized pasture or allotment is unavailable. 

Group: A cluster of two or more trees with interlocking or nearly interlocking crowns at maturity 

surrounded by an opening. Size of tree groups is typically variable depending on forest type and 

site conditions and can range from fractions of an acre (a two-tree group) to many acres. Trees 

within groups are typically not uniformly spaced, some of which may be tightly clumped. 

Herbivory: Loss of vegetation due to consumption by another organism. 

Historic range of variation (HRV): A description of the change over time and space in the 

characteristic ecological conditions of potential natural vegetation types and the ecological 

processes that shape those types.

Hydrologic unit code (HUC): The United States is divided and subdivided into successively 

smaller hydrologic units that are classified into four levels: regions, subregions, accounting units, 

and cataloging units. The hydrologic units are arranged or nested within each other, from the 

largest geographic area (regions) to the smallest geographic area (cataloging units). Each 

hydrologic unit is identified by a unique hydrologic unit code consisting of two to eight digits 

based on the four levels of classification in the hydrologic unit system. 

Instream flow: Streamflows needed for maintaining wildlife, visual quality, and recreational 

opportunities at an acceptable level. Aquatic and riparian ecosystems through maintenance of 

channels and flood plains also benefit.

Invasive species: Alien (nonnative) species whose introduction does, or is likely to cause 

economic or environmental hardship to human health (Executive Order 13112). 

Karst: Terrain created by the chemical solution of the bedrock, including carbonate rocks, 

gypsum, and to a minor extent on other rocks, and characterized by disrupted surface drainage, 

abundant enclosed depressions, and a well-developed system of underground drainage systems, 

which may include caves. The term “pseudokarst” is sometimes used to distinguish karst terrain 

formed on noncarbonate bedrock.

Karst resources: The elements of a karst landscape, commonly characterized by losing streams, 

sinkholes, collapse features, caves, or springs. These may not only be physical features, but may 

also relate to karst groundwater systems, system(s) function, and biological significance to the 

vegetative, wildlife, and aquatic communities.

Landform: Any physical feature of the Earth’s surface having a characteristic recognizable shape 

and produced by natural causes directly linked to geomorphic process.
Glossary

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Leave No Trace: Guidelines that help protect the land and lessen the sights and sounds of forest 

visitors (http://www.lnt.org/).

Litter: Litter consists of dead, unattached organic material on the soil surface that is effective in 

protecting the soil surface from raindrop splash, sheet and rill erosion, and is at least 1⁄2 inch thick. 

Litter is composed of leaves, needles, cones, and woody vegetative debris including twigs, 

branches, and trunks. 

Livestock grazing: Use of forage by domestic livestock under a livestock-grazing permit in a 

designated grazing allotment.

Locatable minerals: Minerals that may be located and removed from Federal lands under the 

General Mining Law of 1872 as amended and were not excepted in later legislation. They include 

hard rock, placer and industrial minerals, and uncommon varieties of rocks found on public 

domain lands. This category includes gold, silver, manganese, copper, and other valuable deposits 

specifically named in the law. Later regulatory acts removed certain mineral and energy resource 

from the locatable classification.

Mastication: Mechanical fuel treatment that changes the structure and size of fuels by grinding, 

shredding, chopping, or chipping.

Mechanical treatments: Those projects involving the use of anything motorized such as 

chainsaws, dozers, mastication, or chippers.

Metapopulation: A set of partially isolated populations belonging to the same species that can 

interbreed and recolonize areas where the species has recently become locally extinct. 

Middens: Red squirrel middens are accumulations of cone scales and debris left by feeding; 

middens may last several years and provide winter refugia.

Mineral materials: Earth construction materials that are not considered locatable under Federal 

mining laws or leasable under Federal mineral leasing laws. They include common varieties of 

rock or stone, sand and gravel, pumice aggregate, pumicite, cinders, and soil materials suitable 

for compacted Earth structures, landscaping, and other uses.

Morphometry: The measurement and mathematical analysis of the configuration of the Earth’s 

surface and of the shape and dimensions of landforms. Morphometry is used to quantify the land 

surface and further describe the variability in landforms. Morphometric parameters such as relief, 

elevation, aspect, slope gradient, slope position, slope shape, slope complexity, landform width, 

dissection frequency, dissection depth, drainage pattern, and drainage density can be used to 

predict changes in slope hydrology, soils, and plant communities.

Motorized access (motorized routes): Use of motorized vehicles on National Forest System 

roads or trails that are designated for motor vehicle use.

National Forest System: As defined in the Forest Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning 

Act, the “National Forest System” includes all national forest lands reserved or withdrawn from 

the public domain of the United States, all national forest lands acquired through purchase, 

exchange, donation, or other means; the national grasslands and land use projects administered 

under Title III of the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tennant Act (50 Stat. 525, 7 U.S.C. 1010-1012); and 

other lands, waters, or interests therein administered by the Forest Service or are designated for 

administration through the Forest Service as part of the system. 

Off-highway vehicle-focused recreation: Facilities, routes, or events specifically for offhighway vehicle users.
Glossary

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Old growth: Old growth in southwestern forested ecosystems is different from the traditional 

definition based on northwestern infrequent fire forests. Due to large differences among 

Southwest forest types and natural disturbances, old-growth forests vary extensively in tree size, 

age classes, presence, and abundance of structural elements, stability, and presence of understory. 

Old growth refers to specific habitat components that occur in forests and woodlands—old trees, 

dead trees (snags), downed wood (coarse woody debris), and structure diversity. These important 

habitat features may occur in small areas with only a few components, or over larger areas as 

stands or forests where old growth is concentrated. In the Southwest, old growth is considered 

“transitional,” given that the location of old growth shifts on the landscape over time as a result of 

succession and disturbance (tree growth and mortality). Some species, notably certain plants, 

require “old forest” communities that may or may not have old-growth components but have 

escaped significant disturbance for lengths of time necessary to provide the suitable stability and 

environment.

Openings: Spatial breaks between groups or patches of trees, as large or larger than groups, that 

contain grass, forb, shrub, and/or tree seedlings but are largely devoid of big trees, with a total 

tree cover of less than 10% in openings. 

Paniculate Agave: Species in the subgenus Agave having a branched inflorescence with flowers 

born in umbellate cluster on lateral branches.

Patches: Areas larger than tree groups in which the vegetation composition and structure are 

relatively homogeneous. Patches comprise the mid-scale, thus they range in size from 10 to 1,000 

acres.

Planning period: The life of the forest plan, generally 10 to 15 years from plan approval. 

Precision: Precision refers to how close to each other repeated measurements of the same 

quantity are, or the ability of a measurement to be consistently reproduced. Example: a Forest 

Service range staff collected all the points for a project using the same GPS device and same 

methodology; this allows a high precision rate.

Prescribed fire: A fire intentionally ignited by management under an approved burn plan to meet 

specific objectives (synonyms: planned ignition, prescribed burn, controlled burn).

Primitive recreation: The reliance on personal, nonmotorized, or nonmechanized skills to travel 

and camp in an area, rather than reliance on facilities or outside help.

Ranid frogs: Ranid frogs belong to the Family Ranidae and are insectivorous usually 

semiaquatic web-footed amphibians with smooth moist skin and long hind legs. Bullfrogs and 

leopard frogs—along with many others—would be classified as ranid frogs.

Recreation facilities: Facilities and structures that support recreational uses such as restroom 

buildings, picnic tables, and campfire grills.

Recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS): A framework for defining the types of outdoor 

recreation opportunities the public might desire, and identifies that portion of the spectrum a 

given national forest area might be able to provide. The broad classes are: 

Primitive: Characterized by essentially unmodified natural environment. Interaction between 

users is very low and evidence of other users is minimal. Essentially free from evidence of 

human-induced restrictions and controls. Motorized use within the area is generally not 

permitted. Very high probability of experiencing solitude, closeness to nature, tranquility, 

self-reliance, and risk. 
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Semiprimitive nonmotorized (SPNM): Characterized by a predominantly natural or natural 

appearing environment. Interaction between users is low, but there is often evidence of other 

users. The area is managed in such a way that minimum onsite controls and restrictions may 

be present, but are subtle. Motorized use is generally not permitted. High probability of 

experiencing solitude, closeness to nature, tranquility, self-reliance, and risk. 

Semiprimitive motorized (SPM): Characterized by a predominantly natural or natural 

appearing environment. Concentration of users is low, but there is often evidence of other 

users. The area is managed in such a way that minimum onsite controls and restrictions may 

be present, but are subtle. Motorized use is generally permitted; roads are usually unpaved 

and often primitive. Moderate probability of experiencing solitude, closeness to nature, 

tranquility, self-reliance, and risk. 

Roaded modified (RM): Characterized by a predominately natural or natural appearing 

environment. Concentration of users is low, but there is often evidence of other users. The 

area is managed in such a way that minimum onsite controls and restrictions may be present, 

but are subtle. Roads are well maintained and provide easy access. Moderate probability of 

experiencing solitude, closeness to nature, self-reliance, and risk.

Roaded natural (RN): Characterized by a predominantly natural appearing environment 

with moderate evidence of the sights and sounds of other humans. Areas are usually road 

corridors where people drive to enjoy the scenery and are often on their way to a developed 

site (such as campgrounds, picnic area, or visitor center). Facilities harmonize with the 

natural environment, though interaction between users may be moderate to high. Roads are 

passable by low-clearance vehicles. Roaded natural areas often have rural and urban 

recreation opportunity settings along them, where there are opportunities to affiliate with 

other users in developed sites. 

Rural (R): Characterized by a modified natural environment. The natural setting is the 

attraction, but there are many facilities such as buildings, roads, and signs. The sights and 

sounds of humans are readily evident, and the interaction between users is often moderate to 

high. Facilities are often provided for special activities (such as campgrounds, organization 

camps, and summer homes). Opportunity to observe and affiliate with other users is 

important, as is convenience of facilities. 

Urban (U): Characterized by a substantially urbanized environment, although the 

background may have natural appearing elements. Characteristics include intensive use, 

clustered facilities, large numbers of people, and specialized activities. Examples include 

major recreation sites (such as large visitor centers) and other human needs (such as 

astrophysical structures and electronic sites). The opportunity to observe and affiliate with 

other users is very important, as is convenience of facilities. 

Reference condition: Environmental conditions that infer ecological sustainability. When 

available reference conditions are represented by the characteristic range of variation (not the 

total range of variation), prior to European settlement and under the current climatic period. For 

many ecosystems, the range of variation also reflects human-caused disturbance and effects prior 

to settlement. It may also be necessary to refine reference conditions according to contemporary 

factors (such as invasive species) or projected conditions (such as climate change). Reference 

conditions are most useful as an inference of sustainability when they have been quantified by 

amount, condition, spatial distribution, and temporal variation.

Research natural area: A physical or biological unit in which current natural conditions are 

maintained insofar as possible. These conditions are ordinarily achieved by allowing natural 
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physical and biological processes to prevail without human intervention. Research natural areas 

are principally for nonmanipulative research, observation, and study. They are designated to 

maintain a wide spectrum of high quality representative areas that represent the major forms of 

variability found in forest, shrubland, grassland, alpine, and natural situations that have scientific 

interest and importance that, in combination, form a national network of ecological areas for 

research, education, and maintenance of biological diversity. 

Reserve trees: Live trees, 6 inches diameter at breast height or larger, retained in either a 

dispersed or an aggregated manner after the regeneration period: seed-tree with reserves, group 

selection with reserves, and so forth. Trees may be retained for resource purposes other than 

regeneration. 

Resiliency: The capacity of a system to absorb disturbance (whether natural or human) and 

reorganize while undergoing change so as to still retain essentially the same function, structure, 

identity, and feedbacks. 

Riparian area: Geographically delineable area with distinctive resource values and 

characteristics that are comprised of the aquatic and riparian ecosystems of streams and water 

bodies such as ponds, wetlands, springs, and seeps.

Roundwood: Timber used (as for poles) without being squared by sawing or hewing. 

Roundwood is typically smaller than sawlogs.

Sawlogs: a log that meets minimum regional standards of diameter, length, and defect, intended 

for sawing. In Region 3, a sawlog is defined as any log greater than 9 inches in diameter and 8 

feet in length.

Scale: The aerial extent of certain plan components are described at various scales: 

Fine scale: Composed of individual biophysical features, such as a group of trees or shrubs, 

natural springs, etc. Fine scale units are 10 acres or less.

Mid-scale: Composed of assemblages of fine scale units that have similar biophysical 

conditions. Mid-scale units are composed of areas that range from 100 to 1,000 acres in size.

Landscape scale: Typically composed of variable elevations, slopes, aspects, soils, plant 

associations, and disturbance and ecological processes. An area at this scale is comprised of 

multiple mid-scale units, most often 10 or more.

Scenery: General appearance of a place, landscape, and its visible features (USDA Handbook 

Number 701 “Landscape Aesthetics. A Handbook for Scenery Management” (USDA FS 1995),

slightly revised for clarity).

Scenic class: A system of classification describing the relative importance or value of scenery 

across national forest lands.

Scenic integrity: The degree of naturalness or a measure of the degree to which a landscape is 

visually perceived to be “complete.” The highest scenic integrity ratings are given to those 

landscapes that have little or no deviation from the landscape character valued by constituents for 

its aesthetic quality. Scenic alterations most typically result from human activities, but some 

human alterations are positive landscape character attributes (such as a historic cabin). Scenic 

integrity is measured in five levels: 

Very high (unaltered): Landscapes where the valued character is intact, with only minor 

deviations (such as ecological changes, hiking trails, and occasional range fences). 
Glossary

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High (appears unaltered): The valued landscape character appears intact, though roads 

provide access to the national forest and places from which to view scenery. Activities may 

only repeat attributes of form, line, color, and texture found in the existing landscape 

character.

Moderate (slightly altered): The valued landscape appears slightly altered. Facilities in these 

areas are those valued by forest visitors (such as campgrounds and picnic areas) and privately 

owned recreation areas (such as summer homes, organization camps, lodges, and ski areas). 

Areas rated as moderate are relatively small. Noticeable deviations must remain visually 

subordinate to the landscape character being viewed.

Low (moderately altered): The valued landscape appears moderately altered. Deviations 

begin to dominate, but repeat form, line, color, or texture common to the landscape character. 

Areas rated as low are relatively small.

Very low (heavily altered): Human activities may dominate the original, natural landscape 

character but should appear as natural occurrences when viewed at background distances. 

Areas rated as very low are relatively small. 

Scenic integrity objectives (SIO): Management objectives for managing scenery on National 

Forest System lands. SIOs indicate the degree of allowed deviation from existing landscape 

character. 

Sense of place: The aesthetic, nostalgic, or spiritual effects of physical locations on humans 

based on personal, use-oriented or attachment-oriented relationships between individuals and 

those locations. The meaning, values, and feelings that people associate with physical locations 

because of their experiences there. 

Seral: A plant and animal community that is transitional in stage of succession, being either short 

or long term. If left alone, the seral stage will pass and another plant community will replace it. 

Aspen represents a seral stage that eventually is replaced by conifers such as spruce. 

Significant cave: A cave located on National Forest System lands that meets the criteria in Title 

36, Code of Federal Regulations, sections 290(c) or 290(d) (36 CFR 290(c) or (d)), and has been 

designated in accordance with section 290.3(e).

Snags: Standing dead or partially dead trees often missing many or all limbs or bark. They 

provide essential wildlife habitat for many species and are important for forest ecosystem 

function. 

Soil condition rating: A qualitative rating developed within the Southwestern Region of the 

Forest Service that provides an overall picture of soil condition vital in sustaining ecosystems. It 

is based on three soil functions: the ability of soil to resist erosion, infiltrate water, and recycle 

nutrients. There are four soil condition ratings:

• Satisfactory: soil function is being sustained and soil is functioning properly and normally.

• Impaired: the ability of the soil to function properly and normally has been reduced or there 

exists an increased vulnerability to degradation.

• Unsatisfactory: degradation of vital soil functions result in the inability of the soil to 

maintain resource values, sustain outputs, or recover from impacts.

• Inherently unstable: these soils are eroding faster than they are renewing themselves.
Glossary

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Special use: A permit, term permit, temporary permit, lease, or easement, or other written 

instrument that grants rights or privileges of occupancy and use subject to specified terms and 

conditions on National Forest System land. 

Stand: A contiguous group of trees generally uniform in age class distribution, composition, 

condition, and structure, and growing on a site of generally uniform quality, to be a 

distinguishable unit, such as mixed, pure, even-aged, and uneven-aged stands. A stand is the 

fundamental unit of silviculture reporting and record keeping. 

Sustainability: Meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of 

future generations to meet their needs. Sustainability is composed of desirable social, economic, 

and ecological conditions or trends interacting at varying spatial and temporal scales embodying 

the principles of multiple use and sustained yield.

Targeted grazing: Carefully controlled grazing of livestock to accomplish specific vegetation 

management objectives. Unlike conventional grazing management, livestock are used as a tool 

for improving land health by performing weed control, reducing wildland fire, and aiding in 

restoration projects.

Thinning: An intermediate treatment made to reduce stand density of trees primarily to improve 

growth, enhance forest health, recover potential mortality, or emphasize desired tree species. 

Includes crown thinning (thinning from above, high thinning), free thinning, low thinning 

(thinning from below), mechanical thinning (geometric thinning), and selection thinning 

(dominant thinning). Thinning can be used with both even- and uneven-aged management 

systems. 

Terrestrial: Relating to land; living or growing on land; opposite of aquatic.

Timber harvest: Removal of trees for purposes other than timber production, such as ecosystem 

restoration, wildlife habitat improvement, or watershed protection.

Timber production: Growing, tending, harvesting, and regenerating crops of trees on a regulated 

basis to produce logs or other products for industrial or consumer use. 

Tread Lightly!®: Outdoor ethics with a special focus on motorized and mechanized recreation 

(http://www.treadlightly.org).

Unauthorized road or trail: A road or trail that is not a forest road or trail or a temporary road or 

trail and that is not included in a forest transportation atlas. Sometimes referred to as “usercreated” road or trail. 

Uneven-aged: Forests that are composed of three or more distinct age classes of trees, either 

intermixed or in small groups. 

Well distributed: A geographic distribution of components that is maintained throughout a given 

area and allows for healthy ecological function to take place.

Wetlands: Those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency 

and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence 

of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include 

swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar areas.

Wild and scenic rivers –These rivers are free flowing and have at least one outstandingly 

remarkable value. Eligible and suitable rivers are given a tentative classification of wild, scenic, 

or recreational. These rivers may be included in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System.
Glossary

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• Wild – Those rivers or sections of rivers that are free of impoundments and generally 

inaccessible except by trail, with watersheds or shorelines essentially primitive and waters 

unpolluted. These represent vestiges of primitive America.

• Scenic – Those rivers or sections of rivers that are free of impoundments, with shorelines or 

watersheds still largely primitive and shorelines largely undeveloped, but accessible in places 

by roads. 

• Recreational – Those rivers or sections of rivers that are readily accessible by road or 

railroad, that may have some development along their shorelines, and that may have 

undergone some impoundment or diversion in the past.

Wildfire: An unplanned ignition caused by lightning, volcanoes, unauthorized and accidental 

human-caused actions, and escaped prescribed fires (synonym: unplanned ignition).

Wildland fire: A general term describing any nonstructure fire that occurs in the vegetation 

and/or natural fuels. This includes both prescribed fire and wildfire.

Wildland-urban interface (WUI): Includes those areas of resident populations at imminent risk 

from wildfire, and human developments having special significance. These areas may include 

critical communications sites, municipal watersheds, high voltage transmission lines, church 

camps, scout camps, research facilities, and other structures that if destroyed by fire, would result 

in hardship to communities. These areas encompass not only the sites themselves, but also the 

continuous slopes and fuels that lead directly to the sites, regardless of the distance involved.

Wildlife-friendly fence: Fence of 4 wires or less with bottom wire 16 inches off the ground, top 

wire 12 inches above the second wire, and a fence height less than or equal to 42 inches.

Woody biomass: The trees and woody plants—including limbs, tops, needles, leaves, and other 

woody parts—grown in a forest, woodland, or grassland environment that are the byproducts of 

forest management used to produce bioenergy and the full range of biobased products.

Xeroriparian: A riparian upland transition zone where upland vegetation takes advantage of the 

greater residence time of additional run-on water to grow larger and denser than it grows in the 

uplands or in ephemeral reaches. It is considered excellent habitat for wildlife and bird nesting.

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References

Coe, Sharon J.; Deborah M. Finch; Megan M. Friggens. 2012. An assessment of climate change 

and the vulnerability of wildlife in the Sky Islands of the Southwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. 

RMRS-GTR-273. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Rocky Mountain Research Station. 208 pp.

DeBano, Leonard F., Ffolliott, Peter F., Ortega-Rubio, Alfred, Gottfried, Gerald J., Hamre, Fobert 

H., and Edminster, Carleton B., tech. cords. 1995. Biodiversity and management of the 

Madrean archipelago: the sky islands of the southwestern United States and northwestern 

Mexico. 1994 Sept. 19-23; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-264. Fort Collins, CO: 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range 

Experiment Station. 669 pp.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical 

Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. S. Solomon, D. Quin, M. Manning et al. 

Cambridge, United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press: 996.

Reynolds, R.T., R.T. Graham, M.H. Reiser, R.L. Bassett, P.L. Kennedy, D.A. Boyce, G. Goodwin, 

R. Smith and E.L. Fisher 1992. Management recommendations for the Northern 

Goshawk in the Southwestern United States. General Technical Report RM-217. Fort 

Collins, CO. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment 

Station. 90 pp.

United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (USDA FS). 1986. ROS Book. USDA 

Forest Service.

———. 1995. Landscape Aesthetics: A Handbook for Scenery Management. Agricultural 

Handbook Number 701. USDA Forest Service.

———. 2001. The Built Environment Image Guide for the National Forests and Grasslands. 

Publication FS-710. USDA Forest Service.

———. 2005a. Loss and fragmentation of open space. Forest Service Policy Position Paper. 5p. 

http://www.fs.fed.us/publications/policy-analysis/loss-of-open-space-position-paper.pdf

———. 2005b. Monitoring for Sustainability. Fort Collins, CO, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

Forest Service, Inventory and Monitoring Institute, 2005: 2.

———. 2006. Coronado National Forest Transition Plan: A Plan for Making Outdoor Recreation 

Accessible to Everyone. Coronado National Forest.

———. 2009a. Coronado National Forest Comprehensive Evaluation Report.

———. 2009b. Coronado National Forest Ecological Sustainability Report. 

———. 2009c. Coronado National Forest Social and Economic Sustainability Report. 

———. 2010. Coronado National Forest Comprehensive Evaluation Report Supplementary 

Document (Analysis of Management Situation). 
References

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

194

———. 2011. Watershed Condition Framework: A Framework for Assessing and Tracking 

Changes to Watershed Condition. FS-977, USDA Forest Service.

———. 2013a. Forest Service Outdoor Recreation Accessibility Guidelines (FSORAG). USDA 

Forest Service.

———. 2013b. Forest Service Trail Accessibility Guidelines (FSTAG). USDA Forest Service.

———. 2014. Coronado National Forest Guidelines for Visitor Information Signs. Coronado 

National Forest.

———. 2015a. Architectural Guidelines for Recreation Residences on the Coronado National 

Forest. Coronado National Forest.

———. 2015b. Coronado National Forest National Visitor Use Monitoring Data collected FY 

2007. Coronado National Forest.

———. 2015c. Coronado National Forest Scenery Management Implementation Guide. 

Coronado National Forest.

———. 2015d. Coronado National Forest Sustainable Recreation Action Plan. Coronado 

National Forest.

United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA 

NRCS). 2008. Effects of exurban development on wildlife and plant communities. 

Technical Note 190-75, Washington, DC.
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Appendix A. Climate Change Trends 

and Coronado National Forest Land 

Management Planning

Overview and Background

Climate scientists agree that the Earth is undergoing a warming trend, and that human-caused 

elevations in atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases reflect the 

principal cause of global temperature increases (IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, 2007). The 

observed concentrations of these greenhouse gases are projected to increase. Climate change is 

intensifying the risk of ecosystem change for terrestrial and aquatic systems, affecting ecosystem 

structure, function, and productivity.

This section contains a description of the climate patterns and trends in the Southwestern United 

States followed by a description of how current climate models and predictions may generally 

affect those climate patterns in the near future. Then, a short land management plan revisionoriented synthesis of climate change literature follows. This review of current climate changerelated scientific literature for the Southwestern United States focuses on how climate change 

might be currently influencing—and may in the future impact—ecological and socioeconomic 

systems. The intent of the review is to examine those areas of climate change research that may 

have an impact on how the Coronado National Forest is managed. Specifically, this section 

summarizes current and future climate trends, at the regional and, if possible, the national forest 

level. Possible effects of climate change on ecosystems, water abundance and quality, biodiversity 

and wildlife species, economic conditions, and social conditions in the Southwest, and a 

description of limitations and uncertainties inherent in projected future climate scenarios. Finally, 

this document discusses possible management issues that should be considered during land 

management planning.

Climate in the American

Southwest and the Coronado National Forest

What is Climate?

Climate may be defined as the “average weather,” or more rigorously, as the statistical description 

of weather in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities (such as temperature, 

precipitation, or wind) over a period ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The 

standard period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization. These 

quantities are often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a 

wider sense is the statistical description of the state or condition of the climate system.43 In 

contrast, weather describes the daily conditions (individual storms) or conditions over several 

 43 According to the World Meteorological Organization, the climate system is a highly complex arrangement 

consisting of five major components: the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, and the land surface and 

biosphere, and the interactions between them. The climate system evolves in time under the influence of its 

own internal dynamics and because of external forces as volcanic eruptions, solar variations, and humaninduced influences such as the changing composition of atmosphere and land use changes (WMO 2017).
Appendix A. Climate Change Trends 

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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

196

days (such as a week of record-breaking temperatures), to those lasting less than 2 weeks.44

Natural climate variability refers to variations due to natural internal processes (internal 

variability) in the climate system or natural external forcing (external variability), in the mean 

state and other statistics of the climate on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual 

weather events (IPCC 2007). Climate and climate variability are determined by the amount of 

incoming solar radiation, the chemical composition and dynamics of the atmosphere, and the 

surface characteristics of the Earth. The circulation of the atmosphere and oceans influences the 

transfer of heat and moisture around the planet and, thus, strongly influences climate patterns and 

their variability in space and time. Much of the current climate change literature states that human 

activities such as fossil fuel burning, industrial activities, changes in land use, animal husbandry, 

and fertilized and irrigated agriculture lead to increases in greenhouse gases, including carbon 

dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. These increased greenhouse gases contribute to the 

greenhouse effect and cause the surface temperature of the Earth to increase. Global atmospheric 

concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have increased markedly because of 

human activities since 1750, and now far exceed pre-industrial levels (IPCC 2007).

The climate of the Southwestern U.S. is often referred to as dry and hot; however, it is very 

complex. While low deserts of the Southwest experience heat and drying winds in the early 

summer, forested mountain areas and plateaus may experience cold and drifting snow during 

winter. Climate variability is the norm within this region, as temperature and precipitation 

fluctuate on time scales ranging from seasons to centuries. Monsoon thunderstorms in July and 

August are often accompanied by flash flooding. From fall to spring, the weather can be warm 

with clear skies. The Southwest also experiences periods of short- and long-term drought. Indeed, 

severe regional floods or droughts have affected both indigenous and modern civilizations on 

time scales ranging from single growing seasons to multiple years, even decades (Hughes et al. 

2002).

To a large degree, a quasi-permanent subtropical high-pressure ridge over the Southwest leads to 

the characteristically low annual precipitation, clear skies and year-round warm weather over 

much of the region. This high-pressure ridge is created through Hadley circulation.45 Where the 

descending branch of Hadley circulation comes down, it tends to create a zone of atmospheric 

high pressure that makes it difficult for clouds to form. Much of the Southwestern U.S. lies in the 

subtropical zone, where warm, dry air is flowing back down to Earth following its rain-inducing 

rise in the tropics. Descending air in the subtropics relates to an ongoing global pattern known as 

Hadley circulation. 

In addition, the Southwest is located between the mid-latitude and subtropical atmospheric 

circulation regimes. This positioning, relative to shifts in these atmospheric patterns, is the main 

reason for the region’s climatic variability. El Niño (also known as the El Niño Southern 

Oscillation) is an increase in sea surface temperature of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean with 

an associated shift of the active center of atmospheric convection from the western to the central 

 44 The glossary of climate terms used in this report is drawn from “A Glossary of Terms” used in the 

“Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report” (IPCC 2007). 45 Hadley circulation is a flow pattern that dominates the tropical atmosphere, beginning with warm, moist air 

rising near the equator, poleward movement 6 to 9 miles above the surface, descending motion in the 

subtropics, and equatorward movement near the surface. This circulation is intimately related to the trade 

winds, tropical rainbelts, subtropical deserts, and jet streams.
Appendix A. Climate Change Trends 

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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

197

equatorial Pacific. El Niño has a well-developed teleconnection46 with the Southwest, usually 

resulting in wet winters. La Niña, the opposite oceanic case of El Niño, usually results in dry 

winters for the Southwest. Another important oceanic influence on winter climate of the 

Southwest is a feature called the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, which has been defined as temporal 

variation in sea surface temperatures for most of the northern Pacific Ocean. The major feature 

that sets climate of the Southwest apart from the rest of the U.S. is the North American Monsoon, 

which, in the U.S., is most noticeable in Arizona and New Mexico. Up to 50 percent of the annual

rainfall of Arizona and New Mexico occurs as monsoonal storms from July through September 

(Hughes et al. 2002). 

In summary, while many factors influence climate in the Southwest during a particular year or 

season, the region’s overall climate is defined by predictable weather patterns that occur across 

the years and decades to define the region’s climate. The region’s overall aridity relates to a 

global circulation pattern known as Hadley circulation, which creates a semi-permanent highpressure zone over the Southwest. Relatively high temperatures with dynamic daily swings define 

this geographic region. Mountains and other differences in elevation affect local climate patterns. 

The North American Monsoon works to bring moisture from the tropics into the region during the 

summer months.

Future Climate of the Southwest and the Coronado National Forest

Currently there appears to be broad agreement among climate modelers that the Southwestern 

U.S. is experiencing a drying tend that will continue well into the latter part of the 21st century 

(IPCC 2007; Seager et al. 2007). While the ensemble47 scenario used by Seager et al. (2007) 

included two models with predictions of increased precipitation, the researchers concluded that 

the overall balance between precipitation and evaporation would still likely result in an overall 

decrease in available moisture. Regional drying and warming trends have occurred twice during 

the 20th century (1930s Dust Bowl, and the 1950s Southwest Drought), and were severe during 

what is known as the Medieval Climate Anomaly, an interval of warm, dry conditions with 

regional variability from A.D. 900 to 1350 (Hughes and Diaz 2008; Herweijer et al. 2007). The 

current drought conditions may very well become the new climatology of the American

Southwest, including the Coronado National Forest, within a timeframe of years to decades. 

According to recent multi-model ensemble scenarios, the warming trend observed in the last 100 

years in the Southwest is projected to continue and intensify (IPCC 2007). These climate models 

project temperatures rising approximately 5 to 8 degrees Fahrenheit by the end of the century in 

the Southwest, with the greatest warming projected to occur during summer (Lenart 2008c). This 

trend would increase pressures on the region’s already limited water supplies, as well as increase 

energy demand, alter fire regimes and ecosystems, create risks for human health, and affect 

agriculture (Sprigg 2000). 

 46 Teleconnections: Atmospheric interactions between widely separated regions that have been identified through 

statistical correlations (in space and time). For example, the El Niño teleconnection with the Southwest U.S. 

involves large-scale changes in climatic conditions that are linked to increased winter rainfall. 47 Multimodel ensembles: Researchers have found that the average of numerous available climate models--

sometimes called the ensemble mean--almost always weigh in with more accuracy than any one model. This 

technique often uses 18 to 20 different coupled global circulation models, and combines the output from each 

to produce and ensemble output (CCSP 2008c).
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The number of extremely hot days is also projected to rise during the 21st century. By the end of 

the century, parts of the Southwest, including the Coronado National Forest, are projected to face 

summer heat waves lasting 2 weeks longer and a fivefold increase in unusually hot days 

compared to recent decades (Diffenbaugh et al. 2005). In effect, the high temperatures that 

formerly occurred on only the hottest 5 percent of days could become the norm for a quarter of 

the year—100 days or more—in much of the Southwest.

Observations based on measurements from weather stations indicate that the temperature rise 

projected for the future is on par with the rate of increase much of the Southwest has already 

registered in recent decades, particularly since the mid-1970s. Since 1976, the average annual 

temperature increased by 2.5 degrees Fahrenheit in Arizona (Lenart 2008c). The recent 

temperature increase is unusual, even in the context of records dating back more than 1,200 years 

that were compiled from tree rings and other natural archives of temperature for the northern 

hemisphere (Trouet et al. 2009; Hughes and Diaz 2008; Herweijer et al. 2007; Meko et al. 2007). 

Warmer winter temperatures in the Southwest have serious implications for snow cover, an 

important natural reservoir of water in the West. In a study conducted on two watersheds in 

central Arizona, Svoma (2011) found that between water years 1934 and 2007, average snowpack 

elevation levels have increased with a decrease in snow amounts. In his study, he directly 

correlated this with increasing temperatures. Shorter winters and less snowpack also affect the 

timing of natural cycles such as plant dormancy and blooming and peak river flows. Throughout 

the West, the number of days in the frost-free season, which varies by location, has been 

increasing more rapidly than in the East (Lenart 2007). Summer temperatures have also climbed, 

especially since the mid-1970s. Maximum temperatures regularly reach above 100 degrees 

Fahrenheit daily for weeks on end in many southwestern cities (Lenart 2007). The temperature 

rise alone has some predictable effects on aridity in the region. For instance, higher temperatures 

increase evaporation rates. Higher temperatures and a drier landscape increase wildfire hazard 

and put extra stress on ecosystems (Lenart 2007).

Precipitation changes remain much more difficult to predict than temperature, because 

precipitation is more variable and operates on a smaller scale. Predicting future precipitation is 

difficult in the Southwest due to added complexities such as topography, El Niño, and monsoonal 

timing. When comparing climate model simulations to what actually occurred, researchers found 

the results roughly matched 50 to 60 percent of the time for precipitation. This compares to about 

95 percent of the time for temperature (Lenart 2007).

However, mean annual precipitation is projected to decline by about 10 percent by 2100 for 

southern Arizona, based on modeling results from an ensemble of 18 general circulation models 

(Lenert 2008a). Such a decrease in precipitation could have a more serious impact than the 

numbers suggest. The decrease of water draining from the landscape into rivers and reservoirs 

typically can be double or triple the proportional reductions in rainfall amounts, especially when 

combined with higher temperatures (Christensen and Lettenmaier 2006). 

In another study, researchers using a multi-model ensemble of 19 models projected an increase in 

aridity for the American Southwest (Seager et al. 2007). Their study defined the Southwest as the 

land area stretching from east to west, from Houston to San Francisco and north to south from 

Denver to Monterrey, Mexico; this area includes the Coronado National Forest. Only 2 of the 19 

climate models evaluated suggested a potential decrease in aridity for the southwestern quadrant 

of the country.
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Earlier snowmelt can cause streamflows to deliver water to reservoirs and water users in greater 

quantities earlier in the spring season. Historically, snowmelt has occurred at the same time 

communities’ ramp up their water consumption, which has drained reservoirs as they fill. When 

streamflows become elevated earlier in the year, however, reservoirs fill more quickly. Earlier 

future streamflows will likely increase the chance that spikes in river flows occur when the 

reservoirs are at full capacity, increasing the probability of flash floods (Guido 2008).

It is likely that continued warming will accentuate the temperature difference between the 

Southwest and the tropical Pacific Ocean, enhancing the strength of the westerly winds that carry 

moist air from the tropics into the Southwest during the monsoon. This scenario may increase the 

monsoon’s intensity, or its duration, or both, in which case floods will occur with greater 

frequency (Guido 2008). Projections of future climate also suggest a shift in the Monsoon season, 

with reductions in early season precipitation and increases later in the year (Grantz et al. 2007, 

Seth et al. 2011). 

While the region is expected to dry out on average, it is also likely to see larger, more destructive 

flooding (Guido 2008a). For example, the largest flood in the 75-year instrumental record of 

Sabino Creek in Tucson (which has headwaters in the Santa Catalina Ranger District) occurred in 

July 2006, and climate change was the likely contributor (Desilets and Desilets 2006). Along with 

storms in general, hurricanes and other tropical cyclones are projected to become more intense 

overall (IPCC 2007). Arizona and New Mexico typically receive 10 percent or more of their 

annual precipitation from storms that begin as tropical cyclones in the Pacific Ocean. In fact, 

some of the largest floods in the Southwest have occurred when a remnant tropical storm hit a 

frontal storm from the north or northwest, providing energy to intensify a remnant tropical storm 

(Guido 2008a).

In summary, based on multi-model ensemble climate models, by the end of the 21st century, the 

Southwest is likely to experience the following conditions. Temperature increases of 5 to 8 

degrees Fahrenheit. An increase in the number of extremely hot days, with summer heat waves 

lasting 2 weeks or more, accompanied by warmer winters with a reduced snowpack, and a later 

monsoonal season. A 10 percent drop in mean annual precipitation in southern Arizona and an 

increase in extreme flood events following an overall increase in tropical storms is expected.

Discussion

The state of knowledge needed to address climate change at the scale of the Coronado National 

Forest is still evolving. Because none of the current climate models adequately resolves important 

topographic variations (such as mountain ranges versus valleys) and climate occurrences such as 

El Niño and La Niña or the North American Monsoon, their results are imprecise and the subject 

of continuing research. However, these models do reproduce much of the underlying features of 

the Earth’s climate, and their basic structure has been proven under countless experiments and 

forecasts of the weather systems from which climate is usually described. Therefore, these 

models remain a credible means of estimating potential future climate scenarios. Global climate 

models are at a much coarser scale than the scale of an individual national forest. This limits, to 

some degree, Coronado-specific analysis of potential effects from climate change, especially with 

respect to the influence of monsoons and El Niño. 

Dynamical and statistical downscaling of the larger global climate models can provide additional 

information at scales more relevant to management decisions on the scale of the Coronado 

National Forest. Dynamical downscaling, also called regional climate modeling, can provide 
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important information about regional climate patterns such as El Niño and the North American 

Monsoon that are not accounted for in the larger scale global climate models. Regional climate 

modeling is currently underway for the Southwest and data should be available soon for the area 

including the Coronado National Forest (Dominguez, personal communication). Statistical 

downscaling is a method that uses statistical relationships between observed and modeled past

climates to project future climates at finer resolutions. It is less computationally expensive than 

dynamical downscaling, but it does not fully account for patterns such as El Niño and the 

Monsoon. Statistically downscaled data is already available for the entire country, including the 

Coronado National Forest (Girvetz et al. 2009). These data can provide a general idea of 

temperature and precipitation trends, acknowledging that it does not fully account for some 

important regional climate patterns.

In summary, climate modeling is a developing science. General circulation models are constantly 

improving as are statistical and dynamical downscaling techniques. Dynamical downscaling, 

which incorporates jet stream activity, tropical storm and monsoon tracking, and regional 

elevation effects, improves localized climate projections. We know enough about major trends in 

temperature and precipitation patterns to begin to assess impacts on the Coronado National 

Forest’s resources and potential management responses (USDA FS 2017). 

Southwestern Climate Change and 

Coronado National Forest Ecosystems

Water and Climate Change

The prospect of future drought becoming more severe and diminished waterflows later in the 

season because of climate change is a significant concern, especially because the Southwest 

continues to lead the Nation in population growth. This signals a serious water supply challenge 

in the decades and centuries ahead. Water supplies are projected to become increasingly scarce, 

demanding tradeoffs among competing uses and potentially leading to conflict. Climate change, 

with both wet periods and droughts, has been a part of Southwestern climate for millennia. As of 

2009, much of the Southwest remains in a drought that began about 1998 (McPhee et al. 2004). 

This event is the most severe western drought of the last 110 years, and has been exacerbated by 

record warming. The droughts of the last 110 years pale in comparison to some of the decadeslong “megadroughts” that the region has experienced over the last 2,000 years (Seager et al. 

2008). During the closing decades of the 1500s, for example, major droughts gripped areas of the 

Southwest.

Combined with the historical record of severe droughts and the current uncertainty regarding the 

exact causes and drivers of these past events, the Southwest must be prepared for droughts that 

could potentially result from multiple causes. The combined effects of natural climate variability 

and human-induced climate change could result in a challenging combination of water shortages 

for the region (Karl et al. 2009). A drier climate is very likely to decrease water supplies and 

increase demand for such uses as agriculture, recreation, aquatic habitat, and power, thus 

increasing competition for decreasing supplies (Joyce et al. 2001). In a 5-year scenario modeled 

after the worst drought in the historical record, water demand in Arizona could exceed supply by 

67 percent, and in a 10-year scenario, demand may exceed supply by 59 percent (Lenart 2007). 

Development in the Southwest has been primarily dependent upon technology to deliver water 

resources. The locations of most snowpack and upland reservoirs are on national forests in the 

Southwest (Smith et al. 2001; State of New Mexico 2005). Some studies predict water shortages 
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and lack of storage capabilities to meet seasonally changing river flow, and transfers of water 

from agriculture to urban uses, as critical climate-related impacts to water availability (Barnett et 

al. 2008). 

While agriculture remains the greatest water user in the Southwest, there has been a decrease in 

the amount of water used by agriculture, as Arizona’s and New Mexico’s booming populations 

demand more water for municipal and other uses, and irrigation technologies improve; this has 

been an ongoing trend and could affect future agricultural uses. Without upland reservoirs and 

watersheds from the Coronado National Forest important to one of Arizona’s largest metropolitan 

areas, alternative water sources, water delivery systems, and infrastructure support for agriculture 

would need to be developed (Lenart 2007). 

The potential for flooding is also likely to increase because of earlier and more rapid melting of 

the snowpack in spring and more frequent intense precipitation events. Flash flooding, occurring 

after extended drought, may increase the number and severity of floods and accelerate rates of 

soil erosion. The timing and extent of storm-related precipitation will play a key role in 

determining the degree to which people and the environment are affected (Swetnam and 

Betancourt 1997; Swetnam et al. 1999; Lenart 2007). 

Climate Change and Potential Ecosystem

Impacts on the Coronado National Forest

Natural ecosystems are regulated by climate, and climate is to some degree determined by natural 

ecosystems. Long-term or short-term climate variability may cause shifts in the structure, 

composition, and functioning of ecosystems, particularly in the fragile boundaries of the semiarid 

regions. These areas already contain plants, insects, and animals highly specialized and adapted to 

the landscape. A decrease in precipitation and an increase in temperature would alter their range, 

type, and number throughout the Southwest. Responding differently to shifts in climate, the 

somewhat tenuous balance among ecosystem components will also change. As phenology is 

altered, the overall effects among interacting species are difficult to predict, particularly given the 

rate of climate change and the ability of symbionts to adapt. As the health of the ecosystem is a 

function of water availability, temperature, carbon dioxide, and many other factors, it is difficult 

to determine accurately the extent, type, and magnitude of ecosystem change under future climate 

scenarios. Yet, should vegetation cover and moisture exchanging properties of the land change, 

important local and regional climate characteristics such as albedo,48 humidity, wind, and 

temperature will also change with potential compounding effects to vegetation (Sprigg et al. 

2000). 

Current research shows that climate is much more variable than is commonly understood and that 

this is expressed in nested temporal and spatial scales. Millar et al. (2007) provide an elegant 

summation of natural climatic variables and its implications for forest managers. These are three 

key points from that research which should be considered in Coronado National Forest 

management strategies:

 48 Albedo is the reflectance of a surface. Absorbed solar radiation warms the Earth’s surface, whereas, reflected 

radiation does not. Albedo is one component of this energy feedback. Different land covers have varied 

albedo. Thus, land use change can influence albedo and whether a land surface has a warming or cooling 

effect. For example, snow has a very high albedo and, thus, has a cooling effect (negative feedback). Melting 

of snow or coverage of snow with vegetation or black carbon (from air pollution) results in a higher surface 

albedo and has a warming effect (positive feedback) (IPCC 2007).
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1. The past record clearly shows that ecological conditions change constantly in response to 

climate. Plant and animal species will shift even in the absence of human influence 

(Millar et al. 2007).

2. Wet/dry oscillations associated with ocean-atmosphere patterns have driven regional and 

continental scale fire patterns for centuries. These patterns provide a basis for fire 

forecasting tools (Westerling et al. 2006).

3. Species ranges and demographics are expected to be highly unstable as the climate shifts 

(Millar et al. 2007).

Climate may influence the distribution and abundance of plant and animal species through 

changes in resource availability, reproduction, and survivorship. The potential ecological 

implications of climate change trends in the Southwest indicate:

• More extreme natural ecological process events, including wildfires, intense rain, flash foods, 

and wind events (Swetnam et al. 1999).

• Greater vulnerability to invasive species, including insects, plants, fungi, and vertebrates 

(Joyce et al. 2006).

• Long-term shifts in vegetation patterns (Westerling et al. 2006; Millar et al. 2007).

• Cold-tolerant vegetation moving upslope, or disappearing in some areas; migration of some 

plant species to the more northern portions of their existing range (Clark 1998; Brusca et al. 

2013).

• Potential decreases in overall forest productivity due to reduced precipitation (USDA FS

2005b).

• Shifts in the timing of snowmelt (already observed) in the American West, which, along with 

increases in summer temperatures, has serious implications for the survival of fish species 

and may challenge efforts to reintroduce species into their historic range (Joyce et al. 2006; 

Millar et al. 2007).

• Effects on phenology and changes in the date of flowering and associated pollination and 

food-chain disruptions (Guido 2008).

Vegetation Changes

A warmer climate in the Southwest is expected to affect ecosystems by altering the biotic and 

abiotic stresses that influence and affect the vigor of ecosystems, leading to increased extent and 

severity of disturbances on the Coronado National Forest. Decreasing water availability and 

higher temperatures will accelerate the stresses experienced in forests, woodlands, grasslands, 

chaparral, and riparian communities, which typically involve some combination of multiyear 

drought, insects, and fire. As has occurred in the past, increases in fire disturbance superimposed 

on ecosystems, with increased stress from drought and insects, may have significant effects on 

growth, regeneration, long-term distribution, and abundance of forest species (Williams et al. 

2010).

Many Coronado National Forest ecosystems contain water-limited vegetation today (such as

desert, semidesert grassland, Madrean pine-oak and encinal woodlands, and chaparral). 

Vegetation productivity on the Coronado National Forest may decrease with warming 

temperatures, as increasingly negative water balances constrain photosynthesis, although this may 

be partially offset if carbon dioxide fertilization significantly increases water use efficiency in 
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plants (Drake et al. 1997). Many vegetation types on the Coronado National Forest are sensitive 

to feedbacks from environmental fluctuations and existing canopy structure that may provide 

trees a buffer against drought. However, severe multiyear droughts periodically cause dieback of 

some species. Interdecadal climate variability strongly affects interior dry ecosystems, causing 

considerable growth during wet periods. This growth increases the evaporative demand, setting 

up the ecosystem for dieback during the ensuing dry period (Swetnam and Betancourt 1997). 

For example, piñon pines recently experienced a severe dieback following extreme drought in

northern Arizona and northern New Mexico, both directly from moisture deficit and increased 

insect attacks (Breshears et al. 2005). The current dieback is historically unprecedented in its 

combination of fire suppression, low precipitation, and high temperatures. Increased drought 

stress via warmer climate is the predisposing factor, and piñon pine mortality and fuel 

accumulations are inciting factors (Williams et al. 2010). Ecosystem change may arise from 

large-scale severe fires that lead to colonization of invasive species, which further compromises 

the ability of piñon pines to reestablish. The science community has developed single national 

forest scale models that can assist forest managers in forecasting vegetation trends under different 

climate scenarios.

Temperature increases are a predisposing factor causing often lethal stresses on forest ecosystems 

of western North America, acting both directly through increasingly negative water balances, and 

indirectly through increased frequency, severity, and extent of disturbances—chiefly fire and 

insect outbreaks. Human development of the West has resulted in habitat fragmentation, creation 

of migration barriers such as dams, and introduction of invasive species. The combination of 

development, presence of invasive species, complex topography, and climate change is likely to 

lead to a loss of biodiversity in the region (Brusca et al. 2013). However, some species may 

migrate to higher altitudes in mountainous areas. It is also possible that some ecosystems, 

especially at the highest elevations, would virtually disappear from the region (Joyce et al. 2008).

Natural ecological processes having the greatest impact on the Coronado National Forest include

insects, diseases, fires, droughts, inland storms caused by hurricanes, flash flooding, windstorms, 

and the introduction of nonnative species. Climate variability and changes can alter the frequency, 

intensity, timing, and spatial extent of these natural events. Many potential consequences of future 

climate change are expected to be buffered by the resilience of Coronado National Forest plant 

and animal communities to natural climatic variation. However, an extensive body of literature 

suggests that new disturbance regimes under climate change are likely to result in significant 

disturbances to U.S. forests, with lasting ecological and socioeconomic impacts (Joyce et al. 

2001). 

Wildfire

Historically, wildfires have been recurring natural ecological processes in dry mixed-conifer 

forests, ponderosa pine-evergreen shrub communities, Madrean encinal and pine-oak woodlands, 

chaparral, and grassland ecosystems of the Coronado National Forest. An analysis of trends in 

wildfire and climate in the western United States from 1974 to 2004, shows that both the 

frequency of large wildfires and fire season length increased substantially after 1985 (Westerling 

et al. 2006). These changes were closely linked with advances in the timing of spring snowmelt 

and increases in spring and summer air temperatures. Earlier spring snowmelt probably 

contributed to greater wildfire frequency in at least two ways: by extending the period during 

which ignitions could potentially occur, and by reducing water availability to ecosystems in midsummer before the arrival of the summer monsoons, thus enhancing drying of vegetation and 
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surface fuels (Westerling et al. 2006). These trends of increased fire size correspond with the 

increased cost of fire suppression. 

In recent years, areas of western forests have been increasingly impacted by wildfires, burning 

homes and wildlands, and suppression costs have totaled more than $1 billion per year for Federal 

land management agencies. Since about the mid-1970s, the total acreage of areas burned and the 

severity of wildfires in pine and mixed-conifer forests have increased. Fire frequency and severity 

may be exacerbated if temperatures increase, precipitation decreases, and overall drought 

conditions become more common. In addition, continued population growth will likely cause 

greater human-started fires, since humans start nearly half of the fires in the Southwest. In June 

2003, for example, the 84,750-acre, human-caused Aspen Fire on the Coronado National Forest 

(one of the largest on record) occurred during one of the warmest years on record with one of the

latest monsoons.

Insects and Pathogens

Insects and pathogens are significant natural occurring ecological processes within forest 

ecosystems in the U.S., costing $1.5 billion annually (Dale et al. 2001). Extensive reviews of the 

effects of climate change on insects and pathogens have reported many cases where climate 

change has affected or will affect forest insect species range and abundance, as witnessed in the 

Southwest. Climate also affects insect populations indirectly through effects on hosts. Drought 

stress, resulting from decreased precipitation and warming, reduces the ability of a tree to mount 

a defense against insect attack, though this stress may also cause some host species to become 

less palatable to some types of insects. Fire suppression and large areas of susceptible trees, a 

legacy from logging, may also play a role (Ryan et al. 2008).

Invasive Species

Disturbance may reset and rejuvenate some ecosystems in some cases, and cause enduring change 

in others. For example, climate change may favor the spread of invasive, nonnative grasses into 

arid lands where the native vegetation is too sparse to carry a fire. When these areas burn, they 

typically convert to nonnative monocultures and the native vegetation is lost (Ryan et al. 2008). 

The Coronado suffers from many types of invasive species outbreaks, including plants and 

animals. Invasive plants can alter landscapes by overtaking native species, facilitating fire 

outbreaks, and altering the food supply for herbivorous animals and insects.

Vulnerable Habitats on the Coronado National Forest

Our knowledge of possible climate change impacts on specific vegetation types remains limited

(Brusca et al. 2013). However, projected and observed climate change effects are being studied at 

the broad-scale habitat level throughout the Southwest. The mild nature of climate gradients 

among lower life zones of the Southwest and protracted ecotonal bands, make woodland plant 

communities particularly vulnerable (Allen and Breshears 1998; Adams et al. 2009). In addition, 

systems that rely on water are also vulnerable due to projected changes in precipitation and water 

inputs. Many of the region’s plant and animal species are associated with these key habitats, and 

they are, therefore, important when considering the potential impacts of climate change on 

ecosystems managed by the national forests in the Southwest.
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Riparian Habitats

Riparian habitats are very important for wildlife on the Coronado National Forest, as well as an 

unknown number of invertebrate and plant species that inhabit or use riparian areas at some time 

during their life. The majority of models project declines in water inputs due to reduced 

precipitation, and subsequent reductions in water in riparian zones. Water losses are also likely to 

increase due to elevated evapotranspiration rates at higher temperatures and greater runoff losses 

associated with increased frequencies of high intensity convectional storms. Urban expansion will 

also increase human demand for water and further reduce water availability for wildland 

ecosystems. Decreased water availability would affect riverine and riparian ecosystem function, 

due to modifications in geomorphological processes and an overall reduction in the availability of 

moisture to plant communities. Although these areas comprise less than 1 percent of Coronado 

National Forest lands, they provide critical habitat for vertebrates, invertebrates, migratory birds, 

and other riparian-dependent species. Reduced water inputs will cause riparian ecosystems to 

contract in size. Furthermore, lowered water availability would stress riparian plants and increase 

the ecosystem susceptibility to invasion by nonnative plants, such as salt cedar and Russian olive, 

which, in turn, could disrupt the natural wildlife community (Archer and Predick 2008).

Wetlands 

Climate change is likely to affect native plant and animal species by altering key habitats such as 

wetland ecosystems (Karl et al. 2009). Wetlands create unique habitats and microclimates that 

support diverse wildlife and plant communities. Wetland habitats contain a distinctive native plant 

community typical of saturated soils. Plants may include sedges, rushes, mosses, monkey flowers, 

lilies, and algae. Animal species occurring in the wetlands include northern raccoon, Arizona 

treefrog, Northern Mexican gartersnake, and Huachuca springsnail among other specialized 

aquatic invertebrates.

Sky Islands

Mountainous “sky islands” of the Coronado National Forest are made up of forested ranges 

separated by expanses of desert and grassland plains, are among the most diverse ecosystems in 

the world because of their great topographic complexity and unique location at the meeting point 

of several major desert and forest biological provinces. “Sky islands” refers to a particular area 

versus the other habitats that essentially refer to life zones of the Southwest (including those of 

sky islands). The patterns described here for sky islands are applicable to many areas of the 

Southwest. The sky islands are particularly vulnerable to fragmentation, which may exacerbate 

the effects of climate change. These mountain ranges are isolated from each other by intervening 

valleys of grassland or desert. The valleys of these basins act as barriers to the movement of 

certain woodland and forest species. Species, such as mountain lions and black bears, depend on 

movement corridors between mountain islands to maintain genetic diversity and population size. 

The region is a blend of tropical and temperate, harboring well over half the bird species of North

America, 29 bat species, over 3,000 species of plants, and 104 species of mammals, a diversity 

exceeding anywhere else in the U.S. Climate change poses a unique threat to sky islands. 

Temperature increases of as little as a few degrees could push sky island habitats to higher 

elevations, reducing their area and potentially causing local extinction of endemic taxa and 

divergent populations harboring unique genetic and phenotypic diversity (Kupfer et al. 2004;

Brusca et al. 2013). Sky islands in the Southwest and Mexico are already being affected by 

climate change, with increases in drought, fire, and outbreaks of invasive insects (Williams et al. 

2010). Although these resilient systems have endured large-scale shifts in climate during and 
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since the last ice age, the pace of human-induced climate change may represent an 

insurmountable challenge for sky islands, with potentially devastating consequences to their 

biodiversity and evolutionary potential (Sky Island 2007). A recent assessment of climate change 

in the Southwest found that many sky island forest systems are among the most vulnerable to 

climate change because of the combination of most rapid recent temperature increases and a high 

number of species of conservation concern (Robles and Enquist 2010). 

Aquatic Systems

There are already observed shifts in the timing of snowmelt in the American West, which, along 

with increases in summer air temperatures, have serious implications for the survival of fish 

species and may render some efforts useless to reintroduce species into their historic range 

(Millar et al. 2007). For cool and cold-water species, a nearly 50 percent reduction in thermal 

habitat is projected with scenarios of increased water temperatures (Eaton and Scheller 1996). 

Predicted impacts to aquatic ecosystems include altered seasonal high flow events, increases in 

drought severity during summer flows, and increasing temperatures in small streams and 

tributaries that further limit habitat during seasonal flows (Williams and Meka-Carter 2009).

The fundamental physiological components of growth and metabolism are strongly affected by 

temperature (Schmidt-Nielsen 1997). For fishes, this implies that populations highly adapted to 

local climates that experience increases in temperatures in excess of their optimum values for 

growth will reduce consumption rates and increase metabolic rates; this results in decreased 

growth. Fish increase feeding rates to compensate for poor growing conditions caused by 

increased temperature, which can lead to greater visibility and encounter rates with predators. 

Trout in whole lake experiments had lower survival at temperatures above optimum, and those 

populations with the highest temperatures and lowest food abundance experienced the lowest 

survival. The prediction is for an increasing frequency of poor or failed year-classes where fish 

cannot escape the warmer conditions. Research, so far, reflects a basic understanding of the 

impacts of climate warming on individuals, but not on the outcomes at the population levels (Biro 

et al. 2007). Current stresses on native aquatic species, including heat tolerant nonnatives add to 

the complexity of managing and adapting to climate change.

Plant and Animal Species

Research suggests large changes in the structure and species composition of plant communities 

due to the warming air temperatures and altered hydrological cycles. Many of the region’s plant, 

animal, and insect species depend on precise phenological events based on climatic conditions for 

migration, flowering, and timing for foraging and reproductive activities. Climate thus influences 

their distribution and abundance through changes in resource availability, fecundity, and 

survivorship. It is currently unknown how many species will successfully adapt to changing 

conditions. The ability of plant and animal species to migrate under climate change is strongly 

influenced by their dispersal abilities and by disturbances to the landscape. Land use changes and 

habitat alterations around the Coronado National Forest will add to the challenge of plant and 

animal species adapting to climate change. Within an ecological context, wildlife and plant 

responses to climate change in the region are highly dependent on interaction between weather, 

land use, land cover, hydrology, fire, and stresses from invasive, nonnative species.
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Distribution

Many studies of species support the predictions of systematic shifts in distribution related to 

climate change, often via species-specific physiological thresholds of temperature and 

precipitation tolerance (Brusca et al. 2013). Temperature is likely to be the main driver for 

different species, including possible shifts in a coordinated and systematic manner throughout 

broad regions (Rosenzweig et al. 2007). Species at the upper elevations are at greater risk of 

being extirpated since they may not be able to adapt to habitat changes. Such organisms face 

increased risk of extinction (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2008). In many instances, the impacts of 

range shifts will go far beyond the mere addition or subtraction of a species to or from a system. 

Some range shifts will have cascading effects on community structure and the functioning of 

ecosystems (Lawler et al. 2009). 

Habitat Quality

Climate change may cause a host of physical consequences to the ecosystems, which may affect 

the quality of plant and animal habitats. This may occur through a decrease in available water, 

changes in vegetation type through decline in vigor, severe drought or fire, or through changes in 

hydrology. Large areas of forest that were once suitable habitat for some species of wildlife may 

no longer be suitable, potentially leading to significant changes in species due to loss of needed 

habitat components (Karl et al. 2009). 

Behavior and Biology

The timing of seasonal activities of plants and animals is perhaps the simplest process in which to 

track changes in the response of species to climate change. Observed phenological events include 

leaf unfolding, flowering, fruit ripening, leaf coloring, leaf fall of plants, bird migration, 

chorusing of amphibians, and appearance/emergence of insects (Rosenzweig et al. 2007).

Large herbivores, such as pronghorn, inhabiting highly seasonal temperate environments are 

subject to drastic daily and seasonal changes in environmental quality. During summer, they must 

acquire sufficient resources for growth and reproduction, and to survive the following winter. 

Foraging behavior in summer is, thus, vitally important. Higher temperatures may reduce the 

daily activities of large herbivores. This may affect foraging, growth, reproduction, and overall 

health of animals. They may experience hardship during the winter and may not reproduce as 

successfully (Aublet et al. 2009). In reptiles and amphibians, increased temperatures and 

changing precipitation could negatively affect reproduction, for many of the same reasons as with 

fish (Hulin et al. 2009). Impacts are also possible to the migration and dispersal routes of many 

species, including migratory songbirds, which are already of concern due to declines in

abundance (Sillett et al. 2000).

Fragmentation and Isolation

The effects of fragmentation likely range across the full spectrum of biological diversity, from 

altering behavior of individuals, their genetics, and the demographic characteristics of 

populations, which can fundamentally change the structure and function of ecological 

communities (Lomolino and Perault 2007). Climate change may contribute to further 

fragmentation of habitat and to creating barriers to migration. Fragmentation and barriers are 

likely to impede elevational or northward migration of many species, resulting in decreases in 

their total range. Habitat loss and fragmentation may also influence shifts in a species 
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distribution. Empirical evidence shows that the natural reaction of species to climate change is to 

redistribute to more favorable habitats. However, this redistribution may be hampered by 

fragmentation by simply isolating suitable areas for colonization and preventing species 

movements, which may contribute to their extinction (Rosenzweig et al. 2007).

Southwestern Climate 

Change and Socioeconomic Effects 

A review of the literature found few substantive studies of the possible social and economic 

effects that climate change might cause or exacerbate in the Southwest. Most climate-related 

socioeconomic studies are either heavily theoretical, or too broad and general to apply 

specifically to the region. Over thousands of years, societies in the Southwest have faced climate 

change repeatedly; some successfully, some not so successfully (Dean 2000). It is often difficult 

to “draw a conceptual line between climate change and other kinds of environmental 

transformations: both affect human societies by changing the availability of resources” (Tainter 

2000). How societies adapt to climate change is fundamentally dependent on how they approach 

problem solving (Tainter 2000). However, some of the more general social and economic 

projections can help to inform us about climate change effects on the region.

Population distribution, economic activity, quality of life, and many other human values are 

influenced by changes in natural environments. Populations in Arizona and New Mexico are 

growing at unprecedented rates. The combination of population growth and climate change will 

likely exacerbate climatic effects, putting even greater pressure on water, forest, and other 

resources. Additionally, pressures put upon agriculture and other climate-sensitive occupations in 

neighboring Mexico may increase an already large migration of people into the Southwestern 

U.S., making disease monitoring increasingly difficult (Sprigg et al. 2000; Smith et al. 2001). 

While this is the current demographic trend in the Southwest, if conditions become too hot and 

dry, there may very well be a decrease in the number of people moving to the region.

Recent research in the Southwest shows that up to 60 percent of the climate-related trends of river 

flow, winter air temperature, and snowpack between 1950 and 1999 are human induced. The 

study predicts water shortages, lack of storage capabilities to meet seasonally changing river flow, 

transfers of water from agriculture to urban uses, and other critical impacts (Barnett et al. 2008). 

The region’s economy will likely continue to grow in the future. Increases in service-oriented 

sectors as well as the expanding high-tech industry may bring more jobs and employment 

opportunities for the growing population. Significant changes due to population pressures include 

decreased forest cover; increased construction; additional Federal and State parks, wilderness 

areas, and wildlife refuges; more land used for national defense and industry; expanded urban 

areas; and decreased pasture and rangelands (Joyce and Birdsey 2000).

Forests significantly enhance the environment in which people live, work, and play. Population 

levels, economic growth, and personal preferences influence the value that is placed on forests 

and, consequently, the resources demanded from forests. Changes caused by human use of forests 

could exceed impacts from climate change. According to Forest Service National Visitor Use 

Monitoring data (USDA FS 2015b), the majority of recreation visitors on the Coronado National 

Forest come from the Tucson metropolitan area. The Coronado received nearly 2.5 million visits 

in 2007, with the majority visits from local Pima County residents. Many Arizonans consider 

access to public lands a major contributor to the quality of life. Many southwestern forests as well 

as the Coronado National Forest are experiencing very high recreational use while urban 

expansion is decreasing the amount of available open space. Climate change could have long-
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term impacts on many of the amenities, goods, and services from national forests. There could be 

impacts to recreational opportunities, productivity of locally harvested plants (such as several 

species of agave and cholla, prickly pear, mesquites, desert hackberry, grasses and sotols), local 

economics (through land use shifts from forest to other uses), forest real estate values, tree cover 

and composition in urban areas, and associated benefits and costs. Private agricultural, urban, and 

suburban areas are expanding and affecting Forest Service management. This expansion of 

human influences into the rural landscape alters natural ecological process patterns associated 

with fire, flooding, landslides, and native and introduced species. These land use changes are very 

likely to interact with and potentially exacerbate stresses on forests associated with climate 

change (Joyce and Birdsey 2000).

Livestock Grazing

Livestock grazing is one of the management activities occurring on the Coronado National Forest. 

Ranching is a social, cultural, and agricultural activity throughout the rural Southwest. It is a 

major land use in both Arizona and New Mexico, and its success depends on the natural 

vegetation accessible to grazing animals. The Coronado National Forest provides forage for 

livestock grazing, but it also provides crucial habitat for wildlife. Lands grazed on the Coronado 

National Forest are not irrigated, and any variability in precipitation and temperature directly 

affects forage plant production and wildlife habitat. Changes in climate may affect the vigor and 

productivity of forage plants and, thus, the overall conditions of both wildlife habitat and 

ecological conditions. It is possible that higher temperatures and decreased precipitation 

described for the next century will also decrease forage production and shorten the growing and 

grazing season, while flash floods and increased risk of animal disease can adversely affect the 

livestock industry (Joyce et al. 2001) dependent upon the Coronado National Forest’s forage 

resources. During drought years when forage is less available, ranchers may have to purchase 

supplementary feed or sell their livestock at reduced prices (Eakin and Conley 2002). 

Coupled with poor forage conditions, there may be a general scarcity of water for livestock. For a 

pasture to be available for grazing, it not only has to have sufficient nutritious vegetation, but 

adequate water availability as well. Some allotments and pastures rely on wells and developed 

springs, but many often use dirt tanks to capture snowmelt and monsoon rainfall, and use this 

water for livestock. During the recent droughts, many dirt tanks in southern Arizona dried up, 

making many pastures unusable for cattle even though forage may have been available (Eakin 

and Conley 2002). Ranching is in a vulnerable position, especially when viewed against a 

backdrop of changing climate, economic structure, urban expansion, increasing population, 

fluctuating market conditions, resource availability (Sprigg et al. 2000), and changing public 

policies.

Recreational Value 

Climate change affects national forest ecosystems and the relationships people have with those 

places. Population distribution, economic activity, quality of life, and many other human values 

are influenced by changes in natural environments. The Coronado National Forest provides many 

recreational opportunities including hiking, camping, hunting, bird watching, skiing, and waterrelated activities such as fishing and boating. These activities provide income and employment in 

every forested region of the U.S. Outdoor recreation opportunities are likely to change, with 

resulting changes in public expectations and seasonality of use. Higher temperatures are very 

likely to result in a longer season for summer activities such as backpacking, but a shorter season 

for winter activities such as skiing. Areas at low elevations and in more southern districts are very 
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likely to be at particular risk from a shortening of the snow season and rising snowlines (Joyce et 

al. 2001; Svoma 2010). In areas of marginal annual snowpack, this reduction may result in the 

closure of some ski areas.

Urban and suburban expansion into undeveloped lands is likely to shift in response to climate 

change. Population shifts may cause new resource-related human conflicts, and create unforeseen 

impacts on already stressed urbanized ecosystems. As temperatures increase in lowland urban 

areas, recreation is likely to increase on the Coronado National Forest, where cooler temperatures 

will attract people to higher elevations as a refuge from increasingly hot summers (Irland et al. 

2001).

Health

Future climate scenarios will undoubtedly amplify current climatically driven human health 

concerns, with potential increased risk of dengue fever, encephalitis, and other diseases associated 

with warmer climes, and the northern movement of disease vectors, such as malaria-carrying 

mosquitoes. Diseases such as valley fever and Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome are endemic in 

the Southwest. The incidence of Hantavirus has been linked to seasonal and interannual patterns 

of rainfall (Eisen et al. 2007). Research strongly suggests that valley fever is connected to the 

sequence and pattern of precipitation and wind. Future climate scenarios will undoubtedly 

amplify current climatically driven human health concerns. Projected temperature increases are 

anticipated to create greater numbers of heat-induced illnesses, reduced air quality, and increased 

cases of respiratory illness due to the presence and persistence of dust, allergens, and ozone (Wise 

2009). Conversely, in many temperate areas, which include the Southwest, there is clear seasonal 

variation in mortality; death rates during the winter season are 10 to 25 percent higher than in the 

summer. Several studies cited by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change indicate that 

decreases in winter mortality may be greater than increases in summer mortality under climate 

change (McMichael et al. 2001).The geographical range of disease-bearing vectors such as the 

mosquito would expand under the model scenarios for the 21st century (Liverman and Merideth 

2002). Pressures put upon agriculture and other climate sensitive occupations in neighboring 

Mexico may increase an already large migration of people into the Southwestern United States, 

making disease monitoring increasingly difficult (Sprigg et al. 2000). This is of interest to the 

Coronado National Forest and surrounding communities because the majority of forest users are 

from Pima County. Increased visitor use could be the vector necessary to spread any number of 

these health issues. 

Energy 

Higher air temperatures may increase the overall demand for energy within the region’s urban 

areas; and this increasing energy demand could affect the Southwest’s current socioeconomic 

environment (Sprigg et al. 2000; Smith et al. 2001). Electricity supports human activity and offers 

the possibility of economic growth. For much of the region, water delivery systems rely on 

electricity for pumping groundwater and for directing water throughout the system. Urban and 

agricultural uses of energy driven water resources are essential in the region’s current 

socioeconomic environment. During the warmest summer months, energy demands increase with 

the use of energy intensive air-cooling systems. Given population projections for the region, a 

greater number of electricity generating plants will be needed to handle the demands that follow. 

Climate warming contributes to increased energy demands and evaporative loss from reservoirs. 

All reasonable scenarios of future climate variability must be considered when anticipating the 
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costly measures necessary to provide dependable, safe, and reasonable supplies of energy (Sprigg 

et al. 2000). Increasing energy demand and the ensuing demand for alternative energy will likely 

impact the Coronado National Forest through growing needs for new energy corridors, requests 

for wind and solar energy sites, and other special use related requirements, as well as the current 

and ongoing demand for biomass supplies to existing electrical cogeneration plants.

Key Climate Change Effects on the

Coronado National Forest’s Desired Conditions

Based on current climate model projections and research, the climate change factors that appear 

most likely to affect the Southwestern Region and Coronado National Forest and affect desired 

conditions in the revised land management plan are ecological, weather-related disturbances, and 

socioeconomic demands, as described:

• Projected increase in frequency of extreme weather events (intense storms).

• Projected increase in wildfire risks.

• Projected increase in outbreaks of insects, diseases beyond endemic levels, and nonnative 

invasive species.

• Projected increase in demand for deceasing upland water supplies.

• Projected increase in national forest socioeconomic uses and demands.

These natural ecological processes, human-caused disturbance factors, and the potential impacts 

on desired conditions for the national forests in the Southwestern Region and the Coronado 

National Forest are described below.

Increased Extreme Weather Events

Climate change likely will increase flash floods, making the region’s growing population more 

susceptible to loss of life and property. While the Southwest and Coronado National Forest are 

expected to become warmer and drier, they are also likely to experience more flooding. This 

relates in part to the fact that warm air holds more moisture than cooler air. The frequency of 

floods is also influenced by the rate of snowmelt in the winter and spring, the character of the 

summer monsoon, and the incidence of tropical hurricanes and storms in the autumn.

Hurricanes and other tropical cyclones are projected to become more intense in the future. Since 

Arizona and New Mexico typically receive 10 percent or more of their annual precipitation from 

tropical storms, it is likely that this change will also increase flooding. In Arizona and New 

Mexico, floods killed 57 people between 1995 and 2006, while hundreds of others have needed 

swift water rescues. The economic price tag is also high, costing Arizona, New Mexico, 

Colorado, and Utah approximately $5 billion between 1972 and 2006. A potential increase in 

extreme storms, floods, heat waves, and droughts may present challenges for achieving desired 

conditions.

Impacts from extreme weather events could include changes in the composition and diversity of 

desired ecosystems, destruction of habitat, timber loss, increasing damage to the Coronado’s

infrastructure such as trails, facilities, and roads, and loss of recreation opportunities. Natural 

ecological process events that exceed the historic range of natural variation can change the 

makeup, structure, and function of vegetation types and watersheds and could affect a number of 

desired conditions. Heavy rains and higher flood levels can affect maintenance and structural 
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integrity of forest infrastructure and slow progress toward improvements. Flooding is a natural 

and beneficial process in many aquatic systems. However, damage to aquatic systems from flash 

flood caused erosion, downed trees, and inundation from flooding can change streamside habitats, 

affect aquatic life, and impact proper functioning of stream channels. These processes could 

create challenges in the ability of a national forest to achieve plan objectives for aquatic habitat 

restoration. Overall, increasing weather-related disturbances can divert limited Coronado National 

Forest staff and funding to recovery efforts for extended periods and delay progress toward 

desired conditions, or it may require reevaluation of desired conditions, to allow for a more 

dynamic resilience.

Wildfire

Wildfire is another climate-related impact to ecosystems in the Southwest. Historically, wildfires 

have played an important role in the vitality of fire-adapted ecosystems. Past management and 

fire suppression practices have changed the dynamics of fire on the landscape within the 

Coronado National Forest, resulting in greater fuel loads and risk of wildfire. Fire suppression 

activities in the West, including those conducted by Federal land management agencies, routinely 

exceed expenditures of 1 billion dollars per year. Since about the mid-1970s, the total acreage 

area burned and the severity of wildfires in pine and mixed-conifer forests have increased on the 

Coronado National Forest. Fire frequency and severity will likely increase as temperatures rise 

and precipitation decreases. Population growth in the Southwest may also lead to greater numbers 

of human-started wildfires. In summary, an increase in wildfires will lead to an increase in 

expenditures, risks to life and property, and will likely divert resources and staff time to firerelated efforts on the Coronado National Forest. This may lead to a decrease in staff and resources 

for other efforts and delay or halt progress toward achieving desired conditions in some areas. 

Outbreaks of Insects, Diseases, and Nonnative Invasive Species

Disturbances associated with climate change can have secondary impacts indirectly caused by 

wildfire and climate-related extremes. Increased variation in temperature and moisture can cause 

stress and increase the susceptibility of forest ecosystems to invasions by insects, diseases, and 

nonnative species. New environmental conditions can lead to a different mix of species and tend 

to be favorable to plants and animals that can adapt their biological functions or are aggressive in 

colonizing new territories (Whitlock 2008). However, changes in adaptability may be too slow 

given the predicted rate of change. Species that are already broadly adapted may become more 

prevalent and species with narrow adaptability may become less prevalent. Disturbance factors 

that create more vulnerability in native ecosystems or require extensive controls to maintain the 

status quo are likely to affect the Coronado National Forest’s desired conditions for healthy and 

diverse forests.

Diminishing Water Resources

As stated previously, locations of most snowpack and upland reservoirs are on national forests in 

the Southwest. In many western mountain ranges, less precipitation is falling as snow and spring 

melting is occurring earlier in the year. The Colorado, Rio Grande, and several other 

southwestern rivers have streamflows that appear to be peaking earlier in the year, suggesting that 

the spring temperatures in these regions are warmer than in the past, causing snow to melt earlier. 

Water supplies are projected to become increasingly scarce, calling for tradeoffs among 

competing uses, potentially leading to conflict. Without upland reservoirs and watersheds, many 
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managed by the U.S. Forest Service, elaborate water delivery systems, and other infrastructure 

support, agriculture, urbanization, and other development could be severely constrained. In the 

Southwest, intense debate will likely continue over resource allocation and conservation of 

available supplies. Increasing conflicts over water could lead to diminished supplies on the 

Coronado National Forest needed to achieve desired conditions related to vegetation, aquatic 

species, and recreation, among others. 

Climate-Related Socioeconomic Demand

Populations in Arizona and New Mexico are growing at an unprecedented rate. As of the latest 

American Communities Survey (2009), Arizona’s population was 6,595,778. The total increase 

for Arizona between 1980 and 2009 has been over 123 percent. New Mexico’s current population 

of 2,009,671 represents a percent change of over 47 percent between 1980 and 2009. Currently, 

over 5 million people live within a 5-hour drive of the Coronado National Forest. The 

combination of population growth and climate change will likely exacerbate climatic effects, such 

as increasing visitor use, putting even greater pressure or demand on water, recreational 

opportunities, and other resources on the Coronado National Forest. Climate change could have 

long-term impacts on many of the amenities, goods, and services from the Coronado National 

Forest. These include productivity of locally harvested plants such as berries or mushrooms, 

wildlife, local economics through land use shifts from forest to other uses, forest real estate 

values, and tree cover and composition in urban areas, and associated benefits and costs. Climate, 

combined with increasing regional population also will likely increase demand for water-related 

recreation opportunities on the Coronado National Forest, as residents of urban areas seek relief 

from rising temperatures. The number of human-caused fires and wildlife-human conflicts will 

likely increase as well. Greater recreation demands and use on the Coronado National Forest may 

also put additional strains on roads and trails, create greater needs for more facilities such as 

parking spaces and restrooms, and increase the use of dispersed campsites. Because of these 

stressors, it may be difficult for Coronado National Forest managers to maintain places in their 

natural character and remote, undeveloped sites may be at risk for being lost.

Potential Climate Change

Strategies for the Coronado National Forest

The five potential management strategies described below relate to the five projected, key climate 

change factors that are most likely to be a potential concern for the Southwestern Region and 

Coronado National Forest in moving toward the desired conditions in the plan. These are extreme 

weather events, wildfire and human-caused risks, insects, diseases, and invasive species, water 

use and demand, and increase in socioeconomic demands. These management strategies focus on 

ways to incorporate changes from disturbances into managed forests and enhance ecosystem 

resilience.

When developing strategies for managing future changes, the range of possible approaches could 

be quite broad. The management strategies listed below are focused on recommendations from 

recent research studies, including the U.S. Climate Change Science Program, SAP 4.4 (CCSP 

2008b), which are appropriate for the Southwestern Region and Coronado National Forest, and 

balance effectiveness, feasibility, and available resources. Although some strategies contain new 

ideas, most of these management options include practices that are already in effect, can serve 

multiple needs, and may just need to be adjusted or expanded to respond to climate changes 

during the next 5 to 15 years. Using an adaptive management approach will allow national forest 
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managers to adopt and adjust strategies as new information is available, conditions change, and 

staff and resources are available.

The key climate change factors are addressed directly or indirectly through the Coronado 

National Forest’s desired conditions, objectives, and management approaches. They include:

• Enhancing adaptation for ecosystems most vulnerable to climate change, including 

ecosystems where resilience is already compromised.

• Enhancing adaptation by anticipating and planning for disturbances from intense storms.

• Using a suite of adaptation options to manage ecosystems in the face of uncertainty.

• Increasing water conservation and planning for reductions in upland water supplies.

• Anticipating increased forest recreation use.

• Monitoring climate change influences and the effectiveness of adaptation approaches.

Enhancing Adaptation for Ecosystems Most Vulnerable to Climate Change, 

including Ecosystems where Resilience is already Compromised

The Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment for the Coronado National Forest (USDA FS 

2017) is an ecosystem-based evaluation of the potential vulnerability of major upland ecological 

response units. An ecological response unit is a mapping unit that combines finer scale vegetation 

classes that share similar ecosystem processes and successional dynamics, as well as potential 

vegetation under historic disturbance regimes. The Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment also 

evaluated the resistance and resilience of ecosystems. Resistance is the ability of an ecosystem to 

endure disturbance and maintain structure, composition, and function that are characteristic of the 

system. Resilience is the ability of an ecosystem, following disturbance, to regain the structure, 

composition, and function that are characteristic of the system on a time span consistent with its 

successional patterns. Resilience may be reduced as departure from historic fire regime increases, 

especially for some ecosystems such as Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands, Madrean Encinal 

Woodlands, Ponderosa Pine-Evergreen Oak, Mixed Conifer-Frequent Fire, Ponderosa Pine 

Forest, and Pinyon-Juniper Grasslands. 

The Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment identifies four vulnerability categories: low, 

moderate, high, and very high. Considering all ecosystems combined, the Coronado National 

Forest has 3 percent low, 27 percent moderate, 38 percent high, and 33 percent very high 

vulnerability categories. For this assessment, the desert ecological response units were not 

included due to data gaps, but there is some indication that desert systems of the Southwest are 

already expressing vulnerability, especially those with vegetation composition changes brought 

about by invasive species that have altered historic fire regimes. The information contained in the 

Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment can assist in identifying needs for vegetation 

treatments that can enhance adaptation to climate change. The ecological response units that are 

characterized as very high vulnerability for the Coronado National Forest are Sandy Plains 

Grasslands (100 percent very high); Juniper Grassland (68 percent very high); Mixed ConiferFrequent Fire (52 percent very high); and Madrean Encinal Woodland (48 percent very high).

Strategies to improve ecosystem resiliency in frequent-fire forests that are highly vulnerable to 

climate change effects have been identified through ongoing research (Reynolds et al. 2013). It is 

believed that restoration of vegetation composition and structure on a site-specific basis will 

position these vulnerable vegetation types to better resist and adapt to future climate and 

disturbances.
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Enhancing Adaptation by Anticipating

and Planning for Disturbances from Intense Storms

Although occurrences of storms and other disturbances cannot be precisely predicted and are 

often beneficial types of disturbance, anticipatory planning may predict impacts and have 

adaptive guidelines in place to protect sensitive areas. Areas such as riparian zones, endangered 

species habitats, and special areas may require different approaches for reducing disturbances or 

recovering from damaging events. Management responses from previous events can provide 

guidance for similar situations and take advantage of prior learning experiences. Planning prior to

disruptions can take advantage of disturbances when they eventually occur to convert vegetation 

to more resilient and desirable ecosystems, and reduce assessment and response time while 

ensuring that sensitive resources requiring special responses are protected.

With the projected increase in extreme weather events, management practices for reducing soil 

erosion may be even more critical in the future. For example, standard soil erosion best 

management practices such as buffers filter strips, broad-based dips, and piling slash downslope 

of skid trails and along streams, can help mitigate increased erosion conditions. Roads and trails 

close to streams may be closed, removed, revegetated, or relocated away from stream channels to 

reducing impacts to aquatic ecosystems and water quality. In another example, appropriately 

sized culverts at stream crossings should consider projections for future runoff in a changing 

climate as well as historic conditions. New recreation sites such as campgrounds and other 

facilities should be located well away from potential flash flood areas.

Using a Suite of Adaptation Options

to Manage Ecosystems in the Face of Uncertainty

Managing ecosystems under uncertainty necessitates flexible and adaptive approaches that are 

reversible, are implemented in incremental steps that allow for new information and learning, and 

can be modified with changing circumstances (Millar et al. 2007). Coronado National Forest 

ecosystems have evolved under a long and complex history of climate variability and change. 

Taking into consideration the number of megadroughts, and other climate-related variation, 

through time, these plant and animal communities have a built-in resilience. Restoring and 

maintaining resilience in forest, woodland, chaparral, grassland, desert, and riparian ecosystems 

are part of the basic elements of forestwide desired conditions, objectives, and management 

approaches. Risks of increased wildfire, outbreaks of insects and disease, invasive species, and 

loss of habitat represent ongoing, broad-scale management challenges to management of the 

Coronado National Forest. These issues are nothing new. However, climate change has the 

potential to increase the impacts of these ecosystem risks.

Millar et al. (2007) break down potential ecosystem adaptation options into the following three 

categories:

• Creating resistance to change: preventing disturbance through the creation of firebreaks and 

the removal of invasive species. 

• Promoting resilience to change: managing ecosystems so they may return to their previous 

state following a disturbance. 

• Enabling ecosystems to respond to change: includes increasing connectivity to allow 

migration of species to new areas, assisting migration of species and genotypes, and allowing 

new ecosystems to establish instead of restoring to historical conditions.
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On-the-ground tactical approaches can often blur the lines between these adaptation options, 

especially between resistance and resilience strategies. Below are a few current management tools 

employed by the Coronado National Forest that will help achieve its desired conditions in the 

face of increased disturbances and changing climate.

Prescribed (planned ignition) fires are a current management tool that can serve multiple 

purposes, from sustaining desired conditions for fire-adapted ecosystems and sustaining habitat 

for threatened and endangered species to reducing fuel loads. Prescribed burning is also a 

management strategy that will be important for maintaining desired habitats in a changing climate 

with more natural disturbances. With projections for more frequent storms and other extreme 

weather events, plus the potential for increased stresses from insects and diseases in a warmer, 

drier climate, planned and unplanned ignition burning will continue to be an important 

management strategy for the future.

Although current programs and guidance are already in place to limit the introduction of 

nonnative species, treat invasive species, and manage insects and diseases, these efforts are likely 

to become more critical to maintaining desired conditions for healthy plant and animal 

communities under a changing climate. Due to the relationship of land ownership patterns, 

success in reducing forest pests requires going beyond Coronado National Forest’s boundaries, 

and continued collaboration with partners will be needed. In addition, management practices 

(such as thinning for age class diversity and structure, and reclaiming and restoring native 

grasslands) that sustain healthy plant and animal communities and provide adequate nutrients, 

soil productivity, and hydrologic function, promote resilience and reduce opportunities for 

disturbance and damage.

Landscape connectivity is the degree to which the landscape facilitates or impedes movement of a 

species among habitats required for its persistence with few physical or biotic impediments to 

migration (Taylor et al. 1993; Millar et al. 2007). Connectivity has two components: structural 

and biological connectivity. Structural connectivity, the spatial structure of a landscape, can be 

described from map elements. Biological connectivity is the response of individuals to the scale 

of landscape features (Brooks 2003). Large, interconnected blocks of habitat support a wide array 

of species, and allow for genetic and behavioral interactions that are lacking with the creation of 

small patches (Robinson et al. 1995). Promoting connectivity in landscapes with flexible 

management goals that can be modified as conditions change may assist species to respond 

naturally to changing climates. Desired goals include reducing fragmentation and planning at 

large landscape scales to maximize habitat connectivity (Millar et al. 2007). The Coronado 

National Forest’s desired conditions, objectives, and management approaches address the 

importance and need for connectivity for both terrestrial and aquatic habitats.

Changes in disturbance regimes and underlying climate may result in conditions where it is no 

longer possible to maintain existing genotypes, species, or even ecosystems in some places. When 

this occurs, one option is to intentionally introduce species or genotypes (or mixtures of species 

or genotypes) into new areas that may be better suited to the current conditions. For example, 

spruce aphid has been devastating to Engelmann spruce in the Coronado’s spruce-fir forests and 

may possibly become more problematic under future climate change. Options that may facilitate 

transitions to more adapted ecosystems may include introducing aphid-resistant genotypes or 

possibly finding a substitute species that serves in a similar functional role to Engelmann spruce 

in some areas. The Coronado National Forest’s desired conditions, objectives, and management 

approaches are flexible enough to allow consideration of these tactics should they become the 

most viable option. 
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These tactics are just a few of many possible management approaches that may be employed to 

allow ecosystems on the Coronado National Forest to adapt to a changing climate. As new 

challenges arise, the Coronado will have to be flexible and creative in its approaches to maintain 

healthy, functioning ecosystems.

Increasing Water Conservation and

Planning for Reductions in Upland Water Supplies

As mentioned earlier, aquatic and riparian ecosystems may be negatively impacted by increasing 

temperatures and reduced precipitation. Too much water arriving at once, in the form of severe 

storm events, also has the capacity to affect these water-dependent ecosystems. Water amount, 

availability, distribution, and allocation for a variety of ecological, wildlife, and aquatic species, 

as well as for human uses, needs to be considered in planning.

Municipal water supplies of Arizona are dependent on these upland sources. In many western 

mountain ranges, including those on the Coronado National Forest, less precipitation is falling as 

snow, and spring melting is occurring earlier in the year. These water sources and associated 

water rights have always been important and contentious areas of concern for public land 

managers in the Southwest and Coronado National Forest. With climate change, planning for 

water quantity and quality may become even more important. To address such concerns, planners 

may wish to consider some of the following measures:

• Determining the water rights status of water resources for range, wildlife, public drinking 

systems, firefighting, recreational uses, and aquatic habitats.

• Reviewing status of State and regional water plans, forest and watershed health plans, and 

integrated regional water planning efforts.

Anticipating Increased Forest Recreation Use

The use of the Coronado National Forest as a haven from summer heat and for water-related 

recreation continues to grow with population increases throughout the region. Planning for 

recreation should take into account the possible expansion of demand as temperatures increase 

and precipitation decreases because of climate change. This may affect recreation facilities, like 

campgrounds and boating facilities, as well as access to lakes and other water features. Analysis 

of both potential snowfall and future winter temperature changes may need to be conducted for 

consideration of additions to, or new construction of, skiing and other snow-based recreation 

activities.

Monitoring Climate Change Influences

and the Effectiveness of Adaptation Strategies

It is not recommended that the Coronado National Forest create a completely new initiative or 

program of work solely for monitoring climate change. However, consideration of appropriate 

adjustments to the monitoring program to improve understanding of the relationships of key plan 

components and climate change may be needed. As the Coronado National Forest reviews their 

existing and potential research natural areas, monitoring of climate change effects on specific 

ecosystems should be part of the research goals considered when building the research natural 

area establishment record.
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218

When new tactics are employed to address climate change-related issues, it is also important to 

monitor the effectiveness of these actions. Monitoring information on the effectiveness of 

adaptation strategies can help the Coronado National Forest make adjustments when necessary or 

determine if a tactic might be worth replicating elsewhere.

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Climate Change Glossary

The following terms have been gathered by U.S. Forest Service researchers from numerous 

sources including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and others. Included are the most commonly 

referred to terms in climate change literature and news media. This is only a partial list of terms 

associated with climate change. See other NOAA or IPCC documents for full glossaries 

associated with this topic.
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Anthropogenic emissions: Emissions of greenhouse gases, greenhouse gas precursors, and 

aerosols associated with human activities. These include burning of fossil fuels for energy, 

deforestation, and land use changes that result in net increase in emissions.

Arid regions: Ecosystems with less than 250 mm precipitation per year. 

Atmosphere: The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth. The dry atmosphere consists almost 

entirely of nitrogen (78.1 percent volume mixing ratio) and oxygen (20.9 percent volume mixing 

ratio), together with a number of trace gases, such as argon (0.93 percent volume mixing ratio), 

helium, and radiatively active greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (0.035 percent volume 

mixing ratio) and ozone. In addition, the atmosphere contains water vapor, whose amount is 

highly variable but typically 1 percent volume mixing ratio. The atmosphere also contains clouds 

and aerosols. 

Biodiversity: The numbers and relative abundances of different genes (genetic diversity), 

species, and ecosystems (communities) in a particular area. 

Carbon dioxide: A naturally occurring gas, and also a byproduct of burning fossil fuels and 

biomass, as well as land use changes and other industrial processes. It is the principal humancaused greenhouse gas that affects the Earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas against 

which other greenhouse gases are measured and, therefore, has a Global Warming Potential of 1. 

Carbon dioxide fertilization: The enhancement of the growth of plants as a result of increased 

atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. Depending on their mechanism of photosynthesis, 

certain types of plants are more sensitive to changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. 

Climate: Climate may be defined as the “average weather,” or more rigorously, as the statistical 

description of weather in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities (such as

temperature, precipitation, or wind) over a period ranging from months to thousands or millions 

of years. The standard period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization 

(WMO). These quantities are often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. 

Climate in a wider sense is the statistical description of the state or condition of the climate 

system. 

Climate change: Climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean 

state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or 

longer). Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forces, or to 

persistent human-caused changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. Note that 

the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in its Article 1, 

defines “climate change” as: “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to 

human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to 

natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.” The UNFCCC thus makes a 

distinction between “climate change” attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric 

composition, and “climate variability” attributable to natural causes. See also climate variability.

Climate feedback: An interaction mechanism between processes in the climate system is called a 

climate feedback, when the result of an initial process triggers changes in a second process that in 

turn influences the initial one. A positive feedback intensifies the original process, and a negative 

feedback reduces it. 

Climate model (hierarchy): A numerical representation of the climate system based on the 

physical, chemical, and biological properties of its components, their interactions and feedback 

processes, and accounting for all or some of its known properties. The climate system can be 
Appendix A. Climate Change Trends 

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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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represented by models of varying complexity—that is, for any one component or combination of 

components a “hierarchy” of models can be identified, differing in such aspects as the number of 

spatial dimensions, the extent to which physical, chemical, or biological processes are explicitly 

represented, or the level at which empirical parametrizations are involved. Coupled 

atmosphere/ocean/sea-ice general circulation models provide a comprehensive representation of 

the climate system. There is an evolution toward more complex models with active chemistry and 

biology. Climate models are applied, as a research tool, to study and simulate the climate, but 

they are also for operational purposes including monthly, seasonal, and inter-annual climate 

predictions. 

Drought: There is no definitive definition of drought based on measurable processes. Instead, 

scientists evaluate precipitation, temperature, and soil moisture data for the present and recent 

past to determine drought status. Very generally, it refers to a period of time when precipitation 

levels are low, impacting agriculture, water supply, and wildfire hazard.

El Niño: In its original sense, El Niño is warm water current that periodically flows along the 

coast of Ecuador and Peru, disrupting the local fishery. This oceanic event is associated with a 

fluctuation of the inter-tropical surface pressure pattern and circulation in the Indian and Pacific 

Oceans, called the Southern Oscillation. This coupled atmosphere-ocean phenomenon is 

collectively known as El Niño Southern Oscillation. During an El Niño event, the prevailing trade 

winds weaken and the equatorial countercurrent strengthens, causing warm surface waters in the 

Indonesian area to flow eastward to overlie the cold waters of the Peru current. This event has 

great impact on the wind, sea surface temperature, and precipitation patterns in the tropical 

Pacific. It has climatic effects throughout the Pacific region and in many other parts of the world. 

The opposite of an El Niño event is called La Niña. 

Extreme weather event: An extreme weather event is an event that is rare within its statistical 

reference distribution at a particular place. Definitions of “rare” vary, but an extreme weather 

event would normally be as rare as or rarer than the 10th or 90th percentile. By definition, the 

characteristics of what is called extreme weather may vary from place to place. An extreme 

climate event is an average of a number of weather events over a certain period of time, an 

average, which is itself extreme (such as rainfall over a season). 

Greenhouse effect: Greenhouse gases effectively absorb infrared radiation, emitted by the 

Earth’s surface, by the atmosphere itself due to the same gases, and by clouds. Atmospheric 

radiation is emitted to all sides, including downward to the Earth’s surface. Thus, greenhouse 

gases trap heat within the surface-troposphere system. This is called the “natural greenhouse 

effect.” Atmospheric radiation is strongly coupled to the temperature of the level at which it is 

emitted. In the troposphere, the temperature generally decreases with height. Effectively, infrared 

radiation emitted to space originates from an altitude with a temperature of, on average, -19 

degrees Celsius, in balance with the net incoming solar radiation, whereas the Earth’s surface is 

kept at a much higher temperature of, on average, +14 degrees Celsius. An increase in the 

concentration of greenhouse gases leads to an increased infrared opacity of the atmosphere and, 

therefore, to an effective radiation into space from a higher altitude at a lower temperature. This 

causes a radiative forcing, an imbalance that can only be compensated for by an increase of the 

temperature of the surface-troposphere system. This is the “enhanced greenhouse effect.” 

Greenhouse gas: Gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and human-caused, that 

absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of infrared radiation 

emitted by the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere, and clouds. This property causes the greenhouse 

effect. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, and ozone are the primary 
Appendix A. Climate Change Trends 

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greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere. Moreover there are a number of entirely humanmade greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as the halocarbons and other chlorine and 

bromine-containing substances, dealt with under the Montreal Protocol. Besides carbon dioxide, 

nitrous oxide, and methane, the Kyoto Protocol deals with the greenhouse gases sulfur 

hexafluorid, hydrofluorocarbons, and perfluorocarbons.

Radiative forcing: Changes in the energy balance of the Earth-atmosphere system in response to 

a change in factors such as greenhouse gases, land use change, or solar radiation. The climate 

system inherently attempts to balance incoming (light) and outgoing (heat) radiation. Positive 

radiative forcings increase the temperature of the lower atmosphere, which in turn increases 

temperatures at the Earth’s surface. Negative radiative forcings cool the lower atmosphere. 

Radiative forcing is most commonly measured in units of watts per square meter. 

Rangeland: Undeveloped land that is suitable for use by wildlife and domestic ungulates.

Rapid climate change: The nonlinearity of the climate system may lead to rapid climate change, 

sometimes called abrupt events or even surprises. Some such abrupt events may be imaginable, 

such as a dramatic reorganization of the thermohaline circulation, rapid deglaciation, or massive 

melting of permafrost leading to fast changes in the carbon cycle. Others may be truly 

unexpected, as a consequence of a strong, rapidly changing, forcing of a nonlinear system. 

Regeneration: The renewal of a stand of trees through either natural means (seeded onsite or 

adjacent stands or deposited by wind, birds, or animals) or artificial means (by planting seedlings 

or direct seeding).

Teleconnections: Atmospheric interactions between widely separated regions that have been 

identified through statistical correlations (in space and time). For example, the El Niño 

teleconnection with the Southwest United States involves large-scale changes in climatic 

conditions that are linked to increased winter rainfall.

Weather: Describes the daily conditions (individual storms) or conditions over several days 

(week of record-breaking temperatures) to those lasting less than 2 weeks.
Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Appendix B. Proposed and

Probable Management Practices

Introduction

This appendix describes proposed and probable management practices that may take place on the 

Coronado National Forest at the project or activity level during the planning period to help 

maintain existing conditions or achieve the desired conditions described in the plan. These 

practices are not intended to be all-inclusive, nor are they intended to be decisions. They are 

simply projections of what actions may take place in the future. A plan amendment is not required 

to change or modify any of these proposed practices; instead, they can be updated at any time 

through an administrative correction of the plan.

Management Approaches

Management approaches are not part of the plan components or decisions but are expressions of 

intent for how the Coronado National Forest will likely apply aspects of future management. 

Management approaches are also based on public feedback received on the plan regarding 

suggested methods for carrying out activities. Therefore, this section has been added to reflect our 

intent and those suggestions.

Collaboration and Volunteers

There are many who have suggested that they would like to assist with aspects of national forest 

management. The Coronado National Forest intends to create increasing opportunities for 

volunteers and partners to be more active as part of national forest management. One area where 

this approach could work well is in natural resource and heritage education and interpretation. 

Citizen involvement would also benefit the Coronado National Forest by increasing contact with 

recreation visitors to encourage appropriate behavior. Assistance with plan monitoring is also a 

possibility. Finally, collaborative methods with interest groups and volunteers are ideally suited to 

addressing the problem of dumping trash, appliances, etc., on the Coronado National Forest, 

including the collecting and disposing of dumped material.

The Coronado National Forest benefits significantly from the contributions of volunteers and 

numerous non-profit organizations of which many organized to serve specific management areas 

of the national forest. Collaborative efforts focused on improving volunteer services, expanding 

environmental education, and enhancing the Forest’s visitor centers will increase effective 

management of the Coronado and provide needed resources to accomplish the Forest’s desired 

outcomes. Increased emphasis of engaging new audiences, welcoming community involvement, 

and striving to improve customer satisfaction will help promote public understanding, 

appreciation, and actions to protect our natural and cultural heritage.

Cooperation with Tribal Groups and Agencies

Cultural Resources

Most heritage resource management is guided by laws, existing regulations, and Forest Service 

policy. For that reason, few plan components are found in the revised plan that relate to such 

management. Heritage resources management will be consistent with the State cultural resource 
Appendix B. Proposed and Probable Management Practices

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

230

plan and planning activities of the State Historic Preservation Office, as well as coordination with 

other Tribal, State, and Federal agencies. This could include periodic meetings, data sharing, 

coordination on National Register nominations, interpretation, site protection, and participation in 

the State heritage resources planning process. In addition, American Indian Tribes, communities, 

and nations will be consulted when heritage resources may be present that have religious or 

traditional cultural values for living communities of American Indian Tribes. These communities 

or Tribes will be consulted concerning location and importance of those resources and 

alternatives for protecting them.

Bureau of Land Management

Arizona is 1 of 19 states where one may locate mining claims or sites. The Forest Service 

manages minerals found on the surface of National Forest System lands and the Bureau of Land 

Management (BLM) is responsible for subsurface minerals on National Forest System and BLM 

lands. Therefore, if the Forest Service desires to have an area withdrawn from mineral entry, it 

requests such a closure from the BLM. Examples of areas that are withdrawn from mineral entry 

include a designated wilderness, a portion of a designated wild and scenic river, or a designated 

recreation area. For areas not withdrawn, the Forest Service may apply mitigations for mining, 

but it may not prohibit mining.

Arizona Game and Fish Department, New Mexico Department of Game and 

Fish, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

The Arizona Game and Fish Department and New Mexico Department of Game and Fish directly 

manage wildlife populations in their respective States, while the Forest Service manages wildlife 

habitat on National Forest System lands. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is the agency 

responsible for overseeing the management of federally designated special status animal and fish 

species and their habitats in accordance with the Endangered Species Act. The Coronado National 

Forest will cooperate with one or both of these agencies in order to carry out management 

activities. For example, management of native fish could involve removal of nonnative species, as 

well as adjustments in habitat, which could require working with the States or U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service. The Coronado National Forest also expects to coordinate with the States in 

development of wildlife linkages (movement corridors) within the Coronado National Forest so 

that local populations of species, such as northern goshawks, remain viable where habitat is being 

fragmented. Finally, the Coronado National Forest intends to facilitate partnerships that lead to 

maintenance of year-round water structures for wildlife.

Cooperation with Local Partners

The Coronado National Forest has ongoing collaborative relationships with communities and 

groups with land management interests in the geographic area of the national forest. Members of 

local groups have participated in the plan revision process from its inception, and the Coronado 

staff will continue this collaborative effort in the future to implement monitoring and other 

common goals. Coronado personnel participate in the scheduled meetings of partner groups, their 

events, and other ongoing partner activities. Coordinating with these groups promotes and 

develops consistency among resource plans and integrates common land management goals and 

strategies. The following are examples of participating partner groups.

Arizona Sky Island Alliance

Sky Island Alliance is a grassroots organization dedicated to the protection and restoration of the 

rich natural heritage of native species and habitats in the sky island region of the Southwestern 
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United States and northwestern Mexico. They work with volunteers, scientists, landowners, 

public officials, and government agencies to establish protected areas, restore healthy landscapes, 

and promote public appreciation of the region’s unique biological diversity. 

Coronado Planning Partnership

The Coronado Planning Partnership promotes the protection of wild species, their habitats, and 

ecological communities, as well as the processes that sustain them, on the Coronado National 

Forest. The partnership was formed in 2006 in response to the Coronado’s initiation of the plan 

revision. To accomplish their goals for the benefit of future generations, the partnership mobilizes 

a wide range of individuals and groups on behalf of their shared stake in the national forest to 

ensure conservation-based management. The organization has worked with the Coronado 

National Forest in the development, outcome, implementation, and long-term monitoring of the 

revised forest plan. 

Sonoita Valley Planning Partnership

The Sonoita Valley Planning Partnership is a voluntary association of agencies (Federal, State, 

and local), organized groups, and individuals who share a common interest in the future of public 

land resources in the Sonoita Valley. Participating individuals come from a variety of 

communities including Sonoita, Elgin, Patagonia, Huachuca City, Sierra Vista, Nogales, Tucson, 

and Phoenix. Participation also comes from representatives of organized groups including hiking 

clubs, conservation organizations, off-highway vehicle clubs, mountain bike clubs, bird-dog 

clubs, and grazing and mining interests. The partnership was established as a way for the 

collective community to come together to achieve community-oriented resolutions to local and 

national issues affecting public lands within the Sonoita Valley (Cienega Creek watershed south 

of Interstate 10 and small portions of the upper watersheds of Sonoita Creek and the Babocomari 

River). 

Cienega Corridor Conservation Council

The Cienega Corridor Conservation Council was established to protect, steward, and enhance the 

cultural and natural resources of the Cienega Corridor. The Cienega Corridor is defined as the 

area linking Saguaro National Park and the Coronado National Forest Rincon Wilderness to Las 

Cienegas National Conservation Area. 

Cienega Watershed Partnership 

The Cienega Watershed Partnership was established in 2005 to sustain the watershed. This 

organization acts in partnership with landowners and managers to facilitate cooperative actions 

that steward the natural and cultural resources of the Cienega watershed while enabling 

sustainable human use. The Partnership collaborates with partners and involves stakeholders to 

encourage an ecosystem approach to sustainable use based on active stewardship, adaptive 

management practices, and science-based actions.

Cochise County Public Lands Advisory Committee

Established by the Cochise County Board of Supervisors in 2007, the Cochise County Public 

Lands Advisory Committee advises the board on matters related to Federal and State lands within 

Cochise County. The committee develops and reviews plans and policies related to State and 

Federal management plans. The goal is to collaborate closely with Federal agencies in the 

development of consistent land management policies. 
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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

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Probable Projects

Plan Objectives

The objectives in the chapters titled “Forestwide Management” (chapter 2), “Management Areas” 

(chapter 3), and “Geographic Areas” (chapter 4) represent proposed projects or activities intended 

to be accomplished over the life of the plan. These are outlined in the table below.

Table 20. List of plan objectives

Project or Activity

Timeframe to 

Complete

Vegetation

Treat 5,000 to 10,000 acres in the wildland-urban interface using wildland fire 

(planned and unplanned ignitions), prescribed cutting, and mastication every year 

to reduce fire hazard and risk to communities and the national forest.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Suppress or eradicate buffelgrass on at least 5,000 acres of Sonoran Desert using 

herbicides and manual methods.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Treat at least 72,500 acres of grasslands using wildland fire (planned and 

unplanned ignitions), thinning, and mastication.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Treat at least 5,000 acres of interior chaparral using wildland fire (planned and 

unplanned ignitions), thinning, and mastication.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Treat at least 367,000 acres of Madrean encinal woodland using wildland fire 

(planned and unplanned ignitions), thinning, and mastication.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Treat at least 25,000 acres of Madrean pine-oak woodlands using wildland fire 

(planned and unplanned ignitions), thinning, and mastication.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Treat at least 12,500 acres of ponderosa pine-evergreen shrub using wildland fire 

(planned and unplanned ignitions), thinning, and mastication.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Treat at least 13,800 acres of dry mixed-conifer using wildland fire (planned and 

unplanned ignitions), thinning, and mastication.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Treat at least 2,400 acres of wet mixed-conifer using wildland fire (planned and 

unplanned ignitions), thinning, and mastication.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Restore native vegetation and natural waterflow patterns on at least 10 wetland 

sites.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Realign or remove 2 miles of roads in wetlands or meadows. 10-year period 

following plan approval

Treat 200 to 1,000 acres of exotic invasive grass populations (primarily 

buffelgrass and fountain grass) on the southwest slopes of the Pusch Ridge 

Wilderness.

Annually following 

plan approval

Treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 20 percent of the Chiricahua and 

Santa Rita Ecosystem Management Areas to create resiliency to disturbances. 

Treatments will be consistent with the objectives for forestwide vegetation 

communities and resources.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 15 percent of the Dragoon and 

Whetstone Ecosystem Management Areas to create resiliency to disturbances. 

Treatments will be consistent with the objectives for forestwide vegetation 

communities and resources.

10-year period 

following plan approval
Appendix B. Proposed and Probable Management Practices

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

233

Project or Activity

Timeframe to 

Complete

Treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 35 percent of the Peloncillo 

Ecosystem Management Area to create resiliency to disturbances. Treatments will 

be consistent with the objectives for forestwide vegetation communities and 

resources.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 10 percent of the Winchester 

Ecosystem Management Area to create resiliency to disturbances. Treatments will 

be consistent with the objectives for forestwide vegetation communities and 

resources.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 25 percent of the Pinaleño, 

Tumacacori, Santa Catalina, and Huachuca Ecosystem Management Areas to 

create resiliency to disturbances. Treatments will be consistent with the objectives 

for forestwide vegetation communities and resources.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Treat the vegetation using wildland fire (planned and unplanned ignitions), 

prescribed cutting, and mastication on at least 40 percent of the Galiuro and Santa 

Teresa Ecosystem Management Areas to create resiliency to disturbances. 

Treatments will be consistent with the objectives for forestwide vegetation 

communities and resources.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Recreation and Scenic Quality

Reduce the backlog of recreation deferred maintenance in developed sites by 20 

percent.

5-year period following 

plan approval

Retrofit or install wildlife-resistant trash cans at all developed recreation areas and 

wildlife-resistant food storage boxes at all developed campgrounds.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Phase out permits for isolated cabins, privately owned buildings, and residences 

that are not part of the recreation residence program.

To be completed by 

2028

Remove trash along 4 miles of National Forest System trails within the Chiricahua 

Wilderness.

Annually following 

plan approval

Remove trash along 5 miles of National Forest System trails and restore 1 mile of 

user-created trails to a condition where it is not noticeable to visitors within the 

Miller Peak Wilderness.

Annually following 

plan approval

Restore 1 mile of user-created trails to a condition where it is not noticeable to 

visitors.

Annually following 

plan approval

Remove trash along 3 miles of National Forest System trails within the Mount 

Wrightson Wilderness.

Annually following 

plan approval

Remove trash along 1 mile of National Forest System trails within the Pajarita 

Wilderness.

Annually following 

plan approval

Watershed Integrity

Treat 2,500 to 10,000 acres of uplands with vegetation treatments or soil and 

watershed restoration treatments to maintain watershed stability and, thereby, the 

structure and function of streams, flood plains, and riparian vegetation.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Enhance or restore 2,500 to 15,000 acres of uplands with vegetation treatments or 

soil and watershed restoration treatments to attain necessary ground cover by litter 

and ground cover by plant basal area. 

10-year period 

following plan approval
Appendix B. Proposed and Probable Management Practices

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

234

Project or Activity

Timeframe to 

Complete

Aquatic and Terrestrial Wildlife Habitat

Complete three stream restoration and/or development projects to benefit aquatic 

species of conservation concern.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Install an average of two wildlife-friendly closures at mines, caves, or adits each 

year. 

10-year period 

following plan approval

Apply for at least 10 instream flow water rights on streams for recreation and 

wildlife purposes, prioritizing locations necessary for sustaining native fish 

populations and species of conservation concern.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Reconstruct at least three developed springs to provide aquatic habitat for the 

recovery of plant and/or animal species. 

10-year period 

following plan approval

Install wildlife escape ramps in all aboveground constructed waters. 10-year period 

following plan approval

Install at least one hardened road surface each year at drainage crossings where 

erosion, sedimentation, or risks to water quality from road-stream crossings are 

affecting wildlife habitat in order to prevent downstream effects. 

Annually following 

plan approval

Open Space, Land Adjustment, Transportation, and Access

Increase the number of permanent legal access routes to and within the Coronado 

National Forest by resolving the legal status deficiencies of 40 to 50 existing and 

proposed forest roads and trails, using a variety of methods.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Complete maintenance on at least 150 miles of high-clearance (maintenance level 

2) roads.

Annually following 

plan approval

Complete maintenance on at least 200 miles of passenger car (maintenance levels 

3, 4, and 5) roads based on a safety prioritization.

Annually following 

plan approval

Decommission, close, and restore 3 to 10 miles of unneeded nonsystem roads, 

except for roads identified for potential public access routes. 

Annually following 

plan approval

Cultural Resources and Tribal Relations

Complete 200 acres of nonproject inventory, so that the Coronado’s currently 

unidentified cultural resources can be recorded, evaluated, and protected.

Annually following 

plan approval

Nominate at least five individual sites or at least two districts to the National 

Register of Historic Places.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Conduct stabilization or preservation activities at one or more priority heritage 

assets.

Annually following 

plan approval

Complete Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) 

repatriations of all items collected prior to 1990.

5-year period following 

plan approval

Host, sponsor, or participate in at least two interpretive event for the public. Annually following 

plan approval

Provide opportunities for volunteers to participate in cultural resource 

conservation activities at two to five archaeological sites or historic properties.

Annually following 

plan approval

Enter at least two historic sites in the Arizona “Rooms with a View” cabin rental 

program.

10-year period 

following plan approval

Inspect each priority heritage asset one or more times. 5-year period following 

plan approval

Resource Advisory Committee

The Southern Arizona Resource Advisory Committee was formed in 2010 as a part of the Secure 

Rural Schools and Community Self-Determination Act of 2000 and as amended in 2008 (P.L. 
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Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

235

110-343). The Southern Arizona Resource Advisory Committee makes project recommendations 

for four districts of the Coronado and a portion of the Tonto National Forest. The Eastern Arizona 

Resource Advisory Committee includes the Coronado’s Safford Ranger District. The committee 

recommends projects for Federal funds that benefit resources on public lands. Per the 

requirements of the Secure Rural Schools and Community Self-Determination Act, a project can 

be funded if it is compliant with laws and regulations, consistent with the forest plan, and 

properly submitted and recommended by the Resource Advisory Committee. Project objectives 

may include maintenance or obliteration of roads, trails, and infrastructure; improvement of soil 

productivity; improvements in forest ecosystem health; restoration and maintenance of 

watersheds; control of noxious and exotic weeds; and reestablishment of native species. These 

projects improve cooperative relationships among those who manage, use, and care for the 

national forests.

The following table lists examples of Southern Arizona Resource Advisory Committee 

recommended projects. The needs for change reflect the five themes identified in the 

Comprehensive Evaluation Report and Analysis of the Management Situation: (1) ecosystem 

restoration and resiliency, (2) visitor experience, (3) access to National Forest System lands, (4) 

preservation of open space, and (5) communities, collaboration and partnerships.

Table 21. Examples of projects recommended by the Resource Advisory Committee

Type of Project Description

Needs for 

Change 

Addressed*

Ecological 

restoration

Promoting community protection, fuels treatment (mechanical treatment 

or broadcast burning) will reduce the risk of extreme wildfire at two 

sites. Other project objectives are watershed protection, wildlife habitat 

improvement, and ecosystem health improvement.

1, 4, 5

Control of 

invasive plants

Work crews and herbicides will be used to reduce infestations of exotic, 

invasive plants, primarily bufflegrass and fountain grass on the Santa 

Catalina and Nogales Ranger Districts. This is part of active 

collaboration with Pima County, Saguaro National Park, the University 

of Arizona, and the Southern Arizona Bufflegrass Coordination Center.

1, 2, 4, 5

Road 

maintenance in 

Cochise County 

Turnouts, culverts, drainage ditches, and surfacing will be installed to 

provide safe, sustainable, and maintainable access to areas throughout 

the Sierra Vista Ranger District. 

1, 2, 3

Road 

improvement

One half mile of Brown Canyon Ranch road will be rerouted to allow 

passenger car access to this historic ranch on the southwestern edge of 

Sierra Vista. The ranch provides recreation opportunities and serves as 

the site for the Western Heritage Education Program. The project also 

improves the surrounding ephemeral wetland.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Trail 

maintenance

This project establishes two Forest Service crews, based out of Tucson 

and Douglas, to maintain existing backcountry trail networks. 

Additionally, trail maintenance creates proper drainage to reduce 

erosion, ensures trail signs are accurate and repaired, and backcountry

springs are functioning.

1, 2, 3

Arizona Trail 

trailhead 

development

In coordination with volunteer groups and the Coronado, Pinal County 

is constructing three new trailheads that will add access points for 

Arizona Trail users to explore the adjoining Coronado National Forest 

on the south and the Tonto National Forest on the north.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Appendix B. Proposed and Probable Management Practices

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

236

Type of Project Description

Needs for 

Change 

Addressed*

Arizona Trail 

rehabilitation

A Coconino Rural Environment Corp crew will rehabilitate 4.5 miles of 

the Arizona Trail from Sunnyside Canyon to Miller Peak. This provides 

maintainable access to the Arizona Trail at the south end of the trail to 

the Miller Peak Wilderness.

1, 2, 3, 5

Fence 

reconstruction

Arizona Department of Corrections crews will install new barbed wire 

fencing damaged or destroyed by the Horseshoe II Fire in the 

Chiricahua Mountains. This project will promote burned area recovery 

and contain livestock.

1, 4, 5

Well 

rehabilitation 

With technical assistance from the Natural Resources Conservation 

Service, this project will install a solar pumping plant that includes solar 

panels and a submersible pump on an existing Nogales Ranger District 

well. The well will improve livestock and wildlife use and distribution 

through improving existing infrastructure and adding new watering 

facilities. 

1, 4 ,5

CCC house 

restoration

Local contractors will restore a Civilian Conservation Corps era house at 

the Portal Ranger Station to modern standards of safety and 

accessibility. This house in the Chiricahua Mountains will then become 

part of the “Rooms With a View” cabin rental program. This program 

allows the public to stay in historic Forest Service buildings in unique 

environments for a nominal fee.

2, 3, 5

Endangered fish 

and frog facility 

(T&E species) 

Volunteers, corporate donations, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

partnered with the Douglas Ranger District to promote a working 

research and study pond for public school students grades K-12. The 

project is restructuring a facility bringing it back into production mode. 

The pond houses Yaqui Chub and Yaqui Topminnow fish, and includes 

two ranariums for Chiricahua Leopard frogs. 

1, 5

* 1 = ecosystem restoration and resiliency, 2 = visitor experience, 3 = access to National Forest System lands, 

4 = preservation of open space, and 5 = communities, collaboration and partnerships.
Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

237

Appendix C. Communications Sites

The following are designated communications sites to be administered per Forest Service Manual 

direction. Some sites are for governmental administration and not for commercial use. Future 

development at all sites should adhere to direction in the communications site plan approved for 

each site.

Table 22. Communications sites on the Coronado National Forest

Site Name District Administrative Commercial

Low Power or 

High Power

Dragoon Douglas No Yes Low

Elephant Head Nogales No Yes High

Melendrez Pass Nogales No Yes Low & High

Mount Hopkins Nogales Yes Yes Low

Red Mountain Sierra Vista Yes No Low

Heliograph Safford No Yes Low

Ladybug Safford No Yes Low

GATR Santa Catalina Yes No Low

Mount Bigelow Santa Catalina No Yes High

Radio Ridge Santa Catalina Yes Yes Low

Soldier Peak Santa Catalina Yes No Low

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

239

Appendix D. Animal and Plant Species

Table 23. Plant and animal species common and scientific names

Plant or Animal Common 

Name Plant or Animal Scientific Name Taxa Group

none Mannia californica mosses and liverworts

none Plagiochasma wrightii mosses and liverworts

Abert’s squirrel Sciurus aberti mammal

acalypha Acalypha amentacea Roxb. ssp. wilkesiana plant

acorn woodpecker Melanerpes formicivorus bird

agave Agave spp. plant

alder Alnus spp. plant

Allen’s big-eared bat Idionycteris phyllotis mammal

alligator juniper Juniperus deppeana Steud. plant

alpine clover Trifolium spp. plant

American badger Taxidea taxus mammal

American black bear Ursus americanus mammal

annual sunflower Helianthus annuus plant

Apache pine Pinus engelmannii Carrière plant

Apache trout Oncorhynchus gilae apachae fish

Aravaipa woodfern Thelypteris puberula var. sonorensis plants

Arizona ash Fraxinus spp. plant

Arizona black rattlesnake Crotalus cerberus reptile

Arizona cypress Hesperocyparis arizonica plant

Arizona eryngo Eryngium sparganophyllum plant

Arizona eyed click beetle Alaus lusciosus invertebrate

Arizona fescue Festuca arizonica Vasey plant

Arizona gray squirrel Sciurus arizonensis mammal

Arizona madrone Arbutus arizonica plant

Arizona Manihot Manihot davisiae plants

Arizona muhly Muhlenbergia arizonica plant

Arizona oak Quercus arizonica plant

Arizona sycamore Platanus wrightii plant

Arizona treefrog Hyla wrightorum amphibian

Arizona walnut Juglans major plant

Arizona white oak Quercus arizonica Sarg plant

Arizona wildrye Elymus arizonicus plant

arroyo willow Salix lasiolepis plant

aspen Populus tremuloides plant

Atlantis fritillary butterfly Speyeria altantis invertebrate

ayenia Ayenia spp. plant
Appendix D. Plant and Animal Species

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

240

Plant or Animal Common 

Name Plant or Animal Scientific Name Taxa Group

bahia Bahia spp. plant

banana yucca Yucca baccata plant

barking frog Craugastor augusti reptile

barrel cactus Ferocactus spp. plant

bats Order Chiroptera mammal

beardless chinch weed Pectis imberbis plants

beargrass Nolina spp. plant

beggartick threeawn Aristida Orcuttiana plant

big bursage Ambrosia ambrosioides plant

bigtooth maple Acer granditentatum plant

birchleaf buckthorn Frangula betulifolia plant

birchleaf mountain mahogany Cercocarpus montanus Raf. var. glaber plant

black grama Bouteloua eriopoda plant

black-necked gartersnake Thamnophis cyrtopsis reptile

black-tailed jackrabbit Lepus californicus mammal

black-tailed rattlesnake Crotalus molossus reptile

black-throated sparrow Amphispiza bilineata bird

bladderpod Lesquerella spp. plant

blue curls Trichostema spp. plant

blue grama Bouteloua gracilis plant

blue paloverde Parkinsonia florida plant

blue penstemon Penstemon cyaneus plant

blue threeawn Aristida purpurea Nutt. var. nealleyi plant

bluedicks Dichelostemma capitatum plant

border piñon Pinus discolor plant

Botteri’s sparrow Aimophila botterii bird

bottlebrush squirreltail Elymus elymoides ssp. elymoides plant

bouvardia Bouvardia salisb. plant

box elder Acer negundo L. plant

brittlebush Encelia Adans. plant

broad-billed hummingbird Selasphorus platycercus bird

broad-leaf ground-cherry Physalis latiphysa plants

brown creeper Certhia americana bird

buffalo gourd Cucurbita foetidissima plant

bufflegrass Pennisetum ciliare plant

bulb panic Panicum bulbosum Kunth plant

bullgrass Muhlenbergia emersleyi Vasey plant

bulrush Scirpus L. plant

bundleflower Desmanthus Willd. plant

burrobrush Hymenoclea salsola var. salsola plant
Appendix D. Plant and Animal Species

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

241

Plant or Animal Common 

Name Plant or Animal Scientific Name Taxa Group

bush muhly Muhlenbergia porteri Scribn. ex Beal plant

cactus wren Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus bird

California brickellbush Brickellia Californica plant

camphor weed Pluchea camphorata plant

canaigre Rumex hymenosepalus Torr. plant

cane beardgrass Bothriochloa barbinodis plant

Canelo Hills ladies’ tresses Spiranthes delitescens plant

canyon spotted whiptail Aspidoscelis burti reptile

canyon wren Catherpes mexicanus bird

cave-obligate pseudoscorpion Tuberochernes ubicki invertebrate

catclaw acacia Acacia greggii A. Gray plant

catclaw mimosa Mimosa aculeaticarpa plant

ceanothus Ceanothus L. plant

checkered gartersnake Thamnophis marcianus reptile

Chihuahuan pine Pinus leiophylla Schiede & Deppe plant

Chiricahua leopard frog Lithobates chiricahuensis amphibian

Chiricahua fleabane Erigeron kuschei plants

Chiricahua gentian Gentianella wislizeni plants

Chiricahua mudwort Limosella pubiflora plants

Chiricahua white Neophasia terlootii invertebrate

Chisos coralroot Hexalectris colemanii plants

cholla Cylindropuntia spp. plant

Clark’s nutcracker Nucifraga columbiana bird

Clark’s spiny lizard Sceloporus clarkii reptile

clematis Clematis spp. plant

cliff muhly Muhlenbergia polycaulis Scribn. plant

cliffrose Purshia spp. plant

club moss Lycopodium plant

Cochise woolwort Laennecia eriophylla plants

collared peccary Pecari tajacu mammal

columbine Aquilegia L. plant

common hog-nosed skunk Conepatus leuconotus mammal

condalia Condalia spathulata A. Gray plant

copper mine milk-vetch Astragalus cobrensis var. maguirei plants

coralbean Erythrina flabelliformis Kearney plant

cordilleran flycatcher Empidonax occidentalis bird

corkbark fir Abies lasiocarpa var. arizonica plant

Couch’s spadefoot Scaphiopus couchii amphibian

Coues’ white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus couesii mammal

coursetia Coursetia glandulosa plant
Appendix D. Plant and Animal Species

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

242

Plant or Animal Common 

Name Plant or Animal Scientific Name Taxa Group

coyote melon Cucurbita palmata plant

coyote willow Salix exigua plant

creeping mahonia Mahonia repens plant

creosote bush Larrea tridentata plant

crinkleawn Trachypogon plant

croton Croton plant

curly mesquite Hilaria belangeri plant

dalea Psorothamnus Rydb. plant

deergrass Muhlenbergia rigens plant

desert bighorn sheep Ovis canadensis mexicana mammal

desert broom Baccharis sarothroides A. Gray plant

desert ceanothus Ceanothus greggii A. Gray plant

desert grassland whiptail Aspidoscelis uniparens reptile

desert hackberry Celtis L. plant

desert honeysuckle Anisacanthus Nees plant

desert ironwood Olneya tesota A. Gray plant

desert orangetip Anthocharis cethura invertebrate

desert pupfish Cyprinodon macularius fish

desert senna Senna armata plant

desert spiny lizard Sceloporus magister reptile

desert tortoise Gopherus agassizi reptile

desert willow Chilopsis linearis plant

desert zinnia Zinnia acerosa plant

dock Rumex L. plant

dogweed Adenophyllum Pers. plant

Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii plant

eared quetzal Euptilotis neoxenus bird

eastern patch-nosed snake Salvadora grahamiae reptile

elegant trogon Trogon elegans bird

Elusive browallia Browallia eludens plants

Emory oak Quercus emoryi Torr. plant

Engelmann spruce Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm plant

evergreen sumac Rhus virens Lindh. ex A. Gray plant

evolvulous Evolvulus arizonicus plant

false hellebore Veratrum L. plant

false mesquite Calliandra eriophylla Benth. plant

feather dalea Dalea formosa plant

Fendler’s buckbrush Ceanothus fendleri plant

ferns Pterophyta plant

flame sumac Rhus glabra L. plant
Appendix D. Plant and Animal Species

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

243

Plant or Animal Common 

Name Plant or Animal Scientific Name Taxa Group

flammulated owl Otus flammeolus bird

fluff grass Dasyochloa pulchella plant

foothill paloverde Parkinsonia L. plant

Fremont cottonwood Populus fremontii S. Watson plant

frogs and toads Order Anura amphibian

Gambel oak Quercus gambelii Nutt. plant

Gambel’s quail Callipepla gambelli bird

gentian Gentiana L. plant

geranium Geranium L. plant

giant hairy scorpion Hadrurus arizonensis invertebrate

giant water bug Lethocerus medius invertebrate

Gila chub Gila intermedia fish

Gila monster Heloderma suspectum reptile

Gila spotted whiptail Aspidoscelis flagellicauda reptile

Gila topminnow Poeciliopsis occidentalis fish

Gila trout Oncorhynchus gilae fish

Gila woodpecker Melanerpes uropygialis bird

globe mallow Sphaeralcea ambigua A. Gray plant

goldeneye Viguiera Kunth plant

goldenrod Oreochrysum Rydb. plant

Goodding willow Salix gooddingii C.R. Ball plant

goosegrass Eleusine Gaertn. plant

Gould’s wild turkey Meleagris gallopavo mexicana bird

Grace’s warbler Dendroica graciae bird

gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus mammal

gray hawk Asturina nitida bird

gray oak Quercus grisea Liebm. plant

graythorn Ziziphus obtusifolia plant

Great Plains skink Plestiodon obsoletus reptile

Great Plains toad Anaxyrus cognatus amphibian

great purple hairstreak Atlides halesus invertebrate

greater short-horned lizard Phrynosoma hernadesi reptile

green ratsnake Senticolus triaspis reptile

green sprangletop Leptochloa dubia plant

Gregg’s dalea Dalea versicolor Zucc. plant

groundsel Roldana Llave ex Lex. plant

hairy goldaster Heterotheca villosa plant

hairy grama Bouteloua hirsuta Lag. plant

Hall’s panic Panicum hallii Vasey plant

hedgehog cactus Echinocereus Engelm plant
Appendix D. Plant and Animal Species

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

244

Plant or Animal Common 

Name Plant or Animal Scientific Name Taxa Group

hemlock-parsley Conioselinum Hoffm. plant

hepatic tanager Piranga flava bird

Hinkley’s Jacob’s ladder Polemonium pauciflorum hinckleyi plants

honeysuckle Anisacanthus Nees plant

Hopi tea Thelesperma megapotamicum plant

horse lubber grasshopper Taeniopoda eques invertebrate

Huachuca cinquefoil Potentilla rhyolitica var. rhyolitica plants

Huachuca giant skipper Agathymus evansi invertebrate

Huachuca milkvetch Astragalus hypoxylus plants

Huachuca springsnail Pyrgulopsis thompsoni invertebrate

Huachuca water umbel Lilaeopsis schaffneriana var. recurva plants

hummingbirds Family Trochilidae bird

iris (native) Iris L. plant

jaguar Panthera onca mammal

janusia Janusia A. Juss. plant

junegrass Koeleria Pers. plant

kidneywood Eysenhardtia Kunth plant

kit fox Vulpres macrotis mammal

leafy Jacob’s ladder Polemonium foliosissimum var. flavum plants

lesser long-nosed bat Leptonycteris yerbabuenae mammal

lilies Lilium L. plant

limber bush Jatropha cuneata plant

littleleaf paloverde Parkinsonia L. plant

littleleaf sumac Rhus microphylla Engelm. ex A. Gray plant

loach minnow Tiaroga cobitis fish

long-legged myotis Myotis volans mammal

long-tailed vole Microtus longicaudus mammal

longtongue muhly Muhlenbergia longiligula Hitchc. plant

lotus Nelumbo lutea plant

lowland leopard frog Lithobates yavapaiensis amphibian

Madrean alligator lizard Elgaria kingii reptile

manzanita Arctostaphylos Adans. plant

mariola Parthenium incanum Kunth plant

mat muhly Muhlenbergia richardsonis plant

meadowrue Thalictrum plant

Mearn’s sumac Rhus virens var. choriophylla plant

mesa threeawn Aristida ternipes var. gentilis plant

mesquite Prosopis L. plant

Mexican blue oak Quercus oblongifolia Torr. plant

Chiricahua squirrel Sciurus nayaritensis mammal
Appendix D. Plant and Animal Species

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

245

Plant or Animal Common 

Name Plant or Animal Scientific Name Taxa Group

Mexican gray wolf Canis lupus baileyi mammal

Mexican hog-nosed snake Heterodon kennerlyi reptile

Mexican jay Aphelocoma ultramarina bird

Mexican long-nosed bat Leptonycteris nivalis mammal

Mexican spotted owl Strix occidentalis lucida bird

mimosa Mimosa aculeaticarpa Ortega plant

monkey flowers Mimulus L. plant

Montezuma quail Cyrtonyx montezumae bird

mormon tea Ephedra viridis Coville plant

morning-glory Ipomoea L. plant

mosses Bryophyta plant

mountain mahogany Cercocarpus Kunth plant

mountain muhly Muhlenbergia montana plant

mountain skink Plestiodon callicephalus reptile

mountain snowberry Symphoricarpos oreophilus A. Gray plant

mountain snails genus Oreohelix invertebrate

Mount Graham red squirrel Tamiasciurus hudsonicus grahamensis mammal

mule ears Wyethia Nutt. plant

muttongrass Poa fendleriana plant

narrowleaf hoptree Ptelea trifoliata ssp. pallida plant

netleaf hackberry Celtis laevigata Willd. var. reticulata plant

netleaf oak Quercus rugosa Née plant

New Mexico bitterweed Hymenoxys ambigens var. neomexicana plants

New Mexico feathergrass Hesperostipa neomexicana plant

New Mexico locust Robinia neomexicana A. Gray plant

New Mexico ridge-nosed 

rattlesnake

Crotalus willardi obscurus reptile

nodding brome Bromus anomalus Rupr. ex Fourn. plant

North American porcupine Erethizon dorsatum mammal

northern aplomado falcon Falco femoralis septentrionalis bird

northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis bird

Northern Mexican gartersnake Thamnophis eques megalops reptile

northern raccoon Procyon lotor mammal

ocelot Leopardus pardalis mammal

ocotillo Fouquieria splendens Engelm. plant

onion (native) Allium L. plant

Orcutt’s threeawn Aristida schiedeana Trin. & Rupr. var. 

orcuttiana

plant

painted redstart Myioborus pictus bird

Palmer oak Quercus palmeri plant
Appendix D. Plant and Animal Species

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

246

Plant or Animal Common 

Name Plant or Animal Scientific Name Taxa Group

Palmer’s agave Agave palmeri plant

paperflower Psilostrophe DC plant

Parry’s agave Agave parryi Engelm. plant

pectis Pectis angustifolia Torr. var. angustifolia plant

penstemon Penstemon spp. plant

pigweed Amaranthus L. plant

Pima pineapple cactus Coryphantha scheeri var. robustispina plant

pine dropseed Blepharoneuron tricholepis plant

pine satyr Paramacera allyni invertebrate

piñon ricegrass Piptochaetium fimbriatum plant

plains bristlegrass Setaria vulpiseta plant

plains harvest mouse Reithrodontomys montanus mammal

plains lovegrass Eragrostis intermedia Hitchc. plant

plains muhly Muhlenbergia cuspidata plant

plains spadefoot Spea bombifrons amphibian

pointleaf manzanita Arctostaphylos pungens Kunth plant

poison ivy Toxicodendron radicans plant

ponderosa pine Pinus ponderosa C. Lawson plant

Porsild’s starwort Stellaria porsildii plants

prairie junegrass Koeleria macrantha plant

predaceous diving beetle Family Dytiscidae invertebrate

prickly pear Opuntia Mill. plant

pringle manzanita Arctostaphylos pringlei Parry plant

pringle needlegrass Piptochaetium pringlei plant

pronghorn Antilocapra americana mammal

psoralea Sphaeralcea psoraloides S.L. Welsh plant

purple grama Bouteloua radicosa plant

purple muhly Muhlenbergia rigida plant

purple-spike coralroot Hexalectris warnockii plants

purple threeawn Aristida purpurea Nutt. plant

ragweed Ambrosia L. plant

range ratany Krameria L plant

recurved corycactus Coryphantha recurvata plants

red-breasted nuthatch Sitta canadensis bird

red-faced warbler Cardellina rubrifrons bird

redosier dogwood Cornus sericea L. plant

red-spotted toad Anaxyrus puncatatus amphibian

ridge-nosed rattlesnake Crotalus willardi reptile

ringtail Bassariscus astutus mammal

rock rattlesnake Crotalus lepidus reptile
Appendix D. Plant and Animal Species

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

247

Plant or Animal Common 

Name Plant or Animal Scientific Name Taxa Group

rock wren Salpinctes obsoletus bird

Rocky Mountain maple Acer glabrum Torr. plant

rosary bean Rhynchosia senna var. texana plant

rose-throated becard Pachyramphus aglaiae bird

rosewood Vauquelinia californica plant

rough tridens Tridens muticus var. muticus plant

roundtail chub Gila robusta fish

round-tailed ground squirrel Spermophilus tereticaudus mammal

round-tailed horned lizard Phrynosoma modestum reptile

Rusby’s hawkweed Hieracium rusbyi plants

rushes Juncus L. plant

sacaton Sporobolus airoides plant

saguaro Carnegiea gigantea plant

sand dropseed Sporobolus cryptandrus plant

sandpaper bush Mortonia scabrella plant

Santa Rita grama Bouteloua eludens plant

Santa Rita yellowshow Amoreuxia gonzalezii plants

Schott’s yucca Yucca ×schottii Engelm. plant

screwleaf muhly Muhlenbergia straminea Hitchc. plant

scurfpea Psoralidium Rydb. plant

sedges Carex L. plant

shin-dagger Agave schottii plant

shortleaf tridens Erioneuron avenaceum plant

shrub live oak Quercus turbinella plant

shrubby buckwheat Eriogonum wrightii plant

shrubby deervetch Lotus rigidus plant

sida Rhynchosida Fryxell plant

sideoats grama Bouteloua curtipendula plant

silktassel Garrya Douglas ex Lindl. plant

silverleaf oak Quercus hypoleucoides plant

single-seed juniper Juniperus monosperma plant

skunkbush Rhus trilobata Nutt. plant

skunkbush sumac Rhus trilobata Nutt. plant

slender grama Bouteloua repens plant

slim tridens Tridens muticus plant

smooth baby-bonnets Coursetia glabella plants

snake cotton Froelichia spp. plant

sneezeweed Achillea ptarmica L. plant

soft Mexican-orange Choisya dumosa var. mollis plants

Sonora chub Gila ditaenia fish
Appendix D. Plant and Animal Species

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

248

Plant or Animal Common 

Name Plant or Animal Scientific Name Taxa Group

Sonoran coralsnake Micruroides euryxanthus reptile

Sonoran desert toad Ollotis alvaria amphibian

Sonoran mountain kingsnake Lampropeltis pyromelana reptile

Sonoran spotted whiptail Aspidoscelis sonorae reptile

sotol Dasylirion spp. plant

Southwest monkeyflower Mimulus dentilobus plants

southwestern stipa Achnatherum eminens plant

southwestern white pine Pinus strobiformis Engelm. plant

spidergrass Aristida ternipes Cav. plant

spikedace Meda fulgida fish

spike dropseed Sporobolus contractus plant

spike moss Selaginella arizonica plant

spike pappusgrass Enneapogon desvauxii plant

spreading ratany Krameria lanceolata plant

sprucetop grama Bouteloua chondrosioides plant

Stellar’s jay Cyanocitta stelleri bird

Stephan’s riffle beetle Heterelmis stephani invertebrate

striped plateau lizard Sceloporus virgatus reptile

striped skunk Mephitis mephitis mammal

sulphur-bellied flycatcher Myiodynastes luteiventris bird

talinum Talinum aurantiacum plant

talussnails genus Sonorella invertebrate

tanglehead Heteropogon contortus plant

Tarahumara Frog Lithobates tarahumarae amphibian

tarantulas Family Theraphosidae invertebrate

Texas bluestem Schizachyrium cirratum plant

thimbleberry Rubus parviflorus plant

threeawn grasses Aristida L. plant

tickclover Desmodium plant

tiger salamander Ambystoma mavortium amphibian

Toumey oak Quercus toumeyi plant

trailing fleabane Erigeron flagellaris plant

trailing four o’clock Allionia incarnata plant

triangle bursage Ambrosia deltoidea plant

triangleleaf bursage Ambrosia deltoidea plant

turbinella oak Quercus turbinella plant

turpentine bush Ericameria laricifolia plant

twinberry Myrcianthes fragrans plant

twin-spotted rattlesnake Crotalus pricei reptile

velvet ash Fraxinus velutina plant
Appendix D. Plant and Animal Species

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

249

Plant or Animal Common 

Name Plant or Animal Scientific Name Taxa Group

velvet-pod mimosa Mimosa dysocarpa plant

verbena Verbena L. plant

vetch Vicia plant

vine mesquite Panicum obtusum plant

Virginia creeper Parthenocissus quinquefolia plant

wandering gartersnake Thamnophis elegans reptile

warbling vireo Vireo gilvus bird

wavyleaf oak Quercus X pauciloba plant

wax currant Ribes cereum plant

Weidemeyer’s Admiral Limenitis weidemeyerii invertebrate

western soapberry Sapindus saponaria var. drummondii plant

western yellow-billed cuckoo Coccyzus americanus occidentalis bird

whiskered screech-owl Megascops trichopsis bird

white fir Abies concolor plant

whiteball acacia Acacia angustissima plant

white-breasted nuthatch Sitta carolinensis bird

white-flowered cinquefoil Potentilla albiflora plants

white-nosed coati Nasua narica mammal

whitethorn acacia Acacia constricta plant

whortleberry Vaccinium myrtillus plant

wild grape Vitis vulpina plant

wild rose Rosa arkansana plant

wild turkey Meleagris gallopavo bird

wire lettuce Stephanomeria pauciflora plant

wishbone-bush Mirabilis bigelovii var. retrorsa plant

wolfberry Lycium L. plant

wolftail Lycurus phleoides plant

wood sorrel Oxalis L. plant

wooly bunchgrass Elionurus barbiculmis plant

Wright’s beebrush Aloysia wrightii plant

xanthocephalum Xanthocephalum gymnospermoides plant

Yaqui catfish Ictalurus pricei fish

Yaqui chub Gila purpurea fish

Yarrow’s spiny lizard Sceloporus jarrovii reptile

yellow leaf silktassel Garrya flavescens plant

yellow-nosed cotton rat Sigmodon onchrognathus mammal

yerba de pasmo Baccharis pteronioides plant

yerba mansa Anemopsis Californica plant

yewleaf willow Salix taxifolia plant

zebra-tailed lizard Callisaurus draconoides reptile

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

251

Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Vegetation Communities

Federal Statutes

Organic Act of 1897 (16 U.S.C. 475, 551); Organic Administration Act of 1897 (16 U.S.C. 475, 

551); Weeks Law of 1911, as amended (16 U.S.C. 515, 552); Knutson-Vandenberg Act of 1930 

(16 U.S.C. at 576b); Anderson-Mansfield Reforestation and Revegetation Joint Resolution Act of 

1949 (16 U.S.C. 581j and 581j(note)); Granger-Thye Act of 1950 (16 U.S.C. at 580g-h); Surfaces 

Resources Act of 1955 (30 U.S.C. 611-614); Sikes Act (Fish and Wildlife Conservation) of 

September 15, 1960 (16 U.S.C. at 670g); Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act of 1960 (16 U.S.C. 

528-531); Wilderness Act of 1964 (16 U.S.C. §§ 1131 et seq.); Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (82 

Stat. 906, as amended, 16 U.S.C. 1271 (note), 1271-1287); National Environmental Policy Act 

(NEPA) of 1969 (16 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.); Endangered Species Act of 1973 (P.L. 93-205, 87 Stat. 

884; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1544, as amended); Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning 

Act (RPA) of 1974, as amended by National Forest Management Act (NFMA) of 1976 (16 U.S.C. 

1600-1614, 472a); Clean Water Act of 1977 (33 U.S.C. 1251, 1254, 1323, 1324, 1329, 1342, 

1344; 91 Stat. 1566); Clean Air Act, as amended 1977 and 1990 (42 U.S.C. 7401, 7418, 7470, 

7472, 7474, 7475, 7491, 7506, 7602); North American Wetland Conservation Act of 1989 (16 

U.S.C. 4401 (note), 4401-4413, 16 U.S.C. 669b (note)); Healthy Forests Restoration Act (HFRA) 

of 2003 (16 U.S.C. at 1611-6591)

Code of Federal Regulations

35 CFR 4247 Protection and Enhancement of Environmental Quality; 37 CFR 2877 Use of Offroad Vehicles on the Public Lands; 42 CFR 26951 Floodplain Management; 42 CFR 26961 

Protection of Wetlands; 64 CFR 6183 Invasive Species.

Executive Orders 

EO 11514 Protection and Enhancement of Environmental Quality; EO 11644 Use of off-road 

vehicles on the public lands; EO 11988 Floodplain Management; EO 11990 Protection of 

Wetlands; EO 13112 Invasive Species

Forest Service Directives

FSM 5100-5190; FSM 2020, FSM 2070.

Biophysical Features

Federal Statutes

Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988, 16 U.S.C. 4301-4309: Established requirements 

for the management and protection of caves and their resources on Federal lands, including 

allowing land managing agencies to withhold the location of caves from the public, and requiring 

permits for any removal or collecting activities in caves on Federal lands. 
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

252

Code of Federal Regulations

36 CFR 290: Parks, Forest and Public Property, Cave Resources Management.

Forest Service Directives

FSM 2800 Minerals and Geology, Geologic Resources, Hazards and Services; FSM 2356 Cave 

Management. 

Other

Central Arizona Grotto 2013. Coronado National Forest Cave and Karst Management Guide

https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fseprd540162.pdf

Natural Water Sources

Federal Statutes

Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1956 and Amendments of 1972 (Clean Water Act); 

Organic Administration Act, 1897 as amended; National Forest Management Act, 1976; Safe 

Drinking Water Act, 1977

Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of September 3, 1964: Authorizes the appropriation of 

funds for Federal assistance to states in planning, acquisition, and development of needed land 

and water areas and facilities and for the Federal acquisition and development of certain lands 

and other areas for the purposes of preserving, developing, and assuring accessibility to outdoor 

recreation resources. 

Executive Orders 

EO 11990, 1977 Wetlands Management; EO 11998, 1977 Floodplain Management 

Forest Service Directives

FSM 2510-2520 Watershed and Air Management, Watershed Planning and Watershed Protection 

and Management; FSM 2530 Water Resource Management; FSM 2540 Water Uses and 

Development, Regional Supplement No. 2500-2001-1; FSM 2502-2503 Watershed and Air 

Management, Objectives and Policy; FSM 2541.03 Water Uses and Developments, Policy; FSM 

2541.12 Instream and Standing Water Requirements; FSM 2521 Watershed Protection and 

Management, Watershed Condition Assessment; FSM 2502 & 2503 Watershed and Air 

Management, Objectives and Policy; FSM 2521.11(b) Watershed Condition Assessment, Priority 

Setting

FSH 2509.16 Water Resource Inventory Handbook; FSH 2509.22 Soil and Water Conservation 

Handbook, Region 3, Chapters 10 - 40, FSH 2509.23 Riparian Area Handbook; FSH 2509.13 

Burned-Area Emergency Rehabilitation Handbook; FSM 2526, Watershed and Air Management, 

Riparian Area Management.
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

253

Soil

Federal Statutes

Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act of 1960; Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937 as amended 

Forest Service Directives 

FSM 2550 Watershed and Air Management, Chapter 50, Soil Management; FSH 2509.18; Soil 

Management Handbook; FSH 2509.22, Soil and Water Conservation Handbook. 

Air

Federal Statutes

Clean Air Act of August 7, 1977, as amended (1977 and 1990) 42 U.S.C. §7401 et seq. (1970): 

Enacted to protect and enhance the quality of the Nation’s air resources; to initiate and accelerate 

a national research and development program to achieve the prevention and control of air 

pollution; to provide technical and financial assistance to State and local governments in 

connection with the development and execution of their air pollution prevention and control 

programs; and, to encourage and assist the development and operation of regional air pollution 

prevention and control programs. 

Executive Orders 

EO 11514, 1970 Protection and enhancement of environmental quality. 

Forest Service Directives

FSM 2580.2 - 2580.3 Watershed and Air Management, Chapter 80 Air Resource Management, 

Objectives and Policy. 

Other

Arizona Regional Haze Implementation Plan49; Arizona Revised Statute 49-501; Arizona 

Administrative Code Title 18 Chapter 2 Article 15 Forest and Range Management Burns.50 

49 http://www.azdeq.gov/function/forms/docs.html#sip 50 http://www.azdeq.gov/environ/air/smoke/download/prules.pdf

Animals and Rare Plants

Federal Statutes

Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937; Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960; National 

Forest Management Act of 1976; Endangered Species Act of 1973; Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 

1918; Sikes Act of 1960; 3150.2 State and Private Forestry, Rural Community Fire Protection 

Program, Objectives; Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1975.

Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act of 1940, as amended: Prohibits anyone, without a permit 

issued by the Secretary of the Interior, from “taking” bald eagles, including their parts, nests, or 

eggs. The act defines “take” as “pursue, shoot, shoot at, poison, wound, kill, capture, trap, collect, 

 
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

254

molest or disturb.” Disturbance includes impacts that result from human-induced alterations in 

the nesting area even when eagles are not present. Sections 22.26—28 allow take of bald and 

golden eagles or their nests where it is unavoidable and where it is compatible with the continued 

preservation of the eagle. Permits for take are issued based on certain criteria such as, but not 

limited to, certifications, reporting, and monitoring.

Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended: Authorizes the determination and listing of 

species as endangered and threatened; prohibits unauthorized taking, possession, sale, and 

transport of endangered species; authorizes the assessment of civil and criminal penalties for

violating the act or regulations; and, authorizes the payment of rewards to anyone furnishing 

information leading to arrest and conviction for any violation of the act or any regulation issued 

thereunder. Section 7 of the act requires Federal agencies to use their authorities to carry out 

programs for the conservation of endangered and threatened species and to insure that any action 

authorized, funded, or carried out by them is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of 

listed species or modify their critical habitat. 

Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act of September 15, 1960: Requires the Secretaries of the 

Interior and Agriculture, in cooperation with State agencies, to plan, develop, maintain, and 

coordinate programs for the conservation and rehabilitation of wildlife, fish, and game on public 

lands under their jurisdiction. 

Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of December 15, 1971, as amended by Federal Land 

Policy Management Act of 1976 and Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978: Protects wild 

free roaming horses and burros from capture, branding, harassment, or death; and states they are 

to be considered in the area where presently found an integral part of the natural system of the 

public lands. 

Executive Orders 

EO 13186, Responsibility of Federal Agencies to Protect Migratory Birds.

Code of Federal Regulations

36 CFR 241.2 Parks, Forests, and Public Property, Fish and Wildlife, Cooperation in Wildlife 

Management.

Forest Service Directives

FSM 2402 Timber Management, Objectives; FSM 2470.2 - 2470.3 Timber Management, Chapter 

70 Silvicultural Practices, Objectives and Policy; FSM 2670-2671Wildlife, Fish, and Sensitive 

Plant Habitat Management, Chapter 70, Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive Plants and 

Animals, Cooperation; FSM 2671.45 C & F 2671 Wildlife, Fish, and Sensitive Plant Habitat 

Management, Interim Directives; FSM 3110.2 State and Private Forestry, Cooperative Forest Fire 

Prevention, Objectives.

Other

1982 Rule Provisions, Sections 219.13-219.26; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Wind Turbine 

Guidelines Advisory Committee Recommendations to the Secretary, March 4, 2010; Avian Power 

Line Interaction Committee Guidelines; Hedeoma diffusum Management Plan (1984); Cimicifuga 

Arizonica Conservation Plan (1995).
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

255

Invasive Species

Federal Statutes

Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974, as amended. Requires federal land management agencies to 

develop and establish a management program for control of undesirable plants that are classified 

under state or federal law as undesirable, noxious, harmful, injurious, or poisonous.

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) of 1947; National Strategy and 

Implementation Plan for invasive Species Management, FS-805 (2004); U.S. Forest Service 

Invasive Species Program Web site. Provides the authority for the registration, distribution, sale, 

shipment receipt and use of pesticides.

Executive Orders 

EO 13112 on Invasive Species, December 5, 2016, establishes the National Invasive Species 

Council and directs that invasive species will be controlled on all federal lands.

Forest Service Directives

FSM 2900, 2011, Invasive Species Management. Sets forth National Forest System policy, 

responsibilities, and direction for the prevention, detection, control, and restoration of effects 

from aquatic and terrestrial invasive species (including vertebrates, invertebrates, plants and 

pathogens).

Other

National Strategy and Implementation Plan for Invasive Species Management, FS-805 (2004). 

Forest Service National Strategic Framework for Invasive Species Management, FS-1017, 2013. 

Prioritizes and guides the prevention, detection, and control of invasive insects, pathogens, plants, 

wildlife, and fish that threaten our Nation’s terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Forest Products

Federal Statutes

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969; National Forest Management Act of 1976.

Code of Federal Regulations

36 CFR 223.5 through 36 CFR 223.10 Parks, Forests, and Public Property, Scope of Free-use 

Granted to Individuals, Cutting and Removal of Timber in Free-Use Areas, Permission for FreeUse of Timber Outside Free-Use Areas, Delegations of Authority to Approve Free Use by 

Individuals, Free-Use to Owners of Certain Mining Claims, Free-Use to Alaskan Settlers, Miners, 

Residents, and Prospectors; 36 CFR 223.2 Disposal of Timber for Administrative Use; 7 CFR 

2.60 Agriculture, Chief, Forest Service; 36 CFR 223.12 Permission to Cut, Damage, or Destroy 

Trees without Advertisement; 36 CFR 800, National Historic Preservation Act; 36 CFR 223.261 

Sale and Disposal of National Forest System Timber; Special Forest Products and Forest 

Botanical Products.
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

256

Forest Service Directives

FSM 2000, Chapter 2020.12(5), Ecological Restoration and Resilience, Executive Orders; 

Chapter 2020.3(2) Policy; FSM 2400, Timber Management, Chapter 2462, Free Use of Timber; 

Chapter 2463, Administrative Use; FSM 2400, Chapter 2467 Sales of Special Forest Products, 36 

CFR 223.1 Authority to Sell Timber; FSM 2400, Chapter 2431 Management of Timber Sale 

Program; FSH 2409.18, Timber Sale Preparation; Section; FSH 2409.18-2009-2, Section 82.5 

Trees, Portions of Trees, or Forest Products Free of Charge for Indian Tribes for Non-Commercial 

Traditional and Cultural Purposes; FSH 2409.19 Renewable Resources Handbook; FSH 1909.15, 

Environmental Policy and Procedures Handbook; FSH 2409.19, Timber Sale Administration 

Handbook.

Other

Forest Service National Resource Guide to American Indian and Alaska Native Relations, 

12/05/1997; Tribal Consultation on Section 8105 of the Food, Conservation and Energy Act of 

2008 (The Farm Bill); 16 U.S.C.2104 Note Stewardship End Result Contracting Projects.

Fire Management

Federal Statutes

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969; National Forest Management Act of 1976; Federal 

Land Assistance, Management, and Enhancement (FLAME) Act of 2009.

Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003 (H.R. 1904): Purposes are to reduce wildfire risk to 

communities and municipal water supplies through collaborative hazardous fuels reduction 

projects; to assess and reduce the risk of catastrophic fire or insect or disease infestation; to 

enhance efforts to protect watersheds and address threats to forest and rangeland health (including 

wildfire) across the landscape; to protect, restore, and enhance forest ecosystem components such 

as biological diversity, threatened/endangered species habitats, and enhanced productivity.

Forest Service Directives

FSM 5110.2 Fire Management, Wildfire Prevention, Objective; FSM 5120 Fire Management, 

Preparedness; FSM 5130.2 Wildland Fire Suppression, Objective; Managing Impacts of Wildfires 

on Communities and the Environment, and Protecting People and Sustaining Resources in Fire 

Adapted Ecosystems – A Cohesive Strategy (FSM 5101, 5103, and 5108); FSM 5140.2 Fire Use, 

Objectives; FSM 5140.3 Fire Use, Policy; FSM 5171, Agreements with Federal Agencies; 

Interagency Prescribed Fire, Planning and Implementation Procedures Guide, Element 19-Smoke 

Management & Air Quality (USDA, USDOI) 2008; Guidance for Implementation of Federal 

Wildland Fire Management Policy, 2009; FSM 3110.2 Cooperative Forest Fire Prevention, 

Objective; FSM 3110.3 Policy (Smokey Bear); FSM 2324.2 Wilderness Management, 

Management of Fire; FSM 5100, Fire Management; FSH 5109.19 Chapter 50 Fire Management 

Analysis and Planning Handbook, Fire Management Planning.

Other

The 1995/2001 Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy and Program Review; The Wildland 

and Prescribed Fire Management Policy and Implementation Procedures Reference Guide; The 
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

257

Interagency Fire Management Plan template by the Fish and Wildlife Service, 200651; National 

Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy; USDOI, National Fire Plan, 2001. The Coconino 

National Forest Fire Management Plan, 2010; community wildfire protection plans (CWPP) for 

Flagstaff and surrounding communities, Blue Ridge and Mogollon Rim communities, Greater 

Williams Area, and the Tusayan community, and the Rim Country communities. 

51 http://www.fws.gov/fire/fmp/development/July08_FWS_template_guidance.doc

Minerals

Federal Statutes

Common Varieties of Mineral Materials Act of July 31, 1947: Authorizes the Secretaries of the 

Interior and Agriculture, under such rules and regulations as they may prescribe, to dispose of 

mineral materials (including but not limited to common varieties of sand, stone, gravel, pumice, 

pumicite, cinders, and clay) and vegetative materials (including but not limited to yucca, 

manzanita, mesquite, cactus, and timber or other forest products) on public lands of the United 

States, if the disposal of such materials is not otherwise expressly authorized by law, is not 

expressly prohibited by laws of the United States, and would not be detrimental to the public 

interest. 

Mineral Leasing Act of February 25, 1920: Provides that the deposits of certain minerals on land 

owned by the United States shall be subject to lease to citizens of the United States, provided 

royalties on such deposits are paid to the United States. 

Mining and Minerals Policy Act of December 31, 1970: States that it is the policy of the Federal 

Government to foster and encourage the development of economically sound and stable domestic 

mining, minerals, metal, and mineral reclamation industries; the orderly and economic 

development of domestic mineral resources, reserves, and reclamation of metals and minerals to 

help assure satisfaction of industrial, security, and environmental needs; mining, mineral, and 

metallurgical research to promote the wise and efficient use of our natural and reclaimable

mineral resources; and the study and development of methods for the disposal, control, and 

reclamation of mineral waste products and the reclamation of mined land. 

U.S. Mining Laws (Public Domain Lands) Act of May 10, 1872: Provides that all valuable 

mineral deposits in lands belonging to the United States, both surveyed and unsurveyed, are free 

and open to exploration and purchase, and the lands in which they are found to occupation and 

purchase by citizens of the United States and those who have declared their intention to become 

such, under regulations prescribed by law, and according to the local customs or rules of miners, 

so far as the same are applicable and not inconsistent with the laws of the United States. There are 

a number of acts that modify the mining laws as applied to local areas by prohibiting entry 

altogether or by limiting or restricting the use which may be made of the surface and the right, 

title, or interest which may pass through patent. 

Code of Federal Regulations

36 CFR 228 Subpart E, Oil and Gas Resources; 36 CFR 228 Subpart A, Locatable Minerals; 36 

CFR 228 Subpart C, Disposal of Mineral Materials. 

 
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

258

Forest Service Directives

FSM 2800 Minerals and Geology; FSM 2320 Wilderness Management; FSM 2802 and 2803 

Minerals and Geology, Objectives and Policy; FSM 2814 Mining Claims, Rights, and Obligations 

of the United States; FSM 2822.41 Mineral Licenses, Permits, and Leases Administer by the 

Department of the Interior, Forest Service Evaluation and Report; FSM 2850 Mineral Materials; 

Surface Occupancy Standards and Guidelines for Oil and Gas Exploration and Development (the 

Gold Book) published by BLM; FSM 2822.62, Actions by Forest Service; FSM 2814.01, Mining 

Claims, Rights of United States; FSM 2814.23 Prevent Violations of Laws and Regulations; FSM 

2822.02 Mineral Leases, Permits, and Licenses, Objective; FSM 2822.04 Responsibility; FSM 

2880.3 Geologic Resources, Hazards and Services, Policy.

Energy Resources

Federal Statutes

Energy Policy Act of 2005: Requires the Secretary of Agriculture to ensure timely action on oil 

and gas permits, improve collection and retrieval of oil and gas information, and improve 

inspection and enforcement of permit terms (Section 362). 

Energy Security Act of June 30, 1980: Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to make available 

timber resources of the National Forest System, in accordance with appropriate timber appraisal 

and sale procedures, for use by biomass energy projects. 

Food, Conservation & Energy Act of 2008 (2008 Farm Bill) Public Law 110-246 

Title VIII – Forestry, Subtitle A, B, and C:

Subtitle A: Amendment to the Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act of 1978. Establishes 

national priorities for private forest conservation, a community forest and open space 

conservation program, and a Secretary level forest resources coordinating committee.

Subtitle B: Cultural and Heritage Cooperation Authority. Authorizes the Secretary of 

Agriculture to provide forest products to Indian Tribes for traditional and cultural purposes; to 

protect the confidentiality of certain information, including information that is culturally 

sensitive to Indian Tribes; to utilize National Forest System land for the reburial of human 

remains and cultural items, including human remains and cultural items repatriated under the 

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act; prevent the unauthorized disclosure 

of information regarding human remains or cultural items reburied on National Forest System 

land; to ensure access to National Forest System land, to the maximum extent practicable, by 

Indians and Indian Tribes for traditional and cultural purposes; to increase the availability of 

Forest Service programs and resources to Indian Tribes in support of the policy of the United 

States to promote Tribal sovereignty and self-determination; and to strengthen support for the 

policy of the United States of protecting and preserving the traditional, cultural, and 

ceremonial rites and practices of Indian Tribes, in accordance with the American Indian 

Religious Freedom Act (42 U.S.C. 1996).

Subtitle C: Amendments to Other Forestry Related Laws. Amends the Lacey Act to include 

the illegal taking of plants, establishes an Emergency Forest Restoration Program, and renews 

authority and funding for the Healthy Forest Reserve Program.
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

259

Motorized Transportation System

Code of Federal Regulations

36 CFR 212 Travel Management; 36 CFR 261 Prohibitions.

Forest Service Directives

FSM 5460 Right-of-Way Acquisition; FSM 7701.2 Travel Management; FSM 7702 Travel 

Management, Objectives; FSM 7703 Travel Management, Policy; FSM 7710 Travel 

Management, Travel Planning; FSM 7730 Road Operation and Maintenance. 

FSH 2509.22 Soil and Water Conservation Handbook; FSH 7709.55 Travel Planning Handbook; 

FSH 7709.56 Road Preconstruction Handbook; FSH 7709.59 Road System Operations and 

Maintenance Handbook.

Other

Forest Service Washington Office correspondence dated November 10, 2010, re: Travel 

Management, Implementation of 36 CFR, Subpart 212, Subpart A (36 CFR 212.5(b); Forest 

Service Washington Office correspondence re: Fiscal Year 2010 Final Program Direction.

Recreation

Dispersed Recreation

Code of Federal Regulations

36 CFR 212, Travel Management; 36 CFR 251, Land Uses; 36 CFR 261, Prohibitions; 36 CFR 

294, Special Areas.

Forest Service Directives

FSM 1802 and 1803 Senior, Youth and Volunteer Programs, Objectives and Policy; FSH 

2309.18.4, Trails Management Handbook; FSM 2300, Recreation, Wilderness, and Related 

Resource Management.

Developed Recreation

Federal Statutes

National Trails System Act, 2009.

Code of Federal Regulations

36 CFR 213 Administration of Lands under Title III of Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act by the 

Forest Service; 36 CFR 261Prohibitions; EO 11988 Floodplain Management.

Forest Service Directives

R3 Supplement to FSM 2300 Recreation, Wilderness, and Related Resource Management; FSM 

2310 Planning and Data Management; FSM 2311 Resource Opportunities in Recreation Planning; 

FSM 2330.3 Publicly Managed Recreation Opportunities, Policy; FSM 2353.16 Trail, River and 
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

260

Similar Recreation Opportunities; Cooperative Agreements and Rights-of-Way; FSM 2390 

Interpretive Services; FSM 5340.2 Law Enforcement, Objectives; FSM 5420 Land Purchases and 

Donations; FSM 7151.02 Land Surveying, Objectives; FSM 7312.1 and 7312.2 Facility Planning, 

Plans, and Preliminary Project Analysis; FSH 7309.11 Chapter 40 Buildings and Related 

Facilities, Management; Forest Service Outdoor Recreation Accessibility Guidelines; FSM 7400 

Public Health and Pollution Control Facilities. 

FSH 7409.11, Sanitary Engineering and Public Health Handbook; Forest Service Outdoor 

Recreation Accessibility Guidelines, 5/22/2006; FSM 2303 Recreation, Wilderness and Related 

Resource Management, Policy; FSM 2334 Recreation, Wilderness, and Related Resource 

Management, Campgrounds and Picnic Grounds. 

Other

Recreation Facility Analysis Program of Work; 1986 Recreation Opportunity Spectrum Book; 

The Built Environment Image Guide (FS-710); Architectural Guidelines for Recreation 

Residences; Forest Service Outdoor Recreation Accessibility Guidelines; Forest Service Trail 

Accessibility Guidelines; USDA Forest Service Exhibit Accessibility Checklist; Accessibility 

Guidebook for Outfitter/Guides Operating on Public Lands (FS-757); Accessibility Guidebook 

for Ski Areas Operating on Public Lands (FS-703); Coronado National Forest Transition Plan; 

Cave Creek Recreation Concept Plan; Patagonia-Sonoita Scenic Road Corridor Management 

Plan; Swift Trail Parkway Corridor Management Plan; Sky Island Scenic Byway Corridor 

Management Plan; Sabino Canyon Recreation Concept Plan; Sabino Canyon Interpretive Plan; 

Management Guidelines for OHV Recreation by the National Off-Highway Vehicle Conservation 

Council; Arizona Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan (SCORP); Arizona Trail 

Management Guide; Pusch Ridge Wilderness Management Plan 

Scenic Quality

Federal Statutes

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of October 2, 1968: Instituted a National Wild and Scenic Rivers 

System by designating the initial components of that system, and by prescribing the methods by 

which and standards according to which additional components may be added to the system from 

time to time. 

Code of Federal Regulations

36 CFR 213.3 Part B Administration of Lands under Title III of the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant 

Act by the Forest Service: Protection, occupancy, use, administration, and exercise of reservations

Forest Service Directives

FSM 2380.13 Landscape Management, Scenic Trails and Byways; FSM 2380.6- 2380.62 

Technical Publications and References, Current Publications, Superseded Reference; FSM 

2380.14 Landscape Management, Wild and Scenic Rivers; FSM 2380.18 Landscape 

Management, Land Ownership Adjustments ; FSM 2380.3 Landscape Management, Policy; FSM 

2380.31 Landscape Management, Resource Planning and Management; FSM 2380.43 Landscape 

Management, Responsibility, Forest Supervisor; FSM 2382.1 Landscape Management, Scenery 

Management, Scenery Management System.
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

261

Landscape Aesthetics Handbook (U.S. Forest Service Agriculture Handbook No. 701); FSH 

1909.12 (13.13a).

Other

Landscape Aesthetics, A Handbook for Scenery Management (FSH 701); The Built Environment 

Image Guide (FS-710); Architectural Guidelines for Recreation Residences; Patagonia-Sonoita 

Scenic Road Corridor Management Plan; Swift Trail Parkway Corridor Management Plan; Sky 

Island Scenic Byway Corridor Management Plan

Special Uses

Federal Statutes

Act of 1866 General Mining Law; Act of March 3, 1925 (43 Stat. 1133, as amended); The Act of 

March 4, 1915, as amended July 28, 1956, (16 U.S.C. 497); The Act of November 16, 1973, (30 

U.S.C. 185), amending Section 28 of the 1920 Mineral Leasing Act; Alaska National Interest 

Lands Conservation Act, 1980; An Act to Repeal Timber-Culture Laws, 1891; Archaeological 

Resources Protection Act of 1979; Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937, Section 31-33; 

Colorado Ditch Act of 1986 (FLPMA amendment; Energy Policy Act of 2005; Education Land 

Grant Act; Exchange for Schools Act (Sisk Act) of December 4, 1967 (81 Stat. 531, as amended; 

16 U.S.C. 484a, 521c-521i); Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976; Forest Service 

Facilities Realignment Act of 2005 (119 Stat 559-563; 16 U.S.C. 580d, as amended); General 

Exchange Act of 1922; Granger-Thye Act of 1950, section 7; Highway Act of August 27, 1958, 

(23 U.S.C. 317), supplemented by the Act of October 15, 1966 (49 U.S.C. 1651); Land and Water 

Conservation Fund Act of September 3, 1964; Mineral Leasing Act of 1920, as amended on 

November 16, 1973, (30 U.S.C. 185(1)); National Forest Roads and Trails Act 1964; Oil and Gas 

Pipeline amendment to the Mineral Leasing Act, Section 28 authorizes oil and gas pipelines; 

Organic Act of 1897 provides for rules to regulate occupancy and use of the Forest Reserves; 

Occupancy Permits Act (March 4, 1915); Preservation of American Antiquities Act of June 8, 

1906; Small Tracts Act of January 12, 1983 (96 Stat. 2535; 16 U.S.C. 521c-i); 

Telecommunications Act of 1996 (Public Law 104-104); Term Permit Act of March 4, 1915, 

amended July 28, 1956; National Forest Townsite Act of July 31, 1958 (72 Stat. 483; 7 U.S.C. 

1012a; 16 U.S.C. 478a) as amended by Section 213 of the Federal Land Policy and Management 

Act of 1976 (90 Stat. 2760); Water Conveyance Act of 1986 amended FLMPA; Weeks Law of 

March 1, 1911(36 Stat. 961 as amended; 16 U.S.C. 516). 

Code of Federal Regulations

36 CFR 251 Subpart B Land Uses, Special Uses; 36 CFR 254, subpart A.

Executive Orders 

EO 11990 Wetlands; EO 11988 Floodplains.

Forest Service Directives

FSM 2700 Special Uses Management; FSH 2709.11 Special Uses Handbook
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

262

Other

Interim Guidelines to Avoid and Minimize Wildlife Impacts from Wind Turbines (FWS direction; 

these guidelines will be superseded by the guidelines developed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service Wind Turbine Guidelines Advisory Committee, once they are finalized and adopted by 

the Secretary of the Interior); Suggested Practices for Raptor Protection on Power Lines: The 

State of the Art in 2006, Avian Powerline Interaction Committee (APLIC) 2006; Edison Electric 

Institute, Washington D.C. Standard Guidance for Towers with Potential Impacts to Federally 

Listed Species and Migratory Birds (document prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service).

Cultural Resources

Federal Statutes

Historic Sites Act of 1935 (16 U.S.C. 461): Establishes a policy to preserve for public use 

historic sites, buildings, and objects of national significance for the benefit of the people. 

Authorizes the National Park Service’s National Historic Landmarks Program.

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 as amended (NHPA) (16 U.S.C. 470): Sets forth the 

Federal Government’s policy to preserve and protect historical and cultural resources. This act 

states that the historical and cultural foundations of the Nation should be preserved as a living 

part of the Nation’s community life and development in order to give a sense of orientation to the 

American people. Directs all Federal agencies to take into account the effects of their 

undertakings (actions, financial support, and authorizations) on properties included in or eligible 

for the National Register. Establishes inventory, nomination, protection, and preservation 

responsibilities for federally owned historic properties. As amended extends the policy in the 

Historic Sites Act to State and local historical sites as well as those of national significance, 

expands the National Register of Historic Places, establishes the Advisory Council on Historic 

Preservation and the State Historic Preservation Officers, and requires agencies to designate 

Federal preservation officers. Establishes criteria for designating Tribal historic preservation 

officers to assume the functions of a state historic preservation officer on Tribal lands.

National Historic Preservation Act of December 12, 1980 as amended (1980 and 1992): 

Authorized the Federal Government to accelerate its historic preservation programs and activities; 

to give maximum encouragement to agencies and individuals undertaking preservation by private 

means; and to assist State and local governments and the National Trust for Historic Preservation 

in the United States to expand and accelerate their historic preservation programs and activities. 

Antiquities Act of 1906 (16 U.S.C. 431-433): Prevents the appropriation, excavation, injury, or 

destruction of any historic or prehistoric ruin or monument, or any object of antiquity, situated on 

lands owned or controlled by the United States without permission. Provides for permits, for 

misdemeanor-level penalties for unauthorized use, and authorizes the President to declare by 

public proclamation historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and other objects of 

historic or scientific interest that are situated upon lands owned or controlled by the United States 

to be national monuments, and to reserve as a part thereof parcels of land needed for the proper 

care and management of the objects to be protected. The Archaeological Resources Protection Act 

has replaced the Antiquities Act as the authority for special use permits if the resource involved is 

100-years old or greater.

Archaeological and Historic Preservation Act of 1974 (AHPA) (16 U.S.C. 469): Is also known as 

the Archaeological Recovery Act. AHPA amended and expanded the Reservoir Salvage Act of 
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

263

1960 and was enacted to complement the Historic Sites Act of 1935 by providing for the 

preservation of significant scientific, historical, and archaeological data that might be lost or 

destroyed as the result of the construction of a federally authorized dam or other construction 

activity. AHPA also allows for any Federal agency responsible for a construction project to 

appropriate a portion of project funds for archaeological survey, recovery, analysis, and 

publication of results.

Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 as amended (ARPA) (16 U.S.C. 470aa-mm et 

seq.): The act establishes permit requirements for removal or excavation of archaeological 

resources from Federal and Indian lands. Provides criminal and civil penalties for the 

unauthorized excavation, removal, damage, alteration, defacement, or the attempted unauthorized 

removal, damage, alteration, or defacement of any archaeological resource, more than 100 years 

of age, found on Federal or Indian lands. Prohibits the sale, purchase, exchange, transportation, 

receipt, or offering of any archaeological resource obtained from public lands or Indian lands. 

The act further directs Federal land managers to survey land under their control for archaeological 

resources and create public awareness programs concerning archaeological resources.

Historic Sites Act of 1935 (16 U.S.C. 461): Establishes a policy to preserve for public use 

historic sites, buildings, and objects of national significance for the benefit of the people. 

Authorizes the National Park Service’s National Historic Landmarks Program.

Code of Federal Regulations

36 CFR 800 Protection of historic Properties; 36 CFR 60.4 National Register of Historic Places, 

Criteria for Evaluation.

Executive Orders 

EO 13175 Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribal Governments; EO 13007 Indian 

Sacred Sites; EO 13007 Indian Sacred Sites; EO 13287 Preserve America, (Partnering to Promote 

Heritage Tourism in Communities: Guidance for Federal Agencies, 2003); EO 11593 Protection 

and Enhancement of the Cultural Environment.

Forest Service Directives

FSM 2360 Heritage Program Management; FSM 2360.7 Heritage Program Management, 

Program Funding Structure; FSM 2364.03 Protection and Stewardship, Policy; FSM 2364.02 

Objectives, American Indian Religious Freedom Act, 1978; FSM 2360.7 Heritage Program 

Management, Program Funding Structure; FSM 2364.03 Protection and Stewardship, Policy; 

FSM 2364.02 Objectives.

Other

Region 3, First Amended Programmatic Agreement Regarding Historic Property protection and 

Responsibilities (and associated appendices), December 2003; U.S. Forest Service Tribal 

Relations Strategic Plan.
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

264

Paleontological Resources

Federal Statutes

Organic Act of 1897 (16 USC 551); Bankhead-Jones Tenant Act of 1937 (7 USC 1101); 1906 

Antiquities Act, FS Special Uses Manual 2701.1-2; National Environmental Policy Act of 1969: 

42 U.S.C. 4321, sec. 101(b).; Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974, 

as amended; 1979 Archeological Resources Protection Act; 1988 Federal Cave Resources 

Protection Act; PL 101-510 (H.R. 4739, sec. 2825); Paleontological Resources Preservation Act 

of 2009 (PL 111-011).

Antiquities Act of 1906 (16 U.S.C. 431-433): Prevents the appropriation, excavation, injury, or 

destruction of any historic or prehistoric ruin or monument, or any object of antiquity, situated on 

lands owned or controlled by the United States without permission. Provides for permits, for 

misdemeanor-level penalties for unauthorized use, and authorizes the President to declare by 

public proclamation historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and other objects of 

historic or scientific interest that are situated upon lands owned or controlled by the United States 

to be national monuments, and to reserve as a part thereof parcels of land needed for the proper 

care and management of the objects to be protected. The Archaeological Resources Protection Act 

has replaced the Antiquities Act as the authority for special use permits if the resource involved is 

100-years old or greater.

Archaeological and Historic Preservation Act of 1974 (AHPA) (16 U.S.C. 469): Is also known as 

the Archaeological Recovery Act. AHPA amended and expanded the Reservoir Salvage Act of 

1960 and was enacted to complement the Historic Sites Act of 1935 by providing for the 

preservation of significant scientific, historical, and archaeological data that might be lost or 

destroyed as the result of the construction of a federally authorized dam or other construction 

activity. AHPA also allows for any Federal agency responsible for a construction project to 

appropriate a portion of project funds for archaeological survey, recovery, analysis, and 

publication of results.

Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 as amended (ARPA) (16 U.S.C. 470aa-mm et 

seq.): The act establishes permit requirements for removal or excavation of archaeological 

resources from Federal and Indian lands. Provides criminal and civil penalties for the 

unauthorized excavation, removal, damage, alteration, defacement, or the attempted unauthorized 

removal, damage, alteration, or defacement of any archaeological resource, more than 100 years 

of age, found on Federal or Indian lands. Prohibits the sale, purchase, exchange, transportation, 

receipt, or offering of any archaeological resource obtained from public lands or Indian lands. 

The act further directs Federal land managers to survey land under their control for archaeological 

resources and create public awareness programs concerning archaeological resources.

Code of Federal Regulations

7 CFR 2.60: Delegation of Authority from Secretary of Agriculture to Chief, Forest Service to 

regulate use and occupancy of National Forest System Lands; and to issue appropriate regulations 

under 36 CFR 261, Prohibitions; 43 CFR Part 3;7 CFR 3100.41(a); 36 CFR 251; 36 CFR 

251.53(a) and (f) permits for vertebrate fossil collection for scientific and education purposes 

only; 36 CFR 261.2, 261.9(i), 261.70(a)(5): Prohibitions Section, Orders, special closures, and 

ability for regions to issue regulations for protection of paleontological resources; 36 CFR 

228.62(e) Free-use permit may be required for limited collection of petrified wood for personal 

use by amateur collectors and scientists. Material cannot be bartered or sold; 36 CFR 
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

265

296.5(b)(2).; 36 CFR 290; 36 CFR 292.41, second definition of paleontological resources; 43 

CFR 3505.11.

Forest Service Directives

FSM 2880 Geologic Resources, Hazards and Services; FS Manual 2701.1-2 Paleontological 

resources management under 1906 Antiquities Act; FSM 2860 Recreational collecting of mineral 

and fossil material under acquired lands. 

Tribal Relations

Federal Statutes

American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA) as amended (42 U.S.C. 1996): Protects and 

preserves for American Indians their inherent right of freedom to believe, express, and exercise 

the traditional religions of the American Indian, Eskimo, Aleut, and Native Hawaiians, including 

but not limited to access to sites, use, and possession of sacred objects and the freedom to 

worship through ceremonial and traditional rites. 

Tribal Forest Protection Act of 2004 (Public Law 108-278): Authorizes the Secretary of 

Agriculture and the Secretary of the Interior to enter into an agreement or contract with Indian 

Tribes meeting certain criteria to carry out projects to protect Indian forest land.

Congressional Acts

National Historic Preservation Act Sections 106 and 110; The Native American Grave Protection 

and Repatriation Act; American Indian Religious Freedom Act, 1978; Archaeological Resources 

Protection Act, 1979; Food Conservation and Energy Act of 2008 (The Farm Bill).

Range Management

Federal Statutes

Bankhead Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937 

Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of August 17, 1974: Directs the 

Secretary of Agriculture to prepare a renewable resource assessment every 10 years; to transmit a 

recommended renewable resources program to the President every 5 years; to develop, maintain, 

and, as appropriate, revise land and resource management plans for units of the National Forest 

System; and to ensure that the development and administration of the resources of the National 

Forest System are in full accord with the concepts of multiple use and sustained yield. 

Public Rangelands Improvement Act of October 25, 1978: Establishes and reaffirms the national 

policy and commitment to inventory and identify current public rangeland conditions and trends; 

manage, maintain and improve the condition of public rangelands so that they become as 

productive as feasible for all rangeland values in accordance with management objectives and the 

land use planning process; charge a fee for public grazing use which is equitable; continue the 

policy of protecting wild free roaming horses and burros from capture, branding, harassment, or 

death, while at the same time facilitating the removal and disposal of excess wild free roaming 

horses and burros which pose a threat to themselves, their habitat, and to other rangeland values. 
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

266

Code of Federal Regulations

36 CFR 213 Administration of Lands under Title III of the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act by 

the Forest Service.

Forest Service Directives

FSM 2202 Range Management, Objectives; FSM 2230.2 and 2230.3 Grazing and Livestock Use 

Permit System, Objective and Policy; FSM 2231.02 Grazing and Livestock Use Permit System, 

Requirements for Permits with Term Status; FSM 2240.2 and 2240.3 Range Improvements, 

Objective and Policy; FSM 2242.02 Structural Range Improvements, Objective; FSM 2242.03 

Policy; FSM 2243.02 Nonstructural Range Improvements, Objective; FSM 2243.03 Policy; FSM 

2250.2 and 2250.3 Range Cooperation, Objective and Policy; FSM 2270.3 Information 

Management and Reports, Policy; FSM 2237.03 Range Management, Policy; FSM 2541.03 

Water Uses and Development, Policies; FSM 2253.4 Range Cooperation, Cooperation with 

Others; FSM Information Management and Reports, Policy.

FSH 2209.13, Chapter 12.31 Grazing Permit Administration Handbook, Permits with Term 

Status, Upper Limits; FSH 2209.13 Chapter 90 Rangeland Management Decisionmaking.

Other

Interagency Technical Reference (USDA, USDOI), Utilization Studies and Residual 

Measurements,1996; Technical Reference 4400-5 Rangeland Inventory & Monitoring, 

Supplemental Studies, 1992; Technical Reference 4400-7 (BLM) Rangeland Monitoring 

Analysis, Interpretation, and Evaluation, 1985; Technical Reference 4400-8 (BLM) Rangeland 

Monitoring, Statistical Considerations, 1992.

Land Ownership Adjustments and Boundary Management

Federal Statutes

Cooperative Forestry Assistance Act of July 1, 1978: Authorizes the Secretary of Agriculture to 

assist in the establishment of a coordinated and cooperative Federal, state, and local forest 

stewardship program for the management of non-Federal forest lands and forest lands in foreign 

countries.

Federal Land Policy and Management Act of October 21, 1976: Requires that public lands be 

managed in a manner that will protect the quality of scientific, scenic, historical, ecological, 

environmental, air and atmospheric, water resource, and archaeological values; that, where 

appropriate, will preserve and protect certain public lands in their natural condition; that will 

provide food and habitat for fish and wildlife and domestic animals; and that will provide for 

outdoor recreation and human occupancy and use. Also states that the United States shall receive 

fair market value of the use of the public lands and their resources unless otherwise provided for 

by law. 

Code of Federal Regulations

36 CFR 254 Land Ownership Adjustments; 43 CFR 2300 Land Withdrawals.
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

267

Forest Service Directives

FSM 5400 Land Ownership; FSM 2354.51(a) Fee Title Acquisition on Designated Rivers; FSM 

2354.6 Nondesignated Rivers; FSM 2760 Withdrawals; FSH 5409.12 Appraisal Handbook; FSH 

5409.13 Land Acquisition Handbook; FSH 5409.17 Rights-of-Way Acquisition Handbook; FSH 

5509.11Title Claims, Sales, and Grants Handbook.

Public Access

Federal Statutes

Federal Land Policy and Management Act of October 21, 1976.

Public Law 91-646: The Uniform Relocation Assistance and Real Property Acquisition Policies 

Act of January 2, 1971.

Code of Federal Regulation

36 CFR 212 – Travel Management

Forest Service Directives

FSM 5460 – Right-of-Way Acquisition; FSH 5409.17 – Right-of-Way Acquisition

Recommended Wilderness 

Areas and Wilderness Study Areas

Federal Statutes

Wilderness Act of September 3, 1964: Established a National Wilderness Preservation System to 

be composed of federally owned areas designated by Congress as “wilderness areas” and 

administered for the use and enjoyment of the American people in such manner as will leave them 

unimpaired for future use and enjoyment as wilderness. Provides for the protection of these areas, 

the preservation of their wilderness character, and for the gathering and dissemination of 

information regarding their use and enjoyment as wilderness. States that no Federal lands shall be 

designated as “wilderness areas” except as provided for in the act or by a subsequent act. 

Wilderness Areas

Federal Statutes

Wilderness Act of 1964, Public Law 88-577

Forest Service Directives

FSH 1909.12 Chapter 70 Wilderness Evaluation, Subsection 71.1 Criteria for Including 

Improvements; FSH 1909.12 Chapter 70 Wilderness Evaluation, Subsection 72.1 Capability; FSH 

1909.12, FSH 1909.12 Chapter 70 Wilderness Evaluation, Subsection 72.3 factors to consider.

FSM 2320 – Wilderness; FSM 1923 – Wilderness Evaluation
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

268

Other

Monitoring Selected Conditions Related to Wilderness Character: A National Framework. 

R3 Wilderness Evaluation Guidance 

Monitoring Selected Conditions Related to Wilderness Character: A National Framework, USDA 

Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-151.

Wild and Scenic Rivers

Federal Statutes

Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 (PL 90-542)

Forest Service Directives

FSM 2354.02 Trail, River, and Similar Recreation Opportunities, Objective; FSM 2354.03 Trail, 

River, and Similar Recreation Opportunities, Policy; FSM 2354.04 Trail, River, and Similar 

Recreation Opportunities, Responsibility; FSM 2354.21 Recreation, Wilderness, and Related 

Resource Management, Management of Study Rivers; FSM 2354.42 (a-p) Wild and Scenic River 

Resource Protection and Management; FSM 1924 – Wild and Scenic River Evaluation.

FSH 1909.12 Chapter 80 – Wild and Scenic River Evaluation

Other

IWSRCC, The WSR Study Process, December 1999. 

USDA/USDI Guidelines for Eligibility, Classification, and Management of River Areas dated 

September 7, 1982. 

Resource Information Report for Potential Wild, Scenic, Recreational River Designation, 

National Forests of Arizona, September 1993.

Other wild and scenic river comprehensive river management plans.

National Trails and Scenic Byways

Federal Statutes

National Historic Preservation Act Sections 106 and 110; National Trails System Act of 1968; 

Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century of 1998, or most recent reauthorizing legislation.

Code of Federal Regulations

36 CFR 800 Parks, Forests, and Public Property, Advisory Council on Historic Preservation; 36 

CFR 60.4 National Register of Historic Places, Criteria for Evaluation.

Forest Service Directives

FSM 2300 Recreation, Wilderness, and Related Resource Management; FSM 2353.11 

Recreation, Wilderness, and Related Resource Management, Chapter 50 Trail, River, and Similar 

Recreation Opportunities, Relationship Between National Recreation, National Scenic, and 
Appendix E. Other Sources of Information

Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

269

National Historic Trails and NFS Trails; FSM 2380.13 Landscape Management, Scenic Trails and 

Byways.

Other

National Forest Road and Trails Act (FRTA) of October 13, 1964

Granger-Thye Act of April 24, 1958

Other Special Areas

Research Natural Areas (RNA),

and Botanical and Geological Areas

Forest Service Directives

FSM 4063.02 Research Natural Areas, Objectives & FSM 4063.03 Research Natural Areas, 

Policy; FSM 4000 Research and Development, Chapter 4060, Research Facilities and Areas, 

Policy; FSM 2880 Geologic Resources, Hazards and Services, Chapter Section 2882.8 Special 

Interest Areas and Research Natural Areas; FSM 2300 Recreation, Wilderness and related 

Resource Management, Chapter 2370 Special Recreation Designations.
Coronado National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan 

270

List of Preparers

Terry Austin GIS Coordinator

Angela Barclay Forest Biologist

Yolynda Begay Forest Planner

Sharon Biedenbender Forest Ecologist

Rachael Biggs Forester

Erin Boyle Assistant Forest Planner 

Eli Curiel Transportation Engineer

Sarah Davis Planning, Collaboration, and Partnerships

Sara Dechter Forest Planner

Margie DeRose Geologist Project Manager

Tami Emmett Forest Lands Realty Specialist

Beverley Everson Geologist

Mary Farrell Heritage Program Leader and Tribal Liaison 

Richard Gerhart Staff Officer: Wildlife, Fish, and Rare Plants

William Gillespie Heritage Program Leader, Tribal Liaison, and Archaeologist 

Polly Haessig NEPA Specialist and Forest Geologist 

James Heitholt Rangeland Program Manager

Rachael Hohl Environmental Coordinator

Ed Holloway Forest Range Staff

Melissa Jenkins Presidential Management Fellow

Larry Jones Forest Biologist 

Rebekah Karsch Deputy Forest Biologist

Walter Keyes Roads Engineer

Debby Kriegel Forest Landscape Architect

Robert Lefevre Forestry and Watershed Program Manager

Mindi Lehew Natural Resource Specialist

Ann Lynch Forest Entomologist

George McKay Lands Program Manager

Linda Peery Planning Biologist

Albert Peralta Staff Assistant

Devin Quintana Cartographer

Rosamond Robinson Forest Planner

Jennifer Ruyle Natural Resources and Planning Staff Officer

Jeremy Sautter Lands Assistant

Kenna Schoenle Assistant Forest Planner

Salek Shafiqullah Forest Hydrologist

Mark Stamer Forest Wildlife, Fish, and Rare Plants Program Manager

Christopher Stetson Fire Planner and Fuels Specialist

Chris Thiel Natural Resources and Planning Staff Officer

Jennifer Varin Watershed Program Manager

Mindi Sue Vogel Forest Geologist

Laura White Arizona National Scenic Trail Administrator

Craig Wilcox Forest Silviculturist

Joe Winfield Recreation Staff Officer