YOUTH HELPING AMERICA

Educating for Active Citizenship: 

Service-Learning, School-Based Service 

and Youth Civic Engagement

March 2006
AUTHORS

Kimberly Spring Policy Analyst, Office of Research and Policy Development, Corporation for National

and Community Service

Nathan Dietz Research Associate and Statistician, Office of Research and Policy Development,

Corporation for National and Community Service

Robert Grimm, Jr. Director, Office of Research and Policy Development, Corporation for National 

and Community Service

THE YOUTH HELPING AMERICA SERIES

BUILDING ACTIVE CITIZENS: The Role of Social Institutions in Teen Volunteering 

November 2005

EDUCATING FOR ACTIVE CITIZENSHIP Service-Learning, School-Based Service,

and Civic Engagement 

March 2006

CITATION: Corporation for National and Community Service. Educating for Active

Citizenship: Service-Learning, School-Based Service, and Civic Engagement. Brief 2 

in the Youth Helping America Series. Washington, DC. March 2006.

The Corporation for National and Community Service provides opportunities 

for Americans of all ages and backgrounds to serve their communities 

and country through three programs: Senior Corps, AmeriCorps, and Learn 

and Serve America. Together with USA Freedom Corps, the Corporation is working

to foster a culture of citizenship, service, and responsibility in America.

Learn and Serve America supports service-learning programs in schools 

and community organizations that help nearly 1 million students from

kindergarten through college meet community needs, while improving their

academic skills and learning the habits of good citizenship. Learn and Serve

America grants are used to create new programs or replicate existing

programs, as well as to provide training and development to staff, faculty, 

and volunteers. For more information, please visit www.nationalservice.gov.

Upon request this material will be made available in alternative forms for people with disabilities. Copyright © 2006. The Corporation

for National and Community Service. All rights reserved.
This brief is the second in the Youth Helping America Series, a series of reports based on data

from the Youth Volunteering and Civic Engagement Survey, a national survey of 3,178

American youth between the ages of 12 and 18 that was conducted by the Corporation 

for National and Community Service in 2005 in collaboration with the U.S. Census Bureau

and the nonprofit coalition Independent Sector. 

The survey collected information on teen volunteering habits, experiences with schoolbased service-learning, and other forms of civic engagement. While the first brief 

in the Youth Helping America Series focused on youth volunteering and social institutions,

this brief focuses on participation in school-based service — service opportunities made

available or required by schools — among middle school and high school aged youth. 

We pay particular attention to the extent to which youth participate in service-learning

courses, which integrate school-based service opportunities into the academic curriculum

such as those programs supported by Learn and Serve America.

By approaching school-based service from the perspectives of youth, it is possible to identify:

1) who among youth participate in school-based service; 2) their perceptions of what they

accomplished in the experience; and 3) the relationship between this school-based service

and their attitudes and behaviors toward other forms of civic engagement. 

According to the survey, 38 percent of youth — or an estimated 10.6 million students

nationwide — report current or past participation in community service as part of a school

activity or requirement. Of these students, 74 percent, or approximately 7.8 million, are

either currently enrolled or were enrolled within the previous year in a course that contains

a service component, while 26 percent participated in such a course at some time in the past.

High school students are more likely than middle school students to have participated 

in at least one school-based service experience.

Of all school-based service experiences, more than three-quarters — or 77 percent — take

place as part of a course that contains one or more of the generally accepted elements 

of high-quality service-learning. These elements include:

(1) Planning the service activity (36 percent of all courses)

(2) Participating in regular service for a semester or longer (36 percent 

of all courses)

(3) Writing or reflecting on the service experience in class (51 percent 

of all courses)

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND KEY FINDINGS

Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to acknowledge the U.S. Census Bureau for all of its efforts in designing and implementing this survey,

particularly the work of Ken Kaplan. We would like to thank our colleagues at the Corporation for National and Community

Service for their intellectual contributions to the report, including Learn and Serve America staff and their director, Amy

Cohen, as well as our coworkers in the Department of Research and Policy Development. We are likewise grateful to Shelley

Billig, Barbara Holland, Alan Melchior, and Marybeth Neal for providing us with insightful comments in the drafting process.

This brief is the second in the Youth Helping America Series, a series of reports based on the 2005 Youth Volunteering

and Civic Engagement Survey.
To determine whether youth participated in service-learning, as opposed to simply schoolbased service, we developed a service-learning quality index that counts the number of highquality elements associated with the school-based service experience. Among the students

who participate in school-based service, whether currently or some time in the past, we found

that 10 percent — or an estimated 1.1 million — participate in service-learning with all three

of the quality elements, 26 percent with two of the elements, and 41 percent with one 

of the elements.

While the majority of students report that their experience with school-based service had a

positive impact on them, we found that students who report current or past participation 

in service-learning that includes reflection, planning, and service that lasts at least one

semester, are more than twice as likely than students who participate in school-based

service with none of the three quality elements to report that their experience had 

a very positive impact on them.

The study also found that the likelihood of a student's participation in school-based service,

as well as in courses that involve one or more quality elements of service-learning, is related

to several school factors:

n High school students (defined as grades 9 - 12) are more than 30 percent more likely than

middle school students (defined as grades 6-8) to participate in school-based service,

whether the participation occurred within the previous year or some time in the past. 

n Students in private schools are more than 50 percent more likely to engage in schoolbased service than students in public schools. They also are more likely to engage 

in service-learning courses that include reflection, planning, and/or service that lasts at

least one semester.

n Participation in school-based service is higher among students with grade-point averages

of B+ or higher (43 percent) than among students with grade-point averages 

of B or lower (35 percent), as is participation in service-learning courses with one or

more of the quality elements.

n Among youth who have participated in school-based service, high school students (80

percent) are more likely than middle school students (68 percent) to have participated 

in service that contains at least one of the three elements of quality service-learning.

In addition, the study found that youth coming from families where their parents and/or

siblings volunteer are more likely to report current or past participation in school-based

service, as well as service-learning courses that contain planning, reflection, and/or regular

service that lasts at least one semester.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND KEY FINDINGS

2 Youth Helping America
Participation in school-based volunteer service, and especially service-learning courses with

several quality elements, also was found to have a strong positive relationship with several

measures of civic engagement, including their stated likelihood of future volunteering, their sense

of personal efficacy, and their interest in current events and politics. Indeed, the strongest of these

relationships are around future civic behaviors and attitudes. For example, we found that:

n Youth who report past participation in school-based service are more likely to have 

volunteered through an organization in the past twelve months than those youth who

have never participated in school-based service, 59 percent to 48 percent, respectively.

n Students who report current or previous participation in a service-learning course that

includes reflection, planning, and service that lasts at least one semester are 40 percent

more likely than school-based service participants to say they are very likely to volunteer

in the upcoming year, and 71 percent more likely than individuals who have never

engaged in school-based service.

n Youth who report current or past participation in service-learning courses that include

reflection, planning and service that lasts at least one semester are 63 percent more likely

than those who have never engaged in school-based service to say that they take a good

deal of interest in world events.

n Participants in school-based service talk about politics with their friends and parents more

often than non-participants do — and even more so when the service is part of a servicelearning course that includes reflection, planning, and service that lasts at least one semester.

n Youth who report current or past participation in service-learning courses that include

reflection, planning, and service that lasts at least one semester are almost three times 

as likely to believe they can make a great deal of difference in their community than

youth who participated in school-based service without any of the quality elements 

of service-learning.

n Finally, youth from affluent families are more likely to participate in both school-based

service and service-learning courses that include quality elements. However, youth from

low-income families who participate in school-based service and service-learning

demonstrate many positive relationships to civic attitudes and behaviors, highlighting 

the importance of making school-based service and service-learning courses accessible 

to students of all backgrounds.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND KEY FINDINGS

Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 3
4 Youth Helping America

INTRODUCTION

In an effort to better understand the attitudes and behaviors of young people in America

around volunteering, service-learning, and other forms of community involvement, 

the Corporation for National and Community Service, in collaboration with the U.S. Census

Bureau and Independent Sector,

conducted the Youth Volunteering

and Civic Engagement Survey (the

Youth Volunteering Survey), a

national survey of American youth.

Between January and March of

2005, 3,178 Americans between

the ages of 12 and 18 were asked

about their volunteering habits and

experiences with service-learning

projects, as well as their attitudes

and behaviors related to other

forms of civic engagement. 

Previous research has demonstrated that youth involvement in school-based service and

service-learning can produce valuable benefits to local communities and enable young

people to become proactive members of society. While research in this field has measured

the extent to which schools provide opportunities for youth to participate in these activities

and assessed the impact of community service and service-learning on youth academic and

personal development, we have lacked national level data on the self-reported participation

rates among American youth.1

By approaching school-based service from the perspectives of

youth, it is possible to identify youth perceptions of their service experiences and the

relationship between this school-based service

and their attitudes and behaviors toward other

forms of civic engagement.

The following report, the second in the Youth

Helping America Series, explores youth

engagement in school-based service and the

connections between these experiences 

and other forms of civic engagement. This brief

focuses on participation in school-based

service — service opportunities made

available or required by schools — among

middle-school and high-school aged youth.

We pay particular attention to the extent to

which youth participate in service-learning courses, which integrate school-based service

opportunities into the course curriculum, such as those programs that are supported by Learn

and Serve America. We show that those who participate in school-based service and servicelearning courses tend to score higher on several indicators of civic engagement.
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 5

SCHOOL-BASED SERVICE

MAJOR FINDING: 38 percent of youth, or approximately 10.6 million youth

nationwide, report current or past participation in school-based service.

The first report of the Youth Helping America Series, “Building Active Citizens: The Role 

of Social Institutions in Teen Volunteering,” demonstrated the important role that schools

play in engaging students in volunteering and service.2

The report maintained that schools,

as the site where youth begin to develop a sense of a larger community to which they

belong, can play a valuable role in providing opportunities for youth to interact with adults

outside of their family, develop their own voice and connections to their community, 

and feel empowered to make a difference.

School-based Service

One of the primary ways that schools provide opportunities for youth to engage in their

community is through school-based service, which can be mandatory or voluntary and takes

place through community service or service-learning. In 1992, Learn and Serve America, the

federal program that provides grants in support of service-learning programs, made its first

round of awards to state education agencies in an effort to provide young people the

opportunities to participate in quality service-learning programs. Over the past twenty years,

there has been a growing trend in the inclusion of community service and service-learning

in America's schools as educators and school administrators realize the value of service for

youth academic and personal development.3

A national survey of school principals by the

U.S. Department of Education in 1999 found that 46 percent of public high schools and 38

percent of public middle schools offer service-learning activities for their students, while 83

percent of high schools and 77 percent of middle schools organize community service

opportunities. This compares to only 9 percent for service-learning activities and 27 percent

for community service opportunities among public high schools in 1984, an indication that

the majority of America's schools today place an emphasis on the value of service.4

Yet, even

as schools may offer service opportunities to teens, not all youth take part in these activities. 

The Youth Volunteering Survey included a series of questions intended to gauge the level 

of involvement among youth in these school-based service activities.5

Respondents were

asked whether they have ever performed any community service as part of a school activity

or requirement. We found that 38 percent of youth, or approximately 10.6 million youth

nationwide, have taken part in community service through their school at some time in their

educational career. We label these activities as school-based service. [See Chart 1]

According to the survey, the majority of these

students, 64 percent, an estimated 6.8 million

nationwide, report that their current or past

participation in school-based service has

occurred in one class, while an additional 22

percent have taken part in school-based

service in two classes.6

[See Chart 2] 
6 Youth Helping America

WHERE SCHOOL-BASED SERVICE IS TAKING PLACE

No

62%

Yes

38%

CHART 1: Percentage of Youth Who Reported Current or Past

Participation in School-Based Service

7%

7%

22% 64%

1 Class

2 Classes

3 Classes

4 Classes or more

CHART 2: Number of Classes That Youth Have Taken That 

Include School-Based Service
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 7

WHERE SCHOOL-BASED SERVICE IS TAKING PLACE

MAJOR FINDING: High school students are 37 percent more likely than middle

school students to participate in school-based service, whether in the previous year

or some time in the past — 41 percent to 30 percent respectively.

High school students have had a longer opportunity to engage in school-based service than

those students in middle school, so it is not surprising to find that more high school students

(defined as grades 9-12) than middle school students (defined as grades 6-8) report

participation in school-based service at some time in their educational career, 41 percent 

to 30 percent respectively. However, even when looking at participation within the previous

year, we still find that high school students are 35 percent more likely to have participated

in school-based service, with a participation rate of 31 percent of high school students

compared to 23 percent of middle school students. [See Chart 3] 

CHART 3: Participation in School-Based Service in Previous Year or Earlier by Grade Level

23%

0%

7%

articipated in school-based service 1 year ago or less

articipated in school-based service 1+ years ago

No participation in school-based service

Middle School Students (Grades 6-8)

1%

59%

0%

articipated in school-based service 1 year ago or less

articipated in school-based service 1+ years ago

No participation in school-based service

High School Students (Grades 9-12)
The survey also found that students that attend private schools are more than 50 percent

more likely to have ever engaged in school-based service than students in public schools,

with students attending private religious schools most likely to participate in school-based

service. [See Chart 4] 

8 Youth Helping America

0%

0%

20%

30%

36%

40%

40% 48% 52%

50%

60%

60% 64%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Private, eligious Private, secular Public school

Participation in school-based service

No participation in school-based service

CHART 4: Participation in School-Based Service 

(Current or Past) by School Type

WHERE SCHOOL-BASED SERVICE IS TAKING PLACE
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 9

A PICTURE OF SERVICE-LEARNING ACTIVITIES

In asking youth about their experiences with school-based service, we were particularly

interested in identifying the extent to which this school-based service experience included

elements of service-learning. While our definition of school-based service connects community

service with a school course, service-learning is distinguished from broader school-based service

as an educational practice that involves the active participation of students in activities that

address community needs, is integrated into the academic curriculum, has structured time 

for reflection, and provides opportunities for the direct application of the knowledge and skills

acquired. Service-learning is distinct from other experiential education methods in its intentional

aim to give equal weight to both service and learning.

A list of the Essential Elements of Service-Learning was first developed by the Alliance for ServiceLearning in Educational Reform in 1995 and later updated in 1998 by the National ServiceLearning Cooperative.7

Testing of these elements has shown that among the eleven essential

elements of service-learning, three elements are fundamental to positive impacts of servicelearning: student reflection on the service-learning activities, the involvement of students 

in the planning and implementation of projects, and regular service activities that last at least 

one semester.8

While research on service-learning participation tends to measure the inclusion of these

elements and others in service-learning activities based on the perspective of the educators,

the Youth Volunteering Survey gathered information on the quality of the service-learning

experience from the perspective of the youth themselves. This approach means that we are

not able to assess the intention of educators in implementing the service projects; however,

research also has shown that youth perceptions of their service experience may differ from

the intention of educators, and that this difference is important to understanding the impact

of the experience.9

For example, while a teacher may intend for students to help plan a

service project, the students themselves may not feel that they have had an active voice in

planning, thus affecting their experience of the service-learning project.

In order to assess the quality of the servicelearning experience for youth, the survey asked

those teens who indicated that they had engaged

in school-based service whether they had helped 

to plan the service project, whether they were

required to write about or reflect on their service

experience for the class, and how long they

regularly participated in service activities. 
10 Youth Helping America

51%

36 % 36 %

0 %

10 %

20 %

30 %

40 %

50 %

60 %

Wrote or reflected 

on the service

Helped plan the service project Participated in community

service for a semester or more

CHART 5: Elements of Service-Learning Activities for Youth Who Reported

Current or Past Participation in School-Based Service

A PICTURE OF SERVICE-LEARNING ACTIVITIES

MAJOR FINDING: Of those youth who have engaged in current or past schoolbased experience, 77 percent, or an estimated 8.1 million, also experienced one or

more of the generally accepted elements of high-quality service-learning.

We found that 77 percent of those who have engaged in school-based service at any time

in the past took part in at least one of these activities, with 36 percent, or 3.8 million

participants, participating in the planning of their service project, 51 percent, or 5.4 million,

writing about or reflecting on their service experience in class, and 36 percent, or 3.8

million, having participated in regular service activities that lasted at least one semester.

[See Chart 5]
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 11

ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL-BASED SERVICE 

Quality Index

Based on the hypothesis that the more quality elements incorporated into school-based

service, the greater the impact on the youth participants, we created a quality index 

for school-based service [See Figure 1]. With this quality index, we are able to explore 

the likelihood of participation in quality service-learning activities for different youth

populations as well as the likelihood with which they will participate in volunteer activities

and other forms of civic behaviors. [Note: All findings are statistically significant unless

otherwise indicated]. 

FIGURE 1: Construction of a Quality Index for School-Based Service

The quality index is based on whether youth have participated in community service as

part of a school activity or requirement, what we refer to as school-based service. 

If a teen indicates that he or she has participated in school-based service, we then

considered whether his or her latest experience with school-based service included any of

the following quality elements:

(1) Planning the service activity; 

(2) Writing or reflecting on the service experience; and 

(3) Participating in community service for at least one semester. 

When teens participate in class activities with community service that includes one or

more of the quality elements, we view their school-based service as participation in

service-learning activities. The more quality elements included in their activities, the higher

the quality of their service-learning experience. In this way, we were able to construct five

categories for the Index:

(1) No participation in school-based service

(2) Participation in school-based service

(3) Participation in service-learning with one quality element

(4) Participation in service-learning with two quality elements

(5) Participation in service-learning with three quality elements
12 Youth Helping America

While the majority of students report that their experience with school-based service 

had a positive impact on them, we found that the greater the number of quality elements

included in the service-learning activities, the more likely youth are to find that 

the experience had a very positive impact. [See Chart 7] 

ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL-BASED SERVICE 

0%

41%

23%

26%

articipation in school

Service-learning with two quality elements

Service-learning with three quality elements

Service-learning with one quality element

CHART 6: The Quality of Youth School-Based Service and Service-Learning

MAJOR FINDING: Among students who report current or past participation in schoolbased service, 10 percent, or an estimated 1.1 million youth nationwide, also report

participation in service-learning that included all three of the quality elements of service

learning: planning the activity, reflecting on the service experience in class, 

and participating in regular service that lasts at least one semester.

By utilizing this Index, we found that among the students who report current or past

participation in school-based service, 10 percent have participated in service-learning with

all three of the quality elements, 26 percent with two of the elements, and 41 percent with

one of the elements. [See Chart 6] 
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 13

ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL-BASED SERVICE 

52% 52%

58%

78%

12%

7%

3%

Very positive impact

Somewhat positive impact

No/Negative impact

78%

22%

0%

36%

52%

12%

58%

39%

3%

52%

41%

7%

articipation in 

school-based service

ervice-learning with 

one quality element

ervice-learning with 

wo quality elements

ervice-learning with 

three quality elements

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

36%

22%

0%

41% 39%

CHART 7: Students’ Perception of the Impact of Current or Past Participation in

School-Based Service and Service-Learning

MAJOR FINDING: Youth who report current or past participation in service-learning

with all three quality elements are more than twice as likely to report that their

experience had a very positive impact on them than those youth who only participate

in school-based service, 78 percent to 36 percent, respectively.

When compared to students who participate in school-based service without any 

of the three elements of service learning, students who report current or past participation 

in service-learning that includes reflection, planning, and service that lasts at least one

semester are more than twice as likely to report that their experience had a very positive

impact on them, 78 percent to 36 percent, respectively. 
14 Youth Helping America

ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL-BASED SERVICE 

MAJOR FINDING: High school students, youth who attend private school, 

and students with higher academic achievement are all more likely to report current 

or past participation in school-based service and high quality service-learning.

Existing research has shown that the inclusion of school-based service and service-learning

varies by school type, so it is not surprising that we found that the characteristics of teens’ school

experience are related to the likelihood that they will engage in school-based service and

service-learning activities.10

For example, as we found for

overall participation in

school-based service, high

school students are more

likely to engage in quality

service-learning opportunities

than middle school students.

Whereas 80 percent of high

school students' experience

with service as part of a class

includes reflection, planning,

and/or service that lasts at

least one semester, only 68

percent of middle school

students report such service-learning experiences.

When we consider only those youth who have participated in school-based service within

the previous year, we again find that high school students are more likely to participate 

in high quality service-learning than middle school students, indicating that high schools are

more likely to provide service-learning opportunities. [See Chart 8] 

In the same vein, private schools are more likely to include school-based service 

and service-learning in their programs. The study found that students in private schools are

more than 50 percent more likely than public school students to report current or past

participation in school-based service, and students in private schools also are more likely 

to engage in service-learning that includes reflection, participation in planning, and regular

service that lasts a semester or longer. [See Chart 9]
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 15

SCHOOL EXPERIENCES AND SERVICE-LEARNING

7%

20%

33%

40%

Middle School Students (Grades 6-8)

12%

40%

28%

20%

Participation in school

Service-learning with two quality elements

Service-learning with three quality elements

Service-learning with one quality element

High School Students (Grades 9-12)

CHART 8: Participation in School-Based Service and Service-Learning 

In the Previous Year by Grade Level
16 Youth Helping America

ASSESSING THE QUALITY OF SCHOOL-BASED SERVICE 

CHART 9: Current or Past Participation in School-Based Service and

Service-Learning, by School Type

43% 57%

0%

26%

15%

6%

Private School Students

No Participation in school-based service Service-learning with one quality element

Service-learning with two quality elements

Service-learning with three quality elements

Participation in school-based service 

64% 36%

9%

14%

9%

4%

Public School Students
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 17

The level of teens' academic achievement also is related to participation in school-based

service and service-learning. We found that students who report a grade point average (GPA)

of B+ or higher are more likely to report current or past participation in school-based service

than those who report a GPA of B or lower, 43 percent to 35 percent, respectively.11 In

addition, students who do less well in school, reporting a GPA of C or lower, are the least

likely to report participation in school-based service, and when they do, the service activities

are less likely to have one or more quality elements of service-learning. [See Chart 10]

SCHOOL EXPERIENCES AND SERVICE-LEARNING

40%

60%

55%

35%

74%

60%

45%

%

6%

45%

55%

39%

6 %

35%

65%

articipation in school-based 

service and service learning

No participation in 

school-based service

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

A or A+ A-/B+ B C or lower

40% %

65%

B-/C+

26%

74%

CHART 10: Current or Past Participation in Any Type of School-Based

Service, by GPA

Cu ren or Pa Participation in School-Based Service and 

Service-Learning by GPA (based on total youth population)

articipation i

chool-based service

ervice-learing with 

quality element

ervice-learing with 

quality elements

ervice-learing with 

quality elements

A or A+

A B+

C+

C or lower

11%

0%

6%

3%

7%

3%

9%

7%

4%

11%

3%

2%

9%

7%

6%

4%

5%

6%

2%

2%

[Note: Figures in the table

may not add up to the

percentages in the chart

due to rounding].
18 Youth Helping America

FAMILY VOLUNTEERING AND 

PARTICIPATION IN SCHOOL-BASED SERVICE

MAJOR FINDING: Youth with immediate family members who volunteer are

more likely to report current or past participation in school-based service 

and high quality service-learning than those youth who do not have immediate

family members that volunteer. 

We found in our analysis for the

first briefing report, “Building

Active Citizens,” that the variable

which appears to have the

strongest relationship with youth

volunteering rates is the extent to

which the youth's family

volunteers.12 We just have seen

that school-related characteristics,

such as school type and level of

academic achievement, are

related to the likelihood of participation in school-based service; however, we were

interested in exploring whether external factors might also have a relationship with youth

participation in school-based service. While previous research supports our findings around

the correlations between participation in school-based service and school factors, we have

lacked data on the significance of such external factors as family civic engagement. We had

found in our analysis for the first briefing report that the variable that has the strongest

relationship with youth volunteering habits is the extent to which the youth's family

volunteers. Therefore, we were interested in exploring whether family volunteering habits

might also have a significant relationship to participation in school-based service.

When we considered the relationship between family volunteering and the likelihood that

youth will participate in school-based service, we found that this relationship does not prove

to have as strong of a relationship as we found with youth volunteering; however, we did

find the relationship between the likelihood that youth participate in school-based service

and the volunteering habits of their immediate family (defined as parents and siblings) to be

both significant and positive: youth with family members who volunteer are more likely 

to participate in school-based service, and are more likely to participate in quality servicelearning activities. [See Chart 11] 

These findings indicate that, while teens' decision to participate in service-learning are

influenced by opportunities made available by the school, outside factors also may influence

the likelihood that youth will engage in school-based service. When family members

volunteer, they may create an environment that encourages youth to participate in classes

that include service, or it may be that youth who come from families that volunteer may be

more cognizant of their participation in service-learning activities. While the scope of this

study does not allow us to identify the reason behind this significant relationship between

participation in school-based service and family volunteering habits, we believe that this

finding warrants investigation through further research. 
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 19

FAMILY VOLUNTEERING AND 

PARTICIPATION IN SCHOOL-BASED SERVICE

CHART 11: Current or Past Participation in School-Based Service and

Service-Learning by Volunteering in the Immediate Family

68% 32%

8%

14%

7%

3%

Participation in School-Based Service When Immediate Family Does Not Volunteer

No Participation in school-based service Service-learning with one quality element

Service-learning with two quality elements

Service-learning with three quality elements

articipation in school-based service 

57% 43%

Participation in School-Based Service When One or More Immediate Family

Members Volunteer

9%

16%

13%

5%
20 Youth Helping America

SERVICE-LEARNING AND 

YOUTH COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT 

Thus far in the report, we have looked at those factors that have a strong relationship with

the likelihood that youth will participate in school-based service and service-learning. 

The remainder of this report will focus on the relationship between participation in schoolbased service and other forms of youth civic engagement. 

Previous research has indicated that service-learning can have a positive impact on your civic

engagement.13 When youth plan an activity, they are able to feel empowered to identify 

a community problem and decide on ways in which to address that problem. In reflecting 

on the activity, they are able to share their experience with others and make connections

between the activity and the larger community context. When youth engage in long-term

community service, typically identified as a semester or longer, they are able to see the longerterm effects of the service and make deeper connections within the community. 

Through our analysis, we were able to examine the relationship between youth engagement in

service-learning activities and their likelihood of future volunteering, their sense of personal

efficacy, and their interest in current

events and politics. While the

nature of the data does not allow us

to establish a causal relationship

between participation in schoolbased service and other forms of

civic engagement, we asked: Does

participation in school-based

service have a connection with the

likelihood that youth are or will be

active citizens? 
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 21

SERVICE-LEARNING AND 

YOUTH COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT 

MAJOR FINDING: Youth who report past participation in school-based service are more likely

to have volunteered through an organization in the past twelve months than those youth who

have never participated in school-based service, 59 percent to 48 percent, respectively.

In order to assess whether past participation in school-based service is related to future

volunteering, we looked at those youth who report involvement in school-based service that took

place more than a year ago. We compared their volunteering habits to those youth who indicate

that they have never participated in school-based service. We found that students who

participated in school-based service more than a year ago are more likely to have volunteered

through an organization in the past twelve months, 59 percent to 48 percent, respectively. 

We also considered attitudes toward

volunteering and service among

youth who report current or past

participation in school-based service

and service-learning. The study

asked teens who are 16 years or

older about the likelihood that they

would volunteer in the next twelve

months. By analyzing their attitudes

toward future volunteering and their

current or past participation in

school-based service, we found that

the higher the quality of service-learning, the more likely youth are to report that they will

volunteer in the future. [See Chart 12]

In addition, the study indicates that engagement in service-learning has a positive relationship

with teens' attitudes toward devoting a year to national and community service, such as

participating in an AmeriCorps program. More than 90 percent of youth who are 16 years 

and older and report current or past participation in service-learning that included reflection,

participation in planning, and service that lasts at least one semester indicate that they would be

interested in serving a community for a year, compared to 75 percent of those who have never

participated in school-based service.
22 Youth Helping America

FUTURE VOLUNTEERING

27%

39%

39%

42%

39%

54%

34%

34%

%

%

18%

42%

4 %

8%

39%

53%

5%

4 %

54%

Not At All or Not Very Likely

Somewhat Likely

Very Likely

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

No participation

in school-based 

service

articipation in 

school-based 

service

Servicelearning with 

1 quality 

elements

Servicelearning with 

2 quality 

elements

%

39%

%

%

5%

53%

4%

18%

Servicelearning with 

quality 

elements

4%

39%

57%

CHART 12: The Likelihood of Volunteering in the Next Year by Youth Participation

In School-Based Service and Service-Learning (Currently or in the Past)
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 23

YOUTH CIVIC ENGAGEMENT

If service-learning is an effective way of actively engaging youth in their community while

also providing an environment in which youth can make connections between their service

activities and broader community issues, then we should see a relationship between

participation in service-learning and other forms of civic engagement, such as interest 

in political and current events, a sense of youth efficacy, levels of trust, and a sense 

of optimism for the future. While we were unable to establish correlations with trust 

and optimism for the future, we did find that participation in service-learning has a positive

relationship to interest in political and current events and youth efficacy.

The study indicates that there is a correlation between participation in service-learning 

and interest in political and current events, and that this interest increases as the quality 

of the service-learning experience increases. For example, 52 percent of youth who report

current or past participation in service-learning activities that included reflection,

participation in planning, and regular service that lasts at least one semester say that they

take a good deal of interest in world events, while only 32 percent of those who have never

engaged in school-based service report the same level of interest. [See Chart 13]

In addition, we asked youth about

the extent to which they discuss

politics with their family and

friends. We found that youth who

report current or past participation

in quality service-learning are

more likely to discuss politics with

their friends, as well as with their

parents and other adults, than

those youth who have never

participated in school-based

service. [See Charts 14 and 15]

We found a moderate but significant relationship between participation in service-learning

and youth attitudes toward political participation through voting. We found that youth who

are 16 years or older and report current or past participation in service-learning activities

that included reflection, participation in planning, and regular service that lasts at least one

semester are more likely to indicate that it is very likely that they will vote regularly once

they are eligible than those who have never participated in school-based service, 84 percent

to 72 percent, respectively. 
24 Youth Helping America

YOUTH CIVIC ENGAGEMENT

17%

52%

32%

16%

50%

34%

13%

49%

39%

0%

47%

43%

Not very much interest

Some interest

A good deal of interest

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

No participation

in school-based 

service

articipation in 

school-based 

service

Servicelearning with 

1 quality 

element

Servicelearning with 

2 quality 

elements

Servicelearning with 

3 quality 

elements

6%

43%

52%

50% 49%

43%

32%

13%

47%

17%

43%

34%

0%

39%

6%

16%

52% 52%

CHART 13: Interest in Current Events by Youth Participation in School-Based

Service and Service-Learning (Currently or in the Past)

MAJOR FINDING: Youth who report current or past participation in service-learning are

more likely to report interest in current events and to discuss politics with adults and friends

than those who have never participated in school-based service.
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 25

YOUTH CIVIC ENGAGEMENT

65%

23%

8%

59%

30%

9%

52%

33%

0%

45%

37%

12%

0 days

1-2 days

3-5 days

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

No participation

in school-based 

service

articipation in 

school-based 

service

Servicelearning with 

1 quality 

element

Servicelearning with 

2 quality 

elements

Servicelearning with 

3 quality 

elements

45%

32%

12%

3%

52%

0%

8%

2%

33%

65%

37%

30%

5%

9%

45%

59%

7%

45%

32%

11%

6-7 days 3% 2% 5% 7% 11%

CHART 14: The Number of Days per Week Youth Discuss Politics With Parents

Or Other Adults, by Participation in School-Based Service and Service-Learning

(Currently or in the Past)
Finally, the study indicates that there is a strong correlation between youth efficacy, defined

as the personal ability to make a difference in solving problems in their community, 

and participation in school-based service. [See Chart 16] 

For example, youth who report current or past participation in service-learning activities that

include reflection, participation in planning and regular service that lasts at least one

semester are nearly three times more likely than those who engaged in service with none of

these elements to say that they believe that they can personally make a great deal of

difference in their community, 22 percent to 8 percent, respectively.

26 Youth Helping America

YOUTH CIVIC ENGAGEMENT

66%

24%

8%

63%

22%

12%

59%

25%

11%

43%

36%

15%

0 days

1-2 days

3-5 days

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

No participation

in school-based 

service

articipation in 

school-based 

service

Service-learning 

with 

1 quality 

element

Service-learning 

with 

2 quality 

elements

Service-learning

with 

3 quality 

elements

43%

33%

12%

3%

59%

1%

2%

25%

66%

36%

22%

4%

12%

43%

63%

24%

15%

5%

43%

33%

12%11%

6-7 days 3% 2% 4% 5% 11%

8%

CHART 15: The Number of Days per Week Youth Discuss Politics With Friends, by

Participation in School-Based Service and Service-Learning (Currently or in the Past)
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 27

YOUTH CIVIC ENGAGEMENT

15%

28%

45%

11%

34%

48%

None or almost no difference

A little difference

Some difference

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

No participation

in school-based 

service

articipation in 

school-based 

service

12%

8%

55%

45%

8%

24%

15%

25%

34%

13%

48%

5%

11%

28%

53%

3%

17% 18%

22%

57%

12% 8%

8%

24%

55%

ervicelearning with 

1 qualit

element

13%

5%

25%

53%

ervicelearning with 

qualit

elements

17%

ervicelearning with 

qualit

elements

3%

18%

57%

A great deal of difference 22%

CHART 16: Personal Ability to Make a Difference in the Community for

Youth Who Participated in School-Based Service and Service-Learning

(Currently or in the Past)

MAJOR FINDING: Youth who report current or past participation in high quality servicelearning activities are nearly three times more likely than those who engaged in schoolbased service with none of these elements to say that they believe that they can personally

make a great deal of difference in their community, 22 percent to 8 percent, respectively.

When we examined which of the elements of school-based service is the strongest factor in

relation to these civic behaviors and attitudes, we found that while reflection can explain

these differences better than either planning or regular service, it is the fact that youth

participate in service that is connected to a class that has the greatest explanatory value. 
28 Youth Helping America

YOUTH CIVIC ENGAGEMENT

FIGURE 2: Positive Relationships between Civic Attitudes and Behaviors and

Participation in School-Based Service

n Likelihood of volunteering in the next year*

STRONGER

n Likelihood of regularly voting once 18 years old*

n Volunteering in the past year**

n Discussing politics with parents or other adults

n Discussing politics with friends

n Belief in personal ability to make a difference in solving community problems

WEAKER n Interest in current events

* Includes only those youth 16 years of age or older.

**Includes only those youth who participated in school-based service more than one year ago.

MAJOR FINDING: Current or past participation in school-based service has the

strongest relationship with volunteering attitudes and behaviors among youth, followed

by likelihood of voting regularly, interest in politics, belief in personal efficacy, and

interest in current events.

We further found that school-based service has the strongest relationship with volunteering

attitudes and behaviors, as well as an interest in being an active voter. There 

is a significant, albeit weaker, relationship between school-based service and discussions 

of politics, youth sense of personal efficacy and interest in current events.14 [See Figure 2]

We did not find a significant relationship between school-based service and the extent 

to which youth report a positive attitude toward the future of the country or their level 

of trust toward people in general.
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 29

YOUTH CIVIC ENGAGEMENT

MAJOR FINDING: While youth from low-income families are less likely to report

current or past participation in school-based service, there is a positive correlation

between this participation and volunteering attitudes and behaviors, interest 

in political and current events, personal efficacy, trust, and optimism.

Previous research has indicated that school-based service provides youth with opportunities

to engage with adults and individuals from other backgrounds, identify and address 

a community issue, and make connections between the service activities and community

impacts have positive benefits for youth from disadvantaged backgrounds.15 We were

interested in testing whether the data shows that participation in school-based service 

and service-learning continues to have a positive relationship to civic engagement when we

look specifically at disadvantaged youth.

We used family income to determine whether a respondent is classified as disadvantaged,

and set the indicator at those youth from families with incomes of less than $25,000.16

An analysis of participation in school-based service by family income demonstrates that

those youth from disadvantaged backgrounds are less likely to report current or past

participation in school-based service, as well as service-learning that includes reflection,

participation in planning or service that lasts a semester or longer.17[See Chart 17] According

to the survey, 900,000 youth from disadvantaged backgrounds report current or past

participation in school-based service.

As we did for the youth population in general, we find that participation in school-based

service for disadvantaged youth has a significant positive relationship with volunteering

attitudes and behaviors, discussion of politics, interest in current events, and youth efficacy.18

[See Figure 3] 

In addition, while we did not see significant relationships between participation in schoolbased service and trust and optimism for the general youth population, we do find this

correlation when we look at disadvantaged youth. While we are unable to state whether

participation in school-based service leads to greater trust and optimism or greater trust 

and optimism leads disadvantaged youth to participate in school-based service, the findings,

taken in the context of other research around disadvantaged youth, do suggest that there is

benefit in reaching out to disadvantaged youth through school-based service. 

Attitudes toward voting were the only form of civic engagement that did not maintain 

a significant relationship to participation in school-based service. While low-income youth

are significantly less likely to report that they are very likely to be regular voters once they

turn 18 than the youth population in general, 57 percent to 77 percent, respectively, we did

not find any association between participation in school-based service and the likelihood

that disadvantaged youth would be active voters.
30 Youth Helping America

64% 36%

0%

15%

 7%

4%

Family Income $25,000 to $49,999

SERVICE-LEARNING AND DISADVANTAGED YOUTH

74% 26%

4%

12%

 7%

3%

Family Incomes of Less than $25,000

CHART 17: Participation in School-Based Service, by Family Income
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 31

SERVICE-LEARNING AND DISADVANTAGED YOUTH

58% 42%

0%

17%

11%

4%

Family Income $50,000 or more

No Participation in school-based service Service-learning with one quality element

Service-learning with two quality elements

Service-learning with three quality elements

Participation in school-based service 
32 Youth Helping America

SERVICE-LEARNING AND DISADVANTAGED YOUTH

FIGURE 3: Positive Relationships between Civic Attitudes and Behaviors

and Participation in School-Based Service for Disadvantaged Youth

The following civic behaviors and attitudes had significant and positive relationships 

to participation in service-learning for disadvantaged youth. [Note: Due to sample size, we are

unable to state relative strength.]

n Likelihood of volunteering in the next year*

n Volunteering in the past year**

n Discussing politics with parents or other adults

n Discussing politics with friends

n Belief in personal ability to make a difference in solving community problems

n Interest in current events

n Belief that people can be trusted

n Positive view of the future

*Includes only those youth 16 years of age or older.

**Includes only those youth who participated in school-based service more than one year ago.
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 33

CONCLUSION

Through the Youth Volunteering Survey, we have sought to identify the role of social

institutions in youth volunteering and service behaviors and attitudes. Our analysis to this

point indicates that social institutions play a key role in youth engagement and that

volunteering and service is a learned behavior. The majority of schools, as a central

institution for this civic

education, have recognized this

role in providing community

service and service-learning

opportunities for their students.

Yet, it is also crucial that schools

provide students with quality

service-learning experience and

that youth have an environment

that encourages them to take

advantage of these opportunities.

The results of our analysis

indicate that those youth who do

participate in school-based service also are more highly engaged. While we are unable to

determine the direction of this relationship — that is, whether school-based service leads to

greater civic engagement or greater civic engagement increases the likelihood that youth will

participate in school-based service — the consistent relationship suggests that educating youth

to be active citizens requires a well-rounded approach that encompasses the various social

institutions that shape youths' perspectives toward their community and their role within it.

We recommend that future research on school-based service and service-learning consider

the motivations of youth in engaging in school-based service, as well as the ways in which

partnerships between schools and other social institutions can help to build an environment

in which youth recognize the value of civic engagement. This approach would be

particularly valuable for engaging disadvantaged youth, a population shown to be less likely

to participate in school-based service and maintain positive civic attitudes and behaviors. 
34 Youth Helping America

ENDNOTES

1 For research that assesses the extent to which schools provide opportunities to engage in community service

and service-learning, see Newman & Rutter (1985), Skinner & Chapman (1999), and Kielsmeier, Scales,

Roehlkepartain, & Neal (2004). For a summary of research that assesses the impact of service-learning 

on youth academic and personal development, see Billig (2000) and (2004). For research that assesses 

the role of school-based service on youth development, see, for example, Flanagan (2005), Keeter et al

(2002), Marks & Kuss (2001), Raskoff & Sundeen (2001), Turney-Purta (2002) Yates & Youniss (1998), Youniss

et al (2002).

2 The initial report in the Youth Helping America Series, Building Active Citizens: The Role of Social

Institutions in Teen Volunteering, focused on youth volunteering and the social institutions of family,

religious organizations, and schools. The report can be downloaded at www.nationalservice.gov.

3 This growing trend by schools to provide opportunities for youth to engage in community service 

and service-learning has been attributed to the need among schools to find effective ways to improve youth

engagement in their community and their academic outcomes. See, for example, Conrad & Hedin (1991). 

4 The percent of schools with service-learning and community service opportunities are based 

on the 1999 National Student Service-Learning and Community Service Survey, conducted 

by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) of the U.S. Department of Education through 

the Fast Response Survey System (FRSS) and the 1984 survey of high schools conducted by Newmann

and Rutter. A third study conducted in 2004, the Study of Community Service and Service-Learning 

in Public Schools, conducted by Westat with support from the National Youth Leadership Council found

that 45 percent of high schools and 20 percent of middle schools provided service-learning, while 83

percent of high schools and 70 percent of middle schools offered community service opportunities 

to students, indicating that the increase from 1984 has largely stabilized over the past several years.

5 It is valuable to note that while service-learning is most often carried out through schools, either in class

or during after-school programs, service-learning also may occur outside of school, through

community-based organizations that assign specific learning objectives to the service activities. 

The Youth Volunteering Survey, however, focused on youth engagement in school-based service.

6 The Youth Volunteering Survey asked respondents the subject area for their most recent class that

included community service. The largest percentage of youth categorized that subject as 'Other.' We

are, however, unable to clarify what the respondent intended as 'Other.' The next most common subject

areas include: Elective Courses, 16 percent; Social Studies, 12 percent; Science, 10 percent; 

and English or Language Arts, 7 percent. 

7 For a list of the Essential Elements of Service-Learning, see National Service-Learning Cooperative (1998).

8 For more information on the Essential Elements of Service-Learning and Their Relationship to ServiceLearning Impacts, see Billig, et al (2005). For more detailed information on the research around servicelearning and its impact on youth, see, for example, Billig, et al (2005), Furco (2002), Kim & Billig (2003),

Klute & Billlig (2002), Melchior & Bailis (2002).

9 For research on the importance of youth perceptions of school-based service activities, see Raskoff 

& Sundeen (1999) and (2001), and Root (1997). 
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 35

10 See Newman & Rutter (1985), Skinner & Chapman (1999), and Kielsmeier, Scales, Roehlkepartain, & Neal (2004).

11 While we decided to include results based on the respondents' GPA, it is important to note that this is

self-reported information. We found that the distribution of GPA scores reported through this survey 

to be skewed, with over 75 percent of respondents reporting a GPA of B or higher. Research has shown

that secondary school grades tend to be inflated in self-reporting when compared to GPAs as reported

by schools. For more on grade inflation, see Koretz & Berends (2001).

12 As we reported in “Building Active Citizens,” youth who come from a family where at least one parent

volunteers are almost two times more likely to volunteer and nearly three times more likely to volunteer

regularly than youth who come from a family where no members volunteer. Family members for this

analysis included immediate and extended family.

13 See, for example, Flanagan (2005), Keeter, et al (2002), Marks & Kuss (2001), Raskoff & Sundeen

(2001), Turney-Purta (2002) Yates & Youniss (1998), Youniss, et al (2002).

14 The order of the civic indicators in Figure 1 reflects the relative strength of the association of each

indicator with school-based service participation. We calculate measure-of-association statistics 

for each indicator to determine how strong each relationship is. However, because these statistics are

measured with error, it is often not possible to say with confidence that one relationship is stronger 

than another.

15 For research on disadvantaged youth, school-based service, and service-learning, see Billig (2004),

Flanagan (2005), Raskoff & Sundeen (2001), and Marks & Kuss (2001). 

16 Family income was derived from the reported family income for the household in the CPS survey.

Within the youth volunteering sample, 14 percent of households reported an income of less than

$25,000. The Office of Management and Budget's (OMB) Statistical Policy Directive 14 requires 

the use of money income thresholds that vary by family size and composition to determine who is 

in poverty. While our analysis does not take into account variations in income by family size, 

the threshold of $25,000 falls within the range of income established by the OMB directive. 

The selection of a threshold of $25,000 also provides us with a sufficiently large sample of respondents

for analysis. For more information on household income and poverty, see the U.S. Census Bureau's

Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2004.

17 The median family income for the Youth Volunteering Survey is between $50,000 and $59,000. 

The median income for family households, as reported by the U.S. Census Bureau, is $55,327.

18 However, due to large standard errors that result when we limit our analysis to those youth from

families with income less than $25,000, we are not able to discern whether the relationship between

participation in school-based service and civic attitudes and behaviors is stronger or weaker 

for disadvantaged youth and the general population.

ENDNOTES
36 Youth Helping America

METHODOLOGY 

DESCRIPTION OF UNIVERSE AND SAMPLING METHODOLOGY

The universe of the 2005 Youth Volunteering and Civic Engagement Survey consisted 

of about 10,000 households selected from expired Current Population Survey (CPS) housing

units.* The sample units for the Youth Volunteering Survey were selected from households

with at least one persons aged 12-18. The goal was to have a final completed interview

sample of at least 3,000 persons age 12-18 interviewed with one person per household

selected using a randomized selection function.

Two weeks prior to the beginning of the interview period, an advance letter was sent 

to the households selected from the CPS. This letter gave a brief description of the survey 

and provided a Census Bureau 1-800 telephone number that could be used to opt their teens

out of the interview. The remaining households were then contacted by telephone and if 

the respondent did not receive the letter, it was read to them providing another opportunity

to refuse the interview. A sample teen, if present, was then selected for the detailed

interview. Again, we asked permission to speak to the teen.

EFFORTS TO MAXIMIZE RESPONSE

The detailed interview with the sampled teen was also conducted over the phone. 

The interviews were conducted by interviewers working out of one of the Census Bureau’s

three centralized telephone facilities. The Census Bureau telephone center staff performed

standard procedures to keep the noninterview rate as low as possible. If necessary, at least

ten attempts were made to get a completed interview. Calls took place after 3 p.m. local time

with at least two call attempts on weekends.

RESPONSE RATE AND BIAS

The overall response rate for the survey was 44 percent. Census obtained a 45 percent

response for the screener and a 97 percent response for the detailed interview, making 

the overall rate (45% times 97%) 44 percent. Due to the response rate, Census investigated

the possibility of systematic differences between the interviewed and noninterviewed

universes. They examined several CPS demographic characteristics of the two universes 

to determine if a bias may exist. They looked at the family income, size of household,

urban/rural, and the race, ethnicity, sex, education, marital status, and employment status 

of the head of household. They did not find a statistical difference between the attributes 

of the two universes.

WEIGHT ESTIMATION

The final weight for each case is the product of the inverse of the selection probability

(accounting for selection to the CPS and selection into the volunteer survey), a weight

adjustment to account for noninterviews, a first-stage weighting factor to reduce the variance

due to the selection on non-self-representing primary sampling units (PSUs), and a secondstage weighting factor to bring sample estimates into agreement independent population

controls by age, race, and sex.

* The original samples for the CPS surveys were selected from 1990 decennial census files with coverage

in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. For information about the methodology used for the Current

Population Survey, visit www.bls.census.gov/cps.
Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 37

REFERENCES AND WORKS CITED

Billig, S.H. (2004). “Heads, Hearts, and Hands: The Research on K-12 Service-Learning.” Growing to Greatness.

National Youth Leadership Council.

Billig, S.H. (2000). “Research on K-12 School-Based Service-Learning: The Evidence Builds.” Phi Delta Kappa, 81(9),

658-664.

Billig, S.H., Root S., & Jesse, D. (2005). The Impact of Participation in Service-Learning on High School Students' Civic

Engagement. CIRCLE Working Paper 33.

Billig, S.H., Root, S.C., & Jesse, D. (2005) “The Relationship between the Quality Indicators of Service-Learning 

and Student Outcomes: Testing Professional Wisdom.” Advances in Service-Learning Research: Vol. 5: Improving

Service-Learning Practice: Research on Models to Enhance Impact. S.C. Root, J. Callahan, & S.H. Billig Eds.

Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

Conrad, D. & Hedin D. (1991). “School-based Community Service: What We Know From Research and Theory.” 

Phi Delta Kappa, 72(10): 743-749.

DeNavas-Walt, C., Proctor, B.D., & Lee, C.H. (2005) U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, P60-229.

Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2004. U.S. Government Printing Office,

Washington, DC.

Flanagan, C., Gill, S., & Gallay, L.S. (2005). “Social Participation and Social Trust in Adolescence: The Importance 

of Heterogeneous Encounters.” Social Participation in Processes of Community Change and Social Action. A. Omoto,

Ed. Applied Social Psychology. Vol. 19.

Furco, A. (2002). “Is Service-Learning Really Better Than Community Service? A Study of High School Service.

Advances in Service-Learning Research: Vol. 1. Service-Learning: The Essence of Pedagogy. A. Furco & S.H. Billig Eds.

Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

Keeter, S., Zukin, C., Andolina, M., & Jenkins, K. (2002). The Civic and Political Health of the Nation: A Generational

Portrait. The Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement.

Kielsmeier, J.C, Scales, P.C., Roehlkepartain, E.C. & Neal, M. (2004). “Preliminary Findings: Community Service 

and Service-Learning in Public Schools.” Growing to Greatness. National Youth Leadership Council.

Kim, W. & Billig, S.H. (2003). Colorado Learn and Serve Evaluation. Denver, CO: RMC Research Corporation.

Klute, M.M. & Billig, S.H. (2002). The Impact of Service-Learning on MEAP: A Large-Scale Study of Michigan Learn

and Serve Grantees. Denver, CO: RMC Research Corporation.

Koretz, D. & Berends, M. (2001). Changes in High School Grading Standards in Mathematics, 1982-1992. RAND.

Marks, H. & Kuss, P. (2001). “Socialization for Citizenship Through Community Service: Disparities in Participation

Among U.S. High School Students.” Sociological Focus. 34(4): 377-398.

Melchior, A. & Bailis, L.N. (2002). “Impact of Service-Learning on Civic Attitudes and Behaviors of Middle and High

School Youth: Findings from Three National Evaluations. Advances in Service-Learning Research: Vol. 1. ServiceLearning: The Essence of Pedagogy. A. Furco & S.H. Billig Eds. Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

National Service-Learning Cooperative (1998). Essential Elements of Service-Learning. St. Paul, MN: National Youth

Leadership Council.

Newmann, F.M. & Rutter, R.A. (1985). “A Profile of High School Community Service Programs.” 

Educational Leadership, December/January: 65-71.

Raskoff, S.A. & Sundeen, R.A. (2001). “Cultural Diversity and High School Community Service: The Relationship

Between Ethnicity and Student's Perceptions.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 30(4): 720-745.

Raskoff, S.A. & Sundeen, R.A. (1999). “Community Service Programs in High Schools.” Law and Contemporary

Problems, 62(4): 73-111.
38 Youth Helping America

Root, S.C. (1997). “School-Based Service: A Review of Research for Teacher Educators.” Learning With 

the Community: Concepts and Models for Service-Learning in Teacher Education. Eds. J. Erickson & J. Anderson.

Washington, DC: American Association for Higher Education.

Skinner, R. & Chapman, C. (1999). Service-Learning and Community Service in K-12 Public Schools. National Center

for Education Statistics.

Turney-Purta, J. (2002). “The School's Role in Developing Civic Engagement: A Study of Adolescents in Twenty-Eight

Countries.” Applied Developmental Science, 6(4): 203-212.

Yates, M. & Youniss, J. (1998). “Community Service and Political Identity Development in Adolescence.” 

Journal of Social Issues, 54(3): 495-512.

Yates, M., & Youniss, J. (1996). “A Developmental Perspective on Community Service in Adolescence.” 

Social Development, 5(1): 85-115.

Youniss, J., McClellan, J.A., & Yates, M. (1997). “What We Know About Engendering Civic Identity.” 

American Behavioral Scientist, 40: 620-631.

Youniss, J., Bales, S., Christmas-Best, V., Diversi, M., McLaughlin, M., & Silbereisen, R. (2002). “Youth Civic

Engagement in the Twenty-First Century.” Journal of Research on Adolescence. 12(1): 121-148.

REFERENCES AND WORKS CITED
NOTES

Service-Learning, School-Based Service and Youth Civic Engagement 39
NOTES

40 Youth Helping America
1201 New York Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20525

202.606.5000 | (202.606.3472 TTY)

www.nationalservice.gov

YOUTH HELPING AMERICA

Educating for Active Citizenship: 

Service-Learning, School-Based Service 

and Youth Civic Engagement