Industrial Retraining Programs

for T echnological C hange

A Study of the Performance of Older Workers

Bulletin No. 1368

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

W. Willard Wirtz, Secretary

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

Ewan Clague, Commissioner

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INDUSTRIAL RETRAINING PROGRAMS

FOR TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE

A Study of the Performance of Older Workers

I ^

•MB

Bulletin No. 1368

June 1963

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

W. Willard Wirtz, Secretary

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS

Ewan Clague, Commissioner

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Preface

The introduction of automation and other technological changes is

often accompanied by problems of adjustment for individual workers. Many

workers are compelled to acquire new skill and knowledge to maintain their

employability. The retraining of older workers is considered particularly

critical.

This study was undertaken by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in an

attempt to understand the types of technological changes that give rise to

the need for retraining in industry and the effectiveness with which older

workers already on the job adapt to such retraining. It was, however, only

a pilot study of limited aspects of the broad subject of older worker

adaptability.

The study was conducted by Dr. Arnold Tannenbaum and Gary Grenholm

of the Survey Research Center, Institute of Social Research of the University

of Michigan, for the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The final draft of the

bulletin was prepared by Edgar Weinberg, Chief, Division of Technological

Studies, as part of the Bureau*s research on the impact of technological

change under the general direction of Leon Greenberg, Assistant Commissioner

for Productivity and Technological Developments.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics is grateful to the companies which

made their records available for this study. The Bureau is also indebted to

the Institute and to numerous individuals who assisted in the extensive

preliminary canvass necessary in locating the companies studied.

i

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Contents

Page

Introduction ........................................................ 1

Highlights and summary........................ . ................... 5

Retraining of oil refinery production workers ..................... 7

Retraining of aircraft production workers, technicians, and engineers 13

Retraining of airline maintenance mechanics . ...................... 21

Retraining of telephone operators . . ............................... 25

Selected bibliography .............................................. 33

fables:

1. Production workers at oil refinery: Level of performance of

younger and older trainees on training courses ....... 10

2. Production workers at oil refinery: Level of performance of

older and younger trainees when differences in education are

taken into a c c o u n t ........................................ 11

3. Instrument mechanics at oil refinery: Percent of older and

younger trainees who received grades above and below average

test scores............... 12

4. Training courses at an aircraft plant: Comparative performance

of older and younger trainees on t e s t s ............... 18

5. Training courses at an aircraft plant: Comparative performance

of older and younger trainees on tests, with differences in

education taken into account ............................. 19

6. Training courses given to weldors at aircraft plant: Percent

of older and younger trainees, above and below median time

needed to achieve certification ...................... . . . 20

7. Airline: Level of courses and number of courses and trainees . 23

8. Representative course titles, by level ...................... 23

9. Airline maintenance workers: Distribution of courses according

to comparative performance of older trainees ........ . . . 24

10. Telephone operator trainees: Level of performance on various

measures, by age group .............. ................... .. 28

11. Telephone operator trainees: Level of performance of trainees

with 8-11 years of education, on various measures, by age

g r o u p............................................... 29

12. Telephone operator trainees: Level of performance in various

measures, of trainees with 12 years or more of education, by

age g r o u p........... 30

13. Telephone operator trainees: Level of performance on tests

interpreting tickets, by age group ....................... 31

iii

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1

Industrial Retraining Programs for Technological Change

Introduction

The rapid pace of technological change creates widespread interest

in programs for retraining workers now employed in industry. Changes in

equipment, processes, and products often involve obsolescence of skill and

knowledge of workers. By retraining and reassigning workers to other jobs

within a firm, management is frequently able to retain in useful employment

those whose former duties have been eliminated, but who have abilities and

background useful in other operations. Such steps are preventive measures

against the hardships of layoff and unemployment and the waste of human

talents.

Measures to improve the employability of older workers are particularly important, because older workers, once laid off, generally find it

difficult to obtain new jobs and may experience long periods of unemployment.

As automation and other technological changes are introduced more widely, the

retraining of older workers in industry for new or different jobs becomes

increasingly urgent, for management and communities as well as for the workers

themselves.

This study seeks to broaden understanding of the capacity of older

workers in industry to adapt to technological change. An objective investigation was made of performance in retraining programs that were undertaken

by firms as part of the introduction of new technology. Specifically, the

study first describes various cases of technological change at selected

plants and the content of the retraining courses that were given in connection with the changes. Second, the results of tests that had been given in

connection with the courses are analyzed, to determine how well older workers

employed in these plants performed in retraining programs.

The report is intended only as a pilot step in exploring an important aspect of technological change rather than a comprehensive investigation of the subject of older worker adaptability. Although retraining is

recognized as a key problem, comparatively little information is available

about the training experience and problems of workers in a job environment.

Studies of adaptability often involve comparisons of rates of learning by

older and younger persons under laboratory or school conditions, where motivation and other conditions are quite different from industrial training

situations. 1/ A better understanding of the trainability of older workers

1/ See E. A. Jerome, "Age and Learning--Experimental Studies," and

Ross McFarland and Brian O'Doherty, "tfork and Occupational Skills," Handbook

of Aging and the Individual. James E. Birren, editor (Chicago, University of

Chicago Press, 1959), pp. 655-699 and 487-497*

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in industry has been advocated as a step toward developing measures for

improving their capacity to cope with changing industrial job demands, 2/

Scope and Method. The study presents information on four companies in different industries where technological changes were introduced, requiring the

retraining of employees. About 2,200 workers in different types of occupations were covered: Production workers in an oil refinery; maintenance

mechanics in an airline; engineers, technicians, and craftsmen in an aircraft

factory; and operators in a telephone company.

The companies covered in the study were selected after an eyt„i4ilve

canvass covering about 100 industrial, business, and government organizations.

While many of the firms had made recent technical changes requiring the retraining of employees, few had adequate records of training performance.

The four finally included in this study were the only canvassed firms which

had kept objective measures of the performance of individual workers during

retraining, had included workers over AO as well as under AO in the programs,

and had personnel records showing age and educational level of the workers.

The information was collected through interviews with personnel and training

officials. Data on the performance of trainees were obtained from company

personnel and training records.

Training was usually highly specialized and each course was given

to only a small number of trainees. In analyzing the results, trainees in

most cases were divided into two age groups--older and younger trainees.

(See tables for the age groups used in each case.) Further subdivisions

were not possible because of the small number of trainees in each course.

Also, because of the diversity of courses, it was not considered feasible to

aggregate the results of the different tests. Accordingly, comparisons of

younger and older workers are made, wherever possible, for each course.

While each test covered only a small number of trainees, the total number of

tests and trainees was sufficiently large to provide a basis for drawing some

tentative conclusions.

The nature of recent technological changes at each plant, their

effect on job requirements, the content of retraining programs, and the

comparative performance of trainees of different age groups and educational

levels, as measured by tests and other objective standards, are described

briefly.

2/ See Employment Security and Retirement of the Older Worker%

Reports and Guidelines from the White House Conference on Aging, Series

No. 3 (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1961), p. 27.

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Some Considerations. In assessing the findings, it is important to consider

certain aspects and limitations of the scope and method of the study.

First, the performance on tests of older trainees is compared with

that of younger trainees. However, the study does not deal with the question

of whether the performance of retrained workers met the minimum requirements

established by employers. Since no evidence was found that any trainee was

laid off because of test performance, presumably, companies preferred to use

performance on the job to which the trainee is assigned as the yardstick for

evaluating the usefulness of training, taking into account not only productivity (as affected by training), but also attendance, attitude, and

reliability.

Second, the study was limited to those aspects of retraining for

which objective data on the performance of trainees could be obtained from

company records. Considered outside the scope of the study are the interests

and attitudes of older and younger trainees about the changes in their jobs

and the retraining and the opinion of supervisors and instructors about

workers' performance although they are also relevant to broad questions about

general adaptability to technological change.

Third, the study compares the performance of trainees of different

age groups on a given date. The results reflect the influence of the expansion of educational opportunities in recent years. Age differences should

not be interpreted to mean that performance necessarily changes as a trainee

grows older. Studies of the effects of aging on retraining performance, where

individuals are followed over several decades, would be useful, but the data

for such a study are not readily available.

Fourth, the study is limited to comparisons of the performance of

older and younger trainees on tests given as part of retraining. The results

are not necessarily indicative of comparative on-the-job performance of older

and younger trainees after retraining. For purposes of an overall assessment,

comparative records of attendance, continuity of service, and productivity of

trainees after having been placed on new jobs would need to be considered.

Other studies by the Bureau of, Labor Statistics have revealed the difficulties

of making generalizations about older workers' job performance because of the

wide variability in relevant factors among workers at all ages, with some

older workers doing as wel* or better than some younger workers. Moreover,

differences in productivity between age groups were often found to be relatively

small. 3/

3/ See Comparative Job Performance by Age: Large Plants in Men's

Footwear and Household Furniture Industries (BLS Bulletin 1223, 1957); and

Comparative Job Performance by Age: Office Workers (BLS Bulletin 1273, 1960).

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Finally, the results of this study do not necessarily reflect

experience in retraining programs where all trainees are carefully screened

so that only those with maximum potentialities for success are selected.

Having made changes in equipment and methods, the companies covered had retrained workers on the job, older as well as younger.

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Highlights and Summary

Technological Change and Retraining. Because of important changes in equipment, processes, or products, at the companies studied, large groups of workers had to be retrained so that plant operations after the change could be

carried on efficiently. Hiring already qualified workers in place of those

on the job was not considered desirable or practicable. Thus, modernization

of an oil refinery required training in new processes and instrumentation;

greater use of electronic equipment and new metals by an aircraft manufacturer-- training of technicians, engineers, and electricians in electronics;

the introduction of jets by an airline--courses for mechanics and technicians

in maintenance of turbine engines; and the application of computers by a telephone company--retraining of operators in the use of mark-sense punch cards.

Retraining generally involved enlarging or upgrading the knowledge or skill

of employees or a modification o * methods rather than completely changing

over to new occupations. Retraining, in short, constituted a major step in

the introduction of technological change in the companies studied.

Content of Retraining. One noteworthy aspect of the retraining given to

workers was the extensive classroom instruction, often in technical subjects,

required in numerous cases. Thus, the aircraft company's electricians, technicians, and engineers were given courses in electronics; the oil company's

operators, courses in basic mathematics, instrumentation, and processing; and

the airline's mechanics, courses in gyro instrument overhaul. The duration

of the courses varied: seme took as many as BOO hours of technical instruction over a 2-year period; others, only 6 hours for familiarization. Teaching

methods involve lecture, practice demonstration, laboratory work, and on-thejob instruction. Older workers whose job duties were affected by the change

were enrolled in these retraining programs along with younger workers and

received the same instruction. Through retraining, these companies were able

to make further use of experience and knowledge gained within the plant that

was still relevant to the work to be done.

Older and Younger Workers in Retraining. The experience of the four companies

gives no grounds for simple generalizations about the adaptability among older

workers and shows no factual basis that would justify barriers to their

entrance into training programs. Comparisons of test results show the younger

group often doing better than the older group. The younger trainees were

likely to respond more readily and learn mere quickly, particularly when

training courses were short and emphasis was on rapid acquisition of perceptual-motor skills. However, in a few courses where the training continued

over longer periods, older workers more often performed as well or better than

the younger workers. Another important finding was that some proportion--

sometimes as high as 40 percent--of older workers on most of the tests analyzed

did better than some of the younger workers.

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Evidence from the study contradicts the notion that older workers

cannot learn or cannot be retrained. The findings imply that age, by itself,

is not a reliable or useful criterion for determining the suitability of

workers for training. The study confirms the findings of other studies

relating age to work performance, that there is great variation among individuals. Thus, while younger workers performed better on the retraining tests,

on the average, there were individual older workers who performed better than

average and better than some of the younger workers. Arbitrary age barriers

in training programs or in employment would therefore exclude many older

workers capable of high-level performance in training. In short, the findings

of this study reaffirm the importance of appraising a worker*s adaptability on

the basis of individual capacity and aptitudes rather than on that of chronological age.

Importance of Counseling. The test results reflect, to some extent, the

prevalence of informal methods of selecting trainees, reflecting the urgent

need for new skills in the face of changing technology. Only a few trainees

were tested, interviewed, or counseled in advance of training. The results

from these few cases suggest that such procedures might result in a better

matching of the aptitudes of candidates (of all ages) with the retraining to

be given and in modification of training programs to meet the needs of individ

ual workers. Counseling helps the worker not only in assessing his ability

but also in allaying his apprehensions about training which older workers espe

cially may fear and resist because of its novelty or unfamiliarity.

Education and Retraining. Some evidence, although fragmentary, suggests that

lack of education may be a serious handicap for older trainees relative to

younger. Older and younger workers with the same level of education differed

less in performance. The older trainees had a lower average level of educational attainment and lacked recent school experience. This would seem to

bear out the contention of educators that learning ability deteriorates with

disuse. Over the long run, improvement and extension of educational opportunities for adults and youth may be one of the most important factors in

assuring their adaptability when they become older.

Need for Additional Research. The evidence from this limited study points

up the need for further research into the potentialities and problems of

retraining employed older workers within industry. Since continuing technological change will undoubtedly intensify the need for retraining within

industry, it would be helpful to know more about special training methods that

obtain the best results from older trainees. Future research might be concerned, not only with the older worker*s ability to learn, but also, for

example, with the applicability of programed learning and other techniques

which permit the trainee to control the pace of learning. It might explore

the influence of the older worker*s attitude toward training, and the effect

of the instructor*s practices and attitudes on the progress of older trainees.

Wider dissemination of knowledge about the ability of older persons to learn

and to be retrained should contribute to an easier adjustment to technological

change.

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Retraining of Oil Refinery Production Workers

The first study involved the retraining of production and maintenance

workers of an oil refinery which had undergone extensive modernization. The

refinery is a relatively small plant, employing about 450 workers. It is one

of the major installations of a petroleum company.

Nature of the Technological Change. The technical changes that occasioned

the retraining involved a higher degree of process integration than existed

previously. In the old refinery operations, according to a company description, "crude oil and the various intermediate products are cooled, pumped to

storage, and then subjected to reheating and further processing in other

units. By this old system, the one still followed by most of the petroleum

industry, the oil must pass through several separate installations, each

subject to its own controls, before it is possible to blend the final products."

Relatively obsolete reciprocating pumps were used, rather than the newer

centrifugal type. The process control system was relatively crude, with

manually operated temperature controls. Only five endproducts were made.

The new plant incorporates the "straight through" process. The

cooling-storage-reheating parts of the old system are eliminated. Much more

processing is done. Eleven endproducts are made. The capacity has been

increased. According to the company, "The unit must work as one continuous

operation, or not at all. Except for the delayed coking process, no part of

it can stop for more than 12 hours without the entire unit slowing down

significantly or shutting down completely."

An extremely complex, highly instrumented control system is used.

Some 2,300 instruments record and control the actions of 235 pumps, compressors,

and blowers, and 15,800 valves. The entire system is coordinated through a

96-foot semicircular central control panel. This system makes possible a

higher degree of quality control than hitherto possible.

Modernization has meant significant changes for production workers.

Previously, there were six different job classifications in the production

department, each with its own pay rate. After the change, the job classifications for hourly workers were reduced to two. Under the new integrated

system, operating workers must have some knowledge of processes in other parts

of the plant as well as their own processing unit (or zone). Finally, because

of the greater extent of instrumentation, workers with responsibility for

keeping instruments functioning properly were transferred from the maintenance to the production department--a change reflecting their increased

importance in plant operations.

Retraining Program. The company gave extensive advance retraining to prepare

employees for work in the modernized refinery. In this study, however, only

the two types of retraining programs for which performance data are available

are described: The series of courses covering plant processes given to 82

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operating workers of the production department; and the series of courses

covering instrumentation given to 18 workers in the instrumentation division

of the production department.

The first series were courses designed to familiarize operating

workers with the new equipment and the complicated pattern of process flow,

and to prepare them to meet problem situations. Two sets of courses were

given, each 8 hours a day, 5 days a week--one for 3 weeks for a total of 120

hours; another for 4 weeks or 160 hours. A third set of courses was given

4 to 8 hours a week over a 2-year period. Each set involved several separate

courses covering different process units of the refinery. Workers were not

required to take all of the courses in a set, but a majority took more than

one course. All training was administered by management personnel.

A second series of courses were given to 18 workers in the instrumentation division. One set, given by the management staff covered introductory material: The principles of measuring pressure, temperature, liquid

level, flow, and their application in the refinery; elementary mathematics;

operations of control valves, and the process flow of the refinery. Another

set, given by the staff of a local university, covered electricity and electronics, including vacuum tubes, rectifiers, and amplifiers. A third set,

given by the manufacturers of the instruments and control devices, dealt with

the construction, use, and maintenance of specific control devices, valves,

and meters.

A total of 21 courses was given but information was available for

only six. Not all the 18 trainees took every course. The entire program

took place over a 9-month period. For the first 5 months, training was given

on a classroom basis, 8 hours a day, 5 days a week. For the last 4 months,

half of the training was in the classroom; half, on the job.

Performance in Retraining. Information on the performance of trainees was

obtained from grades on written examinations given in the classroom. The

average (i.e., median) grades received on written exams were the basis of the

analysis of the 12 courses for production workers shown in table 1.

For each course, the performance of each trainee was compared with

the average, and these comparisons were grouped separately for younger and

older trainees. The age basis used differed slightly from course to course.

In 11 of the 12 courses, half or more of the younger trainees had grades

above the average. In comparison, half or more of the older trainees had

above average grades in only 3 of the 12 courses. However, further analysis

reveals that a significant proportion of the older trainees (40 percent or

more) were above average in 7 out of the 12 courses.

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Moreover, the relative performance of older and younger trainees

on the 12 tests compare differently when the effects of differences in education are eliminated. Table 2 reflects the performance score for each

trainee in relation to the average performance score of all trainees having

the same number of years of formal schooling. In 7 of the 12 courses, 50

percent or more of older trainees had above average grades and in 10 of the

courses, 40 percent or more were above average. This performance was very

similar to that of the younger group. In 8 courses, 50 percent or more of

the younger trainees were above average and in 10 courses, 40 percent were

above average.

Since the content of the six instrumentation courses was more difficult than the first set of courses, the company observed special care in the

selection of trainees, placing emphasis on formal education. A number of

otherwise eligible employees were eliminated because of lack of formal education. Trainees were also interviewed and given some guidance and counseling in advance concerning the training. During these briefings, they were

able to ask questions, express doubts, and weigh carefully their interest in

taking the course. A number of potential trainees withdrew voluntarily after

learning about the training program in this initial interview. Finally, three

trainees decided to exercise their option of returning to their previous jobs

during the first 4 weeks of training. No information is available on their

age or education.

The results shown in table 3 are particularly noteworthy. Half or

more of the older trainees performed better than average in five of the six

courses. In comparison, half or more of the younger employees exceeded average in only three courses. Careful selection, counseling, and guidance in

advance probably contributed to the older trainees' superior performance.

The small number of trainees involved, however, limits the inferences that

can be drawn.

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Table 1. Production workers at oil refinery: Level of performance of

younger and older trainees 1/ on training courses

Name and duration

of course

Younger trainees Older trainees

Number

of

trainees

Percent

Number

of

trainees

Percent

tibove

average

grade

Below

average

grade

Above

average

grade

Below

average

grade

1. Zone A (3 weeks) 2/ ... 12 58 42 10 40 60

2. Zone B-D (3 weeks) .... 10 50 50 11 45 55

3. Zone C (3 weeks) ..... 10 60 40 11 36 64

4 # Zone D (3 weeks) ..... 5 80 20 5 20 80

5. Zone A (4 weeks) ..... 15 47 53 15 53 47

6. Zone B (4 weeks) ..... 12 58 42 13 46 54

7. Zone C (4 weeks) ..... 15 53 47 13 31 69

8. Zone D (4 weeks) ..... 4 50 50 3 33 67

9. Zone A (2 years) ...... 10 50 50 10 40 60

10. Zone B (2 years) ..... 7 75 25 8 50 50

11. Zone C (2 years) ..... 8 63 37 8 50 50

12. Zone D (2 years) ..... 5 60 40 6 33 67

1/ Because of the small number of trainees in each course, it was

necessary to use several different age criteria for dividing the trainees:

In courses 1 and 2, older trainees included those 47 years and over; courses

3, 5, and 12, 43 years and over; course 4, 51 years and over; course 6, 52

years and over; course 7, 49 years and over; course 8, 48 years and over;

courses 9 and 11, 39 years and over; course 10, 42 years and over.

2/ "Zone11 refers to a processing unit within the refinery.

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Table 2. Production workers at oil refinery: Level of performance of older

and younger trainees 1/ when differences in education are taken into

account 2/

Name and duration

of course

Younger trainees Older trainees

Number

of

trainees

Percent

Number

of

trainees

Percent

Above

average

grade

Below

average

grade

Above

average

grade

Below

average

grade

1. Zone A (3 weeks) ..... 12 50 50 9 A5 55

2. Zone B-D (3 weeks) ... 10 AO 60 9 67 33

3. Zone C (3 weeks) .... 10 50 50 10 50 50

4. Zone D (3 weeks) .... 3 33 67 A 50 50

5. Zone A (4 weeks) ..... 12 58 A2 13 A6 5A

6. Zone B (4 weeks) .... 12 67 33 10 A0 60

7. Zone C (4 weeks) ..... 11 82 18 13 31 69

8. Zone D (4 weeks) .... 5 A0 60 2 100 0

9. Zone A (2 years) .... 12 58 A2 6 33 66

10. Zone B (2 years) .... 6 50 50 A 50 50

11. Zone C (2 years) .... 8 50 50 8 63 37

12. Zone D (2 years) .... A 25 75 A 75 25

1/ See footnote 1, table 1*

2/ Based on the performance score for each trainee in relation to

the average performance score of all trainees having the same number of years

of formal schooling.

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Table 3. Instrument mechanics at oil refinery: Percent of older and younger

trainees 1/ who received grades above and below average test scores

Younger trainees Older trainees

Percent Percent

Name of course Number

of

trainees

Above

average

grade

Below

average

grade

Number

of

trainees

Above

average

grade

Below

average

grade

1. Company course: Elementary mathematics ... 7 29 71 6 67 33

2. Company course: Fractions and decimals 8 47 53 7 71 29

3. Vendor course: Control

valves .......... 8 50 50 7 43 57

4. Vendor course: Controls

and valves •••••••*•••• 8 50 50 6 67 33

5. Vendor course: Level

indicators 8 50 50 6 50 50

6. University course: Generators and a.c.

circuits ............. 7 43 57 6 50 50

1/ Older trainees include those 40 years of age and over

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Retraining of Aircraft Production Workers, Technicians, and Engineers

The second study covered the retraining of production workers,

technicians, and engineers at a division of a large west coast aircraft

manufacturing company. With rapid changes in military technology in recent

years, the company has had to shift its work to encompass not only aircraft

production, but also research and development of advanced weapons systems,

electronic components, and the metallurgy of "exotic" metals, such as

titanium.

The company has undertaken extensive retraining programs to cope

with changing production requirements. Over 100 persons are now employed

in its training department. The company’s policy is as follows:

_/The company/ does not teach skills when applicants with these

skills can be hired. However, intensive in-plant training has been a necessary companion of the great forward strides made by our engineers. For

the past ten years the company has been working in fields never before explored by industry. It has been impossible, in most cases, to hire people

with the required experience. Teaching jthe skill has_been the only answer . . . more than 90 percent of ]_the company'js/ requirements for

skilled technicians have been met by hiring relatively inexperienced persons and training them upward through a succession of skills.

Technological Changes and Retraining. Because of the great variety of technical changes and training courses, it is not possible to,present a full

description of changes and all retraining given. A few representative retraining courses therefore were selected for which performance data were

available covering both older and younger workers. Six different types of

training courses are briefly described. The performance results are set

forth in the following sections.

Training in Optical Tooling. Because of the need for greater precision in

manufacturing parts, a number of new optical devices for measuring and alining have been introduced for the use of toolmakers. Higher speeds of aircraft require greater accuracy and smaller tolerances in assembling. Optical

tools, which replace the level and plumb in detecting misalinements, are more

sensitive to minute misalinements due to contraction or expansion of metals.

They also allow the toolmaker to aline more accurately, parts in angular

relationship to each other.

The training given to 24 production workers was primarily practical instruction in the everyday use of several different devices. Classroom lectures combined with demonstrations were followed by practice by the

trainees themselves in setting up and using the instruments in making alinements. Each class was limited to four or five trainees.

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Successful performance in this task requires: Comprehension of

the purpose and nature of the instrument; acquisition of manipulative skill

in setting up the device quickly and accurately; and ability to make fine

visual discrimination in using the tool.

Training in Electronics. Because of the growing use of electronic equipment

both in the design of aircraft and in the production tools used, the company

provided extensive training in various aspects of electronics. The available data cover courses given to engineers, technical writers, and maintenance electricians.

Training for Engineers. An introductory course in electronics was given to

53 engineers. The course was intended to provide a general competence in

electronics rather than skill in specific applications.

The classes met 2 \ hours after work, twice a week, for a period

extending over 23 months. A total of 300 hours of classes were given. The

instruction consisted of classroom lectures and discussion for about half

the time, and laboratory work for the rest.

While participation in this training course was voluntary and unpaid, there was strong incentive for employees to take the training. Course

credit was taken into consideration in determining pay increases. Second,

since there was a limit on the number of engineers each engineering department could send, there was some distinction in being selected.

Trainees were selected from all engineering departments--hydraulics,

blueprint preparation, technical specifications, etc. Although all trainees

were classified as engineers, as many as one out of three lacked an engineering degree. All had at least a high school education. Half of those with

degrees had the mechanical engineering degree; most of the others had degrees

in electrical, chemical, metallurgical, and aeronautical engineering.

Training for Technical Writers. A course on basic electronics designed to

familiarize technical writers with new terminology used in describing the

electronic apparatus about which they wrote was given to 38 employees. Such

knowledge was essential for adequate job performance.

Classes met 2 hours after work, twice a week for about 5 months.

The courses consisted of lectures and discussions. No laboratory work was

given. Mathematics was minimized. Of the 38 trainees, 19 were over 40 years

of age.

Training for Electronic Technicians. The third electronics course was given

to prepare maintenance electricians for new jobs in the maintenance and repair of advanced electronic apparatus. In contrast to the electronics training described above, the trainees, after completion of the course, were upgraded in pay and given the job title, industrial Electronics Technician.M

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Classes were held on company time every morning for 3 \ hours, 5

days a week over a 4-month period. The course involved lectures on electronic theory and laboratory work with test equipment and components. While

the course material emphasized intellectual skills, the work also called for

some manual dexterity and sensori-motor coordination.

The 18 trainees in the course were selected from a group of maintenance electricians after careful screening. Fifty men in this position

were given an examination, testing their knowledge of AC and DC circuits,

vacuum tubes, transistors, and basic algebra. Only the 20 scoring highest

were accepted for training, most of whom had some experience maintaining

less complicated types of electronic equipment. Of this group, two left the

course before completion--one, to accept a higher paid job; another, because

of illness.

Training of Machinists. With the introduction of new weapons systems, some

machinists experienced difficulty in analyzing and interpreting symbols used

in blueprints. The foreman of the group, therefore, requested the training

department to conduct a course in blueprint reading.

The course was given during working hours, 2 hours a day for 7

days. The material presented covered explanations of the various symbols

used in blueprints and the manner of translating the symbols into the final

product.

A total of 17 machinists were selected by the foreman, after a

preliminary screening examination given by the training department. Of the

17 trainees, 10 were 45 years of age and over.

Training of Weldors. A variety of changes in welding technology necessitated

several retraining courses. Thus, new metals such as titanium and zirconium

alloys, and light gage steel are now used to which the conventional welding

technology is not applicable. Moreover, requirements for weld size and

assembly dimensions have become more critical. For example, two metal tubes

welded together end to end must not differ from an overall specified length

by more than 0.0001 inch. The angle of geometric planes of plates welded

together must not exceed 2°. Since materials are now more costly, greater

care must be exercised.

Changes in welding technology have increased the degree of skill

and knowledge required of weldors- They must have, for example, some knowledge of metallurgy. They must know what causes metal distortions in order to

prevent their occurrence. Formerly, a weldor could straighten a warped section by hammering; such a crude method is no longer tolerable.

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The weldor uses more complex equipment, involving a higher degree

of mental and physical ability. He must adjust a larger number of variables

to achieve proper regulation of temperature, gas flow, and speed of weld.

He faces a number of special ”tooling problems,” such as welding materials

enclosed in a plastic envelope filled with inert gas, or welding an entire

section which is maintained at a temperature of 600 degrees F. He must perform his duties, in some cases, with one hand holding the torch and the other

feeding the welding filler; one foot governing the movement of the material

being welded and the other regulating the amperage as the weld proceeds.

The courses given were primarily designed to familiarize workers

with some background in welding with the new equipment, processes, and techniques. Not all had been working primarily as weldors. Only 20 percent of

the time involved classroom lectures and discussions of the theory and background of new methods. In the practice sessions, comprising 80 percent of

the training, trainees were assigned standardized test jobs and their performance on these jobs was carefully measured and appraised. A final performance score was given each trainee based on the number of hours he needed

to meet U.S. Air Force standards.

Trainees had either applied voluntarily to take the course or were

recommended by their supervisor. They were selected on the basis of their

performance on a preliminary welding test.

One result of the training has been to upgrade the status of weldors.

Previously, the company did not classify welding as a separate craft or skill.

As a result of its greater importance in manufacturing technology, welding is

now recognized as a separate craft. The title “weldor” has been created and

trainees who successfully complete the training courses are certified as

”weldors.” The union asked for and obtained a separate classification and

highei pay. Today, 200 of the 240 persons engaged in welding are classified

as ’’weldors.”

Performance in Retraining. The method used to assess che performance of trainees involved both practical and written tests. Thus, trainees in the optical

tooling course were graded on the accuracy of their performance using the

tool on known “targets” ; the time required to obtain the readings; and a

written examination on the characteristics of each instrument. Greatest

weight was given to the accuracy factor in calculating the overall grade.

In the electronics course for engineers, trainees were tested in

five examinations, including paper and pencil tests and evaluation of laboratory work. An average of these grades was used to derive an overall assessment.

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The performance of technical writers In the electronics course was

assessed in four essay tests which involved the writing of technical descriptions similar to those to be done on the job. These descriptions were scored

by means of a standard checklist covering quality, style, accuracy of the

information presented, appropriateness of examples and terminology, The

overall performance was based on an average of the tests.

The performance of trainees in the course for the development of

electronic technicians was appraised on the basis of both written examinations

and graded laboratory exercises. Fifteen grades were averaged to obtain an

overall measure of performance.

Scores on two examinations were used in appraising the performance

of machinists in the blueprint reading course: one, the screening examination

given before training began; the second, the final examination given trainees,

based on the interpretation of blueprints.

Table 4 shows the comparative performance of older and younger

workers in the five courses described above. Half of the older trainees

obtained grades above the average in only one of the six performance measures shown. A significant proportion of the older trainees, i.e., 40 percent

or more, were, however, above average in three of the courses. In the case

of the younger trainees, a majority were over the average in five of the six

courses.

Instructors in the course for electronic technicians, reported that

older trainees tended to do less well on the mathematical aspects and had

trouble with making fine adjustments. Their experience, on the other hand,

helped them in troubleshooting.

The comparative performance of older and younger trainees on four

courses for which information permits differences in education to be taken

into account, is presented in table 5. This comparison shows little difference in the performance of the two groups. On three of the four courses,

more than half of the older group was above average. In the fourth course,

the proportion was very close to one-half.

The performance of older and younger trainees in the four welding

courses is shown in table 6. Older trainees qualified in a shorter period of

time than younger trainees on two of the four courses. In each of the four

courses, at least 40 percent of the older trainees qualified in the shorter

period of time. According to course instructors, previous relevant experience

probably accounted for the superior performance of the older trainees in these

courses.

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Table 4. Training courses at an aircraft plant: Comparative performance of

older and younger trainees on tests

Younger trainees Older trainees \ J

Percent Percent

Course Number

of

trainees

Above

average

grade

Below

average

grade

Number

of

trainees

Above

average

grade

Below

average

grade

1. Optical tooling for

assemblers 2/ ........ 24 79 21 22 36 64

2. Introduction to electronics for engineers . 36 53 47 17 47 53

3. Basic electronics for

technical writers .... 19 53 47 19 42 58

A. Electronic technician,

transition and

development ••••••••••» 9 67 33 9 33 67

5. Blueprint reading I for

machinists ........... 9 78 22 8 25 75

6. Blueprint reading II for

machinists 9 44 56 8 50 50

1/ In courses 1, 2, and 3, older trainees included those over 40;

in course 4, those over 35; and in courses 5 and 6, those 50 and over.

2/ Only a pass or fail grade in attaining accuracy was given in

this course. Consequently, the numbers below and above do not evenly divide

the entire group.

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Table 5. Training courses at an aircraft plant: Comparative performance

of older and 3^ounger trainees on tests, with differences in

education taken into account

Younger trainees Older trainees \ /

Percent Percent

Course

Number

of

trainees

Above

average

grade

B e 1 ow

average

grade

Number

of

trainees

Above

average

grade

Below

average

grade

1. Introduction tc

electronics for

engineers ........... 34 56 44 17 53 47

2. Basic electronics for

technical writers ... 14 57 43 19 47 53

3. Electronic technician

transition and

development ........ 6 33 67 8 62 38

4. Blueprint reading II

for machinists ..... 6 67 33 6 67 33

1/ See footnote 1, table 4

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Table 6. Training courses given to weldors at aircraft plant:

Percent of older and younger trainees, above and below

median time needed to achieve certification

\ f In course 1, older trainees included those 45 and over; In

course ?, over 4 0 ; in course 3, over 35; and in course 4, 40 and over.

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Retraining of Airline Maintenance Mechanics

The third study concerns the retraining of 1,200 workers at the

central maintenance facility of one of the Nation's largest airlines. The

workers covered by the data were men employed in the maintenance and overhaul operations.

Nature of the Technological Change. The introduction of turbine and jet

aircraft into commercial airline operations made necessary extensive retraining of mechanics engaged in maintenance and overhaul operations. Although

airline workers were accustomed to relatively frequent changes in equipment,

the shift to jets constituted a major change, more far-reaching than those

previously experienced.

A brief comparison of some specifications of piston and jet planes

highlights the greater complexities of the new equipment that created the

need for retraining. Specifications on the jet are more rigid; the various

control systems, more complicated; and the permissible amount of error,

smaller. Fart of the electrical circuits of the jet is basically a 220-volt

a.c. system; part, 11C-volt a.c. system; and part uses lower d.c. voltage;

the piston plane uses a 28-volt d.c. system. The jets use 3,000 psi hydraulic system; the piston, a 2,000 psi system.

These technological changes had important implications for the skill

and training of maintenance workers. While the same type of physical abilities

and manual skills were needed, work on the more complicated jets required

greater precision in maintaining the hydraulic system and more care in overhauling the electrical system. Workers needed to know about the jet planes

themselves and about the special tools and instruments used in maintaining

and overhauling them. Since both the aircraft and the maintenance equipment

are being constantly modified, retraining and refresher courses are needed to

keep workers up to date.

Retraining Courses. The changeover to jet planes was made gradually, starting

with the delivery of 2 planes and building up to a total of 30. Small groups

of workers consequently were retrained as they were needed. The first group

of trainees had the most difficulty in retraining because it was necessary to

begin before the jets were actually delivered. About 95 percent of the maintenance employees are now qualified to work on jets.

Administration of the training program was the responsibility of the

training department. The procedure generally followed was for a training

staff employee to visit the aircraft manufacturer to familiarize himself with

the course material. On his return, he would organize the course, submit a

training proposal to the department which requested the training and finally

teach the course. Training by the vendor of the equipment was used occasionally when training on a particular aspect of the aircraft was needed immediately and when no member of the training staff was qualified to provide it.

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The data covered by this study relate to 228 courses dealing with

various aspects of aircraft maintenance and overhaul. They ranged from

relatively brief Mfamiliarization" sessions taking 6 hours to detailed technical courses lasting 260 hours. Each class was limited to 10 persons.

Where training had to be given to more than 10, the course was repeated.

Courses in equipment maintenance covered both classroom and practical instruction. First, classes and lectures were held where the equipment

was described and visual aids used to illustrate the procedures used in servicing the equipment. The practical work involved servicing in-service

equipment. In courses on overhaul operations, for example, the equipment used

came from a plane currently being overhauled. Upon completion of the operation, the equipment was tested, using appropriate testing devices, and put

into service on the plane from which it was taken.

For purposes of this study, the 228 courses were classified into

6 levels, according to the number of hours of instruction given. Table 7

shows the number of courses and the number of trainees in each level. In

order to illustrate the nature of the courses given at the various levels,

the titles of selected courses are shown in table 8.

Because over 200 courses were given, with an average of only six

trainees in each, it was not feasible to present the findings for each course.

The procedure followed, therefore, was to count each course as a single observation, and to classify it according to the performance experience of older

trainees. These data on trainees in each course were analyzed to determine

whether the scores of the older 50 percent of the trainees fell above the

median course grade more often, equally often, or less often than the younger

trainees. Courses in which the range in grades was less than 5 points and/or

the range of ages was less than 5 years were not included.

The results, by course level, are summarized in table 9. Older

trainees did better than younger trainees in a majority of the courses given

on only one course level. Pt every level, however, older trainees did better

on at least 20 percent of the courses. When the comparisons are made on the

basis of courses where older trainees did equally as well or better than

younger trainees, the overlapping becomes more pronounced: older workers did

equally as well as younger in a majority of the courses on two levels; and in

at least one-third, on all but one level.

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Table 7. Airline: Level of courses and number of courses and trainees

Course level Number of

courses

Number of

trainees

A11 levels ................... 228 ... __349

i .......................... 8 39

2 .......................... 45 286

3 .......................... 45 268

4 .......................... 82 476

5 .......................... 21 140

6 .......................... 27 140

Table 8. Representative course titles, by level

Level Course title Hours

i ......... Equipment, Plant— Test Stand No. 7205*

Stationary Hydraulic Rotating.................. 8

2 ......... Jet Airliner-Structures, Familiarization ........ 24

Jet Airliner-Engine Accessories Overhaul ........ 24

3 ......... Jet Airliner--Interior Overhaul Familiarization ...

Jet Airliner— Alternator Constant Speed Drive

40

Mechanical Components Overhaul .................. 36

4 ......... Jet Airliner— Engine Final Assembly .............. 80

Jet Airliner— Structure Overhaul .................

Jet Airliner--Engine, Hagnaflux, Zyglo, Rework

80

and Part Inspection ............................. 64

s ......... Turbojet Airliner--Electrical General Maintenance .

Jet Airliner--Miscellaneous Systems Overhaul

112

(Powerplant) .................................... 160

6 ......... General Aircraft--Gyro Instrument Overhaul ....... 240

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Table 9. Airline maintenance workers: Distribution of courses according to

comparative performance of older trainees

Course

level

Number

of

courses

Number

of

trainees

Percent of courses showing

that older trainees did--_l/

Better

than younger

trainees

Equally

as well as

younger

trainees

Not as

well as

younger

trainees

i .......... 8 39 75.0 12.5 12.5

2 .......... 45 286 20.0 11.1 68.9

3 .......... 45 268 28.8 4.5 66.7

4 .......... 82 476 29.3 15.9 54.8

5 .......... 21 140 23.8 14.3 61.9

6 .......... 27 140 33.3 18.5 48.2

1/ Percentages were computed on the basis of counting each course

as a single observation. Data on the performance of trainees in each course

were analyzed to determine whether the scores of the older half of the trainees fell above the median course grade more often, equally often, or less

often than the younger trainees. Excluded are 24 courses in which the total

range in grades is less than 5 points and/or the total range of ages is less

than 5 years.

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Retraining of Telephone Operators

The fourth study concerns the retraining of several hundred longdistance telephone operators, employed by a telephone company servicing the

population of one of the North Central States. The operators were employed

in toll centers in different parts of the State. Although there were about

60 toll centers, data on retraining were available only for operators working

in 10 specific offices. All the operators studied were women. Their ages

ranged between 18 and 60.

Nature of the Technological Change. The change that required the retraining

of operators resulted indirectly from the introduction of electronic data

processing in the accounting operations. In order to process bills for longdistance calls on computers, the company had to modify drastically the methods

used by operators to record the original data on calls.

Prior to the introduction of the new accounting procedures, longdistance operators wrote the telephone numbers involved in a call on a small

paper form. Both the caller's number and the number called were recorded

together with other information needed for proper billing. The paper forms

served as a short-term, memory-aiding device which the operator could consult

while completing the call. Also, the form was used by the accounting department in billing customers.

Under the new electronic system, an IBM card was substituted for

the paper form. Operators are now required to record information on calls by

marking appropriate spaces on the IBM card with a special pencil, rather than

writing the figures on a piece of paper. This is known as the mark-sensing

procedure. The card is then forwarded to the accounting department for processing on the electronic computer.

This procedural innovation, although superficially simple, changed

greatly the routine manual duties of the operators. Instead of writing numbers on slips of paper, the operator now reads down a series of vertical

columns, making a mark in 1 of 10 alternative spaces for each letter or digit

of the number. The number is read horizontally. Since the marks must be

placed accurately within narrow limits if the card is to be processed properly

on the computer, the operator must exercise care, requiring fine sensori-motor

coordination. Also, the operator must make the marking both rapidly and accurately. If it is not done rapidly, service will be delayed. If mistakes are

made in marking, errors will be made in billing.

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Retraining Programs. The change in duties required a 2-day period of retraining for each operator. This training was given by office personnel who had

been previously instructed in the new procedure by personnel from the training

department.

Two types of retraining were given, both involving "learning by

doing." The first dealt with the development of manual skill in marking

cards; the second, with the development of skill in interpreting the markings

on IBM cards.

In training operators in marking cards, a control operator--one for

every two trainees--made calls to trainees, using standard telephone apparatus and the same kind of information that would be used in an actual work

situation. The calls were made at the trainee's maximum speed. The trainee

was required to record the appropriate information on the IBM card and place

the call in the standard manner.

The second phase of the retraining involved the use of marked IBM

cards as a short-term memory device in placing calls. Each trainee was required to place calls which had been recorded on a deck of 30 IBM cards.

Speed and accuracy were emphasized.

Performance in Retraining. The performance of individuals on the retraining

programs for marking and interpreting cards was appraised on the basis of

various quantitative measures.

In appraising the performance in marking cards, five measures were

computed for each trainee: Total number of tickets marked; total number of

errors (mark placed in the wrong box); total number of items omitted; the

number of omissions per card; and an index of marking efficiency (i.e., the

difference between the total number of tickets marked and the sum of errors

and omissions).

For each measure, the proportions of trainees in different age groups

whose performance was above and below average were computed. In determining

whether an individual's performance score was above or below average, the

score (except the total errors measure) was compared with the median for the

particular office where the trainee worked. Since the dirtribution of scores

varied somewhat from office to office, the range of above average performances also differed among offices. The age distribution of trainees, however,

did not differ significantly from office to office. Neither did the quality

of equipment vary.

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Table 10 shows that the proportion of trainees with above average

scores declined with increasing age on 4 of the 5 performance measures. In

the 45 and over age group, less than half of the trainees marked more than

average number of tickets; omitted fewer than average number of items; had

fewer than average omissions per card; and had a higher than average index

of marking efficiency. On the other hand, more than half of older trainees

(45 and over) achieved above average performance scores on the measure based

on errors: i.e., had less than the average number of errors. The smaller

number of cards marked by older trainees may be attributable to the greater

care taken. It is noteworthy that of the age group 35-44, at least 40 percent of the trainees had achieved above-average scores in all five tests.

Since differences in educational background are sometimes said to

account for variability in training performance, an effort was made to take

account of such marking comparisons. Table 11 shows the comparative performance, by age, of operators with 8 to 11 years of education; table 12, of

operators with 12 years or more of education. Older trainees among those

with 8 to 11 years of education did not do as well, as a group, as younger

trainees on all five tests of performance. Among those with 12 years or more

of education, however, trainees 45 and over did better than younger age groups

on one test; i.e., number of errors. Moreover, while older trainees did not

do as well as younger age groups on the four other tests, the differences in

overall performance tended to be smaller.

Table 13 shows the comparative performance of trainees on tests involving interpretation of tickets. Information was available on speed and

errors in performance using old and new methods. Trainees, 45 years and over,

as a group, did not do as well as younger trainees. On the new method, older

operators are slower than younger operators and make a larger number of errors.

It is noteworthy, however, that the performance record of older trainees, based

on errors using the old method of interpreting tickets, was about the same as

the record for younger trainees. This suggests that, with further experience

usjng the new method, older trainees would probably achieve about the same

level of performance with respect to errors as younger trainees.

A particularly important finding was the variability in performance

among all age groups. Some older trainees achieved higher scores than some

younger trainees. This was found to be the case on every test for which data

are shown.

In summary, older trainees, as a group, did not perform on tests as

well as younger trainees. The training involved tasks requiring some sensorimotor coordination where ability tends to be affected by aging. Nevertheless,

some older trainees did better than some younger trainees. Moreover, when

differences in formal education are taken into account, differences in performance were generally not as great.

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Table 10. Telephone operator trainees: Level of performance on various

measures, by age group

Age group (percent)

Measure and performance level

18-24 25-34 35-44

45

and

over

Number of tickets marked:

Above average performance 1/ ...........

Below average performance ..............

54.0

46.0

51.5

48.5

41.4

58.6

25.5

74.5

Total number of errors:

Above average performance ..............

Below average performance ..............

43.7

56.3

49.5

50.5

58.6

41.4

52.7

47.3

Total number of omissions:

Above average performance ..............

Below average performance .... . ........

62.5

37.5

59.4

40.6

58.6

41.4

40.0

60.0

Ratio of omissions to tickets marked:

Above average performance ..............

Below average performance ..............

55.7

44.3

52.0

48.0

47.1

52.9

29.1

70.9

Marking efficiency index:

Above average performance ..............

Below average performance ..............

59.7

40.3

53.0

47.0

42.9

57.1

27.3

72.7

Number of trainees .................... 176 202 70 55

1/ nAbove average performance" indicates superior performance.

Thus, it indicates that the number of tickets marked was greater than the

average (median), and that the index of marking efficiency was higher than

the average; also, that the total number of errors, total number of omissions,

and the ratio of omissions to tickets marked was less than the average.

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Table 11. Telephone operator trainees: Level of performance of trainees

with 8-11 years of education, on various measures, by age group

Age group (percent)

Measure and level of performance

18-24 25-34 35-44

45

and

over

Number of tickets marked:

Above average performance 1/ ...........

Below average performance ..............

57.6

42.4

51.6

48.4

33.3

66.7

19.3

80.7

Total number of errors:

Above average performance ..............

Below average performance ............. .

45.4

54.6

64.5

35.5

61.9

38.1

38.7

61.3

Total number of omissions:

Above average performance ..............

Below average performance ..............

63.6

36.4

77.4

22.6

61.9

38.1

45.2

54.8

Ratio of omissions to tickets marked:

Above average performance ..............

Below average oerformance ..............

51.5

48.5

61.3

38.7

38.1

61.9

25.8

74.2

Marking efficiency index:

Above average performance ..............

Below average performance ..............

60.6

39.4

67.7

32.3

47.6

52.4

22.6

77.4

Number of trainees .................... 33 31 21 31

1 / See footnote 1, table 10.

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Table 12. Telephone operator trainees: Level of performance in various

measures, of trainees with 12 years or more of education, by age group

Age group (percent)

Measure and level of performance

18-24 25-34 35-44

45

and

over

Number of tickets marked:

Above average performance 1/ ...........

Below average performance ..............

53.5

46.5

52.5

47.5

45.4

54.6

38.9

61.1

Total number of errors:

Above average performance ..............

Below average performance ..............

43.7

56.3

48.7

51.3

63.6

36.4

77.8

22.2

Total number of omissions:

Above average performance ..............

Below average performance ..............

62.7

37.3

56.3

43.7

54.6

45.4

27.8

72.2

Ratio of omissions to tickets marked:

Above average performance ..............

Below average performance ..............

57.0

43.0

50.0

50.0

52.3

47.7

38.9

61.1

Marking efficiency index:

Above average performance ..............

Below average performance ..............

SO . 0

40.1

50.0

50.0

40.9

59.1

38.9

61.1

Number of trainees .................... 142 158 44 18

1 / See footnote 1, table 10.

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Table 13. Telephone operator trainees: Level of performance on tests

interpreting tickets, by age group

Age group (percent)

Tests and level of performance

18-24 25-34 35-44

45

and

over

Speed using old method:

Above average performance 1/ i

Below average performance..... .........

i

52.2

47.8

52.7

47.3

50.9

49.1

33.3

66.7

Errors using old method:

Above average performance 2/ ...........

Below average performance ..............

63.0

37.0

68.5

31.5

69.1

30.9

64.9

35.1

Speed using new method:

Above average performance 1/ ...........

Below average performance ..............

60.9

39.1

54.6

45.4

38.2

61.8

28.1

71.9

Errors using new method:

Above average performance 2/ ............

Below average performance ..............

56.5

43.5

60.6

39.4

60.0

40.0

39.3

60.7

Speed difference: 3/

Above average performance ...............

Below average performance ..............

55.4

44.6

54.6

45.4

49.1

50.9

31.8

68.2

Number of trainees .................... 92 165 55 57

1/ nAbove average performance" signifies that speed in interpreting

cards was higher than average.

27 "Above average perf ormance11 signifies that accuracy was better

than average, i.e., fewer errors were made.

3/ ’’Above average performance” means that the difference between

speeds on new and old method was smaller than average. "Below average performance" signifies that the difference was greater than average, i.e., more

time needed for new method.

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Selected Bibliography

Publications of the U.S. Government:

Adjustments to the Introduction of Office Automation, BLS Bulletin 1276,

1960.

Comparative Job Performance by Age: Large Plants in Men’s Footwear and

Household Furniture Irdi*stries, BLS Bulletin 1223, 1957.

Comparative Job Performance by Age: Office Workers, BLS Bulletin 1273,

1960.

Employment Security and Retirement of the Older Worker. Reports and

Guidelines from the White House Conference on Aging, Series No. 3.

U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Special Staff on

Aging, April 1961.

Training Mature Women for Employment, Bulletin 256. U.S. Department of

Labor, Women’s Bureau, 1956.

Books and Periodicals

Abrams, A. J., ’’Training of Older Persons Through Correspondence and

Private Trade Schools," Enriching the Years. New York Joint Legislative Committee on Problems of the Aging, 1953, pp. 158-168.

Barkin, Solomon., "Job Redesign: A Technique for an Era of Full Employment," Manpower in the United States, W. Haber, editor, New York,

Harper, 1954.

Belbin, Eunice., "Methods of Training Older Workers," Ergonomics«

July 1958, pp. 207-221.

Birren, J. E., "Age Changes in Skill and Learning," Earning Opportunities

for Older Workers. Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 1955,

pp. 62-74.

Clark, S. D., The Employability of the Older Worker: A Review of Research

Findings. Ottawa, Canada, Economics and Research Branch, Department of

Labour, 1959.

Donahue, Wilma T., "Learning Motivation, Education of the Aging,"

Psychological Aspects of Aging, J. E. Anderson, editor, Washington, D.C.,

American Psychological Association, 1956, pp. 200-206.

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Donahue, Wilma T . , "Adult Learning: Limits and Potentialities," Automation and the Challenge to Education, Luther H. Evans and George E.

Arnstein, editors, Washington, D.C., National Education Association,

January 1962, pp. 19-37.

Gordon, Margaret S., "The Older Worker and Hiring Practices," Monthly

Labor Review, November 1959, pp. 1198-1205.

Greenberg, Leon, "Productivity of Older Workers," The Gerontologist%

March 1961, pp. 38-41.

Heron A., "Psychology, Occupation, and Age," Occupational Psychology»

January 1958, pp. 21-25.

Lorge, Irving, "Intelligence and Learning in Aging," Aging, A Current

Appraisal, I. L. Webber, editor, Gainesville, Florida, University of

Florida Press, 1956, pp. 51-62.

McFarland, Ross A. and Brian M. O'Doherty, "Work and Occupational Skills,"

Handbook of Aging and the Individual» J. E. Birren, editor, Chicago,

University cf Chicago Press, 1959, pp. 452-500.

Odell, C. E., "Aptitudes and Work Performance of Older Workers,"

Psychological Aspects of Aging, J. E. Anderson, editor, Washington, D.C.,

American Psychological Association, 1956, pp. 240-244.

Shooter, A. M., A. E. D. Schonfield, H. F. King, and A. T. Welford, "Some

Field Data on the Training of Older People," Occupational Psychology,

October 1956, pp. 204-215.

Sprague, Norman, Implications of Automation and Technological Development

for the Employment of Older Workers: A Preliminary Selected Bibliography , New York, National Council on Aging, 1962.

Stabler, Abraham, "The Older Worker, Job Problems and Their Solution,"

Monthly Labor Review, January 1957, pp. 22-30.

Tannenbaum, Arnold 3., and Gary Grenholm, "Adaptability of Older Workers

to Technological Change," International Bulletin of Applied Psychology,

July-December 1962.

Welford, A. T., Aging and Human Skill. London, Oxford University Press,

1958.

tV u.s, G O V E R N M E N T P R IN T IN G O F F IC E : 1963 0 - r 6 9 0 1 9 8

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