Knowledge Management 

Economic Opportunity State of 

the Science Report

Submitted: August 19, 2015

Submitted to:

Adrienne DiTommaso

Corporation for National and Community Service

1201 New York Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20525

Submitted by:

JBS International, Inc.

Aguirre Division

555 Airport Blvd, Suite 400

Burlingame, CA 94010-2002
Table of Contents 

Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................................2

Introduction and Overview of National Service Economic Opportunity Interventions .................1

State of the Science.....................................................................................................................................2

Housing...................................................................................................................................................3

Habitat for Humanity .......................................................................................................................3

Supportive Housing..........................................................................................................................4

Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................4

Financial Literacy...................................................................................................................................5

Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................5

Employability.........................................................................................................................................5

Employment Support for Opportunity Youth ..............................................................................6

Employment Support for Other Populations ................................................................................6

Conclusion..........................................................................................................................................8

Strength of the Evidence Base ..................................................................................................................8

Appendix A: Eligibility Criteria for National Service Review ..........................................................10

Appendix B: Selection Process for Economic Opportunity Full Reviews........................................12

Appendix C: Levels of Evidence............................................................................................................13

Levels of Evidence for Individual Studies .......................................................................................13

Overall Levels of Evidence Determinations for Focus Areas........................................................13

Appendix D: Emerging Research ..........................................................................................................14

Emerging Research in Housing .........................................................................................................14

Emerging Research in Financial Literacy.........................................................................................14

Appendix E: Annotated Bibliography: Studies Selected for Full Review................................................15

Housing.................................................................................................................................................15

Habitat for Humanity .....................................................................................................................15

Supportive Housing........................................................................................................................19

Financial Literacy.................................................................................................................................21

Employability.......................................................................................................................................22

Employment Supports for Opportunity Youth ..........................................................................22

Employment Supports for Other Populations ............................................................................25
State of the Science

National Service Economic 

Opportunity Initiatives

August 19, 2015

1

Introduction and Overview of National Service Economic Opportunity Interventions

The Corporation for National and Community Service (CNCS) is dedicated to creating 

economic opportunity by using national service to improve the financial well-being and 

security of economically disadvantaged individuals through specific, proven interventions to 

address the housing, financial literacy, and employment needs of low-income populations.

This brief aggregates and synthesizes published and grey literature regarding the effectiveness 

of CNCS programs in the economic opportunity focus area. Following a predetermined 

systematic search protocol, 2,508 documents were collected and reviewed for eligibility as part 

of a broad effort to assess the evidence base for CNCS programs (see Appendix A). Of the 689

documents deemed eligible for the overall review, 114 documents concerned programs

dedicated to increasing economic opportunity in the areas of housing, financial literacy, and

employability.

This brief provides an overview of these 114 documents, as well as in-depth information 

regarding 13 completed studies that were selected for full review (see Appendix B). Researchers 

gathering information from these studies followed a detailed protocol for data extraction and 

determination of study effectiveness. To rate studies according to levels of evidence, researchers

followed AmeriCorps State and National (see Appendix C) level of evidence criteria, which 

rates strong studies as those that target and attain very high internal validity, typically using 

randomized controlled trials (RCT), and moderate studies as those that increase internal 

validity by using quasi-experimental designs (QED) or correlational research with strong 

statistical controls. Studies that relate to outcomes but do not attempt to strengthen internal 

validity through a comparison group or for which the comparison group is substantially nonequivalent to the treatment group are considered preliminary, while those that do not address 

outcomes are pre-preliminary. An annotated bibliography with summarized information for 

these 13 studies is presented in Appendix D. 

We found the strongest evidence of effectiveness in the employability focus area (moderate),

followed by housing (preliminary), and, financial literacy (pre-preliminary). Of the 13 studies 

subjected to in-depth review, six addressed employability, six addressed housing, and one 

addressed financial literacy. Table 1 presents the proportion of studies selected for review by 

focus area and study type. 

Table 1: Documents Selected and Eligible for Full Review by Focus Area and Study Type

Impact Outcome Other Total

Selected Eligible Selected Eligible Selected Eligible Selected Eligible

Housing 1 3 5 17 0 18 6 38

Financial 

Literacy 0 0 1 1 0 4 1 5

Employability 6 9 0 17 0 27 6 53
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Impact Outcome Other Total

Selected Eligible Selected Eligible Selected Eligible Selected Eligible

Multiple/ 

Other1

0 0 0 9 0 9 0 18

Total 7 12 5 44 1 58 13 114

State of the Science

Overall, the literature contained few completed studies with rigorous designs that assessed the 

effectiveness of CNCS economic opportunity programs (see Figure 1). The most rigorous 

designs, such as randomized controlled trials or quasi-experimental studies, were found in only 

nine studies (see Figure 1).

2

Figure 1: Economic Opportunity Studies by Design

 

1 Documents classified as Multiple/Other were primarily overviews of large programs, such as 

AmeriCorps VISTA, that included limited information about community-level outcomes in one or more 

programs. 

2

It should be noted that many eligible documents demonstrated rigorous research methods and were 

technically eligible for review, but were not primarily concerned with determining the effectiveness of 

programs or providing generalizable information. These include case studies, ethnographies, and critical 

reviews. 

All Eligible Documents

N = 689

Economic Opportunity 

N = 114

Impact

N = 12 

Randomized 

Controlled Trial 

N = 3 

Groups Formed by 

Matching

N = 4

Comparison Groups –

Nonequivalent

N = 5 

Outcome

N = 44

Other

N = 58

Program Description 

N = 40

Not Concerning 

Economic Opportunity 

N = 575
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Housing

There were 38 documents primarily focused on housing programs, 30 of which (79 percent)

focused on Habitat for Humanity. The eight remaining documents described additional strategies 

for improving housing outcomes, including supportive housing for people with mental health 

issues or other challenges related to housing stability. 

Habitat for Humanity 

Although a considerable amount of literature described Habitat for Humanity programs, only 

two of the 30 documents detailed an impact study3. Four documents describing Habitat for 

Humanity programs were selected for full review, including one impact evaluation and three 

outcome evaluations (Table 2).

Table 2: Habitat for Humanity4

Title (ID) Publication 

Type

Study 

Design Type

Strength Outcomes

Rebuilding social 

organization in lowincome neighborhoods

(2144)

Thesis or 

dissertation

QED – Nonequivalent 

groups 

Preliminary Social cohesion , Safety, 

Informal social control, 

Sense of community 

Homeownership impact 

on Habitat for Humanity 

partner families

(2166)

Peer-reviewed 

journal article

Pre-Post Preliminary Family strength , 

financial well-being , 

perceptions of 

community , family 

achievements 

Comparing human and 

social resources 

accumulated through 

participation with Habitat 

for Humanity (2225)

Thesis or 

dissertation

Correlational PrepreliminaryHuman and social 

resource development

Housing and well-being

(2215)

Thesis or 

dissertation

Pre-post 

qualitative 

Prepreliminary Satisfaction with 

neighborhood 

The studies reviewed suggest that Habitat home ownership provides economic, social, and 

psychological benefits to economically disadvantaged individuals. Moreover, homeowners 

situated in Habitat for Humanity neighborhoods experience a greater sense of social cohesion 

versus homeowners in scattered site housing. However, there are currently no studies of Habitat 

 

3 One of the two impact evaluations analyzed member perceptions of the causes of poverty, rather than 

examining the effectiveness of Habitat for Humanity programs in improving economic opportunity 

priority outcomes.

4

In Table 2 and the remaining summary tables, an upward pointing arrow indicates increases in an 

outcome, a downward pointing arrow indicates decreases in that outcome, and no arrow indicates that 

there were no detectable differences in that outcome.
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for Humanity demonstrating strong or moderate evidence, as the only impact study related to 

participant outcomes includes a non-equivalent comparison group. Therefore, more research,

including randomized controlled trials (RCT) or more rigorous quasi-experimental designs

(e.g., groups formed by matching, comparative interrupted time series), would be needed in 

order to draw causal conclusions regarding the benefits of Habitat for Humanity home 

ownership on individuals, families, and communities. 

Supportive Housing

Two of the eight documents that addressed housing programs other than Habitat for Humanity

were selected for full review (Table 3). Both described outcome studies of supportive housing 

programs. 

Table 3: Supportive Housing

Title (ID) Publication 

Type

Study 

Design Type

Strength Outcomes

Supportive Housing for 

Addicted, Incarcerated, 

Homeless Adults (2518)

Peer-reviewed 

journal article

Pre-post Preliminary Increased access to food 

, Housing stability , 

Recidivism 

Helping the homeless: 

Program evaluation of 

Philadelphia's supportive 

housing program

(1977)

Thesis or 

dissertation

Time series Preliminary Housing stability , 

Management of 

psychiatric symptoms , 

Adult living skills 

A longitudinal outcome study of the Supportive Housing Project of Philadelphia employing a time 

series design examined a supportive housing program in Philadelphia for homeless individuals 

suffering from serious mental illness. This program included case management services and 

benefited from AmeriCorps members, whose work complemented program staff in two of the 

three studied sites. This study showed benefits in terms of housing stability, management of 

psychiatric symptoms, attainment of adult living skills, and ability to meet socialization and 

quality of life goals.

One outcome study of the Homeless Assistance Rental Program (HARP) employing a pre-post 

design examined the success of a supportive housing model for people with histories of 

substance abuse, mental illness, or incarceration. This program incorporated AmeriCorps 

members as visitors who periodically checked in with participants and reported any problems 

to professional case managers. This study demonstrated promising results in terms of 

decreasing recidivism and improving housing stability, though the study noted that 

participants were not visited as frequently as recommended. 

Conclusion

Overall, evidence for the effectiveness of CNCS housing programs is preliminary, since there 

were no studies employing rigorous experimental or quasi-experimental designs that could 

support causal conclusions regarding the impact of CNCS-funded programs on housing 

outcomes. However, several studies with less rigorous designs (e.g., pre-post) provided 
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preliminary evidence that such programs provide benefits in areas such as housing stability, 

perceptions of family strength, and social cohesion.

Financial Literacy 

Researchers examined five documents primarily concerning financial literacy programs. The 

literature on CNCS-supported financial literacy programs is extremely sparse; no studies 

contained outcome data describing the program’s impact on program beneficiaries. One study 

providing information about program activities was selected for full review as a representative 

of the literature base (Table 4).

Table 4: Financial Literacy 

Title (ID) Publication 

Type

Study 

Design Type

Strength Outcomes

Seedco AmeriCorps 

Program: 2010-2011 

Program Evaluation (1372)

Internal, nongovernmental 

report

Outcome

only5

Prepreliminary Tax preparation and 

other income-enhancing 

benefits

This document described the Seedco AmeriCorps program, which works with low-income 

families in New York City to improve access to public benefits and offers free tax preparation 

through the Volunteer Income Assistance (VITA) program. This evaluation included feedback 

based on interviews with 11 AmeriCorps members serving as staff, as well as feedback from a 

small number of AmeriCorps alumni, but provided no data regarding outcomes for program 

beneficiaries. AmeriCorps members provided a variety of services, including direct tax 

preparation, benefit management, community outreach, and volunteer mobilization. 

Conclusion

Overall, evidence for the effectiveness of CNCS financial literacy programs is pre-preliminary,

due to the absence of studies systematically documenting or assessing causal relationships for 

outcomes of CNCS-funded financial literacy programs. 

Employability 

The search found 53 studies examining the effectiveness of CNCS programs designed to 

enhance employability among economically disadvantaged individuals or families. Nine of 

these employed experimental or quasi-experimental research designs, and six of these were 

selected for full review6. 

 

5 Documents are classified according to the highest level of study design type contained within the 

document. Since this evaluation includes outcome data for a small number of AmeriCorps members, it is 

classified as an outcome evaluation, though it provides no data regarding outcomes of program 

beneficiaries or outcomes directly related to improving financial literacy. 

6 There were two randomized controlled trials of the Youth Corps. Only the most recent study was 

selected for full review, due to design flaws in the earlier study. 
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Employment Support for Opportunity Youth 

Several studies examined the effect of CNCS programs on opportunity youth. Three studies 

targeting this population were selected for full review. 

A national RCT evaluation of Youth Corps programs conducted from 2006-2009 showed no 

perceptible impacts on educational outcomes, civic engagement and life skills, and “risky 

behaviors” such as alcohol and substance abuse or criminal offence and incarceration. However, 

the report authors noted that there was a positive impact on participants’ ability to make ends 

meet, which they hypothesized might be due to the stipend provided and/or the financial 

literacy component offered by many of the Youth Corps programs included in the study.

Table 5: Employment Support for Opportunity Youth

Title (ID) Publication 

Type

Study 

Design Type

Strength Outcomes

National Evaluation of 

Youth Corps: Findings at 

Follow-up (2000)

Internal, nongovernmental 

report

RCT Strong Financial security , 

employment, life skills, 

education, risky 

behaviors, civic 

engagement

Sustained Gains: Year 

Up's Continued Impact on 

Young Adults' Earnings

(2293)

Internal, nongovernmental 

report

RCT Strong Earnings (including 

hourly wages) 

An Outcome Evaluation of 

the YouthBuild USA 

Offender Project (2073)

Peer reviewed 

article

QED – Nonequivalent 

groups 

Preliminary Education , Recidivism 

A small scale RCT evaluation7 of the Year Up workforce development program, which trains 

participants for careers in the information technology and financial operations fields, found that 

participant earnings were 32 percent greater than those of the control group.

Though there were several studies describing the YouthBuild program, only one could be 

classified as an impact study, and this study compared YouthBuild graduates to those who were 

accepted into, but then dropped out of the program. Therefore, attributions of causality are 

limited, as participant characteristics influencing program persistence determined group 

membership and likely influenced outcomes. 

Employment Support for Other Populations 

In addition to programs aimed at enhancing employability in opportunity youth, there were 

programs that targeted other populations with employment challenges, such as people with a 

history of incarceration and people receiving unemployment benefits. Three studies employing 

 

7 N = 195
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quasi-experimental designs using groups formed by matching showed benefits in employment 

outcomes and are described here. 

Table 6: Employment Support for Other Populations

Title (ID) Publication 

Type

Study 

Design Type

Strength Outcomes

Quasi-Experimental 

Impact Study of 

NFWS/SIF Workforce 

Partnership Programs 

(2422)

Internal, nongovernment 

report 

QED –

Groups 

formed by 

Matching

Moderate Post-program 

employment , 

Earnings , 

Job retention

Economic self-sufficiency 

and life stability one year 

after starting a social 

enterprise job (2445)

Internal, nongovernment 

report 

QED –

Groups 

formed by 

Matching

Moderate Housing stability , 

Ongoing employment

Assessment of the Impact 

of Washington 

WorkSource Job Search 

Services (2298)

Government 

report 

QED –

Groups 

formed by 

Matching

Moderate Employment , 

Earnings

Some of the most recent research on employability for economically disadvantaged individuals 

focuses on sectoral strategies to employment and training, (i.e., training that is developed in 

partnership with business in specific, high-growth industry sectors). Jobs for the Future (JFF), a 

SIF grantee, conducted a QED study employing propensity score matching of participants in 

three sites. Participants successfully obtained employment in health care, manufacturing, and 

construction. They were most successful in retaining employment and increasing earnings in 

the health care sector and, to a lesser degree, in the advanced manufacturing sector program. 

Social enterprises (SEs) are mission-driven businesses focused on hiring and assisting people 

who face barriers to work. The study of REDF’s SE subgrantees employing a QED with matched 

comparisons showed that work experience in these organizations led to increased economic 

self-sufficiency after a year and improved life stability. This is a high-support work experience 

model in which employment in the social enterprise includes employment supports and life 

stability supports during the program, as well as post-employment supports once the 

participant leaves the SE.

WorkSource provided an alternate model for enhancing employment-related outcomes, as it 

offered AmeriCorps-supported job search services to people receiving unemployment benefits.

This study was performed in a full-employment economy, so results may not be applicable in 

high unemployment contexts. The study examined differences based on subgroup membership 

and found that males with intermittent previous employment (as opposed to continuous 

previous employment) had the largest increases in probability of employment and in earnings.
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Conclusion

Overall, evidence for the effectiveness of CNCS employability programs is moderate, since the 

review included several studies with at least a moderate level of evidence employing 

experimental or quasi-experimental designs that demonstrated positive impacts of CNCSfunded programs on employment outcomes. Although the review included two RCT studies in 

this focus area, evidence in this focus area was not rated as strong because only one of the two 

studies demonstrated improvements in the primary measures of employment outcomes. 

However, one RCT study and several rigorous quasi-experimental studies provided substantial 

evidence demonstrating improvements in employment and/or earnings.

Strength of the Evidence Base

Evidence for the effectiveness of CNCS economic opportunity programs can be classified as

follows: 

 Housing: Preliminary

 Financial literacy: Pre-preliminary

 Employability: Moderate

This report provides an overall summary of the literature regarding the effectiveness of CNCSfunded economic opportunities, as well as detailed information describing seven impact studies 

and six outcome studies. 

In the area of housing, we reviewed a great deal of literature regarding Habitat for Humanity, but 

none of the studies incorporated rigorous experimental or quasi-experimental designs. One 

impact study used archival data and a variety of methods including geographic information 

systems, along with data collected first-hand from program recipients, to assess improvements 

in neighborhood well-being due to the presence of Habitat for Humanity homes. Additional 

studies of Habitat for Humanity indicate several potential benefits to program recipients, but 

employed less rigorous designs such as single-group pre-post assessments. Much of the 

literature regarding Habitat for Humanity came in the form of dissertations, which were 

frequently thorough, but often under-powered or employed methods that cannot lead to causal 

conclusions (e.g., ethnographies). Aside from Habitat for Humanity, the review included a small 

amount of literature on housing programs and models, such as supportive housing, none of 

which employed rigorous study designs. Overall, the evidence for housing programs is 

preliminary. Multiple rigorous quasi-experimental or experimental studies demonstrating 

positive outcomes would be needed to strengthen the evidence base for housing programs.

Literature in the area of financial literacy was extremely sparse. Although programs aimed at 

improving other outcomes (e.g., employment) sometimes included financial literacy as an 

additional component, the impact was not studied in isolation. No studies could be found that 

assessed the effects of CNCS-funded programs primarily in improving financial literacy 

outcomes. Multiple studies reporting positive outcomes of financial literacy programs would be 

sufficient to change this designation to preliminary, while multiple rigorous quasi-experimental 

or experimental studies would be needed to obtain a designation of moderate or strong.
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Literature regarding the effectiveness of programs designed to improve employability 

constituted approximately half of the overall body of available literature. This focus area was by 

far the most rigorously studied. Of the seven impact studies described in this review, five 

obtained moderate or strong evidence; all of which were in the area of employability. This 

included two RCTs of the effects of CNCS programs on opportunity youth employment 

outcomes, and three QEDs using matched comparison groups assessing the success of CNCSprograms targeting unemployed or difficult-to-employ populations. Additionally, one impact 

study of CNCS employment programs used a less rigorous design that compared program 

participant outcomes to a non-equivalent comparison group, though this was subject to 

selection bias since it compared program participants to program dropouts. Overall, the

literature revealed a moderate level of evidence for the effectiveness of CNCS-funded 

employability programs. According to the definitions outlined in Appendix C, a single wellimplemented randomized controlled trial demonstrating positive outcomes in primary 

measures would be sufficient to achieve a designation of strong.

Although the Economic Opportunity focus area has several potential advantages that could 

allow a stronger evidence base, it also faces multiple challenges. While the extensive body of 

literature related to Habitat for Humanity reflects a desire for knowledge around the impact of 

this program and likely other housing programs as well, the number of cases and potential 

comparison group sources (e.g. low income individuals seeking housing) may make sufficiently 

statistically powered evaluations difficult at a local level. State, regional or national evaluations 

of housing interventions would be more likely to provide a sufficient number of cases to 

construct a rigorous design. Evaluations focusing on employability outcomes have, and could 

continue to, utilize existing state unemployment data. However gaining access to these data 

requires a knowledgeable and experienced evaluation team. It may also require support and 

guidance from not only the program but also funding agencies like CNCS as well. Evaluations 

that focus on financial literacy could be better supported with access to validated measures of 

financial literacy, which take both time and expert input to construct.
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Appendix A: Eligibility Criteria for National Service Review

1. The document is factual (versus opinion8).

o The document is referring first-hand to research findings, using original or 

secondary data collection, a synthesis of the literature, or a systematic 

review/meta-analysis.

o The document is not an Op-Ed, testimonial, or marketing material.

2. The study is relevant to CNCS-sponsored National Service or CNCS.

o The study is conducted on a program that, at the time of the study, engaged 

AmeriCorps State/National, NCCC or VISTA Members, Senior Corps Volunteers, 

or was funded by SIF or a SIF Grantee. A program refers to an ongoing service

and does not include short term special initiative projects.

o The study is conducted on a program model that currently engages AmeriCorps 

members or Senior Corps volunteers, even if the study itself does not identify or 

include specific program sites with AmeriCorps members or Senior Corps 

volunteers (e.g., studies of Reading Partners, City Year).9

o The program’s outcomes are applicable to CNCS. The study investigates the 

effectiveness of volunteers or national service programs in the focus areas of

Education, Economic Opportunity, Healthy Futures, Environment, or Disaster 

Services and Response. 

3. The document is in English.

4. The document is a final report for the program, project or evaluation rather than an 

interim or progress report.10

 

8 Factual documents report data or other information in a manner that is subject to empirical verification. 

Opinion documents pass judgment on the value or merit of a set of facts or circumstances based on a set 

of evaluative criteria that are not strictly subject to empirical verification (e.g., based on moral or political 

considerations).

9

It is anticipated that the review would not include any study of a program that, although it could be 

adapted for national service, is not currently funded by CNCS, with the exception of evidence based 

practices that could be applied in a national service context found in online clearinghouses. 

10 Final reports summarize information about a program or intervention at the end of the program or 

intervention's life or at the end of a major cycle in the program or intervention's life (e.g., at the end of a 

funding period). By contrast, an interim report provides information on the status of a program or 

intervention at an intermediate juncture in its lifecycle. Information provided in an interim report does 

not contain complete information on results, as the program or intervention is still underway at the time 

when the report was written. Though not technically eligible for review, interim reports for SIF-funded 

programs may be discussed as emerging research, particularly in focus areas where forthcoming SIF 

studies address a gap in rigorous research. 
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5. The document was published after 1990, but before the search kickoff date (February 

1

st 2015), is a seminal document as indicated by citations in post-1990 literature, or was 

recommended for inclusion by a key stakeholder.

6. The document does not duplicate information from a previously screened source. 

Where duplicate information is identified, two sources will be listed as a single citation 

and only the latest source will be reviewed.
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Appendix B: Selection Process for Economic Opportunity Full Reviews

The following process was used to select articles for full review in this report. Reviewers:

1. Identified the subject matter of the study and confirmed relation to the economic 

opportunity focus area.

2. Determined whether it was a final report or an interim report, with only final reports 

selected for inclusion in the report (although interim reports on emerging strategies are 

referred to in the appendix). 

3. Gave priority in selection to those studies that showed impact on beneficiaries with 

outcomes addressing CNCS economic opportunity objectives11, over those that studied 

impact on members (which are covered in the National Service report). AmeriCorps 

program outcomes and performance measures dealing with economic opportunity 

typically target beneficiary outcomes, unless the program is specifically aimed at 

improving economic opportunity outcomes among members, (e.g., opportunity youth 

programs), as these programs target specific economic outcomes for their members.

4. Gave priority in selection to those studies that examined the program features or 

components that were related to successful outcomes for the beneficiaries.

5. Ascertained the level of evidence and, to the extent possible given other selection 

criteria, selected those with the strongest level of evidence.

 

11 Corporation for National and Community Service (CNCS). (2011). The Corporation for National and 

Community Service Strategic Plan 2011-2015. Washington, DC.
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Appendix C: Levels of Evidence

Levels of Evidence for Individual Studies

Strong evidence means the study incorporates a design that can support causal conclusions for 

the specific program with the highest level of confidence (i.e., very high internal validity). This 

would include well-designed and well-implemented experimental studies conducted on the 

proposed program.

Moderate evidence means the study can support causal conclusions for the program studied 

with moderate confidence (i.e., those that take steps to increase internal validity). This would 

include well-designed and conducted quasi-experimental studies or correlational research with 

strong statistical controls for selection bias and for discerning the influence of internal factors. 

An example of research that meets the standards would be a well-designed and wellimplemented quasi-experimental study that compares outcomes between the group receiving 

the intervention and a matched comparison group (i.e., a similar population that does not 

receive the intervention).

Preliminary evidence includes non-experimental studies such as those that seek to demonstrate 

improvement in program participants over time on one or more intended outcome or an 

implementation (process evaluation) study used to learn and improve program operations. 

Examples of these include: 1) outcome studies that track program participants through a service 

pipeline and measure participants’ responses at the end of the program; and 2) pre- and posttest research that determines whether participants have improved on an intended outcome.

This level also includes RCTs and QEDs with significant threats to validity, such as evidence of 

selection bias. 

Pre-preliminary evidence would include studies reporting quantitative or qualitative data from 

program staff, program participants, or beneficiaries that have been used for program 

improvement, performance measurement reporting, and/or tracking. An example could be 

gathering feedback from program participants following their service year.

Overall Levels of Evidence Determinations for Focus Areas

In determining the overall level of evidence for specific focus areas (e.g., housing), we selected 

the highest level at which there were multiple studies supporting positive outcomes.
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Appendix D: Emerging Research 

Despite a notable lack of rigorous evaluative research that can support casual conclusions 

regarding the effectiveness of CNCS-funded housing and financial literacy programs, there is 

an emerging body of evidence in these topic areas described in SIF interim reports. These 

reports were excluded from this review due to pre-established criteria that admitted only 

finalized documents. However, if these studies are well-implemented, they may significantly 

improve the body of evidence supporting the effectiveness of CNCS-funded programs in these 

areas. 

Emerging Research in Housing 

Though not eligible for review under the systematic review guidelines, two interim reports for 

housing programs supported by the Social Innovation Fund include rigorous impact evaluation 

designs targeting moderate or strong evidence. One document describes an impact evaluation 

of a supportive housing program, the other presents an alternative model for housing in the 

form of shared equity home ownership programs that provide homes at below-market prices to 

families that otherwise would not be able to afford to home ownership. 

Emerging Research in Financial Literacy 

Research is emerging from SIF studies on financial literacy programs, including anticipated 

2015 MDRC study of SaveUSA, an anticipated 2015 study of the Family Rewards program, and a 

study of LISC’s five Financial Opportunity Centers in Chicago. These forthcoming studies will 

contribute to the literature on the effectiveness of efforts to improve financial literacy in 

economically disadvantaged individuals.

The MDRC study of SaveUSA, a subgrantee of the SIF grantee Mayor’s Fund, is using an RCT to 

examine the impact on tax filers by providing a 50 percent match when filers save their tax 

refund for over a year. Preliminary results showed an increase in savings for the treatment 

group. 

The evaluation of Family Rewards, which also employs an RCT, will examine the impact of a 

conditional cash transfer program for low-income families on alleviating poverty and 

encouraging long-term financial savings. 

A study of LISC’s five Financial Opportunity Centers (FOCs) in Chicago and the impact of their 

services on participants’ credit usage and credit ratings uses a QED that compares the outcomes 

of individuals who sought assistance from the FOCs to those of a similar group who sought 

assistance with employment and training from the City of Chicago’s workforce centers.
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Appendix E: Annotated Bibliography: Studies Selected for Full Review 

Housing

Habitat for Humanity 

2144 Lattimore, J. D. (2014). Rebuilding social organization in low-income neighborhoods: The influence of Habitat for Humanity (Doctoral 

dissertation, Clemson University).

Intervention name Operating 

program/

organization name

Relationship to 

national 

service/CNCS

Evaluator or evaluating organization name Location(s) of the study

Habitat for Humanity Habitat for 

Humanity

ASN John Daniel Lattimore Des Moines, 

Indianapolis, Louisville, 

Providence, San Antonio

This quasi-experimental study assesses the impact of the presence of Habitat for Humanity homes on neighborhood social organization in lowincome neighborhood. This study focuses on five large U.S. cities spread across the country. This investigation hypothesizes that Habitat for 

Humanity families are more motivated to better their lives than their neighbors because of Habitat’s selection criteria and because they have 

completed the process of becoming a Habitat homeowner. The theory also suggests that Habitat homeowners have a positive effect on their 

neighbors, and their neighborhood. This effect is measured through components of social organization. The dissertation takes advantage of the 

Making Connections survey sponsored by the Annie E. Casey Foundation as well as qualitative interviews, neighborhood observations and GIS 

analysis in order to determine the effect Habitat homeowners have on their neighborhoods.

The data collected were used to estimate the effect of the presence of Habitat for Humanity’s homes, either scattered or in clusters, on several 

variables that are indicators for sense of community, positive identification with the neighborhood, and explicit norms against aberrant 

behavior. Six variables related to social organization were analyzed with ANOVA procedures, and significant differences were found between 

people living in blocks with a Habitat for Humanity house and those living in blocks without a Habitat for Humanity house in measures of 

cohesion. Additional outcome measures determined that Habitat homeowners feel much better about raising their children in their 

neighborhoods and generally have a more positive outlook on the future of their neighborhoods. Overall, this study provides preliminary 

evidence for these findings. 
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2166 Phillips, I., Opatrny, M., Bennett, S., & Ordner, D. (2009). Homeownership Impact on Habitat for Humanity Partner Families. 

Social Development Issues, 31(3), 48-65.

Intervention name Operating 

program/

organization name

Relationship to 

national 

service/CNCS 

Evaluator or evaluating organization name Location(s) of the study

Habitat for Humanity Habitat for 

Humanity

AmeriCorps Iris Philliips, Marie Opatrny, Stephanie 

Bennett, and Debra Ordner

Evansville, Indiana

This outcome study employed pre-post measures to assess the economic, social, and psychological benefits of Habitat for Humanity

homeownership, based on participant self-reports. Data were collected from 107 Habitat homeowners using quantitative and qualitative tools.

The study examined outcomes in four subgroups: (1) family strengths I (esteem and communication), (2) family strengths II (mastery and 

health), (3) extended family social support, and (4) financial well-being. These data were triangulated by surveying family members of the 

recipients, specifically their perceptions of behaviors, achievements, attitudes, and public assistance needs before and after owning their Habitat

home, as well as follow up interviews conducted by MSW students with the recipients themselves. All of the outcomes returned statistically 

significant results which indicated a positive social impact on partners after taking ownership of their house. Overall, this study provides 

preliminary evidence for these findings.
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2225 Zhu, Y. (2006). Comparing human and social resources accumulated through participation with Habitat for Humanity in scattered sites 

and Habitat neighborhoods (Doctoral dissertation, University of Florida).

Intervention name Operating 

program/

organization name

Relationship to 

national 

service/CNCS 

Evaluator or evaluating organization name Location(s) of the study

Habitat for Humanity Habitat for 

Humanity

SIF Yun Zhu Florida

This correlational study explored the sweat equity process of Habitat for Humanity as participation, learning-by-doing, and sharing with AfricanAmerican female heads of Habitat households. It was hypothesized that 1) sweat equity contributed to human and social resource development; 

2) Habitat neighborhoods contributed to the maintenance of resources; and 3) design participation was associated with house satisfaction. The 

principal study was conducted in three Southeast United States Habitat affiliates.

Convenience sampling and volunteerism identified 49 respondents. Results suggested that sweat equity and design participation are associated 

with positive effects on human and social resource development. Also, Habitat neighborhoods helped eliminate the perception of economic 

segregation, compared to Habitat houses in scattered sites. These findings suggest that the learning-by-doing and sharing—sweat equity—are 

practical and efficient processes to create human and social resources with low-income families. Overall, this study provides pre-preliminary 

evidence for these findings.
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2215 Wells, N. M. (2000). Housing and well-being: A longitudinal investigation of low-income families transitioning to new dwellings

(Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan). 

Intervention name Operating 

program/

organization name

Relationship to 

national 

service/CNCS

Evaluator or evaluating organization name Location(s) of the study

Habitat for Humanity Habitat for 

Humanity

ASN Nancy M. Wells Michigan

This primarily qualitative study, published in 2000, focuses on a Habitat for Humanity “Blitz Build” in Michigan, with over 100 homes being built 

throughout the state. Thirty-one of the women who partnered with the project to receive homes participated in the research study. The women, 

all of whom were mothers, lived in primarily urban areas in inadequate rental apartments and ranged in age from 20 to 47. 

This study used a mixed methods approach using both verbal descriptions of pre-move and post-move housing experiences as well as 

numerical bases for comparing those experiences. The evaluation asks how the participatory housing experience and how relocation has

affected the women’s well-being, including changes in outlook, mental health, and overall functioning. 

The study found that the women’s initial capacity and willingness to participate is the key to their success. Those who participated were 

satisfied with their new homes and reported positive feelings about their new neighborhoods. Post-move, the women had a greater “sense of 

coherence,” both internally and externally. Overall, this study provides pre-preliminary evidence for these findings.
STATE OF THE SCIENCE NATIONAL SERVICE ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY INITIATIVES

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Supportive Housing 

1977 Bolton, C. J. (2005). Helping the homeless: Program evaluation of Philadelphia’s supportive housing program (Doctoral dissertation, 

Drexel University).

Intervention name Operating 

program/

organization name

Relationship to 

national 

service/CNCS

Evaluator or evaluating organization name Location(s) of the study

Supportive Housing 

Project of 

Philadelphia

Housing 

Development 

Corporation of 

Philadelphia 

ASN Cathy J.H. Bolton, doctoral thesis submitted 

to the Faculty of Drexel University

Three sites in 

Philadelphia, PA

This time series study examined the effects of a supportive housing program on socialization, psychiatric function, independent adult living 

skills, quality of life, and housing stability. Supportive housing is an approach that emphasizes client choice, regular housing, and flexible 

support. The Supportive Housing Project of Philadelphia addresses the inter-related issues of homelessness and mental health by providing

independent living in apartments throughout the city and clinical supports through community behavioral health centers.

The study uses both a patient-focused and treatment-focused paradigm for the evaluation, using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) as the 

analysis tool. The design used a time-series, reflexive control methodology to assess outcomes along the five domains cited above. The 

assessment points occurred at baseline, monthly, and quarterly for a time period of up to five years, providing data for up to 20 quarters. The 

target population was comprised of 122 homeless clients (66 men and 56 women) who lived in 90 apartments who met a number of criteria such 

as being substance abuse-free and having a severe mental illness, but not to such a point that 24-hour nursing or medical case is required.

Clients who started at below average functioning and improved were considered treatment successes, while clients who stated at average or 

high functioning at baseline and maintained at least an average level of functioning were classifieds as treatment successes. Using this 

definition: 84 percent of clients achieved housing stability; 80 percent of clients were able to manage psychiatric symptoms; 73 percent of clients 

attained adult living skills; 72 percent met socialization goals; and 54 percent met quality of life goals. Overall, this study provides preliminary

evidence for these findings. 
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2518 Hickert, A. O., & Taylor, M. J. (2011). Supportive housing for addicted, incarcerated homeless adults. Journal of Social Service 

Research, 37(2), 136-151.

Intervention name Operating 

program/

organization name

Relationship to 

national 

service/CNCS 

Evaluator or evaluating organization name Location(s) of the study

Homeless Assistance 

Rental Program

Homeless 

Assistance Rental 

Program

ASN Audrey O. Hickert & Mary Jane Taylor, Utah 

Criminal Justice Center

Metropolitan Area in the 

Western United States 

(anonymous)

This pre-post study on the Homeless Assistance Rental Program (HARP) examined outcomes for clients of a new supportive housing intervention 

in use of formal treatment, jail contact, and community stability. The aim of the study was to determine the effectiveness of supportive housing 

for homeless, addicted and incarcerated adults, where supportive housing was defined as housing with case and medication management, or 

clinical services. The study took place in the Western United States between December 2005 and October 2007. One hundred participants took 

part in HARP, 74 percent of whom were white and 56 percent of whom were female, and 70 participants successfully completed the program.

The study utilized a pre-post test to determine the relationship between supporting housing and instances of jail and/or residential treatment, as 

well as the success of reintegration into the community following the completion of a supportive housing project. For those who completed the 

program, jail and residential treatment involvement decreased significantly, and for those with jail involvement, time in jail decreased 

significantly as well. Overall, this study provides preliminary evidence for these findings. 
STATE OF THE SCIENCE NATIONAL SERVICE ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY INITIATIVES

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Financial Literacy 

1372 Seedco Consulting and Technical Assistance (2011). Seedco AmeriCorps Program 2010-2011 Program Year Evaluation. New York, 

NY: Seedco. 

Intervention name Operating 

program/

organization name

Relationship to 

national 

service/CNCS

Evaluator or evaluating organization name Location(s) of the study

Seedco AmeriCorps 

Program

Seedco ASN Seedco Consulting and Technical Assistance NYC

The Seedco program is based in New York City and utilizes AmeriCorps members to access free tax preparation services and other income 

enhancement and work support services. In 2010, the study year, Seedco had 11 AmeriCorps volunteers. Members screen clients for benefits 

such as food stamps, health insurance, or child care, and also take on projects specific to each work site. As this document only included 

program descriptions and a small number of interviews with members, there are no claims regarding outcomes to beneficiaries, and it is

classified as pre-preliminary.
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Employability 

Employment Supports for Opportunity Youth 

2000 Price, C., Williams, J., Simpson, L., Jastrzab, J., & Markovitz, C. (2011). National Evaluation of Youth Corps: Findings at Follow-Up. 

Prepared for the Corporation for National and Community Service. Cambridge, MA: Abt Associates Inc.

Intervention name Operating 

program/

organization name

Relationship to 

national 

service/CNCS

Evaluator or evaluating organization name Location(s) of the study

Youth Corps Youth Corps ASN Abt Associates, Inc. 21 sites across the 

country that were 

members of The Corps 

Network in 2005

This study used an experimental design to compare the experiences of Youth Corps members in 21 sites with those of similar individuals who 

applied to the program over the same time period, but were randomly assigned to a control group. Youth Corps are a diverse set of programs 

united in their common mission of engaging Corps members, primarily young adults, in a combination of community service, workforce 

development, and education, typically operated by local community-based organizations and local and state government agencies.

At baseline there were 1,357 treatment members and 686 control members; the final sample at 30 months had 895 treatment members and 391 

control group members. The study population was 60 percent male, and most participants were 24 years of age or younger. A little over half of 

the members did not have a high school diploma, but almost a quarter had some college or above. About a quarter of the members were 

African American, about a third were Hispanic, and about a third were white.

The findings showed no significant impacts at the time of the 30 month tracking survey on any of the key outcomes: employment or in-school; 

educational attainment; or whether she or he volunteered in the prior year. It is unclear whether the lack of stronger impacts on Corps members 

is due to the effectiveness of the programs in the study, the participation of control group members in similar programs or services, the 

economic conditions prevailing at the time, or other factors. The study did find that treatment group members experienced significant beneficial 

impacts of participation on their financial well-being: annual income, hourly wages, and the ability to make ends meet, likely attributable at 

least in part to the stipends the Youth Corps members received. The authors also hypothesize that the financial literacy education provided by 

many Youth Corps may be partially responsible for the positive impact on the ability to make ends meet. Overall, this study provides strong 

evidence for these findings.
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2293 Roder, A., & Elliott, M. (2014). Sustained gains: Year Up’s continued impact on young adults’ earnings. New York: Economic Mobility 

Corporation.

Intervention name Operating 

program/

organization name

Relationship to 

national 

service/CNCS 

Evaluator or evaluating organization name Location(s) of the study

Year Up Year Up ASN & SIF Economic Mobility Corporation Providence, RI; New 

York, NY; and 

Washington, DC

This randomized controlled trial assessed the effectiveness of Year Up, a nonprofit workforce development organization based in Boston, to 

effect employment and earnings outcomes. Year Up aims to provide training and preparation for positions with good wages and career 

advancement opportunities in the information technology and financial operations fields. The goal of the program is to help young people 

obtain well-paying jobs that they would not have been able to access on their own. The program serves low-income adults ages 18 to 24.

The evaluation asked whether Year Up demonstrated an impact in terms of hours worked, earnings, and college attendance. The evaluation 

followed participants during the year-long program and for three post-program years. Of 195 people enrolled in the program, 135 were 

randomly selected for the treatment group with 60 in the control group. Three quarters of participants were ages 18 to 21. Participants were 54 

percent male and 46 percent female; 32 percent Black, 34 percent Latino, and 14 percent other; and 11 percent had earned a GED while 89 

percent had a high school diploma.

The study found that program completion was crucial to participants’ success. Wages earned showed the greatest impact. The annual earnings 

of Year Up participants were 30 percent greater on average than those of control group members and four years after study enrollment, young

adults who participated in Year Up continued to earn substantially more. Overall, the study provides strong evidence for these findings.
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2073 Cohen, M. A., & Piquero, A. R. (2010). An outcome evaluation of the YouthBuild USA offender project. Youth Violence and 

Juvenile Justice, 8(4), 373-385.

Intervention name Operating 

program/

organization name

Relationship to 

national 

service/CNCS

Evaluator or evaluating organization name Location(s) of the study

YouthBuild YouthBuild ASN Mark A. Cohen and Alex R. Piquero Nationwide

The YouthBuild USA Offender Project is implemented worldwide, and aims to improve education and reduce delinquency among low-income 

young adults. YouthBuild is a 9-24 month fulltime program for 16-24 year olds. The program involves 50 percent instruction in building or 

construction skills, and the other 50 percent is spent getting high school diplomas or their equivalent. This is supplemented with counseling in 

life skills and financial management. In 2004, the Department of Labor utilized the YouthBuild model as a youth offender reentry program in 30 

sites nationwide.

The overarching research question for this research report was: Does graduation from YouthBuild have a statistically significant impact on the 

recidivism rate in comparison to those who fail, as well as those who enroll in similar programs? The report utilized a non-experimental 

research design with data from 388 individuals participating in the larger YouthBuild Offender Project from 2004 to 2007. This study covered 

multiple sites, and controlled for such influencing factors as whether or not the individual lived with their parents, gender, age, prior education, 

and whether they served time in a juvenile or an adult correctional facility. The outcomes that were measured were whether or not a 

GED/Equivalent was obtained, if the YouthBuild program was completed; whether or not the participant reoffended within a year; if a follow on 

offense resulted in incarceration; and if they were on parole, if the parole was revoked. The results show positive variation in all of the outcome 

measures, with the exception of a program that was run at a youth residential facility. The study found that a student who spends time in a 

correctional facility has a third lower probability of completing a program such as this, when compared to students at risk of dropping out, but 

who have not yet done so. Overall, the study provides preliminary evidence for these findings.
STATE OF THE SCIENCE NATIONAL SERVICE ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY INITIATIVES

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Employment Supports for Other Populations 

2298 Washington State Employment Security Department (2009). Assessment of the impact of WorkSource job search services:UI Claimants 

receiving WorkSource job search services compared to UI claimants receiving no WorkSource services of any kind. Seattle, WA. 

Intervention name Operating 

program/

organization name

Relationship to 

national 

service/CNCS

Evaluator or evaluating organization name Location(s) of the study

WorkSource WorkSource ASN Washington State

Employment Security Department, Labor 

Market and Economic Analysis

Washington State

This 2009 study employs a quasi-experimental design with matched comparison groups to assess the impact of Washington State WorkSource 

job search services on the probability of employment and before-tax quarterly earnings of Unemployment Insurance (UI) claimants in 

Washington State. WorkSource aims to provide a more effective, consistent, and efficient approach to delivering employer and job seeker 

services to low-income, low-skilled populations. The program serves customers jointly through the integration of services delivered by 

Workforce Development Councils and the Employment Security Department labor exchange. These services include those delivered under the 

auspices of the Worker Profiling and Reemployment Services (WPRS) program for those Unemployment Insurance (UI) claimants, who are 

required to search for work as a condition for continuing to receive UI benefits. 

Between 2005 and 2008, three waves of administrative data were collected from 1,920 UI claimants: pre-program, treatment, and post-program. 

The study found that both male and female UI claimants who had either intermittent employment history or continuous employment had an 

increased probability of being employed if they received job search services. UI claimants with intermittent employment also had increased 

earnings as a result of receiving such services, while UI claimants with continuous employment showed no statistically significant results of 

receiving job search services. Overall, the study provides moderate evidence for these findings.
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2445 Rotz, D., Maxwell, N., & Dunn, A. (2014). Economic self-sufficiency and life stability one year after starting a social enterprise job. 

Oakland, CA: Mathematica Policy Research. 

Intervention name Operating 

program/

organization name

Relationship to 

national 

service/CNCS

Evaluator or evaluating organization name Location(s) of the study

REDF REDF SIF Mathematica Policy Research California (San Francisco 

Bay Area, San Diego, 

and Los Angeles)

The purpose of this 2013 study was to evaluate the economic self-sufficiency and life stability of social enterprise employees with significant 

barriers to employment hired through REDF programs. The study contained four components: an implementation study, an outcomes study, a 

quasi-experimental impact study (pre-post), and a cost benefit analysis. A combined total of 282 workers from eight programs responded to the 

surveys. Measures of self-sufficiency include employment, income, and how much government support the participant is receiving. The 

measures of life stability include housing, recidivism, physical health, mental health, and substance abuse. 

The evidence suggests that Social Enterprise (SE) employment is responsible for a 19 percentage point increase in employment after one year, in 

comparison to non-SE work. The stable housing of SE employees increased from 15 percent to 53 percent, although the same number of 

participants reported an episode of homelessness as did non-SE participants. Two-thirds of the participants reported receiving postemployment support, which is associated with increases in other indicators for life stability. Finally, the CBA indicated that for every dollar 

spent by SEs on participants, they realized a return to society of $2.23. Overall, the study provides moderate evidence for these findings.
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2422 Michaelides, M., Mueser, P., & Mbwana K. (2013). Quasi-experimental impact study of NFWS/SIF Workforce partnership programs. 

Columbia, MD: Impaq International, LLC.

Intervention name Operating 

program/

organization name

Relationship to 

national 

service/CNCS 

Evaluator or evaluating organization name Location(s) of the study

Jobs for the Future National Fund for 

Workforce 

Solutions

SIF Impaq International Ohio

This quasi-experimental study estimates the impacts of three National Fund for Workforce Solutions programs on the labor market outcomes of 

participants who were unemployed at program entry. The research utilized a quasi-experimental design in which NFWS/SIF impacts were 

estimated by comparing the outcomes of 2,055 program participants with outcomes of non-participants who were observationally equivalent to 

program participants. This report focuses on three partnerships in Ohio: the Healthcare Careers Collaborative, the Advanced Manufacturing 

Partnership, and the Construction Sector Partnership.

The results of the study show that the health program was by far the most successful, increasing participant earnings and assisting unemployed 

participants to find and retain work for at least a year after the programs. The construction program was quite the opposite: while it helped the 

participants during the program, it had no impact on job retention or earnings. The results of the manufacturing partnership fell in between, as 

they raised job retention and earnings higher than would have been without the program, but not as significantly as the health program. 

Overall, the study provides moderate evidence for these findings.