Teacher Career 

Choices

Timing of Teacher Careers 

Among 1992–93 Bachelor’s 

Degree Recipients

Postsecondary Education 

Descriptive Analysis Report

U.S. Department of Education

NCES 2008-153
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK 
U.S. Department of Education 

NCES 2008-153 

Teacher Career 

Choices 

Timing of Teacher Careers 

Among 1992–93 Bachelor’s 

Degree Recipients 

Postsecondary Education 

Descriptive Analysis Report 

March 2008 

Sharon E. Anderson 

MPR Associates, Inc. 

C. Dennis Carroll 

Project Officer 

National Center for 

Education Statistics 
U.S. Department of Education

Margaret Spellings 

Secretary

Institute of Education Sciences 

Grover J. Whitehurst 

Director

National Center for Education Statistics

Mark Schneider 

Commissioner

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Suggested Citation 

Anderson, S. (2008). Teacher Career Choices: Timing of Teacher Careers Among 1992–93 Bachelor’s 

Degree Recipients (NCES 2008-153). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education 

Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC.

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Content Contact

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iii 

Executive Summary 

Teachers’ career choices reflect personal 

decisions about the relative benefits of teaching 

versus working in other occupations. These 

benefits include compensation, as well as less 

tangible benefits such as good working conditions 

and personal satisfaction. Intrinsic and extrinsic 

rewards, when combined with positive and 

negative working conditions, may influence 

college graduates’ decisions to enter teaching, stay 

in teaching, and leave teaching (Johnson, Berg, 

and Donaldson 2005). Furthermore, teachers’ 

individual career choices in the aggregate have 

implications for teacher supply and educational 

policy. To the extent that high-quality teachers 

choose to enter and stay in the profession, schools 

will have fewer vacant teaching positions and a 

larger pool of qualified applicants to fill those 

positions. 

This report examines the timing of teaching 

careers of 1992–93 college graduates at three 

points during the 10 years after graduation. It 

answers questions about the characteristics of 

graduates who enter and leave teaching, focusing 

specifically on their demographic characteristics, 

academic preparation, teacher working conditions, 

and compensation. 

The report uses data from the 1993/03 

Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study 

(B&B:93/03), a longitudinal study of students 

who earned a bachelor’s degree in any field during 

the 1992–93 academic year. Base-year 

information on this cohort was collected as part of 

the 1992–93 National Postsecondary Student Aid 

Study (NPSAS:93). Graduates were interviewed 

again in 1994, 1997, and 2003. All comparisons 

made in the text were tested using Student’s t

statistic. All differences cited were statistically 

significant at the .05 level. No statistical 

adjustments to account for multiple comparisons 

were used. 

Distribution of Graduates’ Career 

Paths 

For the purposes of this report, a taxonomy of 

five career categories was developed based on the 

B&B:93/03 and NPSAS:93 data. Bachelor’s degree 

recipients in 1992–93 were placed into these five 

categories related to teaching in elementary and 

secondary schools based on whether they were 

teaching at each of the three follow-ups in 1994, 

1997, and 2003 (figure A). One category 

characterizes those graduates who reported not 

teaching in 1994, 1997, and 2003 (i.e., 

nonteachers). The other four categories (defined 

briefly below) characterize those graduates who 

were teaching in grades K through 12 in at least 

one of the follow-up years.1

As of 2003, some 87 percent of graduates were 

nonteachers (table 1). Of the remaining graduates 

 

1 The five career categories are defined in more detail in the 

introduction to this report. Note that the category labels serve 

as shorthand for the various combinations of teaching and not 

teaching at the time of each of three follow-up interviews. 

Graduates in any of the five categories could have had 

unreported teaching or nonteaching periods between data 

collection years. For example, respondents in the “taught 

consistently” category could have exited and re-entered 

teaching in the years between follow-ups (i.e., between 1994 

and 1997 or between 1997 and 2003).
Executive Summary 

iv 

Nonteachers

Late starters

Other teachers

Late starters

Leavers

Other teachers

Leavers

Taught

consistently

1994 1997 2003 Career category

NOTE: Career categories were constructed based on 1992–93 graduates’ teaching status in 1994, 1997, and 2003. For more

information, see definitions in Appendix A—Glossary.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/03).

Figure A. Career categories of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients based on teaching or nonteaching status

in 1994, 1997, and 2003

Teaching

Teaching

Teaching

Not teaching

Not teaching

Teaching

Not teaching

Teaching

Not teaching

Teaching

Not teaching

Teaching

Not teaching

Not teaching

Graduate

who were teaching at one or more of the three 

follow-up interviews: 

• Thirty-one percent were teaching in 1994, 

1997, and in 2003 (taught consistently); 

• Forty-one percent were not teaching in 

1994, but had begun teaching by 1997 or 

2003 (late starters); 

• Sixteen percent were teaching in 1994, but 

had left teaching by 1997 or 2003 

(leavers); and 

• Twelve percent were either teaching in 

1994 and 2003 but not in 1997, or were 

teaching in 1997 but not in 1994 or 2003 

(other teachers) (figure B). 

Graduate Demographics 

The demographic characteristics of college 

graduates are related to their career choices. A 

graduate’s gender, age, marital status, and number 

of dependents may be associated with his or her 

decisions about the relative benefits of teaching 

versus working in other possible occupations. The 

analysis shows that among graduates who taught,
Executive Summary 

v 

a higher proportion of females than males taught 

consistently (table 1). White graduates taught 

consistently at higher rates than Black graduates: 

while about a third of White graduates taught 

consistently, 15 percent of Black graduates did so. 

Older graduates taught consistently relatively 

more often than younger graduates. About 40 

percent of graduates age 35 or older in 2003 

taught consistently, as did 31 percent of graduates 

ages 33–34 and 19 percent of graduates age 32 or 

younger. 

Marriage and family formation also were 

related to graduates’ career choices. In particular, 

married graduates and those with dependents 

tended to teach with greater consistency than did 

graduates who had never married (figure C). 

Specifically, about a third of married, separated, 

widowed, or divorced graduates taught 

consistently, while one-fifth of single graduates 

did so (table 1). Among those who taught, 

graduates with dependents in each year (1993, 

1997, and 2003) taught consistently at higher rates 

than graduates without dependents (table 3). Male 

graduates who had dependents by 1993 taught 

consistently at higher rates than male graduates 

without dependents (43 percent versus 23 

percent). 

Figure B.—Among 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003, percentage distribution of 

Figure B.—teacher career categories

NOTE: Career categories were constructed based on 1992–93 graduates’ teaching status in 1994, 1997, and 2003. For more 

information, see definitions in Appendix A—Glossary. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are

available at http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal 

Study (B&B:93/03).

Taught consistently

31%

Late starters

41%

Leavers

16%

Other teachers

12%
Executive Summary 

vi 

Academic Indicators 

The “highly qualified teacher”2 provisions of 

the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) 

codified almost a decade of increased attention to 

the academic preparation of teachers. This section 

examines several indicators related to the 

academic qualifications of prospective teachers 

and relates these indicators to the career choices 

made by 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients. 

Among graduates with college entrance exam 

scores available for analysis who taught between 

1994 and 2003, some 15 percent of those with 

scores in the top 25 percent taught consistently, 

 

2 In general, a “highly qualified teacher” under NCLB is one 

with full certification, a bachelor’s degree, and demonstrated 

competence in subject knowledge and teaching. 

compared with 32 to 34 percent of those who 

scored at lower levels (table 5). On the other hand, 

graduates who had lower grade point averages 

(GPAs) taught consistently less often than those 

with GPAs in the two higher categories. Among 

graduates who taught at some point and had a 

cumulative undergraduate GPA of 3.75 or higher, 

41 percent taught consistently, while among those 

who taught and had a GPA of 2.74 or lower, about 

23 percent did so. Having a low GPA was 

associated with being a late starter in the teaching 

profession, with 49 percent of those with GPAs of 

2.74 or lower being late starters, compared with 

36 percent of those with GPAs of 3.25 to 3.74 and 

29 percent of those with GPAs of 3.75 or higher. 

Figure C.—Percentage of 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003 in each teacher 

Figure C.—career category, by marital status: 2003

NOTE: Career categories were constructed based on 1992–93 graduates’ teaching status in 1994, 1997, and 2003. For more 

information, see definitions in Appendix A—Glossary. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are 

available at http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal 

Study (B&B:93/03).

10

80

10

20

70

10

17

78

4

24

65

12

0

20

40

60

80

100

Single, never married Married/cohabitating Separated/widowed/divorced

Marital status

Percent

Taught

consistently

Late

starters

Leavers Other

teachers
Executive Summary 

vii 

Most graduates who taught consistently had 

majored in education for their bachelor’s degree 

(77 percent) (figure D). On the other hand, 40 

percent of education majors were not teaching at 

the elementary/secondary level in 1994, 1997, or 

2003 (table 5). 

Many of the 1992–93 graduates who became 

teachers had earned a master’s degree or higher by 

2003 and had done so at higher rates than 

graduates who did not teach: 39 percent of 

graduates who taught had attained a master’s 

degree or higher by 2003, compared with about 

one-quarter of those who did not teach (table 6). 

About 42 percent of the late starters had attained a 

master’s degree or higher by 2003, perhaps 

reflecting their pursuit of graduate studies before 

embarking on their teaching career. 

Teaching Assignment 

Teachers’ perceptions of their working 

environment may influence their decisions to 

remain teaching in the same school, change 

schools, or leave the profession altogether. 

Focusing on graduates who were teaching in 2003, 

the analysis for this report examines teaching 

assignments for those who taught consistently, 

other teachers, and late starters.3 Of those 1992–

93 graduates who taught consistently, 69 percent 

taught in elementary schools (table 8). By 

 

3 Data on teaching assignments and conditions are based on 

the school in which the respondent was teaching in 2003. 

Leavers were not teaching in 2003 and so are excluded from 

the analysis in this section. 

Figure D.—Percentage of 1992–93 graduates who majored in education, by teacher career category: 2003

NOTE: Career categories were constructed based on 1992–93 graduates’ teaching status in 1994, 1997, and 2003. For more 

information, see definitions in Appendix A—Glossary. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal 

Study (B&B:93/03).

12

77

29

56

39

0

20

40

60

80

100

Total Taught

consistently

Late

starters

Leavers Other

teachers

Percent

Teacher career category
Executive Summary 

viii 

comparison, about 55 percent of late starters 

taught in elementary schools. 

Salaries 

Because the salaries of public school teachers 

are most often based on salary schedules that take 

into account years of experience and degree 

attainment, teacher career choices may be related 

to their earnings. Among graduates who taught, 

those who were in the lowest category of 

academic year base salary (less than $26,000) for 

their most recent teaching job taught consistently 

at lower rates than those in the middle or highest 

categories ($26,000 to $40,000 and more than 

$40,000), and they left the profession early at 

higher rates than teachers in the middle or highest 

base salary categories (table 9). While 12 percent 

of those in the lowest category of earnings taught 

consistently, about two-fifths of those in the two 

higher categories did so. 
ix 

Foreword 

This report uses data from the Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B) to 

examine the timing of teaching careers for bachelor’s degree recipients who earned their degrees 

between July 1992 and June 1993. In particular, the report focuses on those graduates who 

became teachers in grades kindergarten through 12 at some point over the next 10 years. B&B 

includes students who were identified in the 1992–93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

(NPSAS:93) as having earned a bachelor’s degree during the 1992–93 academic year. NPSAS is 

based on a nationally representative sample of students enrolled in postsecondary education. In 

B&B, the 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients were interviewed in 1994 (B&B:93/94), 1997 

(B&B:93/97), and 2003 (B&B:93/03) to learn about their education and employment experiences 

after graduation. A special emphasis of B&B is gathering information on the preparation and 

experiences of those who prepared for teaching and eventually entered the teaching profession. 

An intentional oversampling of those respondents who prepared to teach or planned to teach 

during their undergraduate years allows more in-depth analysis of those who eventually teach 

than would happen for 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients by chance. The results presented in 

this report are weighted to account for the sample design and to provide estimates of population 

parameters. 

The estimates presented in this report were produced using the B&B:93/03 Data Analysis 

System (DAS). The DAS is a computer application that allows users to specify and generate their 

own tables and produces the design-adjusted standard errors necessary for testing the statistical 

significance of differences between numbers shown in the tables. It is available for public use on 

the NCES website at http://nces.ed.gov/das. Appendix B of this report contains additional 

information on the DAS. 
x 

Acknowledgments 

The author wishes to acknowledge the contributions of many individuals. At MPR 

Associates, Laura Horn and Robin Henke provided overall guidance, advice, and support. Jolene 

Wu and Shayna Tasoff calculated numerous t tests and helped rewrite portions of the report. 

Joanna Wu ran the analyses using the Data Analysis System. Our production team, consisting of 

Barbara Kridl, Andrea Livingston, Patti Gildersleeve, Natesh Daniel, and Alicia Broadway edited 

the text, formatted the tables and figures, and prepared the report for publication. 

Patricia Grimes (Minnesota Office of Higher Education), a member of the Technical 

Review Panel, provided thoughtful comments. 
xi 

Contents 

Page 

Executive Summary .................................................................................................................. iii

Foreword..................................................................................................................................... ix

Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................... x

List of Tables.............................................................................................................................. xii

List of Figures............................................................................................................................. xiv

Introduction................................................................................................................................ 1

Data........................................................................................................................................ 6 

Limitations of the Data .......................................................................................................... 7 

Organization of the Report..................................................................................................... 8 

Comparisons Across Career Categories.................................................................................. 9

Demographic Characteristics ................................................................................................. 9 

Academic Indicators .............................................................................................................. 19 

Teaching Assignment............................................................................................................. 25 

Salary ..................................................................................................................................... 30 

Summary and Conclusions........................................................................................................ 35 

References................................................................................................................................... 37 

Appendix A—Glossary..............................................................................................................A-1

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology................................................................... B-1
xii 

List of Tables 

Table Page 

1 Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 

2003, percentage distribution of those in various teacher career categories and 

percentage of all bachelor’s degree recipients who were teachers and nonteachers, by 

selected demographic characteristics: 2003..................................................................... 10 

2 Percentage distributions of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients’ selected 

demographic characteristics, by teacher career category among those who were 

teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003, and by teaching status among all bachelor’s degree 

recipients: 2003................................................................................................................ 12 

3 Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 

2003, percentage distribution of those in various teacher career categories and 

percentage of all bachelor’s degree recipients who were teachers and nonteachers, by 

number of dependents in 1993, 1997, and 2003: 2003 .................................................... 17 

4 Percentage distributions of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients’ number of 

dependents in 1993, 1997, and 2003, by teacher career category among those who 

were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003, and by teaching status among all bachelor’s 

degree recipients: 2003 .................................................................................................... 18 

5 Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 

2003, percentage distribution of those in various teacher career categories and 

percentage of all bachelor’s degree recipients who were teachers and nonteachers, by 

selected academic indicators: 2003.................................................................................. 20 

6 Percentage distributions of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients’ selected academic 

indicators, by teacher career category among those who were teaching in 1994, 1997, 

or 2003, and by teaching status among all bachelor’s degree recipients: 2003 ............... 22 

7 Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 2003, percentage 

distribution of those in various teacher career categories, by selected school and 

teacher characteristics: 2003 ............................................................................................ 27 

8 Percentage distributions of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients’ selected school and 

teacher characteristics, by teacher career category among those who were teaching in 

2003: 2003 ....................................................................................................................... 29 
List of Tables 

xiii 

Table Page 

9 Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 

2003, percentage distribution of those in various teacher career categories and 

percentage of all bachelor’s degree recipients who were teachers and nonteachers, by 

most recent salary for all bachelor’s degree recipients by academic year base for 

bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003: 1994, 1997, 

and 2003........................................................................................................................... 31 

Appendix B 

B-1 Standard errors for table 1: Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were 

teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003, percentage distribution of those in various teacher 

career categories and percentage of all bachelor’s degree recipients who were teachers 

and nonteachers, by selected demographic characteristics: 2003 .................................... B-7 
xiv 

List of Figures 

Figure Page 

Executive Summary 

A Career categories of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients based on teaching or 

nonteaching status in 1994, 1997, and 2003 .................................................................... iv 

B Among 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003, percentage 

distribution of teacher career categories .......................................................................... v 

C Percentage of 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003 in each 

teacher career category, by marital status: 2003 .............................................................. vi 

D Percentage of 1992–93 graduates who majored in education, by teacher career 

category: 2003.................................................................................................................. vii 

Text 

1 Career categories of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients based on teaching or 

nonteaching status in 1994, 1997, and 2003 .................................................................... 5 

2 Among 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003, percentage 

distribution of teacher career categories .......................................................................... 11 

3 Percentage of 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003 in each 

teacher career category, by gender: 2003......................................................................... 13 

4 Percentage of 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003 in each 

teacher career category, by age: 2003 .............................................................................. 14 

5 Percentage of 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003 in each 

teacher career category, by marital status: 2003 .............................................................. 15 

6 Percentage of 1992–93 graduates who majored in education, by teacher career 

category: 2003.................................................................................................................. 23 

7 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 2003 in each 

teacher career category, by level of 2003 school ............................................................. 28 
List of Figures 

xv 

Figure Page 

8 Percentage distribution of 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 

2003 in each teacher career category, by current or most recent salary category in 

2003.................................................................................................................................. 32 
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1 

Introduction 

Over the last 10 years, the demands of the teaching profession have changed at least in part 

due to student demographic shifts and increased accountability requirements. With regard to 

student demographic shifts, the proportion of Hispanic students in the nation’s schools now 

exceeds the proportion of Black students (KewalRamani et al. 2007). Regarding increased 

accountability requirements, the adequate yearly progress requirements of the No Child Left 

Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) require teachers to analyze and address achievement gaps in their 

classrooms. In addition, the teacher quality provisions of NCLB require some teaching veterans 

to seek additional certification or otherwise demonstrate content expertise. 

While major shifts in the demands of teaching have occurred, teacher preparation 

programs continue to evolve and be scrutinized by researchers and policymakers. Alternatives to 

traditional teacher education programs have increased in number and scope, thus expanding the 

pool of potential applicants for teaching positions (Feistritzer 2006). Programs such as the Urban 

Teaching Partnership, Pathways to Teaching, and Teach for America aim to increase the pool of 

certified (especially minority) teachers, while promoting rigorous preparation and high-quality 

teaching (Decker, Mayer, and Glazerman 2004). Yet the teacher supply and demand equation 

depends not only on the number of newly qualified teachers but also on the rate of teacher 

attrition. Recent research has shown that some 50 percent of beginning teachers leave the 

profession within 5 to 7 years (Ingersoll 2003; Reed, Ruben, and Barbour 2006). In addition, 

although some teacher attrition can be attributed to retirement, family responsibilities, or 

involuntary attrition, almost one-half of teachers leave due to job dissatisfaction or in pursuit of 

better career opportunities (Luekens, Lyter, and Fox 2004). 

Reports based on the 1994 and 1997 follow-ups of the NCES 1993 Baccalaureate and 

Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/94 and B&B:93/97) have examined the extent to which 

those who completed their bachelor’s degrees in 1992–93 took steps to enter teaching (by 

applying for teaching jobs, undertaking professional preparation, and so on) or actually entered 

the teaching profession by 1994 and 1997, respectively (Henke, Geis, and Giambattista 1996b; 

Henke, Chen, and Geis 2000). A third report examined the rate at which those who had begun 

teaching by 1994 had left the teaching profession by 1997 (Henke and Zahn 2001). This third 

report indicated that one in five of those who had started teaching within a year of completing 

college were not teaching in 1997, and that graduates whose college entrance examination scores 
Introduction 

2 

were in the top category were twice as likely as those with scores in the bottom category to leave 

the profession and not return by 1997. Henke and Zahn also found that teacher attrition is no 

higher than the attrition of college graduates in other occupations. In addition, a recent analysis of 

data from the 2003–04 Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS) showed that 91 percent of public and 

private school teachers began teaching within 10 years of receiving their bachelor’s degree 

(Chandler 2006). 

The decisions that individual graduates make about whether or not to pursue a teaching 

career reflect personal decisions about the relative benefits of teaching versus those of other 

occupations. Such benefits include not only compensation but also less tangible aspects such as 

working conditions and personal satisfaction. Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, when combined 

with positive and negative working conditions, influence decisions to enter teaching, stay in 

teaching, and leave teaching (Johnson, Berg, and Donaldson 2005; Hanushek, Kain, and Rivkin, 

2004; Buckley, Schneider, and Yi 2005). The opportunity cost of choosing to teach, and 

choosing to continue to teach, is defined as the difference between the rewards gained in teaching 

and the potential rewards of other activities, such as pursuing another profession or deciding to 

remain out of the workforce for reasons such as child rearing (Guarino, Santibanez, and Daley 

2006). Furthermore, the career choices of teachers are individual decisions that have implications 

in the aggregate for teacher supply and educational policy. To the extent that high-quality 

teachers choose to enter and stay in the profession, schools will have fewer vacant faculty 

positions and a larger pool of qualified applicants to fill those positions. 

The research literature on teacher attrition and retention addresses the policy and practical 

implications of these individual career decisions. Studies looking at demographic characteristics 

(including family composition), academic preparation, teaching assignments, and compensation 

seek to illuminate the relationships between these variables and decisions to enter or remain in 

teaching. In this report, “teacher” and “teaching” refer to instructors and instruction in grades K 

through 12 in public or private schools in the United States, unless otherwise noted. 

Studies reviewing the association of demographic factors including gender, race/ethnicity, 

and age with teachers’ career choices seem to confirm the view that women are attracted to the 

profession because it is more compatible with family responsibilities than are other occupations 

(Allen 2005; Guarino, Santibanez, and Daley 2006). Few studies, however, explicitly explore the 

association between having children and teachers’ careers. With respect to race/ethnicity, while 

the number of minority teachers has increased in recent years, minorities remain relatively 

unlikely to enter teaching (Broughman and Rollefson 2000; Henke, Chen, and Geis 2000; Vegas, 

Murnane, and Willett 2001; Estrada 2004). With respect to age, the association with retention 

and attrition are similarly well-documented, with young teachers leaving at high rates early in 
 Introduction 

3 

their careers, with teachers having relatively stable work patterns in their middle-career years, 

and with teachers having increased attrition as they mature and approach retirement (Boe et al. 

1996; Grissmer and Kirby 1997; Ingersoll 2001). 

The academic preparation of teachers has received much attention from both researchers 

and policymakers over the past decade. In the mid-1990s, reports analyzing data from SASS 

detailed the percentage of high school mathematics and science teachers with less than a major in 

their main teaching field (Bobbitt and McMillen 1995; Ingersoll, Han, and Bobbitt 1995). These 

data findings led to a call for higher licensure requirements for content specialists and increased 

academic requirements for teacher preparation (National Commission on Teaching and 

America’s Future 1996). Research results on the relationship between indicators of academic 

preparation and teacher attrition and retention vary across studies. While some studies indicate 

that advanced content preparation is associated with increased teacher attrition, others report 

associations between having an advanced degree and improved teacher retention (Johnson, Berg, 

and Donaldson 2005). Studies of two measures of academic achievement of prospective and new 

teachers, college entrance examinations and grade point averages (GPAs), demonstrate that these 

measures differ in their association with teaching status. While research conducted since the early 

1980s has shown that college graduates who teach tend to have lower ACT and SAT scores than 

those who do not teach (Murnane et al. 1991; Schlecty and Vance 1983; Weaver 1983), other 

studies show that teachers tend to have higher GPAs than graduates pursuing other occupations 

(Henke et al. 2005). 

Working conditions and teaching assignments may influence teachers’ perceptions of the 

intrinsic rewards of their chosen occupation. While authors of policy reports have discussed the 

number of out-of-field teachers, especially in mathematics and science, research shows that 

teachers themselves desire to teach in their field of preparation (Johnson, Berg, and Donaldson 

2005). Working conditions such as class size, administrator support, peer support, and student 

discipline are associated with teacher retention and attrition. In 2004, Johnson and her colleagues 

found that new teachers in low-income schools received significantly less support, and had 

higher attrition, than teachers in high-income schools.1 Research on induction and mentoring 

programs, on the other hand, indicates that such support may ameliorate new teacher stress that 

can lead to attrition. Smith and Ingersoll (2004) found that “beginning teachers who were 

provided with mentors from the same subject field . . . were less likely to move to other schools 

and less likely to leave the teaching occupation after their first year of teaching” (p. 681). 

Analyzing data from the NCES Teacher Follow-up Survey (TFS), Luekens, Lyter, and Fox 

(2004) found that an opportunity for a better teaching assignment, dissatisfaction with support 

 

1 This study defined “low-income schools” as those in which more than 50 percent of students qualify for free or reduced-price 

lunch and “high-income schools” as those in which less than 15 percent of students qualify. 
Introduction 

4 

from administrators, and dissatisfaction with workplace conditions were among the most 

common reasons teachers gave for moving to a new school. Similarly, a 2005 survey of new 

teachers sponsored by MetLife (2005) found that new teachers who were satisfied with the 

support and collegiality in their school planned to leave the teaching profession within 5 years 

less often than those who reported not being satisfied. 

Salary and other forms of compensation such as benefits and professional development 

time make up the external rewards of teaching. Research indicates that compensation and 

working conditions interact and are associated with teacher retention and attrition. While higher 

salaries might induce teachers to remain in less than ideal working environments, positive 

working conditions may offset lower pay (Johnson, Berg, and Donaldson 2005). Data from the 

NCES Teacher Follow-up Survey confirm that both salary and working conditions play a role in 

teachers’ decisions to change schools or leave the profession entirely (Luekens, Lyter, and Fox 

2004). According to these data, male teachers, in particular, leave the profession in search of 

higher salaries more often than female teachers. 

The Third Follow-up of B&B:93/03 provides a unique opportunity to further examine the 

timing of teacher careers using longitudinal data to look at three snapshots of the postbaccalaureate career experience. B&B:93/03 includes data on graduates’ occupations in 1994, 

1997, and 2003, approximately 1, 4, and 10 years after they had received the bachelor’s degree, 

respectively. These data track the experiences of a cohort of college graduates who received their 

baccalaureate degrees during the 1992–93 academic year, using the National Postsecondary 

Student Aid Study (NPSAS) as the base year. 

This report follows the original cohort at three time points during a 10-year period, looking 

specifically at how many bachelor’s degree recipients reported teaching at one or more time 

points. It also addresses the characteristics of graduates who enter teaching immediately after 

graduation or at a later point, focusing specifically on their demographic characteristics, 

academic preparation, teacher working conditions, and compensation. 

With data from three follow-ups available, one can place each 1993 graduate into one of 

five possible career categories to describe their status in the teaching profession. The five 

categories are based on whether or not graduates were teaching at each of the three follow-ups in 

1994, 1997, and 2003. These categories paths are summarized in figure 1, which shows the three 

discreet follow-up years and the category assigned to each respondent depending on their 

teaching status at each time point. 
 Introduction 

5 

Nonteachers

Late starters

Other teachers

Late starters

Leavers

Other teachers

Leavers

Taught

consistently

1994 1997 2003 Career category

NOTE: Career categories were constructed based on 1992–93 graduates’ teaching status in 1994, 1997, and 2003. For more

information, see definitions in Appendix A—Glossary.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond

Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/03).

Figure 1. Career categories of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients based on teaching or nonteaching status

in 1994, 1997, and 2003

Teaching

Teaching

Teaching

Not teaching

Not teaching

Teaching

Not teaching

Teaching

Not teaching

Teaching

Not teaching

Teaching

Not teaching

Not teaching

Graduate

To facilitate discussion in the report, each of the five career categories has been assigned a 

label that describes the status of graduates’ teaching careers at the time of the three follow-ups: 

Category #1—Taught Consistently: These respondents were teaching in grades K–12 during 

each of the three interviews in 1994, 1997, and 2003.2 

Category #2—Late Starters: These respondents were not teaching in 1994, but were teaching in 

1997 and 2003, or were not teaching in 1994 and 1997 but were teaching in 2003.

Category #3—Leavers: These respondents were teaching in 1994 but were not teaching in 1997 

or 2003, or were teaching in 1994 and 1997 but not in 2003. 

 

2 They could, however, have exited and re-entered the teaching profession in the years between study follow-ups. 
Introduction 

6 

Category #4—Other Teachers: These respondents were either teaching in 1994 and 2003 but 

not in 1997, or were teaching in 1997 but not in 1994 or 2003. 

Category #5—Nonteachers: These respondents were not teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003. 

Data 

This report uses data from the Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/03) 

to examine the career paths of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who earned their degrees 

between July 1992 and June 1993, focusing specifically on the career paths of those graduates 

who reported teaching in grades K–12 in 1994, 1997, or 2003. Base-year information on this 

cohort was collected as part of the 1992–93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study 

(NPSAS:93). Graduates were interviewed again in 1994, 1997, and 2003. B&B places special 

emphasis on the preparation and experiences of those who prepared for teaching and eventually 

entered the teaching profession. An intentional oversampling of those respondents who prepared 

to teach or planned to teach during their undergraduate years allows more in-depth analysis of 

those who eventually taught than would happen among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients by 

chance. The results presented in this report are weighted to account for the sample design and to 

provide estimates of the distribution of population parameters. 

NPSAS:93 included about 1,100 institutions and was based on a nationally representative 

sample of all students enrolled in postsecondary education institutions, including undergraduate, 

graduate, and first-professional3 students. One of a series of similar studies conducted every 4 to 

5 years since 1987, NPSAS:93 represents more than 16 million undergraduates who were 

enrolled at some time between July 1, 1992, and June 30, 1993. The sampling frames for NPSAS 

were built from the 1990–91 “Institutional Characteristics Survey” of the Integrated 

Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS-IC); lists of students were obtained from each 

participating institution. The estimates presented in this report are based on B&B follow-up 

interviews conducted in 1994, 1997, and 2003 with approximately 10,000 bachelor’s degree 

recipients from the NPSAS:93 sampling frame of about 12,500; these recipients represent the 

approximately 1.2 million bachelor’s degree completers in the United States (U.S. Department of 

Education 2004). Excluded from the final sample were 760 students who were determined during 

the initial B&B interview or from transcripts not to have earned a bachelor’s degree during the 

1992–93 academic year (see appendix B for more detail). The weighted overall response rate was 

74 percent, reflecting an institution response rate (in 1992) of 88 percent and a student response 

 

3 First-professional degrees include the following: chiropractic, pharmacy, dentistry, podiatry, medicine, veterinary medicine, 

optometry, law, osteopathic medicine, and theology. 
 Introduction 

7 

rate (in 2003) of 83 percent. The data presented in this report cover the 50 states, the District of 

Columbia (DC), and Puerto Rico.4 

All comparisons made in the text were tested using Student’s t statistic. Multivariate 

analysis was beyond the scope of this report. All differences cited were statistically significant at 

the .05 level. No statistical adjustments to account for multiple comparisons were used. 

Appendix B provides information about the formula used and more detail on significance levels. 

Standard errors for all estimates are available at http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp. 

The sample used for this analysis consists of the NPSAS:93 respondents who earned a 

bachelor’s degree in 1992–93 and participated in all three B&B interviews: 1994, 1997, and 

2003. Information that was missing in 1994 or 1997 was updated in 2003 when possible, and a 

panel weight was created based on respondents to all three surveys. Consequently, some 

estimates presented here may differ slightly from previously published data. 

Limitations of the Data 

It is important to note that the teaching career categories reported here are derived from 

snapshots in graduates’ careers. The B&B:93/03 data do not include comprehensive job histories 

of the graduates but do permit analyses of what graduates were doing when the data were 

collected. The category labels, therefore, serve as shorthand for the various combinations of 

teaching and not teaching at the time of each of the three follow-up interviews. Graduates in any 

of the five categories could have had unreported teaching or nonteaching spells between data 

collection years. For example, respondents in the “taught consistently” category could have 

exited and re-entered teaching in the years between follow-ups (i.e., between 1994 and 1997 or 

between 1997 and 2003). Therefore, although they taught consistently during the 10 years 

following graduation in 1993, they did not necessarily teach constantly during that period. 

Similarly, graduates in each of the other categories could have experienced teaching and 

nonteaching spells between data collection years that are not captured in this study. In addition, 

because this analysis is based on a longitudinal sample of graduates, the estimates presented here 

may differ from other research on teacher attrition that examines yearly attrition rates for crosssectional samples of teachers. Finally, those graduates who taught at the K–12 level and those 

who had been certified to do so for a year or more before receiving their bachelor’s degree in 

 

4 The analyses presented in this report included students from Puerto Rico. The exclusion of Puerto Rican students results in 

minor differences in the estimates but does not change the statistical significance of reported results. 
Introduction 

8 

1993 have been excluded from the analysis so that the analysis of first-time post-baccalaureate 

teachers in this report will be straightforward and clear to the reader.5

Organization of the Report 

This report examines the characteristics 1992–93 graduates in each of the five career 

categories related to the teaching profession. Specifically, it provides an in-depth look at the 

graduates within each category in terms of their demographic characteristics, academic 

backgrounds, teaching assignments, and salaries. In each section, the report focuses on selected 

characteristics of graduates by career categories and then changes its perspective to analyze the 

categories by graduate characteristics. By examining the relationship between the characteristics 

of graduates and their career choices at different points in time, the report highlights the various 

factors that relate to individuals’ decisions to enter and leave teaching. 

 

5 This resulted in the exclusion of 3.3 percent of graduates from the analysis. Of this 3.3 percent who were excluded, 55.7 

percent reported teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003 and 44.3 percent reported working in other professions. 
9 

Comparisons Across Career Categories 

This section provides an examination of the characteristics of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree 

recipients in each teaching career category between 1994 and 2003. It presents comparisons 

across the four teacher career categories that included at least one teaching period in 1994, 1997, 

or 2003, as well as comparisons between those graduates who reported teaching in 1994, 1997, 

or 2003 and those graduates who did not report teaching at any of the three follow-ups. 

As of 2003, some 87 percent of graduates were categorized as nonteachers (table 1). Of the 

remaining 13.5 percent who were teaching at the time of one or more of the three follow-up 

interviews: 

• Thirty-one percent were teaching in 1994, 1997, and 2003 (taught consistently6); 

• Forty-one percent were not teaching in 1994, but had begun teaching by 1997 or 2003 

(late starters); 

• Sixteen percent were teaching in 1994, but had left teaching by 1997 or 2003 (leavers); 

and 

• Twelve percent were either teaching in 1994 and 2003 but not in 1997, or were 

teaching in 1997 but not in 1994 or 2003 (other teachers) (figure 2). 

This report looks at four categories of graduates’ characteristics as they relate to the timing 

of teachers’ career choices: demographic characteristics, academic indicators, teaching 

assignment, and salary. 

Demographic Characteristics 

A graduate’s gender, race/ethnicity, age, marital status, and number of dependents may be 

associated with his or her decisions about the benefits of working as a teacher rather than in other 

occupations. By looking at these characteristics according to career path, this report seeks to 

provide information about how these factors relate to graduates’ decisions to enter and leave the 

teaching profession. 

 

6 Respondents in the “taught consistently” category could have exited and re-entered teaching in the years between study followups. 
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

10 

Gender 

Although occupational choices for women have expanded greatly over the past 20 years, 

teaching remains a female-dominated profession (Henke et al. 1997). In fact, while 69 percent of 

public school teachers were female in 1961, some 79 percent were female in 2001 (U.S. 

Department of Education 2006, table 68). 

As demonstrated in previous reports on this cohort of graduates (Henke, Geis, and 

Giambattista 1996b; Henke, Chen, and Geis 2000), a greater percentage of female graduates 

Table 1.—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003, percentage

Table 1.—distribution of those in various teacher career categories and percentage of all bachelor’s degree 

Table 1.—recipients who were teachers and nonteachers, by selected demographic characteristics: 2003

 Taught Late Other NonCharacteristic consistently starters Leavers teachers Total Teachers teachers

 Total 31.0 40.6 15.9 12.4 100.0 13.5 86.5

Gender

Male 25.0 43.6 17.0 14.4 100.0 7.8 92.2

Female 33.4 39.3 15.6 11.8 100.0 18.4 81.6

Race/ethnicity

1

White 32.7 39.5 16.3 11.5 100.0 13.7 86.3

Black 15.3 54.4 13.2 17.1 100.0 15.9 84.1

Hispanic 34.4 38.5 10.9 16.1 100.0 15.7 84.3

Other ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 100.0 5.1 94.9

Age as of 2003

32 or younger 18.7 45.4 18.8 17.1 100.0 12.7 87.3

33–34 31.0 38.7 17.7 12.6 100.0 13.8 86.2

35 or older 40.0 39.1 11.8 9.1 100.0 13.6 86.4

Marital status in 2003

Single, never married 18.5 48.0 16.2 17.2 100.0 11.4 88.6

Married/cohabitating with 

 a partner 33.6 38.5 16.9 10.9 100.0 13.8 86.2

Separated, divorced, widowed 33.6 43.3 7.5 15.6 100.0 16.4 83.6

‡ Reporting standards not met (too few cases).

1

 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes those who identified themselves with a race 

not shown. Race categories exclude Hispanic origin unless specified.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/03).

Teachers

All bachelor’s

 degree recipients
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

11 

than male graduates were teaching at the time of one or more of the follow-ups in 1994, 1997, 

and 2003. About 18 percent of women had taught by 2003, compared with 8 percent of men 

(table 1). 

When looking across teacher career categories, compared with their male colleagues, 

women who taught were relatively more often in the taught consistently category than in the 

other categories (table 2). Overall just over half of all 1992–93 graduates were female, but 

women represented about 78 percent of those graduates who taught consistently and 69 to 71 

percent of each of the other categories (figure 3). Among graduates who had taught, about onethird of women taught consistently, compared with one-fourth of men (table 1). 

Race/Ethnicity 

While efforts to recruit minorities into the teaching profession have expanded, relatively 

few Black or Hispanic teachers work in our nation’s schools, particularly in suburban and rural 

Figure 2.—Among 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003, percentage distribution of 

Figure 3.—teacher career categories

NOTE: Career categories were constructed based on 1992–93 graduates’ teaching status in 1994, 1997, and 2003. For more 

information, see definitions in Appendix A—Glossary. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are 

available at http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal 

Study (B&B:93/03).

Leavers

16%

Other teachers

12%

Late starters

41%

Taught consistently

31%
Table 2.—Percentage distributions of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients’ selected demographic characteristics, by teacher ca

Table 3.—those who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003, and by teaching status among all bachelor’s degree recipients: 2003

Sing

32 or 35 or ne

Career category Male Female White Black Hispanic Other younger 33–34 older marr

 Total 46.1 53.9 83.9 5.7 5.0 5.4 25.3 41.1 33.6 2

Taught consistently 21.6 78.4 89.2 3.3 6.4 1.1 14.4 42.0 43.6 1

Late starters 29.0 71.0 83.2 9.1 5.5 2.2 28.1 46.8 25.1 2Leavers 28.7 71.3 87.0 5.6 4.0 3.5 26.9 40.3 32.8 1Other teachers 31.1 68.9 80.8 9.6 7.7 1.8 32.7 42.6 24.7 2Teachers 26.9 73.1 85.4 6.8 5.8 2.0 23.9 42.2 33.9 1

Nonteachers 49.7 50.3 83.7 5.6 4.9 5.8 25.6 40.9 33.5 2

1 Black includes African American, Hispanic includes Latino, and Other includes those who identified themselves with a race not shown. Race catego

origin unless specified.NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/

Gender Race/ethnicity M

1 Age as of 2003
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

13 

schools (Henke et al. 1997). In this analysis, between 14 and 16 percent of Black, White, and 

Hispanic bachelor’s degree recipients had taught at some point by 2003 (table 1). When broken 

out by teacher career path, however, White graduates taught consistently at higher rates than 

Black graduates among graduates who had taught: about one-third of White graduates taught 

consistently, compared with about 15 percent of Black graduates. About one-tenth of those 

graduates who were categorized as late starters or other teachers were Black, compared with 3 

percent of those graduates who taught consistently (table 2). 

Age in 2003 

By 2003, most of the 1993 college graduates in this study were in their early 30s, with a 

plurality (41 percent) in the 33–34 age range (table 2). Regardless of age group, between 13 and 

14 percent of all graduates had taught by 2003 (table 1). Among graduates who had taught, age 

was positively associated with teaching consistently since receiving their bachelor’s degree 

(figure 4). The oldest graduates (age 35 or older in 2003) taught consistently relatively more 

Figure 3.—Percentage of 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003 in each teacher career 

Figure 6.—category, by gender: 2003

NOTE: Career categories were constructed based on 1992–93 graduates’ teaching status in 1994, 1997, and 2003. For more 

information, see definitions in Appendix A—Glossary. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal 

Study (B&B:93/03).

22

78

29

71

29

71

31

69

0

20

40

60

80

100

Male Female

Percent

Taught 

consistently

Late 

starters

Leavers Other 

teachers

Gender
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

14 

often than the graduates in the middle age range (ages 33–34), who in turn taught consistently 

relatively more often than the youngest graduates (age 32 or younger) (table 1). Some 19 percent 

of the youngest graduates (those age 32 or younger in 2003) taught consistently, compared with 

31 percent of those ages 33–34 and 40 percent of those age 35 or older. 

Examined within each of the teacher career categories, about 14 percent of those graduates 

who taught consistently were in the youngest age group (table 2). Between 27 and 33 percent of 

leavers, late starters, and other teachers were in this age group as well. 

Marital Status in 2003 

The first 10 years after graduation is a time when many graduates marry and begin families. 

In fact, almost three-quarters of 1993 bachelor’s degree recipients were either married or 

cohabiting/living with a partner in 2003 (table 2). Another 8 percent had been married at some 

point and were separated, widowed, or divorced at the time of the 2003 follow-up interview. A 

Figure 4.—Percentage of 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003 in each teacher career 

Figure 7.—category, by age: 2003

NOTE: Career categories were constructed based on 1992–93 graduates’ teaching status in 1994, 1997, and 2003. For more 

information, see definitions in Appendix A—Glossary. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are 

available at http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal 

Study (B&B:93/03).

14

42 44

28

47

25 27

40

33 33

43

25

0

10

20

30

40

50

32 or younger 33–34 35 or older

Age

Percent

Taught

consistently

Late

starters

Leavers Other

teachers
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

15 

higher proportion of those graduates who had not taught were single in 2003 than graduates who 

had taught (21 percent vs. 17 percent). Those graduates who taught consistently had the lowest 

rates of remaining single, compared with those who were leavers, late starters, or other teachers. 

For example, about 10 percent of those who taught consistently in 1994, 1997, and 2003 were 

single in 2003 (figure 5). By comparison, between 17 and 24 percent of those who were leavers, 

late starters, or other teachers were single. From another perspective, the analysis of marital 

status shows that a greater percentage of graduates who were ever married or cohabitating taught 

consistently than those who never married. Table 1 shows that among married graduates who 

taught, about 34 percent taught consistently, compared with 19 percent of teachers who had never 

married. 

Figure 5.—Percentage of 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003 in each teacher 

Figure 8.—career category, by marital status: 2003

NOTE: Career categories were constructed based on 1992–93 graduates’ teaching status in 1994, 1997, and 2003. For more 

information, see definitions in Appendix A—Glossary. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are 

available at http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal 

Study (B&B:93/03).

10

80

10

20

70

10

17

78

4

24

65

12

0

20

40

60

80

100

Single, never married Married/cohabitating Separated/widowed/divorced

Marital status

Percent

Taught

consistently

Late

starters

Leavers Other

teachers
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

16 

Dependents 

Graduates with children may take time off from their careers for childrearing. Those 

remaining employed during the time when they have young children may seek family-friendly 

professions or employers. This analysis, therefore, takes into consideration the relationships 

between these life events and graduates’ choices as they move into and out of the teaching 

profession. In particular, this section looks at the relationship between career paths and whether 

1992–93 graduates had dependents at the initial interview in 1993 and then at the 1997 and 2003 

follow-ups. Because mothers have traditionally carried most childrearing responsibilities, the 

tables present results for all graduates and then for female and male graduates separately. 

The results indicate that among those who taught, graduates with dependents in 1993, 1997, 

and 2003 taught consistently at higher rates than graduates without dependents (table 3). This 

pattern was also found for male graduates; those who had children in 1993 taught consistently at 

almost twice the rate as male graduates who did not have children at that time (43 percent versus 

23 percent). Results for female graduates generally mirror those for all graduates. 

Overall, a higher proportion of graduates with dependents in 1993, 1997, and 2003 had 

taught than graduates without dependents at these points. For graduates with dependents in 1993, 

about 21 percent had taught, while the comparable percentages in 1997 and 2003 were about 18 

percent and 15 percent, respectively. Among graduates who had taught, 43 percent of those with 

dependents in 1993, some 39 percent of those with dependents in 1997, and 35 percent of those 

with dependents in 2003 taught consistently. Among graduates without dependents in each year, 

a smaller proportion taught consistently. 

Within each teacher career category, a higher percentage of graduates who had taught had 

dependents than those who had not taught, and this pattern was found at each time period (table 

4). About 19 percent of those who had taught had dependents in 1993, as did 34 percent in 1997 

and 63 percent in 2003. Comparable percentages for those who had not taught were 11 percent, 

24 percent, and 56 percent. 

The percentages of graduates within each teacher career category who had dependents also 

varied across teacher career categories for those who taught. Compared with late starters or other 

teachers, higher percentages of those who taught consistently had dependents at each time period. 

Also, a higher percentage of graduates who had left the teaching profession by 2003 had 

dependents in 2003 than those who were late starters or other teachers. While 69 percent of 

leavers had dependents in 2003, some 58 percent and 54 percent of late starters and other 

teachers, respectively, had dependents in 2003. 
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

17 

Table 3.—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003, 

Table 3.—percentage distribution of those in various teacher career categories and percentage of all 

Table 3.—bachelor’s degree recipients who were teachers and nonteachers, by number of dependents in 

Table 3.—1993, 1997, and 2003: 2003

Gender and number Taught Late Other Nonof dependents consistently starters Leavers teachers Total Teachers teachers

 Total 31.0 40.6 15.9 12.4 100.0 13.5 86.5

Number of dependents in 1993

0 dependents 28.3 40.5 17.2 14.0 100.0 12.5 87.5

1 or more dependents 43.1 40.4 10.4 6.0 100.0 20.8 79.2

Number of dependents in 1997

0 dependents 26.8 42.0 16.1 15.0 100.0 11.9 88.1

1 or more dependents 39.1 37.8 15.6 7.5 100.0 18.2 81.8

Number of dependents in 2003

0 dependents 25.0 46.0 13.4 15.6 100.0 11.5 88.5

1 or more dependents 35.0 37.0 17.5 10.5 100.0 15.2 84.8

Male

 Total 25.0 43.6 17.0 14.4 100.0 7.8 92.2

Number of dependents in 1993

0 dependents 22.7 43.9 18.7 14.6 100.0 7.5 92.5

1 or more dependents 42.6 37.9 5.4 14.1 100.0 10.1 89.9

Number of dependents in 1997

0 dependents 22.0 43.8 19.2 15.0 100.0 7.4 92.6

1 or more dependents 33.7 42.9 10.7 12.7 100.0 9.0 91.0

Number of dependents in 2003

0 dependents 20.5 48.9 16.5 14.2 100.0 8.2 91.8

1 or more dependents 28.9 40.3 16.0 14.8 100.0 7.6 92.4

See notes at end of table.

All bachelor’s

Teachers degree recipients
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

18 

Table 3.—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003, 

Table 3.—percentage distribution of those in various teacher career categories and percentage of all 

Table 3.—bachelor’s degree recipients who were teachers and nonteachers, by number of dependents in 

Table 3.—1993, 1997, and 2003: 2003—Continued

Gender and number Consistently Late Other Nonof dependents taught starters Leavers teachers Total Teachers teachers

Female

 Total 33.4 39.3 15.6 11.8 100.0 18.4 81.6

Number of dependents in 1993

0 dependents 30.6 38.8 16.7 13.8 100.0 17.0 83.0

1 or more dependents 43.2 41.0 11.6 4.2 100.0 27.2 72.8

Number of dependents in 1997

0 dependents 29.1 40.9 14.9 15.1 100.0 16.0 84.0

1 or more dependents 40.5 36.5 16.8 6.2 100.0 24.6 75.4

Number of dependents in 2003

0 dependents 27.6 43.9 11.9 16.5 100.0 14.5 85.5

1 or more dependents 36.8 36.0 18.0 9.2 100.0 21.7 78.3

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/03).

Teachers degree recipients

All bachelor’s

Table 4.—Percentage distributions of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients’ number of dependents in 1993, 

Table 4.—1997, and 2003, by teacher career category among those who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 

Table 4.—2003, and by teaching status among all bachelor’s degree recipients: 2003

0 1 or more 0 1 or more 0 1 or more

Career category dependents dependents dependents dependents dependents dependents

 Total 87.4 12.6 74.7 25.3 43.0 57.0

Taught consistently 73.3 26.7 57.1 42.9 29.2 70.8

Late starters 80.8 19.2 68.3 31.7 41.8 58.2

Leavers 87.4 12.6 66.8 33.2 30.7 69.3

Other teachers 90.7 9.3 79.4 20.6 46.3 53.7

Teachers 80.7 19.3 66.0 34.0 36.6 63.4

Nonteachers 88.5 11.5 76.1 23.9 44.5 55.5

N0TE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/03).

 in 1993 in 1997 in 2003

Number of dependents Number of dependents Number of dependents
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

19 

Academic Indicators 

The “highly qualified teacher”7 provisions of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 

(NCLB) codified almost a decade of increased attention to the academic preparation of teachers. 

Data on teacher qualifications from the mid-1980s led to a call for higher licensure requirements 

for content specialists and increased academic requirements for teacher preparation (Holmes 

Group 1986; NCTAF 1996, 2003). Some teacher education institutions responded by creating 

5th-year master of education degree programs requiring a bachelor’s degree in a content area 

prior to completing a master’s program focusing primarily on content-specific pedagogy. Others 

increased the content rigor of their undergraduate preparation. By 2004, there were 31 states that 

required a major in a teaching content area to obtain a license to teach high school; in 1995 (the 

earliest year for which such data are available), only 19 states required this level of content 

preparation (Cavell et al. 2005). Today, teacher education is most notable for its diversity in 

delivery models and its relative emphasis on content and pedagogy (Levine 2006). This section 

examines several indicators related to the academic qualifications and preparation of prospective 

teachers and relates these indicators to the career choices made by 1992–93 bachelor’s degree 

recipients in the 10 years following graduation. 

College Entrance Exam Scores 

College entrance exam scores include SAT and ACT scores that students have received 

before their matriculation in an institution of postsecondary education. While some schools, 

districts, and increasingly states require or encourage all of their high school students to take one 

or both of these exams, not all do (Olsen 2006). However, college entrance exam scores are 

useful as an indicator of academic ability because they share a common metric across all testtakers (Henke et al. 2005). Research conducted since the early 1980s has shown that college 

graduates who teach tend to have lower SAT and ACT scores than those who do not teach 

(Henke, Geis, and Giambattista 1996b; Murnane et al. 1991; Schlecty and Vance 1983). 

The relationship of academic ability as measured by SAT and ACT scores and the timing of 

teacher careers is the focus of this section. Consistent with previous research, the analysis 

showed that graduates with lower scores were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003 relatively more 

often than those with higher scores8 (table 5). Among graduates with test scores,9 the percentage 

who had taught decreased with the level of their SAT or ACT scores. Whereas 18 percent of 

 

7 In general a “highly qualified teacher” under NCLB is one with full certification, a bachelor’s degree, and demonstrated 

competence in subject knowledge and teaching. 

8 The bottom, middle, and top SAT and ACT categories are defined in appendix A. 

9 Some 80 percent of respondents had college entrance examination scores available. 
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

20 

Table 5.—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003, percentage

Table 5.—distribution of those in various teacher career categories and percentage of all bachelor’s degree 

Table 5.—recipients who were teachers and nonteachers, by selected academic indicators: 2003

Academic Taught Late Other Nonindicator consistently starters Leavers teachers Total Teachers teachers

 Total 31.0 40.6 15.9 12.4 100.0 13.5 86.5

College entrance examination 

 score category

No scores available 37.3 40.7 12.6 9.5 100.0 13.1 86.9

Scores available 29.5 40.6 16.7 13.2 100.0 13.6 86.4

Low 33.8 42.2 11.3 12.6 100.0 18.4 81.6

Middle 31.8 38.7 18.1 11.4 100.0 13.3 86.7

High 15.0 43.1 22.5 19.4 100.0 9.7 90.3

Baccalaureate degree major

Business/management 2.1 77.4 8.1 12.4 100.0 4.1 95.9

Education 48.3 23.7 18.0 10.0 100.0 59.6 40.4

Humanities 22.9 50.6 12.6 14.0 100.0 15.7 84.3

Mathematics/computer/natural 

 sciences 20.9 43.3 22.3 13.5 100.0 7.9 92.1

Social sciences 9.2 57.9 11.9 21.0 100.0 11.3 88.7

Other 10.6 67.2 11.4 10.9 100.0 5.0 95.0

Cumulative undergraduate GPA

2.74 or lower 23.1 48.8 15.1 13.1 100.0 9.1 90.9

2.75–3.24 33.8 42.7 10.8 12.6 100.0 15.7 84.3

3.25–3.74 31.0 36.4 20.4 12.3 100.0 14.8 85.2

3.75 or higher 40.8 29.5 20.7 9.0 100.0 15.4 84.6

Undergraduate GPA in major

2.74 or lower 21.8 53.4 18.7 6.0 100.0 8.2 91.8

2.75–3.24 27.8 44.6 13.5 14.1 100.0 12.4 87.6

3.25–3.74 33.2 37.8 14.6 14.3 100.0 14.8 85.2

3.75 or higher 35.6 35.7 20.4 8.3 100.0 16.0 84.0

Highest degree attained as of 2003

Bachelor’s degree 32.8 38.0 17.5 11.7 100.0 11.2 88.8

Master’s degree or higher 28.2 44.6 13.4 13.7 100.0 20.3 79.7

Field of study for highest graduate 

 degree received

Education 39.0 37.1 6.9 17.0 100.0 83.3 16.7

Not education ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 100.0 10.7 89.3

See notes at end of table.

All bachelor’s

Teachers degree recipients
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

21 

graduates with scores in the lowest category of this cohort had taught by 2003, some 13 percent 

of those with scores in the middle category and 10 percent of those with scores in the highest 

category had done so. In addition, among graduates who had test scores available and who had 

taught since 1992–93, some 15 percent of graduates with scores in the highest category had 

taught consistently since 1992–93, compared with 32 to 34 percent of other graduates. 

Furthermore, those with higher scores taught consistently during these years less often. 

Leavers, other teachers, and late starters scored in the highest SAT or ACT score category at 

higher rates than those graduates who taught consistently (table 6). About 9 percent of those with 

available scores who taught consistently scored in the top 25 percent of the distribution. In 

comparison, a larger percentage of those who were leavers, other teachers, or late starters had 

SAT or ACT scores at this level. Of those with scores, a lower percentage of graduates who had 

taught scored in the highest category (17 percent) than those who had not taught (25 percent). 

Baccalaureate Degree Major 

Graduates who had majored in education taught consistently relatively more often than 

graduates who had majored in other fields (table 5). About 60 percent of bachelor’s degree 

recipients who had majored in education were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003. The remaining 40 

percent were not teaching at one of the three follow-up periods in the 10 years after completing 

their bachelor’s degree in education. Among graduates who taught, about 48 percent of the 

Table 5.—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003, percentage

Table 5.—distribution of those in various teacher career categories and percentage of all bachelor’s degree 

Table 5.—recipients who were teachers and nonteachers, by selected academic indicators: 2003—Continued

Academic Consistently Late Other Nonindicator taught starters Leavers teachers Total Teachers teachers

Highest degree expected in 1994

Bachelor’s degree 24.1 55.0 14.3 6.6 100.0 6.3 93.7

Master’s degree 

 (M.A., M.S., M.B.A.) 37.2 37.1 14.1 11.6 100.0 15.1 84.9

First-professional degree ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡ 100.0 5.2 94.8

Doctoral degree (Ph.D., Ed.D.) 17.9 44.9 20.9 16.3 100.0 18.3 81.7

‡ Reporting standards not met (too few cases).

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/03).

Teachers degree recipients

All bachelor’s
Table 6.—Percentage distributions of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients’ selected academic indicators, by teacher career cat

Table 6.—were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003, and by teaching status among all bachelor’s degree recipients: 2003

Mathematics/

Business/ computer/

No scores Scores manage- Edu- Human- natural 

Career category available available Low Middle High ment cation ities sciences 

 Total 19.9 80.1 22.9 53.4 23.7 24.6 11.9 10.1 19.8 

Taught consistently 23.2 76.8 35.3 56.0 8.7 0.5 76.9 8.6 7.8 

Late starters 19.3 80.7 32.1 49.7 18.2 14.3 29.0 14.6 12.4 Leavers 15.2 84.8 20.8 56.2 23.0 3.8 56.1 9.3 16.3 Other teachers 14.6 85.4 29.6 45.2 25.2 7.4 39.5 13.1 12.6 Teachers 19.3 80.7 30.9 52.1 17.1 7.5 49.5 11.7 11.6 

Nonteachers 19.9 80.1 21.5 53.4 25.0 27.5 5.2 9.8 21.3 

Master’s

2.74 or 3.75 or degree

Career category lower 2.75–3.24 higher or higher

 Total 28.5 31.8 10.3 25.7

Taught consistently 14.0 39.5 15.0 35.1

Late starters 23.3 39.1 8.5 42.4

Leavers 18.3 25.2 15.2 32.4

Other teachers 20.6 38.3 8.6 42.5

Teachers 19.3 36.9 11.6 38.6

Nonteachers 30.0 31.0 10.0 23.6

1 Other includes health, vocational/technical, and other technical/professional.

NOTE: Career path categories were constructed based on 1992–93 graduates’ teaching status in 1994, 1997, and 2003. For more information, see defGlossary. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/

57.561.476.4

Highest degree

 attained as of 2003

74.364.957.667.6

Bachelor’s

32.432.229.0

Cumulative undergraduate GPA

29.431.529.141.3

3.25–3.74 degree

College entrance examination score

Category

Baccalaureate degree ma
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

23 

education majors had taught consistently since 1994, compared with about 23 percent of 

humanities majors, 21 percent of mathematics/computer/natural sciences majors, and 9 percent 

of social science majors. While 12 percent of all 1992–93 graduates had majored in education, 

about three-quarters of those who taught consistently had done so (table 6; figure 6). About 56 

percent of leavers had majored in education, as had 29 percent of late starters and 39 percent of 

other teachers. Overall, about half of those graduates who taught at some point between 1994 and 

2003 had majored in education, with 12 to 13 percent coming from each of the social sciences, 

humanities, and mathematics/computer/natural sciences (table 6). 

Those 1992–93 graduates who were late starters to the teaching profession had majored in 

business and management for their bachelor’s degree (14 percent) relatively more often than 

those graduates who taught consistently (less than 1 percent). Overall, about 28 percent of those 

graduates who did not teach had majored in business and management, while 7 percent of those 

graduates who taught did so. 

Figure 6.—Percentage of 1992–93 graduates who majored in education, by teacher career category: 2003

NOTE: Career categories were constructed based on 1992–93 graduates’ teaching status in 1994, 1997, and 2003. For more 

information, see definitions in Appendix A—Glossary. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal 

Study (B&B:93/03).

12

77

29

56

39

0

20

40

60

80

100

Total Taught

consistently

Late

starters

Leavers Other

teachers

Percent

Teacher career category
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

24 

A higher proportion of leavers (16 percent) had majored in mathematics/computer/natural 

sciences for their bachelor’s degree than had those who taught consistently (8 percent). Among 

those graduates who taught consistently, less than 4 percent had majored in the social sciences. 

Between 10 and 22 percent of leavers, late starters, and other teachers had majored in the social 

sciences. 

Cumulative Undergraduate GPA and GPA in Major 

Student grades can also provide a picture of the academic preparation of teachers. Virtually 

all postsecondary institutions calculate grade point averages (GPAs); therefore, this measure is 

commonly available for all graduates. While college entrance exams have a common metric, 

GPAs vary across institutions and within institutions across majors (Henke et al. 2005), so they 

should be viewed with caution. For example, if undergraduate programs that prepare teachers 

tend to give students higher grades than other programs, graduates of those programs (who go on 

to teach at higher rates than graduates of other programs) would have higher GPAs. Conversely, 

if undergraduate teacher education programs tend to give students lower grades than other 

programs, their graduates would tend to have lower GPAs. 

Among graduates with a cumulative undergraduate GPA of 2.74 or lower, 9 percent were 

teaching at one of the three follow-up points between 1994 and 2003, compared with about 15 

percent of those with undergraduate GPAs of 2.75 or higher (table 5). Among graduates who 

taught and had a cumulative undergraduate GPA of 3.75 or higher, 41 percent taught 

consistently, while among those who taught and had a GPA of 2.74 or lower, about 23 percent 

taught consistently. 

Looking from the perspective of teacher career categories, 19 percent of those graduates 

who were teaching at one of the three follow-up points between 1994 and 2003 had a cumulative 

undergraduate GPA of 2.74 or lower, compared with 30 percent of those who did not teach (table 

6). Of those graduates who taught consistently, 14 percent had a cumulative undergraduate GPA 

of 2.74 or lower. The percentage of late starters with GPAs in this range was about 23 percent. 

Those graduates who taught consistently and who were leavers had cumulative undergraduate 

GPAs in the highest range of 3.75 or higher relatively more often than late starters. While around 

15 percent of the first group had such high GPAs, about 9 percent of late starters did so. An 

analysis of graduates’ GPAs in their majors shows that among graduates who taught, about 36 

percent of those with the highest GPAs in their majors taught consistently between 1994 and 

2003 (table 5). In contrast, among graduates who taught at some point and who had the lowest 

GPAs in their majors, about 22 percent taught consistently. 
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

25 

Highest Degree Attained as of 2003 

A master’s degree has become the terminal degree of choice for many teachers and is 

associated with higher steps on salary schedules and improved pedagogy and content expertise 

(U.S. Department of Education 2004; Goldhaber and Brewer 1998). Of the 1993 graduates who 

had earned a master’s degree or higher by 2003, one-fifth were teaching at one of the three 

follow-ups between 1994 and 2003 (table 5), compared with about 11 percent of those whose 

highest degree was a bachelor’s degree. From another perspective, 39 percent of 1992–93 

graduates who taught had attained a master’s degree or higher by 2003 (table 6), while less than 

one-fourth of those graduates who did not teach had achieved this level of degree attainment. 

Field of Study for Highest Graduate Degree Received and Highest Degree Expected 

The pursuit of an advanced degree in education is a strong indication that a graduate is 

planning to teach or pursue other education-related careers such as administration or counseling. 

Among graduates whose major field of study for their highest graduate degree was education, 83 

percent were teaching at one of the three follow-ups between 1994 and 2003 (table 5). Among 

graduates who had majored in other fields for their highest graduate degrees, 11 percent taught. 

About 39 percent of those who had majored in education for their highest graduate degree taught 

consistently, while 37 percent were late starters to the teaching profession. Those 1993 graduates 

who, in 1994, anticipated that their highest degree would be a master’s or doctoral degree taught 

relatively more often than those graduates who anticipated that it would be a bachelor’s degree 

(15 and 18 percent, respectively, vs. 6 percent). 

Teaching Assignment 

Teachers’ perceptions of their working environment may be associated with their decisions 

to remain teaching in the same school, change schools, or leave the profession altogether. 

Working conditions may vary depending on whether the teaching position is in a public or 

private school, at the elementary or secondary level, or in a high- or low-poverty school. In 

addition, the support (or lack thereof) that teachers receive from administrators, other teachers, 

and parents can affect career choices to stay in or leave teaching (Johnson et al. 2004; MetLife 

2005). This section looks at the characteristics of the teaching environment in 2003 for those 

graduates who taught consistently, started teaching late, and other teachers.10

 

10 Data on teaching assignments and conditions are based on the school in which the respondent was teaching in 2003. Leavers 

were not teaching in 2003 and so are excluded from the analysis in this section. 
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

26 

Sector and Level 

The timing of teacher careers for 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 2003 was related 

to both the sector (public or private) and level (elementary, secondary, combined) of the school 

where they taught. Those graduates who began teaching immediately after receiving their 

bachelor’s degree and taught consistently tended to be teaching in public schools and in 

elementary schools in 2003 (table 7). 

Across these teacher career categories, a higher proportion of graduates who were teaching 

in public schools in 2003 taught consistently than those teaching in private schools. While 48 

percent of the graduates who were teaching in public schools taught consistently, 28 percent of 

those who were teaching in private schools did so. 

Among those graduates who taught in an elementary school in 2003, some 49 percent 

taught consistently (figure 7). By contrast, 39 percent of teachers in secondary schools taught 

consistently, and 17 percent of teachers in combined schools did so. 

From the perspective of teacher career categories, table 8 shows that of those graduates 

who taught consistently, 6 percent were teaching in private schools in 2003. Among late starters, 

13 percent were teaching in private schools. Graduates who taught consistently were teaching at 

the elementary level at a higher rate than late starters: while 69 percent of those who taught 

consistently were teaching in elementary schools, 55 percent of late starters were doing so. A 

higher percentage of late starters than of those who taught consistently were teaching in 

combined elementary and secondary schools in 2003 (11 percent versus 3 percent). 

Student Demographics 

Studies have shown that teachers in high-minority and high-poverty schools tend to have 

fewer years of experience (Henke et al. 1996a). In schools where 1992–93 graduates were 

teaching in 2003, there were few measurable differences found by teacher career categories in the 

percentage of teachers in schools with varying levels of minority enrollment or in the percentage 

of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch in their schools (table 7). Among 1992–93 

graduates who were teaching in 2003, some 50 percent of those in schools with 5 to 19 percent of 

students eligible for free and reduced-price lunch were late starters. 
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

27 

Table 7.—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 2003, percentage distribution 

Table 7.—of those in various teacher career categories, by selected school and teacher characteristics: 2003

 Taught Late Other

School or teacher characteristic consistently starters teachers

 Total 41.5 54.2 4.3

Sector of most recent school

Public 47.6 48.7 3.8

Private 27.7 65.2 7.1

Level of most recent school

Elementary 49.3 45.9 4.8

Secondary 39.3 56.8 3.9

Combined 17.3 78.4 4.3

Percent minority enrollment in most recent school

0–4 49.1 46.4 4.5

5–19 47.6 50.0 2.3

20–49 45.1 49.6 5.3

50 or more 42.5 53.6 3.9

Percent eligible for free/reduced-price 

 lunch in most recent school 

0–4 52.4 47.6 #

5–19 46.9 49.3 3.9

20–49 49.4 47.1 3.5

50 or more 48.5 48.0 3.5

Most recent main subject taught

Elementary, early childhood education 53.5 44.1 2.4

Science and mathematics 44.6 51.5 3.9

Special education 35.6 59.7 4.7

English, journalism, reading, writing 39.4 53.6 7.0

Art, drama, music 42.8 49.7 7.5

Other 37.9 57.8 4.3

In most recent teaching position, percent 

 satisfied with

Student motivation 42.8 53.0 4.2

School environment 45.0 51.3 3.6

Student discipline 43.2 52.8 4.0

Class size 44.2 51.5 4.4

Parent support 45.8 51.7 2.5

Would go into teaching again

Yes 44.0 52.1 3.9

No 48.0 48.3 3.7

See notes at end of table.
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

28 

Table 7.—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 2003, percentage distribution 

Table 7.—of those in various teacher career categories, by selected school and teacher characteristics: 2003

Table 7.——Continued 

 Taught Late Other

School or teacher characteristic consistently starters teachers

Participated in teacher induction program by 2003

Yes 42.7 52.4 4.9

No 44.7 50.9 4.4

Plan to continue teaching

Yes 45.1 50.9 4.1

No 40.5 56.9 2.6

Expect to be teaching in the long term

Yes 48.0 50.9 1.2

No 37.7 59.1 3.2

# Rounds to zero.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at 

http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/03).

Figure 7.—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 2003 in each teacher career 

Figure 8.—category, by level of 2003 school

NOTE: Career categories were constructed based on 1992–93 graduates’ teaching status in 1994, 1997, and 2003. For more 

information, see definitions in Appendix A—Glossary. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are 

available at http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal 

Study (B&B:93/03).

49

39

17

46

57

78

5 4 4

0

20

40

60

80

100

Elementary Secondary Combined

Percent

Taught

consistently

Late

starters

Other

teachers

Level
Table 8.—Percentage distributions of 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients’ selected school and teacher characteristics, by teac

Table 8.—among those who were teaching in 2003: 2003

Elemen- Secon- Com- 50 or 

Career category Public Private tary dary bined 0–4 5–19 20–49 more 0–4 

 Total 90.1 9.9 62.0 30.6 7.4 16.0 26.4 27.4 30.3 8.9 

Taught consistently 94.1 5.9 69.4 27.6 2.9 17.1 27.4 27.2 28.3 9.6 

Late starters 87.3 12.7 54.9 33.8 11.3 14.7 26.0 27.1 32.2 8.8 Other teachers 82.9 17.1 66.4 26.6 7.1 ‡‡‡‡ ‡

‡ Reporting standards not met. (Too few cases for a reliable estimate.)NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/

Sector Level Percent minority enrollment

Percent e
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

30 

Teacher Satisfaction 

For those graduates who were teaching in 2003, few measurable differences were found in 

measures of teacher satisfaction by graduates’ teaching career category (table 7). Specifically, no 

significant differences were found in the percentage of teachers satisfied with student motivation, 

school environment, student discipline, class size, or parent support by teaching career category. 

Forty-eight percent of those graduates who were teaching in 2003 and expected to be teaching in 

the long term taught consistently. About 38 percent of those who taught and did not expect to be 

teaching in the long term taught consistently. While the research shows that teacher induction 

programs may improve teacher satisfaction and minimize attrition (Smith and Ingersoll 2004), no 

significant differences were found in the percentage of graduates who had participated in a 

teacher induction program by 2003.

Salary 

Almost all public school systems in the United States compensate teachers using salary 

schedules based on education (highest degree earned or postsecondary education credits earned) 

and years of teaching experience (Henke et al. 1996a). As a result, the timing of teachers’ careers 

can have a large impact on their salaries. For example, those 1992–93 bachelor’s degree 

recipients who delayed entering teaching to pursue a master’s degree would have gained a salary 

advantage by earning a higher degree that could be somewhat offset by the loss of years in 

service. Similarly, those graduates who taught consistently beginning in 1994 would have the 

most possible years of experience, and may or may not have also completed a master’s degree or 

higher by 2003. 

Table 9 displays the distribution of salary information for 1992–93 graduates who were in 

each teaching career category. The table includes information by salary category on graduates’ 

current or most recent salary as of 2003, and, for only those graduates who were teaching at one 

of the three follow-ups, the academic year (AY) base salary for their most recent teaching job. 

For those graduates who were teaching in 1994 and 1997, it also presents their AY base salary in 

categories for those years. 

Overall, graduates’ current salary in 2003 was related to their teaching status. While about 

22 percent of those graduates who earned salaries in the lowest category (less than $34,934) were 

teaching at one of the three follow-ups, 15 percent of those who earned salaries in the middle 

category ($34,934–68,000) and about 3 percent of those who earned salaries in the highest 

category (more than $68,000) had taught. 
Table 9.—Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003, percentage distribution of tho

Table 9.—career categories and percentage of all bachelor’s degree recipients who were teachers and nonteachers, by most receTable 9.—bachelor’s degree recipients by academic year base for bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 1994, 1997Table 9.—and 2003Most recent salary and Taught Late Other base teaching salary consistently starters Leavers teachers Total 

 Total 31.0 40.6 15.9 12.4 100.0 

Current/most recent salary in 2003

Lowest quarter (less than $34,934) 28.0 44.7 15.3 12.1 100.0 Middle two quarters ($34,934–68,000) 35.4 41.7 12.5 10.4 100.0 Highest quarter (more than $68,000) 17.5 13.8 31.4 37.2 100.0 

Academic year base salary in most recent 

 teaching jobLowest quarter (less than $26,000) 12.3 33.7 32.9 21.2 100.0 Middle two quarters ($26,000–40,000) 38.8 36.9 12.9 11.4 100.0 Highest quarter (more than $40,000) 37.9 48.0 7.1 7.0 100.0 

Academic year base salary in 1994

Lowest quarter (less than $15,000) 33.3 12.6 35.0 19.1 100.0 Middle two quarters ($15,000–23,000) 56.7 9.2 28.0 6.1 100.0 

Highest quarter (more than $23,000) 63.5 10.4 17.9 8.2 100.0 

Academic year base salary in 1997

Lowest quarter (less than $22,000) 46.3 29.2 12.7 11.8 100.0 

Middle two quarters ($22,000–28,800) 51.2 28.5 10.9 9.4 100.0 Highest quarter (more than $28,800) 47.5 31.1 11.1 10.4 100.0 

Academic year base salary in 2003

Lowest quarter (less than $30,867) 30.4 63.6 # 6.0 100.0 Middle two quarters ($30,867–43,000) 48.2 47.3 # 4.5 100.0 

Highest quarter (more than $43,000) 42.6 54.5 # 2.8 100.0 

# Rounds to zero.† Not applicable.NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are available at http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/

Teachers 
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

32 

Those graduates in the lowest and middle categories of current salary in 2003 were late 

starters to the teaching profession at higher rates than those in the highest11 category (figure 8). In 

contrast, those in the highest category were leavers or other teachers at higher rates than those in 

the middle or lowest category. 

Among those who were teaching at one of the three follow-ups in the 10 years following 

graduation, a smaller proportion of those in the lowest category of AY base salary for their most 

recent job (less than $26,000) taught consistently than those in the middle category ($26,000–

40,000) or those in the highest category (more than $40,000) (table 9). Those in the lowest 

category of earnings tended to leave the profession relatively more often than those in the middle 

or highest categories (33 percent vs. 13 and 7 percent, respectively). In addition, those in the 

 

11 The estimate for the percentage of graduates in the highest category of current salary who were late starters is unstable because 

the size of the standard error is at least one-third the size of the estimate. This is due to the relatively small number of teachers in 

the highest salary category. Therefore, results based on these estimates should be viewed with caution. 

Figure 8.—Percentage distribution of 1992–93 graduates who were teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003 in each 

Figure 9.—teacher career category, by current or most recent salary category in 2003

Figure 9.—

NOTE: Career categories were constructed based on 1992–93 graduates’ teaching status in 1994, 1997, and 2003. For more 

information, see definitions in Appendix A—Glossary. Detail may not sum to totals because of rounding. Standard error tables are 

available at http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal 

Study (B&B:93/03).

28

35

18

45

42

14 15 13

31

12 10

37

0

10

20

30

40

50

Lowest category Middle category Highest category

Percent

Taught

consistently

Late

starters

Leavers Other

teachers

Current or most recent salary
Comparisons Across Career Categories 

33 

lowest category of earnings in their most recent teaching job were relatively more often other 

teachers than those in the higher categories of earnings. 

While about one-third of those in the lowest category of AY base salary in 1994 (less than 

$15,000) taught consistently, 57 and 64 percent of those in the middle category ($15,000–23,000) 

and in the highest category (more than $23,000), respectively, did so. 
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK 
35 

Summary and Conclusions 

For the purposes of this report, a taxonomy of five teaching career categories was 

developed based on the B&B:93/03 and NPSAS:93 data. Bachelor’s degree recipients in 1992–

93 were placed into one of the five career categories related to teaching in elementary and 

secondary schools at the three follow-ups in 1994, 1997, and 2003. As noted in the Limitations of 

Data section in the Introduction, the B&B:93/03 data do not include comprehensive job histories 

of the graduates but do permit analyses of what graduates were doing when the data were 

collected. The category labels, therefore, serve as shorthand for the various combinations of 

teaching and not teaching at the time of each of the three follow-up interviews. Graduates in any 

of the five categories could have had unreported teaching or nonteaching spells between data 

collection years. 

As of 2003, some 87 percent of graduates had not taught at any of those three points. Of the 

remaining graduates who were teaching at one or more of the three follow-up points between 

1994 and 2003, some 31 percent taught consistently, about 41 percent began teaching later in 

their career, and 12 to 16 percent taught at some point over the 10 years, but irregularly (i.e., 

other teachers or leavers). 

The analysis shows that among those who taught, a higher proportion of female graduates 

than male graduates taught consistently, White graduates taught consistently at higher rates than 

Black graduates, and older graduates at higher rates than younger graduates. 

Marriage and family formation were related to the timing of teachers’ careers. A higher 

proportion of graduates who had been married by 2003 taught consistently than those who had 

remained single. Among those who taught, graduates with dependents taught consistently at 

higher rates than graduates without dependents. Male graduates who had dependents by 1994 

taught consistently at higher rates than male graduates without dependents. 

Among graduates who taught with college entrance exam scores available for analysis, a 

lower percentage of those with scores in the top 25 percent taught consistently than did those 

who scored at the lower levels. Having a low GPA was associated with being a late starter in the 

teaching profession, with 49 percent of those with GPAs of 2.74 or lower being late starters, 

compared with 36 percent of those with GPAs between 3.23 and 3.75 and 29 percent of those 

with GPAs of 3.75 or higher. 
Summary and Conclusions 

36 

About 39 percent of the 1992–93 graduates who became teachers had earned a master’s 

degree or higher by 2003, and they had done so at higher rates than those who had not taught (24 

percent). Forty-two percent of the late starters had attained a master’s degree or higher by 2003, 

in part reflecting the pursuit of graduate studies before embarking on teaching careers. 

Of those 1992–93 graduates who taught consistently, 69 percent taught in elementary 

schools, compared with 55 percent of late starters. Public school teachers taught consistently at 

higher rates than private school teachers (48 vs. 28 percent). 

Staying in teaching was associated with teaching salary. A higher proportion of those in the 

lowest academic year base salary category (less than $26,000) for the most recent teaching job 

were leavers and other teachers compared with those in the middle ($26,000–40,000) and highest 

(more than $40,000) salary categories. In addition, among graduates who were teaching in 2003, 

a higher proportion of those in the lowest earning category (less than $30,867) were late starters 

than were those in the middle earning category ($30,867–43,000). 
37 

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THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK 
A-1 

Appendix A—Glossary 

This glossary describes the variables used in this report. The items were taken directly from the National Center for 

Education Statistics (NCES) 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/03) Data Analysis 

System (DAS), a web-based NCES analysis tool that generates tables from the B&B:93/03 data. (See appendix B for 

a description of the DAS.) In the index below, the variables are organized by general topic and, within topic, listed 

alphabetically. The glossary is in alphabetical order by variable name (displayed in capital letters to the right of the 

label below). 

GLOSSARY INDEX

DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS

Gender .............................................................GENDER 

Marital status as of 2003....................................B3MAR 

Number of dependents in 1993................... RDEPENDS 

Number of dependents in 1997.........................B2NDEP 

Number of dependents in 2003.....................B3D3NUM 

Race/ethnicity.............................................. B2ETHNIC 

Student’s age in 2003 ..............................................AGE 

ACADEMIC INDICATORS

Availability of college entrance exam 

 scores......................................................... SATACTQ2 

Baccalaureate degree major........................... MAJORS3 

Cumulative undergraduate GPA..................NORMGPA 

Field of study for highest graduate 

 degree received..........................................GRMAJOR3 

Highest degree attained as of 2003................ B3HDG03 

Highest degree expected in 1994...................HIGHDEG 

Undergraduate major GPA..............................GPAMAJ 

TEACHING ASSIGNMENT

Expects to teach in the long term................ B3EXPTCH 

Had participated in a teacher induction 

 program by 2003 .......................................B3COMIND 

In most recent teaching position, percent 

 satisfied with class size................................. B3TSATD 

In most recent teaching position, percent 

 satisfied with parent support..........................B3TSATE 

In most recent teaching position, percent 

 satisfied with student discipline ....................B3TSATC 

In most recent teaching position, percent 

 satisfied with school environment .................B3TSATB 

In most recent teaching position, percent 

 satisfied with student motivation...................B3TSATA 

Level of most recent school ....................... B3MRSLEV 

Most recent main subject taught........................B3FLD1 

Percent free/reduced-price lunch in most 

 recent school .............................................. B3MRSFLE 

Percent minority enrollment in most 

 recent school .............................................B3MRSMPC 

Plans to continue teaching........................... B3TCHFTR 

Sector of most recent school .......................B3MRSECT 

Teacher career category ......................................B3TCT 

Would go into teaching again.....................B3TCHAGN 

SALARY

Academic year base salary 1994 ..................... SALARY 

Academic year base salary 1997 ................. B2SALTEA 

Academic year base salary 2003 ..................B3ESALR1 

Academic year base salary, most recent 

 teaching job...................................................B3TSALR 

Current/most recent salary .............................B3CRSAL 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-2 

Student’s age in 2003 AGE

The variable in the DAS indicates the respondent’s age in 2003. The categories used in this report are as follows: 

32 or younger 

33–34 

35 or older 

Race/ethnicity B2ETHNIC 

Indicates the race and ethnicity of the respondent. Created by combining two items respondents reported, their race 

(American Indian/Alaska Native, Asian/Pacific Islander, Black, White, and Other) and whether or not they were of 

Hispanic origin. Other included Asian/Pacific Islander and those who identified themselves with another race not 

shown. The categories used in this report are as follows: 

White, non-Hispanic 

Black, non-Hispanic 

Hispanic 

Other

Number of dependents in 1997 B2NDEP 

Indicates the number of dependents the respondent had in 1997. This variable was recoded from B2NDEPEN with 

legitimate skips (no children) assigned to zero. The categories used in this report are as follows: 

 0 dependents 

 1 or more dependents 

Academic year base salary 1997 B2SALTEA

Indicates the academic year base salary for the respondent’s primary teaching job in 1997, for those who were 

working as teachers at the K–12 level in 1997. The categories for this variable were created by converting dollar 

values to percentiles and then grouping the bottom 25 percent, the middle 50 percent, and the top 25 percent 

together. The ranges are as follows: 

Low Bottom 25 percent; less than $22,000 

Middle Middle 50 percent; $22,000–28,800 

High Top 25 percent; more than $28,800

Had participated in a teacher induction program by 2003 B3COMIND

Indicates whether the respondent had participated in a teacher induction program as of 2003. Based on the composite 

variable from 1997 (B2COMIND) and the variable from 2003 (B3INDUCT). 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-3 

Teacher career category1 B3TCT 

Indicates which of the five possible career categories describes the respondent’s entry into and exit from the teaching 

profession between 1994 and 2003. The assignment of career category is based on whether or not the respondent was 

teaching at the K–12 level at the time of the interviews in 1994, 1997, and 2003. Respondents working in the field of 

education but not as teachers at the K–12 level were considered to be not teaching. The categories are as follows: 

Taught consistently Was teaching at the K–12 level in 1994, 1997, and 2003 

Late starters Was not teaching at the K–12 level in 1994, but was teaching 

in 1997 and 2003, or was not teaching in 1994 and 1997 but 

was teaching at the K–12 level in 2003 

Leavers Was teaching at the K–12 level in 1994 but not in 1997 or 

2003, or was teaching at the K–12 level in 1994 and 1997 but 

not in 2003 

Other teachers Was teaching at the K–12 level in 1994 and in 2003, but not in 

1997, or was teaching at the K–12 level in 1997 but not in 

1994 or 2003 

Had taught Was teaching at the K–12 level in 1994, 1997, or 2003 

Had not taught Was not teaching at the K–12 level in 1994, 1997, or 2003 

Category #1—Taught Consistently: These respondents were teaching in grades K–12 during each of the three 

interviews in 1994, 1997, and 2003. 

Category #2—Late Starters: These respondents were not teaching in 1994, but were teaching in 1997 and 

2003, or were not teaching in 1994 and 1997 but were teaching in 2003.

Category #3—Leavers: These respondents were teaching in 1994 but were not teaching in 1997 or 2003, or 

were teaching in 1994 and 1997 but not in 2003. 

Category #4—Other Teachers: These respondents were either teaching in 1994 and 2003 but not in 1997, or 

were teaching in 1997 but not in 1994 or 2003. 

Category #5—Nonteachers: These respondents were not teaching in 1994, 1997, or 2003. 

Current/most recent salary B3CRSAL 

Indicates the current or most recent salary for all respondents, including teachers. Respondents who have not worked 

since 1997 are not included. The categories for this variable were created by converting dollar values to percentiles 

and then grouping the bottom 25 percent, the middle 50 percent, and the top 25 percent together. The ranges are as 

follows: 

 

1 Note that the category labels serve as shorthand for the various combinations of teaching and not teaching at the time of each of 

three follow-up interviews. Graduates in any of the five categories could have had unreported teaching or nonteaching spells 

between data collection years. For example, respondents in the “taught consistently” category could have exited and re-entered 

teaching in the years between follow-ups (i.e., between 1994 and 1997 or between 1997 and 2003).
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-4 

Current/most recent salary—continued B3CRSAL 

Low Bottom 25 percent; less than $34,934 

Middle Middle 50 percent; $34,934–68,000 

High Top 25 percent; more than $68,000

Number of dependents in 2003 B3D3NUM

Indicates the number of dependents the respondent had in 2003. The categories used in this report are as follows: 

 0 dependents 

 1 or more dependents 

Academic year base salary 2003 B3ESALR1

Indicates the academic year base salary for the respondent’s primary teaching job in 2003, for those who were 

working as teachers at the K–12 level in 2003. The categories for this variable were created by converting dollar 

values to percentiles and then grouping the bottom 25 percent, the middle 50 percent, and the top 25 percent 

together. The ranges are as follows: 

Low Bottom 25 percent; less than $30,867 

Middle Middle 50 percent; $30,867–43,000 

High Top 25 percent; more than $43,000

Expects to teach in the long term B3EXPTCH

Indicates whether respondents who have taught expect to be teaching in the long term. Based on variables from 

1994, 1997, and 2003. In 1994, respondents who expected to be teaching in 2 years and whose long-term career 

expectation was the same as their 2-year expectation were considered to expect to be teaching in the long term. In 

1997, respondents who expected to be teaching more than 3 years were considered to expect to be teaching in the 

long term. In 2003, respondents who reported that they expect to stay in teaching for the rest of the time they are 

working were considered to expect to be teaching in the long term. The response to this variable is based upon the 

most recent valid response with the 2003 response taking precedence over the 1997 response, which takes 

precedence over the 1994 response. Respondents who expected to be teaching in the long term in 2003, 1997, or 

1994 (in that order) were included in the “yes” category of this variable: 

 Yes 

 No 

Most recent main subject taught B3FLD1 

Response to the question “What was the main subject you taught in your most recent position as a regular, itinerant, 

or support teacher? What is the main subject you teach at your current school?” The categories for this variable were 

created by combining subjects as follows: 

Elementary, early childhood education Elementary, early childhood education 

Science and mathematics Science 

 Mathematics 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-5 

Most recent main subject taught—continued B3FLD1 

Special education Special education 

English, journalism, reading, writing English, journalism, reading, writing 

Art, drama, music Art, drama, music 

Other Business 

 Economics, political systems 

 ESL, bilingual 

 Foreign languages 

 Health, physical education 

 Secondary education2

 Social studies, history, civics 

 Vocational, occupational 

 Social sciences 

 Other 

Highest degree attained as of 2003 B3HDG03

The highest degree the respondent had attained as of 2003. 

Bachelor’s Includes bachelor’s degree and postbaccalaureate certificate 

Master’s Includes master’s degree, postmaster’s certificate, doctoral, 

and first-professional degrees

Marital status as of 2003 B3MAR

Respondents were asked “Are you currently: single, never married; married; cohabiting/living with a partner; 

separated; divorced; or widowed?” This report uses the following categories: 

Single, never married 

Married or cohabiting 

Separated/divorced/widowed 

Sector of most recent school B3MRSECT

Indicates the sector of the school in which the respondent most recently taught as of 2003. 

Public 

Private 

 

2 A small number of teachers, mostly older teachers and those in rural areas, have general secondary education certificates or 

main assignments. 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-6 

Percent free/reduced-price lunch in most recent school B3MRSFLE 

Indicates the percentage of free/reduced-price lunch recipients at the most recent school in which the respondent 

taught as of 2003. The categories for this report are as follows: 

 0–4 percent 

 5–19 percent 

 20–49 percent 

 50 percent or more 

Level of most recent school B3MRSLEV

Indicates the level of the school in which the respondent most recently taught as of 2003. 

Elementary 

Secondary 

Combined 

Percent minority enrollment in most recent school B3MRSMPC

Indicates the percentage of students who were of minority racial/ethnic backgrounds in the school in which the 

respondent most recently taught as of 2003. The categories for this report are as follows: 

 0–4 percent 

 5–19 percent 

 20–49 percent 

 50 percent or more 

Would go into teaching again B3TCHAGN

Indicates whether the respondent would go into teaching again if they had to start all over. 

 Yes 

 No 

Plans to continue teaching B3TCHFTR 

Indicates whether the respondent plans to continue teaching (or plans to return to teaching if the respondent is no 

longer teaching as of 2003). 

 Yes 

 No 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-7 

Academic year base salary, most recent teaching job B3TSALR

Response to the question “What [is/was] your academic year base salary at your [current/most recent] teaching job, 

not including extra pay for things like summer teaching, coaching, or extracurricular activities?” Indicates the 

academic year base salary for the respondent’s most recent teaching job as of 2003. The categories for this variable 

were created by converting dollar values to percentiles and then grouping the bottom 25 percent, the middle 50 

percent, and the top 25 percent together. The ranges are as follows: 

Low Bottom 25 percent; less than $26,000 

Middle Middle 50 percent; $26,000–40,000 

High Top 25 percent; more than $40,000

In most recent teaching position, percent satisfied with student motivation B3TSATA

Response to the question “In your most recent job as a regular, itinerant, or support teacher, with which of the 

following aspects of teaching [are/were] you very satisfied? (Please check all that apply.)” Indicates the percentage 

of respondents who replied that they were very satisfied with student motivation at the school in which they most 

recently taught as of 2003. 

In most recent teaching position, percent satisfied with school environment B3TSATB

Response to the question “In your most recent job as a regular, itinerant, or support teacher, with which of the 

following aspects of teaching [are/were] you very satisfied? (Please check all that apply.)” Indicates the percentage 

of respondents who replied that they were very satisfied with school environment at the school in which they most 

recently taught as of 2003. 

In most recent teaching position, percent satisfied with student discipline B3TSATC 

Response to the question “In your most recent job as a regular, itinerant, or support teacher, with which of the 

following aspects of teaching [are/were] you very satisfied? (Please check all that apply.)” Indicates the percentage 

of respondents who replied that they were very satisfied with student discipline at the school in which they most 

recently taught as of 2003. 

In most recent teaching position, percent satisfied with class size B3TSATD

Response to the question “In your most recent job as a regular, itinerant, or support teacher, with which of the 

following aspects of teaching [are/were] you very satisfied? (Please check all that apply.)” Indicates the percentage 

of respondents who replied that they were very satisfied with class size at the school in which they most recently 

taught as of 2003. 

In most recent teaching position, percent satisfied with parent support B3TSATE

Response to the question “In your most recent job as a regular, itinerant, or support teacher, with which of the 

following aspects of teaching [are/were] you very satisfied? (Please check all that apply.)” Indicates the percentage 

of respondents who replied that they were very satisfied with parent support at the school in which they most recently 

taught as of 2003. 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-8 

Gender GENDER

Indicates the respondent’s gender. 

Male 

Female 

Undergraduate major GPA GPAMAJ 

Indicates the respondent’s cumulative undergraduate grade point average (GPA) in their major field of study on a 4.0 

scale. The categories for this report are as follows: 

2.74 or lower 

2.75–3.24 

3.25–3.74 

3.75 or higher

Field of study for highest graduate degree received GRMAJOR3

Indicates the field of study for the highest graduate degree received by the respondent as of 2003. The categories for 

this report are as follows: 

Education Education 

Not education Arts and humanities 

 Social and behavioral sciences 

 Life and physical sciences 

 Engineering/mathematics/computer science 

 Business and management 

 Medicine/dentistry 

 Health 

 Law 

 Other 

Highest degree expected in 1994 HIGHDEG

Indicates the highest degree the respondent expected to attain as of 1994. Response to the question “Now, talking 

about your future, what is the highest degree you expect to attain?” The categories for this report are as follows: 

Bachelor’s degree Includes bachelor’s degree and postbaccalaureate certificate 

Master’s degree (M.A., M.S., M.B.A.) Includes master’s degree 

First-professional degree Includes M.D. and J.D. 

Doctoral degree Includes Ph.D. and Ed.D. 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-9 

Baccalaureate degree major MAJORS3

Indicates field of study for the respondent’s baccalaureate degree major. The categories used in this report are as 

follows: 

Business/management Business/management 

Education Education 

Humanities Humanities 

Mathematics/computer/natural sciences Life sciences 

 Physical sciences 

 Mathematics 

 Computer/information science 

 Engineering 

Social sciences Social/behavioral science 

Other Health 

 Vocational/technical 

 Other technical/professional 

Cumulative undergraduate GPA NORMGPA 

Indicates the respondent’s cumulative undergraduate grade point average (GPA) on a 4.0 scale. The categories for 

this report are as follows: 

Less than 2.75 

2.75–3.24 

3.25–3.74 

3.75 or higher

Number of dependents in 1993 RDEPENDS

Indicates the number of dependents the respondent had in 1993. This variable refers to the student’s own family, 

rather than the parent’s family, regardless of whether student was dependent or independent. It does not include the 

spouse or student. Note that, by definition, dependent students had no dependents. 

 0 dependents 

 1 or more dependents 

Academic year base salary 1994 SALARY 

Response to the question “What was your academic year base salary for this job?” Indicates the academic year base 

salary for the respondent’s primary teaching job in 1994, for those who were working as teachers at the K–12 level 

in 1994. The categories for this variable were created by converting dollar values to percentiles and then grouping 

the bottom 25 percent, the middle 50 percent, and the top 25 percent together. The ranges are as follows: 
Appendix A—Glossary 

DAS Variable 

A-10 

Academic year base salary 1994—continued SALARY 

Low Bottom 25 percent; less than $15,000 

Middle Middle 50 percent; $15,000–23,000 

High Top 25 percent; more than $23,000

Availability of college entrance exam scores SATACTQ2

This composite variable represents the respondent’s scores on both the SAT and ACT college entrance examinations, 

classified into categories as follows: 

No scores available Respondent did not take the SAT or ACT or scores were not 

reported 

Scores available SAT or ACT scores were available for respondent 

No scores available Respondent did not take the SAT or ACT or scores were not 

reported 

Bottom category SAT scores between 0 and 841, or, if SAT scores were not 

available, ACT scores between 0 and 18 

Middle category SAT scores between 842 and 1133, or, if SAT scores were not 

available, ACT scores between 19 and 25 

Top category SAT scores above 1133, or, if SAT scores were not available, 

ACT scores above 25 
B-1 

Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

The 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal Study 

The estimates and statistics in the tables and figures of this report are based on data from 

the first, second, and third follow-ups of the 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal 

Study (B&B:93/03). This study tracks the experiences of a cohort of college graduates who 

received a baccalaureate degree during the 1992–93 academic year and were first interviewed as 

part of the 1992–93 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:93), conducted by the 

U.S. Department of Education’s National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). NPSAS is 

based on a nationally representative sample of all students in postsecondary education 

institutions, including undergraduate, graduate, and first-professional students. For NPSAS:93, 

information was obtained from about 1,100 postsecondary institutions on approximately 53,000 

undergraduates and about 13,000 graduate and first-professional students who were enrolled at 

some time between July 1, 1992, and June 30, 1993. 

For B&B:93/03, those members of the NPSAS:93 sample who completed a bachelor’s 

degree between July 1, 1992, and June 30, 1993 were identified and contacted for a 1-year 

follow-up interview in 1994. The second follow-up of the B&B cohort occurred in 1997, 

approximately 4 years after graduation. The final follow-up survey, 10 years after graduation in 

2003, is the focus of this report. However, the estimates in this report are based on the 

approximately 8,100 bachelor’s degree recipients who participated in all four surveys—the 

NPSAS base-year survey and the three follow-ups—representing about 1.2 million bachelor’s 

degree recipients (U.S. Department of Education 2002, table 247). 

The NPSAS:93 sample, while representative and statistically accurate, was not a simple 

random sample. Instead, the survey sample was selected using a more complex three-step 

procedure with stratified samples and differential probabilities of selection at each level. 

Postsecondary institutions were initially selected within geographic strata. Once institutions were 

organized by zip code and state, they were further stratified by control (i.e., public, private notfor-profit, or private for-profit) and degree offering (less-than-2-year, 2- to 3-year, 4-year nondoctorate-granting, and 4-year doctorate-granting). The NPSAS:93 survey sample yielded an 

overall weighted institutional response rate of 88 percent. For more information on the 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

B-2 

NPSAS:93 survey, refer to the Methodology Report for the National Postsecondary Student Aid 

Study, 1992–93 (Loft et al. 1995). 

Response Rates 

For the first follow-up B&B interview in 1994, a total of about 10,100 eligible individuals 

completed the interview between June and December—using computer-assisted telephone 

interviewing (CATI), with field interviewing when necessary—which corresponds to a weighted 

response rate of 90 percent (from the NPSAS:93-identified B&B eligible sample of about 11,000 

cases). Data collection for the second follow-up interview of the B&B cohort took place between 

April and December 1997; about 10,100 individuals completed the interview, yielding a 

weighted response rate of 90 percent. For more information on procedures for the first and 

second follow-ups, consult the respective methodology reports (Green et al. [1996] for the first 

follow-up and Green et al. [1999] for the second follow-up). 

Between February and September 2003, the third and final follow-up of the 1992–93 cohort 

of bachelor’s degree recipients was conducted. For the first time, students were offered the 

opportunity to conduct the B&B interview via the Internet. A single web-based interview was 

designed and programmed for use as a self-administered interview, a telephone interview, and an 

in-person interview. All respondents to the 1997 interview were included for participation in the 

2003 follow-up; a subsample of about one-third of nonrespondents from 1997 was also included, 

resulting in a final sample of about 10,400 individuals. Almost 9,000 members of this final 

sample responded, yielding a weighted response rate of 83 percent. For more details about the 

third follow-up survey procedures, consult the 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond Longitudinal 

Study (B&B:93/03) Methodology Report (Wine et al. 2006). 

Except for having all graduated in the same academic year, the 1992–93 graduate cohort 

members could be as diverse as possible in other aspects (e.g., the degree recipients could have 

been enrolled sporadically over time or enrolled continuously; some might have delayed their 

entry into postsecondary education, while others might have entered college right after 

completing high school). Therefore, the B&B:93/03 data provide the first opportunity to examine 

how a nationally representative, cross-sectional group of college graduates pursued graduate 

education over a period of 10 years after their graduation. The B&B dataset contains 

comprehensive data on postbaccalaureate graduate enrollment, attainment, student demographic 

characteristics, and labor force participation and finances (including education loans). 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

B-3 

Weighting 

All estimates in this report are weighted to compensate for unequal probability of selection 

into the B&B sample and to adjust for nonresponse. Two weights were developed. Crosssectional weights were constructed for analyzing respondents to B&B:93/03. In addition, a panel 

(longitudinal) weight was constructed for analyzing those students who responded to all four 

surveys: NPSAS:93 (computer-assisted telephone interview component) and the 1994, 1997, and 

2003 B&B interviews. The weights for the B&B:93/03 respondents were constructed by applying 

a series of adjustments to the 1994 B&B base weight. Specifically, adjustments were made to 

account for subsampling of nonrespondents from 1997, for sample members not located, for 

refusals among those who were located, and for types of nonresponse other than refusals among 

those who were located and did not refuse. Construction of the panel weight (WTC00), to be 

used for analyzing those who responded to all four surveys, included an additional adjustment for 

nonresponse for the B&B:93/03 respondents who did not respond to all three of the previous 

surveys. The weight variable used in this report is WTC00. For more information on weighting, 

consult chapter 6, “Weighting and Variance Estimation,” of the B&B:93/03 methodology report 

(Wine et al. 2006). 

Quality of Estimates 

Survey weights are computed with the goal of removing any bias that might result due to 

differential nonresponse and undercoverage. In order to measure the efficacy of bias-reducing 

adjustments, a series of analyses were conducted at the item and record levels. The subsequent 

sections summarize highlights of these analyses. 

Unit Response Rates and Bias Analysis 

For the approximately 10,400 sample members who were eligible for B&B, the unweighted 

response rate was 86.3 percent, and the weighted response rate was 83.4 percent. For some items, 

the weighted response rate at the national level was also less than 85 percent. The effects of any 

potential bias due to nonresponse can influence overall data quality with greater proportions of 

missing information. Consequently, nonresponse bias analyses were conducted at the student and 

item levels when the corresponding weighted response rates were below 85 percent. 

The bias in an estimated mean based on respondents, R y , is the difference between this 

estimate and the target parameter, μ, which is the mean that would result if a complete census of 

the target population was conducted and all units responded. This bias can be expressed as 

follows: 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

B-4 

)( = yyB RR − μ

However, for variables that are available from the frame and base year (NPSAS:93) respondents, 

μ can be estimated byμˆ without sampling error, in which case the bias in R y can then be 

estimated by: 

)( μˆ ˆ yyB RR −=

Moreover, an estimate of the population mean based on respondents and nonrespondents can be 

obtained by: 

( ) R NR ˆ 1 ˆ +−= ηημ ˆ yy

whereηˆis the weighted unit nonresponse rate, based on weights prior to nonresponse adjustment. 

Consequently, the bias in R y can then be estimated by: 

( ) R NRR ˆ )( ηˆ −= yyyB 

That is, the estimate of the nonresponse bias is the difference between the mean for respondents 

and nonrespondents multiplied by the weighted nonresponse rate, using the student base weight 

prior to nonresponse adjustment. 

Student-Level Nonresponse Bias Analysis 

A student respondent is defined as any sample member who is determined to be eligible for 

the study and has valid data for the selected set of analytical variables. As noted earlier, the 

unweighted student response rate was 86.3 percent, and the weighted response rate was 83.4 

percent. A nonresponse bias analysis was conducted as a part of the nonresponse adjustment for 

the analysis weight. The nonresponse bias was estimated for the variables known for both 

respondents and nonrespondents within each institution type. These variables included the 

following: 

• Age in the base year (NPSAS:93); 

• Race/ethnicity; 

• Gender; 

• U.S. citizenship status; 

• Attendance status in the base year; 

• Institution control; 

• Bureau of Economic Analysis Code (OBE) Region; 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

B-5 

• Type of institution/enrollment category; 

• B&B institution stratum; 

• B&B student stratum; 

• Whether applied for aid in the base year; 

• Receipt of federal aid in the base year; 

• Receipt of Pell Grant in the base year; 

• Receipt of Stafford Loan in the base year; 

• Receipt of state aid in the base year; 

• Receipt of institution aid in the base year; 

• Receipt of any aid in the base year; 

• Prior respondent to either 1994 or 1997 interview; 

• Income in the base year (parent income for dependent students and student income for 

independent students); 

• Number of telephone numbers available during B&B:93/03 data collection; 

• Number of times an answering machine was encountered during B&B:93/03; and 

• Whether the student was located in a field cluster for B&B:93/03. 

The steps for nonresponse bias analysis included estimating the nonresponse bias and 

testing (adjusting for multiple comparisons) to determine if the bias is significant at the 5 percent 

level. Second, nonresponse adjustment factors were computed using a subset of variables listed 

above. The nonresponse adjustments were designed to significantly reduce or eliminate 

nonresponse bias for variables included in the corresponding models. Third, after the weights 

were computed, any remaining bias was estimated for the variables listed above and statistical 

tests were performed to determine the significance of any remaining nonresponse bias. 

The weighting adjustments reduced, and in some cases eliminated, bias for students. Prior 

to the nonresponse weighting adjustment, the response bias was statistically significantly 

different from zero for 21 percent of the variables; the mean of the absolute values of the biases 

was 0.40 and the median was 0.20. After the nonresponse weighting adjustment, none of the 

biases were significantly different from zero; the mean of the absolute values of the biases was 

0.01 and median was 0.002. 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

B-6 

Item-Level Bias Analysis 

All the variables used in this report and defined in appendix A had item response rates 

above 85 percent. Therefore, a bias analysis for individual survey items was not necessary. 

Data Analysis System 

The estimates presented in this report were produced using the B&B:93/03 Data Analysis 

System (DAS). (The data from the 1994, 1997, and 2003 interviews were incorporated into one 

DAS.) The DAS software makes it possible for users to specify and generate their own tables. 

The DAS also contains a detailed description of how each variable was created and includes 

question wording for items coming directly from an interview. 

With the DAS, users can replicate or expand upon the tables presented in this report. In 

addition to the table estimates, the DAS calculates the proper standard errors1 and weighted 

sample sizes for these estimates. For example, table B-1 contains standard errors that correspond 

to estimates in table 1 in the report. If the number of valid cases is too small to produce a reliable 

estimate (fewer than 30 cases), the DAS prints the message “low-N” instead of the estimate. All 

standard errors for estimates presented in this report can be viewed at 

http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/reports.asp. In addition to tables, the DAS will also produce a 

correlation matrix of selected variables to be used for linear regression models. Included in the 

output with the correlation matrix are the design effects (DEFTs) for each variable in the matrix. 

Because statistical procedures generally compute regression coefficients based on simple random 

sample assumptions, the standard errors must be adjusted with the design effects to take into 

account the stratified sampling method used in the NPSAS surveys. 

The DAS can be accessed electronically at http://nces.ed.gov/das. For more information 

about the Data Analysis System, contact: 

Aurora D’Amico 

Postsecondary Studies Division 

National Center for Education Statistics 

1990 K Street NW 

Washington, DC 20006–5652 

(202) 502-7334 

aurora.d’amico@ed.gov

 

1 The B&B samples are not simple random samples, and therefore, simple random sample techniques for estimating sampling 

error cannot be applied to these data. The DAS takes into account the complexity of the sampling procedures and calculates 

standard errors appropriate for such samples. The method for computing sampling errors used by the DAS involves 

approximating the estimator by balanced repeated replication of the sampled population. The procedure is typically referred to as 

the “balanced repeated replication technique” (BRR). 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

B-7 

Statistical Procedures 

Differences Between Means 

The descriptive comparisons in this report were tested using Student’s t statistic. 

Differences between estimates are tested against the probability of a Type I error2 or significance 

level. The significance levels were determined by calculating the Student’s t values for the 

differences between each pair of means or proportions and comparing these with commonly-

 

2 A Type I error occurs when one concludes that a difference observed in a sample reflects a true difference in the population 

from which the sample was drawn, when no such difference is present. 

Table B-1.—Standard errors for table 1: Among 1992–93 bachelor’s degree recipients who were teaching in 

Table B-1.—1994, 1997, or 2003, percentage distribution of those in various teacher career categories and 

Table B-1.—percentage of all bachelor’s degree recipients who were teachers and nonteachers, by selected 

Table B-1.—demographic characteristics: 2003

 Taught Late Other NonCharacteristic consistently starters Leavers teachers Total Teachers teachers

 Total 1.71 1.32 1.88 1.30 † 0.50 0.50

Gender

Male 3.45 2.24 3.15 2.68 † 0.57 0.57

Female 1.80 1.58 2.15 1.44 † 0.76 0.76

Race/ethnicity

White 1.69 1.22 2.07 1.32 † 0.65 0.65

Black 4.24 5.19 7.63 4.81 † 2.34 2.34

Hispanic 10.59 3.93 10.88 6.15 † 2.30 2.30

Other † † † † † 1.20 1.20

Age as of 2003

32 or younger 2.13 2.04 2.30 1.77 † 0.70 0.70

33–34 3.75 2.20 3.55 1.71 † 0.82 0.82

35 or older 3.78 2.38 4.20 1.94 † 0.96 0.96

Marital status in 2003

Single, never married 3.68 2.80 3.54 2.65 † 1.10 1.10

Married/cohabitating with 

 a partner 1.96 1.73 2.02 1.38 † 0.52 0.52

Separated, divorced, widowed 4.71 2.45 6.17 5.18 † 1.82 1.82

† Not applicable.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 1993/03 Baccalaureate and Beyond 

Longitudinal Study (B&B:93/03).

All bachelor’s

Teachers degree recipients
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

B-8 

available published tables of significance levels for two-tailed hypothesis testing (p < .05). A 

student’s t value larger than the critical value for the significance level results in a rejection of the 

null hypothesis. 

Student’s t values may be computed to test the difference between estimates with the 

following formula: 

2

2

2

1

21

sese

EE

t

+

− = (1) 

where E1 and E2 are the estimates to be compared and se1 and se2 are their corresponding 

standard errors. This formula is valid only for independent estimates. When estimates are not 

independent, a covariance term must be added to the formula: 

t =

21

2

2

2

1

21

 se2(r)se-se+se

E-E (2) 

where r is the correlation between the two estimates.3 This formula is used when comparing two 

percentages from a distribution that adds to 100. If the comparison is between the mean of a 

subgroup and the mean of the total group, the following formula is used: 

t =

2

sub

2

tot

2

sub

sub tot

se p2sese

EE

−+

− (3) 

where p is the proportion of the total group contained in the subgroup.4 The estimates, standard 

errors, and correlations can all be obtained from the DAS. 

There are some hazards in using statistical tests for each comparison. First, comparisons 

based on large t statistics may appear to merit special attention. This can be misleading because 

the magnitude of the t statistic is related not only to the observed differences in means or 

percentages but also to the number of respondents in the specific categories used for comparison. 

Hence, a small difference compared across a large number of respondents would produce a large 

t statistic. 

A second hazard in using statistical tests is the possibility of a “false positive” or Type I 

error. In the case of a t statistic, this false positive would result when a difference measured with 

a particular sample showed a statistically significant difference when there is no difference in the 

 

3 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, A Note from the Chief Statistician, no. 2, 1993. 

4 Ibid. 
Appendix B—Technical Notes and Methodology 

B-9 

underlying population. Statistical tests are designed to control for this type of error, denoted by 

alpha. The alpha level of .05 selected for findings in this report indicates that a difference of a 

certain magnitude or larger would be produced no more than one time out of 20 when there was 

no actual difference in the quantities in the underlying population. When researchers test 

hypotheses that show t values below the .05 significance level, they treat this finding as rejecting 

the null hypothesis that there is no difference between the two quantities. Failing to reject the null 

hypothesis (i.e., finding no difference), however, does not necessarily imply that the values are 

the same or equivalent.