Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond 

Home Visitation Program 

Washington, DC 20024 

ICF Incorporated, LLC 

Fa

Submitted to: 

AmeriCorps 

250 E St., SW 

Submitted by: 

9300 Lee Highway 

irfax, VA 22031 

https://www.icf.com 

September 6, 2021 

This report was commissioned by AmeriCorps’ Office of Research and Evaluation 

under Contract # GS00Q14OADU209 and Order # 5332A20R0013. Information in this 

report is in the public domain. Please, direct communications related to this report to 

Lily Zandniapour at lzandniapour@cns.gov and Sarah Yue at syue@cns.gov. Cite 

this report as follows: Naugler, A., Kulka, L., Miller, B., Modicamore, D., Munaretto, C., 

Pershing, J., & Sarwana, M. (2021). Return on Investment Study: Birth & Beyond Home 

Visitation Program. ICF. 
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Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

CONTENTS 

Executive Summary............................................................................................................ ES-1 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program ......................................................................ES-1 

Return on Investment Study Methods............................................................................ES-3 

Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits (Opportunity Cost), and Program Costs...........ES-6 

ROI Results........................................................................................................................ES-9 

Introduction...............................................................................................................................1 

Program Description.................................................................................................................2 

Population Served................................................................................................................3 

B&B Evaluation History..........................................................................................................5 

Selection of B&B HV Program for the AmeriCorps ROI Project.........................................6 

Comparable ROI Estimates .................................................................................................6 

ROI Methodology......................................................................................................................8 

Monetizing Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits (opportunity cost), and Program 

Costs....................................................................................................................................11 

ROI Study Limitations..........................................................................................................21 

Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits (opportunity cost), Program Costs, and ROI 

Results ......................................................................................................................................22 

Program Benefits ................................................................................................................22 

Forgone Benefits (Opportunity Costs)...............................................................................23 

Program Costs ....................................................................................................................24 

ROI Results...........................................................................................................................25 

Recommendations for Further Research ..............................................................................29 

Conclusion ..............................................................................................................................30 

Appendix A: Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits, and Program Costs Included in 

Return on Investment Calculations .......................................................................................32 

Appendix B: Additional Information on the Methodology..................................................39 

Methodology Overview.....................................................................................................39 

Measuring Program Benefits..............................................................................................40 

Measuring Forgone Benefits (Opportunity Costs)............................................................62 

Measuring Program Costs..................................................................................................66 

Calculating ROI ..................................................................................................................67 

References ..............................................................................................................................70 
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Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1. Benefits among Stakeholder Groups Derived from the B&B HV Program ..........10 

Figure 2. Unemployment Status Results from Friedman et al. (2016) ..................................45 

Figure 3. Compound Interest Formula Used to Calculate Investment Opportunity 

Cost..........................................................................................................................................65 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1. Selected Demographic Characteristics of Population Served Through B&B 

During Fiscal Year 2018-2019................................................................................................... 4 

Table 2. Benefits Realized from the B&B HV Program by Stakeholder Group....................11 

Table 3. B&B HV Program Costs by Funder Type..................................................................21 

Table 4. Program Benefits by Recipient ................................................................................22 

Table 5. Forgone Benefits from Professional Opportunity Cost ...........................................23 

Table 6. Investment Opportunity Cost by Scenario and Funding Stream..........................24 

Table 7. Program Cost by Funding Source for the B&B HV Program..................................24 

Table 8. Benefits, Forgone Benefits, and Costs Included in the ROI Calculations.............25 

Table 9. Program Benefits, Net Benefits and Program Costs by ROI Scenario...................25 

Table 10. ROI Results for the B&B HV Program......................................................................27 

Table 11. Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits, and Program Costs Included in ROI 

Calculations ............................................................................................................................32 

Table 12. Number of Additional Children Not Abused or Neglected Due to their 

Mothers’ Participation in the B&B HV Program ....................................................................42 

Table 13. Number of Additional High School Graduates due to Child Maltreatment 

Prevention ...............................................................................................................................43 

Table 14. Additional Lifetime Earnings Due to Additional High School Graduates...........43 

Table 15. B&B HV AmeriCorps Member Benefits from the Living Allowance and 

Education Award....................................................................................................................44 

Table 16. Additional Pre-tax Earnings for B&B HV AmeriCorps Members from Reduced 

Unemployment Based on B&B HV AmeriCorps Member Demographics..........................46 

Table 17. Cumulative Additional Post-tax Earnings Derived from Reduced 

Unemployment due to Serving with the B&B HV Program by Scenario.............................46 

Table 18. Average Total Cost of Education and Portion Attributable to Education 

Award by Degree Type..........................................................................................................48 

Table 19. Estimates of the Number of Post-secondary Degrees Pursued Using the 

Education Award by Degree Type .......................................................................................49 
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Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

Table 20. Additional Earnings from AmeriCorps Members’ Use of the Education 

Award ......................................................................................................................................50 

Table 21. Per-Victim Lifetime Cost and Economic Burden of Nonfatal Child 

Maltreatment Estimates .........................................................................................................55 

Table 22. Lifetime Cost Savings Due to Child Maltreatment Prevention* ..........................56 

Table 23. Government Costs by Educational Attainment Level per Individual’s 

Lifetime ....................................................................................................................................58 

Table 24. 2020 Tax Rates and Ratio of Taxable Expenditures for B&B HV AmeriCorps 

Members’ Earnings, Living Allowances, and Education Awards........................................59 

Table 25. State/Local and Federal Government Benefits by Stakeholder Group and 

by Scenario .............................................................................................................................61 

Table 26. Forgone Earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps Members for a Service Term

Table 27. Forgone Taxes Associated with the Forgone Earnings of B&B HV 

.............63 

AmeriCorps Members for a Service Term .............................................................................64 

Table 28. Forgone Benefits from Investment Opportunity Cost Calculation by 

Scenario and Funding Stream...............................................................................................66 

Table 29. Funding Sources and Amounts for the B&B HV Program (2019–2020) ...............67 

Table 30. ROI Calculations for Short-term Scenario .............................................................68 

Table 31. ROI Calculations for Medium-Term Scenario .......................................................69 

Table 32. ROI Calculations for Long-Term Scenario.............................................................69 

AUTHORS 

This study was conducted by researchers from ICF and BCT Partners: 

• Alix Naugler, ICF, Senior Research Scientist 

• Lisa Kulka, BCT Partners, Research and Evaluation Analyst 

• Benjamin Miller, ICF, Senior Director 

• Dominic Modicamore, ICF, Lead Economist 

• Janet Pershing, ICF, Vice President 

• Munaretto, Claire, ICF, Senior Economics Analyst 

• Miriam Sarwana, BCT Partners, Research and Evaluation Analyst 
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Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

Executive Summary 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

AmeriCorps contracted with ICF Incorporated, Key Results LLC (hereafter ICF) to explore and quantify the 

return on investment (ROI) of several programs This study estimates the B&B HV 

that rely on AmeriCorps national service as a program’s ROI to be between 

major resource to sustain operations. ROI $0.50 to $2.11 per funder dollar, 

analyses have the potential to help AmeriCorps depending on how long benefits 

measure the performance of programs and to B&B HV AmeriCorps members 

build the base of evidence for future resource and long-term program 

allocation decisions. In addition, ROI study results outcomes. The return on each 

will help AmeriCorps communicate the va dollar of federal support for the lue of 

program is even higher, between its programming to relevant stakeholders. $1.10 and $4.58. These results are 

This ROI study measures the benefits of the Birth driven by favorable employment 

& Beyond (B&B) Home Visitation (HV) program and education outcomes for B&B 

against its costs. B&B is a parenting education HV AmeriCorps members 

and support intervention program designed to following their service as well as 

reduce child abuse and neglect. It is by favorable child welfare 

implemented across nine local Family Resource outcomes due to B&B HV 

Centers (FRCs) in Sacramento County, program participation. 

California. B&B is managed overall by the Child 

Abuse Prevention Center (CAPC), which is a 

statewide training, education research, and resource center focused on strengthening 

children, families, and communities. The FRCs are operated by six nonprofit partners: 

Folsom Cordova Community Partnership, La Familia Counseling Center, Mutual 

Assistance Network, River Oak Center for Children, Sacramento Children’s Home, and 

WellSpace Health. Overall, B&B provides linguistically and culturally diverse family 

services, short-term crisis intervention services, home visitation services, and an extensive 

network of resources for families in high-need communities at no cost. B&B’s HV 

program specifically uses professionals and AmeriCorps State and National members to 

provide weekly in-home case management and parenting lessons to program 

participants for a minimum of two months. The B&B HV program leverages the 

evidence-based curriculum provided by the Nurturing Parenting Program (NPP) model, 

which helps parents develop an empathetic relationship with their children, identify and 

apply positive parenting approaches, and get referrals to community resources for 

health education. The program is designed to improve bonding, parent-child 

relationships, and child behavior in order for children to reach their full potential while 

parents receive the support they need in the comfort of their own homes. There are 

three ways parents can be referred to the B&B HV program: directly through Child 

Protective Services (CPS), hospitals, or self-referral. Once enrolled in the program, 

parents are required to take the Adult Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI) 

assessment, which measures their risk for child maltreatment by evaluating their 

parenting beliefs and practices. Based on their AAPI scores, parents are categorized 

into one of three service level groups: prevention, intervention, or treatment. Given their 

service level group, they receive a specific set of lessons and suite of services. 
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Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

Population Served 

Applied Survey Research (2019) reported that B&B directly served 5,430 families 

residing in Sacramento County during fiscal year 2018–2019, including 5,326 parents 

and 2,469 children. The program serves at-risk families who live in high-need 

neighborhoods that are characterized by high birth rates, lower incomes, and 

higher-than-average rates of Child Protective Services (CPS) referrals and 

substantiated reports. During the 2018–2019 fiscal year, 39 and 24 percent of the 

population served identified as Hispanic/Latino and Black/African American, 

respectively. Almost three-quarters of the population served was female, more than 

60 percent indicated English was their primary language, and 50 percent were 

between 24 and 44 years of age (i.e., the primary age for becoming a parent). 

Additionally, 83 percent of the parents served were mothers. For the B&B HV 

program specifically, Applied Survey Research (2019) reported that 1,515 

unduplicated parents received B&B HV services during the 2018–2019 fiscal year. 

Fourteen percent of them (i.e., 217) were referred to the program by CPS and 

2,258 children were directly served through B&B HV programming. 

B&B HV AmeriCorps State and National members are responsible for developing a 

relationship with B&B HV program participants. They are to strengthen participants’ 

parenting skills, teach them how to support their child’s development, and enhance 

participants’ self-sufficiency through use of the NPP curriculum. Specifically, these B&B 

HV AmeriCorps members do the following: provide one-on-one parenting education 

during scheduled weekly home visits; administer AAPI assessments to identify the 

support needs of parents; facilitate NPP lessons and other activities that encourage 

parent-child communication and interaction; model nurturing attitudes and behaviors; 

provide referrals to community services and resources, and educate parents on child 

and adolescent socio-emotional and cognitive development among other services.1 

B&B HV Program Impacts: Selected Evaluation Results 

LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. (2017) conducted a quasi-experimental program 

evaluation of the B&B HV program’s performance and impact. According to the 

evaluation report, mothers who participated in the B&B HV program for one hour or 

more were 29 percent less likely to have substantiated CPS referrals post-program. 

This finding was statistically significant. 

1 Service Year. (n.d.). AmeriCorps Birth & Beyond Home Visitor at The Child Abuse Prevention Center-Birth & 

Beyond. https://serviceyear.org/bb/americorps-birth-beyond-home-vis/. 
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Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

Return on Investment Study Methods 

The methodology for the B&B HV program ROI study consisted of the following 

components: 

1. Measuring and monetizing program benefits. This includes using data from a 

previous evaluation and other third-party sources to determine the benefits to 

the children of B&B HV program participants, B&B HV AmeriCorps members, and 

government. The benefits realized across stakeholder groups include: 

• Children of B&B HV program participants. B&B HV program participants’ 

children benefit from increased lifetime earnings due to gains in secondary 

education that stem from child maltreatment prevention. 

• B&B HV AmeriCorps members. B&B HV AmeriCorps members benefit from: 

a) Living allowances and education awards 

b) Increased earnings due to reduced unemployment 

c) Increased lifetime earnings due to increased post-secondary education 

derived from the use of education awards 

• Government. Government benefits from income, Social Security, and 

Medicare tax revenue from B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ increased 

earnings, and sales tax revenue from the increased economic activity that 

results from those increased earnings. Government also benefits from 

reduced spending on corrections, public assistance, and social insurance 

and increased tax revenue associated with the increased educational 

attainment of B&B HV AmeriCorps members that is derived from their use of 

education awards post-service. Government also benefits from the tax 

revenue from B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ living allowances and education 

awards. Finally, government benefits from lifetime cost savings in healthcare, 

child welfare, criminal justice, and special education as well as from an 

increase in lifetime taxes paid due to child maltreatment prevention. 

This ROI analysis monetized B&B HV program benefits in 2020 dollars. 

2. Estimating forgone benefits (opportunity costs). This ROI analysis estimated two 

types of forgone benefits. Because of AmeriCorps member’s participation in the 

B&B HV program, they forgo wages they could have earned from other 

employment. Similarly, because of AmeriCorps and other funders’ investment in 

the B&B HV program, the funders forgo returns from other investments. These 

forgone benefits are also referred to as “opportunity costs.” 

The first was the professional opportunity cost to B&B HV AmeriCorps members for 

their period of national service, during which they could have earned more pay 

by doing other work. This included both the forgone earnings of B&B HV 

AmeriCorps members and the associated tax revenue for government. 
 

B&B HV 

Program Activities 

B&B HV Program 

Participant 

Impacts Government Benefits 

B&B HV Program Participants’ 

Children Benefits 

Government Benefits 

AmeriCorps Member Benefits 

AmeriCorps 

Member 

Impacts 

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Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

The second was the investment opportunity cost for B&B HV program funding 

that could have been used for other purposes. The analysis estimated the 

investment opportunity cost for both government and private funders to be the 

forgone return of investing program funds into U.S. Treasury bonds. The rates of 

return for U.S. Treasury bonds provide a market-based estimate of return for lowrisk investments. 

For the ROI estimates, the analysis subtracts forgone benefits from program 

benefits to calculate net benefits. The net benefits are then compared to 

program costs. 

3. Assessing program costs. The Child Abuse Prevention Center (CAPC) provided 

B&B HV program costs for the 2019–2020 program year. Only the program costs 

that support the activities and positions of B&B HV AmeriCorps members are 

included in this study. These program costs included the portion of the 

AmeriCorps State and National grant that supports the B&B HV program, the 

education awards received by B&B HV AmeriCorps members, and the match 

funding provided by state and local governments that supports the B&B 

HV program. 

4. Calculating the ROI. The ROI analysis consists of three ROI calculations: 

1) total benefits per federal dollar, 2) total benefits per funder dollar, and 

3) federal government benefits per federal dollar. This analysis calculated the 

value of these three ROI calculations under three scenarios representing different 

assumptions about the persistence of program outcomes. As mentioned, the 

benefits used to calculate the ROI are the net benefits associated with the 

program (the program benefits minus the forgone benefits). 

This analytical framework includes only those benefits that could be reasonably 

monetized given the available data, and that likely would not have occurred without 

the B&B HV program. Figure ES 1 shows how B&B HV program activities can result in 

benefits to the children of B&B HV program participants, B&B HV AmeriCorps members, 

and government. 

Figure ES 1. Benefits among Stakeholder Groups Derived from the B&B HV Program 
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ROI Calculation Benefits Forgone Benefits Costs 

Total Benefits per 

Federal Dollar 

• All B&B HV 

AmeriCorps 

members, B&B HV 

program 

participants’ children, 

and government 

benefits derived from 

the program 

•

•

Forgone benefits 

from the total 

professional 

opportunity cost 

Forgone benefits 

from the Federal 

investment 

opportunity cost 

• AmeriCorps 

federal 

funding 

Total Benefits per 

Funder Dollar 

• All B&B HV 

AmeriCorps 

members, B&B HV 

program 

participants’ children, 

and government 

benefits derived from 

the program 

•

•

Forgone benefits 

from the total 

professional 

opportunity cost 

Forgone benefits 

from the total 

investment 

opportunity cost 

•

•

AmeriCorps 

federal 

funding 

All match 

funding 

Federal 

Government 

Benefits per 

Federal Dollar 

• Additional federal 

government tax 

revenue generation 

and reduced 

spending attributable 

to the program 

•

•

Forgone benefits 

from the Federal 

professional 

opportunity cost 

Forgone benefits 

from the Federal 

investment 

opportunity cost 

• AmeriCorps 

federal 

funding 

Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

Table ES 1 shows the benefits, forgone benefits (opportunity costs), and costs that are 

included in each of the three types of ROI calculations. 

Table ES 1. Benefits, Forgone Benefits, and Costs Included in the ROI Calculations 
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Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

Available data established that B&B HV AmeriCorps members enjoy earnings impacts 

as a result of serving with the B&B HV program. However, the data do not establish the 

duration of those benefits. To address a range of possible durations for those benefits, 

the analysis includes three scenarios:2 

• Short-term. This scenario assumes short-term earnings impacts. The assumption is 

that earnings impacts are limited to a single year after program exit. This scenario 

also assumes no lifetime benefits are realized. 

• Medium-term. This scenario assumes a longer duration of earnings impacts. The 

assumption is that earnings impacts last 15 years. A 3 percent discount rate is 

applied each year to represent net present value in 2020 dollars.3 This scenario 

also assumes only half of the net present value of lifetime benefits is realized. 

• Long-term. This scenario assumes sustained earnings impacts throughout B&B HV 

AmeriCorps members’ working years. The assumption is that earnings impacts 

last 30 years. A 3 percent discount rate is applied each year to represent net 

present value in 2020 dollars. This scenario also assumes the entire net present 

value of lifetime benefits is realized. 

The long-term scenario (i.e., 30 years of sustained employment and earnings benefits) 

represents roughly a lifetime of working years for a given person while the short-term 

scenario assumes benefits for only the year after program participation or service is 

completed. The medium-term scenario (i.e., 15 years of sustained employment and 

earnings benefits) represents the midpoint between these two scenarios. 

Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits (Opportunity Cost), and 

Program Costs 

Table ES 2 shows the estimates of monetized benefits of the B&B HV program by 

stakeholder group for each of the three scenarios. The majority of monetized benefits 

are realized by B&B HV AmeriCorps members and the federal government. In all three 

scenarios, both B&B HV AmeriCorps members and the federal government combined 

realized 87 percent or more of program benefits. 

2 These three scenarios consider varying durations of how long increased employment and earnings 

benefits last for B&B HV AmeriCorps members. They also consider varying durations for lifetime benefits that 

stem from the B&B HV program. For example, lifetime benefits in terms of decreased public assistance, 

social insurance, and corrections costs result from B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ higher educational 

attainment post-service. The analysis estimates lifetime benefits differently in the three scenarios. 

Specifically, the net present value of the entire lifetime benefit is realized for the long-term scenario, half of 

the net present value of the lifetime benefit is realized for the medium-term scenario, and no lifetime 

benefit amount is realized for the short-term scenario. 

3 The Office of Management and Budget (1992) defines a discount rate as, “The interest rate used in 

calculating the present value of expected yearly benefits and costs” (p. 18). Regarding the 3 percent 

discount rate, see Office of Management and Budget (2003). 
ES 7-

 

Benefits by Scenario (2020$)* 

Recipient Short -term Medium -term Long - term

Children of B&B HV Program Participants 

(percent of total) 

 $-

(0%) 

$24,857 

(1%) 

$49,714 

(1%) 

B&B HV AmeriCorps Members 

(percent of total) 

$875,969 

(81%) 

$1,736,318 

(66%) 

$2,404,952 

(61%) 

Federal Government 

(percent of total) 

$146,690 

(14%) 

$609,767 

(23%) 

$1,038,050 

(26%) 

State/Local Governments 

(percent of total) 

$59,690 

(6%) 

$274,224 

(10%) 

$475,784 

(12%) 

Total 

(Total percent) 

$1,082,349 

(100%) 

$2,645,166 

(100%) 

$3,968,500 

(100%) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

Table ES 2. Program Benefits by Recipient 

*Numbers may not sum due to rounding. 

Table ES 3 shows the breakdown of forgone benefits of both members and funders 

because of their participation and investment in the B&B HV program. These forgone 

benefits are subtracted from the program benefits (shown above) to calculate the net 

benefits of the program. Those net benefits are then compared to program cost to 

calculate the ROI. These forgone benefits are referred to as the professional and 

investment opportunity costs. 

The professional opportunity cost includes the post-tax earnings B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members forgo—and the associated taxes forgone—due to their service with the B&B 

HV program instead of other work. This opportunity cost is consistent across all 

three scenarios. 

The investment opportunity cost represents the forgone accrued interest from investing 

B&B HV program funds (total funding and only federal funding, separately) into U.S. 

Treasury bonds instead of into the B&B HV program. The forgone accrued interest 

calculated varies by scenario because the analysis matched real interest rates for 

different maturity levels to each of the three scenarios. The period of forgone interest 

accrual was set to the length of each scenario: one year for the short-term, 

15 years for the medium-term, and 30 years for the long-term. 
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Funder 

AmeriCorps 

Funding Provided 

for the Program Year ($) 

$614,444 

Percent 

of Total (%)* 

45.9% 

Education Awards $182,332 13.6% 

Grant $432,113 32.3% 

State/Local Governments 

(i.e., Match Funding) 

Total 

$722,775 

$1,337,219 

54.1% 

100.0% 

- - -

Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

Table ES 3. Forgone Benefits (Opportunity Cost) by Scenario 

Forgone Benefits (Opportunity Cost) 

Professional Opportunity Cost 

ROI Scenario (2020$)* 

Short term Medium term Long term 

$396,300 $396,300 $396,300 

Forgone Earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps 

Members $296,719 $296,719 $296,719 

Forgone Taxes from Forgone Earnings $99,581 $99,581 $99,581 

Investment Opportunity Cost $17,440 $323,594 $756,439 

Forgone Benefits from Federal Government 

Investment/returns $8,014 $148,690 $347,579 

Forgone benefits from state/local government 

and other funder investment/return $9,426 $174,904 $408,860 

*Numbers may not sum due to rounding. 

Table ES 4 shows the cost of the B&B HV program for the 2019–2020 program year by 

funding source. The table underscores what portion of B&B HV program funds were 

provided by AmeriCorps compared to other stakeholder groups (i.e., match funding). 

The table also highlights a further breakdown of these two funding streams, where 

applicable. Overall, the total cost of the B&B HV program for this program year was 

$1.3 million. Forty-six percent of the B&B HV program costs (around $615,000) was 

funded by the federal government, consisting of AmeriCorps funding only. This amount 

includes the AmeriCorps State and National grant and the expected education 

awards. The remaining 54 percent (or roughly $720,000) consisted of match funding 

from state and local governments; no funding was provided by the private sector. 

Table ES 4. Program Cost by Funding Source for the B&B HV Program* 

*Numbers may not sum due to rounding. 
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Benefits and Costs Short term -

Total Program Gross Benefits $1,082,349 

ROI Scenario (2020

Medium term -

$2,645,166 

$) 

Long term -

$3,968,500 

B&B HV Children (participants) $- $24,857 $49,714 

Member Benefits $875,969 $1,736,318 $2,404,952 

Federal Government Benefits $146,690 $609,767 $1,038,050 

State/Local Government/Other Funder 

Benefits $59,690 $274,224 $475,784 

Total Forgone Benefits 

(Opportunity Cost) $413,740 $719,894 $1,152,739 

Forgone Benefits to Members (Forgone 

Earnings Post Taxes) $296,719 $296,719 $296,719 

Forgone Tax Revenue from Members 

Earnings $99,581 $99,581 $99,581 

Forgone Tax Revenue Federal 

Government $79,461 $79,461 $79,461 

Forgone Tax Revenue State/Local 

Government $20,120 $20,120 $20,120 

Forgone Benefits from Total Investment 

(All Funders) $17,440 $323,594 $756,439 

Forgone Benefits from Federal 

Government Investment $8,014 $148,690 $347,579 

Forgone Benefits from State/Local 

Government Investment $9,426 $174,904 $408,860 

Total Program Net Benefits (Total 

Program Gross Benefits – Total 

Forgone Benefits) 

$668,609 $1,925,272 $2,815,761 

Net Benefits B&B HV Children $- $24,857 $49,714 

Net Benefits Members (Member Benefits 

– Forgone Benefits Members) $579,250 $1,439,599 $2,108,233 

Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

ROI Results 

This analysis developed three ROI estimates using the three scenarios (short-term, 

medium-term, and long-term). As noted above, the ROI calculations compare the net 

benefits of the B&B HV program with the program cost to calculate the ROI. Table ES 5 

shows the program gross benefits, forgone benefits, net benefits, and cost of the B&B 

HV program, and each of their components, that are used to calculate the three ROIs. 

Table ES 5. Program Benefits, Net Benefits and Program Costs by ROI Scenario 
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Benefits and Costs - - -

ROI Scenario (2020$) 

Short term Medium term Long term 

Net Benefits Federal Government 

(Federal Government Benefits – Forgone 

Tax Revenue to Federal Government – 

Forgone Benefits from Federal 

Government Investment) 

$59,215 $381,616 $611,010 

Net Benefits State/Local Government 

and Other Funders (State/Local 

Government Benefits – Forgone Tax 

Revenue to State/Local Government – 

Forgone Benefits from State/Local 

Government and Other Funder 

Investment) 

$30,144 $79,200 $46,804 

Program Cost $1,337,219 $1,337,219 $1,337,219 

Federal Government Cost $614,444 $614,444 $614,444 

Non-Federal Government Cost $722,775 $722,775 $722,775 

ROI for Total Benefits per Federal Dollar 

(Total Program Net Benefits / Federal 

Government Cost) 

$1.10 $3.13 $4.58 

ROI for Total Benefits per Funder Dollar 

(Total Program Net Benefits / Program 

Cost) 

$0.50 $1.44 $2.11 

Federal Government Benefits per 

Federal Dollar (Net Benefits Federal 

Government / Federal Government 

Cost) 

$0.10 $0.62 $0.99 

 

 

Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

Table ES 6 shows the ROI results for the B&B HV program. The results are expressed as 

cost–benefit ratios, while maintaining the ROI terminology. Specifically, these ratios take 

the form of the sum of monetized benefits over the sum of applicable program costs. 

The ROIs expressed as cost–benefit ratios in this study can be interpreted as the amount 

of dollars returned for every $1 of investment (or program cost).4 

4 ROIs can be expressed in percentages or as ratios, such as in this study. Although not shown as a ratio in 

the results, the ROIs in this study show the amount of return for every $1 invested. 
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Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

Table ES 6. ROI Results for the B&B HV Program 

ROI Calculation Short term 

ROI Scenario 

Medium term Long term 

Total Benefits per Federal Dollar $1.10 $3.13 $4.58 

Total Benefits per Funder Dollar $0.50 $1.44 $2.11 

Federal Government Benefits per Federal Dollar $0.10 $0.62 $0.99 

The B&B HV program produces strong returns for the medium- and long-term scenarios 

when benefits to B&B HV AmeriCorps members, children of B&B HV program 

participants, and state/local governments are included. This is indicated by the results 

of the total benefits per federal dollar and the total benefits per funder dollar ROI 

calculations for these two scenarios. 

In the short-term scenario—where benefits for only one-year post-program are 

included—ROI’s range from $0.10 for Federal benefits per federal dollar to $1.10 for total 

benefits per Federal dollar. An ROI that is below $1 in the first year post-program is 

common in programs where there is an initial one-time investment made and benefits 

accrue in the following years. This is because it often requires several years of benefits to 

recoup the initial investment and generate positive returns. During the program, 

AmeriCorps members gain experience, skills, and knowledge that result in future 

benefits, such as improved employment and wages, which can be sustained 

throughout their working years. 

In the medium-term scenario, all stakeholder groups realized a combined return of 

$3.13 for every $1 invested by the federal government in the B&B HV program. 

Moreover, for every $1 invested in the B&B HV program from all funders, $1.44 is returned 

to both society and government combined. For every $1 invested by the federal 

government, the federal government alone receives a return of $0.62. 

For the long-term scenario, the ROI for total benefits per federal dollar, total benefits 

per funder dollar, and federal government benefits per federal dollar are $4.58, $2.11, 

and $0.99, respectively. 

The magnitude and direction of the ROI calculations are driven by several factors: 

• Reduction in the Number of Children Abused or Neglected. According to the 

findings from LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. (2017), the analysis estimated there 

would be a 29 percent reduction in the number of children who would 

experience future abuse or neglect because of the B&B HV program. 

Considering 19 percent of these children had a substantiated CPS allegation 

prior to their Parents’ participation in the B&B HV program, this resulted in an 

additional 11 children not being victims of child abuse or neglect post-program. 

This increase in child maltreatment prevention concurrently drives increased 

lifetime earnings for these children as well as reduced lifetime government costs 

related to healthcare, child welfare, criminal justice, and special education. 
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• Medium- and long-term accumulation of benefits. In the short-term, two of the 

ROI calculations result in losses because only one year of B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members’ post-program employment and earnings gains are factored in while 

the entire program cost is considered. Additionally, the short-term scenario does 

not include any lifetime benefits in terms of additional earnings, increased tax 

revenue, or reduced spending on corrections/criminal justice, public assistance, 

special education, child welfare, or social insurance that stem from the impacts 

of B&B HV AmeriCorps members and the children of B&B HV program 

participants. As these benefits accumulate over time, the analysis shows positive 

returns. This is indicated by the ROI results in the medium- and long-term 

scenarios (15 years, and 30 years post-program, respectively). 

• The employment outcomes of B&B HV AmeriCorps members. According to 

Friedman et al. (2016), the percentage of AmeriCorps members unemployed 

was 5 percentage points lower six months after serving in AmeriCorps versus 

six months before. This gain in employment resulted in increased earnings and 

tax revenue. 

• The educational attainment outcomes of B&B HV AmeriCorps members. 

AmeriCorps State and National members receive an education award after 

serving in an AmeriCorps program; the award is used by a portion of members to 

help pay for post-secondary degrees post-service. The additional educational 

attainment resulting from the use of the education award generates additional 

lifetime earnings for B&B HV AmeriCorps members and additional lifetime tax 

revenue and savings for government. 

Government funding serves as a catalyst for private funding of evidence-based social 

services programs. For the ROI calculations of 1) total benefits per federal dollar and 

2) total benefits per funder dollar, AmeriCorps’s requirement of match funding also 

contributed to the magnitude of outcomes. Federal government funding of the B&B HV 

program served as a catalyst for other funding, specifically that from state and local 

governments. This additional funding—amounting to about $720,000 for the B&B HV 

program for the most recent program year—allowed the B&B HV program to serve 

more parents and families than otherwise would have been served under the federal 

funding alone. Though it may not impact the ROI, because it is a per unit metric, match 

funding leads to greater investment in the B&B HV program and thus to a greater 

impact as more individuals and families are served. 
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Introduction 

AmeriCorps contracted with ICF Incorporated, LLC (hereafter ICF) to explore and 

quantify the return on investment (ROI) of several programs that rely on national 

service—specifically AmeriCorps—as a major resource to sustain operations. ROI 

analyses measure the performance of programs and build the base of evidence for 

future resource allocation decisions. ROI study results demonstrate the value of 

AmeriCorps programming to relevant stakeholders. 

This project began with a comprehensive literature review and preliminary assessments 

of whether ROI analyses were feasible for five national service programs. These 

feasibility studies included thorough reviews of these programs’ recent evaluations, 

detailed logic models, proposed ROI analysis methodologies for each program, and a 

scorecard mechanism that determined the viability of conducting an ROI analysis for 

each selected program. 

Upon completion of five feasibility studies, AmeriCorps selected four programs to be the 

subject of ROI studies, for Fiscal Year 2021: Habitat for Humanity AmeriCorps, 

Washington Conservation Corps, YouthBuild AmeriCorps, and the Birth & Beyond Home 

Visitation Program. This ROI study measures the benefits of the Birth & Beyond (B&B) 

Home Visitation (HV) Program against its costs based on the analytical approach and 

data sources specified in its respective feasibility study. 

This study is organized into five sections: 

• Program Description describes the program’s design, activities, and objectives, 

along with the role that national service (specifically AmeriCorps) plays in its 

operation. This section also provides a brief history of past evaluations, outlines 

the factors that made this program a strong selection for an ROI study, 

underscores the population this program serves, and identifies a potential set of 

comparable ROI estimates for the B&B HV Program. 

• ROI Methodology outlines how this analysis used various data sources to 

monetize benefits derived from the B&B HV Program, describes its associated 

program costs, and explains how opportunity costs were calculated. 

• Benefits, Forgone Benefits (Opportunity Cost), Program Costs, and ROI Results 

provides a detailed description of the program benefits, forgone benefits 

(opportunity cost), and program costs that are inputs into the ROI analyses and 

presents the results of the three ROI calculations across different assumptions. 

• Recommendations for Further Research explores ways AmeriCorps and others 

could further build the evidence base for this program and similar programs, 

including how to address limitations of this study. 

• Conclusion summarizes key points from the ROI study overall. 
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Program Description 

Birth & Beyond (B&B) is a parenting education and support intervention program 

designed to reduce child abuse and neglect. It is implemented across nine local Family 

Resource Centers (FRCs) in Sacramento County, California and is funded through 

California Volunteers (the California State Service Commission) as a subgrantee. B&B is 

managed overall by the Child Abuse Prevention Center (CAPC)—whose founding 

agency is the Child Abuse and Prevention Council of Sacramento—a statewide 

training, education research, and resource center focused on strengthening children, 

families, and communities. The FRCs are operated by six nonprofit partners: Folsom 

Cordova Community Partnership, La Familia Counseling Center, Mutual Assistance 

Network, River Oak Center for Children, Sacramento Children’s Home, and WellSpace 

Health. B&B is a product of the Family Support Collaborative, which was created by the 

Sacramento County Board of Supervisors in 1998. The Family Support Collaborative is 

designed to broadly facilitate public and private sector collaboration to prevent child 

abuse, encourage early intervention, and increase treatment locally. The target 

population for B&B is high-risk parents who are expecting children or already have 

children, reside in Sacramento County, lack parenting experience, and have a high 

need for social support. AmeriCorps State and National members, along with other 

program staff and volunteers, support B&B by serving at FRCs. They provide linguistically 

and culturally diverse family services, short-term crisis intervention services, home 

visitation services, and an extensive network of resources for families in high-need 

communities at no cost. 

The B&B HV program uses professionals and AmeriCorps State and National members to 

provide weekly in-home case management and parenting lessons to program 

participants for a minimum of two months. The B&B HV program leverages the 

evidence-based curriculum provided by the Nurturing Parenting Program (NPP) model. 

The NPP model helps parents develop an empathetic relationship with their children, 

identify and apply positive parenting approaches, and get referrals to community 

resources for health education. The B&B HV program is designed to improve bonding, 

parent-child relationships, and child behavior so children can reach their full potential 

while parents receive the support they need in the comfort of their own homes. There 

are three ways parents can be referred to the B&B HV program: directly through Child 

Protective Services (CPS), hospitals, or self-referral. Once enrolled in the program, 

parents are required to take the Adult Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI) 

assessment, which measures a parent’s risk for child maltreatment by evaluating their 

parenting beliefs and practices. Based on their intake scores, parents are categorized 

into one of three service level groups: prevention, intervention, or treatment. Given their 

service level group, they receive a specific set of lessons and suite of services. 
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B&B HV AmeriCorps State and National members are responsible for developing a 

relationship with B&B HV program participants. They are to strengthen participants’ 

parenting skills, teach them how to support their child’s development, and enhance 

participants’ self-sufficiency through use of the NPP curriculum. Specifically, these B&B 

HV AmeriCorps members: 

• Provide one-on-one parenting education during scheduled weekly home visits 

• Administer AAPI assessments to identify support needs of parents 

• Facilitate NPP lessons and other activities that encourage parent-child 

communication and interaction 

• Help parents develop family nurturing plans that prioritize positive parenting 

practices 

• Model nurturing attitudes and behaviors 

• Provide referrals to community services and resources 

• Educate parents on child and adolescent socio-emotional and cognitive 

development.5 

They also perform case management duties and serve on-site at FRCs to facilitate 

parenting education workshops. 

Population Served 

According to Applied Survey Research (2019), B&B as a whole—not just the B&B HV 

program specifically—directly served 5,430 families residing in Sacramento County 

across its array of program offerings during fiscal year 2018–2019. The population served 

included 5,326 parents and 2,469 children in total. The program is designed to serve 

families with at-risk backgrounds. Because of this, B&B’s FRCs are strategically located in 

high-need neighborhoods that are characterized by high birth rates, lower incomes, 

and higher rates of CPS referrals and substantiated reports than the county average. 

These neighborhoods include Arden Arcade, Del Paso Heights, Meadowview, North 

Highlands, North Sacramento, Oak Park, Rancho Cordova, South Sacramento, and 

Valley Hi. During the 2018–2019 fiscal year, 87% 0f the population served (i.e., both 

parents and children who directly received B&B services) were non-white only, while 

39 and 24 percent of the population served identified as Hispanic/Latino and 

Black/African American, respectively. Almost three-quarters of the population served 

was female, more than 60 percent indicated English was their primary language, and 

50 percent were between 24 and 44 years old. A detailed segmentation of these 

demographic characteristics for the population served during this fiscal year is listed in 

Table 1. Of note, Applied Survey Research (2019) indicated that of the 5,065 parents 

with data available, 83 percent were mothers and 17 percent were fathers. The gender 

5 Service Year. (n.d.). AmeriCorps Birth & Beyond Home Visitor at The Child Abuse Prevention Center-Birth & 

Beyond. https://serviceyear.org/bb/americorps-birth-beyond-home-vis/. 
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distribution of the 2,469 children directly served across B&B’s program offerings was 49 

percent female and 51 percent male. 

Table 1. Selected Demographic Characteristics of Population Served Through B&B 

During Fiscal Year 2018-20196 

Characteristic 

Race/Ethnicity 

Percent (%)* 

Hispanic/Latino 39 

Black/African American 24 

White 13 

Asian 6 

Multiracial 6 

Other 12 

Primary Language 

English 63 

Spanish 25 

Other 12 

Gender 

Female 72 

Male 28 

Age 

0-2 11 

3-5 7 

6-11 11 

12-17 4 

18-23 8 

24-44 50 

45-54 5 

55-69 3 

70+ 1 

Source: Applied Survey Research (2019) 

6 This fiscal year was representative of the most recent data available regarding the population served. 
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For the B&B HV program specifically, Applied Survey Research (2019) reported that 

1,515 unduplicated parents received B&B HV program services during the 2018–2019 

fiscal year. Namely, about 28 percent of parents who participated across B&B’s 

program offerings during this fiscal year (i.e., 5,326) were B&B HV program participants. 

Additionally, fourteen percent of parents who participated in the B&B HV program 

(i.e., 217) were referred by CPS. Of this parent population, 33 percent were categorized 

under the prevention service level group while 48 and 19 percent were categorized 

under the intervention and treatment service level groups, respectively. These different 

service level groupings represent low, moderate, and high risk for perpetrating child 

abuse and neglect, respectively, and are based on parents’ AAPI scores prior to B&B 

HV program enrollment. 

B&B Evaluation History 

B&B contracted LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. to carry out an evaluation (LPC 

Consulting Associates, Inc., 2013) that compared referrals to Sacramento County CPS 

prior to and following parents’ participation in the B&B HV program. The evaluation 

analyzed the CPS outcomes for families served between July 2010 and June 2013. This 

2010–2013 evaluation was updated a few years later and carried out by LPC Consulting 

Associates, Inc. and JBS International. This 2017 updated evaluation rigorously captured 

outcomes of interest related to participation in the B&B HV program. LPC Consulting 

Associates, Inc. (2017) used analytical methods to assess the impact of 96 AmeriCorps 

members who provided weekly home visits to participating parents from September 

2013 to August 2015. The study measured the degree to which participating parents 

completed their program plans, evaluated whether parents experienced changes in 

their AAPI scores pre- vs. post- program participation, and compared the rate of CPS 

referrals received during and after program participation to families who did not 

receive B&B HV program services. 

To determine the B&B HV program’s impact on CPS recidivism, the authors conducted 

a quasi-experimental design study. The study constructed a comparison group using 

propensity score matching and CPS referral records from non-program participants 

who had similar demographic characteristics (e.g., race, primary language, and age), 

referral histories, severity of referrals, age at first referral, and total number of referrals 

received. The treatment group consisted of females who had a least one child 0 to 

5 years old, were themselves between 16 and 45 years old, and had at least one CPS 

referral before enrolling in the B&B HV program. The analysis matched each B&B HV 

program participant with two non-participants, creating a 1:2 ratio. The final analytical 

sample included 493 and 985 individuals in the treatment and comparison group, 

respectively. Using longitudinal CPS referral data, a comprehensive scoring mechanism, 

and regression modeling, the authors predicted CPS outcomes at the individual level 

for both research groups. According to the evaluation report, mothers who 

participated in the B&B HV program for one hour or more were 29 percent less likely to 

have substantiated CPS referrals post-program. This finding was statistically significant. 
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Selection of B&B HV Program for the AmeriCorps ROI Project 

ICF recommended making the B&B HV program the subject of an ROI study because a 

rigorous evaluation showed that the program improves participants’ parenting skills and 

attitudes, and reduces CPS referrals. An ROI study for the B&B HV program would 

advance how the field can monetize favorable child welfare-related outcomes. 

Additionally, this would be the first AmeriCorps ROI study in the Healthy Futures focus 

area. It is important to note that B&B HV services are part of a larger array of B&B 

services supported by AmeriCorps members. Although a local program that operates in 

Sacramento County, California, B&B as a whole served more than 5,300 parents during 

fiscal year 2018–2019, according to Applied Survey Research (2019). Of those parents, 

more than 1,500 received B&B HV services specifically. ICF’s decision to focus on the 

B&B HV program was based on the rigorous evaluation of that component of 

B&B’s offerings. 

Comparable ROI Estimates 

ROI studies of other programs that offer similar services provide context for a potential 

set of ROI estimates for the B&B HV program. 

Nystrand et al. (2019) used data from a randomized controlled trial for five parent 

training programs in Sweden to measure their ROI. These five parenting education 

programs focused on strengthening the child-parent relationship and teaching positive 

parent management strategies. The study estimated reduced healthcare and 

education sector costs and increased long-term productivity (based on lifetime 

earnings between ages 20 and 65) for children whose parents participated in these 

programs. These benefits were benchmarked against program costs. Results indicated 

that all five interventions had a positive ROI ranging from $5.96 to $300 for every dollar 

invested. Similarly, in 2014, NEF Consulting completed a social return on investment 

(SROI) analysis for ChildFund’s Responsive Parenting model.7 This was a program in 

Ecuador that offered group workshops, referrals to resources, and home visits to primary 

caregivers to help improve the health, nutrition, and development of their children. The 

methodology assessed outcomes from parents, their children, those who administer the 

program, and the community at-large. Results indicated that when considering only 

short-term outcomes, the benefits were double the initial investment. When long-term 

(lifetime) outcomes were considered, a social value of $3.50 was returned for every 

$1 invested. These are examples of ROIs for international programs similar in structure 

and services offered by the B&B HV program. 

7 A social return on investment (SROI) analysis accounts for and measures broader economic, social, and 

environmental value derived from organizational or project activities. For more information on SROI 

methods and applications, please reference the following: Maldonado, M., & Corbey, M. (2016). Social 

Return on Investment (SROI): a review of the technique. Maandblad Voor Accountancy En 

Bedrijfseconomie, 90(3), 79–86. https://doi.org/10.5117/mab.90.31266. 
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There are also studies that measure the ROIs of home visiting and parenting education 

programs in the United States. Karoly et al. (2005) estimated that for every dollar spent 

on this type of programming, the return ranged from $1.80 to $5.70. This study examined 

two programs comparable to the B&B HV program. They were The Home Instruction 

Program for Preschool Youngsters and the Nurse-Family Partnership program. Using the 

random assignment outcomes from the evaluations of these programs, the authors 

determined how the program benefits government, program participants, and other 

beneficiaries in society. The authors monetized savings related to reduced spending on 

emergency room visits and other forms of healthcare, social welfare, and crime and 

delinquency. Another program comparable to the B&B HV program is the FATHER 

(Fostering Actions to Help Earnings and Responsibility) Project. It provides direct services 

to non-custodial fathers in Minnesota that are designed to help increase the 

employment of fathers and improve their parenting abilities, so they are equipped to 

better support their children economically and emotionally. Diaz et al. (2010) 

completed an ROI for this program using the program’s outcomes and concluded that 

there was a return of $3.41 for every dollar invested. This was the result when only the 

net economic value of program participants, their children, and taxpayers in terms of 

increased wages, child support payments, and taxes paid during one program year 

were quantified and included. When less tangible benefits that resulted from program 

participation were included, such as reduced criminal convictions, increased child 

literacy and development, and increased father engagement, the ROI increased to 

$9.47 for every dollar invested. It is important to note that the FATHER project focuses on 

improving fathers’ parenting skills and employability (through providing comprehensive 

job training and placement services) while the B&B HV program focuses solely on 

developing parenting skills. 

Another program similar to the B&B HV program is Parents as Teachers. This is a global 

program that provides home visiting and parent education to families with children 

from before birth to kindergarten. It is designed to increase parents’ knowledge about 

early childhood development, improve parenting practices, prevent child abuse and 

neglect, and increase children’s school readiness. In 2012, a study conducted by the 

Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) found that the program’s 

Washington state operation returned $1.18 for every dollar invested. The benefits 

quantified in the study included savings in crime, earnings from improved test scores, 

and savings from reduced child abuse and neglect. This study also cited the benefitcost ratios of other child welfare programs located in Washington state that were 

studied. The resulting ROIs of these programs ranged from $0.56 to $14.65 for every 

dollar invested. Specifically, Lee et al. (2012) found that SafeCare had an ROI of $14.65. 

This program provides family activities and at-home training curriculum for parents who 

are at risk of child maltreatment. Results from Lee et al. (2012) also indicated that Triple 

P- Positive Parenting Program had an ROI of $6.06. This program helps parents enhance 

their parenting skills and confidence while providing resources and training to help 

them resolve their children’s behavioral problems. The study provided detailed 

supplementary documentation that described the methodology and results for each of 

these selected child welfare programs located in Washington state. Kuklinski et al. 

(2020) carried out a cost-benefit analysis for a caregiver home visiting intervention 
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offered to CPS-involved families called Promoting First Relationships. The study captured 

benefits from avoided child welfare system costs, victim costs (e.g., healthcare and lost 

future earnings), and quality-of-life victim costs (e.g., pain, suffering, diminished quality 

of life, and psychological distress) using WSIPP’s benefit-cost analysis model. It 

quantified a favorable ROI across three scenarios that included different assumptions. 

ROI Methodology 

The methodology for the B&B HV program ROI study consisted of the following 

components: 

1. Measuring and monetizing program benefits. This includes using data from a 

previous evaluation and other third-party sources to determine the benefits to 

the children of B&B HV program participants, B&B HV AmeriCorps members, and 

government. The benefits realized across stakeholder groups include: 

• Children of B&B HV program participants. B&B HV program participants’ 

children benefit from increased lifetime earnings due to gains in secondary 

education that stem from child maltreatment prevention. 

• B&B HV AmeriCorps members. B&B HV AmeriCorps members benefit from: 

a) Living allowances and education awards 

b) Increased earnings due to reduced unemployment 

c) Increased lifetime earnings due to increased post-secondary education 

derived from the use of education awards 

• Government. Government benefits from income, Social Security, and 

Medicare tax revenue from B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ increased 

earnings, and sales tax revenue from the increased economic activity that 

results from those increased earnings. Government also benefits from 

reduced spending on corrections, public assistance, and social insurance 

and increased tax revenue associated with the increased educational 

attainment of B&B HV AmeriCorps members that is derived from their use of 

education awards post-service. Government also benefits from the tax 

revenue from B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ living allowances and education 

awards. Finally, government benefits from lifetime cost savings in healthcare, 

child welfare, criminal justice, and special education as well as from an 

increase in lifetime taxes paid due to child maltreatment prevention. 

This ROI analysis monetized B&B HV program benefits in 2020 dollars. 

2. Estimating forgone benefits (opportunity costs). This ROI analysis estimated two 

types of forgone benefits. The first was the professional opportunity cost to B&B 

HV AmeriCorps members for their period of national service, during which they 

could have earned more pay by doing other work. This included both the 

forgone earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps members and the associated tax 

revenue for government. The second was the investment opportunity cost for 

B&B HV AmeriCorps program funding that could have been used for other 
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purposes. The analysis estimated the investment opportunity cost for both 

government and private funders based on the forgone return of investing 

program funds into U.S. Treasury bonds. The rates of return for U.S. Treasury bonds 

provide a market-based estimate of return for low-risk investments. For the ROI 

estimates, the analysis subtracted forgone benefits from program benefits to 

calculate net benefits 

3. Assessing program costs. The Child Abuse Prevention Center (CAPC) provided 

B&B HV program costs for the 2019–2020 program year. It is important to note 

that B&B HV program services are part of a larger array of B&B services 

supported by AmeriCorps members. Given this, only the program costs that 

support the activities and positions of B&B HV AmeriCorps members were 

included in this study. The program costs included in this ROI are comprised of: 

• The expected education award amount B&B HV AmeriCorps members will 

collectively use post-service 

• The portion of the AmeriCorps State and National grant supplied by 

AmeriCorps that supports the B&B HV program 

• The portion of match funding received from state and local governments 

that supports the B&B HV program 

4. Calculating the ROI. The ROI analysis includes three ROI calculations, each 

assessed under three scenarios representing different assumptions about the 

persistence of program outcomes: 

• Total benefits per federal dollar 

• Total benefits per funder dollar8 

• Federal government benefits per federal dollar 

This analytical framework includes only those benefits that could be reasonably 

monetized given the available data, and that likely would not have occurred without 

the B&B HV program. Figure 1 shows how B&B HV program activities can result in 

benefits to the children of B&B HV program participants, B&B HV AmeriCorps members, 

and government. 

8 The different funder groups whose investment is in this calculation include the federal government (i.e., 

AmeriCorps) and match funding from state and local governments. 
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Figure 1. Benefits among Stakeholder Groups Derived from the B&B HV Program 

Government Benefits 

B&B HV 

Program Activities 

Government Benefits 

AmeriCorps Member Benefits 

AmeriCorps 

Member 

Impacts 

B&B HV Program Participants’ 

Children Benefits B&B HV Program 

Participant 

Impacts 

Available data established that B&B HV AmeriCorps members enjoy earnings impacts 

as a result of serving with the B&B HV program. However, the data do not establish the 

duration of those benefits. To address a range of possible durations for those benefits, 

the analysis includes three scenarios:9 

• Short-term. This scenario assumes short-term earnings impacts. The assumption is 

that earnings impacts are limited to a single year after program exit. This scenario 

also assumes no lifetime benefits are realized. 

• Medium-term. This scenario assumes a longer duration of earnings impacts. The 

assumption is that earnings impacts last 15 years. A 3 percent discount rate is 

applied each year to represent net present value in 2020 dollars.10 This scenario 

also assumes only half of the net present value of lifetime benefits is realized. 

• Long-term. This scenario assumes sustained earnings impacts throughout B&B HV 

AmeriCorps members’ working years. The assumption is that earnings impacts 

last 30 years. A 3 percent discount rate is applied each year to represent net 

present value in 2020 dollars. This scenario also assumes the entire net present 

value of lifetime benefits is realized. 

The long-term scenario (i.e., 30 years of sustained employment and earnings benefits) 

represents roughly a lifetime of working years for a given person while the short-term 

scenario assumes benefits for only the year after program participation or service is 

completed. The medium-term scenario (i.e., 15 years of sustained employment and 

earnings benefits) represents the midpoint between these two scenarios. 

9 These three scenarios consider varying durations of how long increased employment and earnings 

benefits last for B&B HV AmeriCorps members. They also consider varying durations for lifetime benefits that 

stem from the B&B HV program. For example, lifetime benefits in terms of decreased public assistance, 

social insurance, and corrections costs result from B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ higher educational 

attainment post-service. The analysis estimates lifetime benefits differently in the three scenarios. 

Specifically, the net present value of the entire lifetime benefit is realized for the long-term scenario, half of 

the net present value of the lifetime benefit is realized for the medium-term scenario, and no lifetime 

benefit amount is realized for the short-term scenario. 

10 The Office of Management and Budget (1992) defines a discount rate as, “The interest rate used in 

calculating the present value of expected yearly benefits and costs” (p. 18). Regarding the 3 percent 

discount rate, see Office of Management and Budget (2003). 
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Monetizing Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits (opportunity cost), and 

Program Costs 

This analysis monetized an array of benefits and included B&B HV program costs 

and expected opportunity costs—all in 2020 dollars—to assess the ROI of the B&B HV 

program. Additional details on the methodology employed and the calculations used 

for this analysis are in Appendix B. 

Program Benefits 

Outcomes of the B&B HV program result in monetizable benefits to the children of B&B 

HV program participants, B&B HV AmeriCorps members, and government. Table 2 

summarizes these benefits and data sources by stakeholder group. 

Table 2. Benefits Realized from the B&B HV Program by Stakeholder Group 

Stakeholder Group Benefits Data Sources* 

Children of B&B HV • Additional lifetime earnings from • CAPC 

Program increased educational • LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. 

Participants attainment as a result of child 

maltreatment prevention 

(2017) 

• Dakil SR., Sakai C., Lin H., Flores 

G. (2011) 

• Diette et al. (2017) 

• Trostel (2015) 

• Consumer Price Index (CPI; 

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 

n.d.) 

B&B HV • Additional earnings from • CAPC 

AmeriCorps reduced unemployment • Friedman et al. (2016) 

Members • Additional lifetime earnings from 

increased educational 

attainment as a result of 

education awards 

• Trostel (2015) 

• Current Population Survey 

Annual Social and Economic 

Supplement (ASEC; U.S. • Post-tax living allowances and 

education awards 

Census Bureau, n.d.) 

• CPI (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, n.d.) 

• National Center for Education 

Statistics (NCES) (2019) 

• NCES (2020) 

• AmeriCorps (n.d.) 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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Stakeholder Group Benefits Data Sources* 

Government • Tax revenue from increased 

earnings by B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members post-program and 

sales tax revenue from the 

induced increased economic 

activity 

• Tax revenue from living 

allowances and education 

awards 

• Reduced lifetime spending on 

corrections, public assistance, 

and social insurance from 

increased educational 

attainment by B&B HV 

• Consumer Expenditure Survey 

(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 

2021) 

• Federal and state income tax 

rates (El-Sibaie, 2019; 

Loughead, 2020) 

• Social Security tax rate (Social 

Security Administration (SSA), 

2020) 

• Medicare tax rate (SSA, 2020) 

• Combined state and average 

local sales tax rates 

(Cammenga, 2020) 

AmeriCorps members as a result 

of education awards 

• Lifetime tax revenue from 

increased educational 

attainment by B&B HV 

AmeriCorps members as a result 

of education awards 

• Lifetime cost savings in 

healthcare, child welfare, 

criminal justice, and special 

education as a result of child 

maltreatment prevention 

• Trostel (2015) 

• CPI (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, n.d.) 

• AmeriCorps (n.d.) 

• American Community Survey 

(2019) (ACS; U.S. Census 

Bureau, n.d.) 

• CAPC 

• LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. 

(2017) 

• Peterson et al. (2018) 

• Lifetime tax revenue from 

increased educational 

attainment by the children of 

B&B HV program participants as 

a result of child maltreatment 

prevention 

• Fang et al. (2012) 

• Hyland (2015) 

• DeVooght et al. (2008) 

• Chicago Public Schools (n.d.) 

*Usage of these data sources is discussed in more detail in the subsequent sections. Tax rates used on B&B 

HV AmeriCorps members’ increased earnings, forgone earnings, education awards, and living allowances 

are national averages. See Appendix B for a detailed discussion. 

Additional Lifetime Earnings from Increased Educational Attainment as a Result 

of Child Maltreatment Prevention (Benefit to the Children of B&B HV Program 

Participants) 

Findings from LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. (2017) indicate that parents who received 

B&B HV program services were 29 percent less likely than those in the matched 

comparison group to have a subsequent substantiated CPS referral. This statistically 

significant outcome was used along with a baseline recidivism rate from Dakil SR, et. al 

(2011) to monetize additional lifetime earnings realized by the children of B&B HV 

program participants. According to Pollack (2016), substantiated CPS referrals signify 
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confirmed cases of child abuse or neglect. Given this and the results from LPC 

Consulting Associates, Inc. (2017), children of B&B HV program participants had a 

decreased probability of experiencing future abuse or neglect. Moreover, children who 

did not have a substantiated CPS allegation prior to their mother’s participation in the 

B&B HV program (i.e., are not previously abused or neglected) have a decreased 

probability of ever becoming a victim of abuse or neglect. 

The literature underscores that not being abused or neglected increased children’s 

likelihood of completing secondary school. Specifically, Smith et al. (2012), Tanaka et al. 

(2014), and Allwood & Widom (2013) found that child abuse and neglect was 

associated with a lower likelihood of graduating high school. These secondary school 

education gains can result in increased earnings for children whose parents’ 

participated in the B&B HV program. Specifically, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics (2020), gains in secondary education translate to higher earnings. 

Number of Additional Children Not Abused or Neglected 

To estimate children’s additional lifetime earnings due to child maltreatment 

prevention, this analysis first estimated the number of additional children who were not 

abused or neglected due to their parents’ participation in the B&B HV program. To 

estimate this, the analysis used data from CAPC on the number of children ages 0 to 5 

whose parents had prior CPS involvement within six months of the program start date 

and participated in the B&B HV program during the 2019–2020 program year and 

Applied Survey Research (2019) to determine the number of children per parent (1.49). 

This analysis then applied that number to the LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. (2017) 

finding that reported that the parent participants in the B&B HV program group were 

29 percent less likely to have a substantiated CPS referral post-program. This is then 

further applied to the baseline recidivism rate from Dakil SR, et. al (2011), of 47%. Finally, 

CAPC data also indicated that 19.1 percent of children during the most recent 

program year had a substantiated CPS allegation during the six months prior to the start 

of the B&B HV program. The analysis removed this portion of the child population (i.e., 

who experienced abuse or neglect pre-program) to estimate the number of children 

who will not be victims of child abuse or neglect due to their parents’ participation in 

the B&B HV program. 

Number of Additional High School Graduates due to Child Maltreatment Prevention 

According to Diette et al. (2017), females and males who were victims of violence as 

youth are more likely to drop out of high school relative to their peers who were never 

victims of violence. The study authors segmented findings by type of violence in which 

“home violence” was defined as either being badly beaten by parents or other 

caregivers, or witnessing serious fights at home as a child. Both instances definitionally 

constitute child abuse and neglect according to Child Welfare Information Gateway 

(2019). Diette et al. (2017) reported that girls and boys who are victims of home 

violence have high school dropout rates that are 6.8 and 4.6 percentage points higher 

than their peers, respectively. This analysis used the gender distribution of the children of 

B&B HV program participants—who had prior CPS involvement—for the most recent 

program year as provided by CAPC along with the data on the number of children not 
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abused or neglected due to their parents’ B&B HV program participation (described 

above), to estimate the total number of additional high school graduates due to the 

B&B HV program, by gender. The number of additional girls and boys who were not 

abused or neglected—calculated in the previous section—was multiplied by these high 

school graduation rate differentials. This estimated the additional number of boys and 

girls who graduated high school due to their parents’ participation in the B&B 

HV program. 

Additional Lifetime Earnings Due to Additional Number of High School Graduates 

Given these gains in secondary education, there is an associated increase in these 

children’s earnings potential. Trostel (2015) quantified the differences in the average 

lifetime earnings between a high school graduate and someone with less than a high 

school education. The analysis multiplied this per-person lifetime earnings differential by 

the number of additional children estimated to graduate high school due to child 

maltreatment prevention that stemmed from the B&B HV program. This determined the 

total lifetime additional earnings realized by these children that is attributable to their 

parents’ participation in the B&B HV program. 

Post-Tax Living Allowances and Education Awards (Benefits to B&B HV 

AmeriCorps Members) 

Some member-specific benefits realized due to AmeriCorps members serving with the 

B&B HV program include the post-tax living allowances AmeriCorps State and National 

members are allotted during their national service and the post-tax education awards 

they receive after service completion. All are considered taxable income and thus 

result in increased government revenue.11 The post-tax living allowance and the 

education award amount that was used to repay student loans were included in the 

ROI analysis as direct one-time benefits to B&B HV AmeriCorps members. 

Additional Earnings from Reduced Unemployment (Benefit to B&B HV 

AmeriCorps Members) 

Evaluations have shown that serving in AmeriCorps fosters higher skill acquisition, 

increased educational attainment, and higher income from increased employment 

post-national service (Friedman et al., 2016; Markovitz et al., 2008; Spera et al., 2013; 

Zeidenberg et al., 2016). Freidman et al. (2016) found that unemployment among 

AmeriCorps members six months after their period of national service was 5 percentage 

points lower compared to six months before.12 To monetize this decrease in 

unemployment, the analysis first determined the demographic distribution of B&B HV 

AmeriCorps State and National members who served during the most recent program 

11 The tax implications of the AmeriCorps member education award are stated here: AmeriCorps. (n.d.). 

Segal AmeriCorps Education Award. Retrieved from https://americorps.gov/members-volunteers/segalamericorps-education-award 

12 See page 56 of Friedman et al. (2016). 
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year in terms of race/ethnicity, gender, age, and education level pre-service using 

data provided by CAPC. The analysis then proceeded to: 

1. Estimate B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ per-person average annual earnings 

(weighted by the above demographics) using data from the Current Population 

Survey’s Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement for March 2019, 

2. Multiply the 5-percentage-point reduction in unemployment from Freidman et al. 

(2016) to the number of B&B HV AmeriCorps members that served during the 

most recent program year to estimate the number of additional B&B HV 

AmeriCorps members employed post-service, 

3. Multiply the demographically-weighted per-person average annual earnings by 

the number of additional B&B HV AmeriCorps members employed to estimate 

the total increased earnings attributable to national service. 

The earnings metrics for B&B HV AmeriCorps members were applied and discounted 

based on the short-term, medium-term, and long-term scenarios to represent net 

present 2020 dollars. The post-tax B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ projected earnings 

represents the additional income earned by AmeriCorps members attributable to 

serving with the B&B HV program. 

Additional Lifetime Earnings from Increased Educational Attainment as a Result 

of Education Awards (Benefit to B&B HV AmeriCorps Members) 

Another benefit derived from national service is the higher educational attainment of 

AmeriCorps members. AmeriCorps members in general—as documented in Friedman 

et al. (2016)—can use their education awards to 

a) Pay for additional post-secondary educational attainment or 

b) Repay student loans. 

Friedman et al. (2016) reported that 46 percent of AmeriCorps State and National 

members used their education award to pursue additional post-secondary education 

while 33 percent used it to repay student loans.13 

This analysis estimated the expected increase in lifetime earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members attributable to the use of education awards to pay for additional postsecondary schooling. Based on the findings from Friedman et al. (2016), this ROI analysis 

estimated the amount in post-tax education awards that B&B HV AmeriCorps members 

used to pay for additional educational attainment. The analysis then estimated the 

value of the additional educational attainment attributable to the education awards in 

terms of lifetime earnings using data from Trostel (2015). These estimated additional 

post-tax lifetime earnings were included as a benefit to B&B HV AmeriCorps members. 

13 Friedman et al. (2016). op. cit. Exhibit VIII-6. 
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Tax Revenue Generation and Reduced Spending (Benefits to Government) 

The benefits of the children of B&B HV program participants and B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members result in benefits to the various levels of government. 

Benefits to Government from Increased Earnings by B&B HV AmeriCorps Members 

Government benefits from increased earnings by B&B HV AmeriCorps members. Those 

benefits include: 

• Income tax revenue from increased earnings by B&B HV AmeriCorps members 

post-service. Federal income taxes, state income taxes, Medicare taxes, and 

Social Security taxes were estimated for the additional pre-tax earnings of B&B 

HV AmeriCorps members based on 2020 rates. For both federal and state 

income taxes, the analysis estimated proportional tax rates representing the 

share of earnings paid in taxes. 

To estimate proportional tax rates that reflect federal- and state-level progressive 

tax brackets and standard deductions, the amount of total taxes paid was 

divided by the pre-tax earnings per B&B HV AmeriCorps member. For the state 

income tax rate, the analysis weighted individual state-level rates by their 

respective state populations to estimate a weighted national tax rate to apply 

program-wide. A weighted national tax rate was used because B&B HV 

AmeriCorps members may disperse to various locations nationwide following 

their service terms and continue to migrate over the course of their 

working years. 

• Sales tax revenue from the increased economic activity that results from 

increased earnings by B&B HV AmeriCorps members post-service. To estimate 

the additional sales tax revenue generated due to the additional post-tax 

earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps members, the combined state and average 

local sales tax rate for the U.S.—weighted by states’ populations—was 

calculated. This analysis applied that rate to the estimated taxable expenditures 

of B&B HV AmeriCorps members based on their post-service pre-tax earnings 

using Consumer Expenditure Survey data (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021).14 

The resulting product was then applied to the share of post-tax earnings 

attributable to serving with the B&B HV program to estimate state and local 

government sales tax revenue. 

14 To calculate the estimated taxable expenditures, Consumer Expenditure Survey (CES) Table 1203 was 

used from U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2021). This table lists the annual expenditure means by pre-tax 

income tax brackets. Thus, the pre-tax earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps members were used instead of their 

post-tax earnings to calculate this metric. Please visit this site for more details: 

https://www.bls.gov/cex/tables/calendar-year/mean-item-share-average-standard-error.htm#cu-income. 
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Benefits to Government from Increased Educational Attainment by B&B HV AmeriCorps 

Members 

Government benefits from increased post-secondary educational attainment by B&B 

HV AmeriCorps members. Those benefits include: 

• Tax revenue from education awards. Education awards provided to B&B HV 

AmeriCorps members upon service completion are subject to taxes, resulting in 

additional government revenue.15 This ROI analysis applied federal income, state 

income, Social Security, and Medicare tax rates to the expected total amount of 

education awards to be given to B&B HV AmeriCorps members to estimate 

these additional taxes. Both estimated proportional federal and state income tax 

rates were used. Sales taxes were not estimated for education awards because 

they cannot be used for consumer purchases. 

• Reduced lifetime spending on corrections, public assistance, and social 

insurance from increased educational attainment as a result of education 

awards. Higher educational attainment is associated with less dependence on 

government assistance programs and lower incarceration rates (Blagg & Blom, 

2018; Harlow, 2003). Because B&B HV AmeriCorps members increased postsecondary educational attainment, due to the use of the education award, 

government spends less. For the monetization of these benefits, the analysis 

paired the expected increase in post-secondary educational attainment of B&B 

HV AmeriCorps members with the expected difference in per-person lifetime 

government cost savings from Medicaid, SNAP, unemployment insurance, 

worker’s compensation, and corrections for individuals with different levels of 

educational attainment. The latter values were provided by Trostel (2015). 

• Lifetime tax revenue from increased educational attainment as a result of 

education awards. Another benefit related to B&B HV AmeriCorps members 

captured in this ROI study is the lifetime tax revenue generated from members’ 

higher post-secondary educational attainment due to the use of the education 

award. Here, the estimated increase in B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ 

post-secondary educational attainment was paired with the expected 

difference in per-person lifetime taxes for individuals with different levels of 

education as provided by Trostel (2015). This lifetime tax revenue includes federal 

income, state income, property, Social Security, Medicare, and sales taxes 

derived from use of the education award. 

15 The tax implications of the AmeriCorps member education award are stated here: AmeriCorps. (n.d.). 

Segal AmeriCorps Education Award. Retrieved from https://americorps.gov/members-volunteers/segalamericorps-education-award 
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Benefits to Government from Living Allowances Received by B&B HV AmeriCorps 

Members 

The living allowance provided to B&B HV AmeriCorps members during their service term 

is considered taxable income. This analysis applied a proportional federal income tax 

rate as well as Medicare and Social Security tax rates to the pre-tax living allowance 

amount received by B&B HV AmeriCorps members for the most recent program year. 

The analysis also applied a sales tax rate to the estimated taxable expenditures of B&B 

HV AmeriCorps members based on their post-tax living allowance amount to estimate 

additional state and local government revenue. 

Benefits to Government from Child Maltreatment Prevention 

Government benefits when children are not victims of child abuse or neglect. Peterson 

et al. (2018) estimated the lifetime costs borne by government due to nonfatal child 

maltreatment. The authors calculated the lifetime economic cost per victim of child 

abuse, augmenting the results previously published in Fang et al. (2012), and 

segmented estimates across the following cost categories: short-term healthcare, 

long-term healthcare, child welfare, criminal justice, and special education. Additional 

information regarding the definitions of these different cost categories is in Appendix B. 

To estimate government cost savings, this analysis multiplied the lifetime costs by the 

number of additional children who were not abused or neglected because of their 

parents’ participation in the B&B HV program. The analysis parsed out these cost 

savings across the different levels of government (e.g., federal and non-federal) using 

data from Peterson et al. (2018), Fang et al. (2012), and other third-party sources. The 

result estimated the total government lifetime cost savings—segmented by level of 

government—due to the favorable child welfare outcomes of the B&B HV program. 

Government also benefits from increased lifetime taxes paid due to the secondary 

education gains of children who are not abused or neglected due to their parents’ 

participation in the B&B HV program. Specifically, Trostel (2015) provides the amount of 

lifetime taxes paid for someone who graduates high school and for someone with less 

than a high school education. The difference between these metrics represents the 

additional lifetime tax revenue generated for every additional high school graduate. To 

estimate this benefit to government, the analysis multiplied the additional lifetime taxes 

paid between these two education levels by the number of additional children who 

graduate high school due to child maltreatment prevention. 

Forgone Benefits (Opportunity Costs) 

The analysis estimated forgone benefits of both members and funders because of their 

participation and investment in the B&B HV program. These forgone benefits were 

subtracted from the program benefits (shown above) to calculate the net benefits of 

the program. Those net benefits were then compared to program cost to calculate the 

ROI. These forgone benefits are referred to as the professional and investment 

opportunity costs, described below. 
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Professional Opportunity Cost to B&B HV AmeriCorps Members 

The first opportunity cost was the professional opportunity cost to B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members for their period of national service, during which they could otherwise be 

working and earning higher pay. To calculate this, this analysis estimated what B&B HV 

AmeriCorps members would have earned if they did not serve with the B&B HV 

program. Specifically, this analysis estimated the weighted average annual earnings of 

this group as well as their weighted unemployment rate using the demographic 

distribution of B&B HV AmeriCorps members for the 2019–2020 program year and ASEC 

data. The demographics included were gender, age, race/ethnicity, and the highest 

level of education pre-service. The weighted average annual earnings represent the 

expected earnings of the B&B HV AmeriCorps members if they were employed, but not 

serving with the B&B HV program. The weighted unemployment rate represents how 

many of the B&B HV AmeriCorps members would have been unemployed if they did 

not serve with the B&B HV program. These weighted metrics were first used to estimate 

the portion of B&B HV AmeriCorps members who would have been employed and then 

to calculate the aggregate earnings those employed individuals would have made 

without serving with the B&B HV program. Namely, they are used to calculate the 

aggregate post-tax earnings this population would forgo due to serving with the B&B HV 

program for one year. 

Some of the forgone earnings would have been paid in the form of taxes. To 

appropriately allocate opportunity costs between B&B HV AmeriCorps members and 

government, the analysis estimated the reduced tax revenue for federal income, state 

income, Social Security, and Medicare taxes. The analysis also estimated the reduction 

in sales tax from reduced consumption. These taxes combined represent what the 

various levels of government are forgoing in tax revenue when these individuals decide 

to serve with the B&B HV program instead of working for higher pay. The summation of 

all forgone taxes and the forgone post-tax earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps members is 

called the total professional opportunity cost. 

It is important to note that in the federal government benefits per federal dollar ROI 

calculation, only federal government (not total) benefits are included. Given this, only 

federal components of the professional opportunity cost are subtracted from all federal 

government benefits (e.g., tax revenue and cost savings) realized as a result of the B&B 

HV program in this ROI calculation. The parts of the professional opportunity cost 

removed from these total federal government benefits include the federal income, 

Social Security, and Medicare taxes forgone due to B&B HV AmeriCorps members 

forgoing earnings during their service year. The summation of these forgone federal 

taxes is called the federal professional opportunity cost. 

Investment Opportunity Cost to Funders 

The second opportunity cost used in this ROI analysis is an investment opportunity cost. It 

estimates the expected forgone return if all funds used to support the B&B HV program 

during the 2019–2020 program year were invested in U.S. Treasury bonds instead. To 

calculate this, the analysis matched 2019 real interest rates provided by the Office of 

Management and Budget (2020) to each of the scenarios leveraged in this ROI 
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analysis: short-term, medium-term, and long-term.16 The rates of return for U.S. Treasury 

bonds provide a market-based estimate of return for low-risk investments. 

The real interest rate for the 3-year maturity was used for the short-term scenario, the 

average between the 10-year and 20-year maturity rates was used as the rate for the 

medium-term scenario, and the 30-year maturity rate was used for the long-term 

scenario. These real interest rates were 1.3, 1.45, and 1.5 percent, respectively. Also, the 

number of time periods elapsed on these bonds was equal to the number of years the 

short-term, medium-term, and long-term scenarios assume B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members’ employment and earnings gains are sustained, one year, 15 years, and 

30 years, respectively. These bonds compound bi-annually according to the 

Department of Treasury (n.d.). The forgone accrued interest was calculated for each of 

the three scenarios if the funding amount used to support the B&B HV program was 

instead invested. 

Note that for 1) the federal government benefits per federal dollar and 2) the total 

benefits per federal dollar ROI calculations, the investment opportunity cost subtracted 

from the benefits in these calculations is the forgone accrued interest from investing 

only the federal funds into these U.S. Treasury bonds. This is called the federal investment 

opportunity cost. This is because these ROI calculations only include federal 

government (not total) program costs. For the other ROI calculation estimated in this 

analysis, the investment opportunity cost subtracted from the benefits realized is the 

forgone accrued interest from investing all B&B HV program funds (both federal and 

non-federal) into these U.S. Treasury bonds. This is called the total investment 

opportunity cost. See Appendix B for details. 

Program Costs 

The costs for the B&B HV program, used for this ROI analysis, include federal and 

required match funding and any other funding used to support program operations. 

The program costs are specific to funding the activities and positions of B&B HV 

AmeriCorps members whose outcomes are measured in this analysis. 

Table 3 shows the segmentation of B&B HV program costs by funder.17 The federal funds 

included the AmeriCorps State and National grant. Federal dollars also helped pay for 

the expected education award amounts granted to B&B HV AmeriCorps members 

once they completed their service term. Funds provided by state/local governments 

represent the match funding the B&B HV program received for the program year. 

16 The analysis used 2019 real interest rates for U.S. Treasury bonds because the B&B HV program year 

analyzed began in 2019. 

17 Program cost data were provided by the chief program officer at CAPC. 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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AmeriCorps contributions (including both the grant and the expected education 

award amounts) covered nearly half of program costs.18 State and local governments 

provided match funding that represented roughly 54 percent of total B&B HV program 

costs. Moreover, this match funding was an amount equal to about 118 percent of 

AmeriCorps federal funds. This match provides the B&B HV program with the resources 

to offer more services and supports to local parents than would be otherwise available 

only under the AmeriCorps federal funds. That translates into increased aggregate 

benefits realized across stakeholder groups. 

Table 3. B&B HV Program Costs by Funder Type 

Funder 

Funding Provided 

for the Program Year ($) Percent of Total (%) 

AmeriCorps $614,444 45.9% 

State/Local Governments 

(i.e., Match Funding) $722,775 54.1% 

Total $1,337,219 100.0% 

ROI Study Limitations 

Study limitations include the ability to capture all benefits that stem from the B&B HV 

program due to the lack of available data. 

Limitations to the Array of Benefits Captured 

Some research has determined that parents who participate in parenting education 

and support programs that are similar to the B&B HV program experience positive 

benefits. These include reductions in depression, PTSD, and caregiving helplessness—as 

noted in Muzik et al. (2015)—and increased odds of school continuation as noted in 

Barnet et al. (2007). Such outcomes are not included in this ROI study. This is because 

either the benefits could not be defensibly monetized given the available data and 

sparse literature, or the interventions evaluated in these studies were too different from 

the services provided by the B&B HV program. Thus, this ROI analysis does not capture 

any benefits realized by the parents themselves due to their participation in the B&B HV 

program. Only the benefits realized by their children could be reasonably monetized— 

given the available literature—and therefore is included. 

18 The education award comes from the National Service Trust. This is a line-item in AmeriCorps’s annual 

budget approved by Congress every year. Thus, the expected education award amounts to be realized 

by B&B HV AmeriCorps members post-service is grouped with the AmeriCorps State and National grant as 

being supplied by AmeriCorps. For more information, see: 

https://americorps.gov/sites/default/files/documents/CNCS%20FY%202021%20Congressional%20Budget%20 

Justification%20w%20IG%20Message%20%28Final%29_508.pdf. 
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Additionally, the outcome data from LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. (2017) were limited 

to female B&B HV program participants who had CPS involvement within six months 

from the program’s start date and children aged 0 to 5. This study did not capture the 

estimated probabilities of having future substantiated CPS referrals for male B&B HV 

program participants. It also did not capture the CPS recidivism outcomes for female 

B&B HV program participants with older children who did not have a previous CPS 

history. As a result, outcomes could not be monetized for these two subgroups of B&B 

HV program participants and thus were not included in this ROI analysis. 

Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits (opportunity cost), Program 

Costs, and ROI Results 

The ROI for the B&B HV program measures the benefits of the program compared to its 

costs to determine the return to different stakeholders. This section provides ICF’s 

estimates of program benefits, forgone benefits (opportunity cost), program costs, and 

resulting ROI. 

Program Benefits 

Table 4 shows the estimates of monetized benefits of the B&B HV program by 

stakeholder group for each of the three scenarios. The majority of monetized benefits 

are realized by B&B HV AmeriCorps members and the federal government. In all three 

scenarios, both B&B HV AmeriCorps members and the federal government combined 

realized 87 percent or more of program benefits. 

Table 4. Program Benefits by Recipient 

Recipient 

Benefits by Scenario (2020$)* 

Short term Medium term Long term 

Children of B&B HV Program Participants 

(percent of total) 

$-

(0%) 

$24,857 

(1%) 

$49,714 

(1%) 

B&B HV AmeriCorps Members 

(percent of total) 

$875,969 

(81%) 

$1,736,318 

(66%) 

$2,404,952 

(61%) 

Federal Government 

(percent of total) 

$146,690 

(14%) 

$609,767 

(23%) 

$1,038,050 

(26%) 

State/Local Governments 

(percent of total) 

$59,690 

(6%) 

$276,224 

(10%) 

$475,784 

(12%) 

Total 

(Total percent) 

$1,082,349 $2,645,166 $3,968,500 

(100%) (100%) (100%) 

*Numbers may not sum due to rounding. 
23 

 

 

Professional Opportunity 

Forgone Category Cost Amount Across All Scenarios (2020$) 

Post-tax Earnings $296,719 

Federal Income Taxes $49,548 

State Income Taxes $14,844 

Social Security and Medicare Taxes $29,913 

Sales Taxes $5,276 

Total $396,300 

 

 

 

Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

Forgone Benefits (Opportunity Costs) 

Table 5 shows the breakdown of the forgone benefits from the professional opportunity 

cost to B&B HV AmeriCorps members and government in net present 2020 dollars. It lists 

the amount of post-tax earnings that members are forgoing—and the associated taxes 

forgone—to serve with the B&B HV program. This is called the total professional 

opportunity cost. For the federal government benefits per federal dollar ROI 

calculation, only the forgone federal income, Social Security, and Medicare taxes were 

subtracted from the total federal benefits that are realized due to the B&B HV program. 

The summation of these forgone federal taxes is called the federal professional 

opportunity cost. 

Table 5. Forgone Benefits from Professional Opportunity Cost 

Table 6 lists the forgone benefits from the investment opportunity cost incurred by 

scenario and for when: 

a) Total B&B HV program funds for the program year are invested in U.S. Treasury 

bonds and 

b) Only federal B&B HV program funds (both program and education award 

funding) are invested in these bonds. 

Table 6 also lists the 2019 real interest rates and the number of years elapsed (with two 

payments a year) that were used as inputs to calculate the forgone accrued interest 

value for each scenario. The analysis used 2019 real interest rates for U.S. Treasury bonds 

because the B&B HV program year analyzed began in 2019. 
24 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Return on Investment Study: 

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Table 6. Investment Opportunity Cost by Scenario and Funding Stream 

Funding Stream 

Forgone Accrued Interest by Scenario (2020$) 

Medium term Long term 

Short term (1.45% interest rate (1.50% interest rate 

(1.30% interest rate and 15 years and 30 years 

and 1 year elapsed) elapsed) elapsed) 

Total B&B HV Program 

Funding $17,440 $323,594 $756,439 

Federal B&B HV 

Program Funding Only $8,014 $148,690 $347,579 

Program Costs 

Table 7 shows the cost of the B&B HV program for the 2019–2020 program year by 

funding source. The table underscores what portion of B&B HV program funds were 

provided by AmeriCorps compared to other stakeholder groups (i.e., match funding). 

The table also highlights a further breakdown of these two funding streams, where 

applicable. Overall, the total cost of the B&B HV program for this program year was $1.3 

million. Forty-six percent of the B&B HV program costs (around $615,000) was funded by 

the federal government. This amount includes the AmeriCorps State and National grant 

and the expected education awards. The remaining 54 percent (or roughly $720,000) 

consisted of match funding from state and local governments. 

Table 7. Program Cost by Funding Source for the B&B HV Program* 

Funder 

Funding Provided 

for the Program Year ($) Percent of Total (%)* 

AmeriCorps $614,444 45.9% 

Education Awards $182,332 13.6% 

Grant $432,113 32.3% 

State/Local Governments 

(i.e., Match Funding) $722,775 54.1% 

Total $1,337,219 100.0% 

*Numbers may not sum due to rounding. 
25 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Return on Investment Study: 

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ROI Results 

Table 8 shows the program benefits, forgone benefits, and program costs that are 

included in each of the three ROI calculations. 

Table 8. Benefits, Forgone Benefits, and Costs Included in the ROI Calculations 

ROI Calculation Program Benefits Forgone Benefits Costs 

Total Benefits per • All B&B HV • Forgone benefits • AmeriCorps 

Federal Dollar AmeriCorps 

members, B&B HV 

program 

participants’ children, 

and government 

benefits derived from 

the program 

from professional 

opportunity cost 

• Forgone benefits 

from Federal 

investment 

opportunity cost 

federal funding 

Total Benefits per • All B&B HV • Forgone benefits • AmeriCorps 

Funder Dollar AmeriCorps 

members, B&B HV 

program 

participants’ children, 

and government 

benefits derived from 

the program 

from professional 

opportunity cost 

• Forgone benefits 

from total 

investment 

opportunity cost 

federal funding 

• All match 

funding 

Federal • Additional federal • Forgone benefits • AmeriCorps 

Government government tax from Federal federal funding 

Benefits per revenue generation professional 

Federal Dollar and reduced 

spending attributable 

to the program 

opportunity cost 

• Forgone benefits 

from Federal 

investment 

opportunity cost 

This analysis developed three ROI estimates using the three scenarios (short-term, 

medium-term, and long-term). As noted above, the ROI calculations compare the net 

benefits of the B&B HV program with the program cost to calculate the ROI. Table 

9Table 9. Program Benefits, Net Benefits and Program Costs by ROI Scenario shows the 

program gross benefits, forgone benefits, net benefits, and cost of the B&B HV program, 

and each of the components, that are used to calculate the three ROIs. 

Table 9. Program Benefits, Net Benefits and Program Costs by ROI Scenario 

Benefits and Costs Short term 

ROI Scenario (2020$) 

Medium term Long term 

Total Program Gross Benefits $1,082,349 $2,645,166 $3,968,500 

B&B HV Children (participants) $- $24,857 $49,714 

Member Benefits $875,969 $1,736,318 $2,404,952 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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Benefits and Costs Short term 

ROI Scenario (2020$) 

Medium term Long term 

Federal Government Benefits $146,690 $609,767 $1,038,050 

State/Local Government/Other Funder 

Benefits 

$59,690 $274,224 $475,784 

Total Forgone Benefits (Opportunity Cost) $413,740 $719,894 $1,152,739 

Forgone Benefits to Members (Forgone 

Earnings Post Taxes) $296,719 $296,719 $296,719 

Forgone Tax Revenue from Members 

Earnings $99,581 $99,581 $99,581 

Forgone Tax Revenue Federal 

Government $79,461 $79,461 $79,461 

Forgone Tax Revenue State/Local 

Government $20,120 $20,120 $20,120 

Forgone Benefits from Total Investment (All 

Funders) $17,440 $323,594 $756,439 

Forgone Benefits from Federal 

Government Investment $8,014 $148,690 $347,579 

Forgone Benefits from State/Local 

Government Investment $9,426 $174,904 $408,860 

Total Program Net Benefits (Total Program 

Gross Benefits – Total Forgone Benefits) $668,609 $1,925,272 $2,815,761 

Net Benefits B&B HV Children $- $24,857 $49,714 

Net Benefits Members (Member Benefits – 

Forgone Benefits Members) $579,250 $1,439,599 $2,108,233 

Net Benefits Federal Government (Federal 

Government Benefits – Forgone Tax 

Revenue to Federal Government – 

Forgone Benefits from Federal 

Government Investment) 

$59,215 $381,616 $611,010 

Net Benefits State/Local Government and 

Other Funders (State/Local Government 

Benefits – Forgone Tax Revenue to 

State/Local Government – Forgone 

Benefits From State/Local Government 

and Other Funder Investment) 

$30,144 $79,200 $46,804 

Program Cost $1,337,219 $1,337,219 $1,337,219 

Federal Government Cost $614,444 $614,444 $614,444 

Non-Federal Government Cost $722,775 $722,775 $722,775 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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Benefits and Costs Short term 

ROI Scenario (2020$) 

Medium term Long term 

ROI for Total Benefits per Federal Dollar 

(Total Program Net Benefits / Federal 

Government Cost) 

$1.10 $3.13 $4.58 

ROI for Total Benefits per Funder Dollar 

(Total Program Net Benefits / Program 

Cost) 

$0.50 $1.44 $2.11 

Federal Government Benefits per Federal 

Dollar (Net Benefits Federal Government / 

Federal Government Cost) 

$0.10 $0.62 $0.99 

Table 10 summarizes the ROI results for the B&B HV program across the short-term, 

medium-term, and long-term scenarios. Three different ROI results are calculated for 

each scenario. Since two of the calculations include benefits to society (e.g., children 

of B&B HV program participants, B&B HV AmeriCorps members, etc.), the results are 

expressed as cost–benefit ratios, while maintaining the ROI terminology. Specifically, 

these ratios take the form of the sum of monetized benefits over the sum of applicable 

program costs. The ROIs expressed as cost–benefit ratios in this study can be interpreted 

as the amount of dollars returned for every $1 of investment (or program cost).19 See 

Appendix B for the formulas used to calculate each ROI calculation. 

Table 10. ROI Results for the B&B HV Program 

ROI Calculation Short term 

ROI Scenario 

Medium term Long term 

Total Benefits per Federal Dollar $1.10 $3.13 $4.58 

Total Benefits per Funder Dollar $0.50 $1.44 $2.11 

Federal Government Benefits per Federal Dollar $0.10 $0.62 $0.99 

19 ROIs can be expressed in percentages or as ratios, such as in this study. Although not shown as a ratio in 

the results, the ROIs in this study show the amount of return for every $1 invested. 
28 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Return on Investment Study: 

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The B&B HV program produces strong returns for the medium- and long-term scenarios 

when benefits to B&B HV AmeriCorps members, children of B&B HV program 

participants, and state/local governments are included. This is indicated by the results 

of the total benefits per federal dollar and the total benefits per funder dollar ROI 

calculations for these two scenarios. 

In the short-term scenario—where benefits for only one-year post-program are 

included—ROI’s range from $0.10 for Federal benefits per federal dollar to $1.10 for total 

benefits per Federal dollar. An ROI that is below $1 in the first year post-program is 

common in programs where there is an initial one-time investment made and benefits 

accrue in the following years. This is because it often requires several years of benefits to 

recoup the initial investment and generate positive returns. During the program, 

AmeriCorps members gain the experience, skills, and knowledge that result in future 

benefits, such as improved employment and wages, which can be sustained 

throughout their working years. 

In the medium-term scenario, all stakeholder groups realized a combined return of 

$3.13 for every $1 invested by the federal government in the B&B HV program. 

Moreover, for every $1 invested in the B&B HV program from all funders, $1.44 is returned 

to both society and government combined. For every $1 invested by the federal 

government, the federal government alone receives a return of $0.62. 

For the long-term scenario, the ROI for total benefits per federal dollar, total benefits 

per funder dollar, and federal government benefits per federal dollar were $4.58, $2.11, 

and $0.99, respectively. 

The magnitude and direction of the ROI calculations are driven by several factors: 

• Reduction in the Number of Children Abused or Neglected. According to the 

findings from LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. (2017), the analysis estimated there 

would be a 29 percent reduction in the number of children who would 

experience future abuse or neglect because of the B&B HV program. 

Considering 19 percent of these children had a substantiated CPS allegation 

prior to their mothers’ participation in the B&B HV program, this results in an 

additional 11 children not being victims of child abuse or neglect post-program. 

This increase in child maltreatment prevention concurrently drives increased 

lifetime earnings for these children as well as reduced lifetime government costs 

related to healthcare, child welfare, criminal justice, and special education. 

• Medium- and long-term accumulation of benefits. In the short-term, two of the 

ROI calculations result in losses because only one year of B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members’ post-program employment and earnings gains are factored in while 

the entire program cost is considered. Additionally, the short-term scenario does 

not include any lifetime benefits in terms of additional earnings, increased tax 

revenue, or reduced spending on corrections/criminal justice, public assistance, 

special education, child welfare, or social insurance that stem from the impacts 

of B&B HV AmeriCorps members and the children of B&B HV program 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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participants. As these benefits accumulate over time, the analysis shows positive 

returns. This is indicated by the ROI results in the medium- and long-term 

scenarios (15 years, and 30 years post-program, respectively). 

• The employment outcomes of B&B HV AmeriCorps members. According to 

Friedman et al. (2016), the percentage of AmeriCorps members unemployed 

was 5 percentage points lower six months after serving in AmeriCorps versus six 

months before. This gain in employment results in increased earnings and 

tax revenue. 

• The educational attainment outcomes of B&B HV AmeriCorps members. 

AmeriCorps State and National members receive an education award after 

serving in an AmeriCorps program; the award is used by a portion of members to 

help pay for post-secondary degrees post-service. The additional educational 

attainment resulting from the use of the education award generates additional 

lifetime earnings for B&B HV AmeriCorps members and additional lifetime tax 

revenue and savings for government. 

Government funding serves as a catalyst for private funding of evidence-based social 

services programs. For the ROI calculations of 1) total benefits per federal dollar and 

2) total benefits per funder dollar, AmeriCorps’s requirement of match funding also 

contributed to the magnitude of outcomes. Federal government funding of the B&B HV 

program serves as a catalyst for other funding, specifically that from state and local 

governments. This additional funding—amounting to about $720,000 for the B&B HV 

program for the most recent program year—allowed the B&B HV program to serve 

more parents and families than otherwise would have been served under the federal 

funding alone. Though it may not impact the ROI, because it is a per unit metric, match 

funding leads to greater investment in the B&B HV program and thus to a greater 

impact as more individuals and families are served. 

Recommendations for Further Research 

Future ROI studies for national and community service programs, such as the B&B HV 

program, can be strengthened in several ways. 

Recommendation 1: Determine the persistence of short- and long-term impacts for 

program participants and AmeriCorps members. The persistence of impacts, such as 

earnings or employment, is often not measured in evaluations because they require 

long-term tracking. Although a scenario-based approach that accounts for variations 

in the persistence of impacts can be used, as was completed in this ROI analysis, 

rigorous research on the long-term impact of programming will enable AmeriCorps to 

determine a single value for ROI calculations and avoid relying on the scenario-based 

approach. For example, Friedman et al. (2016) reported the unemployment status of 

AmeriCorps member alumni six months before, six months after, and during the summer 

of 2016. The authors indicate that data for the latter timepoint was collected anywhere 

from three to eleven years after service completion depending on the AmeriCorps 

member alumni cohort (i.e., 2005, 2010, or 2013). Thus, instead of collecting outcome 

measures at a time that varies by AmeriCorps member or program participant, studies 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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should track outcomes of interest at the same intervals, multiple times after program or 

service completion, to provide greater insight into the duration and consistency 

of benefits. 

Recommendation 2: Document outcomes using third-party data Sources. Using thirdparty data, along with or in place of self-reported data, can also improve the accuracy 

of program outcome measurements. While self-reported data are easier to obtain— 

especially via the use of survey instruments—it has several disadvantages. Some 

answers may be exaggerated, respondents may not answer honestly, and response 

biases could affect results. AmeriCorps programs should—where possible—leverage 

data from third-party sources either to provide data for their program evaluation or to 

corroborate findings from self-reported data. For example, if employment and earnings 

outcomes are of interest, unemployment insurance (UI) data—which are submitted by 

employers—could be used to verify members’ wages or employment status postservice. Additionally, if degree completion data are of interest, such as in the case of 

this ROI analysis, data from the National Student Clearinghouse (NSC) could be used to 

verify what portion B&B HV AmeriCorps members pursued higher education and which 

degrees were completed post-program, with the help of the education award. Were 

degree or employment outcomes data from third-party data sources (like NSC) 

available, those data may make more precise ROI estimates possible. 

Recommendation 3: Quantify ripple effects. Earnings impacts on program participants 

and AmeriCorps members likely have positive benefits for those individuals’ families and 

surrounding communities. Rigorous research on those potential ripple effects would 

enable AmeriCorps to capture a broader array of benefits of this and other programs, 

which would be expected to result in an increased ROI. Specifically, the longitudinal 

impacts on program participants could be collected alongside the ripple effects their 

outcomes have on their families and communities to determine how long these indirect 

impacts are sustained after program participation or completion. For instance, studying 

how B&B HV program participation impacts parents’ employment status, educational 

attainment, substance or alcohol use, as well as mental and physical health would 

result in a more comprehensive ROI estimate. 

Conclusion 

Based upon these findings, investment in the B&B HV program results in favorable 

impacts under the medium- and long-term scenarios when society and government 

benefits are both included. Specifically, impacts are realized by the following 

stakeholder groups in this ROI analysis: B&B HV AmeriCorps members, the children of 

B&B HV program participants, and the various levels of government. 

The ROI results indicate that the benefits realized across all stakeholder groups outweigh 

the investment made by the federal government for all ROI scenarios. Specifically, the 

combined return to society and government per federal dollar is $1.10 under the 

short-term scenario, $3.13 under the medium-term scenario and $4.58 under the 

long-term scenario. 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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When all funding (from the federal government and other funders) is considered, every 

$1 in funding results in a return of $1.44 under the medium-term scenario and $2.11 

under the long-term scenario. 

Lastly, when considering the ROI to the federal government alone, the short, mediumand long-term scenario results are $0.10, $0.62 and $0.99, in return for every dollar 

invested, respectively. 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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Appendix A: Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits, and Program Costs Included 

in Return on Investment Calculations 

In Table 11, the three columns on the right indicate by an “X” if the Program benefits, forgone benefits (opportunity cost), 

or program cost is included in the numerator or denominator of a return on investment (ROI) calculation. 

Table 11. Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits, and Program Costs Included in ROI Calculations 

Federal 

Total Benefits Total Benefits Government 

per Federal per Funder Benefits per 

Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits, and Program Cost Dollar Dollar Federal Dollar 

Program Benefits Stakeholder Group Data Sources X indicates inclusion in the ROI numerator 

Additional lifetime Children of B&B • CAPC 

earnings from HV program • LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. 

increased participants (2017) 

educational 

attainment of the 

children of B&B HV 

• Dakil SR, Sakai C, Lin H, Flores G. 

(2011) 

• Diette et al. (2017) X X — 

program 

participants as a 

result of child 

maltreatment 

prevention 

• Trostel (2015) 

• Consumer Price Index (CPI; 

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 

n.d.) 

Additional earnings B&B HV • CAPC 

of B&B HV AmeriCorps • Friedman et al. (2016) 

AmeriCorps members • Current Population Survey Annual 

members from 

reduced 

Social and Economic 

Supplement (ASEC; U.S. Census X X — 

unemployment Bureau, n.d.) 

• CPI (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, n.d.) 
33 

 

 

 

 

 

Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

Federal 

Total Benefits Total Benefits Government 

per Federal per Funder Benefits per 

Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits, and Program Cost Dollar Dollar Federal Dollar 

Increased income Federal and state • CAPC 

tax revenue due to governments • Friedman et al. (2016) 

additional earnings • ASEC (U.S. Census Bureau, n.d.) 

of B&B HV • CPI (U.S. Bureau of Labor X X X 

AmeriCorps Statistics, n.d.) 

members • Tax rate data on 

Taxfoundation.org (2019 & 2020) 

Increased Social Federal • CAPC 

Security and government • Friedman et al. (2016) 

Medicare tax • ASEC (U.S. Census Bureau, n.d.) 

revenue due to 

additional earnings 

• CPI (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, n.d.) X X X 

of B&B HV • Social Security Administration 

AmeriCorps (SSA) (2020) 

members 

Increased sales tax State and local • CAPC 

revenue due to governments • Friedman et al. (2016) 

additional earnings • ASEC (U.S. Census Bureau, n.d.) 

of B&B HV • CPI (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

AmeriCorps 

members 

Statistics, n.d.) 

• Tax rate data on 

Taxfoundation.org (2020) 

• Consumer Expenditure Survey 

(CEX) (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, 2021) 

X X — 
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Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

Federal 

Total Benefits Total Benefits Government 

per Federal per Funder Benefits per 

Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits, and Program Cost Dollar Dollar Federal Dollar 

Increased lifetime B&B HV • CAPC 

earnings due to AmeriCorps • AmeriCorps (n.d.) 

increased members • NCES (2019) 

educational 

attainment of B&B 

• NCES (2020) 

• Trostel (2015) X X — 

HV AmeriCorps • CPI (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

members as a result Statistics, n.d.) 

of education awards 

Increased lifetime Federal, state, and • CAPC 

tax revenue due to local governments • AmeriCorps (n.d.) 

increased • NCES (2019) 

educational 

attainment of B&B 

• NCES (2020) 

• Trostel (2015) X X X 

HV AmeriCorps • CPI (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

members as a result Statistics, n.d.) 

of education awards 

Reduced spending 

on lifetime public 

assistance, 

corrections, and 

social insurance due 

to increased 

educational 

attainment of B&B 

HV AmeriCorps 

members as a result 

of education awards 

Federal, state, and 

local governments 

• CAPC 

• AmeriCorps (n.d.) 

• NCES (2019) 

• NCES (2020) 

• Trostel (2015) 

• CPI (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, n.d.) 

X X X 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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Federal 

Total Benefits Total Benefits Government 

per Federal per Funder Benefits per 

Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits, and Program Cost Dollar Dollar Federal Dollar 

Increased tax Federal, state, and • CAPC 

revenue from living local governments • Friedman et al. (2016) 

allowances and 

education awards 

• AmeriCorps (n.d.) 

• Tax rate data on 

Taxfoundation.org (2019 & 2020) 

• SSA (2020) 

X X X 

Post-tax living B&B HV • CAPC 

allowances and AmeriCorps • Friedman et al. (2016) 

education awards members • AmeriCorps (n.d.) 

• Tax rate data on 

Taxfoundation.org (2019 & 2020) 

• SSA (2020) 

X X — 

Lifetime cost savings Federal, state, and • CAPC 

in healthcare, child local governments • LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. 

welfare, criminal (2017) 

justice, and special • Dakil SR, Sakai C, Lin H, Flores G. 

education as a result (2011) 

of child 

maltreatment 

• Peterson et al. (2018) 

• Fang et al. (2012) X X X 

prevention • Hyland (2015) 

• Chicago Public Schools (n.d.) 

• Devooght et al. (2008) 

• CPI (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, n.d.) 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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Federal 

Total Benefits Total Benefits Government 

per Federal per Funder Benefits per 

Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits, and Program Cost Dollar Dollar Federal Dollar 

Lifetime tax revenue Federal, state, and • CAPC 

from increased local governments • LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. 

educational (2017) 

attainment by the 

children of B&B HV • Dakil SR, Sakai C, Lin H, Flores G. 

(2011) X X X 

program 

participants as a 

result of child 

maltreatment 

prevention 

• Diette et al. (2017) 

• Trostel (2015) 

• CPI (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, n.d.) 

Forgone Benefits 

(Opportunity Costs)* Stakeholder Group Data Sources X indicates inclusion in the ROI numerator 

Professional B&B HV • CAPC 

opportunity cost of AmeriCorps • ASEC (U.S. Census Bureau, n.d.) 

forgone market 

wages for B&B HV 

members • CPI (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Statistics, n.d.) X X — 

AmeriCorps 

members 

Professional Federal • CAPC 

opportunity cost of government • ASEC (U.S. Census Bureau, n.d.) 

federal income, • CPI (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

Social Security, and Statistics, n.d.) 

Medicare taxes on • Tax rate data on X X X 

forgone market Taxfoundation.org (2019) 

wages for B&B HV • Social Security Administration 

AmeriCorps (2020) 

members 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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Federal 

Total Benefits Total Benefits Government 

per Federal per Funder Benefits per 

Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits, and Program Cost Dollar Dollar Federal Dollar 

Professional State and local • CAPC 

opportunity cost of governments • ASEC (U.S. Census Bureau, n.d.) 

state income and • CPI (U.S. Bureau of Labor 

sales taxes on 

forgone market 

Statistics, n.d.) 

• CEX (U.S. Bureau of Labor X X — 

wages for B&B HV Statistics, 2021) 

AmeriCorps • Tax rate data on 

members Taxfoundation.org (2020) 

Investment All funders • CAPC 

opportunity cost of • Office of Management and 

investing total B&B 

HV program funding 

Budget (OMB) (2020) 

• U.S. Department of Treasury X X — 

in U.S. Treasury 

bonds 

Investment 

opportunity cost of 

investing only 

federal B&B HV 

program funding in 

U.S. Treasury bonds 

Federal 

government 

• CAPC 

• OMB (2020) 

• U.S. Department of Treasury — — X 

Program Cost Payer Data Sources X indicates inclusion in the ROI denominator 

AmeriCorps grant 

costs (excluding 

education awards 

provided to B&B HV 

AmeriCorps 

members) 

Federal 

government 

(AmeriCorps) 

• CAPC 

X X X 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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Program Benefits, Forgone Benefits, and Program Cost 

Total Benefits 

per Federal 

Dollar 

Total Benefits 

per Funder 

Dollar 

Federal 

Government 

Benefits per 

Federal Dollar 

B&B HV AmeriCorps 

member expected 

education awards 

Federal 

government 

(AmeriCorps) 

• AmeriCorps (n.d.) 

• CAPC 

• Friedman et al. (2016) 

X X X 

State and local 

government funding 

State and local 

governments 

• CAPC — X — 

*Forgone benefits (opportunity costs) are amounts that are reduced from total benefits realized across ROI calculations. Thus, they represent a 

negative value in the numerator. Please see the Calculating ROI section of Appendix B for further details. 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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Appendix B: Additional Information on the Methodology 

This appendix provides additional details on the methodology used for this study, as a 

supplement to the methodology section in the main report. It describes the steps used 

to calculate the return on investment (ROI), the results of interim calculations that 

contribute to the ROI calculations, and assumptions that underlie the analysis. 

Methodology Overview 

Calculating the ROI for the B&B HV program included the following steps: 

• Measuring and monetizing program benefits to the children of B&B HV program 

participants, B&B HV AmeriCorps members, and the different levels of 

government 

• Estimating forgone benefits (opportunity costs) 

• Assessing program costs 

• Calculating the ROI 

This ROI analysis included only those benefits that could be reasonably monetized given 

the available data, and that likely would not have occurred without the B&B 

HV program. 

Although B&B HV AmeriCorps members experience positive benefits from the B&B HV 

program in terms of increased employment and earnings (described below), available 

data do not establish how long these specific impacts are sustained over time. To 

address a range of possible durations for those benefits, three scenarios were 

developed for this ROI study: 

• Short-term. This scenario assumes short-term earnings impacts. The assumption is 

that earnings impacts are limited to a single year after program exit. This scenario 

also assumes no lifetime benefits are realized. 

• Medium-term. This scenario assumes a longer duration of earnings impacts. The 

assumption is that earnings impacts last 15 years. A 3 percent discount rate is 

applied each year to represent net present value in 2020 dollars.20 This scenario 

also assumes only half of the net present value of lifetime benefits is realized. 

• Long-term. This scenario assumes sustained earnings impacts throughout B&B HV 

AmeriCorps members’ working years. The assumption is that earnings impacts 

last 30 years. A 3 percent discount rate is applied each year to represent net 

present value in 2020 dollars. This scenario also assumes the entire net present 

value of lifetime benefits is realized. 

20 The Office of Management and Budget (1992) defines a discount rate as, “The interest rate used in 

calculating the present value of expected yearly benefits and costs” (p. 18). Regarding the 3 percent 

discount rate, see Office of Management and Budget (2003). 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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There are some differences between the three scenarios. One is the length of time that 

increased employment—and earnings associated with that employment—are 

sustained. The other is what portion of lifetime benefits, when applicable, are realized.21 

For each ROI calculation, three estimates using the three scenarios were developed, 

which is shown in greater detail in the Calculating ROI section. 

Measuring Program Benefits 

The first step in calculating the ROI for the B&B HV program is to measure and monetize 

the program benefits. The children of B&B HV program participants, B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members, and various levels of government benefit from the B&B HV program. These 

benefits were identified through an extensive literature review and data collection 

process. The methods used to measure benefits for each of these stakeholder groups 

are described below. 

Benefits to the Children of B&B HV Program Participants 

Results from LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. (2017) indicated that B&B HV program 

participants were 29 percent less likely to have subsequent substantiated CPS referrals. 

Dakil SR, Sakai C, Lin H, Flores G. (2011) indicated baseline recidivism for substantiated 

referrals to be 47%. The analysis used these outcomes to estimate the following: 

• Number of additional children not abused or neglected 

• Number of additional high school graduates due to child maltreatment 

prevention 

• Additional lifetime earnings due to additional high school graduates 

Number of Additional Children Not Abused or Neglected 

Findings from Pollack (2016) indicate that a substantiated CPS referral signifies a 

confirmed case of child abuse or neglect. Given this and the outcome from LPC 

Consulting Associates, Inc. (2017), the B&B HV program participants’ children have a 

lower probability of experiencing future abuse or neglect. Moreover, children who do 

not have substantiated CPS allegations prior to their parents’ participation in the B&B 

HV program (i.e., are not abused or neglected pre-program) have a decreased 

probability of ever becoming a victim of abuse or neglect. 

21 These three scenarios consider varying durations of how long increased employment and earnings 

benefits last for B&B HV AmeriCorps members. They also consider varying durations for lifetime benefits that 

stem from the B&B HV program. For example, lifetime benefits in terms of decreased public assistance, 

social insurance, and corrections costs result from B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ higher educational 

attainment post-service. The analysis estimates lifetime benefits differently in the three scenarios. 

Specifically, the net present value of the entire lifetime benefit is realized for the long-term scenario, half of 

the net present value of the lifetime benefit is realized for the medium-term scenario, and no lifetime 

benefit amount is realized for the short-term scenario. 
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To estimate the additional number of children not abused or neglected due to the B&B 

HV program, the analysis first determined the number of parents who participated in 

the B&B HV program during the most recent program year, had prior CPS involvement 

within six months of the program’s start date, and had children aged 0 to 5. These same 

criteria aligned with those used to determine the study sample in LPC Consulting 

Associates, Inc. (2017). CAPC did not have these data available. However, they 

provided the number of children aged 0 to 5 whose parent participated in the B&B HV 

program during the 2019–2020 program year and had prior CPS involvement within six 

months of the program’s start date (i.e., 68 children). Given this, the analysis assumed 

that each B&B HV program participant would have 1.49 children. This was informed by 

data from Applied Survey Research (2019) in which during fiscal year 2018–2019, 

1,515 parents participated in the B&B HV program and they had 2,258 children in total. 

Dividing the number of children provided by CAPC by 1.49 estimated the number of 

parents who had CPS involvement within six months from the start of the B&B HV 

program, had children aged 0 to 5, and participated in the B&B HV program during the 

most recent program year (i.e., 46). Thus, the analysis estimated there were 46 parents 

who had children aged 0 to 5, who had prior CPS involvement, and participated in the 

B&B HV program during the most recent program year. These assumptions were used to 

align with the parent B&B HV program participant CPS recidivism outcome from LPC 

Consulting Associates, Inc. (2017) compared to the baseline from Dakil SR, Sakai C, Lin 

H, Flores G. (2011). 

The analysis then multiplied the estimated number of parents participating in the B&B 

HV program by 29 percent—the CPS recidivism outcome from LPC Consulting 

Associates, Inc. (2017) and then incorporated the baseline recidivism rate of 47% (from 

Dakil SR, Sakai C, Lin H, Flores G. (2011)—to estimate the additional number of parents 

who would not be perpetrators of future child abuse or neglect due to participating in 

the B&B HV program. Assuming parents had 1.49 children, this in turn conservatively 

estimated that 7.5 additional children would not experience future abuse or neglect 

due to their mothers’ participation in the B&B HV program. ICF also received CAPC 

data that indicated 13 of the 68 children (i.e., 19.1 percent) had a substantiated CPS 

allegation prior to the start of the B&B HV program. Namely, 19.1 percent of the children 

were confirmed to be victims of child abuse or neglect pre-program. The analysis 

removed this portion of the child population to estimate the number of children who will 

not be victims of child abuse or neglect due to their mothers’ participation in the B&B 

HV program (i.e., 11). This was done to align with the subsequent data sources used to 

monetize benefits related to preventing child maltreatment. These calculations and 

results are presented in Table 12. 
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Table 12. Number of Additional Children Not Abused or Neglected Due to their Mothers’ 

Participation in the B&B HV Program 

Row Component Value* 

A Children 68 

B Parents (68/1.49) 45.64 

C Anticipated recidivists w/o B&B (45.64*.47) 21.45 

D Prevented from being recidivists (21.45*.29) 6.22 

E Kids of prevented recidivists (6.22*1.49) 9.27 

F Those never abused (due to B&B HV program) = 9.27*80.9 7.50 

Sources: CAPC, Applied Survey Research (2019), LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. (2017), and Dakil SR, Sakai 

C, Lin H, Flores G. (2011) 

Number of Additional High School Graduates due to Child Maltreatment Prevention 

According to Diette et al. (2017), males and females who were victims of home 

violence as youth had higher high school dropout rates compared to their peers who 

were never victims to home violence. Home violence was defined by the authors as 

either being badly beaten by parents or other caregivers, or witnessing serious fights at 

home. According to Child Welfare Information Gateway (2019), both definitionally 

constitute child abuse or neglect. The male and female high school dropout rate 

differentials for those who experienced child abuse or neglect during their youth 

according to Diette et al. (2017) were 4.6 and 6.8 percent, respectively. Given the 

analysis estimated the number of additional children not abused or neglected due to 

their parents’ participation in the B&B HV program, these high school dropout rate 

differentials in turn represent high school graduate rate differentials. Thus, for boys and 

girls whose mothers participated in the B&B HV program and were estimated not to be 

perpetrators of child abuse or neglect, their high school graduation rates were 4.6 and 

6.8 percentage points higher, respectively. 

To use these findings, the analysis first leveraged the gender distribution of the children 

aged 0 to 5 whose parent participated in the B&B HV program during the 2019–2020 

program year and prior CPS involvement within six months of the program’s start date 

as provided by CAPC. Their data indicated 60 percent and 40 percent of those 

children were boys and girls, respectively. The analysis then applied these percentages 

to the number of additional children not abused or neglected due to the B&B HV 

program (i.e., 7.5). Then the analysis applied the high school graduation rate 

differentials from Diette et al. (2017) to calculate the number of additional high school 

graduates—by gender—due to the B&B HV program. These calculations are shown in 

Table 13. 
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- - -

Additional 

High School 

Graduates 

Additional 

Pre tax Lifetime 

Earnings Per 

High School 

Graduate 

(2020$) 

Additional 

Lifetime Taxes 

Paid Per High 

School Graduate 

(2020$) 

Additional 

Post tax Lifetime 

Earnings Per 

High School 

Graduate 

(2020$) 

Total Post tax 

Lifetime Earnings 

Due to the B&B 

HV Program 

(2020$) 

0.41 $225,510 $104,256 $121,254 $49,714 

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Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

Table 13. Number of Additional High School Graduates due to Child Maltreatment 

Prevention* 

Gender 

Additional Total 

Children Not 

Abused or 

Neglected Due to 

the B&B HV Program 

Gender 

Distribution 

(%) 

Additional Children 

Not Abused or 

Neglected Due to 

the B&B HV 

Program 

High 

School 

Graduation 

Rate 

Differentials 

(%) 

Additional 

High 

School 

Graduates 

Boys 7.5 60.0% 4.5 4.6% 0.21 

Girls 7.5 40.0% 3.0 6.8% 0.20 

Total 100.0% 7.5 0.41 

Sources: CAPC, Applied Survey Research (2019), LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. (2017), Dakil SR, Sakai C, 

Lin H, Flores G. (2011), and Diette et al. (2017) 

*Numbers may not total due to rounding. 

Additional Lifetime Earnings Due to Additional High School Graduates 

The additional 0.41 children graduating high school experience an increase in their 

earnings potential. Trostel (2015) calculated the difference in additional lifetime pre-tax 

earnings and lifetime taxes paid from one level of education to the next. Specifically, 

Trostel (2015) included these metrics for someone with less than a high school 

education and for someone who graduated high school. Table 14 lists the additional 

lifetime pre-tax earnings and taxes paid for someone that graduated high school 

compared to someone without a high school diploma in the second and third columns, 

respectively, in 2020 dollars. To calculate the direct benefit to the children of B&B HV 

program participants, the analysis subtracted the lifetime taxes paid from the pre-tax 

lifetime earnings to estimate the additional post-tax lifetime earnings per high school 

graduate (shown in the fourth column of Table 14). The analysis then multiplied this 

value by the 0.41 additional high school graduates calculated earlier to estimate the 

total lifetime additional earnings realized by these children that are attributable to their 

mothers’ participation in the B&B HV program. This totals to roughly $49,714 in additional 

lifetime earnings as shown in Table 14. 

Table 14. Additional Lifetime Earnings Due to Additional High School Graduates* 

Sources: CAPC, LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. (2017), Dakil SR, Sakai C, Lin H, Flores G. (2011), Diette et al. 

(2017), CPI, and Trostel (2015) 

*Numbers may not total due to rounding. 
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Benefits to B&B HV AmeriCorps Members 

The B&B HV AmeriCorps members who provide services as part of the B&B HV program 

experience benefits due to their national service. This analysis estimated the 

following benefits: 

• Living allowance and education award 

• Increased earnings due to reduced unemployment 

• Increased lifetime earnings due to increased post-secondary education derived 

from the use of education awards 

Living Allowance and Education Award 

Living allowances are given to AmeriCorps members during their one-year service term 

to pay for various living expenses—such as housing and groceries—and it sometimes 

includes members’ worker’s compensation and health insurance when applicable. 

Regarding education awards, according to Friedman et al. (2016), a significant portion 

(i.e., 46 percent) of AmeriCorps State and National member alumni use them to pay for 

additional post-secondary education at colleges, graduate schools, and 

technical/vocational schools, while others (i.e., 33 percent) use them to pay off 

outstanding student loans. The remaining 21 percent do not use their 

education awards. 

Both the living allowances and education awards (considered one-time benefits that 

are not discounted or spread over time) are taxable and represent member benefits. 

However, only the portion of education awards used by members to pay off existing 

student loans is considered a direct member benefit. The portion that is utilized to 

pursue further post-secondary education is only used in calculating members’ 

additional lifetime earnings due to the increased educational attainment they 

experience post-service from using the education award. This is done to avoid double 

counting. This analysis included the post-tax values of the living allowance and the 

portion of the education award used to repay student loans as B&B HV AmeriCorps 

member benefits which are listed in Table 15. The portion of the education award used 

to fund additional post-secondary education is discussed in the following section. 

Table 15. B&B HV AmeriCorps Member Benefits from the Living Allowance and 

Education Award 

Benefit Post tax Value (2020$) Notes 

Living Allowance $758,288 Post-tax living allowances members 

receive during service 

Education Award Used 

to Pay Off Student Loans 

Total 

$62,645 

$820,933 

Post-tax education award amount used 

to pay off outstanding student loans 

Sources: CAPC and Friedman et al. (2016) 
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Increased Earnings due to Reduced Unemployment 

According to Friedman et al. (2016), the percentage of AmeriCorps members 

unemployed was 5 percentage points lower six months after serving in AmeriCorps 

compared to six months before. The study did not provide actual employment rates for 

AmeriCorps members pre- and post-service, but instead provided the unemployment 

rates shown in Figure 2 (17 percent vs. 12 percent) in which the change between them 

represents a 5-percentage-point decrease. 

Figure 2. Unemployment Status Results from Friedman et al. (2016)22 

0 20 40 60 80 100 

Percent of AmeriCorps Alumni 

Currently 

Six Months After AmeriCorps 

Six Months Before AmeriCorps 

Seeking work, providing caregiving, 

or occupied outside of the workforce 

17 

12 

12 

Source: Friedman et al. (2016) 

A direct member benefit from being employed post-service is additional income 

earned. To monetize this five percentage-point decrease in unemployment, ICF 

requested that CAPC provide the gender, age, pre-service educational attainment, 

and race/ethnicity distribution of AmeriCorps members who served with the B&B HV 

program for the most recent program year. Based on those demographics, the analysis 

used annual average earnings data from the Current Population Survey’s Annual Social 

and Economic (ASEC) Supplement for March 2019 to estimate B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members’ additional earnings due to the reduced unemployment. 

Specifically, the analysis used ASEC data to calculate the per-person pre-tax average 

annual earnings for 18 to 34-year-olds weighted by the demographic distribution of B&B 

HV AmeriCorps members that served during the 2019-2020 program year. This value 

expressed in 2020 dollars was $35,687 as shown in Table 16. The analysis then multiplied 

the 5-percentage-point decrease in unemployment from Friedman et al. (2016) by the 

number of B&B HV AmeriCorps member full-time equivalents (FTEs) that served during 

the most recent program year (i.e., 37.5). This estimated the number of additional B&B 

HV AmeriCorps member FTEs employed due to national service (i.e., 2). To estimate the 

additional pre-tax earnings that stemmed from the reduced unemployment, the 

$35,687 annual earnings amount was multiplied by the additional number of B&B HV 

22 “Currently” refers to the summer 2016 survey. Respondents were from the 2005, 2010, and 2013 

AmeriCorps cohorts, so respondents varied in how much time had elapsed since their AmeriCorps service. 
46 

 

Metric 

Value 

(2020$)* 

Average Per-person Pre-tax Annual Earnings of Employed 18 to 34-year-olds 

Weighted by B&B HV AmeriCorps Member Demographics (e.g., gender, 

race/ethnicity, and pre-service education level) 

$35,687 

Reduction in AmeriCorps Members’ Unemployment 5% 

B&B HV AmeriCorps Member FTEs 37.5 

Cumulative Additional Pre-tax Earnings $66,912 

Cumulative Additional Post-tax Earnings $55,036 

 

 

 

 

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Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

AmeriCorps members employed post-service. This represents the additional income 

earned by B&B HV AmeriCorps members due to serving with the B&B HV program. 

Table 16. Additional Pre-tax Earnings for B&B HV AmeriCorps Members from Reduced 

Unemployment Based on B&B HV AmeriCorps Member Demographics 

Sources: CAPC, Friedman et al. (2016), CPI, and ASEC (2019) 

*Numbers may not total due to rounding. 

To avoid double counting, the additional post-tax earnings is used to calculate the 

direct benefit to B&B HV AmeriCorps members, rather than the additional pre-tax 

earnings. The post-tax annual earnings for the additional 2 B&B HV AmeriCorps member 

FTEs employed in Table 16 excludes payroll taxes (e.g., federal and state income, Social 

Security, and Medicare). The payroll tax rates used are described in more detail in the 

Benefits to Government section. 

Based on these calculations, the cumulative additional post-tax earnings for B&B HV 

AmeriCorps members for the three different scenarios—discounted in 2020 dollars using 

data from Office of Management and Budget (2003)—are shown in Table 17. These 

monetary amounts represent the additional post-tax earnings realized due to the 

employment gain that is solely attributed to the B&B HV program. 

Table 17. Cumulative Additional Post-tax Earnings Derived from Reduced 

Unemployment due to Serving with the B&B HV Program by Scenario 

Scenario 

Cumulative Additional Post tax Earnings 

due to Serving with the B&B HV Program (2020$) 

Short-term $55,036 

Medium-term $672,810 

Long-term $1,098,868 

Sources: CAPC, Friedman et al. (2016), ASEC (2019), and OMB (2003) 
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Increased Lifetime Earnings due to Increased Post-secondary Education Derived 

from the Use of Education Awards 

The AmeriCorps education award pays for 

some portion of members’ increased 

post-secondary educational attainment, 

and the future earnings derived from that 

educational attainment is treated as a 

direct benefit to B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members. To calculate the portion of 

members’ increased educational 

attainment that is attributable to the B&B 

HV program, this analysis used cost data 

from the National Center for Education 

Statistics (NCES). Table 18 details the 

average total cost for each degree type, 

and the portion of the cost that the posttax education award amount (i.e., $5,234) 

represents ($6,15523 before taxes). The 

analysis used these percentages to 

estimate the lifetime benefits of postsecondary educational attainment that 

can be attributed to the education award. 

For instance, according to NCES (2020), 

the average annual cost of a public, 

in-state, four-year academic institution 

during the 2019 to 2020 academic year 

was $20,532. This amounts to almost 

$83,000 for four years if expressed in 2020 dollars. The $5,234 post-tax education award 

only represents 6.3 percent of the cost of that degree, so the B&B HV program could 

only be credited with 6.3 percent of the completion of B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ 

bachelor’s degree post-service. 

For additional earnings derived from 

B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ 

reduced unemployment, they were 

calculated annually and then 

discounted based on the short-term, 

medium-term, and long-term 

scenarios in net present 2020 dollars. 

For additional earnings derived from 

B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ 

increased post-secondary 

educational attainment—due to using 

education awards—Trostel (2015) did 

not provide data on how earnings 

accrue over time. Therefore, this 

analysis treated the increases in 

earnings as lifetime values expressed in 

2020 dollars. The analysis assumed 

100 percent of those lifetime earnings 

accrued by year 30 (i.e., in the longterm scenario), 50 percent accrued 

by year 15 (i.e., in the medium-term 

scenario), and nothing accrued one 

year post-program (i.e., in the shortterm scenario). 

23 This analysis used the 2020 to 2021 AmeriCorps education award amount ($6,345) but discounts it to net 

present 2020 dollars using the Consumer Price Index. For more information about this education award, 

please see https://americorps.gov/members-volunteers/segal-americorps-education-award/find-out-more. 
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Table 18. Average Total Cost of Education and Portion Attributable to Education Award 

by Degree Type 

Degree Type24 Average Cost (2020$)* 

Percent of Degree Total Cost 

Covered by Post tax Education Award 

(%) 

Associate Degree $11,979 43.7% 

Bachelor’s Degree $82,949 6.3% 

Graduate Degree $39,401 13.3% 

Sources: AmeriCorps (n.d.), CPI, NCES (2019), and NCES (2020) 

*Costs were provided for the 2019 to 2020 academic year by NCES (2020) for associate degree and 

bachelor’s degree types. Graduate degree type data for the 2018 to 2019 academic year was provided 

by NCES (2019). These costs are expressed in 2020 dollars since the post-tax education award amounts are 

in 2020 dollars. 

To determine the future lifetime earnings (and later, the associated lifetime taxes, which 

are described in the Benefits to Government section) realized due to the use of the 

education award post-service, the analysis first determined the number of additional 

post-secondary degrees estimated to be completed by degree type. The 37.5 B&B HV 

AmeriCorps member FTEs who served during the 2019–2020 program year were 

distributed by the education award use findings listed in Friedman et al. (2016) across 

the degree types. Specifically, Friedman et al. (2016) reported 46 percent of 

AmeriCorps State and National member alumni used their education award to pursue 

post-secondary degrees after program completion. This makes the number of B&B HV 

AmeriCorps member FTEs expected to use the education award to pursue additional 

post-secondary education roughly equal to 17. Specifically, Friedman et al. (2016) 

indicated that the 46 percent is comprised of 2 percent using the education award to 

attend a technical or vocational training program, 21 percent using it to obtain a 

bachelor’s degree, and 23 percent using it for graduate school.25 This results in the 

number of B&B HV AmeriCorps members estimated to pursue an associate degree, 

a bachelor’s degree, and a graduate degree post-service to be roughly 1, 8, and 9, 

respectively, due to using the education award. These values are shown in Table 19. 

24 Costs for an associate degree include tuition, required fees, books, and supplies for a public, in-state, 

2-year program; costs for a bachelor’s degree include tuition, required fees, books, supplies, and 

on-campus housing for a public, in-state, 4-year program; costs for a graduate degree includes tuition and 

required fees for a public, in-state, 2-year graduate program. 

25 This analysis considers the use of the education award to attend a technical or vocational training 

program from Friedman et al. (2016) to be synonymous with using it to pursue an associate degree. 
49 

 

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Degree Type 

Total B&B HV 

AmeriCorps 

Member FTE Count 

Percent Estimated to 

Pursue Post secondary 

Education According to 

Friedman et al. (2016) (%) 

Number of 

Degrees Pursued 

Using the 

Education 

Award* 

Associate Degree 37.5 2% 0.8 

Bachelor’s Degree 37.5 21% 7.9 

Graduate Degree 37.5 23% 8.6 

All Degrees — 46% 17.3 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Table 19. Estimates of the Number of Post-secondary Degrees Pursued Using the 

Education Award by Degree Type 

Sources: AmeriCorps (n.d.), CPI, CAPC, Friedman et al. (2016), NCES (2020), and NCES (2019) 

*Numbers may not total due to rounding. 

Next, the difference in the additional lifetime pre-tax earnings from one degree type to 

the subsequent degree type was estimated using data provided by Trostel (2015), 

which is shown in the fifth column of Table 20 and expressed in 2020 dollars.26 For 

instance, using Trostel (2015) data, the lifetime earnings in 2020 dollars of someone with 

an associate degree is about $875,000, while that of someone with a bachelor’s degree 

is almost $1.3 million. The difference between these two metrics (roughly $417,000 as 

show in Table 20) represents the additional lifetime earnings realized as a result of 

gaining a bachelor’s degree if an associate degree was already completed. This 

process was completed for all post-secondary degree types to conservatively estimate 

the additional lifetime earnings realized by B&B HV AmeriCorps members due to an 

increase in post-secondary educational attainment. Trostel (2015) also included data 

on lifetime taxes paid which was converted to 2020 dollars and then used to estimate 

the post-tax lifetime earnings that would be realized per additional post-secondary 

degree received. Specifically, the lifetime taxes paid amounts were subtracted from 

the pre-tax additional lifetime earnings amounts to estimate the additional post-tax 

lifetime earnings, a direct benefit to B&B HV AmeriCorps members. 

26 For an associate degree, comparisons were made between metrics for a high school diploma and those 

for an associate degree. For a bachelor’s degree, comparisons made were between metrics for an 

associate degree and those of a bachelor’s degree. For a graduate degree, comparisons made were 

between metrics for a bachelor’s degree and those of a master’s degree. 
50 

 

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— — — —

Degree 

Type 

Number 

of 

Degrees 

Pursued 

Using the 

Education 

Award 

Percent 

of Degree 

Total Cost 

Covered 

by 

Post tax 

Education 

Award 

(%) 

Number 

of 

Degrees 

Obtained 

With 

Using the 

Education 

Award 

Additional 

Pre tax 

Lifetime 

Earnings 

per 

Degree 

Type 

(2020$) 

Additional 

Lifetime 

Taxes 

Paid per 

Degree 

Type 

(2020$) 

Additional 

Post tax 

Lifetime 

Earnings 

per 

Degree 

Type 

(2020$) 

Total 

Post tax 

Lifetime 

Earnings 

Using the 

Education 

Award 

Associate 

Degree 0.8 43.7% 0.3 $271,036 $120,490 $150,546 $49,336 

Bachelor’s 

Degree 7.9 6.3% 0.5 $416,996 $201,594 $215,402 $107,036 

Graduate 

Degree 8.6 13.3% 1.1 $461,413 $174,460 $286,953 $328,778 

Total 17.3 2.0 $485,151 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Table 20. Additional Earnings from AmeriCorps Members’ Use of the Education Award* 

Sources: AmeriCorps (n.d.), CPI, CAPC, Friedman et al. (2016), NCES (2020), NCES (2019), and Trostel (2015) 

*Numbers may not sum due to rounding. 

To isolate the increase in additional lifetime earnings specific to members using the 

education award, the number of B&B HV AmeriCorps members who used the 

education award for this purpose by degree type was reduced by the percent of the 

degree cost that can be covered by the $5,234 post-tax education award received 

post-service, displayed in the third column of Table 20. As a result, the analysis 

estimated that the use of the education award among B&B HV AmeriCorps members 

produced roughly 1 additional associate degree, 1 additional bachelor’s degree, and 

1 additional graduate degree post-service. Then, the number of additional degrees 

obtained was applied to the 2020 additional post-tax lifetime earnings by degree type. 

This calculates the additional lifetime post-tax earnings realized by B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members from their increase in post-secondary educational attainment that is credited 

to the use of the education award post-service. The total additional lifetime post-tax 

earnings amount was roughly $485,000 across B&B HV AmeriCorps members. Of note, 

these lifetime earnings are in addition to the earnings derived from B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members’ gains in employment as delineated in the previous section. To reiterate, the 

earnings from B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ reduced unemployment differs 

depending on the scenario (i.e., short-term, medium-term, and long-term) since it is 

uncertain how long these earnings will persist. For the post-tax lifetime earnings—and all 

lifetime benefits in this ROI analysis—the entire amount is realized in the long-term, half 

of it is realized in the medium-term, and no amount is realized in the short-term. 
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Benefits to Government 

State and Local Government 

State and local government benefits from: 

• Additional state income tax revenue from B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ 

increased earnings due to reduced unemployment 

• Additional lifetime state and local taxes due to B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ 

increased post-secondary educational attainment27 

• Additional lifetime state and local taxes due to B&B HV program participants’ 

children’s increased secondary educational attainment28 

• Additional state and local taxes from the living allowance and education award 

received by these members 

• Additional state and local sales tax revenue from B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ 

increased consumption due to reduced unemployment 

• Reduced lifetime spending on social insurance and corrections29 due to B&B HV 

AmeriCorps members’ increased post-secondary educational attainment 

• Reduced lifetime spending on long-term healthcare, child welfare, criminal 

justice, and special education due to child maltreatment prevention 

27 This benefit was calculated using lifetime tax revenue data from Trostel (2015). These values summed 

lifetime state income taxes, lifetime property taxes, and lifetime sales taxes by education level. 

28 Ibid. 

29 Reduced spending on public assistance due to B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ increased post-secondary 

educational attainment is included as a federal government benefit, not a state and local government 

benefit. This is because public assistance includes programs funded at the federal-level (e.g., TANF, etc.). 
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State income tax revenue: To measure 

For additional tax revenue derived from income tax revenue generation that B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ reduced stems from reduced unemployment for unemployment, living allowances, and state governments (any local income education awards, they were calculated taxes are not included), the additional using tax rates specific to each per- pre-tax earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps person monetary amount. members that are solely attributed to 

the B&B HV program are taxed by a For additional tax revenue derived from 

weighted, estimated proportional state B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ increased 

post-secondary educational income tax rate. This tax rate considers 

attainment—due to using education state-specific progressive tax brackets awards—as well as from B&B HV program and standard deduction amounts. 

participants’ children’s increased Based on the taxable income, the secondary educational attainment, analysis estimated the proportional Trostel (2015) did not provide specific tax state income tax for each state as the rates. Therefore, this analysis treated the amount of state income taxes paid per increases in tax revenue as lifetime 

B&B HV AmeriCorps member divided values expressed in 2020 dollars. The by their pre-tax earnings. This analysis analysis assumed 100 percent of those then calculated the weighted average lifetime tax revenues accrued by year 30 

of these state-specific tax rates—using (i.e., in the long-term scenario), 50 

these states’ population from the percent accrued by year 15 (i.e., in the 

5-year estimates of the 2019 American medium-term scenario), and nothing 

Community Survey—to estimate a accrued one year post-program (i.e., in 

weighted national tax rate the short-term scenario). 

(i.e., 2.8 percent). A weighted national 

tax rate was used because B&B HV AmeriCorps members may disperse to various 

locations nationwide following their service terms and continue to migrate over the 

course of their working years. 

Lifetime state income tax revenue values are also provided by Trostel (2015) by 

education level. Based on 1) the number of post-secondary degrees estimated to be 

obtained due to the use of the education award received after serving with the B&B HV 

program and 2) the number of additional high school diplomas obtained by children 

whose mothers participated in the B&B HV program, additional lifetime state income 

taxes are realized. Thus, the additional lifetime state income taxes paid values— 

informed by data from Trostel (2015)—were first converted to 2020 dollars. The analysis 

then multiplied them by 1) the inferred number of degrees obtained with using the 

education award (which are listed in the fourth column of Table 20) and 2) the number 

of additional high school diplomas obtained due to child maltreatment prevention 

(which are listed in the sixth column of Table 13), separately. 
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State governments also receive state income taxes from the education awards B&B HV 

AmeriCorps members receive post-service. The analysis estimated the pre-tax 

education award amount in 2020 dollars (i.e., $6,155).30 Then the analysis multiplied it by 

the number of B&B HV AmeriCorps member FTEs expected to redeem the award and 

use it to pursue post-secondary education or to repay outstanding student loans based 

on findings from Friedman et al. (2016). The result represents the pre-tax cumulative 

education award amount expected to be received by B&B HV AmeriCorps members. 

The portion of this value taxed by state income taxes was estimated using a weighted 

state income tax rate specific to the per-person education award amount. 

Additionally, state income taxes were estimated for the living allowance amount 

received by B&B HV AmeriCorps members during their service term using tax rates 

specific to the per-person value. The different rates used for these member benefits are 

enumerated in Table 24. 

State and local sales tax revenue: To measure sales tax revenue generation for state 

and local governments that stems from reduced unemployment, a weighted state and 

local sales tax rate was applied to the amount of B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ 

cumulative additional post-tax earnings that are available to be spent on taxable 

goods. To establish a weighted state and local sales tax, this analysis first summed the 

state sales tax rate and the average local sales tax rate for each state using data from 

Cammenga (2020). Then using 2019 data from the American Community Survey 

(U.S. Census Bureau, n.d.), these state-level combined state and local sales tax rates 

were weighted based on the population of each state. The resulting weighted average 

sales tax rate used in this analysis was 7.43 percent. 

To estimate the additional post-tax earnings as a result of reduced unemployment that 

was spent on taxable goods, data from the Consumer Expenditure Survey (U.S. Bureau 

of Labor Statistics, 2021) were used. These data show the amount of spending on a 

number of different goods and services by national consumers across several different 

pre-tax income brackets.31 The proportion of earnings that is spent on taxable goods 

(such as alcoholic beverages, housekeeping supplies, apparel, etc.) was then 

calculated for consumers with incomes that matched the per-person average pre-tax 

earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps members. This value was 44.9 percent. This proportion 

was then applied to B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ cumulative additional post-tax 

earnings to calculate the post-tax monetary amount they spend on taxable goods. 

Then the sales tax rate (i.e., 7.43 percent) was applied to estimate the resulting sales tax 

30 This analysis used the 2020 to 2021 AmeriCorps education award amount ($6,345) but discounts it to net 

present 2020 dollars using the Consumer Price Index. For more information about this education award, 

please see https://americorps.gov/members-volunteers/segal-americorps-education-award/find-out-more. 

31 To calculate the estimated taxable expenditures, Consumer Expenditure Survey (CEX) Table 1203 was 

used from U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2021). This table lists the annual expenditure means by pre-tax 

income tax brackets. Thus, the pre-tax earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps members were used instead of their 

post-tax earnings to calculate this metric. Please visit this site for more details: 

https://www.bls.gov/cex/tables/calendar-year/mean-item-share-average-standard-error.htm#cu-income. 
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revenues that go to state and local governments due to B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ 

reduced unemployment post-service. 

Trostel (2015) also provides additional lifetime state and local sales tax values by 

education level. Using these values, the analysis calculated the additional sales tax 

revenue realized by state and local governments 1) as a result of B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members using their education award to achieve higher post-secondary educational 

attainment post-service and 2) as a result of the children of B&B HV program 

participants completing their secondary education due to child maltreatment 

prevention. These values represent a direct benefit to state and local governments in 

the form of increased tax revenue. 

State and local government cost savings: State and local governments also benefit 

from the B&B HV program through lifetime savings in social insurance and corrections— 

as reported in Trostel (2015)—due to the increase in B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ 

post-secondary educational attainment after program exit. Of note, social insurance 

includes unemployment insurance and workers’ compensation. To calculate these 

lifetime non-federal government savings, the analysis first calculated the decrease in 

social insurance and corrections costs (and thus savings) from one education level to 

the subsequent education level using data from Trostel (2015) and then multiplied these 

monetary amounts by the number of additional post-secondary degrees estimated to 

be obtained due to the use of the education awards. 

To determine what portion of this differential represents lifetime cost savings to state or 

local governments versus the federal government, a different method was employed 

for each of these cost savings areas. For social insurance, 50 percent of lifetime 

unemployment insurance cost savings and all the lifetime cost savings for workers’ 

compensation are apportioned to state and local governments (Oswald, 2018). 

Regarding reductions in lifetime corrections spending, the portion between the federal 

and state or local governments was determined based on data from Hyland (2015). 

Specifically, this report found that 8.4 percent of U.S. correction costs is paid by the 

federal government and the remaining 91.6 percent is paid by state and local 

governments. Therefore, almost 92 percent of the lifetime cost savings in corrections 

due to B&B HV AmeriCorps members experiencing an increase in post-secondary 

educational attainment post-service are allocated to state and local governments. 

State and local governments also realize benefits in the form of lifetime cost savings due 

to child maltreatment prevention that stems from the B&B HV program. Peterson et al. 

(2018) estimated the lifetime costs borne by the various levels of government due to 

nonfatal child maltreatment. The study authors calculated the lifetime economic cost 

per victim of child abuse, augmenting the results previously published in Fang et al. 

(2012), and segmented estimates across the following cost categories: short-term 

healthcare, long-term healthcare, child welfare, criminal justice, and special 

education. These lifetime cost values are presented in Table 21 in 2020 dollars. 
55 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cost Category Lifetime Cost Estimate per Victim of Child Abuse (2020$) 

Short-term healthcare $37,975 

Long-term healthcare $12,248 

Child welfare $9,071 

Criminal justice $7,920 

Special education $9,388 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Table 21. Per-Victim Lifetime Cost and Economic Burden of Nonfatal Child Maltreatment 

Estimates 

Sources: Peterson et al. (2018) and CPI 

Short-term healthcare costs represent incremental medical costs attributable to child 

maltreatment during childhood. Long-term healthcare costs represent physical and 

mental health costs incurred during adulthood due to experiencing child abuse earlier 

on. According to Peterson et al. (2018), the short-term healthcare costs are measured 

using Medicaid claims data while the long-term healthcare costs are estimated using 

medical cost data from study participants enrolled in a non-federal healthcare plan. 

Child welfare costs were estimated using data from the Administration of Children and 

Families and include costs related to child welfare activities such as case management 

and investigating allegations of child abuse through CPS. Criminal justice costs 

represent administrative and processing expenditures related to juvenile and adult 

arrests for individuals who had substantiated cases of child maltreatment. Special 

education costs include those related to providing special education services for 

maltreated children beyond regular classroom instruction. For more detail regarding the 

definitions, data sources, and comprehensive methods used to calculate these 

estimates in Table 21, reference Fang et al. (2012) and Peterson et al. (2018). 

To estimate government cost savings, this analysis multiplied the lifetime costs by the 

number of additional children who were not abused or neglected because of their 

parents’ participation in the B&B HV program. The analysis first used third-party sources 

to determine which portion of the per-victim lifetime costs listed in Table 21 were 

realized by the federal government versus state and local governments. This 

segmentation is presented in the first column of Table 22. The segmentation was 

determined based on the specific studies and data sources Peterson et al. (2018) and 

Fang et al. (2012) used to estimate these per-victim lifetime costs. Since short-term 

healthcare costs are estimated using Medicaid claims data, all associated cost savings 

are apportioned only to the federal government. Given that long-term healthcare costs 

are estimated using findings from Bonomi et al. (2008), whose study participants were 

enrolled in a non-federal healthcare plan, associated cost savings are apportioned 

only to state and local governments. The segmentation for cost savings related to child 

welfare, criminal justice, and special education were determined by exploring the data 

and methodologies presented and used in DeVooght et al. (2008), Hyland (2015), and 

Chicago Public Schools. (n.d.), respectively. Specifically, DeVooght et al. (2008) 

provided the segmentation of child welfare funds by level of government, Hyland 

(2015) provided the segmentation of direct expenditures for the criminal justice system 
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— —

Cost Savings Category 

(Percent Distribution) 

Lifetime Cost 

Estimate per 

Victim of Child 

Abuse (2020$) 

Additional 

Children Not 

Abused or 

Neglected Due 

to the B&B HV 

Program 

Total Lifetime 

Cost Savings 

Short-term Healthcare $37,975 $284,813 

Federal Government (100%) $37,975 7.5 $284,813 

State and Local Governments (0%) $- 7.5 $-

Long-term Healthcare $12,248 $91,860 

Federal Government (0%) $- 7.5 $-

State and Local Governments (100%) $12,248 7.5 $91,860 

Child Welfare $9,071 $68,033 

Federal Government (48%) $4,377 7.5 $32,828 

State and Local Governments (52%) $4,694 7.5 $35,205 

Criminal Justice $7,920 $59,400 

Federal Government (18%) $1,402 7.5 $10,515 

State and Local Governments (82%) $6,518 7.5 $48,885 

Special Education $9,388 $70,418 

Federal Government (12%) $1,089 7.5 $8,168 

State and Local Governments (88%) $8,300 7.5 $62,250 

Total $574,524 

 

 

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by level of government, and Chicago Public Schools (n.d.), provided the segmentation 

of general operating funds for Chicago Public Schools for fiscal year 2020 by funding 

source. The latter was used because Fang et al. (2012) used data from Chicago Public 

Schools to calculate per-child special education costs. Thus, based on the results in 

Table 22, due to child maltreatment prevention derived from the B&B HV program, 

state and local governments realize almost $340,000 in total lifetime cost savings. 

Table 22. Lifetime Cost Savings Due to Child Maltreatment Prevention* 

Sources: Peterson et al. (2018), Fang et al. (2012), CPI, CPAC, LPC Consulting Associates, Inc. (2017), 

DeVooght et al. (2008), Hyland (2015), and Chicago Public Schools. (n.d.) 

*Numbers may not sum due to rounding. 

Federal Government 

The federal government benefits from: 

• Additional federal income, Social Security, and Medicare tax revenue from B&B 

HV AmeriCorps members’ increased earnings due to reduced unemployment 

• Additional federal income, Social Security, and Medicare taxes from the living 

allowance and education award received by these members 
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• Additional lifetime federal taxes due to B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ increased 

post-secondary educational attainment 

• Additional lifetime federal taxes due to B&B HV program participants’ children’s 

increased secondary educational attainment 

• Reduced lifetime spending on public assistance, social insurance, and 

corrections due to B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ increased post-secondary 

educational attainment 

• Reduced lifetime spending on short-term healthcare, child welfare, criminal 

justice, and special education due to child maltreatment prevention 

Federal income tax revenue: To measure federal income tax revenue that stems from 

reduced unemployment, the additional pre-tax earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members that are solely attributed to the B&B HV program—as well as the pre-tax living 

allowance and education award amounts received by B&B HV AmeriCorps members— 

are taxed by a federal income tax rate. The rates used are estimated proportional tax 

rates that consider the standard deductions and progressive tax brackets specific to 

federal income taxes as provided by El-Sibaie (2019). To reiterate, an estimated 

proportional tax rate equals the total amount of taxes estimated to be paid divided by 

the pre-tax amount of the value to be taxed (e.g., per-person average pre-tax 

earnings). The specific federal income tax rates used for these different benefits are 

enumerated in Table 24. Of note, different tax rates were used because they were 

specific to the per-person pre-tax earnings, living allowance, and education 

award amounts. 

For the additional lifetime earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps members that is based on 

their increase in post-secondary educational attainment—fueled by the use of the 

education award—as well as for the additional lifetime earnings of the children of B&B 

HV program participants based on their increase in secondary educational attainment, 

Trostel (2015) provides additional lifetime federal income tax values. These values are 

used to calculate the additional income tax revenue realized by the federal 

government due to members’ post-secondary education gains and B&B HV program 

participants’ children’s secondary education gains. 

Social Security and Medicare tax revenue: Social Security and Medicare tax revenue 

are measured as fiscal gains as a result of the additional pre-tax earnings of B&B HV 

AmeriCorps members from their reduced unemployment and as a result of the pre-tax 

living allowances and education awards amounts received by members. However, tax 

rates specific to each revenue source are used. Social Security and Medicare use flat 

tax rates, 6.2 percent and 1.45 percent, respectively; thus, these rates are applied to 

the additional pre-tax earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps members to calculate the 

additional amount of revenue the federal government receives. These same rates are 

also applied to the living allowance and education award amounts received by B&B 

HV AmeriCorps members to calculate additional tax revenue. 

Moreover, lifetime Social Security tax values are provided by Trostel (2015) by education 

level. The analysis used these values to estimate the additional lifetime Social Security 

tax revenue realized by the federal government 1) as a result of B&B HV AmeriCorps 
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members using their education award to complete different post-secondary education 

degree types post-service and 2) as a result of the children of B&B HV program 

participants obtaining a high school diploma due to child maltreatment prevention. 

Federal government cost savings: The federal government realizes cost savings in public 

assistance, social insurance, and corrections due to the increased post-secondary 

educational attainment of B&B HV AmeriCorps members after program exit. 

Specifically, the number of additional post-secondary degrees estimated to be earned 

by B&B HV AmeriCorps members post-service as well as data from Trostel (2015) were 

used to estimate the federal government portion of lifetime cost savings on social 

insurance (which is comprised of worker’s compensation and unemployment 

insurance, as noted earlier), public assistance (e.g., SNAP, Medicaid, TANF, etc.), 

and corrections. 

Table 23 shows the lifetime costs to the federal versus the state and local governments 

for each of these areas—where applicable—by education level in 2012 dollars as 

presented in Trostel (2015). The differences in these lifetime costs from one education 

level to the next represent cost savings per degree obtained. 

Table 23. Government Costs by Educational Attainment Level per Individual’s Lifetime* 

Source of 

Government 

Saving 

High School 

Diploma (2012$) 

Associate 

Degree (2012$) 

Bachelor’s 

Degree (2012$) 

Graduate 

Degree (2012$) 

Public Assistance $54,155 $31,803 $14,480 $9,394 

Social Insurance $9,584 $8,209 $5,863 $4,732 

Federal $3,964 $3,570 $2,660 $2,090 

State/Local $5,620 $4,639 $3,204 $2,643 

Corrections $8,488 $4,055 $1,190 $725 

Federal $713 $341 $100 $61 

State/Local $7,775 $3,714 $1,090 $664 

Sources: Trostel (2015) 

*Numbers may not sum due to rounding. 

As mentioned earlier in this appendix, as a result of the B&B HV program, the analysis 

estimated an additional 17 B&B HV AmeriCorps members would redeem the education 

award to pursue additional post-secondary education. Based on the portion of degree 

costs covered by the post-tax education award, this analysis calculated that an 

additional associate degree, bachelor’s degree, and graduate degree would be 

obtained due to the B&B HV program. To conservatively calculate the federal 

government’s lifetime savings associated with these education gains, the differences 

between the public assistance, federal social insurance, and federal corrections 

lifetime costs for these education levels and those that precede them are calculated 
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and then expressed in 2020 dollars. These values are then multiplied by the number of 

additional post-secondary degrees estimated to be obtained—where appropriate—to 

represent the total cost savings realized by the federal government due to the B&B HV 

program. As previously mentioned where discussing the state and local governments’ 

allocation of the reduction in lifetime social insurance and corrections expenditures, the 

federal government receives 50 percent of the lifetime cost savings in unemployment 

insurance (part of social insurance; Oswald, 2018), and more than 8 percent of the 

lifetime cost savings in corrections (Hyland, 2015). These federal government savings are 

shown in Table 25. 

The federal government also realizes lifetime cost savings from child maltreatment 

prevention that stems from the B&B HV program. The methodology used to calculate 

these lifetime benefits—that are specific to long-term healthcare, child welfare, criminal 

justice, and special education—are described in the previous State and Local 

Government section. Specifically, this analysis estimated that the federal government 

realizes $336,324 in lifetime cost savings which are attributable to the B&B HV program. 

Table 24 shows the tax rates applied to B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ additional pretax and post-tax earnings (derived from reduced unemployment), depending on the 

type of revenue being calculated. It also enumerates the tax rates used for the pre-tax 

living allowance and education award amounts received by B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members during their service term or upon service completion, respectively. 

Table 24. 2020 Tax Rates and Ratio of Taxable Expenditures for B&B HV AmeriCorps 

Members’ Earnings, Living Allowances, and Education Awards 

Rate for 

Additional Rate for Living 

Earnings & Allowance & 

Education Education 

Metric Award* (%) Award** (%) Notes 

Estimated 7.28% 4.91% • Tax rates are used which consider the 

Proportional progressive tax brackets and standard 

Federal deductions specific to federal income 

Income Tax taxes. 

• These rates are dependent on and 

applied to the pre-tax value of each 

metric being taxed. 

Estimated 2.82% 2.40% • Tax rates are used which consider the 

Proportional progressive tax brackets and standard 

State deductions specific to each state’s 

Income Tax income taxes. Each state’s tax rate is 

weighted based on the state’s 

population and summed to estimate a 

weighted national average. 

• These rates are dependent on and 

applied to the pre-tax value of each 

metric being taxed. 
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Rate for 

Additional Rate for Living 

Earnings & Allowance & 

Education Education 

Metric Award* (%) Award** (%) Notes 

Social 6.20% 6.20% • Social Security tax rate for employees 

Security Tax and employers. 

• These rates are applied to the pre-tax 

value of each metric being taxed. 

Medicare 1.45% 1.45% • Medicare tax rate for employees and 

Tax employers. 

• These rates are applied to the pre-tax 

value of each metric being taxed. 

Sales Tax 7.43%; N/A to 

the 

Education 

Award 

7.43%; N/A to the 

Education Award 

• The combined state and average local 

tax rate for each state was summed 

and weighted based on states’ 

population to calculate a national 

weighted average sales tax rate. 

• The rate is applied to the additional 

post-tax earnings of members as well 

as their post-tax living allowance 

amount. 

Ratio of 44.9%; N/A to 53.1%; N/A to the • Percent of post-tax earnings spent on 

Taxable the Education Award taxable goods and services that is used 

Expenditures Education to calculate sales tax from post-tax 

per National Award earnings. 

Consumer • Ratio is dependent on the pre-tax 

value of members’ additional earnings 

or the pre-tax living allowance amount. 

*These rates are only used for the portion of the education award used to repay outstanding student loans. 

**These rates are only used for the portion of the education award used for additional schooling. 

Sources: Cammenga (2020), Social Security Administration (2020), Consumer Expenditures Survey (U.S. 

Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021), and El-Sibaie (2019) 

Summary of Benefits to Government 

Table 25 shows the amount of tax revenue generated and savings in expenditures for 

state and local versus federal government that are solely credited to the B&B HV 

program and calculated using the methods described above. These government 

revenue and savings amounts are benefits that are included in the three ROI 

calculations and they are derived from B&B HV program impacts. 
61 

 

Benefit (2020$)* 

Benefit Type Short term - Medium term - Long term -

State/Local Government Benefits $59,690 $274,224 $475,784 

State Income Tax Revenue from 

Education Awards and Living 

Allowances** 

$26,058 $26,058 $26,058 

State and Local Sales Tax Revenue from 

Living Allowances $29,908 $29,908 $29,908 

State Income Tax Revenue from 

Employment $1,889 $23,091 $37,713 

State and Local

Employment 

 Sales Tax Revenue from $1,835 $22,438 $36,647 

State Income, Sales, and Property Taxes 

from Post-secondary Educational 

Attainment (Lifetime) 

 $- $34,473 $68,946 

State Income, Sales, and Property Taxes 

from Secondary Educational Attainment 

(Lifetime) 

 $- $16,516 $33,032 

Savings in Reduced Social Insurance and 

Corrections Spending from Postsecondary Educational Attainment 

(Lifetime) 

 $- $2,640 $5,280 

Savings in Reduced Healthcare, Child 

Welfare, Criminal Justice, and Special 

Education Spending from Child 

Maltreatment Prevention (Lifetime) 

 $- $119,100 $238,200 

Federal Government Benefits $146,690 $609,767 $1,038,050 

Federal Income Tax Revenue Education 

Awards and Living Allowances** $54,543 $54,543 $54,543 

Social Security and Medicare Tax 

Revenue from Education Awards and 

Living Allowances** 

$82,160 $82,160 $82,160 

Federal Income Tax Revenue from 

Employment $4,869 $59,523 $97,215 

Social Security and Medicare Tax 

Revenue from Employment $5,119 $62,577 $102,204 

Federal Income and Social Security Tax 

Revenue from Post-secondary 

Educational Attainment (Lifetime) 

 $- $135,302 $270,604 

Federal Income and Social Security Tax 

Revenue from Secondary Educational 

Attainment (Lifetime) 

 $- $34,695 $69,390 

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Table 25. State/Local and Federal Government Benefits by Stakeholder Group and by 

Scenario 
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Benefit Type Short term 

Benefit (2020$)* 

Medium term Long term 

Savings in Reduced Social Insurance, 

Corrections, and Public Assistance 

Spending from Post-secondary 

Educational Attainment (Lifetime) 

$- $12,805 $25,610 

Savings in Reduced Healthcare, Child 

Welfare, Criminal Justice, and Special 

Education Spending from Child 

Maltreatment Prevention (Lifetime) 

$- $168,162 $336,324 

Total $206,380 $883,991 $1,513,834 

*Numbers may not sum due to rounding. 

**Living allowances and education awards are one-time taxable payments. The resulting tax revenue does 

not vary by scenario. 

Measuring Forgone Benefits (Opportunity Costs) 

The analysis included two types of forgone benefits, referred to opportunity costs, into 

each of the three ROI calculations to conservatively estimate the return of the B&B HV 

program: forgone benefits from a professional opportunity cost to B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members and forgone benefits from an investment opportunity cost to funders. Each of 

these forgone benefit (opportunity cost) types is subtracted from the total program 

benefits—that stem from the B&B HV program—to calculate net benefits. Net benefits 

are then compared to the program cost to calculate each ROI. The methodologies 

used to calculate these two forgone benefits (opportunity costs) are described below. 

Forgone Benefits from Professional Opportunity Cost to B&B HV AmeriCorps Members 

There is a professional opportunity cost to B&B HV AmeriCorps members for their period 

of national service, during which they could have otherwise been working. This includes 

both the forgone earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps members for their service term and 

the forgone taxes associated with those lost earnings. To calculate this, the analysis first 

used the demographic distribution of B&B HV AmeriCorps members for the 2019–2020 

program year—in terms of gender, age, race/ethnicity, and pre-service education 

level—and ASEC data to estimate the weighted unemployment rate for this population 

(i.e., 4.2 percent). This represents how many of these B&B HV AmeriCorps members 

would have been unemployed if they did not serve with the B&B HV program. Using the 

weighted unemployment rate and the number of B&B HV AmeriCorps member FTEs 

that served during the 2019–2020 program year (i.e., 37.5), the analysis estimated the 

number of members that would have been employed without serving with the B&B HV 

program based on their demographic characteristics (i.e., 2). Then the analysis 

multiplied this value by the weighted post-tax annual earnings. This is derived from the 

pre-tax annual earnings listed in Table 16. The methodology used to calculate this latter 

monetary amount is described in the previous Increased Earnings due to Reduced 

Unemployment section. The post-tax amount subtracts out all applicable payroll taxes 

(e.g., federal income, state income, Medicare, and Social Security). The product of 

multiplying 2 by the weighted post-tax annual earnings represents what B&B HV 
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AmeriCorps members would have earned in total if they did not serve with the B&B HV 

program. Separately, the analysis then multiplied the number of B&B HV AmeriCorps 

member FTEs that served by the amount they earned during their national service in the 

form of a post-tax living allowance (i.e., $20,221 per person). This represents the 

aggregate amount B&B HV AmeriCorps members earned during their service term. The 

difference between what they would have earned if they did not serve and what they 

did earn because they served equals the total post-tax earnings forgone due to serving 

with the B&B HV program. These values and the formula used to calculate the forgone 

post-tax earnings are shown in Table 26. 

Table 26. Forgone Earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps Members for a Service Term 

Row Component Value* Source 

A B&B HV AmeriCorps Member FTEs 37.5 CAPC 

B Weighted Unemployment Rate (%) 4.2% ASEC (2019) & CAPC 

C Weighted Post-tax Annual Earnings per 

Person (2020$) $29,352 ASEC (2019), CPI, & CAPC 

D Post-Tax Living Allowance per Person $20,221 CAPC 

E Total Post-Tax Earnings Forgone (2020$) $296,719 [A x (1- B) x C] – (A x D) 

*Numbers may not total due to rounding. 

The second portion of this professional opportunity cost was the forgone taxes 

associated with the earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps members lost for this year of 

service. Federal income, state income, Social Security, and Medicare taxes specific to 

the per-person weighted pre-tax earnings amount were calculated. Specifically, the 

estimated proportional federal and state income tax rates used were 7.3 and 

2.8 percent, respectively. The analysis also estimated the sales taxes lost based on the 

per-person post-tax earnings forgone by the B&B HV AmeriCorps members. Using data 

from the Consumer Expenditure Survey (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2021), the 

analysis estimated that based on the per-person weighted pre-tax earnings of B&B HV 

AmeriCorps members (i.e., $35,687), 44.9 percent of their income would have been 

spent on taxable goods, opposed to 53.1 percent of the living allowance. Then the 

weighted combined state and local sales tax rate (i.e., 7.43 percent)—used earlier in 

this analysis to calculate government benefits—was applied to the difference in 

expected spending on taxable goods to represent the resulting sales tax revenue lost 

due to individuals serving with the B&B HV program instead of working for higher pay. 

The totals for these taxes are listed in Table 27. 
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Table 27. Forgone Taxes Associated with the Forgone Earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps 

Members for a Service Term* 

Forgone Taxes 

Taxes without 

Service Term 

(2020$) 

Taxes Realized 

from Living 

Allowance 

(2020$) 

Net Taxes 

Forgone 

(2020$) 

Federal Forgone Taxes (i.e., Federal 

Professional Opportunity Cost) $191,460 $111,998 $79,461 

Federal Income Taxes $93,335 $43,787 $49,548 

Social Security and Medicare Taxes $98,125 $68,211 $29,913 

Non-Federal Forgone Taxes $71,392 $51,272 $20,120 

State Income Taxes $36,208 $21,364 $14,844 

Sales Taxes $35,184 $29,908 $5,276 

Total Taxes $262,851 $163,271 $99,581 

*Numbers may not sum due to rounding. 

For the federal government benefits per federal dollar ROI calculation, only federal 

government (not total) benefits are included. Because of this, only federal components 

of the professional opportunity cost are subtracted from all federal government 

benefits—realized due to the B&B HV program—in this ROI calculation. The parts of the 

professional opportunity cost subtracted from these total federal government benefits 

include the forgone net federal income taxes (i.e., $49,548) and the net forgone Social 

Security and Medicare taxes (i.e., $29,913). The sum of these two values is called the 

federal professional opportunity cost. The sum of all the values listed in Table 27 and the 

forgone post-tax earnings of B&B HV AmeriCorps members is called the total 

professional opportunity cost. These naming conventions are referenced in the 

Calculating ROI section. 

Forgone Benefits from the Investment Opportunity Cost to Funders 

The investment opportunity cost estimates the expected forgone return if funds used to 

support the activities and positions of B&B HV AmeriCorps members during the most 

recent program year were invested in U.S. Treasury bonds instead. An investment 

opportunity cost is calculated for two different funding streams: 1) all B&B HV program 

funding for the 2019–2020 program year and 2) only federal funding for the same 

program year. This is done because two of the three ROI calculations only have federal 

(not total) program costs included. Thus, for 1) the federal government benefits per 

federal dollar and 2) the total benefits per federal dollar ROI calculations, the 

investment opportunity cost subtracted from the benefits in these calculations is the 

forgone accrued interest from investing only the federal funds into these U.S. Treasury 

bonds. For the other ROI calculation, the investment opportunity cost subtracted from 

the benefits realized is the forgone accrued interest from investing all B&B HV program 

funds (both federal and non-federal) into these U.S. Treasury bonds. Therefore, the 

analysis estimated forgone accrued interests across all three scenarios when 1) all B&B 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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HV program funds and 2) only federal B&B HV program funds are invested in 

U.S. Treasury bonds. 

To calculate these forgone accrued interest values, the analysis first matched 2019 real 

interest rates provided by the Office of Management and Budget (2020) to each of the 

scenarios included in this ROI analysis. The analysis used 2019 real interest rates for U.S. 

Treasury bonds because the B&B HV program year analyzed began in 2019. The real 

interest rate for the 3-year maturity was used for the short-term scenario, the average 

between the 10-year and 20-year maturity rates was used as the rate for the mediumterm scenario, and the 30-year maturity rate was used for the long-term scenario. These 

real interest rates were 1.3, 1.45, and 1.5 percent, respectively. Also, the number of 

years elapsed on these U.S. Treasury bonds was equal to the number of years the 

different scenarios assumed B&B HV AmeriCorps members’ employment and earnings 

gains were sustained. These values are one year, 15 years, and 30 years for the short-, 

medium-, and long-term scenarios, respectively. Given that U.S. Treasury bonds 

compound bi-annually according the U.S. Department of Treasury, the formula used to 

calculate the forgone accrued interest for each of the three scenarios for the two 

funding streams is listed in Figure 3, where A equals the forgone accrued interest 

(e.g., the investment opportunity cost), P equals the amount of one of the funding 

streams, r equals the 2019 real interest rate, and t equals the number of years elapsed. 

Figure 3. Compound Interest Formula Used to Calculate Investment Opportunity Cost 

tt∗2

AA = PP �1 + 2

rr

� − PP

Based on this formula, the forgone benefits from the investment opportunity cost 

calculated by scenario and funding stream are listed in Table 28, along with their 

associated inputs. The forgone accrued interest amounts for all funding are called the 

total investment opportunity costs while that for federal funding only are called the 

federal investment opportunity costs. These naming conventions are referenced in the 

Calculating ROI section. 
66 

 

 

- - -

Metric 

Short term Medium term Long term 

All 

Funding 

Federal 

Funding 

Only All Funding 

Federal 

Funding 

Only All Funding 

Federal 

Funding 

Only 

Real 

Interest 

Rate 

1.30% 1.45% 1.50% 

Years 

Elapsed 1 15 30 

Funding 

Amount $1,337,219 $614,444 $1,337,219 $614,444 $1,337,219 $614,444 

Forgone 

Return 

(Accrued 

Interest) 

$17,440 $8,014 $323,594 $148,690 $756,439 $347,579 

 

 

Return on Investment Study: 

Birth & Beyond Home Visitation Program 

Table 28. Forgone Benefits from Investment Opportunity Cost Calculation by Scenario 

and Funding Stream 

Measuring Program Costs 

Table 29 shows the costs of the B&B HV program by funding source. AmeriCorps 

contributions covered nearly half of the program’s annual operating costs given that it 

supplies the AmeriCorps State and National grant as well as the expected education 

awards received by B&B HV AmeriCorps members. Other non-AmeriCorps funders 

(i.e., state and local governments) matched 118 percent of AmeriCorps’s contribution 

for the most recently completed program year. That matched amount represented 

54 percent of total B&B HV program funding for the year. 
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Return on Investment Study: 

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Table 29. Funding Sources and Amounts for the B&B HV Program (2019–2020)* 

Funding Source Amount ($) Percent of Total (%) 

AmeriCorps Grant $432,113 32.3% 

Living Allowance $273,328 20.4% 

Worker’s Compensation $5,467 0.4% 

FICA $20,910 1.6% 

Other $132,408 9.9% 

State/Local Governments (i.e., Match Funding) $722,775 54.1% 

Healthcare $11,578 0.9% 

Living Allowance $618,322 46.2% 

Worker’s Compensation $12,366 0.9% 

FICA $47,302 3.5% 

Other $33,207 2.5% 

Expected Education Awards $182,332 13.6% 

Total $1,337,219 100.0% 

Source: CAPC 

*Numbers may not sum due to rounding. 

Calculating ROI 

To complete the three ROI calculations for the B&B HV program, the sum of applicable 

program benefits is reduced by the forgone benefits, or the professional and investment 

opportunity costs (where appropriate) and then compared to the cost of the program. 

As described previously, these three ROI calculations are calculated for each of the 

three scenarios: short-term, medium-term, and long-term. 

Since two of the calculations include benefits to society (e.g., B&B HV AmeriCorps 

members, children of B&B HV program participants, etc.), the results are expressed as 

cost–benefit ratios, while maintaining the ROI terminology. Specifically, these ratios take 

the form of the sum of monetized benefits over the sum of applicable program costs. 

The ROIs expressed as cost–benefit ratios in this study can be interpreted as the amount 

of dollars returned for every $1 of investment (or program cost).32 

32 ROIs can be expressed in percentages or as ratios, such as in this study. Although not shown as a ratio in 

the results, the ROIs in this study show the amount of return for every $1 invested. 
68 

 

 

 

Return on Investment Study: 

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The formulas used to calculate each of the three ROIs are shown below:33 

(Benefits to Non-government Stakeholders + Benefits to Government) – 

(Forgone Benefits from Total Professional Opportunity Cost + Forgone Benefits 

from Federal Investment Opportunity Cost) 

(AmeriCorps Federal Funding) 

(Benefits to Non-government Stakeholders + Benefits to Government) – 

(Forgone Benefits from Total Professional Opportunity Cost + Forgone Benefits 

from Total Investment Opportunity Cost) 

(AmeriCorps Federal Funding + Non-federal Match Funding) 

(Benefits to the Federal Government) – (Forgone Benefits from Federal 

Federal Professional Opportunity Cost + Forgone Benefits from Federal Investment 

Government Opportunity Cost) 

= Benefits per 

Federal Dollar (AmeriCorps Federal Funding) 

Tables 30, 31, and 32 show the total benefits, opportunity costs, program costs, and ROI 

results for each scenario. 

Table 30. ROI Calculations for Short-term Scenario 

Total 

Benefits per 

Federal = 

Dollar 

Total 

Benefits 

per Funder = 

Dollar 

Components 

Total Benefits per 

Federal Dollar 

(2020$) 

Total Benefits per 

Funder Dollar 

(2020$) 

Federal Government 

Benefits per Federal 

Dollar (2020$) 

Total Program Benefits $1,082,349 $1,082,349 $146,690 

Total Forgone Benefits 

(Opportunity Costs) $413,740 $413,740 $87,475 

Total Program Costs $614,444 $1,337,219 $614,444 

Result $1.10 $0.50 $0.10 

33 Non-government stakeholders in this ROI analysis include B&B HV AmeriCorps members and the children 

of B&B HV program participants. 
69 

 

 

Return on Investment Study: 

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Table 31. ROI Calculations for Medium-Term Scenario 

Components 

Total Benefits per 

Federal Dollar 

(2020$) 

Total Benefits per 

Funder Dollar 

(2020$) 

Federal Government 

Benefits per Federal 

Dollar (2020$) 

Total Program Benefits $2,645,166 $2,645,166 $609,767 

Total Forgone Benefits 

(Opportunity Costs) $719,894 $719,895 $228,151 

Total Program Costs $614,444 $1,337,219 $614,444 

Result $3.13 $1.44 $0.62 

Table 32. ROI Calculations for Long-Term Scenario 

Components 

Total Benefits per 

Federal Dollar 

(2020$) 

Total Benefits per 

Funder Dollar 

(2020$) 

Federal Government 

Benefits per Federal 

Dollar (2020$) 

Total Program Benefits $3,968,500 $3,968,500 $1,038,050 

Total Forgone Benefits 

(Opportunity Costs) $1,152,740 $1,152,740 $427,040 

Total Program Costs $614,444 $1,337,219 $614,444 

Result $4.58 $2.11 $0.99 
70 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Return on Investment Study: 

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