Prepared in cooperation with the Town of Danby and 

the Tompkins County Planning Department

Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Stratified-Drift 

Aquifers in Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek 

Valleys, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York 

Prepared in cooperation with the Town of Danby and 

the Tompkins County Planning Department

Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Stratified-Drift 

Aquifers in Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek 

Valleys, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York 

Scientific Investigations Report 2015−5138

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
Cover. A, Panorama of the valley from a location near Comfort Road, Danby, N.Y., looking southwest. B, Signage for the town offices and 

public library of the Town of Danby. C, U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) hydrologist holding soil sample from test well TM2806 (Whitehawk 

Lane, Danby). D, The Danby town hall. All photographs copyright Ted Crane (http://tedcrane.com/), used with permission.

A.

B.

C.

D.
Geohydrology and Water Quality of the 

Stratified-Drift Aquifers in Upper 

Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, 

Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York

By Todd S. Miller

Prepared in cooperation with the Town of Danby and 

the Tompkins County Planning Department

Scientific Investigations Report 2015–5138

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

SALLY JEWELL, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2015

For more information on the USGS—the Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living 

resources, natural hazards, and the environment—visit http://www.usgs.gov or call 1–888–ASK–USGS.

For an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications, 

visit http://www.usgs.gov/pubprod/.

Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the 

U.S. Government.

Although this information product, for the most part, is in the public domain, it also may contain copyrighted materials 

as noted in the text. Permission to reproduce copyrighted items must be secured from the copyright owner.

Suggested citation:

Miller, T.S., 2015, Geohydrology and water quality of the stratified-drift aquifers in upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby 

Creek valleys, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 

2015–5138, 66 p., http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20155138.

ISSN 2328-0328 (online)
iii

Contents

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................2

Purpose and Scope ..............................................................................................................................2

Description of Study Area ..................................................................................................................2

Methods of Investigation .....................................................................................................................4

Geologic Data...............................................................................................................................4

Well Inventory, Test Drilling, Water-Level Measurements, and Levels ..............................4

Streamflow Measurements, Water Sampling, and Water Analysis ..................................7

Seismic-Refraction Surveys .....................................................................................................7

Geology............................................................................................................................................................7

Bedrock ..................................................................................................................................................8

Glacial History .......................................................................................................................................8

High-Altitude Valleys Little Affected by Ice Scour .........................................................................8

Wisconsin Deposits in the Study Area ..............................................................................................8

Geohydrology of the Stratified-Drift Aquifer System ............................................................................11

Aquifer Types.......................................................................................................................................17

Upper Buttermilk Creek Valley ................................................................................................17

Danby Creek Valley ....................................................................................................................18

Michigan Creek Valley ..............................................................................................................18

Bedrock .......................................................................................................................................18

Aquifer Geometry ................................................................................................................................20

Unconfined Aquifers .................................................................................................................20

Confined Aquifers and Confining Units ..................................................................................20

Groundwater Recharge ....................................................................................................................21

Unconfined Aquifer ...................................................................................................................21

Confined Aquifers .....................................................................................................................26

Groundwater Flowpaths and Discharge .........................................................................................28

Groundwater Withdrawals ................................................................................................................28

Potential for Large-Capacity Municipal or Commercial Wells ....................................................28

Unconfined Aquifer in Lower Danby Creek Valley ...............................................................28

Confined Aquifers in Upper Buttermilk Creek Valley ...........................................................30

Water Quality................................................................................................................................................31

Surface Water .....................................................................................................................................31

Physiochemical Properties, Inorganic Major Ions, Nutrients, and Trace Elements ......31

Inorganic Major Ions .................................................................................................................31

Nutrients......................................................................................................................................31

Trace Elements ...........................................................................................................................34

Groundwater........................................................................................................................................34

Physical and Physiochemical Properties .............................................................................41

Inorganic Major Ions .................................................................................................................41

Nutrients......................................................................................................................................41

Trace Elements ...........................................................................................................................43
iv

Dissolved Gases.........................................................................................................................45

Comparison to Other Stratified-Drift Aquifers in Tompkins County............................................45

Summary........................................................................................................................................................45

References Cited..........................................................................................................................................47

Appendix 1. Records of Wells, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York ...............................51

Appendix 2. Well Logs and Construction Details of U.S. Geological Survey Test Wells ..............61

Figures

1. Map showing location of 17 stratified-drift (unconsolidated) aquifers in Tompkins

County, New York..........................................................................................................................3

2. Map showing physiographic features of New York and location of the upper

Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys study area in Tompkins County, New York ...4

3. Map showing location of the stratified-drift aquifers in the Town of Danby, the

Susquehanna River and St. Lawrence River drainage divide, and the Buttermilk

Creek and Danby Creek subbasins, Tompkins County, New York ........................................5

4. Map showing shaded relief and boundary of stratified-drift aquifer study area in

the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, Tompkins County, New York ........6

5. Map showing bedrock and structural geology of the Town of Danby, Tompkins

County, New York..........................................................................................................................9

6. Map showing surficial geology of upper Buttermilk Creek, Danby Creek, and

Michigan Creek Basins, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York. ............................10

7. Geohydrologic section A–A’ across the northern part of upper Buttermilk Creek

valley, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York .............................................................12

8. Geohydrologic section B–B’ across the headwaters of upper Buttermilk Creek and

Danby Creek valleys near the hamlet of Danby, Town of Danby, Tompkins County,

New York ......................................................................................................................................13

9. Geohydrologic section C–C’ across Danby Creek valley, along Steam Mill Road,

Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York..........................................................................14

10. Geohydrologic section D–D’ across Danby Creek valley, along Durfee Hill Road,

Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York..........................................................................15

11. Map showing location of wells in the Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York. ....16

12. Map showing the types of stratified-drift aquifers in the upper Buttermilk Creek,

Danby Creek, and Michigan Creek valleys in the Town of Danby, Tompkins County,

New York. ....................................................................................................................................19

13. Graph showing altitude of groundwater levels in test wells TM2467, (near Town of

Danby Highway Department) from June 1, 2008, to June 26, 2012, TM2588 (near the

Hamlet of Danby) from December 17, 2008, to March 30, 2011, and TM2591, (Steam

Mill Road) from February 11, 2009, to June 26, 2012, Town of Danby, New York. ............22

14. Schematic geohydrologic sections showing sources of recharge to aquifers in the

A, northern part of the study area (upper Buttermilk Creek valley); B, central part of

the study area (upper Buttermilk Creek valley); and C, southern part of the study

area (Danby Creek valley), Tompkins County, New York......................................................23

15. Map showing channeled and unchanneled upland drainage basins that provide

recharge to the unconfined aquifers in the upper Buttermilk Creek, Danby Creek,

and Michigan Creek valleys in the Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York............25
v

16. Hydrograph showing altitude of groundwater levels in wells TM1008 and TM1009

finished in aquifers under high degree of confinement, lower Sixmile Creek valley,

Town of Caroline, Tompkins County, New York. ....................................................................27

17. Map showing water table in unconfined aquifers and the potentiometric surface in

the confined aquifer in the upper Buttermilk Creek, Danby Creek, and Michigan

Creek valleys in the Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York......................................29

18. Map showing the location of groundwater and surface-water sampling sites in

upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys, Town of Danby, Tompkins County,

New York ......................................................................................................................................32

19. Graph showing the distribution of arsenic concentrations from groundwater

samples in stratified-drift aquifers in Tompkins County from 2000–10 in Tompkins

County, New York. ......................................................................................................................44

20. Piper diagram showing variability in major ion composition of groundwater in

upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys, Virgil Creek and Dryden Lake

valleys, Lower Sixmile Creek and Willseyville Creek trough, and upper Sixmile

Creek and West Branch Owego Creek valleys, Tompkins County, New York ..................46

2–1. Well log and well construction details of U.S. Geological Survey test well TM2588

near the Hamlet of Danby, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York..........................62

2–2. Well log and well construction details of U.S. Geological Survey test well TM2467

at the Danby Highway Department near Hornbrook Road, Town of Danby, Tompkins

County, New York........................................................................................................................63

2–3. Well logs and well construction details of U.S. Geological Survey test wells

TM2590 and TM1035, Durfee Hill Road, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York....64

2–4. Well log and well construction details of U.S. Geological Survey test wells TM2589

and TM2591, Steam Mill Road, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York ..................65

2–5. Well log and well construction details of U.S. Geological Survey test well TM2806,

Whitehawk Lane, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York .........................................66

Tables

1. Range, mean, and median of well depths and reported well yields in the Town of

Danby, New York.........................................................................................................................18

2. Estimated average annual recharge to the contiguous unconfined aquifer in Danby

Creek valley, Town of Danby, New York. ................................................................................26

3. Estimated groundwater withdrawals by users that reside over the upper Buttermilk

Creek and Danby Creek valleys aquifer-system study area, 2012......................................30

4. Physiochemical properties of, and concentrations of inorganic major ions and

nutrients in surface-water samples from Buttermilk Creek, selected tributaries to

Buttermilk Creek, and Danby Creek, Town of Danby, New York, July 31, 2008 ................33

5. Concentrations of trace metals in surface-water samples from Buttermilk Creek,

selected tributaries to Buttermilk Creek, and Danby Creek, Town of Danby,

New York, July 31, 2008..............................................................................................................34

6. Summary statistics for physiochemical properties, concentrations of inorganic

major ions, and selected nutrients in surface-water and groundwater samples

collected in the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys, Town of Danby,

New York, 2007–10......................................................................................................................35

7. Summary statistics for concentrations of trace elements in surface-water and

groundwater samples collected in the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek

valleys, Town of Danby, New York, 2007–10...........................................................................36
vi

8. Physical and physiochemical properties of; and concentrations of inorganic major

ions and nutrients in groundwater samples from stratified-drift and bedrock

aquifers in the Town of Danby, New York, 2007–08...............................................................37

9. Concentrations of trace elements in groundwater samples from stratified-drift

and bedrock aquifers in the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys,

Town of Danby, New York, 2007–08..........................................................................................39

10. Physical and physiochemical properties of; and concentrations of inorganic major

ions, trace elements, nutrients, selected radiochemicals, and dissolved gases in

groundwater samples from bedrock and stratified-drift aquifers in the

Town of Danby, New York, 2010................................................................................................42

Appendix 1. Records of wells, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York .................................52
vii

Conversion Factors

Multiply By To obtain

Length

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

Area

square foot (ft2

)

square foot (ft2

)

0.09290

0.000000036

square meter (m2

)

square mile (mi2

)

square inch (in2

) 6.452 square centimeter (cm2)

square mile (mi2

)

square mile (mi2

)

2.590

27,878,400

square kilometer (km2

) 

square feet (ft2

)

Volume

gallon (gal) 0.003785 cubic meter (m3

) 

gallon (gal) 3.785 liter (L)

million gallons (Mgal) 3,785 cubic meter (m3

)

cubic foot (ft3

) 0.02832 cubic meter (m3) 

Flow rate

foot per year (ft/yr) 0.3048 meter per year (m/yr) 

cubic foot per second (ft3

/s)

cubic foot per second (ft3

/s)

cubic foot per second (ft3

/s)

cubic foot per second (ft3

/s)

cubic foot per second (ft3

/s)

0.02832

86,400

31,536,000

646,317

23,592,505

cubic meter per second (m3

/s)

cubic foot per day (ft3

/d)

cubic foot per day (ft3

/yr)

million gallons per day (Mgal/d)

million gallons per year (Mgal/yr)

cubic foot per second per square mile 

[(ft3

/s)/mi2]

0.01093 cubic meter per second per square 

kilometer [(m3/s)/km2]

cubic foot per day (ft3

/d)

cubic foot per year (ft3

/yr)

0.02832

0.00000748

cubic meter per day (m3

/d)

million gallons per year (Mgal/yr)

gallon per minute (gal/min) 0.06309 liter per second (L/s)

gallon per day (gal/d) 0.003785 cubic meter per day (m3

/d)

million gallons per day (Mgal/d)

million gallons per day (Mgal/yr)

0.04381

1.547

cubic meter per second (m3

/s)

cubic foot per second (ft3

/s)

million gallons per day per square mile 

[(Mgal/d)/mi2

]

1,461 cubic meter per day per square 

kilometer [(m3/d)/km2]

inch per year (in/yr) 25.4 millimeter per year (mm/yr)

Radioactivity

picocurie per liter (pCi/L) 0.037 becquerel per liter (Bq/L) 

Hydraulic conductivity

foot per day (ft/d) 0.3048 meter per day (m/d) 

Hydraulic gradient

foot per mile (ft/mi) 0.1894 meter per kilometer (m/km)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit

 (°F) as °F = (1.8 × °C) + 32.

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius

 (°C) as °C = (°F – 32) / 1.8.
viii

Supplemental Information

Specific conductance is given in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius 

(μS/cm at 25 °C).

Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given in either milligrams per liter (mg/L) 

or micrograms per liter (μg/L).

Datum

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 

(NAVD 88) where light detection and ranging (lidar) and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data 

were used, and to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD 29) elsewhere.

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83).

Altitude, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum.

Abbreviations

CFCL USGS Chlorofluorocarbon Laboratory

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

HA EPA Health Advisory

HVSR horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio

lidar light detection and ranging

MCL EPA Maximum Contaminant Level 

NAD 83 North American Datum of 1983

NAVD 88 North American Vertical Datum of 1988

NWQL USGS National Water Quality Laboratory

NYSDEC New York State Department of Environmental Conservation

NYSDOH New York State Department of Health

SDWS EPA Secondary Drinking-Water Standards

SMCL Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level

USGS U.S. Geological Survey
Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Stratified-Drift 

Aquifers in Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek 

Valleys, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York

By Todd S. Miller

Abstract

In 2006, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation 

with the Town of Danby and the Tompkins County Planning 

Department, began a study of the stratified-drift aquifers in 

the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys in 

the Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York. In the 

northern part of the north-draining upper Buttermilk Creek 

valley, there is only one sand and gravel aquifer, a confined 

basal unit that overlies bedrock. In the southern part of upper 

Buttermilk Creek valley, there are as many as four sand and 

gravel aquifers, two are unconfined and two are confined. In 

the south-draining Danby Creek valley, there is an unconfined 

aquifer consisting of outwash and kame sand and gravel 

(deposited by glacial meltwaters during the late Pleistocene 

Epoch) and alluvial silt, sand, and gravel (deposited by 

streams during the Holocene Epoch). In addition, throughout 

the study area, there are several small local unconfined 

aquifers where large tributaries deposited alluvial fans 

in the valley.

The principal sources of recharge to the unconfined 

aquifers in the study area include direct infiltration of 

precipitation (rain and snowmelt) at land surface, unchanneled 

surface runoff from adjacent hillsides that seeps into the 

aquifer along the edges of the valley, groundwater inflow 

from adjacent till and bedrock that enters the aquifer along 

the sides of the valley, and seepage loss from uplandtributary streams where they flow over their alluvial fans 

in the valley. The percentages of all sources of recharge to 

the contiguous unconfined aquifer in Danby Creek valley 

include 16 percent from precipitation that falls directly over 

the aquifer, 55 percent from unchanneled surface runoff 

and groundwater inflow from hillsides, and 29 percent from 

losing tributary streams that cross the aquifer. The total 

annual recharge to the contiguous unconfined aquifer is 

2.56 cubic feet per second (604 million gallons per year).

The principal sources of recharge to the confined 

aquifers include precipitation that falls directly on the surficial 

confining unit, which then slowly flows vertically downward 

through the fine-grained sediments and enters the confined 

aquifer, and groundwater inflow from till and bedrock that 

borders the aquifer along adjacent hillsides and at the bottom 

of the valley. In addition, there is substantial amounts of 

recharge to the confined aquifers where the confining units 

are locally absent (forming windows) and where parts of 

the confining units consist of sediments of low to moderate 

permeability (forming a semiconfining layer).

In the northern part of the study area (upper Buttermilk 

Creek valley), groundwater in the stratified-drift aquifers 

discharges to (1) domestic and commercial wells; (2) 

Buttermilk Creek in the area near the northern town border, 

and (3) and a small unnamed stream in a ravine in Buttermilk 

State Park just north of the town border. In the southern part 

of the study area (Danby Creek valley), groundwater 

discharges (1) to domestic, commercial, and farm wells; (2) 

to Danby Creek; (3) to a large wetland in the central parts of 

Danby Creek valley; and (4) as losses because of plant uptake 

and evaporation. About 300 people depend on groundwater 

from the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek stratifieddrift aquifer system.

An unconfined surficial aquifer about 8,000 feet (ft) long 

and as much as 800 ft wide, with a saturated thickness of 

about 20 ft, occupies the lower (southeastern most) 8,000 ft 

of Danby Creek valley within the Town of Danby. However, 

because the aquifer is thin, the volume of water stored in the 

aquifer is small and the potential for induced recharge from 

Danby Creek during summer periods of low flow is also 

small, an array of wells would probably be needed to provide 

sustainable continuous amount of water to large water users 

such as municipalities and industries. Additional data and 

a groundwater flow model would be required to estimate 

sustainable withdrawal from the confined aquifers in upper 

Buttermilk Creek valley.

Well data from water-well drillers through 2012 indicate 

that the confined aquifers in upper Buttermilk Creek valley are 

thin (typically about 10 feet thick) and the reported well-yield 

data suggest these aquifers may not be capable of supplying 

sufficient water to meet the needs of municipalities and 
2 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

industries. However, additional geohydrologic data leading 

to calibration of a groundwater flow model would be needed 

to properly evaluate the long-term (multiple years) potential 

yield of the confined aquifer system in upper Buttermilk Creek 

valley and of the unconfined aquifer in Danby Creek valley.

During 2007–10, groundwater samples were collected 

from 13 wells including 7 wells that are completed in the 

confined sand and gravel aquifers, 1 well that is completed in 

the unconfined aquifer, and 5 wells that are completed in the 

bedrock aquifers. Calcium dominates the cation composition 

and bicarbonate dominates the anion composition in most 

groundwater. Water quality in the study area generally meets 

state and Federal drinking-water standards but concentrations 

of some constituents exceeded the standards. The standards 

that were exceeded include sodium (3 samples), dissolved 

solids (1 sample), iron (3 samples), manganese (8 samples), 

and arsenic (1 sample).

Introduction

In 2000, the U.S. Geological Survey published a map 

depicting the extent of stratified-drift (that is, sand and gravel) 

aquifers in Tompkins County (Miller, 2000), which was a 

reconnaissance of the area. In 2000–02, the U.S. Geological 

Survey and the Tompkins County Planning Department used 

the map to plan studies of the stratified-drift aquifers in more 

detail. These detailed studies would provide geohydrologic 

data for town and county planners to develop a strategy to 

manage and protect their water resources. In developing 

the plan, a list of a 17 stratified-drift aquifers was compiled 

and a program was developed to study these aquifers for 

20 years. The extent of the aquifers was based mostly on 

natural hydrologic boundaries, but in some cases, political 

boundaries were used as well; In order to have manageablesized study areas, the aquifer extents were about 3 to 5 miles 

(mi) each. During 2006–12, the upper Buttermilk Creek and 

Danby Creek valleys (fig. 1) were the third aquifer study to 

be investigated of the county-wide program. The aquifer was 

investigated by the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation 

with the Tompkins County Planning Department and the 

Town of Danby.

Evaluation, development, and protection of these aquifers 

require information on the aquifer framework (the threedimensional extent and distribution of aquifers and confining 

units), sources of recharge, discharge areas, direction of 

groundwater flow, and water quality. Samples were collected 

from wells to characterize the chemical quality of groundwater 

and to determine whether the water is potable. Groundwater 

samples were collected from wells that are finished in the 

confined and unconfined aquifers as well as several wells that 

are finished in bedrock. A comparison of water quality was 

made to determine whether there are differences between the 

sand and gravel aquifers and bedrock aquifers. In addition, 

stream samples were collected to characterize the chemical 

quality of surface water under base-flow conditions (when 

the flow is mostly from groundwater discharging into stream 

channels) and to determine whether there are similarities in 

water quality between surface water and groundwater.

Purpose and Scope

This report describes the geohydrology of the stratifieddrift aquifers in upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek 

valleys in the Town of Danby, Tompkins County. Specifically, 

the report contains information that details the study results: 

(1) the geology of the study area including the geologic 

framework of the aquifer system; (2) the groundwater-flow 

system, including information about water levels, groundwater 

and surface-water interaction, direction of groundwater 

flow, and recharge and discharge conditions; and (3) the 

water quality, including information about concentrations 

of common inorganic ions, nutrients, and trace elements. 

The report also includes geohydrologic sections; maps and 

diagrams depicting well locations, geology, groundwater 

levels, and direction of groundwater flow; and tables of well 

records and water-quality data. 

Description of Study Area 

The study area is in the Appalachian Plateau 

physiographic province (fig. 2). The plateau is characterized 

by hills and valleys that resulted from millions of years 

of dissection by initially south-flowing streams that were 

captured by advancing northward-flowing streams. Those 

streams drained into Lake Ontario (fig. 2). The hills and 

valleys have been subsequently modified by several 

glaciations. 

The stratified-drift aquifer system in the upper 

Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys is one of the 

17 stratified-drift aquifers in Tompkins County that were 

mapped by the USGS (Miller, 2000). The stratified-drift 

aquifer system in the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby 

Creek valleys is one of two stratified-drift aquifer systems in 

the Town of Danby—the other aquifer system is in the Cayuga 

Inlet valley in the southwest part of the town (figs. 1 and 3). 

However, the aquifer system in the upper Cayuga Inlet valley 

is not part of this investigation.

The study area is 7.5 mi long and encompasses 4.7 square 

miles (mi2) in the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek 

valleys (fig. 3). Buttermilk Creek flows northward in a valley 

until it cascades over several waterfalls through Buttermilk 

Creek gorge before it joins lower Cayuga Inlet trough that 

is 2.7 mi north of the Town of Danby (fig. 3). Cayuga Inlet 

then drains into Cayuga Lake at Ithaca (fig. 3). Southeastward 

flowing Danby Creek is a headwater tributary of the 

Susquehanna River Basin (fig. 3).

The study area has moderate relief with altitudes ranging 

from as low as 965 ft above North American Vertical Datum 
Introduction 3

Figure 1. Location of 17 stratified-drift (unconsolidated) aquifers in Tompkins County, New York.

EXPLANATION

Aquifer reach names

Cascadilla Creek valley and upland Sixmile Creek valley

Enfield Creek valley

Lower Cayuga Inlet valley

Lower Fall Creek valley

Lower Sixmile Creek valley (Towns of Dryden and Ithaca)

Owasco Inlet valley

Pony Creek Hollow valley

Salmon Creek/Myers Point/Locke Creek

Taughannock Creek valley and delta

Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys

Upper Cayuga Inlet valley

Upper Fall Creek valley

Upper Sixmile Creek and West Branch Owego Creek valleys

Virgil Creek valley

West Branch Cayuga Inlet and Fish Kill valleys

West Branch Owego Creek valley and tributaries

Lower Sixmile Creek and Willseyville Creek valleys

(Town of Caroline)

0 2 4 MILES

0 2 4 KILOMETERS

76°40' 76°30' 76°20'

42°30'

42°20'

Aquifers mapped Miller (2000) Basemap created with TOPO!, scale 1:100,000

2003 National Geographic, URL www.nationalgeographic.com/topo

TOWN OF 

LANSING

TOWN OF 

GROTON

TOWN OF 

ULYSSES

TOWN OF 

ENFIELD

TOWN OF 

ITHACA

CITY OF 

ITHACA

TOWN OF 

DRYDEN

TOWN OF 

CAROLINE

TOWN OF 

DANBY

TOWN OF 

NEWFIELD

CAYUGA CO

TOMPKINS CO

TOMPKINS CO

CORTLAND CO

TOMPKINS CO

TIOGA CO

TOMPKINS CO

SCHUYLER CO CHEMUNG CO

TOMPKINS CO

SENECA CO

Study

area

Deltaic

deposits
4 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

LAKE ONTARIO

Modified from Miller, 2012

Mohawk

Lowlands

CANADA

USA

0 50 100 MILES

0 50 100 KILOMETERS ATLANTIC OCEAN

LONG ISLAND SOUND

Erie 

Lowlands

Appalachian Plateau

(hills of moderate relief)

Appalachian Plateau

(hills of moderate relief)

Finger Lakes and hills of the 

Appalachian Plateau (severely 

eroded low relief) LAKE ERIE

45°

80° 79° 78° 77° 76° 75° 74° 73° 72°

44°

43°

42°

41°

NEW YORK

PENNSYLVANIA

Valley Heads

Moraine

VERMONT

MASSACHUSETTS

NEW 

HAMPSHIRE

CONNECTICUT

NEW JERSEY

Triassic Lowland

Ontario Lowlands

Tug

 Hill

 Plateau

New England Uplands

Hudson 

Lowlands

St. Lawrence-Champlain

Lowlands

Adirondack Mountains

Atlantic Coastal Plain

Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1972, 1:2,000,000

Albers Equal-Area Conic projection

Standard parallels 20°30' and 45°30', central meridian -96°00'

Study area

 (shown in red)

Tompkins

County

Figure 2. Physiographic features of New York and location of the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys study area 

in Tompkins County, New York.

of 1988 (NAVD 88) in the channel where Buttermilk Creek 

enters the Buttermilk Creek gorge in the north part of the 

study area to about 1,800 ft on the highest hilltops (fig. 4). 

Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys are relatively highaltitude valleys that are 100 to 500 ft higher than the Cayuga 

Inlet trough to the west and north, and the lower Sixmile 

Creek and Willseyville Creek trough to the east (figs. 3 and 4).

Methods of Investigation

Existing data were compiled and new data were 

collected for this study. Existing data included well 

records, geologic reports, and soil maps. New data 

included geologic mapping, test drilling, seismic surveys, 

groundwater-level measurements, and surface-water and 

groundwater-quality sampling.

Geologic Data

This report includes geologic mapping that modifies the 

geology published by Muller and Cadwell (1986). In addition 

to interpretation from topographic maps and orthophotographs, 

soil maps (Neeley, 1961) were used in geologic interpretation.

Geologic data were also collected by seismic-refraction 

and horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) seismic 

surveys to supplement data from test drilling. The seismic 

surveys were used to determine the thickness of the 

unconsolidated deposits and depth to bedrock.

Well Inventory, Test Drilling, Water-Level 

Measurements, and Levels

Well records (140 records, appendix 1) were collected 

and compiled for wells in the Town of Danby. Sources of 
Introduction 5

0

0

1

1

2 MILES

2 KILOMETERS

EXPLANATION

Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek stratified-drift 

aquifers study area

Upper Cayuga Inlet stratified-drift aquifer (not 

part of this study)

Drainage divide between Susquehanna

River and St. Lawerence River Basins

Buttermilk Creek subbasin boundary

(drains to the north)

Danby Creek subbasin boundary

(drains to the south)

Town of Danby boundary

Michigan Creek subbasin boundary

(drains to the south)

Upper Buttermilk Creek

stratified-drift aquifer

Danby Creek stratifie d-drift aquifer

Buttermilk 

Creek gorge

Cayuga Inlet

Lower Cayuga Inlet trough

Lower Sixmile Creek and

Willseyville Creek trough

Upper Cayuga Inlet stratified-drift aquifer

Michigan Creek stratified-drift aquifer

76°35' 76°30' 76°25'

42°25'

42°20'

42°15'

Base from U.S. Geological Survey, Seamless Data Distribution System scale 1:100,000, contour interval 20 feet 

accessed in 2008 at http://seamless.usgs.gov/

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 18

Figure 3. Location of the stratified-drift aquifers in the Town of Danby, the Susquehanna River and St. Lawrence 

River drainage divide, and the Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek subbasins, Tompkins County, New York.
6 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

76°30' 76°25'

42°25'

42°20'

0 1 2 MILES

0 1 2 KILOMETERS

Upper

Cayuga

Inlet

trough

Upper Buttermilk Creek/Danby Creek va lleys

Michigan

Creek

Valley

CITY OF ITHACA

VILLAGE 

OF CAYUGA 

HEIGHTS

TOWN OF ITHACA

TOWN OF TOWN OF DANBY

NEWFIELD

VILLAGE OF LANSING

TOWN OF 

LANSING

TOWN OF DRYDEN

TOWN OF 

CAROLINE

TOWN OF ULYSSES

TIOGA COUNTY

TOMPKINS COUNTY

Lower Sixmile and Willseyville

Cre

e

k tro

u

g

h

Lower Cayuga Inlet trough

Cayuga

Lake

TOWN OF TIOGA

Base from U.S. Geological Survey, Seamless Data Distribution System, 1:24,000

accessed in 2008 at http://seamless.usgs.gov/

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 18

EXPLANATION

376–382

382–500

500–600

600–700

700–800

800–900

900–980

980–1,000

1,000–1,075

1,075–1,220

1,220–1,300

1,300–1,400

1,400–1,500

1,500–1,600

1,600–1,700

1,700–1,800

1,800–1,900

1,900–2,000

2,000–2,050

Altitude, in feet (datum is NAVD 88)

Aquifer boundary—Dashed where it is 

uncertain whether aquifers in the valley 

are hydraulically connected to sand and 

gravel units buried on adjacent hillsides

National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric 

Administration weather 

station at 

Cornell University, 

Ithaca, New York

Figure 4. Shaded relief and boundary of stratified-drift aquifer study area in the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, 

Tompkins County, New York.
Geology 7

well data include previous U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

groundwater studies, the USGS National Water Information 

System (NWIS), and well records obtained from the New York 

State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) 

Water Well Drillers Registration Program, and seven test wells 

that were drilled during this project.

At selected wells, the altitudes of water-level measuring 

points, which are typically the tops of the well casings, 

were determined to 0.01 feet (ft) using standard surveying 

techniques (Kenney, 2010). Elsewhere, altitudes of land 

surface at wells were estimated using light detection and 

ranging (lidar) technology and 1:24,000 scale topographic 

contour maps that were accurate to 0.5 ft and 5 ft, respectively. 

Depths to water below the measuring points were then 

converted to altitudes, which were used to construct maps of 

the water table and potentiometric surface of the unconfined 

and confined aquifers.

Streamflow Measurements, Water Sampling, 

and Water Analysis 

Streamflow was measured at 21 sites in the 

Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek drainage basins from 

July 31 to August 4, 2008, using an USGS pygmy current 

meter. Samples were collected at 6 of the 21 streamflow sites. 

Streamflow measuring techniques are described by Rantz 

and others (1982). 

Surface-water samples were collected at seven sites 

in the study area. The samples were analyzed for inorganic 

constituents and nutrients at the USGS National Water 

Quality Laboratory (NWQL) in Denver, Colorado. Field 

measurements of pH, specific conductance, dissolved oxygen, 

and water temperature were also recorded during sample 

collection. The samples were collected and processed by 

methods described in the USGS manual for the collection of 

water-quality data (U.S. Geological Survey, variously dated).

Groundwater-sample collection and processing 

followed standard USGS procedures as documented in the 

National Field Manual for the Collection of Water-Quality 

Data (U.S. Geological Survey, variously dated). Groundwater 

samples were collected from 12 wells in the study area; 

of these samples, 8 were collected during 2007–08 and 

were analyzed for inorganic constituents (common ions 

and trace elements) and nutrients at the NWQL. Field 

measurements of pH, specific conductance, dissolved 

oxygen, and water temperature were also measured during 

sample collection. Additionally, in response to concerns 

about natural-gas drilling, four groundwater samples were 

collected (background water-quality data) during 2010 and 

were analyzed for chemical constituents associated with gas 

drilling and (or) deep groundwater systems. Analytes included 

bromide, radiochemical constituents (gross alpha and gross 

beta), methane, and other dissolved gases, in addition to many 

of the constituents analyzed for in the 2007–08 samples. 

Six groundwater samples were from test wells drilled 

for this study, five were from domestic wells, and one was 

from the well that supplies water to the Danby Town Hall. 

For the test wells, a stainless-steel submersible pump was 

used to purge the well of 5 to 10 casing volumes of water 

before collecting the water samples. The domestic wells and 

the town hall well were sampled after 20 minutes of pumping 

(until at least five casing volumes of well water had passed 

the sampling point); then, a raw-water spigot between the well 

and the pressure tank was opened, and the water was allowed 

to run for several more minutes to flush the spigot. Samples 

were collected from the raw-water spigot to avoid all watertreatment systems and to ensure that the water collected was 

representative of the water in the aquifer. 

Seismic-Refraction Surveys 

Seismic-refraction surveys were conducted at three sites 

and HVSR ambient-noise seismic surveys were conducted at 

5 sites in the study area. Seismic-refraction techniques used 

in this study are described by Haeni (1988). The seismicrefraction survey method measures the time it takes for a 

compressional sound wave to travel down through geologic 

units and back up to detectors (geophones) on land surface. 

For this investigation, a series of 12 geophones, spaced 50 

or 100 ft apart, were inserted into the ground and the arrival 

times of compressional waves generated by explosives 

were recorded and plotted as a function of “source-togeophone” distances. A two-layer (saturated unconsolidated 

sediments and bedrock surface) or three-layer (unsaturated 

unconsolidated sediments, saturated unconsolidated sediments, 

and bedrock surface) boundary-formula computer analysis 

(Scott and others, 1972) was used to calculate depths to the 

bedrock surface.

The HVSR ambient-noise seismic method was also 

used to estimate unconsolidated sediment thickness and 

map the bedrock surface where the use of seismic refraction 

was not feasible. The HVSR ambient-noise seismic method 

uses a single, broad-band three-component seismometer 

to record ambient seismic noise. The ratio of the averaged 

horizontal-to-vertical frequency spectrum is used to determine 

the fundamental site resonance frequency, which can be 

interpreted using regression equations to estimate sediment 

thickness and depth to bedrock (Lane and others, 2008).

Geology

Geologic materials in the Town of Danby consist 

of consolidated sediments (sedimentary bedrock) and 

unconsolidated sediments (unstratified and stratified glacial 

drift, alluvium, and swamp deposits). In most places, bedrock 

is covered by unconsolidated sediments. However, in some 

places, bedrock crops out at land surface, such as on hilltops, 

on upper parts of over-steepened valley walls, and in some 
8 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

stream channels that have incised through the unconsolidated 

sediments and flow on bedrock.

Bedrock

Bedrock in the Town of Danby consists of sedimentary 

rocks (shale, siltstone, fine-grained sandstone, and limestone, 

fig. 5) of that were deposited in ancient seas during the Upper 

Devonian Period from 359.2 to 385.3 million years ago 

(U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Names Committee, 2010; 

Fisher and others, 1970; Isachsen and others, 1991; Zambito 

IV and others, 2007; and Karig and Elkins, 1986). The rocks 

were uplifted during the end of the Upper Devonian and the 

Mississippian Periods, which formed the Appalachian Plateau; 

the northern part of the plateau extends into southern and 

eastern New York State (fig. 2). About 300 million years ago 

(Pennsylvanian Period), the African plate began to collide 

with the North American plate (Isachsen and others, 1991) 

and the compressional stresses from the collision resulted in 

gentle folding of the rock units and faulting (both thrust and 

shear faults; fig. 5; Murphy, 1981; Podwysocki and others, 

1982). The plateau was subsequently dissected by streams and 

eroded by glaciers, resulting in a region dominated by hills 

and valleys. At present, the rock units have a regional dip to 

the south at about 40 to 50 ft per mile (Williams and others, 

1909); however, superimposed on the south-dipping rocks are 

gentle folds whose anticline and syncline axes trend roughly 

east to west (fig. 5). Because of the folds, there are local areas 

with reversal of dip direction (gentle dips to the north) and 

southward dipping slopes that have greater than the average 

regional dip of 40 foot per mile (ft/mi). 

Glacial History

The study area has undergone several glaciations during 

the Pleistocene Epoch, commonly referred to as the Ice Age, 

which began 2.6 million years ago and ended 11,850 years 

before present (uncalibrated radiocarbon years; 13,700 

calibrated calendar years; Fullerton, 1980; U.S. Geological 

Survey Geologic Names Committee, 2010). 

The last major glacial episode to affect the study area 

was during late Wisconsin time when the Laurentide Ice 

Sheet flowed from Canada into New York State. By about 

23,000 years before present, the ice covered central New York 

and extended as far south as northern Pennsylvania (Muller 

and Calkin, 1993). The last ice to affect the study area was 

the Valley Heads Moraine re-advance into central New York 

(Muller and Calkin, 1993). At the terminus of the Valley 

Heads ice, an end moraine was deposited that loops across 

central and western New York (fig. 2). A segment of the end 

moraine crosses the study area in the Danby Creek valley 

(fig. 6). Valley Heads ice left the study area about 14,400 years 

ago (Cadwell and Muller, 2004).

High-Altitude Valleys Little Affected by Ice 

Scour 

Relatively low-altitude valleys that were generally 

aligned in the direction of glacial flow, such as the lower 

Sixmile Creek and Willseyville Creek valleys and the Cayuga 

Inlet valley (figs. 3 and 4), were preferential avenues for ice 

flow and were severely eroded. These severely eroded valleys 

were transformed into troughs. These troughs are wider and 

much deeper than other valleys, with U-shaped transverse 

valley profiles and smooth, planar bedrock walls. Each trough 

formerly contained a bedrock col (a high, narrow pass or 

saddle between watersheds) that was lowered and displaced by 

ice erosion (Miller and Karig, 2010; Kappel and Miller, 2003). 

Later, these troughs became filled with 200 to more than 300 ft 

of glacial and postglacial sediments.

In contrast, relatively high-altitude valleys, such as upper 

Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys, underwent much 

less scour and deposition of sediment than relatively loweraltitude valleys such as in the Cayuga Inlet trough and the 

lower Sixmile Creek and Willseyville Creek trough, which 

surround the study area to the west, north, and east (figs. 3 and 

4). Scouring by ice was less extensive in high-altitude valleys 

because the ice was thinner and forces of erosion were less 

than in lower-altitude valleys. Relief between valley floor and 

adjacent hilltops in the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby 

Creek valleys typically ranges from 400 to 500 ft whereas 

relief in the Cayuga Inlet trough and the lower Sixmile 

Creek and Willseyville Creek trough typically ranges from 

800 to 1,000 ft. In the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby 

Creek valleys, well records and seismic data indicate that the 

thickness of stratified-drift deposits generally ranges from 

85 to 150 ft, which is one-half as much as that in the loweraltitude valleys. 

Wisconsin Deposits in the Study Area

The unconsolidated deposits in the upper Buttermilk 

and Danby Creek Basins contain glacial drift that consists 

of unstratified drift (till) and stratified drift (glaciolacustrine 

and glaciofluvial) sediments that were deposited during 

the Wisconsin Stage of the Pleistocene Epoch; postglacial 

alluvium and swamp deposits that were deposited during the 

Holocene Epoch. The areal distribution of surficial deposits 

in the study area is shown in figure 6 and the subsurface 

stratigraphy along four geohydrologic-section lines is shown 

in figures 7 through 10.

In the study area, till composes the largest portion of the 

drift in the uplands and in the valleys (fig. 6). Till is a poorly 

sorted, unstratified mixture of rocks embedded in a matrix 

consisting chiefly of clay, silt, and fine sand units (geologic 

units tl, ground-moraine deposits in the uplands and tv, 

ground-moraine deposits in the valley fill, fig. 6), and was 

deposited directly from glacial ice rather than transported by 

meltwater. In the uplands, the rocks in till range in size from 
Geology 9

0 1 2 MILES

0 1 2 KILOMETERS

Base from U.S. Geological Survey, Seamless Data Distribution System 1:100,000,

accessed in 2008 at URL http://seamless.usgs.gov/

Universal Transverse Mercator projection, zone 18

Structural geology (folds and faults) by Murphy, 1981; and Podwysocki and others, 1982;

Bedrock geology by Fisher and others, 1970; and Zambito IV and others, 2007;

Some contacts modified by T.S. Miller, 2013

76°34' 76°32' 76°30' 76°28' 76°26' 76°24'

42°24'

42°22'

42°20'

42°18'

42°16'

?

?

?

?

?

TOWN OF DANBY

Alpine Anticline

Cayuta Syncline

Dg

Ds

Dwm

Ds

Ds

Ds

Ds

Ds

Ds

Ds

Ds

Dwm

Dwm

Dwm

Dwm

Dwm

Dwm

Dwrg

Dwm

Dwm

Dwm

Dwrg

Dwrg

Dwrg

Dwrg

Dwrg

Dwrg

Dwrg

Dwrg

EXPLANATION

Upper Devonian Period

Rock unit

Genesee Group (upper zone of Ithaca Formation only)—

Predominantly siltstone and sandstone with some limestone

Sonyea Group—(Enfield and Kattel Formations). Predominantly 

black shale, grey shale and siltstone, and some sandstone

West Falls Group—(Beers Hill, Dunn Hill, Millport, and Moreland 

shales; and Grimes siltstone). Predominantly grey shale with some 

black shale and siltstone

West Falls Group—(Gardeau Formation). Shale, siltstone, and 

thin-bedded sandstone

Faults Thrust fault—Identity and existence certain, 

location approximate. Sawteeth on upper

(tectonically higher) plate

Strike-slip fault—Identity or existence questionable, 

location inferred. Arrows show relative motion

Anticline—Identity and existence certain

?

Folds

Syncline—Identity and existence certain

Dwrg

Dwm

Ds

Dg

Aquifer boundary—Dashed where it is uncertain whether aquifers 

in the valley are hydraulically connected to sand and gravel units 

buried on adjacent hillsides 

Figure 5. Bedrock and structural geology of the Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York.
10 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

0 1 2 MILE

0 1 2 KILOMETER

42°22'

42°24'

42°20'

42°18'

76°30' 76°28' 76°26' 76°24'

Moraine

Basemap created with TOPO!, scale 1:24:000

2003 National Geographic, URL www.nationalgeographic.com/topo

Geology mapped by T.S. Miller in 2013

ld

osg

EXPLANATION

Bedrock—Devonian-age shale, siltstone, and sandstone

Ground-moraine deposits in valley fill (valley facies)—Consists of 

a fine-grained matrix of clay, silt and fine sand with embedded subround 

pebbles and cobbles derived from reworked glaciofluvial deposits

Ground-moraine deposits in the uplands (mostly lodgment till)—

Consists of subangular to angular clasts (pebbles to boulders) 

embedded in a fine-grained matrix consisting of clay, silt and fine sand

tl

tv

Ice-contact deposits (kames)—Sand and gravel deposited as 

mounds and knobs mostly overlying till along the valley walls 

w Water

Kame end-moraine deposits—Kame end-moraine deposits are 

linearor arcuate, ridgelike accumulations of ice-contact deposits

Channel and flood-plain alluvium—Gravel, sand, and silt deposited 

beneath flood plains, low terraces, and in stream channels

Outwash sand and gravel—Chiefly sand and gravel beneath terrace 

remnants; as valley trains and outwash plains

Fresh-water swamp deposits—Chiefly muck, mucky peat, and 

organic residues mixed with fine sand, silt, and clay that may be

intermittently covered by standing water

Alluvial-fan deposits—Sand and gravel with some silt deposited 

as fans by upland tributaries where they join the main valley af

Delta—Gravel, sand, and silt, deposited where rivers or melt-water 

streams entered glacial lakes

al r

Basin boundary—Upper Buttermilk, Danby, and Michigan Creek aquifer 

contributing area

hs

k

ke Line of geologic section

Buried interglacial bedrock gorge—Hachures are in inside of gorge; 

question marks indicate it is uncertain whether the gorge extends 

beyond this point

C C'

Aquifer boundary—Dashed lines bound areas on the sides of the valley 

where bedrock is overlain chiefly by till and some thin beds of sand and 

gravel that form local confined aquifers. It is unknown whether these 

local aquifers are hydraulically connected to the aquifer(s) in the valley

?

?

Seismic-refraction survey line

Passive seismic site

STEAM MILL RD.

Moraine

Hamlet of Danby

HORNBROOK RD.

State Rt. 96B

 DURFEE HILL ROAD

TOWN OF 

CAROLINE

TOWN OF 

CAROLINE

TOWN OF ITHACA TOWN OF DRYDEN

TOWN OF DANBY

osg

osg

r

osg

hs

hs

Id

Id

hs

r

r

r

r

r r

r

r

r

r

r

r

r

r

r

r

r

r

al

al

hs

hs

w

w

k

k

k

k

k

k

k

k

k

k

k k

k

k

k

k

k

k

k

k

af

af

af af

af

al

af

al

af

af

af

af

al

af

af

af

af

af

al

af

al

af

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl

tl tl

tv

tv

tv

tv

tv

tv tv

tv

tv

tv

tv

tv

ke ke

ke

ke

ke

w

tl

tl

tl

r

al

al

al

k

k

tv

hs

r

al

osg

r

tv tv

w

w

w

tl

af

r

tv

tl

tl

tl

tv

tv

al

al

af

tl

r

?

?

al

al

ke

af

hs

Proglacial lake

outlet channel

(shown in red)

Valley Heads 

Moraine

Minor moraine 

deposited during a 

re-advance after 

Valley Heads ice

A

A'

B

B'

C

C'

D

D'

GF

GF

GF

GF

GF

Figure 6. Surficial geology of upper Buttermilk Creek, Danby Creek, and Michigan Creek Basins, Town of Danby, 

Tompkins County, New York.
Geohydrology of the Stratified-Drift Aquifer System 11

fine pebbles to boulders and are predominantly subangular 

to angular, flat platy clasts of local siltstone and shale. In 

the valleys, the rocks in till are subangular to rounded and 

range in size from fine pebbles to cobbles, consisting mostly 

of local siltstone and shale but also includes many glacial 

erratics (rocks such as sandstone, limestone, igneous, and 

metamorphic rocks). In most places in the uplands, till is the 

only deposit that overlies the bedrock (fig. 6). However, on 

some hilltops and over steepened hillsides in the Danby Creek 

valley, till may be absent and bedrock crops out at land surface 

(fig. 6). Till has low permeability (hydraulic conductivity 

is low). 

Stratified drift (glaciolacustrine and glaciofluvial 

deposits) in the study area is present chiefly in valleys and 

in some places along the lower flanks of valley walls (figs. 6 

through 10). Stratified drift consists of layered and sorted 

sediments. In the study area, fine-to-medium grained stratified 

drift consists of clay, silt, and fine-to-medium-grained sand of 

glaciolacustrine origin (lake-bottom deposits) that were laid 

down where heavily sediment-laden meltwaters and upland 

streams emerged into former small lakes such as proglacial 

lakes or lakes that formed in small basins and depressions in 

the upper Buttermilk and Danby Creek valleys. The mediumto-coarse grained stratified drift near the Hamlet of Danby 

that consists of pebbly sand with some silt was deposited at 

a delta along the edge of a former shallow glacial lake that 

once extended from the moraine in the northern part of upper 

Buttermilk valley to the Hamlet of Danby (figs. 6 and 8). 

Coarse-grained stratified drift (sand and gravel) consists 

of layered and sorted glaciofluvial deposits (outwash sand and 

gravel, kames, and kame-end moraine) that were deposited 

by glacial meltwater streams that flowed on top, beneath, 

or within a glacier. Holocene fluvial deposits that consist of 

channel and flood-plain alluvium, and alluvial-fan deposits 

(fig. 6) were deposited by post-glacial streams. Kame endmoraine deposits tend to be poorly sorted and consist of silt, 

sand, and gravel and, in some places, of till. The kame-end 

moraine in the northern part of the study area forms a 30 to 

40 ft high arcuate ridge where it crosses the upper Buttermilk 

valley and a 10 to 20 ft high ridge where it extends up both 

sides of the valley walls (fig. 6).

In the northern part of the study area (upper Buttermilk 

Creek valley), the glaciofluvial deposits in the valley are 

typically overlain by till (figs. 7 and 8), but in some places, the 

glaciofluvial deposits crop out at land surface, such as where 

a kame-end moraine crosses the valley and where several icecontact kame deposits crop out along the edges of the valley 

and on the lower flanks of hillsides (fig. 6). In the northern part 

of the study area, there may be one or two undifferentiated 

sand and gravel units (figs. 7 and 8). Near the northern 

boundary of the Town of Danby, well records indicate that 

there is only one sand and gravel unit—this unit is a basal unit 

10 to 20 ft thick that overlies bedrock in the upper Buttermilk 

Creek buried gorge (fig. 7). Across the upper Buttermilk 

Creek valley and near the Hamlet of Danby, there are two 

undifferentiated sand and gravel units and one glaciolacustrine 

(delta) pebbly sand unit. The undifferentiated sand and gravel 

units include a basal sand and gravel unit on top of bedrock 

in the eastern part of the valley and an upper buried sand and 

gravel unit; each of these units range in thickness from 5 to 

10 ft (fig. 8). The surficial glaciolacustrine unit is composed 

of deltaic-pebbly sand with some silt that ranges in thickness 

from 10 to 25 ft (fig. 8).

Holocene-age alluvial deposits in the northern part of the 

study area are typically thin, ranging from 1 to 10 ft thick in 

the stream channels and flood plains. However, the alluvial 

deposits are locally thicker (10 to 25 ft thick) at alluvial fans, 

such as the large fan deposit at Hornbrook Road east of the 

Hamlet of Danby (fig. 6). Large alluvial fans can form local 

small unconfined aquifers.

In the southern part of the study area (Danby Creek 

valley), the coarse-grained stratified drift (sand and gravel) 

is composed of glaciofluvial deposits (outwash and isolated 

kames along the lower flanks of hillsides) and Holocene 

alluvial deposits (fluvial channel, floodplain, and fan deposits; 

figs. 6, 9, and 10). However, it is unknown whether coarsegrained stratified drift underlies the large wetland that 

occupies a large part of the valley (fig. 6) because there are no 

subsurface data in this area. Where Steam Mill Road crosses 

Danby Creek valley in the southern part of the study area, the 

alluvial fan deposits ranges in thickness from 20 to 35 ft and 

forms a local unconfined aquifer (figs. 6 and 9). Where Durfee 

Hill Road crosses Danby Creek valley in the southern part of 

the study area, the outwash and alluvial channel and floodplain 

sand and gravel deposits range in thickness from 30 to 40 ft 

(figs. 6 and 10). 

Geohydrology of the Stratified-Drift 

Aquifer System 

Characterization of the stratified-drift aquifer system 

in the Buttermilk and Danby Creek valleys in the Town of 

Danby, Tompkins County included describing the (1) aquifer 

type (confined or unconfined), (2) aquifer framework, (3) 

groundwater-flow system, including water levels and recharge 

and discharge conditions, and (4) water quality of surface 

water and groundwater. Data used to characterize the aquifer 

type and the geologic framework of the aquifers were obtained 

mostly from well records and geologist’s logs of eight test 

wells drilled at five sites during this study (appendix 2). The 

locations of 140 wells in the Town of Danby are shown in 

figure 11. Records of these wells and construction details for 

the test wells drilled for this study are in appendix 1 and 2, and 

the range, mean, and median of well depths and reported well 

yields are summarized in table 1. 
12 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

1,200

1,150

1,100

1,050

1,000

950

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000

WD 220

WD 94

~

~

WD 360

WD 220

WD 360

WD 260

WD 160 ~

~~~ ~~ WD 136

WD 133

EXPLANATION

FEET

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION x 20

VERTICAL DATUM IS NORTH AMERICAN VERTICAL DATUM OF 1988

Alluvial deposits of Holocene age

al

Till of late Wisconsin age

Devonian-age rocks 

tv

tl

Undifferentiated sand and gravel (unknown origin)— Buried 

deposits whose origin is unknown. Forms confined aquifers 

where overlain by till or lacustrine silt and clay 

ud

Glaciolacustrine deposits of Wisconsin age

Glaciofluvial deposits of Wisconsin age

Channel and flood-plain alluvium—Gravel, sand, and silt 

deposited by recent streams. Deposits are found beneath 

flood plains, low terraces, and in stream channels 

Ground-moraine deposits in the uplands (mostly lodgment till)—

Consists of subangular to angular clasts (pebbles to boulders) 

derived in large part from local bedrock that became embedded 

in a fine-grained matrix consisting of clay, silt, and fine sand 

Ground-moraine deposits in valley fill (valley facies)—Consists 

of subround to round clasts (pebbles to cobbles) derived in large 

part from reworked glaciofluvial deposits that became embedded 

in a fine-grained matrix consisting of clay, silt, and fine sand. Forms a 

confining unit where it overlies sand and gravel units 

Bedrock—Devonian-age shale, siltstone, and sandstone 

Water level—Static-water level in well (well may be 

finished in bedrock aquifers, or the upper confined, lower 

confined, or unconfined aquifers) 

Geohydrologic symbols

WD 75 TM2467

r

Well and site name—Site name is assigned by the U.S. 

Geological Survey. TM = Tompkins County, number following 

TM is sequential well number. WD = well depth (in feet) 

Silt and sand—Chiefly off-shore and near-shore deposits 

of former glacial and postglacial lakes; some deposits 

are in small separate basins. The deposits are thin and 

discontinuous in some areas 

Potentiometric surface—Shows altitude of water level in 

cased wells finished in the confined aquifer. Datum is NAVD 88 

H/V

Horizontal-to-vertical ambient-noise seismic measurement—

Asterisk denotes computed depth to bedrock

lss

Basal confined aquifer

ud

lss lss

al

tl

tl

tv

tv

tv

r

r

r

TM2523

TM2483

TM2840

Buttermilk Creek

NORTHWEST EAST

A A’ TM2370 TM2909 (projected) TM1841 TM2808 TM2734 HVSR TM1768

*

Interstadial buried gorge

*

BEND IN 

SECTION

Figure 7. Geohydrologic section A–A’ across the northern part of upper Buttermilk Creek valley, Town of Danby, 

Tompkins County, New York.
Geohydrology of the Stratified-Drift Aquifer System 13

1,300

1,250

1,200

1,150

1,100

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000

BD 89 

WD 75 

WD 23 

BD 70

WD 41

WD 200

EXPLANATION

FEET

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION x 20

VERTICAL DATUM IS NORTH AMERICAN VERTICAL DATUM OF 1988

Alluvial deposits of Holocene age

al

af

hs

Devonian-age rocks 

tv

tl

ld Delta—Pebbly sand and silt, deposited where upland streams or 

meltwater streams entered a glacial lake 

Undifferentiated sand and gravel (unknown origin)— Buried deposits 

whose origin is unknown. Forms confined aquifers where overlain 

by till or lacustrine silt and clay 

ud

Glaciolacustrine deposits of Wisconsin age

Glaciofluvial deposits of Wisconsin age

Alluvial-fan deposits—Sand and gravel with some silt deposited as 

fans by upland tributaries where they join the main valley. May form 

local unconfined aquifers 

Channel and flood-plain alluvium—Gravel, sand, and silt deposited 

by recent streams. Deposits are found beneath flood plains, low 

terraces, and in stream channels 

Ground-moraine deposits in the uplands (mostly lodgment 

till)—Consists of subangular to angular clasts (pebbles to boulders) 

derived in large part from local bedrock that became embedded 

in a fine-grained matrix consisting of clay, silt and fine sand 

Ground-moraine deposits in valley fill (valley facies)—

Consists of subround to round clasts (pebbles to cobbles) 

derived in large part from reworked glaciofluvial deposits 

that became embedded in a fine-grained matrix consisting 

of clay, silt and fine sand. Forms a confining unit where it overlies

sand and gravel units 

Bedrock—Devonian-age shale, siltstone, and sandstone 

Water level—Static-water level in well (well 

may be finished, in bedrock aquifers, or the upper 

confined, lower confined, or unconfined aquifers) 

Geohydrologic symbols

WD 75

BD 89TM2467

Well and site name—Site name is assigned 

by the U.S. Geological Survey. TM = Tompkins 

County, number following TM is sequential 

well number. WD = well depth (in feet) and 

BD = boring depth (in feet, of a test well). In some 

cases, the casing of a test well may have been 

raised from BD to WD

Water table—Shows altitude of water level in cased wells 

finished in the unconfined aquifer. Datum is NAVD 88

Silt and sand—Chiefly off-shore and near-shore deposits of former 

glacial and postglacial lakes; some deposits are in small separate 

basins. The deposits are thin and discontinuous in some areas. 

lss

Clay and silt—Fine-grained sediments that were deposited in former 

glacial and postglacial lakes; some deposits settled in small separate 

basins. The deposits are thin and discontinuous in some areas 

lcs

Till of late Wisconsin age

r

Fresh-water swamp deposits—Chiefly muck, mucky peat, and 

organic residues mixed with fine sand, silt, and clay that may be

intermittently covered by standing water

Basal confined aquifer

Upper confined aquifer

Deltaic unconfined aquifer 

al

af

ld

tv

tv

tv

tv

tl

ud

ud

ud

r

r

r

tl

lcs

lss

hs

Alluvial fan

unconfined aquifer

TM1018, test well near Town Halll

(finished in bedrock)

(finished in upper confined aquifer)

Buttermilk Creek

TM2588, test well near Park Assoc. 

TM2467 test well near Highway Dept.

TM1038 (projected)

WEST EAST

B B’

~

~

(finished in lower confined aquifer)

(finished in upper confined aquifer)

Surface-water divide

Figure 8. Geohydrologic section B–B’ across the headwaters of upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys near 

the hamlet of Danby, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York.
14 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

? ?

1,300

1,250

1,200

1,150

1,350

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000

EXPLANATION

FEET

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION x 20

VERTICAL DATUM IS NORTH AMERICAN VERTICAL DATUM OF 1988

Alluvial deposits of Holocene age

af

Till of late Wisconsin age, continued

Devonian-age rocks 

tv

Undifferentiated sand and gravel (unknown origin)—Buried deposits 

whose origin is unknown. Forms confined aquifers where overlain by 

till or lacustrine silt and clay 

ud

Glaciofluvial deposits of Wisconsin age

Alluvial-fan deposits—Sand and gravel with some silt deposited 

as fans by upland tributaries where they join the main valley. May 

form local unconfined aquifers 

Ground-moraine deposits in valley fill (valley facies)—Consists 

of subround to round clasts (pebbles to cobbles) derived in large 

part from reworked glaciofluvial deposits that became embedded 

in a fine-grained matrix consisting of clay, silt and fine sand. Forms a 

confining unit where it overlies sand and gravel units 

Bedrock—Devonian-age shale, siltstone, and sandstone 

Water table—Shows altitude of water level in cased wells 

finished in the unconfined aquifer. Datum is NAVD 88 

Water level—Static-water level in well (well may be 

finished in bedrock aquifers, or the upper confined, lower confined, 

or unconfined aquifers) 

Geohydrologic symbols

CD 75

TD 89TM2467

Well and site name—Site name is assigned by the U.S. Geological 

Survey. TM = Tompkins County, number following TM is sequential 

well number. CD = casing depth (in feet) and TD = total depth (in 

feet) of an open-hole well finished in bedrock or of a test well 

Clay and silt—Fine-grained sediments that were deposited in former 

glacial and postglacial lakes; some deposits settled in small separate 

basins. The deposits are thin and discontinuous in some areas 

lcs

Glaciolacustrine deposits of Wisconsin age

Silt and sand—Chiefly off-shore and near-shore deposits of former 

glacial and postglacial lakes; some deposits are in small separate 

basins. The deposits are thin and discontinuous in some areas 

lss

r

Swamp deposits of Holocene age

Fresh-water swamp deposits—Chiefly muck, mucky peat, and 

organic residues mixed with fine sand, silt, and clay that may be 

intermittently covered by standing water. The deposits are on 

former lake beds, in abandoned glacial melt-water channels and 

sluiceways, and other shallow poorly-drained depressions 

hs

*H/V

Horizontal-to-vertical ambient-noise seismic measurement—

Asterisk denotes computed depth to bedrock 

Till of late Wisconsin age

tl Ground-moraine deposits in the uplands (mostly lodgment till)—

Consists of subangular to angular clasts (pebbles to boulders) 

derived in large part from local bedrock that became embedded in 

a fine-grained matrix consisting of clay, silt and fine sand 

Ice-contact deposits (kames)—Sand and gravel deposited as 

mounds and knobs mostly overlying till along the valley walls k

~

~

TD 240

TD 125

TD 100

CD 27

Seismic-refraction survey

tl

r r

af

tl

hs

lss

WEST EAST

C C’ TM2667 TM2591 TM2589H/V *

Headwaters of 

Danby Creek

TM2179

tv

tv

tv

ud

lss

lcs

FEET

k

Figure 9. Geohydrologic section C–C’ across Danby Creek valley, along Steam Mill Road, Town of Danby, 

Tompkins County, New York.
Geohydrology of the Stratified-Drift Aquifer System 15

al

tl

tl

tl

r

r

r

1,250

1,200

1,150

1,100

1,050

0 1,000 2,000 3,000

EXPLANATION

FEET

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION x 20

VERTICAL DATUM IS NORTH AMERICAN VERTICAL DATUM OF 1988

Alluvial deposits of Holocene age

al

Till of late Wisconsin age

Devonian-age rocks 

tl

Glaciofluvial deposits of Wisconsin age

Glaciolacustrine deposits of Wisconsin age

r

Channel and flood-plain alluvium—Gravel, sand, and silt 

deposited by recent streams in the valleys. Deposits are 

found beneath flood plains, low terraces, and in stream 

channels 

Ground-moraine deposits in the uplands (mostly lodgment till)—

Consists of subangular to angular clasts (pebbles to boulders) 

embedded in a fine-grained matrix consisting of clay, silt and fine sand 

Bedrock—Devonian-age shale, siltstone, and sandstone 

Lacustrine sand—Chiefly off-shore and near-shore 

deposits of former glacial and postglacial lakes; some 

deposits are in small separate basins. Extent is 

unknown elsewhere 

lss

lss

Outwash sand and gravel—Chiefly sand and gravel 

beneath terrace remnants; as valley trains and beneath 

outwash plains; as fans and aprons; as delta topset beds.

Forms the main part of the unconfined aquifer in the valley 

osg

osg

Water table (unconfined aquifer)

Water level—Static-water level in well (well 

may be finished in bedrock, or in the upper 

unconfined aquifer)

Geohydrologic symbols

CD 81

TD 88TM1035

Well and site name—Site name is assigned 

by the U.S. Geological Survey. TM = Tompkins 

County, number following TM is sequential 

well number. CD = casing depth (in feet) and 

TD = total depth (in feet) of an open-hole well 

finished in bedrock or of a test well (in some 

cases, the casing of a test well may have been 

raised from TD to CD) 

TD 88 TM1035 test well (finished in bedrock)

Danby Creek

TM2590 test well, (finished in unconfined aquifer) 

SOUTH NORTH

D D’

CD 27

CD 81

Figure 10. Geohydrologic section D–D’ across Danby Creek valley, along Durfee Hill Road, Town of Danby, 

Tompkins County, New York.
16 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

!

!

! !

!

!

!

!

TM2806

TM2760

TM2519

TM1796

TM2459

TM1038

TM1037

TM 46

TM 47

TM 599

TM 599

TM2561

TM2399 TM2311

TM1035

TM2589

TM2588

TM2369

TM2333

TM1894

TM1792

TM1216

TM1578

TM2346

TM1407

TM2253

TM1847

TM1541

TM1909

TM2467

TM2165

TM2300

TM2297

TM1028

TM1023

TM1793

TM1956

TM1960

TM2053

TM2667

TM1748

TM1415

TM1886

TM1491

TM1283

TM1465

TM1659

TM1883

TM1919

TM1926

TM1928

TM1897

TM2041

TM1654

TM 618

TM1281

TM1295

TM1830

TM1896

TM1893

TM2179

TM2156

TM2082

TM2062

TM1962

TM1607 TM1923

TM1547

TM1511 TM1363

TM1303

TM1212

TM1319

TM1362

TM1008,

TM1009

TM1681

TM2463

TM2542

TM2590

TM2591

TM1743

TM 602

TM 603

TM1267 TM2734

TM2214

TM1768

TM1027 TM1026

TM1018

TM2905

TM1024

TM1025

TM1526

TM1210

TM2142

TM1833

TM1320

TM1961

TM2069

TM1937

TM1685

TM1528 TM2882

TM1513

TM1317

TM1272

TM1235

TM1234

TM1214

TM1209

TM1683

Gas well

A

A'

B

B’

C

C'

D

D’

76°34' 76°32' 76°30' 76°28' 76°26' 76°24'

42°24'

42°22'

42°20'

42°18'

42°16'

Inset A

Inset B

Inset A

Inset B

TM1789

TM1619 TM1346

TM1508

TM1622

TM1740

TM1711

TM1710

TM1712

TM1841

TM2808

TM1844 TM2923

TM2370 TM2909

TM2483

TM1678

TM1471

TM1842

TM1414

TM1047

TM1273

TM2840 TM1271

TM2523

TM1495 TM1618

TM1618

TM2679

TM1036

TM1342

A’

State Rt 96B

State Rt 96B

Basemap created with TOPO!, scale 1:24:000

2003 National Geographic, URL www.nationalgeographic.com/topo

Danby Creek Basin

Michigan Creek Basin

Upper Butte rmil k Creek B a s ni

Lower Sixmile and

Willseyvill

e Cre

e

k 

Tro

u

gh

Cayuga Inlet Trough

TIOGA COUNTY

TOMPKINS COUNTY

TIOGA COUNTY

TOMPKINS COUNTY

TOWN OF ITHACA

TOWN OF 

NEWFIELD

TOWN OF DRYDEN

TOWN OF 

CAROLINE

TOWN OF 

CANDOR

TOWN OF DANBY

TOWN OF SPENCER

0 1 2 MILE

0 1 2 KILOMETER

Figure 11. Location of wells in the Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York. 
Geohydrology of the Stratified-Drift Aquifer System 17

Aquifer Types

The unconsolidated sediments in the upper Buttermilk 

and Danby Creek valleys contain confined and unconfined 

aquifers and confining layers. The major stratified-drift 

aquifers in the study area are confined sand and gravel units in 

the upper Buttermilk Creek valley and an unconfined aquifer 

in the southern part in the Danby Creek valley (fig. 12). In 

addition to these major aquifers, alluvial fans (fig. 6) form 

thin and discontinuous unconfined sand and gravel aquifers in 

several localities (fig. 12). Aquifers are composed of sediments 

of sufficient permeability (moderate to high hydraulic 

conductivity) that can store and yield usable amounts of water 

to wells. Moderate hydraulic conductivity is defined from 10 

to 100 feet per day (ft/d) and high hydraulic conductivity is 

greater than 100 ft/d. In an unconfined aquifer, the water table 

is at or near atmospheric pressure and is the upper boundary of 

the aquifer. There were only two wells (TM1654 and TM2590) 

in the study area that were finished in unconfined aquifers 

(fig. 12). The two wells were 27 and 41 ft deep and reported 

well yields were 10 and 20 gallons per minute (gal/min).

Confining layers are made up of poorly permeable 

sediments (low hydraulic conductivity) that prevent 

groundwater from rapidly moving through these layers. In 

the study area, the confining layers consist of mostly of till 

and some fine-grained glaciolacustrine sediments (figs. 7 

through 10) clay, silt and fine sand. 

A confined aquifer (also known as an artesian aquifer) is 

between confining layers and is composed of sediments and 

bedrock of sufficient permeability that it is able to store and 

yield usable amounts of water to wells. In a confined aquifer, 

the potentiometric surface is, by definition, always above 

the top of the aquifer. When a confined aquifer is tapped by 

a well, water in the casing is forced up to its potentiometric 

altitude. If the hydraulic pressure in the confined aquifer is 

great enough, it may cause the well to flow above land surface, 

in which case, the well is referred to as a flowing artesian well. 

Wells that tap confined stratified-drift aquifers (glaciofluvial 

unit ud, figs. 7 through 9) in the Town of Danby ranged from 

23 to 160 ft deep and mean and median well depths were 

74 ft and 70 ft, respectively (table 1). Reported yields for 

wells finished in confined stratified-drift aquifers ranged from 

3 to 50 gal/min and mean and median yields were 16 and 15, 

respectively (table 1). 

In the Town of Danby, wells that tap the Devonian-age 

bedrock (mostly shale, siltstone, and sandstone) ranged from 

50 to 420 ft deep and mean and median well depths were 

202 ft and 183 ft, respectively (table 1). Reported yields 

for wells finished in bedrock aquifers ranged from 0.1 to 

30 gal/min with mean and median yields of 6 and 4 gal/min, 

respectively (table 1).

Upper Buttermilk Creek Valley 

In the northern part of upper Buttermilk Creek valley, 

near the northern boundary of the Town of Danby, well 

records indicate that only one sand and gravel aquifer, a 

confined basal unit that is 10 to 20 ft thick and overlies 

bedrock at the valley bottom (fig. 7). Several domestic wells 

(wells ranged from 109 to 160 ft deep) in the central part of 

the valley tap this aquifer. Water-well drillers’ logs indicate 

that well yields range from 8 to 50 gal/min, and averaged 

20 gal/min for the six open-ended wells (6-in. diameter) that 

tap the confined aquifer in this area. These six wells are under 

confined conditions (but do not flow above land surface). 

In the southern part of upper Buttermilk Creek valley, 

near the Hamlet of Danby, there are as many as four coarsegrained, stratified-drift geohydrologic units: 

1. A thin surficial (unconfined) deltaic pebbly sand and 

silt unit that ranges from 5 to 10 ft thick (figs. 6 and 8) that 

was determined from test well TM2588 (well construction log 

in appendix 2, fig. 2–1). 

2. A surficial (unconfined) alluvial fan deposit that is on 

the east side of the valley (figs. 6 and 8). 

3. An upper sand and gravel unit (confined above and 

below by till) that ranges from 5 to 10 ft thick (fig. 8). 

4. A basal confined sand gravel unit (confined above by 

till and below by bedrock) that was determined at test well 

TM2467 (well construction log in appendix 2, fig. 2–2) at the 

surface-water divide between Buttermilk Creek and Danby 

Creek Basins in the central part of the valley (figs. 7, 8, 

and 12). 

The thin surficial (unconfined) deltaic pebbly sand 

unit had been tapped by shallow dug wells, but this unit 

is not considered to be a reliable aquifer because it is thin 

and typically becomes unsaturated during dry periods. 

Well data are not available at the alluvial fan in the eastern 

part of the valley (near Hornbrook Road); therefore, the 

geohydrologic condition is mostly unknown. The confined 

aquifers in the southern part of upper Buttermilk Creek valley 

do not flow above land surface in most areas except along a 

EXPLANATION

TM1528

TM 603

TM2519

Well finished in stratified drift and site name—

Site name is assigned by U.S. Geological Survey 

Well under flowing-artesian conditions that

is finished in stratified drift and site name—

Site name is assigned by U.S. Geological Survey 

Well finished in sedimentary rocks (shale,

siltstone, and sandstone) and site name—

Site name is assigned by U.S. Geological Survey 

D D' Line of geologic section

Aquifer boundary—Dashed lines bound areas

on the sides of the valley where bedrock is

overlain chiefly by till and some thin beds of

sand and gravel that form local confined

aquifers. It is unknown whether these local

aquifers are hydraulically connected to the

aquifer(s) in the valley. 

Basin boundary—Variously colored. Upper 

Buttermilk, Danby, and Michigan Creek aquifer 

contributing area
18 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

Table 1. Range, mean, and median of well depths and reported well yields in the Town of Danby, New York.

[ft, feet; gal/min, gallons per minute. Data reported from water well drillers logs and stored in USGS National Water Information System computer data base 

accessible at http://waterdata.usgs.gov/ny/nwis/inventory.]

Aquifer type

Well dephs

Number 

of wells

Reported well yields Number of 

artesian 

flowing 

wells

Number 

of wells

Range 

(ft)

Mean 

(ft)

Median 

(ft)

Range 

(gal/min)

Mean 

(gal/min)

Median 

(gal/min)

Unconfined sand and gravel 2 27–41 34 34 2 10–20 15 15 0

Confined sand and gravel 32 23–160 74 70 30 3–50 16 15 5

Bedrock 99 50–420 202 183 95 0.1–30 6 4 0

low-altitude corridor adjacent to Buttermilk Creek north of 

the Hamlet of Danby (figs. 11 and 12). Most domestic wells 

in the upper Buttermilk Creek valley are completed in these 

confined aquifers.

Danby Creek Valley

The aquifer types in Danby Creek valley are variable and 

depend on location (figs. 3 and 12). The lower (southeastern 

most) 8,000 ft of Danby Creek valley within the Town of 

Danby is occupied by a contiguous unconfined surficial 

aquifer (fig. 12) composed chiefly of sand and gravel (kames, 

outwash, and alluvium, figs. 6 and 10). The aquifer averages 

about 800 ft wide. Several domestic wells use this aquifer for 

water supply. Where Durfee Hill Road crosses Danby Creek 

valley (fig. 12), test-well records for TM1035 and TM2590 

(fig, 10; well construction logs in appendix 2, figs. 2–3) 

indicate several important features:

1. The surficial sand and gravel deposits are 32 ft thick at 

that site. 

2. The saturated thickness is 20 ft.

3. The unconfined aquifer may contain fine-grained 

lenses, such as silt.

4. A basal confined aquifer was not present. 

5. Depth to bedrock was 68 ft (fig. 10). 

This aquifer extends southward beyond Tompkins County and 

into Tioga County where it becomes part of the large aquifer 

system in the Catatonk Creek drainage basin (fig. 2 of Miller 

and Pittman, 2012).

There are also several small unconfined units (alluvial 

fans) along the west and east sides of the valley near Steam 

Mill Road (figs. 6, 8, 9, and 12). However, subsurface data 

are not available in these areas to determine the saturated 

thickness of these alluvial fan deposits. 

An upper confined aquifer (confined above and below by 

till) was determined between depths of 19 and 23 ft at test well 

TM2467 (fig. 8). This aquifer apparently grades to fine sand 

between 43 and 46 ft at test well TM2591 near Steam Mill 

Road (fig. 9; well construction log in appendix 2, fig. 2–4) 

and between 44 and 48 ft at test well TM1035 at Durfee Hill 

Road (fig. 10; well construction log in appendix 2, fig. 2–3). 

This sand unit is not considered an important aquifer in Danby 

Creek valley because it is thin (3 to 4 ft thick). Water-well 

drillers in central New York do not typically finish an openend cased well in fine sand because the sand is likely to flow 

inside the casing and, in some cases, mix with pumped water.

At a nested, test-well site (wells TM2589 and TM2591) 

at Steam Mill Road, well TM2589 penetrated a shallow 

7-ft-thick confined aquifer at depths from 24 to 31 ft (fig. 9). 

Test well TM2591 (well log in appendix 2, fig. 2–4), an 

opened-ended cased well finished at depth 27 ft, yielded 

20 gal/min during development of the well. Because well data 

are not available where a large wetland occupies most of the 

valley floor to the south of the test well TM2591, the presence 

of aquifers is unknown in that area (fig. 11).

The basal confined aquifer (confined above by till and 

below by shale) that was identified at test well TM2467 (at the 

surface-water divide between Buttermilk Creek and Danby 

Creek Basins, figs. 8 and 12), probably extends southward into 

Danby Creek valley. However, the basal confined aquifer was 

absent at test well TM2589 at Steam Mill Road (fig. 9, and 

well construction log in appendix 2, fig. 2–4), which indicates 

that the unit pinched out between the divide and Steam Mill 

Road (fig. 12). 

Michigan Creek Valley

Well data are not available in Michigan Creek valley 

(fig. 11); therefore, aquifer conditions are unknown. Based on 

geologic information, the ice-contact sand and gravel deposits 

(kames) that are on the lower flanks of the west valley wall of 

Michigan Creek valley (fig. 6) may extend below the wetland 

in the valley and form an aquifer; however, drilling a well 

would be difficult because of the wetland (fig. 12). 

Bedrock

Bedrock aquifers (Devonian-age sedimentary rocks, 

fig. 6) that underlie the Town of Danby are the important 

sources of drinking water for homeowners in the uplands. 
Geohydrology of the Stratified-Drift Aquifer System 19

0 0.5 1 MILES

0 0.5 1 KILOMETERS

Basemap created with TOPO!, scale 1:24:000

2003 National Geographic, URL www.nationalgeographic.com/topo

76°24'

42°18'

76°30' 76°28' 76°26'

42°22'

42°24'

42°20'

EXPLANATION

Mainly unconfined

Unconfined (thin)—Alluvial fan

Unconfined (thin) and confined

Confined upland units—These sand and gravel deposits

may be discontinuous lenses within mostly till that mantles 

the lower flanks of the valley walls. These units may not 

be hydraulically connected to the stratified-drift aquifers 

in the valley 

Unknown

Mainly confined—Stipled where aquifer is under 

artesian flowing conditions, elsewhere the aquifer is

under non-flowing conditions

Aquifer type Aquifer type, continued

Aquifer boundary—Dashed lines bound areas on the sides 

of the valley where bedrock is overlain chiefly by till and some 

thin beds of sand and gravel that form local confined aquifers. 

It is unknown whether these local aquifers are hydraulically 

connected to the aquifer(s) in the valley 

Basin boundary—Variously colored

Well finished in stratified drift and site name

Well finished in sedimentary rocks and site name 

TOWN OF DANBY

TOWN OF ITHACA

TOWN OF 

CAROLINE

TOWN OF 

CAROLINE

TOWN OF DRYDEN

Buttermilk Creek Basin

Danby CreekBasin

Danby Creek Basin

Michigan Creek Basin

Buttermilk Creek Basin Michigan Creek Basin STEAM MILL RD.

 Hamlet 

of

Danby

HORNBROOK RD.

STATE RT. 96B

D URFEEHILL ROAD

TM2467

TM2589

TM1654

TM2589

TM1654

TM2591

TM2590

Figure 12. The types of stratified-drift aquifers in the upper Buttermilk Creek, Danby Creek, and Michigan Creek valleys in the 

Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York. 
20 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

However, the yields available from bedrock wells are 

generally much lower than from wells finished in sand and 

gravel. In the uplands, bedrock is both the only dependable 

source of water as well as the most economical source of 

potable water for homes, farms, and small commercial 

facilities.

Generally, water-well drillers do not drill wells more 

than 300 to 400 ft deep into bedrock in the study area because 

well yields typically decline and the water typically becomes 

increasingly more mineralized and less potable with increasing 

depth. Well yields generally decline with increasing depth 

because the density, width, and connectivity of water-bearing 

fractures decrease with increasing depth. The deepest domestic 

well completed in bedrock (TM2519) in the Town of Danby 

was 420 ft deep (reported yield was 0.1 gal/min before 

hydraulic fracturing [fracking] and 1.5 gal/min after fracking).

In the southern part of Tompkins County, records from 

water-well drillers indicate that 2 to 5 gal/min can usually 

be obtained from wells that tap bedrock at most locations. 

Locally, yields as large as 10 to 30 gal/min or as small as less 

than 1 gal/min are obtained (Miller, 2009).

Aquifer Geometry

The stratified-drift aquifer system in the study area is 

contained in narrow, high-altitude valleys. These valleys 

contain relatively thin stratified- and unstratified-drift deposits. 

In most places in the study area, the thickness of these deposits 

are less than 100 ft, except in the northern part of upper 

Buttermilk Creek valley, where it is as much as 160 ft thick. 

About two-thirds of the drift is composed of fine-grained 

deposits (till or glaciolacustrine fine sand, silt, and clay) that 

form confining units. The remaining one-third of the drift is 

composed of coarse-grained deposits (sand and gravel) that 

form the unconfined and confined aquifers.

Unconfined Aquifers

In the southern part of Danby Creek valley, an unconfined 

aquifer (green aquifer unit shown in fig. 12) that is 0.1 to 

0.2-mi wide extends from the kame-end moraine at the 

southern end of the large wetland to the southern border of 

the town. The aquifer is composed of kame-end moraine, 

outwash, and Holocene alluvium (fig. 6). The unconfined 

aquifer was 32 ft thick at test-well sites TM1035 and TM2590 

(well construction logs in appendix 2, fig. 2–3), Durfee Hill 

Road (fig. 10) and at least 41 ft thick at domestic well TM1654 

(fig. 12). This aquifer is underlain by till (fig. 10; appendix 2, 

fig. 2–3).

Several of the large alluvial fans that extend throughout 

the study area (fig. 6) may form local, discontinuous 

unconfined aquifers where they have a sufficient saturated 

thickness (fig. 12). These formations may be as thick as 

25 to 35 ft at the apex of the fan and become thinner toward 

the lower edges of the fans where they eventually pinch out. 

Although these aquifers are small, they typically receive 

high rates of recharge. In addition to receiving recharge from 

precipitation that directly falls on the fan, these fans are also 

recharged from tributary streams that typically lose water as 

they flow over the fans.

Confined Aquifers and Confining Units

The confined aquifers in upper Buttermilk Creek valley 

are as much as 0.65 mi wide in the southern part and narrow to 

0.3 mi wide in northern part of the valley (fig. 12). The upper 

confined aquifer (fig. 8) is south of the kame-end moraine 

(fig. 6) that crosses the valley in the northern part of the study 

area. This aquifer is typically 5 to 10 ft thick and is 20 to 

40 ft below land surface (fig. 8). Many domestic wells in the 

valley in this area are completed in this aquifer. This aquifer 

is confined above and below by till that typically ranges in 

thickness from 15 to 30 ft (fig. 8).

A basal confined aquifer is present in the upper 

Buttermilk Creek interstadial buried gorge in the northern part 

of upper Buttermilk Creek valley (fig. 7) and in the eastern 

part of the southern part of the valley (fig. 8). Although the 

basal confined aquifer was absent at several well sites in the 

western part of the valley, it may be present in other areas. 

For example, at test-well site TM2806, well depth 47 ft, 

(fig. 11; well log in appendix 2, fig. 2–5) a second confined 

aquifer (probably the basal aquifer) was penetrated at 40 to 

at least 47 ft. Although the well was not drilled deep enough 

to penetrate bedrock, the results of a passive seismic survey 

at the well site indicated that bedrock was about 53 ft below 

land surface. The basal confined aquifer ranges in thickness 

from 3 to 24 ft and lies 58 to 74 ft below land surface in the 

central part of the valley, but locally it can be shallower (20 to 

40 ft below land surface) such as along the edges of the valley 

(fig. 8). This aquifer is confined above by 15 to 30 ft of till 

in the southern part of the valley and by as much as 157 ft of 

mostly till in the northern part of the valley and is confined 

from below by bedrock (figs. 7 and 8).

In the northern part of Danby Creek valley, underlying 

an unconfined aquifer, there is an upper confined aquifer in 

the bottom of a shallow channel that had contained a shallow 

proglacial lake (figs. 9 and 12). In this shallow proglacial lake, 

a thin layer of glaciolacustrine fine sand and clay (confining 

unit) was deposited on top of an undifferentiated sand and 

gravel deposit (fig. 9). The glaciolacustrine sediments were 

subsequently overlain by Holocene alluvial-fan deposits (sand 

and gravel), which might form a local unconfined aquifer in 

the eastern part of the valley (fig. 9). The confined aquifer 

was 7-ft thick and was at depths from 24 to 31 ft at nested, 

test-well site TM2589 and TM2591 (appendix 2, fig. 2–4), 

Steam Mill Road (fig. 9). Elsewhere, the extent of this aquifer 

is unknown.
Geohydrology of the Stratified-Drift Aquifer System 21

Groundwater Recharge 

Groundwater is recharged ultimately by infiltration of 

precipitation (rain and snowmelt) on the land surface. The 

amount of recharge to an aquifer is needed to determine 

a groundwater budget and the long-term availability of 

groundwater. The distribution and amount of recharge in the 

study area varies spatially, seasonally, and by degree of aquifer

confinement. Most recharge is during the plant dormant 

season, typically March through April; and mid-October 

through mid-December. During this period, groundwater 

levels generally rise in the aquifers (fig. 13), indicating that 

aquifer storage is increasing. During the growing season 

(May through mid-October), evapotranspiration (the process 

by which water is changed from the liquid state into the vapor 

state and transpiration is the process by which water vapor 

escapes from living plants into the atmosphere) typically 

exceeds precipitation, which results in decreasing water levels 

and indicates that aquifer storage is decreasing. However, 

during large storms, the rate of recharge can exceed the rate 

of evapotranspiration, which results in a rise of groundwater 

levels even during the growing season (fig. 13).

The sources of recharge can be more easily estimated 

for unconfined aquifers than for confined aquifers. Large 

amounts of recharge are readily available to unconfined 

aquifers because these aquifers are exposed at land surface. 

Water from various sources, such as direct precipitation or 

loss from tributary streams contributes most of the recharge to 

unconfined aquifers. Recharge to confined aquifers is limited 

and generally poorly known because these aquifers are buried 

and typically only a small part of the aquifer is open to the 

atmosphere that can be recharged from direct precipitation. 

In the parts of the study area that contain confined aquifers, 

the extent, thickness, and type of sediments that overlie 

the aquifers affect the flux of water from the surface to the 

aquifers. The sources of recharge to and the discharge from the

aquifers are depicted in figure 14.

Unconfined Aquifer

The principal sources of recharge to the unconfined 

aquifers in the study area include direct infiltration of 

precipitation (rain and snowmelt) at land surface, unchanneled

surface runoff from adjacent hillsides that seeps into the 

aquifer along the edges of the valley, groundwater inflow from

till and bedrock that enters the aquifer along the sides of the 

valley, seepage loss from upland-tributary streams where they 

flow over alluvial fans in the valley, and upward leakage from 

the underlying geologic units in the valley where the hydraulic

head in these units are higher than the water table in the 

unconfined aquifer.

Direct infiltration of precipitation seeps to the water 

table and recharges the unconfined aquifer where sand and 

gravel is at land surface and when this water is not lost to 

evapotranspiration (the sum of evaporation and transpiration). 

The mean annual precipitation in the study area is about 

36.7 inches per year (in/yr) or 3.1 feet per year (ft/yr), 

based on precipitation data for 1971–2000 for Ithaca, N.Y. 

(Northeast Regional Climate Center, 2012), which is 5.0 mi 

northeast of the study area (fig. 4). In the southern part of 

Tompkins County, the mean annual evapotranspiration is 

estimated to be 18.5 in/yr (1.5 ft/yr; Kontis and others, 2004, 

plate 1). The amount of annual recharge from precipitation 

that falls directly over the unconfined aquifer in Danby Creek 

valley at the southern part of the study area can be estimated 

using equation 1:

R P ET A p = − ( ) , (1)

where

 Rp

 is annual recharge from 

 precipitation that falls directly over 

 the aquifer, in cubic feet per year,

 P is mean annual precipitation, in feet 

 per year,

 ET is mean annual evapotranspiration, 

 in feet per year, and

 A is area of the top of the unconfined 

 aquifer, in square feet.

Using equation 1, the estimated annual recharge (Rp) 

from precipitation that falls directly over the unconfined 

aquifer in Danby Creek valley (the area represented by the 

contiguous surficial geologic deposits kame moraine, outwash 

sand and gravel, and alluvial fan deposits in fig. 6; and shown 

as a green unconfined aquifer unit in fig. 12) is computed to 

be 1.25 ×107

 cubic feet per year (ft3/yr) or 93.5 million gallons 

per year (Mgal/yr), where P is equal to 3.1 feet per year (ft/yr), 

ET = 1.5 feet per year (ft/yr), and A = 7.81 × 106

 cubic feet ft3 

(0.28 square mile).

Another source of recharge to the unconfined aquifer is 

from adjacent unchanneled surface runoff and groundwater 

inflow that seeps into the aquifer from adjacent hillsides 

along the edges of the valleys (figs. 14 and 15). Runoff and 

groundwater inflow from these hillsides infiltrate into the 

unconfined aquifer along the edges of the valley (fig. 14B and 

14C). The annual amount of recharge from these unchanneled 

hillsides can be estimated by using equation 2:

R P ET A u = − ( ) , (2)

where

 Ru

 is annual recharge from 

 unchanneled hillsides, in cubic feet 

 per year,

 P is mean annual precipitation, in feet 

 per year,

 ET is mean annual evapotranspiration, 

 in feet per year, and

 A is area of unchanneled hillsides that 

 are adjacent to the unconfined 

 aquifer, in square feet.
22 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J

Altitude of water level, in feet above, NGVD 1929

Monthly precipitation, in inches

4

8

12

1,216

1,218

1,220

1,222

1,214

1,212

1,202

1,204

1,206

1,208

1,210

1,200

1,198

1,196

1,194

1,192

Relatively large and spiky

fluctuations indicate that

the aquifer is under low degree

of confinement

Relatively small and less spiky

fluctuations indicate that

the aquifer is under moderate 

degree of confinement

0.59

1.94

-0.65

-1.48

0.08

-0.68

-0.38

-0.97-1.32

0.49

-1.25

0.61

0.87

1.85

-1.37

-0.26

-0.21

-1.06

-0.69

0.53

0.96

0.23

-1.01

-0.83

-0.23

-0.32

0.84

-1.56

3.79

0.49

-0.81

-1.01

1.64

1.07

2.95

4.12

6.62

-1.28

-1.55

1.24

-0.86

0.39

0.98

-1.48

0.17

-0.84

-0.09

-0.54

-0.31

-0.83

Potentiometric surface—Shows altitude (in feet) of the water level in well TM2467. Datum is NGVD 29 

Potentiometric surface—Shows altitude (in feet) of the water level in well TM2588. Datum is NGVD 29 

Potentiometric surface—Shows altitude (in feet) of the water level in well TM2591. Datum is NGVD 29 

EXPLANATION

Monthly precipitation at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration weather station at Cornell University, 

Ithaca, NY—Red bar shows monthly amount of precipitation (in inches). Green line shows monthly normal precipitation and 

number is the departure, in inches, of actual precipitation from the monthly normal precipitation. http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/

Figure 13. Altitude of groundwater levels in test wells TM2467, (near Town of Danby Highway Department) from June 

1, 2008, to June 26, 2012, TM2588 (near the Hamlet of Danby) from December 17, 2008, to March 30, 2011, and TM2591, 

(Steam Mill Road) from February 11, 2009, to June 26, 2012, Town of Danby, New York. 
Geohydrology of the Stratified-Drift Aquifer System 23

4

1 2

1 2

1 2 2 1

3

3

9 9 7 7

Water table (unconfined aquifer)

2 1

C. Southern part of study area—Unconfined aquifer

B. Central part of study area—Unconfined and confined aquifers

A. Northern part of study area—Isolated basal confined aquifer

2 Edge of valley-fill deposits 

2 1

Buttermilk Creek

9 9

7

4

8

5

5

4

Buttermilk Creek

Danby Creek

8

1

Some water may recharge the confined aquifer as 

subsurface flow from adjacent fine-grained sediments, 

especially when the aquifer is pumped 

Lateral contact between bedrock and either finegrained stratified drift and till. Flow across the contact 

is small 

Some water may recharge the buried aquifer as 

subsurface flow from underlying till or bedrock. Flow

across the contact is small 

Little or no water recharges the buried aquifer from 

streams flowing across the fine-grained deposits in 

the main valley. The main stem stream in the valley is

typically a discharge zone (gains water) 

Precipitation recharges permeable surficial alluvial 

fans, kame moraines, outwash, and deltaic deposits, 

some of which constitute unconfined aquifers but 

some may be too thin to be of practical value 

Drainage divide: a boundary between adjacent 

drainage basins. Ground water and surface water 

divides in uplands are generally coincident 

4

5

6

7

9

3

3

EXPLANATION

Shale and siltstone

Till 

Mostly till that is interlayered with some 

lacustrine fine sand, silt and clay

Alluvial fan or channel sand and gravel

Deltaic pebbly sand and gravel with some silt

Outwash sand and gravel

Geohydrologic units

Unchanneled and channeled runoff; and some subsurface flow from upland areas recharge surficial 

sand and gravel deposits along the edges of the valley 

and where tributary streams cross their alluvial fans. 

These flows may also be a source of recharge to 

buried aquifers (as well as precipitaion, see number 

3) where confined sand and gravel units in central 

parts of the valley extend to the valley walls where 

confining units are absent and are directly overlain by 

surficial sand and gravel 

Water

6

7

3

6

Precipitation recharges the confined aquifer where 

it crops out at land surface or underlies an alluvial fan

along the edges of the valley 

Hydrologic and recharge components

Confined sand and gravel aquifer

Figure 14. Schematic geohydrologic sections showing sources of recharge to aquifers in the A, northern part of the study 

area (upper Buttermilk Creek valley); B, central part of the study area (upper Buttermilk Creek valley); and C, southern part 

of the study area (Danby Creek valley), Tompkins County, New York.
24 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

Using equation 2, the estimated annual recharge (Ru) 

to the unconfined aquifers in Danby Creek valley from 

precipitation that falls on adjacent unchanneled hillsides 

is estimated to be 4.46 × 107

 ft3/yr (334 Mgal/yr), where 

P = 3.1 ft/yr, ET = 1.5 ft/yr, and A = 2.79 × 107 ft2

 (1.00 mi2). 

Because the Danby Creek valley is narrow and the areas of 

the adjacent unchanneled hillsides are much larger (3.4 times 

larger) than the valley floor: the unconfined aquifer receives 

proportionally 3.4 times more recharge from the hillsides 

(334 Mgal/yr) than from precipitation that falls directly over 

the aquifer (93.5 Mgal/yr).

 Additional sources of recharge to the unconfined aquifer 

in Danby Creek valley are tributaries that drain channelized 

upland basins (fig. 15). As upland tributary streams enter 

larger valleys floored with permeable sand and gravel, they 

typically loose water by infiltration through the streambed 

(Randall, 1978). These streams typically lose water where 

they flow over the alluvial fans in the large valleys. However, 

recharge from these tributary streams is difficult to estimate 

because streambed leakances are generally poorly known 

(Kontis and others, 2004). Paired streamflow measurements 

at the upstream (contact of the stratified drift and till-mantled 

bedrock valley wall) and downstream (mouth of stream) 

reaches can yield a rate of loss for that reach at that time and 

flow condition. However, paired streamflow measurements 

were not conducted for this study because most measuring 

sites were inaccessible. In addition to the unconfined aquifer 

in the southern part of Danby Creek valley, upland tributaries 

that flow over their isolated alluvial fans in the northern part 

of Danby Creek valley also provide recharge to these small 

unconfined aquifers. However, these small isolated alluvial 

fans may not be reliable aquifers because generally the 

deposits are thin; thus, the saturated thickness is thin and may 

be unsaturated during dry periods.

In the southern part of the study area, the recharge from 

six upland tributaries (losing streams) that flow over the 

contiguous unconfined aquifer in the Danby Creek valley (the 

green unconfined aquifer unit in fig. 15) was estimated using 

the following steps:

1. Flow-duration at 10-percent intervals was computed for 

the six upland tributaries that flow over alluvial fans on 

the contiguous unconfined aquifer. These flow-duration 

intervals were computed by using the 1931–60 flowduration curve developed for Sage Brook near South 

New Berlin, N.Y. (streamgage 01501500) by Ku and 

others (1975). Sage Brook drains a small upland basin 

(0.61 mi2) that is composed mostly of till over bedrock, 

which is similar to the upland drainage basins in this 

study area.

2. The mean runoff (in cubic feet per square mile) was 

used from the Sage Brook flow-duration curve for each 

10-percent flow-duration interval.

3. The upland drainage areas of the six upland tributaries 

that lose water to the contiguous unconfined aquifer in 

Danby Creek valley were computed using a geographic 

information system (GIS).

4. The mean runoff values from step 2 were multiplied by 

the areas of the six upland drainage basins (fig. 15) from 

step 3 to obtain runoff (in ft3/s) in each stream in Danby 

Creek valley for each 10-percent flow-duration interval.

5. The length of each tributary channel that crosses the 

aquifer in Danby Creek valley was measured (in ft). 

These channel lengths were multiplied by 1.0 ft3/s per 

1,000 ft to determine the upper limit of the rate of loss of 

flow that was most likely lost during high-flow periods. 

For tributary streams in the Susquehanna River Basin, 

Randall (1978) determined that a rate of loss of 1.0 ft3/s 

per 1,000 ft of channel was the typical maximum amount 

of loss for periods when streamflow is available. 

6. For each tributary channel, the recharge for each 10-percent flow-duration interval were computed using the following criteria: For flow-duration intervals when the rate 

of flows that were determined in step 5 exceeded those 

in step 4, the flow in step 4 were used (which assumes 

100 percent of streamflow infiltrates into the unconfined 

aquifer). For intervals where flows in step 4 exceeded 

those in step 5, the flows in step 5 were used (which 

assumes infiltration is a fraction of streamflow).

7. To determine the total recharge from each tributary, the 

results of step 6 were summed. The results of the above 

calculations indicated that the total drainage area of the 

six upland basins is 0.58 mi2 and the sum of all recharge 

from losing streams that cross the unconfined aquifer 

was 0.75 ft3/s (table 2).

Some groundwater in the unconfined aquifer in 

Danby Creek valley is also recharged from bedrock. Some 

groundwater moves upward from the underlying bedrock at 

the bottom of the valley to the stratified-drift aquifer in the 

valley as indicated by the upward vertical gradient determined 

at the test wells TM1035 and TM2590 (fig. 11, well logs 

shown in appendix 2, fig. 2–3) in the southern part of the 

study area. For example, on November 5, 2008, the hydraulic 

head in test well TM1035 (finished in bedrock) was 6.4 ft 

higher than the water level in test well TM2590 (finished in 

the unconfined aquifer; appendix 2, fig. 2–3). However, the 

groundwater flow is small when compared to the horizontal 

flow in the unconfined aquifer because the bedrock is fairly 

impermeable (typically having a hydraulic conductivity less 

than 1 foot per day, ft/d) as well as is the till that overlies 

bedrock.

The estimated average-annual amounts of recharge to 

the unconfined aquifer in Danby Creek valley are summarized 

in table 2. The percentages of all sources of recharge to 

the contiguous unconfined aquifer in Danby Creek valley 

include 16 percent from precipitation that falls directly 

over the aquifer, 55 percent from runoff and groundwater 

inflow from adjacent unchanneled hillsides, and 29 percent 
Geohydrology of the Stratified-Drift Aquifer System 25

0 0.5 1 MILES

0 0.5 1 KILOMETERS

Basemap created with TOPO!, scale 1:24:000

2003 National Geographic, URL www.nationalgeographic.com/topo

76°24'

42°18'

76°30' 76°28' 76°26'

42°22'

42°24'

42°20'

EXPLANATION

Mainly unconfined

Unconfined (thin)—Alluvial fan

Unconfined (thin) and confined

Confined upland units—These sand and gravel deposits may be discontinuous 

lenses within mostly till that mantles the lower flanks of the valley walls. These 

units may not be hydraulically connected to the stratified-drift aquifers in the valley 

Unknown

Channelized upland drainage basin—Contains a stream that gains water in the 

uplands and is likely to lose water where it flows on sand and gravel deposts in 

the valley 

Mainly confined—Stipled where aquifer is under artesian flowing conditions, 

elsewhere the aquifer is under non-flowing conditions

Aquifer type

Aquifer type, continued

Aquifer boundary—Dashed lines bound areas on 

the sides of the valley where bedrock is overlain 

chiefly by till and some thin beds of sand and 

gravel that form local confined aquifers. It is unknown 

whether these local aquifers are hydraulically 

connected to the aquifer(s) in the valley 

Unchannelized upland drainage basin—Adjacent smooth hillsides where runoff 

and groundwater inflow from till and bedrock recharge the unconfined 

aquifer in Danby Creek Valley 

STEAM MILL RD.

Hamlet

of

Danby

HORNBROOK RD.

STATE RT. 96B

DURFEE HILL ROAD

TOWN OF DANBY

TOWN OF ITHACA

TOWN OF 

CAROLINE

TOWN OF 

CAROLINE

TOWN OF DRYDEN

Figure 15. Channeled and unchanneled upland drainage basins that provide recharge to the unconfined aquifers in the 

upper Buttermilk Creek, Danby Creek, and Michigan Creek valleys in the Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York.
26 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

Table 2. Estimated average annual recharge to the contiguous unconfined aquifer in Danby Creek valley, Town of Danby, New York. 

[ft3/s, cubic feet per second; ft3/d, cubic feet per day; ft3/yr, cubic feet per year; Mgal/d, million gallons per day; and Mgal/yr, million gallons per year]

Sources of recharge (ft3/s) (ft3/d) (ft3/yr) (Mgal/d) (Mgal/yr) Percent of total

Precipitation that falls directly on entire extent of 

aquifer

0.40 34,236 12,496,000 0.26 93 16

Upland sources

Runoff and groundwater inflow from adjacent 

unchannelized hillsides

1.41 122,300 44,640,000 0.91 334 55

Seepage from losing upland tributaries that flows over 

the aquifer (channeled flow)

0.75 64,800 23,652,000 0.48 177 29

Total average annual recharge to aquifer 2.56 221,336 80,788,000 1.65 604 100

from losing streams that cross the aquifer (table 2). The 

total annual recharge to the contiguous unconfined aquifer 

is 2.56 ft3/s (604 Mgal/yr)(table 2). The relatively small 

portion of recharge that comes from precipitation that falls 

directly on the aquifer in Danby Creek valley is a result of 

the relatively narrow valley (typically 600 to 1,000 ft wide), 

and thus, a relatively small part of the total drainage area. 

Hence, a proportionally larger amount of precipitation falls 

in the uplands in Danby Creek valley than in wider valleys. 

In general, where the unconfined aquifer in a valley is 

wider, more recharge is derived from precipitation as it falls 

directly on the aquifer when compared to that from other 

upland sources of recharge. For example, in two other central 

New York valleys in which recharge was estimated, Meads 

Creek valley is moderately wide (1,500 to 3,000 ft) and Otter 

Creek/Dry Creek valley is wide (6,000 to 8,000 ft; valleys 

not shown in this report); the portions of recharge that were 

derived from precipitation that falls directly on these aquifer 

valleys constituted 28 and 38 percent, respectively (Miller 

and others, 2008; and Miller and others, 1998), of the total 

recharge to these aquifers (compared to 16 percent in this 

study area).

Confined Aquifers 

The buried aquifers in the study area are confined by 

relatively impermeable fine-grained unconsolidated sediments 

(till or glaciolacustrine fine sand, silt, and clay) that impede or 

slow infiltration of water (recharge) from surface sources to 

the aquifer. However, parts of some confined aquifers appear 

to be semiconfined where they are bounded by relatively lowto-moderate permeable sediments (glaciolacustrine fine sand). 

In the part of the study area that contains confined aquifers 

(fig. 12), the sources and amounts of recharge are difficult to 

identify because the aquifers are concealed from view at land 

surface by overlying deposits (recent alluvium and confining 

units) and, in most areas, there is insufficient subsurface 

data (such as, well records, water-level measurements, and 

geophysical data). Therefore, the amount of recharge to the 

confined aquifers was not estimated in this study. In addition 

to more groundwater data, a numerical groundwater flow 

model would be the best tool to estimate the amount of water 

that recharges the confined aquifers. However, construction of 

a numerical groundwater flow model was beyond the scope of 

this study.

Although there were insufficient data to quantify the 

amount of recharge to the confined aquifers, some data 

are available to conceptualize how and where confined 

aquifers are recharged. Potential sources of recharge can be 

inferred by examining trends of groundwater levels. The 

trend of groundwater levels can offer clues to the degree of 

confinement of the aquifers. 

In this study area, groundwater levels were monitored 

continuously for 2 to 3 years in test wells TM2467, TM2588, 

and TM2591, (fig. 13, location of wells shown in fig. 11). 

The degree of confinement is indicated by the response (or 

lack thereof) in water levels to phenomena, such as relatively 

rapid increases in water levels (spikes) during and just 

following individual rain-storm events, and from fluctuations 

caused by changes in stream and lake stages (Heath, 1976). 

Aquifers of low-to-moderate confinement have confining 

units that are discontinuous (“windows” of highly permeable 

sediments in the confining layer), thin, or consist of leaky 

semipermeable sediments such as fine-grained sand. Aquifers 

of low-to-moderate confinement receive moderate amounts 

of recharge from one or more of the following sources of 

water: (1) precipitation that falls directly on the windows of 

permeable sediments within the confining unit (the confining 

unit is discontinuous), (2) precipitation that falls directly on 

semipermeable parts of the confining unit and slowly infiltrates 

downward to the confined aquifer, and (3) groundwater inflow 

from till and bedrock from adjacent hillsides that seeps into 

the aquifer along the edges of the valley. Hydrographs of wells 

finished in aquifers of low-to-moderate degree of confinement 

are spiky and display relatively large fluctuations during the 

storm events, as determined for TM2591 (fig. 13).

Aquifers with a high degree of confinement (highly 

confined aquifers): (1) are distal from land-surface sources 

of recharge, (2) are confined by thick, extensive sediments 

with low hydraulic conductivities (low permeability), such as 
Geohydrology of the Stratified-Drift Aquifer System 27

till, silt, clay and shale, (3) receive only minor leakage from 

confining units, and (4) are insensitive to fluctuation in water 

levels in response to precipitation events. For highly confined 

aquifers, hydraulic conductivities are at least two orders of 

magnitude less than that of the aquifer. Groundwater level 

fluctuations in aquifers under high degree of confinement 

show gradual seasonal changes but show little or no changes 

due to individual storms (spikes). Wells TM1008 and TM1009 

(well depths 187 and 130 ft, respectively) in lower Sixmile 

Creek valley, 4 mi east of Danby (locations shown in fig. 11), 

are examples of wells that are finished in confined aquifers 

(Miller and Karig, 2010, appendix 1) under a high degree of 

confinement (fig. 16).

The groundwater levels in test wells TM2467, TM2588, 

and TM2591 in this study area show that the degrees of 

confinement vary from low-to-moderate depending on location 

(fig. 13). Fluctuation of groundwater levels in response 

to storms is readily apparent (hydrograph with spikes and 

relatively large fluctuations during storm events) in well 

TM2591, somewhat less apparent in well TM2467, and least 

apparent in well TM2588 (fig. 13). The largest groundwater 

fluctuations were in well TM2591 (at the headwaters of Danby 

Creek valley, fig. 13), which suggests that the thin confining 

unit in that area (a 9-ft layer of fine sand and clay with some 

silt; fig. 9 and well-construction log in appendix 2, fig. 2-4) 

may be a discontinuous lens rather than an extensive layer. 

Also, the well site is on a large alluvial fan on the east side of 

Danby Creek valley (fig. 5, 6 and 12)—alluvial fans are areas 

where confined aquifers are commonly recharged (fig. 14B). 

In either case, the relatively large fluctuation in groundwater 

levels in response to storms indicates that the confined aquifer 

is receiving relatively large amounts of recharge from a 

nearby source.

Groundwater fluctuations were smaller in well TM2467 

(at the groundwater divide near Hornbrook Road) than in 

well TM2591 (fig. 13), which suggests that there is more 

confinement in the area of well TM2467 than in the area of 

well TM2591. The confining layer is relatively thick (35 ft) 

at well TM2467 (fig. 8 and appendix 2, fig. 2-2), and, thus, 

is likely to be more extensive than the confining layer near 

TM2591. However, the moderate spikes and fluctuations 

shown in this hydrograph for well TM2467 indicates that 

there is substantial hydraulic connection to a nearby source 

of recharge, even though the well is more distal to plausible 

sources of recharge than is well TM2591. The most likely 

source of nearby recharge to well TM2467 is the large alluvial 

fan 0.5 mi to the northeast on the east side of the valley near 

Hornbrook Road (figs. 6 and 8), which is where the basal 

confined aquifer in figure 8 is shown rising in altitude and 

meeting the unconconfined aquifer at the alluvial fan.

The abruptness in the spikes in the water level and the 

magnitude in the rise in the groundwater level were the least 

in well TM2588 (fig. 13, location shown in fig. 11) near the 

Hamlet of Danby in the western part of the headwaters of 

upper Buttermilk Creek valley. These two characteristics of 

the hydrograph indicate that the aquifer near well TM2588 

is more confined and more distal from sources of recharge 

than aquifers near wells TM2591 and TM2467. The subtle 

spikes shown in the hydrograph for well TM2588 coincide 

with individual storms and also indicate that, although the 

aquifer is under a higher degree of confinement at this site 

than at the sites of wells TM2591 and TM2467 in this study 

2007 2008

944

946

948

950

952

954

956

958

J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F

No

data

Well TM1009 (depth = 130 ft)

 Well TM1008 (depth = 187 ft)

Land surface

Altitude of water level, in feet above NGVD1929

Figure 16. Altitude of 

groundwater levels in wells 

TM1008 and TM1009 finished 

in aquifers under high degree 

of confinement, lower Sixmile 

Creek valley, Town of Caroline, 

Tompkins County, New York. 

(Location of wells shown in 

fig. 11.)
28 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

area, the aquifer is not as confined as those aquifers that wells 

TM1008 and TM1009 are finished in the lower Sixmile Creek 

valley (fig. 16).

Groundwater Flowpaths and Discharge

In the Danby Creek valley (southern part of the study 

area), groundwater in the unconfined aquifers flows to 

surface-water bodies (streams and wetlands) (fig. 17). The 

groundwater discharges (1) to domestic, commercial, and 

farm wells, (2) to Danby Creek, (3) to a large wetland in the 

central part of Danby Creek valley, and (4) as losses because 

of evapotranspiration (fig. 17). Where the unconfined aquifer 

is less than 15 ft from land surface, transpiration during the 

growing season reduces the amount of water that infiltrates 

to the water table and evaporation removes some water from 

the top of the water table. Mean annual evapotranspiration is 

estimated to range between 19 and 20 in/yr or about one-half 

of the annual precipitation in this area (Kontis and others, 

2004; plate 1).

In the upper Buttermilk Creek valley, groundwater in the 

confined aquifers generally flows northwestward (downvalley) 

and discharges to (1) domestic and commercial wells, (2) 

Buttermilk Creek in the area near the northern town border, 

and (3) a small unnamed stream in a ravine at the south end of 

Buttermilk State Park just north of the town border (fig. 17). 

In the area of artesian-flowing conditions in the southwest 

part of the valley (shown by stippled area in fig. 17), the wells 

typically are not capped and continuously flow. 

Although groundwater discharges continually throughout 

the year, the rate of discharge is typically less than recharge 

from late fall to mid spring. During this period, the rate of 

discharge is less than recharge because plants are dormant 

and the temperature is cool, which result in less loss as 

evapotranspiration and, therefore more precipitation is 

available as recharge. The greater rate of recharge is reflected 

by rising groundwater levels in the aquifer (fig. 13) indicating 

that aquifer storage is increasing. Conversely, during the 

growing season (from late spring to mid fall), the rate of 

discharge is generally greater than the rate of recharge and 

is reflected by groundwater levels that typically decrease in 

the aquifers during this period (fig. 13) indicating that aquifer 

storage is decreasing.

Groundwater Withdrawals

An estimated 301 people depend on groundwater from 

the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek stratifieddrift aquifer system (table 3). The estimate was determined 

by a visual count of homes, farms, and businesses over the 

aquifer area on orthoimage maps (minus the number of 

households that were dependent on wells that tap bedrock) 

and multiplying that result by 2.3, the average number of 

persons per households in Tompkins County (table 3) from 

2010 U.S. Census (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012). Because no 

people live over the Michigan Hollow Creek valley part of 

the aquifer system, no groundwater is withdrawn from wells. 

Another estimated 78 people reside in both valleys but depend 

on groundwater from wells that tap the bedrock (shale) aquifer 

(table 3).

The estimated total groundwater use from the stratifieddrift aquifer system is about 22,600 gallons per day 

(gal/d; 8.2 Mgal/yr) and about 5,860 gal/d (2.1 Mgal/yr) 

from the bedrock aquifers, based on an estimated average 

water use of 75 gal/d per person for self-supplied water 

systems in New York (Hutson and others, 2000) times the 

estimated 301 people that withdraw groundwater from the 

stratified-drift aquifers and the estimated 78 people that 

withdraw groundwater from the bedrock aquifers (table 3).

Potential for Large-Capacity Municipal or 

Commercial Wells

The potential for large ground-water withdrawals is of 

interest to town and county planners as well as to potential 

commercial businesses that may wish to locate in the area. 

In addition, should hydraulic fracturing for unconventional 

development of wells drilled for natural gas be allowed in 

New York, the gas drilling companies may be seeking to 

withdraw large amounts of water from aquifers as well as 

surface water. The amount of recharge to stratified-drift 

aquifers is a key determinant of the long-term availability 

of water. In general, more recharge water is available to 

unconfined sand and gravel aquifers than to confined aquifers. 

Although several other large through valleys studied by the 

USGS contain stratified-drift aquifers capable of large yields 

(Miller, 2009; Miller and Karig, 2010; Miller and Bugliosi, 

2013), the aquifers in this study area might not yield water in 

large quantities. Low yields of water are expected in this study 

area because the main confined aquifers in upper Buttermilk 

valley are thin and the main unconfined aquifer in Danby 

Creek valley is relatively small in areal extent and is thinly 

saturated (fig. 12).

At the time of this study (2006–12), all wells in the upper 

Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys were pumped 

intermittently at rates that typically range from 3 to 10 gallons 

per minute (gal/min) to adequately supply individual homes, 

small shops, or public buildings. The aquifers in these valleys 

could easily accommodate additional similar withdrawals. 

The question may arise in the future as to whether the aquifers 

could meet the water needs of a municipality or commercial 

facility which may need water in excess of 100 gal/min. To 

meet this large demand of water, it may be feasible to use an 

array of wells to tap the unconfined aquifer in lower Danby 

Creek valley. 

Unconfined Aquifer in Lower Danby Creek Valley

The lower (southeastern most) 8,000 ft of Danby Creek 

valley within the Town of Danby is occupied by a contiguous 
Geohydrology of the Stratified-Drift Aquifer System 29

0 0.5 1 MILES

0 0.5 1 KILOMETERS

Basemap created with TOPO!, scale 1:24:000

2003 National Geographic, URL www.nationalgeographic.com/topo

76°24'

42°18'

76°30' 76°28' 76°26'

42°22'

42°24'

42°20'

1,210

1,200

1,220

1,180

1,160

1,140

1,100

1,120

1,080

1,060

980

1,040

1,020

1,000

1,200

1,220

1,170 1,180

1,170

1,230

1,240

1,200

1,140

1,150

1,120

1,130

1,160

1,170

1,180

1,1701,180

1,290

1,280

1,290

EXPLANATION

Mainly unconfined

Unconfined (thin)—Alluvial fan

Unconfined (thin) and confined

Confined upland units—These sand and gravel deposits may be discontinuous 

lenses within mostly till that mantles the lower flanks of the valley walls. These 

units may not be hydraulically connected to the stratified-drift aquifer in the 

valley. The configuration of the potentiometric surface is unknown

Unknown

Mainly confined—Stipled where aquifer is under artesian flowing 

conditions, elsewhere the aquifer is under non-flowing conditions

Aquifer type

Aquifer boundary—Dashed where it is uncertain whether sand and gravel units buried 

on adjacent hillsides aquifers in are hydraulically connected to aquifers in the valley 

1,170 Generalized water-table altitude—Shows approximate altitude 

of the water level in the unconfined aquifers derived from 

measurements made from 2000 to 2011, and from stream-surface 

altitudes as indicated by LIDAR data; therefore, the contours 

are an approximation and reflect a generalized conception of the 

water-table in this study area. Contour interval 10 feet. Datum is 

National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929

1,200 Generalized potentiometric-surface altitude—Shows approximate 

altitude of the water level in the confined aquifer derived from 

measurements made from 2000 to 2011, and from stream-surface 

altitudes as indicated by LIDAR data; therefore, the contours 

are an approximation and reflect a generalized conception of the 

water-table in this study area. Contour interval 10 feet. Datum is 

National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929

x Data point—Well with water-level measurement

TOWN OF DANBY

TOWN OF ITHACA

TOWN OF 

CAROLINE

TOWN OF 

CAROLINE

TOWN OF DRYDEN

STEAM MILL RD.

Hamlet

of

Danby

HORNBROOK RD.

State Rt. 96B

Large amounts of of groundwater 

discharges into this ravine

Buttermilk

State Park 

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

xx

x

x

xx

x

x x

x

x

x

x

x x

Figure 17. Water table in unconfined aquifers and the potentiometric surface in the confined aquifer in the upper 

Buttermilk Creek, Danby Creek, and Michigan Creek valleys in the Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York.
30 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

Table 3. Estimated groundwater withdrawals by users that reside over the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys aquifersystem study area, 2012.

[--, not applicable]

Users

Estimated 

number of 

wells that 

tap the 

stratified 

drift, sand 

and gravel 

aquifersa

Estimated 

number of 

wells that 

tap the 

bedrock 

aquifersb

Average 

people per 

householdc

Estimated 

number of 

people using 

water from 

stratified 

drift, sand 

and gravel 

aquifers

Estmated 

number of 

people using 

water from 

bedrock 

aquifers

Average 

use per 

person, in 

gallons 

per dayd

Estimated 

withdrawal, 

in gallons 

per day from 

stratified 

drift, sand 

and gravel 

aquifers

Estimated 

withdrawal, 

in gallons 

per day from 

bedrock 

aquifers

Private homes over 

the stratified-drift 

aquifers in upper 

Buttermilk Creek 

valley

117 26 2.3 269 60 75 20,183 4,485

Private homes over 

the stratifieddrift aquifers in 

Danby Creek 

valley

14 8 2.3 32 18 75 2,415 1,380

Total 131 34 -- 301 78 -- 22,598 5,865

a

The estimated number of wells that tap the stratified-drift, sand and gravel aquifers was determined by a visual count of homes, farms, and businesses over 

the aquifer area on orthoimage maps. Then the number of wells within the aquifer area that are known to tap bedrock were subtracted from the total number of 

wells.

b

The estimated number of wells that tap the bedrock aquifers within the area that is overlain by the sand and gravel aquifers were estimated from well 

records. Since well records are not available for all wells within the area that is overlain by the sand and gravel aquifers, the number of bedrock wells may be 

somewhat higher than indicated.

c

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2012, http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/, accessed August 15, 2015.

d

 From Hutson and others (2000).

unconfined surficial aquifer composed chiefly of sand and 

gravel (kames, outwash, and alluvium; fig. 6). The aquifer 

is relatively narrow—averaging in width of about 800 ft 

and has a small saturated thickness of about 20 ft (well 

TM1035, fig. 10). The total annual recharge to the contiguous 

unconfined aquifer is 2.56 ft3/s (1.65 Mgal/d; table 2). In order 

to provide sustainable continuous amount of water to large 

water users such as municipalities and industries, an array 

of wells spaced along this aquifer (for example, wells that 

are spaced 500 ft apart along the center of the aquifer, each 

screened in the bottom 5 ft of the aquifer) could probably be 

pumped collectively at a rate of several hundred gallons per 

minute during the winter and spring of most years. Water from 

Danby Creek would readily infiltrate and recharge the aquifer. 

However, the potential for induced recharge (when a pumping 

well creates a cone of depression that lowers an adjacent water 

table below the level of a stream causing the stream to lose 

water to the adjacent groundwater aquifer) from Danby Creek 

during summer periods and dry years of low flow is likely to 

be inadequate to sustain this rate of withdrawal. In addition, 

the amount of water stored in this thin, and limited in extent, 

aquifer would be small. If development of the unconfined 

aquifer in the Danby Creek valley was contemplated, test 

wells would need to be drilled to collect more detailed data 

about the saturated thickness and aquifer transmissivity in 

order to determine the potential yield more precisely.

Confined Aquifers in Upper Buttermilk Creek 

Valley

Records of several wells document the presence of a 

basal confined sand and gravel aquifer over bedrock and 

beneath thick till in the deeply incised bedrock valley beneath 

Buttermilk Creek in the northern part of the study area (figs. 7, 

11, and 12; figs. 2–1, 2–2, and 2–5, in appendix 2). In addition, 

a basal confined aquifer over bedrock and a midsection 

confined sand and gravel aquifer are also documented near 

and somewhat north of the surface-water divide between 

Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek (figs. 8 and 11; appendix 

2, fig. 2–2) at higher altitude than in the northern part of 

the study area. These aquifers may be connected, although 

sufficient data is lacking to conclusively determine this 

connection. Well data from water-well drillers through 2012 

indicate that these confined aquifers are thin (typically about 
Water Quality 31

10 ft thick) and the reported yield data (ranged from 3 to 

50 gal/min; table 1). These well yield data suggest that the 

confined aquifers meets the needs of homeowners and small 

commercial facilities, but these aquifers may not be capable of 

supplying sufficient water to meet the needs of municipalities 

and industries. However, additional geohydrologic data 

leading to calibration of a groundwater flow model would 

be needed to evaluate the long-term potential yield of the 

confined aquifer system in upper Buttermilk Creek valley.

Water Quality

Water-quality samples were collected to characterize the 

chemical quality of surface water and groundwater in the study 

area. On July 31, 2008, seven surface-water samples were 

collected from seven sites, including three sites along upper 

Buttermilk Creek, two sites along Danby Creek, and two sites 

on tributaries to upper Buttermilk Creek (fig. 18). On various 

dates from 2007 through 2010, groundwater samples were 

collected from 12 wells (fig. 18). Field measurements were 

made for pH, specific conductance, and water temperature 

for surface-water samples and groundwater samples. The 

concentrations of 34 constituents, including inorganic 

major ions, nutrients, and trace elements were measured in 

surface water. In 9 of the 13 wells that were sampled from 

August 2007 through December 2008, the concentrations of 

40 constituents, including inorganic major ions, nutrients, and 

trace elements were measured in groundwater samples. In 4 

of the 13 wells that were sampled from June 2010 through 

October 2010, the samples were analyzed for 20 constituents 

associated with hydraulic fracturing, including inorganic major 

ions, trace elements, radiochemicals, and dissolved gases; as 

well as five nutrients.

The samples were shipped by overnight delivery to the 

(1) USGS National Water Quality Laboratory (NWQL) in 

Denver, Colo., for analysis of inorganic major ions, nutrients, 

inorganic trace elements, and (2) USGS Chlorofluorocarbon 

Laboratory (CFCL) in Reston, Virginia, for select dissolved 

gases. Analytical results for selected constituents were 

compared with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 

and New York State Department of Health (NYSDOH) 

drinking-water standards. The standards include Maximum 

Contaminant Levels (MCLs), Secondary Maximum 

Contaminant Levels (SMCLs), Secondary Drinking-Water 

Standard (SDWS), and Health Advisories (HAs) established 

by the EPA (2009) and the NYSDOH (2011).

Surface Water

A total of 7 surface-water samples were collected by 

USGS personnel during base-flow conditions on July 31, 

2008—2 sample sites were at upper Buttermilk Creek, 3 sites 

were at tributaries to Buttermilk Creek, and 2 sites were at 

Danby Creek (tables 4 and 5, fig. 18). Summary statistics for 

pH and several selected chemical constituents are in table 6 

and summary statistics for trace elements are in table 7.

Physiochemical Properties, Inorganic Major 

Ions, Nutrients, and Trace Elements

The pH of surface-water samples ranged from 6.8 

to 8.0, with a median value of 7.6 (tables 4 and 6); all 

of the 7 samples were within the accepted SMCL range 

of 6.5 to 8.5 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

2009). Specific conductance of the samples ranged from 

308 to 1,360 microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees 

Celsius (μS/cm °C), with a median value of 341 μS/cm °C 

(tables 4 and 6).

Inorganic Major Ions

The cation detected in the greatest concentration was 

calcium, which ranged from 33.7 to 76.4 milligrams per liter 

(mg/L), with a median value of 44.0 mg/L (tables 4 and 6). 

Magnesium concentrations ranged from 6.65 to 15.4 mg/L, 

with a median of 8.63 mg/L. Calcium and magnesium 

contribute to water hardness, which ranged from 112 to 

254 mg/L as calcium carbonate (CaCO3), with a median of 

145 mg/L. Potassium concentrations ranged from 0.57 to 

1.60 mg/L, with a median value of 1.15 mg/L (tables 4 and 6). 

Sodium concentrations ranged from 7.89 to 119 mg/L, with a 

median value of 16.0 mg/L.

The anion detected in the greatest concentration was 

bicarbonate, which ranged from 135 to 265 mg/L, with 

a median value of 174 mg/L (tables 4 and 6). Chloride 

concentrations ranged from 15.0 to 222 mg/L, with a median 

value of 25.0 mg/L. Silica concentrations ranged from 4.34 to 

10.5 mg/L, with a median value of 5.28 mg/L (tables 4 and 6). 

Sulfate concentrations ranged from 1.62 to 11.9 mg/L, with a 

median value of 6.22 mg/L. None of the common major ions 

collected form surface-water sites in the study area exceeded 

any Federal or State water-quality standards (table 6) except 

for one sample, which exceeded the EPA drinking-water 

quality taste threshold of 60 mg/L for sodium.

Nutrients

The nutrient detected in the greatest concentration was 

nitrate (as nitrite plus nitrate, NO2

+NO3, tables 4 and 6), 

which ranged in concentrations from 0.022 to 0.454 mg/L as 

nitrogen, with a median value of 0.06 mg/L (tables 4 and 6). 

High concentrations of nitrogen can cause excessive plant 

and algal growth in streams, depleting oxygen and stressing 

organisms in their aquatic habitat; high concentrations also are 

a human health concern when the concentration is more than 

10 mg/L in drinking water (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 2009). Nitrite concentrations were at or below the 

reporting limit of 0.002 mg/L as nitrogen. Orthophosphate 

concentrations ranged from an estimated low of 0.005 to 
32 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

0 0.5 1 MILES

0 0.5 1 KILOMETERS

Basemap created with TOPO!, scale 1:24:000

2003 National Geographic, URL www.nationalgeographic.com/topo

76°24'

42°18'

76°30' 76°28' 76°26'

42°22'

42°24'

42°20'

EXPLANATION

Aquifer boundary—Dashed lines bound areas on the sides of the valley where bedrock is overlain 

chiefly by till and some thin beds of sand and gravel that form local confined aquifers. It is unknown 

whether these local aquifers are hydraulically connected to the aquifer(s) in the valley 

Basin boundary—Variously colored

TM2467

04233216 Surface-water sampling site and site identification number in which 

water-quality sample was collectedAnalyses are in table 4

Well and well site name in which groundwater sample was collectedAnalyses are 

in tables 8, 9, and 10

TOWN OF DANBY

TOWN OF ITHACA

TOWN OF 

CAROLINE

TOWN OF 

CAROLINE

TOWN OF DRYDEN

Buttermilk Creek Basin

Danby CreekBasin

Danby Creek Basin

Michigan Creek Basin

Buttermilk Creek Basin Michigan Creek Basin

STEAM MILL RD.

Hamlet

of

Danby

HORNBROOK RD.

STATE RT. 96B

DURFEE HILL ROAD

TM2806

TM2760

TM2519

TM1038

TM1037

TM1036

TM1035

TM2590

TM2591

TM2588

TM2467

TM1018

TM1491

04233212

04233220

04233216

01514672

04233214

01514666

04233210

Figure 18. The location of groundwater and surface-water sampling sites in upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby 

Creek valleys, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York.
Water Quality 33

Table 4. Physiochemical properties of, and concentrations of inorganic major ions and nutrients in surface-water samples from 

Buttermilk Creek, selected tributaries to Buttermilk Creek, and Danby Creek, Town of Danby, New York, July 31, 2008.

[Trib, tributary; Parm code, USGS National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code; mg/L, milligrams per liter; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter 

at 25 degrees Celcius; °C, degrees Celsius; CaCO3, calcium carbonate; <, less than; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorous; e, estimated value—constituent was detected in 

the sample but with low or inconsistent recovery; ft3/s, cubic foot per second. Sampling site locations are shown in figure 18.]

Local name 

Buttermilk 

Creek at 

Danby

Buttermilk 

Creek 

South of 

Ithaca

Buttermilk 

Creek 

Trib 1 at 

SR-96B at 

Danby

Buttermilk 

Creek 

Trib 2 at 

Nelson 

Road near 

Danby

Buttermilk 

Creek 

Trib 2 at 

Danby

Danby 

Creek at 

Steam Mill 

Road near 

Danby

Danby 

Creek at 

SR-96B near 

Willseyville

Date sampled 7/31/2008 7/31/2008 7/31/2008 7/31/2008 7/31/2008 7/31/2008 7/31/2008

USGS station identification number 04233210 04233220 04233212 04233214 04233216 01514666 01514672

 Physiochemical properties Parm 

code Units Values of physiochemical properties

Dissolved oxygen (field, 

standard units)

00300 mg/L 6.5 6.8 1.7 7.0 6.0 3.5 5.5

pH (field, standard units) 00400 pH 7.6 8.0 7.4 7.5 7.8 6.8 7.6

Specific conductance, at 25 

°C (field)

00095 μS/

cm

341 457 1,360 326 413 325 308

Water temperature (field, 

standard units)

00010 °C 19.5 19.3 18.0 19.5 17.5 23.0 23.3

Stream discharge, instantaneous00061 ft3/s 0.05 0.88 0.001 0.08 0.34 0.03 0.72

Constituent Concentrations of inorganic major ions

Cations:

Calcium, filtered 00915 mg/L 38.0 57.6 76.4 44.0 57.3 39.5 33.7

Magnesium, filtered 00925 mg/L 7.93 10.6 15.4 8.63 9.76 7.4 6.65

Potassium, filtered 00935 mg/L 0.97 1.60 1.44 1.15 1.34 1.03 0.57

Sodium, filtered 00930 mg/L 16.2 17.5 119 7.89 10.5 12.1 16.0

Anions:

Bicarbonate, filtered, as 

CaCO3

CALCa mg/L 154 222 265 174 223 170 135

Chloride, filtered 00940 mg/L 25.4 28.5 222 15.0 19.1 17.7 25.0

Silica, filtered 00955 mg/L 4.36 4.34 10.5 5.95 5.28 7.38 4.71

Sulfate, filtered 00945 mg/L 6.22 11.9 7.95 3.88 11.0 1.62 4.81

Hardness, filtered 00900 mg/L 127 188 254 145 183 129 112

Alkalinity, filtered CaCO3 29801 mg/L 126 182 217 143 177 139 111

Dissolved solids, at 180 °C 70300 mg/L 210 271 654 210 247 224 195

Nutrients Concentrations of nutrients

Ammonia, as N, filtered 00608 mg/L <0.02 <0.02 0.030 <0.02 <0.02 0.214 0.021

Nitrate, as N, NO2

+NO3, 

filtered as nitrogen

00631 mg/L 0.454 e 0.022 0.040 0.15 0.162 e 0.03 0.06

Nitrite, as N, filtered 00613 mg/L e 0.002 <0.002 e 0.002 e 0.002 <0.002 0.002 e 0.002

Orthophosphate, as P, 

filtered

00671 mg/L 0.021 e 0.005 0.028 0.007 0.008 0.040 0.015

Phosphorus, unfiltered 00665 mg/L 0.031 e 0.004 0.105 e 0.006 e 0.006 0.117 0.067

a

 CALC = Bicarbonate values were calculated from alkalinity concentrations, which are given in milligrams per liter of CaCO3.
34 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

Table 5. Concentrations of trace elements in surface-water samples from Buttermilk Creek, selected tributaries to Buttermilk Creek, 

and Danby Creek, Town of Danby, New York, July 31, 2008.

[Trib, tributary; Parm code, USGS National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code; μg/L, micrograms per liter; <, less than; e, estimated. Sampling site locations are shown in figure 18.]

USGS site name

Buttermilk 

Creek at 

Danby

Buttermilk 

Creek 

South of 

Ithaca

Buttermilk 

Creek Trib 

1 at SR-96B 

at Danby

Buttermilk 

Creek Trib 

2 at Nelson 

Rd near 

Danby

Buttermilk 

Creek Trib 2 

at Danby

Danby 

Creek at 

Steam Mill 

Road near 

Danby

Danby 

Creek at 

SR-96B near 

Willseyville

 Date sampled 7/31/2008 7/31/2008 7/31/2008 7/31/2008 7/31/2008 7/31/2008 7/31/2008

USGS station identification number 04233210 04233220 04233212 04233214 04233216 01514666 01514672

Constituent Parm 

code Units Concentrations of trace elements

Aluminum, filtered 01106 μg/L 1.8 2.5 2.0 3.7 e 1.5 5.0 4.0

Antimony, filtered 01095 μg/L < 0.140 e 0.07 e 0.080 < 0.140 < 0.140 < 0.140 < 0.140

Arsenic, filtered 01000 μg/L 0.75 0.5 1.3 0.42 0.27 2.7 0.94

Barium, filtered 01005 μg/L 28.4 65.8 137 63.0 82.5 87.8 42.0

Beryllium, filtered 01010 μg/L < 0.008 < 0.008 < 0.008 < 0.008 < 0.008 e 0.006 < 0.008

Cadmium, filtered 01025 μg/L < 0.040 < 0.040 < 0.040 < 0.040 < 0.040 < 0.040 < 0.040

Chromium, filtered 01030 μg/L < 0.12 < 0.12 < 0.12 < 0.12 < 0.12 e 0.10 < 0.12

Cobalt, filtered 01035 μg/L 0.056 0.050 0.151 0.053 0.049 0.984 0.092

Copper, filtered 01040 μg/L e 0.60 1.35 e 0.65 e 0.54 e 0.59 < 1.0 < 1.0

Iron, filtered 01046 μg/L 21.8 <8.0 55.1 16.2 < 8.0 1,170 52.7

Lead, filtered 01049 μg/L < 0.080 0.09 e 0.064 < 0.080 e 0.078 e 0.071 < 0.080

Manganese, filtered 01056 μg/L 23.5 1.8 157 25.0 4.44 3,550 180

Molybdenum, filtered 01060 μg/L 0.366 0.50 1.97 0.256 0.238 0.507 e 0.191

Nickel, filtered 01065 μg/L 0.52 0.45 0.88 0.38 0.33 1.2 0.41

Selenium, filtered 01145 μg/L 0.07 0.07 0.10 0.08 0.05 0.15 0.07

Silver, filtered 01075 μg/L < 0.100 < 0.100 < 0.100 < 0.100 < 0.100 < 0.100 < 0.100

Uranium, natural, 

unfiltered

22703 μg/L 0.141 0.370 0.772 0.251 0.307 0.140 0.140

Zinc, filtered 01090 μg/L e1.3 e 1.3 3.3 < 1.8 < 1.8 < 1.8 < 1.8

0.028 mg/L as phosphorous, with a median value of 0.015 

(tables 4 and 6). None of the surface-water samples exceeded 

drinking-water standards for nitrate or nitrite.

Trace Elements

The trace elements detected in the highest concentrations 

were barium, which ranged in concentrations from 24.8 to 

137 micrograms per liter (μg/L), with a median of 65.8 μg/L; 

iron, which ranged in concentrations from <8.0 to 1,170 μg/L, 

with a median 21.8 μg/L; and manganese, which ranged 

in concentrations from 1.8 to 3,550 μg/L, with a median 

25.0 μg/L (table 7). The highest detected concentration of a 

trace element was 3,550 μg/L of manganese in a sample from 

a stream (USGS streamgage 01514666, table 5) that drains 

a wetland area. Drinking-water standards were not exceeded 

for trace chemicals except for the sample collected at USGS 

streamgage 01514666 in which the concentration of iron was 

1,170 μg/L, which exceeded the EPA SMCL of 300 μg/L, 

and the concentration of manganese was 3,550 μg/L, which 

exceeded the EPA SMCL of 300 μg/L (table 5).

Groundwater

Groundwater samples were collected from 13 wells 

that tap the stratified-drift and bedrock aquifers—seven 

samples were from the confined stratified-drift aquifers, one 

from an unconfined stratified-drift aquifer, and five were 

from bedrock aquifers (locations shown in fig. 18). Nine 

samples were analyzed for physiochemical properties and 
Water Quality 35

Table 6. Summary statistics for physiochemical properties, concentrations of inorganic major ions, and selected nutrients in surface-water and groundwater samples collected in the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys, Town of Danby, New York, 2007–10.[e, estimated; mg/L, milligrams per liter; °C, degrees Celsius; <, less than; X, not applicable because of no drinking-water standard; — ,no data]

Constituent

Drinkingwater 

standard

Number 

of 

surfacewater samples

Number 

of 

samples 

exeeding limit

Surface-water samples Number 

of 

groundwater 

samples

Number 

of 

samples 

exeeding 

limit

Groundwater samples

Minimum Median Maximum Minimum Median Maximum

Physiochemical properties

Dissolved oxygen, mg/L None 7 X 1.7 6.0 7.0 12 X 0.1 0.4 2.8

pH (field) 6.5–8.5a 7 0 6.8 7.6 8.0 13 0 7.4 7.8 8.4

Specific conductance, μS/cm at 25 °C None 7 X 308 341 1,360 13 X 237 387 950

Constituent Concentrations of inorganic major ions

Cations

Calcium, mg/L None 7 X 33.7 44.0 76.4 13 X 8.52 38.6 102

Magnesium, mg/L None 7 X 6.65 8.63 15.4 13 X 1.66 8.52 25.0

Potassium, mg/L None 7 X 0.57 1.15 1.60 13 X 0.55 0.86 1.27

Sodium, mg/L 60b 7 1 7.89 16.0 119 13 3 4.83 16.3 159

Anions

Bicarbonate, mg/L as CaCO3 None 7 X 135 174 265 13 X 134 240 362

Chloride, mg/L 250a,b 7 0 15.0 25.0 222 13 0 0.85 6.12 179

Fluoride, mg/L 2.2c 7 0 — — — 13 0 0.10 0.28 0.43

Silica, mg/L None 7 X 4.34 5.28 10.5 13 X 6.92 13.5 15.3

Sulfate, mg/L 250a 7 0 1.62 6.22 11.9 13 0 0.44 13.3 35.4

Hardness, mg/L as CaCO3 None 7 X 112 145 254 13 X 28.6 143 353

Alkalinity, mg/L as CaCO3 250a 7 0 111 143 217 13 2 110 197 267

Dissolved solids, dried at 180 °C 500a 7 1 195 224 654 13 1 136 221 510

Nutrients Concentrations of nutrients

Ammonia, as N, filtered None 7 X <0.02 <0.20 0.214 10 X <0.020 0.154 0.455

Nitrate, as N, NO2+NO3, filtered as nitrogen 10a,c 7 0 0.022 0.06 0.454 10 0 <0.04 <0.04 0.28

Orthophosphate, as P, filtered None 7 X e 0.005 0.015 0.040 10 X 0.006 0.012 0.069

aU.S. Environmental Protection Agency secondary maximum contaminant level.bU.S. Environmental Protection Agency drinking water advisory taste threshold.cNew York State Department of Health maximum contaminant level.
36 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y. Table 7. Summary statistics for concentrations of trace elements in surface-water and groundwater samples collected in the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys, Town of Danby, New York, 2007–10. [All concentrations are in micrograms per liter (μg/L); —, not analyzed; X, not applicable because of no drinking-water standard; <, less than] Constituent Drinking- water standard Number of samples Number of surface- water samples exceeding limit Surface-water samples Number of samples Number of groundwater samples exceeding limit Groundwater samples Minimum Median Maximum Minimum Median Maximum Aluminum 50a 7 0 1.5 2.5 5.0 9 0 0.8 <4.0 256 Antimony 6b,c 7 0 0.07 0.14 0.14 9 0 0.028 0.04 0.06 Arsenic 10b 7 0 0.27 0.75 2.7 13 1 0.18 2.2 12.2 Barium 2,000b,c 7 0 28.4 65.8 137 13 0 36.1 189 1,290 Boron None 0 X

—

—

— 9 X 11 45 346

Cadmium 5b,c 7 0 <0.040 <0.040 <0.040 9 0 <0.018 <0.02 0.026

Chromium 100b,c 7 0 <0.12 <0.12 0.10 9 0 <0.12 <0.12 0.46Cobalt None 7 X 0.049 0.056 0.984 9 X <0.02 0.038 0.24

Copper 1,000a 7 0 0.54 0.65 1.35 9 0 <1.0 <1.0 180

Iron 300a,b 7 0 <8.0 21.8 1,170 13 4 <6.0 218 1,660Lead 15d 7 0 0.064 0.08 0.09 9 0 <0.06 <0.06 1.48Lithium None 0 X

—

—

— 9 X 2.40 6.21 155

Manganese 50a–300c 7 2–0 1.8 25.0 3,550 13 8–2 1.20 105 421

Molybdenum None 7 X 0.191 0.366 1.97 9 X 0.12 1.97 7.39Nickel None 7 X 0.33 0.45 1.2 9 X 0.19 0.39 1.1Selenium 50b,c 6 0 0.05 0.07 0.15 9 0 <0.06 <0.06 0.07

Strontium None 7 X

—

—

— 9 X 53.9 290 1,430

Uranium 30b 7 0 0.140 0.251 0.772 9 0 0.009 0.159 1.47

Zinc 5,000a,b 7 0 1.3 1.8 3.3 9 0 <1.8 <2.0 24.1

aU.S. Environmental Protection Agency secondary maximum contaminant level.bU.S. Environmental Protection Agency maximum contaminant level.cNew York State Department of Health (NYSDOH) maximum contaminant level.dU.S. Environmental Protection Agency treatment technique.
Water Quality 37

Table 8. Physical and physiochemical properties of; and concentrations of inorganic major ions and nutrients in groundwater samples from stratified-drift and bedrock aquifers in the Town of Danby, New York, 2007–08.[S&G, sand and gravel; conf, confined; unconf, unconfined; Parm code, USGS National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code; mg/L, milligrams per liter; ft, feet; μS/cm, microsiemens per centimeter; °C, degrees Celsius; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorous; <, less than; e, estimated value—constituent was detected in the sample but with low or inconsistent recovery; —, not analyzed; NA, not applicable. Bold values exceed one or more drinking-water standards. Sampling site locations are shown in figure 18.]

USGS Station Name TM1037 TM2467 TM2588 TM2591 TM1035 TM2590 TM1036 TM1038 TM1018 Drinkingwater 

standard

Date sampled 12/10/2008 4/24/2008 11/12/2008 11/12/2008 11/13/2008 11/13/2008 11/13/2008 12/18/2008 8/16/2007

Station ID Number 422125 076290001 422119 076282401 422116 076284701 422052 076273101 421934 076251002 421934 076251001 422308 076300401 422132 076283601 422116 076285601

Physical properties Parm code Units Description and values of physical properties

Aquifer type S&G, conf S&G, conf S&G, conf S&G, conf Bedrock S&G, 

unconf

S&G, conf S&G, conf Bedrock NA

Well depth, below land surface 72008 ft 30 75 41 27 88 27 150 23 200 NA

Physiochemical properties Values of physiochemical properties

Dissolved oxygen (field, standard units) 00300 mg/L < 0.2 0.1 0.1 — < 0.2 2.8 0.3 0.5 < 0.3 NA

pH (field, standard units) 00400 pH 7.6 7.6 7.4 7.8 8.4 8.0 7.7 7.4 7.8 6.5–8.5a

Specific conductance, (field) 00095 μS/cm 324 303 519 312 384 237 387 843 950 NA

Water Temperature (field, standard units) 00010 oC 15.5 10.6 9.5 10.8 9.2 9.0 12.0 8.4 21.5 NA

Constituent Concentrations of inorganic major ions

Cations:

Calcium, filtered 00915 mg/L 42.9 38.6 65.2 35.4 8.52 35.4 50.3 102 27.5 NA

Magnesium, filtered 00925 mg/L 10.3 7.51 20.1 7.38 1.66 6.41 12.1 23.6 7.64 NA

Potassium, filtered 00935 mg/L 0.86 0.92 1.27 0.70 0.59 0.55 0.90 0.86 0.73 NA

Sodium, filtered 00930 mg/L 10.9 10.4 15.1 20.2 80.9 4.83 16.3 36.9 159 60b

Anions:

Bicarbonate, filtered, as CaCO3 CALC1 mg/L 192 167 266 185 240 134 244 295 246 NA

Chloride, filtered 00940 mg/L 3.07 5.48 15.7 7.74 6.55 2.91 0.85 113 179 250a,c

Fluoride, filtered 00950 mg/L 0.31 0.20 0.28 0.21 0.35 0.11 0.32 0.10 0.43 2.2cSilica, filtered 00955 mg/L 12.0 13.8 15.3 10.7 7.19 6.92 13.5 14.2 6.95 NA

Sulfate, filtered 00945 mg/L 13.3 14.3 35.4 4.01 4.75 11.1 12.6 25.7 0.44 250a,c

Hardness, filtered, as CaCO3 00900 mg/L 150 128 246 119 28.6 115 176 353 100 NA

Alkalinity, filtered CaCO3 29801 mg/L 157 137 222 152 197 110 200 242 202 NA

Dissolved solids, at 180 °C 70300 mg/L 183 184 309 174 223 136 221 468 510 500b
38 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y. Table 8. Physical and physiochemical properties of; and concentrations of inorganic major ions and nutrients in groundwater samples from stratified-drift and bedrock aquifers in the Town of Danby, New York, 2007–08. [S&G, sand and gravel; conf, confined; unconf, unconfined; Parm code, USGS National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code; mg/L, milligrams per liter; ft, feet; μS/cm, microsiemens per cen- timeter; °C, degrees Celsius; N, nitrogen; P, phosphorous; <, less than; e, estimated value—constituent was detected in the sample but with low or inconsistent recovery; —, not analyzed; NA, not applicable. Bold values exceed one or more drinking-water standards. Sampling site locations are shown in figure 18.] USGS Station Name TM1037 TM2467 TM2588 TM2591 TM1035 TM2590 TM1036 TM1038 TM1018 Drink- ing- water stan- dard Date sampled 12/10/2008 4/24/2008 11/12/2008 11/12/2008 11/13/2008 11/13/2008 11/13/2008 12/18/2008 8/16/2007 Station ID Number 422125 076290001 422119 076282401 422116 076284701 422052 076273101 421934 076251002 421934 076251001 422308 076300401 422132 076283601 422116 076285601 Nutrients Parm code Units Concentrations of nutrients Ammonia, as N, filtered 00608 mg/L 0.171 0.068 0.235 0.060 0.138 < 0.020 0.455 0.044 0.425 NA Nitrate, as N, NO2+NO3, filtered as nitrogen 00631 mg/L < 0.04 <0.04 <0.04 < 0.04 < 0.04 0.28 < 0.04 < 0.04 < 0.060 10d,c Nitrite, as N, filtered 00613 mg/L < 0.002 <0.002 <0.002 < 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.002 < 0.002 1d,c Ammonia plus organic-N, as N, filtered 00623 mg/L 0.20 e 0.10 0.26 e 0.08 0.02 < 0.10 0.45 0.11 0.48 NA Orthophosphate, as P, filtered 00671 mg/L e 0.007 0.014 e 0.006 0.021 0.069 e 0.006 0.017 e 0.006 0.012 NA

a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency secondary drinking water standard.bU.S. Environmental Protection Agency secondary drinking water advisory taste threshold.c New York State Department of Health maximum contaminant level.d U.S. Environmental Protection Agency maximum contaminant level.1CALC = Bicarbonate values were calculated from alkalinity concentrations, which are given in milligrams per liter of CaCO3.

—Continued
Water Quality 39

Table 9. Concentrations of trace elements in groundwater samples from stratified-drift and bedrock aquifers in the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys, Town of Danby, New York, 2007–08.[S&G, sand and gravel; conf, confined; Parm code, USGS National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code; μg/L, micrograms per liter; <, less than; —, not analyzed. Bold values exceed one or more drinking-water standards. Sampling site locations are shown in figure 18.]

USGS Station Name TM1037 TM2467 TM2588 TM2591 TM1035 TM2590 TM1036 TM1038 TM1018 TM1018

Date sampled 12/10/2008 4/24/2008 11/12/2008 11/12/2008 11/13/2008 11/13/2008 11/13/2008 12/18/2008 8/16/2007 8/16/2007

Station ID Number 422125 076290001 422119 076282401 422116 076284701 422052 076273101 421934 076251002 421934 076251001 422308 076300401 422132 076283601 422116 076285601 422116 076285601

Aquifer type S&G, conf S&G, conf S&G, conf S&G, conf Bedrock S&G, unconf S&G, conf S&G, conf Bedrock Bedrock

Constituent

Parm 

code 

(filtered) Units Concentrations of trace elements

Parm 

code 

(unfiltered) Units

Trace 

elements

Drinking 

water 

standard

Aluminum, 

filtered

01106 μg/L < 4.0 e 0.8 < 4.0 < 4.0 < 4.0 e 2.8 < 4.0 < 4.0 — Aluminum, 

unfiltered

01105 μg/L 256 50a

Antimony, 

filtered

01095 μg/L e 0.028 < 0.140 0.051 e 0.030 0.060 0.040 e 0.03 < 0.040 — Antimony, 

unfiltered

01097 μg/L < 0.20 6b,c

Arsenic, 

filtered

01000 μg/L 8.2 3.7 12.2 5.5 2.2 0.23 1.2 0.40 — Arsenic, unfiltered 01002 μg/L 0.23 10c

Barium, 

filtered

01005 μg/L 189 199 116 581 424 36.1 65.6 384 — Barium, unfiltered 01007 μg/L 1,290 2,000b,c

Beryllium, 

filtered

01010 μg/L < 0.020 < 0.008 < 0.020 < 0.020 < 0.020 < 0.020 < 0.020 < 0.020 — Beryllium, 

unfiltered

01012 μg/L < 0.06 4b,c

Boron, filtered 01020 μg/L 31 32 48 57 214 11 45 14 346 Boron, unfiltered 01022 μg/L — None

Cadmium, 

filtered

01025 μg/L e 0.019 < 0.040 e 0.019 e 0.012 < 0.020 < 0.020 0.026 < 0.02 — Cadmium, 

unfiltered

01027 μg/L < 0.018 5b,c

Chromium, 

filtered

01030 μg/L < 0.12 < 0.12 < 0.12 < 0.12 < 0.12 0.20 < 0.12 e 0.06 — Chromium, 

unfiltered

01034 μg/L e 0.46 100b,c

Cobalt, filtered 01035 μg/L 0.038 0.03 0.077 0.025 < 0.020 0.036 0.047 0.126 — Cobalt, unfiltered 01037 μg/L 0.24 None

Copper, 

filtered

01040 μg/L < 1.0 < 1.0 < 1.0 < 1.0 < 1.0 < 1.0 < 1.0 < 1.0 — Copper, unfiltered 01042 μg/L 180 1,000a

Iron, filtered 01046 μg/L 247 163 196 324 89.2 13.2 255 381 238 Iron, unfiltered 01045 μg/L 1,660 300a,cLead, filtered 01049 μg/L 0.074 < 0.080 < 0.060 e 0.051 < 0.060 < 0.060 0.208 < 0.060 — Lead, unfiltered 01051 μg/L 1.48 15dLithium, 

filtered

01130 μg/L 5.89 6.21 11.6 4.79 25.6 2.40 2.73 8.46 — Lithium, 

unfiltered

01132 μg/L 155 None

Manganese, 

filtered

01056 μg/L 177 169 101 116 20.1 2.16 149 317 35.9 Manganese, 

unfiltered

01055 μg/L 43.4 50a–300c
40 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y. Table 9. Concentrations of trace elements in groundwater samples from stratified-drift and bedrock aquifers in the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys, Town of Danby, New York, 2007–08. [S&G, sand and gravel; conf, confined; Parm code, USGS National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code; μg/L, micrograms per liter; <, less than; —, not analyzed. Bold values exceed one or more drinking-water standards. Sampling site locations are shown in figure 18.] USGS Station Name TM1037 TM2467 TM2588 TM2591 TM1035 TM2590 TM1036 TM1038 TM1018 TM1018 Date sampled 12/10/2008 4/24/2008 11/12/2008 11/12/2008 11/13/2008 11/13/2008 11/13/2008 12/18/2008 8/16/2007 8/16/2007 Station ID Number 422125 076290001 422119 076282401 422116 076284701 422052 076273101 421934 076251002 421934 076251001 422308 076300401 422132 076283601 422116 076285601 422116 076285601 Aquifer type S&G, conf S&G, conf S&G, conf S&G, conf Bedrock S&G, unconf S&G, conf S&G, conf Bedrock Bedrock Molybdenum, filtered 01060 μg/L 7.39 2.53 5.86 1.97 1.72 0.178 6.44 0.825

— Molybdenum, 

unfiltered

01062 μg/L 0.12 None

Nickel, filtered 01065 μg/L 0.37 e 0.19 0.60 0.39 0.31 0.39 0.45 1.1

— Nickel, unfiltered 01067 μg/L 0.48 None

Selenium, 

filtered

01145 μg/L < 0.06 < 0.06 < 0.06 < 0.06 < 0.06 0.07 e 0.03 < 0.06

— Selenium, 

unfiltered

01147 μg/L <0.080 50b,c

Silver, filtered 01075 μg/L <0.0008 < 0.100 <0.0008 <0.0008 <0.0008 < 0.008 < 0.008 < 0.008

— Silver, unfiltered 01077 μg/L < 0.016 100b,c

Strontium, 

filtered

01080 μg/L 324 290 424 184 176 53.9 480 189

— Strontium, 

unfiltered

01082 μg/L 1,430 None

Thallium, 

filtered

01057 μg/L < 0.040 < 0.040 < 0.040 < 0.040 < 0.040 < 0.040 < 0.040 < 0.040

— Thallium, 

unfiltered

01059 μg/L <0.18 None

Uranium, 

natural, filtered

22703 μg/L 0.760 0.183 1.47 0.089 0.009 0.159 0.145 0.944

— Uranium, 

natural, unfiltered

28011 μg/L 0.018 30b

Zinc, filtered 01090 μg/L 4.3 < 1.8 < 2.0 < 2.0 < 2.0 < 2.0 e 1.7 24.1

— Zinc, unfiltered 01092 μg/L 4.6 5,000a,c

a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency secondary drinking water standard.

b U.S. Environmental Protection Agency maximum contaminant level.c New York State Department of Health maximum contaminant level.d U.S. Environmental Protection Agency treatment technique.

—Continued
Water Quality 41

chemical constituents (inorganic major ions, nutrients, and 

trace metals) that typically characterize the general water 

quality (tables 8 and 9). In addition, to obtain background 

data because of concerns about natural-gas drilling, four 

samples were analyzed for physiochemical properties and 

selected chemical constituents including inorganic major ions, 

nutrients, trace elements, bromide, radiochemical constituents 

[gross alpha and gross beta], methane, and other dissolved 

gases (table 10). Three groundwater samples were from the 

Town of Danby owned facilities (TM1037, Danby Fire Hall; 

TM2467, Highway Department; and TM1018, Town Hall), 

five were from private homes (TM1036, TM1038, TM2519, 

TM2760, and TM1491), and five were from test wells drilled 

for this study (TM2588, TM2591, TM1035, TM2590, and 

TM2806). Dissolved oxygen, pH, specific conductance, 

and water temperature were measured in the field. Samples 

were analyzed for inorganic major ions, nutrients, and trace 

elements by the USGS NWQL in Denver, Colo. Results of 

chemical analyses are tabulated in tables 8, 9, and 10, and 

summary statistics of selected chemical constituents are in 

tables 6 and 7.

Physical and Physiochemical Properties 

Wells that were sampled ranged from 23 to 420 ft deep 

and the pH ranged from 7.4 to 8.4, with a median value of 

7.8 (tables 6, 8, and 10); no pH measurement was outside the 

accepted EPA SMCL range of 6.5 to 8.5. Specific conductance 

of the samples ranged from 237 to 950 μS/cm, with a median 

value of 387 μS/cm (tables 6, 8, and 10).

Inorganic Major Ions

The cation that was detected with the largest 

concentration was calcium, which ranged from 8.52 to 

102 mg/L, with a median value of 38.6 mg/L (tables 6, 

8, and 10). Magnesium concentrations ranged from 1.66 

to 25.0 mg/L, with a median value of 8.52 mg/L. Sodium 

concentrations ranged from 4.83 to 159 mg/L, with a median 

value of 16.3 mg/L. The concentrations of sodium in three 

samples from the bedrock aquifer exceeded the EPA Drinking 

Water Advisory Taste Threshold of 60 mg/L (tables 8 and 10)

(U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009). No samples 

from the sand and gravel aquifer exceeded the EPA Drinking 

Water Advisory Taste Threshold (U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, 2009). Potassium concentrations were 

detected in low concentrations in the study area (generally less 

than 1.0 mg/L). Potassium concentrations ranged from 0.55 to 

1.27 mg/L, with a median value of 0.86 mg/L (tables 6, 8, and 

10).

Calcium and magnesium contribute to water hardness as 

CaCO3

, which ranged from 28.6 to 353 mg/L, with a median 

value of 143 mg/L (tables 6, 8, and 10). Of the 13 samples, 

one was soft (0 to 60 mg/L as CaCO3), four were moderately 

hard (61 to 120 mg/L as CaCO3), and four were hard (121 to 

180 mg/L as CaCO3), and four were very hard water (Hem, 

1985). Hard and very hard water consumes excessive amounts 

of soap and detergents and forms an insoluble scum or scale 

(Hem, 1985).

Alkalinity, which results from dissolution of carbonate 

minerals such as those composing limestone and dolomite 

and is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize acid, 

ranged from 110 to 267 mg/L as CaCO3, with a median 

value of 197 mg/L of CaCO3 (tables 6, 8, and 10). Alkalinity 

concentrations lower than 100 mg/L can be corrosive when 

pH is low (below pH 6); when alkalinity is greater than 

150 mg/L, it can cause scale (lime) buildup in plumbing 

pipes (Mechenich and Andrews, 2004). Dissolved solids 

concentrations ranged from 136 to 510 mg/L (tables 6, 8 and 

10), with a median value of 221 mg/L; the dissolved solids 

concentration in one sample from a well that taps the bedrock 

aquifer (TM1018) exceeded the EPA SDWS for dissolved 

solids of 500 mg/L.

The anion detected with the largest concentration was 

bicarbonate, which ranged from 134 to 362 mg/L, with a 

median value of 240 mg/L (tables 6, 8, and 10). Bicarbonate 

values were calculated from alkalinity concentrations, 

which are given in milligrams per liter of CaCO3

. Chloride 

concentrations ranged from and 0.85 to 179 mg/L, with 

median value of 6.12 (tables 6, 8, and 10). The concentrations 

of chloride did not exceed the NYSDOH MCL and EPA 

SDWS of 250 mg/L. Silica concentrations ranged from 

and 6.92 to 15.3 mg/L, with a median value of 13.5 (tables 

6, 8, and 10). Sulfate concentrations ranged from 0.44 to 

35.4 mg/L, with a median value of 13.3 mg/L (tables 6, 8, and 

10). The concentration of sulfate did not exceed the NYSDOH 

MCL and EPA SDWS of 250 mg/L.

Nutrients

The dominant nutrient detected in groundwater samples 

in the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys was 

ammonia (table 8). The concentration of ammonia ranged 

from less than (<)0.020 to 0.455 mg/L as nitrogen (N), with 

a median value of 0.154 mg/L as N (tables 6, 8, and 10). In 

this report, the medians of data that included censored data 

(values of concentrations less than the reporting limit) were 

calculated by sorting those concentrations that had less than 

values at the smallest end of the range of values. Ammonia 

was detected in all samples from wells that were finished in 

confined sand and gravel aquifers and the bedrock aquifer, but 

was not detected in the sample from well TM2590; this well 

was finished in the unconfined aquifer. The concentrations of 

nitrate plus nitrite (NO2

+NO3) and of nitrite did not exceed the 

NYSDOH and EPA MCLs of 10 mg/L as N and 1 mg/L as 

N, respectively, in any sample. Nitrate was in a concentration 

above the detection limit of 0.04 mg/L in only one sample— 

0.28 mg/L, which was from well TM2590 that was finished in 

the unconfined aquifer. Nitrite was not detected in any sample 

above the reporting limit of 0.002 mg/L. The concentrations 

of orthophosphate ranged from an estimated minimum of 
42 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

Table 10. Physical and physiochemical properties of; and concentrations of inorganic major ions, trace elements, nutrients, 

selected radiochemicals, and dissolved gases in groundwater samples from bedrock and stratified-drift aquifers in the Town of 

Danby, New York, 2010.

[S&G, sand and gravel; conf, confined aquifer; Parm code, USGS National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code; mg/L, milligrams per 

liter; μg/L, micrograms per liter; °C, degrees Celsius; e, estimated; ft, feet; <, less than; —, not analyzed; picocurie per liter (pCi/L); R, radchem nondetect. Bold values exceed one or more drinking-water standards. Sampling site locations are shown in figure 18.]

USGS Station Name TM2519 TM2760 TM1491 TM2806

Drinking 

water 

standard

Date sampled 6/2/2010 6/2/2010 6/2/2010 10/28/2010

Station ID Number 422244 

076310701

422254 

076284801

422029 

076255001

422143 

076291101

Physical properties Parm 

code Units Description and values of physical properties

Aquifer type Shale Shale Shale S&G, conf. None

Well depth, below land surface 72008 ft 420 177 300 47 None

Physiochemical properties Values of physiochemical properties

Dissolved oxygen (field, standard units) 00300 mg/L 1.8 0.7 0.7 1.0 None

pH (field, standard units) 00400 pH 8.2 7.6 7.8 7.9 6.5–8.5b

Specific conductance, at 25 °C (field) 00095 μS/cm 661 598 328 398 None

Water temperature (field, standard units) 00010 °C 13.5 12.0 11.6 10.8 None

Constituent Concentrations of inorganic major ions

Cations:

Calcium, filtered 00915 mg/L 34.4 71.5 43.3 52.4 None

Magnesium, filtered 00925 mg/L 7.7 25.0 8.52 14 None

Potassium, filtered 00935 mg/L 0.72 0.81 0.57 0.94 None

Sodium, filtered 00930 mg/L 104 26.0 14.5 10.0 60c

Anions:

Bicarbonate, filtered, as CaCO3 CALC1 mg/L 315 362 183 231 None

Bromide, filtered 71870 mg/L 0.274 e 0.020 e 0.019 0.021 None

Chloride, filtered 00940 mg/L 51.3 1.59 4.10 6.12 250b,d

Fluoride, filtered 00950 mg/L 0.72 0.21 0.19 0.29 2.2d

Silica, filtered 00955 mg/L 10.9 13.6 14.4 15.3 None

Sulfate, filtered 00945 mg/L 5.82 32.3 17.2 19.2 250b,d

Hardness, filtered, as CaCO3 00900 mg/L 118 282 143 189 None

Alkalinity, filtered, as CaCO3 29801 mg/L 258 267 150 189 None

Dissolved solids, at 180 °C 70300 mg/L 367 344 187 217 500c

Trace metals Concentrations of trace elements

 Arsenic, filtered 01000 μg/L 0.25 5.5 0.18 6.8 10a,d

 Barium, filtered 01005 μg/L 304 76.5 101 150 2,000a,d

 Iron, filtered 01046 μg/L < 6.0 1,490 < 6.0 198 300c,d

 Manganese, filtered 01056 μg/L 41.7 421 1.20 105 50c

Nutrients Concentrations of nutrients

 Ammonia + organic N, as N, filtered 00623 mg/L 0.38 0.24 e0.08 0.20 None

 Ammonia, as N, filtered 00608 mg/L –– –– –– 0.171 None

 Nitrate, as N, NO2

+NO3, filtered 00631 mg/L –– –– –– < 0.020 10a,d

 Nitrite, as N, filtered 00613 mg/L –– –– –– < 0.001 1a,d

 Orthophosphate, as P, filtered 00671 mg/L –– –– –– 0.011 None
Water Quality 43

Table 10. Physical and physiochemical properties of; and concentrations of inorganic major ions, trace elements, nutrients, 

selected radiochemicals, and dissolved gases in groundwater samples from bedrock and stratified-drift aquifers in the Town of 

Danby, New York, 2010.

[S&G, sand and gravel; conf, confined aquifer; Parm code, USGS National Water Information System (NWIS) parameter code; mg/L, milligrams per 

liter; μg/L, micrograms per liter; °C, degrees Celsius; e, estimated; ft, feet; <, less than; —, not analyzed; picocurie per liter (pCi/L); R, radchem nondetect. Bold values exceed one or more drinking-water standards. Sampling site locations are shown in figure 18.]

USGS Station Name TM2519 TM2760 TM1491 TM2806

Drinking 

water 

standard

Date sampled 6/2/2010 6/2/2010 6/2/2010 10/28/2010

Station ID Number 422244 

076310701

422254 

076284801

422029 

076255001

422143 

076291101

 Radiochemicals Parm

code Units Concentrations of radiochemicals

 Gross-alpha (Th-230 curve), unfiltered 01519 pCi/L 3.4 10.7 R 0.5 2.3 15a,d

 Gross-beta (Cs-137 curve), unfiltered 85817 pCi/L 0.9 19.1 R 0.3 R 0.7 4a,d

Dissolved gases Concentrations of dissolved gases

 Methane, unfiltered 85574 mg/L 9.54 0.003 0.001 0.005 10––28e

>28f

 Nitrogen, unfiltered 00597 mg/L 19.7 27.6 25.3 25.1 None

 Argon, unfiltered 82043 mg/L 0.745 0.919 0.850 0.839 None

 Carbon dioxide, unfiltered 00405 mg/L 3.65 20.5 7.8 6.55 None

 Oxygen, unfiltered 62971 mg/L 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.7 None

a

 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency maximum contaminant level.

b

 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency secondary drinking water standard.

c

 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency secondary drinking water advisory taste threshold.

d

 New York State Department of Health maximum contaminant level.

e

 Office of Surface Mining recommends that methane concentrations be closely monitored (Eltschlager and others, 2001).

f

 Office of Surface Mining recommends removing ignition sources and venting the gas away from confined spaces (Eltschlager and others, 2001).

1

CALC = Bicarbonate values were calculated from alkalinity concentrations, which are given in milligrams per liter of CaCO3.

—Continued

0.006 to a maximum of 0.069 mg/L, with a median of 0.012 

(tables 6, 8, and 10).

Trace Elements

Trace elements that were detected in every sample 

included arsenic, barium, boron, lithium, manganese, 

molybdenum, nickel, strontium, and uranium (tables 9 and 

10). In general, concentrations of trace metals were higher 

in samples from wells that are finished in the bedrock 

aquifers than samples from wells finished in the confined and 

unconfined sand and gravel aquifers. The highest detected 

concentrations of trace elements were 1,660 and 1,490 μg/L 

of iron; 1,430 μg/L of strontium; and 1,290 of barium—all 

samples were from wells that are finished in the bedrock 

aquifer. Beryllium, silver and thallium were not detected in 

any samples.

Arsenic concentrations ranged from less than 0.18 to 

12.2 μg/L, with a median of 2.2 μg/L (tables 7, 9, and 10). The 

concentration of arsenic in one sample (well TM2588, which 

is finished in a confined sand and gravel aquifer) exceeded the 

EPA MCL of 10 μg/L. The concentration of arsenic in another 

sample (well TM1037, which is also finished in a confined 

sand and gravel aquifer) was 8.2 μg/L, which is slightly 

less than the MCL. Arsenic did not exceed the EPA MCL in 

samples from the bedrock aquifer or unconfined aquifers.

In the stratified-drift aquifer systems of the northern 

United States, elevated arsenic concentrations (greater than 

or equal to 10 μg/L) were detected in 9 percent of samples 

(Thomas, 2007). In comparison, 8 of the 62 (13 percent) 

wells that were sampled by the USGS and the NYSDOH in 

the stratified-drift aquifers in Tompkins County from 2000 

to 2010 had elevated arsenic concentrations. The distribution 

of arsenic concentrations in wells that were sampled in 

stratified-drift aquifers in Tompkins County are shown in 

figure 19. The predominant source of arsenic is iron oxides 

and the predominant mechanism for releasing arsenic 

to the ground water is reductive desorption or reductive 

dissolution (Thomas, 2007). Also, Thomas (2007) determined 

that elevated arsenic concentrations were associated with 
44 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

Less than 1 μg/L 

[Number in bar graph is number of samples for that range in concentration of arsenic] 

1 to less than 5 μg/L

5 to less than10 μg/L

Greater than 10 μg/L

6

4

2

1

EXPLANATION

Distribution of arsenic concentrations—Arsenic concentration in micrograms per liter (μg/L) 

0

2 3

4

6 6

4

1 1 1

2

1

1

1

2

2

1

1

2

2

3

1

2

8

1

2

3

1 4

6

8

10

12

14

Enfield Creek Valley

Lower Fall Creek Valley

Lower Sixmile Creek trough

Upper Sixmile Creek Valley

Virgil Creek Valley

Owasco Inlet Valley

Upper Cayuga Inlet trough

Upper Fall Creek Valley

West Branch Cayuga Inlet 

and Fish Kill Valleys

Pony Hollow Creek Valley

Upper Buttermilk and 

Danby Creek Valleys

Number of samples

Figure 19. The distribution of arsenic 

concentrations from groundwater 

samples in stratified-drift aquifers 

in Tompkins County from 2000–10 in 

Tompkins County, New York. (Location 

of valleys shown in fig. 1.)

strongly reducing conditions such as that in confined aquifers. 

A confining layer near land surface maintains reducing 

conditions by retarding the transport of oxygen (or other 

electron acceptor) from land surface. The slightly higher 

percentage of samples that had elevated arsenic concentrations 

in Tompkins County (13 percent) than in the stratified-drift 

aquifer systems of the northern United States (9 percent) is 

probably due to confined aquifers that are more prevalent in 

Tompkins County than in the study by Thomas (2007).

The concentration of aluminum in one unfiltered sample 

(256 μg/L, from well TM1018 finished in the bedrock aquifer) 

exceeded the EPA MCL 50 μg/L. Barium concentrations 

ranged 36.1 to 1,290 μg/L, with a median of 189 μg/L (tables 

7, 9, and 10). The highest concentration of barium was 

1,290 μg/L (table 9), which was detected in an unfiltered 

sample from TM1018 (Danby Town Hall well). Boron 

concentrations ranged from 11 to 346 μg/L, with a median of 

45 μg/L (tables 7, 9, and 10); MCLs have not been established 

for boron. Cadmium concentrations ranged <0.018 to 

0.026 μg/L, with a median of <0.02 μg/L (tables 7, 9, and 10). 

Cadmium concentrations did not exceed the EPA MCL and 

NYSDOH MCL of 5 μg/L. Chromium was detected in three of 

the nine samples. In samples where chromium was detected; 

concentrations were low (<0.05 μg/L) and did not exceed the 

EPA and NYSDOH MCLs of 100 μg/L. Cobalt concentrations 

ranged <0.020 to 0.24 μg/L, with a median of 0.38 μg/L 

(tables 7, 9, and 10).

Copper was detected at a concentration above the 

reporting limit of 1.0 μg/L in only one unfiltered sample (well 

TM1018, finished in the bedrock aquifer; table 9). Copper was 

detected at a concentration 180 μg/L, which did not exceed the 

EPA SDWS of 1,000 μg/L.

The concentration of iron in three filtered samples and in 

one unfiltered sample exceeded the NYSDOH MCL and EPA 

SDWS of 300 μg/L. Iron concentrations ranged from <6.0 to 

1,660 μg/L, with a median of 218 μg/L (tables 7, 9, and 10). 

The concentration of manganese in seven filtered samples 

exceeded the EPA SDWS of 50 μg/L; the concentration of 

manganese in two filtered samples exceeded the NYSDOH 

MCL of 300 μg/L. Manganese concentrations ranged from 

1.20 to 421 μg/L, with a median of 105 μg/L (tables 7, 9, 

and 10).

Lead was detected in four out of nine samples, but 

none exceeded EPA MCL of 15 μg/L. Lead concentrations 

ranged from <0.06 to 1.48 μg/L, with a median of <0.06 μg/L 

(tables 7, 9, and 10). Lithium concentrations ranged from 
Summary 45

2.40 to 155 μg/L, with a median of 6.21 μg/L (tables 7, 9, 

and 10)—drinking-water standards have not been established 

for lithium. 

Molybdenum concentrations ranged from 0.12 to 

7.39 μg/L, with a median of 1.97 μg/L (tables 7, 9, and 

10). Nickel concentrations ranged from 0.19 to 1.1 μg/L, 

with a median of 0.39 μg/L (tables 7, 9, and 10). Strontium 

concentrations ranged from 53.9 to 1,430 μg/L, with a 

median of 290 μg/L (tables 7, 9, and 10). Drinking-water 

standards have not been established for molybdenum, nickel, 

and strontium. 

Selenium concentrations ranged from <0.06 to 0.07 μg/L, 

with a median of <0.06 μg/L (tables 7, 9, and 10). Uranium 

concentrations ranged from 0.009 to 1.47 μg/L, with a median 

of 0.159 μg/L. Zinc concentrations ranged from <1.8 to 

24.1 μg/L, with a median of <2.0 μg/L (tables 7, 9, and 10); 

the concentrations of selenium, uranium, and zinc did not 

exceed any Federal or State drinking-water standards.

Dissolved Gases

Methane, nitrogen, argon, carbon dioxide, and dissolved 

oxygen concentrations were determined at four sites where 

baseline samples for hydraulic fracturing for unconventional 

development of wells drilled for natural gas were collected 

(table 10). Methane was detected at low concentrations 

(0.005 mg/L or less) in 3 of the 4 samples; the concentration 

in the fourth sample (TM2519; finished in the bedrock 

aquifer) was 9.54 mg/L, which is slightly lower than the 

concentration that the Office of Surface Mining recommends 

that methane concentrations be closely monitored (Eltschlager 

and others, 2001). Although the EPA and NYSDOH do not 

have MCLs for methane, dissolved methane concentrations 

greater than 28 mg/L can pose explosion hazards as a result 

of methane accumulation in confined spaces (Eltschlager 

and others, 2001). Nitrogen, argon, and carbon dioxide gases 

ranged in concentration from 19.7 to 27.6, 0.745 to 0.919, 

and 3.65 to 20.5 mg/L, respectively (table 10). Dissolved 

oxygen was determined at 12 sites and concentrations ranged 

from 0.1 to 2.8 mg/L, with a median value of 0.4 mg/L 

(tables 6, 8, and 10). 

Comparison to Other Stratified-Drift Aquifers in 

Tompkins County

The major-ion compositions of water from sampled 

wells from this study area and from three other stratified-drift 

aquifer systems in Tompkins County (lower Sixmile Creek 

and Willseyville Creek trough (Miller and Karig, 2010), 

upper Sixmile Creek and West Branch Owego Creek valleys 

(Miller and Sherwood, 2009), and Virgil Creek and Dryden 

Lake valleys (Miller and Bugliosi, 2013); fig. 1) are presented 

for comparison using a Piper (trilinear) diagram (fig. 20). A 

Piper diagram (Piper, 1944) shows the relative proportion of 

major cations and anions, on a charge-equivalent basis, to 

the total ion content of the water. Each major ion, in percent 

of milliequivalents per liter, is shown along the sides of the 

diagram. Cations are shown in the left triangle and anions 

are shown in the right triangle. The points are extended into 

the central diamond-shaped field. The intersection of the 

projections represents the composition of the water with 

respect to the combination of ions. 

In all stratified-drift aquifers, the cation composition is 

dominated by calcium and, in a few cases by sodium (fig. 20). 

The anion composition is dominated by bicarbonate and, in a 

few samples, by chloride. Results of the groundwater sample 

analyses for this study indicate that the groundwater in the 

stratified-drift aquifers in the upper Buttermilk Creek and 

Danby Creek valleys is dominated by calcium bicarbonate 

ions. The exceptions are two samples that were collected in 

upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys and two 

samples in upper Sixmile Creek and West Branch Owego 

Creek valleys, which had ions that were sodium bicarbonate 

(fig. 20). These four samples with sodium bicarbonate to 

sodium chloride type waters are attributed to enrichment 

from brackish water in bedrock that locally discharges to the 

valley fill (Miller, 2009) or to road-salt contamination. Water 

chemistry in stratified-drift aquifers in all four study areas 

is similar because the geologic settings of all four areas are 

similar and are composed of Valley Heads glacial drift and 

Devonian shales and siltstones. 

Summary

In 2006, the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation 

with the Town of Danby and Tompkins County Planning 

Department, began a study of the stratified-drift aquifer system 

in the upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys in the 

Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York. In the northern 

part of upper Buttermilk Creek valley, there is only one 

stratified-drift aquifer—a basal confined. In the southern part 

of upper Buttermilk Creek valley, near the Hamlet of Danby, 

there are as many as four stratified-drift aquifers—two are 

unconfined and two are confined. In the south-draining Danby 

Creek valley, an unconfined aquifer consists of outwash and 

kame sand and gravel—deposited by glacial meltwaters 

during the late Pleistocene Epoch and of alluvial sediments 

that were deposited by streams during the Holocene Epoch 

(post-glacial period).

The principal sources of recharge to the unconfined 

aquifers in the study area include direct infiltration of 

precipitation (rain and snowmelt) at land surface, unchanneled 

surface runoff from adjacent hillsides that seeps into the 

aquifer along the edges of the valley, groundwater inflow from 

till and bedrock that enters the aquifer along the sides of the 

valley, seepage loss from upland-tributary streams where they 

flow over alluvial fans in the valley, and upward leakage from 

the underlying geologic units in the valley where the hydraulic 

head in these units are higher than the water table in the 
46 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

Figure 20. Variability in major ion composition of groundwater in upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek valleys, Virgil Creek 

and Dryden Lake valleys, Lower Sixmile Creek and Willseyville Creek trough, and upper Sixmile Creek and West Branch Owego 

Creek valleys, Tompkins County, New York.

Percent

Calcium

1 00

8 0

6 0

4 0

2 0

0

 0

 20

 40

 60

 80

 100

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 00

Chloride 

0

2 0

4 0

60

8 0

1 00

10 0

8 0

6 0

4 0

2 0

0 100

 80

 60

 40

 20

 0

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 0 0

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

80

1 0 0

1 0 0

8 0

60

4 0

2 0

0

1 0 0

80

60

40

20

0

Percent

Percent

Sulfate plus Chloride

Calcium plus Magnesium

Sulfate

Magnesium

Sodium plus Potassium

Bicarbonate

EXPLANATION

Virgil Creek and Dryden Lake Valleys groundwater sample

Lower Sixmile Creek and Willseyville Creek trough groundwater sample

Upper Sixmile Creek and West Branch Owego Creek Valleys groundwater sample

Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys groundwater sample
References Cited 47

unconfined aquifer. The percentages of all sources of recharge 

to the contiguous unconfined aquifer in Danby Creek valley 

are 16 percent from precipitation that falls directly over the 

aquifer, 55 percent from runoff and groundwater inflow from 

adjacent unchanneled hillsides, and 29 percent from losing 

streams that cross the aquifer. The total annual recharge to the 

contiguous unconfined aquifer is 2.56 cubic feet per second 

(604 million gallons per year). 

The principal sources of recharge to the confined 

aquifers include precipitation that falls directly on the surficial 

confining unit, which then slowly flows vertically downward 

through the fine-grained sediments and enters the confined 

aquifer, and groundwater inflow from till and bedrock that 

borders the aquifer along adjacent hillsides and at the bottom 

of the valley. In addition, there is substantial amounts of 

recharge to the confined aquifers where the confining units 

are locally absent (forming windows) and where parts of 

the confining units consist of sediments of low to moderate 

permeability (forming a semiconfining layer).

Confined aquifers can be under a high degree of 

confinement; where this condition is present, the confined 

aquifers, are isolated from sources of recharge by thick, 

extensive, and low permeability confining units that impede 

seepage of water, and, therefore, receive small amounts of 

recharge. However, where the confined aquifer is under a 

low-to-moderate degree of confinement (semiconfined) or 

where the confining unit is locally absent, the confined aquifer 

receives moderate amounts of recharge from precipitation 

that falls directly over the windows in the confining unit or on 

the semi-permeable confining unit, which then slowly flows 

vertically downward and enters the confined aquifer.

In the northern part of the study area (upper Buttermilk 

Creek valley), groundwater in the stratified drift discharges to 

domestic and commercial wells, Buttermilk Creek in the area 

near the northern town border, and a small unnamed stream in 

a ravine in Buttermilk State Park just north of the town border. 

In the southern part of the study area (Danby Creek valley), 

groundwater discharges to domestic, commercial, and farm 

wells; to Danby Creek; to a large wetland in the central parts 

of Danby Creek valley; and as losses because of plant uptake 

and evaporation. About 300 people depend on groundwater 

from the Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek stratified-drift 

aquifer system. 

An unconfined surficial aquifer about 8,000 feet (ft) 

long and as much as 800 ft wide, with a saturated thickness 

of about 20 ft, occupies the lower (southeastern most) 

8,000 ft of Danby Creek valley within the Town of Danby. 

The average annual recharge to the contiguous unconfined 

aquifer is 2.56 cubic feet per second (1.66 million gallons 

per day). However, because the volume of water stored in 

the aquifer is small and the potential for induced recharge 

from Danby Creek during summer periods of low flow is also 

small, an array of wells would probably be needed to provide 

a sustainable continuous amount of water to large water users 

such as municipalities and industries. 

Well data from water-well drillers through 2012 indicate 

that the confined aquifers in upper Buttermilk Creek valley are 

thin (typically about 10 ft thick) and the reported well-yield 

data ranged from 3 to 50 gallons per minute. These well yield 

data suggest that the aquifer meets the needs of homeowners 

and small commercial facilities, but these aquifers may not 

be capable of supplying sufficient water to meet the needs of 

municipalities and industries. Additional geohydrologic data 

leading to calibration of a groundwater flow model would be 

required to evaluate the long-term potential yield from the 

confined aquifers in upper Buttermilk Creek valley. 

During 2007–10, groundwater samples were collected 

from 13 wells that tap the stratified-drift and bedrock 

aquifers—seven samples were from the confined stratifieddrift aquifers, one from an unconfined stratified-drift aquifer, 

and five were from bedrock aquifers. The samples were 

collected and processed using standard U.S. Geological 

Survey procedures and were analyzed for physiochemical 

properties and chemical constituents, including dissolved 

gases, major ions, nutrients, and trace elements. Calcium 

dominates the cation composition and bicarbonate dominates 

the anion composition in most groundwater. Water quality 

in the study area generally meets Federal and New York 

State drinking-water standards, but concentrations of some 

constituents exceeded the standards. The standards that 

were exceeded were sodium (3 samples), dissolved solids 

(1 sample), iron (3 samples), manganese (8 samples), and 

arsenic (1 sample).

References Cited

Cadwell, D.L., and Muller, E.H., 2004, New York Glacial 

Geology in Ehlers, J., and Gibbard, P.L., eds., Quaternary Glaciations—Extent and Chronology, Part II, North 

America Developments in Quaternary Science: Elsevier, 

Amsterdam, v. 2b.

Cressey, G.B., 1966, Land forms in Thompson, J.H., ed., 

Geography of New York State: Syracuse, N.Y., Syracuse 

University Press, p. 26.

Eltschlager, K.K., Hawkins, J.W., Ehler, W.C., and Baldassare, 

Fred, 2001, Technical measures for the investigation and 

mitigation of fugitive methane hazards in areas of coal mining: U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement, 125 p. [Also available at 

http://www.techtransfer.osmre.gov/NTTMainSite/Library/

hbmanual/methane/methane.pdf.]

Fisher, D.W., Isachsen, Y.W., and Rickard, L.V., 1970, Geologic map of New York State—Finger Lakes Sheet: New 

York State Museum Map and Chart Series no. 15, 1 sheet, 

scale 1:250,000.
48 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

Fullerton, D.S., 1980, Preliminary correlation of post-Erie 

interstadial events (16,000–10,000 radiocarbon years before 

present), central and eastern Great Lakes region, and Hudson, Champlain, and St. Lawrence lowlands, United States 

and Canada: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 

1089, 52 p.

Haeni, F.P., 1988, Application of seismic-refraction techniques 

to hydrologic studies: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques 

of Water-Resources Investigations, book 2, chap. D2, 86 p.

Heath, R.C., 1976, Design of ground-water level observation 

programs: Ground Water, v. 14, no. 2. p. 71–77.

Hem, J.D., 1985, Study and interpretation of the chemical 

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Appendix 1. Records of Wells, Town of Danby, Tompkins 

County, New York 
52 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y. Appendix 1. Records of wells, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York. [At selected wells, the altitudes of water-level-measuring points, which are typically the tops of the well casings, were determined to within 0.01 ft using standard surveying techniques. Elsewhere, altitudes of land surface at wells were estimated using lidar and 1:24,000 scale topographic contour maps that were vertically accurate to 0.5 ft and 5 ft, respectively. The latitude and longitude of the wells in this table may be obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey’s NWIS database. ft, feet; in, inches; NAVD 88 in ft, North American Vertical Datum of 1988, in feet: gal/min, gallons per minute; gal/d, gallons per day; S&G, sand and gravel; —, no data; and WQ, water quality; =, equal to; DD, drawdown; HVSR, horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio seismic survey site] Site name Date drilled Well depth (ft) Depth of cas- ing (ft) Casing diam- eter (in) Altitude land surface (NAVD 88, in ft) Aquifer type Water level below land sur- faceb (ft) Altitude water level (NAVD 88, in ft) Date water level mea- sured Depth to Bed- rock (ft) Altitude top of bedrock (NAVD 88, in ft) Re- ported yield (gal/ min) Remarks (Data from driller’s logs except those that were drilled by the U.S. Geological Survey) TM 46 9/15/1966 180 63 5 1,240 Shale 15 1,225 9/15/1966 57 1,183 30 0–7 S&G, 7–57 till, 57–180 ft shale TM1018 10/9/1997 200 50 6 1,216 Shale 0 1,216 10/9/1997 40 1,176 2 WQ sample 8/16/2007. 0–40 overbur- den, 40–200 ft shale TM1023 10/15/1971 128 17 8 1,305 Shale 15 1,290 10/15/1971 17 1,288 15 0–17 till, 17–128 ft shale TM1024 2/2/1994 200 18 6 1,275 Shale 45 1,230 2/2/1994 15 1,260 8 0–15 till, 15–200 ft shale TM1025 2/5/1994 180 18 6 1,309 Shale 30 1,279 2/5/1994 5 1,304 6 0–5 till, 5–180 ft shale TM1026 1/29/1990 20 10 2 1,243 Shale 13 1,230 1/29/1990 20 1,223

— 0–15 S&G, 15–20 till, 20–204 ft shale

TM1027 1/29/1990 12 3 2 1,233.2 Shale 4.2 1,229 1/29/1990 85 1,148

— Screen 3–12 ft. 0–35 sand, 35–85 till, 

85–120 ft shale

TM1028 1/30/1990 12 3 2 1,231.9 Shale 2.2 1,229.7 1/30/1990 8 1,224

— Screen 3–12 ft. 0–4 S&G, 4–8 till, 

8–12 ft shale

TM1035a 10/28/2008 88 81 6 1,161 Shale 5.8 1,155.2 7/7/2009 68 1,093 1 WQ sample 11/13/2008. 0–18 S&G, 

18–22 silt with some gravel, 22–32 S&G, 32–44 till, 44–48 sand, 48–68 till, 68–80 ft weathered shale

TM1036 6/15/1988 150 150 6 1,114.5 Confined 

S&G

73.9 1,040.6 7/7/2009

—

— 50 WQ sample 11/13/2008

TM1037

— 30 30 6 1,197.3 Confined 

S&G

3.8 1,193.5 7/7/2009

—

—

— WQ sample 12/10/2008. Well is 

below land surface

TM1038

— 23 23 5 1,217.3 Confined 

S&G

2.4 1,214.9 7/7/2009

—

—

— WQ sample 12/18/2008. Owner 

reports good yield

TM1047 11/19/1988 140 94 6 1,120 Shale

—

—

— 90 1,030 15 0–25 gravel, 25–50 blue clay with 

shale (till), 50–90 S&G, 90–140 shale

TM1209 4/27/2000 99 99 6 1,290 Confined 

S&G

25 1,265 4/27/2000

—

— 20 0–30 gravel, 30–90 fine sand, 90–100 

ft gravel

TM1210

— 120 52 6 1,415 Shale 41 1,344 5/3/2000 48 1,367 6 0–30 till, 30–40 silty sand, 40–48 till, 

48–120 ft shale
Appendix 1 53

Appendix 1. Records of wells, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York.[At selected wells, the altitudes of water-level-measuring points, which are typically the tops of the well casings, were determined to within 0.01 ft using standard surveying techniques. Elsewhere, altitudes of land surface at wells were estimated using lidar and 1:24,000 scale topographic contour maps that were vertically accurate to 0.5 ft and 5 ft, respectively. The latitude and longitude of the wells in this table may be obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey’s NWIS database. ft, feet; in, inches; NAVD 88 in ft, North American Vertical Datum of 1988, in feet: gal/min, gallons per minute; gal/d, gallons per day; S&G, sand and gravel; —, no data; and WQ, water quality; =, equal to; DD, drawdown; HVSR, horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio seismic survey site]

Site name Date drilled Well depth (ft) Depth of cas- ing (ft) Casing diam- eter (in) Altitude land surface (NAVD 88, in ft) Aquifer type

Water 

level 

below 

land 

surfaceb 

(ft)

Altitude 

water 

level 

(NAVD 88, 

in ft)

Date water 

level measured

Depth 

to 

Bedrock 

(ft)

Altitude 

top of 

bedrock 

(NAVD 88, 

in ft)

Reported 

yield 

(gal/

min)

Remarks

(Data from driller’s logs except

those that were drilled by the

U.S. Geological Survey)

TM1212 5/9/2000 358 25 6 1,522 Shale 80 1,442 5/9/2000 18 1,504 2 0–18 till, 18–358 ft grey shale

TM1214 — 138 54 6 1,230 Shale — — — 54 1,176 4 0–54 till, 54–138 ft shale

TM1216 6/22/2000 100 20 6 1,500 Shale 22.5 1,477.5 6/22/2000 18 1,482 5 —

TM1234 9/28/2000 28 28 5 1,220 Confined 

S&G

7 1,213 9/28/2000 — — 28 0–26 clay and gravel (till), 26–28 ft 

S&G

TM1235 7/11/2000 44 44 6 1,199 Confined 

S&G

6.0 1,193 7/11/2000 — — 15 0–18 fine gravel, 20–42 till, 42–44 ft 

S&G

TM1267 10/6/2000 358 20 6 1,069 Shale 50 1,019 10/6/2000 8 1,061 0.5 0–8 till, 8–358 ft grey shale

TM1271 10/24/2000 360 160 6 1,143 Shale 130 1,013 10/24/2000 160 983 1 0–80 till, 80–97 till with thin layers 

S&G, 97–160 clay with thin layers S&G, 160–360 ft grey shale

TM1272 10/19/2000 120 30 6 1,583 Shale 26 1,557 10/19/2000 20 1,563 30 0–20 till, 20–120 ft grey shale

TM1273 10/26/2000 280 156 6 1,152 Shale 60 1,092 10/26/2000 156 996 1 0–50 till, 50–100 thin S&G layers 

and clay, 100–156 clay, 156–280 ft shale

TM1281 11/16/2000 338 26 6 1,075 Shale 3 1,072 11/16/2000 25 1,050 0.25 0–25 till, 25–338 ft shale

TM1283 12/13/2000 75 39 6 1,385 Shale 23 1,362 12/13/2000 39 1,346 7 0–30 S&G, 30–39 till, 39–75 ft shale

TM1295 1/29/2001 120 20 6 1,128 Shale 45 1,083 1/29/2001 10 1,118 5 0–10 till, 10–120 ft shale DD = 30 ft 

at 5 gal/min

TM1303 4/26/2001 73 73 6 1,490 Confined 

gravel

20 1,470 4/26/2001 — — 6 0–20 till, 20–25 silty gravel, 25–70 

till, 70–73 ft gravel

TM1317 5/15/2001 52 52 6 1,412 Confined 

gravel

18.5 1,393.5 5/15/2001 — — — 0–25 till, 25–52 ft gravel

TM1319 7/13/2001 200 55 6 1,038 Shale 43 995 7/13/2001 53 985 2 0–53 gravel, 53–200 ft shale

TM1320 5/25/2001 150 35 5 1,210 Shale 15 1,195 5/25/2001 27 1,183 4 0–17 till, 17–19 S&G, 19–27 till, 

27–150 ft grey shale

TM1342 1/10/2001 150 105 6 1,245 Shale 25 1,220 1/10/2001 104 1,141 5 0–45 till, 45–104 cemented gravel, 

104–150 ft shale

—Continued
54 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y. Appendix 1. Records of wells, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York. [At selected wells, the altitudes of water-level-measuring points, which are typically the tops of the well casings, were determined to within 0.01 ft using standard surveying techniques. Elsewhere, altitudes of land surface at wells were estimated using lidar and 1:24,000 scale topographic contour maps that were vertically accurate to 0.5 ft and 5 ft, respectively. The latitude and longitude of the wells in this table may be obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey’s NWIS database. ft, feet; in, inches; NAVD 88 in ft, North American Vertical Datum of 1988, in feet: gal/min, gallons per minute; gal/d, gallons per day; S&G, sand and gravel; —, no data; and WQ, water quality; =, equal to; DD, drawdown; HVSR, horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio seismic survey site] Site name Date drilled Well depth (ft) Depth of cas- ing (ft) Casing diam- eter (in) Altitude land surface (NAVD 88, in ft) Aquifer type Water level below land sur- faceb (ft) Altitude water level (NAVD 88, in ft) Date water level mea- sured Depth to Bed- rock (ft) Altitude top of bedrock (NAVD 88, in ft) Re- ported yield (gal/ min) Remarks (Data from driller’s logs except those that were drilled by the U.S. Geological Survey) TM1346 11/14/2002 360 155 6 1,290 Shale 55 1,235 11/14/2002 153 1,137 5 0–153 till, 153–360 ft grey shale TM1362 6/6/2001 165 27 5 1,645 Shale 28 1,617 6/6/2001 20 1,625 4 0–19 till, 19–20 gravel (5 gal/min), 20–165 ft grey shale TM1363 11/15/2001 300 18 5 1,425 Shale 15 1,410 11/15/2002 16 1,409 3 0–16 till, 16–300 ft grey shale TM1407 11/1/2001 179 20 6 1,676 Shale 66 1,610 11/1/2001 18 1,658 10 1–18 till, 18–180 ft shale TM1414 12/1/2001 358 118 6 1,175 Shale 50 1,125 12/1/2001 118 1,059 1 0–88 till, 88–91 gravel (2 gal/min), 91–101 S&G, 101–111 silty S&G, 111–118 till, 118–358 ft shale TM1415 1/15/2002 202 103 6 1,220 Shale 45 1,175 1/15/2002 103 1,117 2 0–30 S&G, 30–103 cemented gravel, 103–202 ft shale TM1465 4/4/2002 160 61 6 1,495 Shale 70 1,425 4/4/2002 60 1,435 3 0–35 till, 35–40 gravel, 40–60 till, 60–160 ft shale TM1471 4/25/2002 180 47 0 1,232 Shale 80 1,152 4/25/2002 44 1,188 3 0–15 dirty gravel, 15–44 till, 44–180 ft grey shale TM1491 5/30/2002 300 22 6 1,742 Shale 49 1,693 5/30/2002 12 1,730 5 WQ sample 6/2/2010. 0–12 till, 12–300 ft shale TM1495 5/23/2002 135 135 6 1,125 Confined S&G 82 1,043 5/23/2002

—

— 20 0–15 S&G, 15–80 cemented gravel, 

80–134 till, 134–135 ft gravel

TM1508 5/31/2002 45 45 5 1,265 Confined 

gravel

35 1,230 5/31/2002

—

— 15 0–20 till, 20–45 ft gravel

TM1511 6/20/2002 69 48 6 1,490 Shale 25 1,475 6/20/2002 46 1,444 15 0–44 till, 44–46 dirty gravel, 46–69 

ft shale

TM1513 6/11/2002 183 23 6 1,730 Shale 60 1,670 6/11/2002 23 1,707 2 0–23 till, 23–183 ft shale

TM1526 6/24/2002 95 40 6 1,330 Shale 20 1,310 6/23/2002 40 1,290 3 0–40 till, 40–95 ft shale

TM1528 6/24/2002 43 43 6 1,160 Confined 

gravel

Flowing

— 6/24/2002

—

— 15 0–40 till, 40–43 ft gravel

TM1541 7/9/2002 54 54 6 1,413 Confined 

gravel

15 1,398 7/9/2002

—

— 12 0–54 till, 54 ft gravel and shale

—Continued
Appendix 1 55

Appendix 1. Records of wells, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York.[At selected wells, the altitudes of water-level-measuring points, which are typically the tops of the well casings, were determined to within 0.01 ft using standard surveying techniques. Elsewhere, altitudes of land surface at wells were estimated using lidar and 1:24,000 scale topographic contour maps that were vertically accurate to 0.5 ft and 5 ft, respectively. The latitude and longitude of the wells in this table may be obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey’s NWIS database. ft, feet; in, inches; NAVD 88 in ft, North American Vertical Datum of 1988, in feet: gal/min, gallons per minute; gal/d, gallons per day; S&G, sand and gravel; —, no data; and WQ, water quality; =, equal to; DD, drawdown; HVSR, horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio seismic survey site]

Site name Date drilled Well depth (ft) Depth of cas- ing (ft) Casing diam- eter (in) Altitude land surface (NAVD 88, in ft) Aquifer type

Water 

level 

below 

land 

surfaceb 

(ft)

Altitude 

water 

level 

(NAVD 88, 

in ft)

Date water 

level measured

Depth 

to 

Bedrock 

(ft)

Altitude 

top of 

bedrock 

(NAVD 88, 

in ft)

Reported 

yield 

(gal/

min)

Remarks

(Data from driller’s logs except

those that were drilled by the

U.S. Geological Survey)

TM1547 7/11/2002 57 38 6 1,598 Shale 21 1,577 7/11/2002 36 1,562 15 0–36 till, 36–57 ft shale

TM1578 8/20/2002 78 24 6 1,060 Shale 12 1,048 8/22/2002 20 1,040 6 0–20 till, 20–78 ft shale

TM1607 9/26/2002 40 40 6 1,174 Confined 

gravel

— — — — — 20 0–35 till, 35–40 ft gravel

TM1618 10/15/2002 109 109 6 1,134 Confined 

gravel

75 1,059 10/5/2002 — — 10 0–10 top soil, 10–20 clay and gravel, 

20–104 till, 104–109 ft S&G

TM1619 10/25/2002 83 83 6 1,293 Confined 

gravel

30 1,263 10/25/2002 — — 3 0–76 till, 76–103 ft gravel

TM1622 10/30/2002 203 116 6 1,284 Shale — — — 116 1,168 2 0–21 till, 21–116 gravel w/ clay, 

116–203 ft shale

TM1654 2/20/2003 41 41 5 1,174 Unconfined 

S&G

26 1,148 2/20/2003 — — 10 0–38 silty gravel (alluvium), 38–41 ft 

clean gravel

TM1659 3/6/2003 200 56 6 1,548 Shale 40 1,508 3/6/2003 56 1,492 4 0–56 till, 56–200 ft shale

TM1678 4/29/2003 240 45 6 1,235 Shale 50 1,185 4/29/2003 45 1,195 7 0–45 till, 45–240 ft grey shale

TM1681 5/2/2003 297 20 6 1,475 Shale 66 1,409 5/2/2003 3 1,472 5 0–3 till, 3–297 shale

TM1683 5/20/2003 180 59 6 1,155 Shale 80 1,075 5/20/2003 58 1,097 2 0–30 till, 30–40 dirty gravel, 40–58 

till, 58–180 ft shale

TM1685 5/1/2003 360 226 6 1,490 Shale 60 1,430 5/1/2003 222 1,268 4 0–85 till, 85–87 gravel (2 gal/min), 

87–222 till, 222–360 ft grey shale

TM1710 6/24/2003 220 119 6 1,244 Shale 25 1,219 6/24/2003 117 1,127 5 0–80 till, 80–83 S&G, 83–117 till, 

117–220 ft grey shale

TM1711 7/10/2003 97 97 6 1,250 Confined 

gravel

Flowing — 7/10/2003 — — 10 0–50 till, 50–97 dirty gravel

TM1712 7/29/2003 95 95 6 1,255 Confined 

gravel

Flowing — 7/29/2003 — — 20 0–89 till, 89–95 ft gravel

TM1740 8/18/2003 183 83 5 1,266 Shale 66 1,200 8/18/2003 83 1,183 4 0–15 till,15–60 fine gravel, 60–83 

silty clay (till?), 83–183 ft shale

—Continued
56 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y. Appendix 1. Records of wells, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York. [At selected wells, the altitudes of water-level-measuring points, which are typically the tops of the well casings, were determined to within 0.01 ft using standard surveying techniques. Elsewhere, altitudes of land surface at wells were estimated using lidar and 1:24,000 scale topographic contour maps that were vertically accurate to 0.5 ft and 5 ft, respectively. The latitude and longitude of the wells in this table may be obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey’s NWIS database. ft, feet; in, inches; NAVD 88 in ft, North American Vertical Datum of 1988, in feet: gal/min, gallons per minute; gal/d, gallons per day; S&G, sand and gravel; —, no data; and WQ, water quality; =, equal to; DD, drawdown; HVSR, horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio seismic survey site] Site name Date drilled Well depth (ft) Depth of cas- ing (ft) Casing diam- eter (in) Altitude land surface (NAVD 88, in ft) Aquifer type Water level below land sur- faceb (ft) Altitude water level (NAVD 88, in ft) Date water level mea- sured Depth to Bed- rock (ft) Altitude top of bedrock (NAVD 88, in ft) Re- ported yield (gal/ min) Remarks (Data from driller’s logs except those that were drilled by the U.S. Geological Survey) TM1743 8/14/2003 30 30 6 1,178 Uncon- fined S&G 0.1 1,178 8/14/2003

—

— 23 No log, water level at land surface

TM1748 9/16/2003 180 21 6 1,165 Shale 60 1,105 9/16/2003 4 1,161 1 0–4 till, 4–180 ft shale

TM1768 7/15/2005 220 26 6 1,083 Shale

—

—

— 18 1,065 2 1–18 till, 18–220 ft shale

TM1789 10/27/2003 360 110 6 1,232 Shale 40 1,192 10/27/2003 100 1,132 1 0–65 till and sand layers, 65–67 S&G, 

67–100 till, 100–360 ft grey shale

TM1792 11/11/2003 300 46 6 1,500 Shale 37 1,463 11/12/2003 46 1,454 1 0–46 till, 46–300 ft shale

TM1793 11/11/2003 360 49 6 1,355 Shale 30 1,325 11/11/2003 47 1,308 1 0–47 till, 47–360 shale

TM1796 11/24/2003 145 132 6 1,124 Shale 30 1,094 11/24/2003 132 992 6 Bedrock at 132 ft

TM1815 2/18/2004 220 57 6 1,198 Shale 70 1,128 2/18/2004 55 1,143 12 0–50 till, 50–55 S&G, 55–220 ft shale

TM1830 4/14/2004 200 29 6 1,430 Shale 20 1,410 4/14/2004 25 1,405 2 0–25 till, 25–200 ft shale

TM1833 4/15/2004 260 31 6 1,300 Shale

—

—

— 20 1,280 6 0–20 till, 20–260 ft shale

TM1841 5/3/2004 260 39 6 1,190 Shale 10 1,180 5/3/2004 39 1,151 2 0–39 till, 39–260 ft shale

TM1842 5/4/2004 240 50 6 1,218 Shale 70 1,148 5/4/2004 48 1,170 5 0–48 till, 48–240 ft shale

TM1844 5/5/2004 280 55 6 1,160 Shale 10 1,150 5/6/2004 55 1,105 2 2–26 till, 26–28 S&G, 28–32 clay, 

32–38 S&G, 38–55 till, 55–280 ft shale

TM1847 4/10/2004 100 17 6 1,121 Shale 1 1,120 5/10/2004 17 1,104 4 0–17 till, 17–100 ft shale

TM1883 7/15/2004 106 19 6 1,264 Shale 10 1,254 7/15/2004 19 1,245 6 0–19 S&G, 19–106 ft shale

TM1886 7/9/2004 148 20 6 1,415 Shale 60 1,355 7/9/2004 3 1,412 8 0–3 till, 3–148 ft shale

TM1893 7/23/2004 130 12 5 1,505 Shale 30 1,475 7/23/2004 8 1,497 3 0–8 till, 8–130 ft Shale

TM1894 7/24/2004 140 30 6 1,704 Shale 70 1,634 7/24/2004 25 1,779 10 0–25 till, 25–140 ft shale

TM1896 8/5/2004 66 66 6 1,070 Confined 

S&G

—

—

—

—

— 10

—

TM1897 8/16/2004 140 20 6 1,255 Shale 30 1,225 8/16/2004 8 1,247 5 0–8 till, 8–140 ft shale

—Continued
Appendix 1 57

Appendix 1. Records of wells, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York.[At selected wells, the altitudes of water-level-measuring points, which are typically the tops of the well casings, were determined to within 0.01 ft using standard surveying techniques. Elsewhere, altitudes of land surface at wells were estimated using lidar and 1:24,000 scale topographic contour maps that were vertically accurate to 0.5 ft and 5 ft, respectively. The latitude and longitude of the wells in this table may be obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey’s NWIS database. ft, feet; in, inches; NAVD 88 in ft, North American Vertical Datum of 1988, in feet: gal/min, gallons per minute; gal/d, gallons per day; S&G, sand and gravel; —, no data; and WQ, water quality; =, equal to; DD, drawdown; HVSR, horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio seismic survey site]

Site name Date drilled Well depth (ft) Depth of cas- ing (ft) Casing diam- eter (in) Altitude land surface (NAVD 88, in ft) Aquifer type

Water 

level 

below 

land 

surfaceb 

(ft)

Altitude 

water 

level 

(NAVD 88, 

in ft)

Date water 

level measured

Depth 

to 

Bedrock 

(ft)

Altitude 

top of 

bedrock 

(NAVD 88, 

in ft)

Reported 

yield 

(gal/

min)

Remarks

(Data from driller’s logs except

those that were drilled by the

U.S. Geological Survey)

TM1909 9/7/2004 100 20 6 1,462 Shale 50 1,412 9/7/2004 16 1,446 6 0–16 till, 16–100 ft shale

TM1919 9/22/2004 154 22 6 1,498 Shale 77 1,421 9/22/2004 20 1,478 17 0–20 till, 20–154 ft shale, water supply for stock

TM1923 10/5/2004 110 110 6 1,590 Confined 

S&G

40 1,550 10/5/2004 — — 8 Clay at land surface

TM1926 9/27/2004 156 156 6 770 Confined 

sand

130 640 — — — 5 0–3 gravel, 3–20 clay, 20–60 sandy 

clay, 60–80 sand, 80–90 gravel, 90–156 heaving fine sand

TM1928 11/17/2004 145 21 6 1,190 Shale 30 1,160 11/17/2004 6 1,184 4 0–6 till, 6–145 ft shale

TM1937 10/21/2004 240 20 6 1,430 Shale — — — 4 1,426 3 0–4 till, 4–240 ft grey shale

TM1956 11/29/2004 50 50 6 1,425 Confined 

S&G

25 1,400 11/29/2004 — — 10 0–45 till, 45–50 ft gravel

TM1960 12/7/2004 200 21 6 1,145 Shale 100 1,045 12/7/2004 15 1,130 4 0–15 till, 15–200 ft shale

TM1961 12/9/2004 220 22 6 1,070 Shale 100 970 12/9/2004 15 1,055 30 0–15 till, 15–220 ft shale

TM1962 12/6/2004 240 26 6 1,592 Shale — — — 22 1,570 5 0–22 till, 22–240 ft grey shale

TM2041 — 300 20 6 1,321 Shale 300 1,292 6/26/2005 18 1,303 — 0–18 till, 18–300 ft shale

TM2053 7/20/2005 180 23 6 1,385 Shale 80 1,305 7/20/2005 10 1,375 6 0–10 till, 10–180 shale

TM2062 10/20/2005 280 20 6 1,455 Shale 20 1,435 10/20/2005 10 1,445 2 0–10 till, 10–280 ft shale

TM2069 8/12/2005 120 21 6 1,275 Shale 50 1,225 8/12/2005 5 1,270 4 0–5 till, 5–120 ft grey shale

TM2082 9/15/2005 140 24 6 1,620 Shale 45 1,575 9/15/2005 24 1,596 3 0–24 till, 24–140 ft shale

TM2142 11/15/2005 60 26 6 1,465 Shale — — — 25 1,440 4 0–25 till, 25– 60 ft shale

TM2156 12/21/2005 140 33 6 1,655 Shale — — — 32 1,623 5 0–32 till, 32–140 ft grey shale

TM2165 1/25/2006 127 19 6 1,485 Shale 20 1,466 1/25/2006 13 1,472 8 0–2 soil, 2–13 till, 13–105 shale, 

105–115 sandstone, 115–127 ft shale

TM2179 2/14/2006 240 32 6 1,238.6 Shale 90 1,148 2/14/2006 30 1,209 10 0–30 till, 30–240 ft grey shale

TM2214 5/19/2006 208 20 6 1,300 Shale 25 1,275 5/19/2006 10 1,290 25 0–10 till, 10–208 ft shale

—Continued
58 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y. Appendix 1. Records of wells, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York. [At selected wells, the altitudes of water-level-measuring points, which are typically the tops of the well casings, were determined to within 0.01 ft using standard surveying techniques. Elsewhere, altitudes of land surface at wells were estimated using lidar and 1:24,000 scale topographic contour maps that were vertically accurate to 0.5 ft and 5 ft, respectively. The latitude and longitude of the wells in this table may be obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey’s NWIS database. ft, feet; in, inches; NAVD 88 in ft, North American Vertical Datum of 1988, in feet: gal/min, gallons per minute; gal/d, gallons per day; S&G, sand and gravel; —, no data; and WQ, water quality; =, equal to; DD, drawdown; HVSR, horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio seismic survey site] Site name Date drilled Well depth (ft) Depth of cas- ing (ft) Casing diam- eter (in) Altitude land surface (NAVD 88, in ft) Aquifer type Water level below land sur- faceb (ft) Altitude water level (NAVD 88, in ft) Date water level mea- sured Depth to Bed- rock (ft) Altitude top of bedrock (NAVD 88, in ft) Re- ported yield (gal/ min) Remarks (Data from driller’s logs except those that were drilled by the U.S. Geological Survey) TM2253 8/31/2006 297 20 6 1,596 Shale 100 1,496 8/31/2006 10 1,586 12 0–10 till, 10–297 ft shale TM2297 10/24/2006 120 120 6 1,565 Confined S&G 30 1,535 10/27/2006

—

—

— 0–110 till, 110–120 ft gravel

TM2300 10/26/2006 220 54 6 1,125 Shale 40 1,085 10/26/2006 50 1,075 1 0–20 till, 20–50 clay, 50–220 shale

TM2311 11/10/2006 300 20 6 1,225 Shale 24 1,201 11/13/2006 5 1,220 2 0–5 till, 5–300 ft shale

TM2333 1/22/2007 240 24 6 1,181 Shale 72 1,109 1/22/2007 24 1,157 4 0–24 till, 24–240 ft grey shale

TM2346 3/19/2007 50 24 6 1,328 Shale 14 1,314 3/19/2007 18 1,310 12 0–11 till, 11–18 S&G, 18–50 ft shale 

Specific capacity = 0.52 gal/ft

TM2369 5/25/2007 240 29 6 1,215 Shale 50 1,165 5/25/2007 28 1,187 3 0–28 till, 28–240 ft grey shale

TM2370 5/24/2007 360 69 6 1,154 Shale

—

—

— 68 1,086 0.5 0–68 till, 68–360 ft shale 

TM2399 7/10/2007 68 68 6 1,045 Confined 

S&G

30 1,015 7/10/2007

—

— 30 0–30 till, 30–40 S&G, 40–52 fine to 

coarse sand, 52–60 S&G, 60–68 ft gravel

TM2459 10/31/2007 98 121 6 1,260 Confined, 

S&G and 

shale

31 1,229 10/31/2007 110 1,150 3 Perforated casing 95–98 ft; 0–59 till, 

58–65 gravel, 65–97 till, 97–99 gravel, 99–110 till, 110–240 ft shale

TM2463 11/1/2007 140 48 6 1,261 Shale 40 1,221 11/7/2007 48 1,213 2 0–37 till, 37–40 S&G, 40–48 till, 

48–140 ft shale

TM2467a 11/14/2007 75 6 6 1,224.2 Confined 

S&G

2.5 1,221.8 7/7/2009 82 1,142 10 WQ sample 4/24/2008. 0–19 till, 

19–23 S&G, 23–58 till, 58–82 S&G, 82–89 ft shale

TM2483 1/10/2008 133 133 6 1,109 Confined 

S&G

101 1,008 1/10/2008

—

— 8 0–40 till with S&G layers, 40–130 

till, 130–133 ft gravel

TM2519 5/8/2008 420 20 6 1,261 Shale

— 1,261

— 16 1,245 1.5 WQ sample 6/2/2010. Yield before 

hydraulic fracking was 0.1 gal/min, after hydraulic fracking it was 1.5 gal/min. 0–16 till, 16–420 ft shale

—Continued
Appendix 1 59

Appendix 1. Records of wells, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York.[At selected wells, the altitudes of water-level-measuring points, which are typically the tops of the well casings, were determined to within 0.01 ft using standard surveying techniques. Elsewhere, altitudes of land surface at wells were estimated using lidar and 1:24,000 scale topographic contour maps that were vertically accurate to 0.5 ft and 5 ft, respectively. The latitude and longitude of the wells in this table may be obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey’s NWIS database. ft, feet; in, inches; NAVD 88 in ft, North American Vertical Datum of 1988, in feet: gal/min, gallons per minute; gal/d, gallons per day; S&G, sand and gravel; —, no data; and WQ, water quality; =, equal to; DD, drawdown; HVSR, horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio seismic survey site]

Site name Date drilled Well depth (ft) Depth of cas- ing (ft) Casing diam- eter (in) Altitude land surface (NAVD 88, in ft) Aquifer type

Water 

level 

below 

land 

surfaceb 

(ft)

Altitude 

water 

level 

(NAVD 88, 

in ft)

Date water 

level measured

Depth 

to 

Bedrock 

(ft)

Altitude 

top of 

bedrock 

(NAVD 88, 

in ft)

Reported 

yield 

(gal/

min)

Remarks

(Data from driller’s logs except

those that were drilled by the

U.S. Geological Survey)

TM2523 5/20/2012 136 136 6 1,107 Confined 

S&G

110 997 5/20/2008 — — 20 0–60 till, 60–80 sandy clay, 80–135 

hard grey clay (till), 135–136 ft gravel

TM2542 6/3/2008 160 106 6 1,238 Shale 20 1,218 6/3/2008 103 1,135 — 0–103 gravelly sand, gray clay (till), 

103–160 ft shale

TM2561 8/8/2008 160 30 6 1,645 Shale — — — 4 1,641 2 0–4 till, 4–24 weathered shale, 

24–160 ft grey shale

TM2588a 10/21/2008 41 41 6 1,220.6 Confined 

S&G

14.1 1,206.5 7/7/2009 55 1,166 4 WQ sample 11/12/2008. 0–10 pebbly 

fine sand, 10–18 silty fine sand, 18–32 silty clay, 32–38 till, 38–45 

gravel, 45–55 till, 55–70 ft shale

TM2589a 10/24/2008 100 89 6 1,207.2 Shale 3.4 1,203.8 7/7/2009 87 1,120 — 0–15 silty gravel or till, 15–20 f sand, 

20–24 clay or till, 24–31 S&G, 31–43 till, 43–46, fine sand, 46–87 till, 87–100 ft shale

TM2590a 10/28/2008 27 27 6 1,161 Unconfined 

S&G

10.1 1,150.9 7/7/2009 — — 20 WQ sample 11/13/2008. 0–18 S&G, 

18–22 silt with some gravel, 22–27 ft S&G

TM2591a 10/24/2008 27 27 6 1,207.2 Confined 

S&G

6.43 1,200.8 7/7/2009 — — 20 WQ sample 11/12/2008. 0–15 silty 

gravel or till, 15–20 fine sand, 20–24 clay or till, 24–27 ft S&G

TM2667 7/13/2009 125 20 6 1,335 Shale 40 1,295 7/13/2009 8 1,327 8 0–8 till 8–125 ft shale

TM2679 8/17/2009 400 107 6 1,142 Shale 85 1,057 8/17/2009 107 1,035 15 0–10 till, 10–90 till with seams of 

S&G, 90–107 till with gravel layers, 107–400 ft shale

TM2734 3/22/2010 94 24 6 1,081 Shale 6 1,075 3/22/2010 21 1,060 10 0–21 till, 21–94 ft shale

—Continued
60 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y. Appendix 1. Records of wells, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York. [At selected wells, the altitudes of water-level-measuring points, which are typically the tops of the well casings, were determined to within 0.01 ft using standard surveying techniques. Elsewhere, altitudes of land surface at wells were estimated using lidar and 1:24,000 scale topographic contour maps that were vertically accurate to 0.5 ft and 5 ft, respectively. The latitude and longitude of the wells in this table may be obtained from the U.S. Geological Survey’s NWIS database. ft, feet; in, inches; NAVD 88 in ft, North American Vertical Datum of 1988, in feet: gal/min, gallons per minute; gal/d, gallons per day; S&G, sand and gravel; —, no data; and WQ, water quality; =, equal to; DD, drawdown; HVSR, horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio seismic survey site] Site name Date drilled Well depth (ft) Depth of cas- ing (ft) Casing diam- eter (in) Altitude land surface (NAVD 88, in ft) Aquifer type Water level below land sur- faceb (ft) Altitude water level (NAVD 88, in ft) Date water level mea- sured Depth to Bed- rock (ft) Altitude top of bedrock (NAVD 88, in ft) Re- ported yield (gal/ min) Remarks (Data from driller’s logs except those that were drilled by the U.S. Geological Survey) TM2760

— 172 170 5 1,413 Shale 48 1,365 6/2/2010 170 1,243 6 WQ sample 6/2/2010. 0–103 till, 103–

114 unknown, 114–138 red clay, 138–163 dirty gravel, 163–170 till, 170–172 ft shale

TM2806a 10/14/2010 47 47 6 1,178.5 Confined 

S&G

+5.9 1,184.4 10/28/2010 58 1,120 20 WQ sample 10/28/2010. Flows, 0–5 

fill, 5–19 till, 19–25 S&G, 25–40 till, 40–47 ft S&G. Bedrock at 58 ft (HVSR)

TM2808 10/11/2010 220 45 6 1,183 Shale 50 1,133 10/11/2010 45 1,138 12 0–45 till, 45–220 ft shale

TM2840 3/16/2011 160 160 6 1,132.0 Confined 

S&G

122 1,010 3/16/2011

—

— 20 0–15 till, 15–20 silty gravel, 20–157 

till, 157–160 ft gravel

TM2882 7/28/2011 76 76 6 1,177 Confined 

S&G

20 1,157 7/28/2011 77 1,107 10 0–40 sandy clay and gravel layers, 

40–74 till, 74–76 ft gravel, bedrock reported at 77 ft

TM2887 7/30/2011 105 27 6 1,155 Shale 20 1,135 7/30/2011 27 1,128 2 0–27 till, 27–105 ft shale

TM2905 8/10/2011 71 71 6 1,206 Confined 

S&G

14 1,192 8/10/2011

—

—

—

TM2909 9/20/2011 360 88 6 1,159 Shale 60 1,099 9/20/2011 88 1,071 2 0–54 till, 54–88 till and clay layers, 

88–360 ft shale

TM2923 11/16/2011 280 28 6 1,251 Shale 6 1,245 11/16/2011 24 1,227 5 0–15 till, 15–18 gravel, 18–24 till, 

24–30 weathered shale, 30–280 ft shale

Gas well 6/1/1939 2,351

—

— 1,178

—

—

—

— 97 1,081

— Bedrock at 97 ft. Hit water at 41 ft 

(S&G), fresh water noted at 545 ft (limestone)

a Well drilled by the U.S. Geological Survey.b Water levels a depth below land surface except those values preceeded by a plus sign, which indicates the potentiometric surface above land surface.

—Continued
Appendix 2. Well Logs and Construction Details of U.S.

Geological Survey Test Wells
62 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

Bottom of hole = 70 ft

Coarse sand and gravel with silt, f-c pebbles, 

and f-c sand, subrd-rd clasts,

makes some water (confined aquifer)

Pulled casing back from 46 ft (no water) to 41 ft and developed well for 1 hr 

at rate of 3-4 gal/min.

Latitude and longitude measurement made by GPS (NAD83)

Shale, dark grey, makes little or no water

Pebbly fine sand with some silt, brn., poorly sorted,

wet at 2 ft below land surface

Silty fine sand, grey, soft, wet

Clay with some silt, grey, soft, no stones

0

Depth below land surface, in feet 18

10

32

38

 45

 55

70

WELL DEPTH:

41 ft (6” dia. casing)

Water level = 15.28 ft 

below land surface, 

10/24/2008

Elev WL = 1205.3 ft

Water from confined

aquifer enters open-end 

6-in casing at 41 ft

USGS TEST WELL TM2588

Danby Park Association, Town of Danby, N.Y.

Site name: TM2588 (well depth = 41 ft)

Site ID: 422116076284701

Latitude: 42o 21' 15.54''

Longitude: 076o 28' 46.62''

Date completed: 10/21/2008

Drilling contractor: Barber & DeLine, Tully, NY

6 inch diameter steel casing

Casing above ground = 2.9 ft

Elev. TOC (6 in.) = 1223.35 ft

Till, grey, pebbles and cobbles embedded 

in vf sand and silt matrix, poorly sorted 

Till, grey, stones embedded in sand and silt matrix

1221

1211

1203

1189

1183

1176

1166

1151

Altitude of land surface is 1224 feet

 above NGVD 88 

Altitude relative

to NGVD 88

Figure 2–1. Well log and well construction details of U.S. Geological Survey test well TM2588 near the Hamlet of 

Danby, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York.
Appendix 2 63

Bottom of hole = 89 ft

1205

1201

1166

1142

Dirty sand and gravel, f-c pebs. with silt and vf sand

subrd-rd clasts, makes little water (the upper part of

this unit may be reworked/overridden by the glacier)

Coarse sand and gravel, f-c pebs. with some silt 

and vf sand, subrd-rd clasts, makes water (confined

aquifer unit)

Sand and gravel, makes little water

11/14/2007- Developed well at 6 gal/min for 30 min. with casing at 80 ft (water was 

turbid at end of 30 minutes- pumping vf sand and silt)

Pulled casing back to 75 ft and developed well for 1 hr 10 min., started 30 gal/min but yield 

decreased to 10-15 gal/min after 30 min., and then to 5 - 10 gal/min after one hour.

(still had some turbid water after 1 hr. 10 min.) May need to develope well for a longer 

time to determine whether water will clear up.

Developed well 5 hrs on 4/24/2008 by air lift. Started pumping at 2.2 gal/min 

(Drawdown = 7.5 ft), then increased pumping to 4.4 gal/min (DD = 14.5 ft). Water cleared 

up at end of pumping (5 hrs).

Collected water quality sample (common ions, trace metals, nutrients)

Latitude and longitude measurement made by GPS unit (NAD83)

Shale, grey

Weathered shale, grey

Till, grey, subangular pebbles and cobbles

embedded in a vf sand and silt matrix, poorly

sorted (confining unit)

Till, olive grey, trace subangular pebbles,

embedded in a vf sand and silt matrix, poorly

sorted, massive (no layering), clasts <5%

of total mass (confining unit)

0

Depth below land surface, in feet

19

23

58

 69

 82

86

89

WELL DEPTH:

75 ft (6” dia. casing)

Water level = 6.2 ft 

below land surface, 

11/14/2007

WL = 2.32 ft below land surface, 

4/24/2008

Elev WL = 1221.68

Water from confined

aquifer enters open-end 

6-in casing at 75 ft

USGS TEST WELL TM2467

Danby Highway Department, 93 Hornbrook Rd., Danby, N.Y.

Site ID: 422119076282401

Site name: TM2467 (75 ft deep well)

Latitude: 42o 21' 19.16''

Longitude: 076o 28' 23.71''

Date completed: 11/14/2007

Drilling contractor: Barber & DeLine, Tully, NY

6 inch diameter steel casing

Casing above ground = 1.4 ft

Elev. TOC (6 in.) = 1,225.65 ft

Altitude of land surface is 1224 feet

 above NGVD 88 

1224

1138

1135

Altitude relative

to NGVD 88

Figure 2–2. Well log and well construction details of U.S. Geological Survey test well TM2467 at the Danby Highway 

Department near Hornbrook Road, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York.
64 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

Bottom of hole = 88 ft

1093

1073

Fine to coarse sand and gravel with silt, subround 

to round clasts, makes water (unconfined aquifer)

Developed well TM2590 for 1 hr at rate of 20 gal/min.

Developed well TM1035 for 0.5 hr at rate of 1.5 gal/min.

Shale, dark grey, makes little water (1.5 gal/min)

Silty coarse gravel, brown, poorly sorted

Silt with trace gravel, soft, wet

Sand, grey, soft, wet

0

Depth below land surface, in feet

18

32

22

44

 48

68

88

Well depth = 27 ft 

(6” dia. casing)

Water level 

= 10.4 ft 

below land 

surface, 

11/5/2008

Elev. WL = 

1150.6 ft

Water level 

= 5.7 ft 

below land 

surface, 

11/5/2008

Elev. WL = 

1157.0 ft

Water from sand

and gravel aquifer 

enters open-end 

6-in casing at 27 ft

USGS TEST WELLS TM2590 and TM1035

Durfee Hill Road, Town of Danby, N.Y.

Site name: TM1035 (well depth = 88 ft)

Site ID: 421934076251002

Latitude: 42o 19' 34.06''

Longitude: 076o 25' 10.14''

Date completed: 10/28/2008

6 inch diameter steel casing

Casing above ground = 2.7 ft

Site name: TM2590 (well depth = 27 ft)

Site ID: 421934076251001

Latitude: 42o 19' 34.01''

Longitude: 076o 25' 10.21''

Date completed: 10/28/2008

6 inch diameter steel casing

Casing above ground = 3.0 ft

TM2590

Elev. TOC (6 in.) 

= 1164 ft

TM1035

Elev. TOC (6 in.) 

= 1162.7 ft

Till, grey, stones embedded in sand and silt matrix

Till, grey, stones embedded in sand and silt matrix

Latitude and longitude measurement made by GPS (NAD83)

Drilling contractor: Barber & DeLine, Tully, NY

Well depth = 88 ft

Bottom of

casing = 81 ft

Water from 

bedrock enters 

open-hole

interval from 

81 to 88 ft

Altitude of land surface is 1161 feet

 above NGVD 88 

1161

1143

1139

1129

1117

1113

Altitude relative

to NGVD 88

Figure 2–3. Well logs and well construction details of U.S. Geological Survey test wells TM2590 and TM1035, 

Durfee Hill Road, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York.
Appendix 2 65

Bottom of hole = 100 ft

Coarse sand and gravel with silt, f-c pebbles, 

and f-c sand, subrd-rd clasts, makes water 

Developed well TM2591 for 1 hr at rate of 20 gal/min.

Developed well TM2589 for 0.5 hr at rate of 0.1 gal/min.

Shale, dark grey, makes little or no water

Silty coarse gravel, brn., poorly sorted,

(dirty alluvium or till)

Fine sand, soft, wet

Fine sand, grey, soft, wet

Clay with some silt

0

Depth below land surface, in feet

18

15

31

24

43

 46

87

100

Well depth = 27 ft 

(6” dia. casing)

Water level 

= 8.18 ft 

below land 

surface, 

11/5/2008

Elev. WL = 

1199.05 ft

Water level 

= 4.84 ft 

below land 

surface, 

11/5/2008

Elev. WL = 

1202.31 ft

Water from sand

and gravel aquifer 

enters open-end 

6-in casing at 27 ft

USGS TEST WELLS TM2589 and TM2591

Steam Mill Road, Town of Danby, N.Y.

Site name: TM2589 (well depth = 100 ft)

Site ID: 422052076273102

Latitude: 42o 20' 51.57''

Longitude: 076o 27' 30.97''

Date completed: 10/24/2008

6 inch diameter steel casing

Casing above ground = 2.9 ft

Site name: TM2591 (well depth = 27 ft)

Site ID: 422052076273101

Latitude: 42o 20' 51.60''

Longitude: 076o 27' 31.09''

Date completed: 10/24/2008

6 inch diameter steel casing

Casing above ground = 3.2 ft

TM2591

Elev. TOC (6 in.) 

= 1210.43 ft

TM2589

Elev. TOC (6 in.) 

= 1210.05 ft

Till, grey, stones embedded in sand and silt matrix

Till, grey, stones embedded in sand and silt matrix

Latitude and longitude measurement made by GPS (NAD83)

Drilling contractor: Barber & DeLine, Tully, NY

Well depth = 100 ft

Bottom of

casing = 89 ft Water from 

bedrock enters 

open-hole

interval from 

89 to 100 ft

Altitude of land surface is 1207.2 feet

 above NGVD 88 

1207

1192

1187

1183

1176

1164

1161

1120

1107

Altitude relative

to NGVD 88

Figure 2–4. Well log and well construction details of U.S. Geological Survey test wells TM2589 and TM2591, Steam 

Mill Road, Town of Danby, Tompkins County, New York.
66 Geohydrology and Water Quality, Stratified-Drift Aquifers, Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys, N.Y.

Bottom of hole = 47 ft

A passive seismic survey conducted at this site indicated that

bedrock was at depth = 53 ft

 Artesian pressure

Bentonite in annular space between 

6 inch diameter permanent casing 

and 12 inch diameter temporary 

steel casing

Yields 15 gallons per minute at 

depth = 20 feet

Yielded 60 and 20 gallons per 

minute at depths of 41 and 47

feet, respectively (air jetted)

Latitude and longitude measurement made by GPS (NAD83)

0

Depth below land surface, in feet

19

 5

40

WELL DEPTH:

47 ft (6” diameter

open-ended casing)

USGS TEST WELL TM2806

Whitehawk Lane, Town of Danby, N.Y.

Site name: TM2806 (well depth = 47 ft)

Site ID: 422116076284701

Latitude: 42o 21' 43.36''

Longitude: 076o 29' 11.11''

Date completed: 10/14/2010

Drilling contractor: Barber & DeLine, Tully, NY

6 inch diameter steel casing

Casing above ground = 3.0 ft

Elev. TOC (6 in.) = 1181.5 ft

Fill, Silty sand with some clay and stones (reworked 

till to construct berm around detention pond)

Till, silty fine sand matrix with embedded pebbles

to cobbles many pebbles are rounded suggesting 

that glacier overrode some fluvial gravel and 

reworked it into the till. 

Sand and gravel, predominately platy shale clasts

25 Till, silty fine sand matrix with embedded pebbles 

to cobbles

Sand and gravel, grey, fine to coarse pebbles,

predominately platy shale clasts

47

1173.5

1159.5

1153.5

1138.5

1131.5

1178.5

Altitude relative

to NGVD 88 Altitude of land surface is 1161 feet

 above NGVD 88 

Figure 2–5. Well log and well construction details of U.S. Geological Survey test well TM2806, Whitehawk Lane, Town of Danby, 

Tompkins County, New York.
For more information concerning this report, contact:

Director, New York Water Science Center

U.S. Geological Survey 

30 Brown Road

Ithaca, NY 14850

Information requests:

(518) 285-5602

or visit our Web site at:

http://ny.water.usgs.gov

Publishing support by: 

the Pembroke and Rolla Publishing Service Centers
Miller—Geohydrology and W Miller—Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Stratified-Drift Aquifers in Upper Buttermilk and Danby Creek—Scientific Investigations Report 2015−5138 Scientific Investigations Report 2015−5138

ISSN 2328-0328 (online)

http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20155138