TUNISIA

ExpeditionaryCulture

FieldGuide

Bizerte

Sfax

Gabès

Tataouine

Mahdia

Beja

Kasserine

Gasfa

Kairouan

Sousse

CHOTT

ELDJERID

Tunis

Tunisia
This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained within will help you 

understand the cultural 

dimension of your 

assigned location and 

gain skills necessary for 

success.

The guide consists of 2

parts: 

Part 1 “Culture 

General” provides the 

foundational knowledge you need to operate effectively in any 

global environment. 

Part 2 “Culture Specific” focuses on unique cultural features 

of Tunisian society and is designed to complement other predeployment training. It 

applies culture-general 

concepts to help

increase your 

knowledge of your 

assigned deployment 

location.

For further information, 

visit the Air Force 

Culture and Language 

Center (AFCLC) website at http://culture.af.mil/ or contact 

AFCLC’s Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

ECFG Tunisia

About this Guide
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also 

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols in 

that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an image, 

word, object, idea, or story –

represents another thing. 

For example, the American 

flag is a physical and visual 

symbol of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, 

the story of George Washington admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

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CULTURE 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL
nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success.

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry 

internally, but also by our behaviors and by the systems 

members of a culture create to organize their lives. These 

systems, such as political or educational institutions, help us to 

live in a manner that is appropriate to our culture and

encourages us to perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more effectively interact with members of 

that culture.

Social Behaviors Across Cultures

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those 

behaviors differently across 

cultural boundaries. For 

example, all societies obtain 

food for survival, although

agrarian societies generally 

produce their own food for 

limited consumption using 

very basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated 

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market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal 

consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, 

although they represent these concepts through a variety of 

unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions 

share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with

their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kinbased cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social 

identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human behaviors is the tendency to classify 

others as similar or different according to our cultural standard. 

As depicted in the chart 

below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us 

compare similarities and 

differences across cultures. 

We evaluate others’

behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or 

“people not like me.” 

Consequently, we assume 

that individuals falling into the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

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This collective perspective forms our worldview – how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve 

to rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

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deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors 

that are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many 

regions where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend 

judgment in order to understand another perspective is 

essential to establishing relationships with your host-nation

counterparts. The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as cultural relativism. It often involves 

taking an alternate perspective when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success. 

As you travel throughout the African Continent, you will 

encounter cultural patterns of meaning that are common

among most African countries. What follows is a general 

description of 12 cultural domains which are used to frame 

those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, 

although it is usually a story which 

members of a culture use to explain 

community origins or important events 

that are not verifiable or which occurred 

prior to written language. 

Africa has a history that spans the

entire existence of humankind. In 

ancient times prior to the emergence of 

written languages, history and wisdom 

were preserved across generations and 

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CULTURAL DOMAINS
ethnic boundaries through oral folk legends or myths. Most 

early human evolution began as hunting and gathering cultures 

in East and South Africa, with countries such as Ethiopia, 

Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa renowned for their early 

human sites. In the last several millennia, the development of 

agriculture and pastoralism (animal herding) replaced hunting 

and gathering lifestyles (Photo: Kutubiyya Mosque courtesy of 

CultureGrams, ProQuest, 2013).

Ancient civilizations evolved in all corners of Africa, inspired in 

part by peoples from the Middle East bringing trade, beliefs, 

customs, language, and on occasion, colonization. Far from 

being isolated empires, the African civilizations were intimately 

connected by commerce and marriage throughout various 

regions of the continent, and when confronted by outsiders, 

managed to adapt to their influences. Eventually, Arab traders 

introduced Islam to Africa and also instituted the TransSaharan African slave trade that lasted from the 7th to 19th 

Centuries. 

The “golden age” of European exploration, which lasted from 

the 18th to mid-20th century, prompted the wholesale 

exploitation of Africans resources – first human assets through 

slavery, followed by natural resources such as minerals, 

precious gems and 

metals, and wildlife, 

thereby diminishing most 

of what was traditional 

and African. 

The introduction of the 

European Trans-Atlantic 

Slave Trade altered the 

slave trade through both 

the sheer number of 

Africans enslaved and

through the cementing of a racist ideology of Black inferiority to 

legitimize the institution of slavery. Slavery decimated the 

African continent for over 400 years through the forced 

relocation of an estimated 25 to 30 million Africans worldwide. 

This figure does not include those Africans who died aboard 

ships or during capture. While abolition of the slave trade 

dissolved the institution of slavery, it did not end the European 

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presence on the African continent nor did it drastically alter 

their attitudes towards Africans.

Starting in the mid-19th century, European colonialism served 

to redefine African ethnic relations on a large scale; however,

as African societies began to resist colonial rule and seek their

independence, widespread ethnic conflict and genocide

occurred. Sustained westernization and globalization continue

to shape the continent through poverty, disease, and social 

reform. A history still to be recorded, Africa’s future identity 

faces many challenges in critical areas such as environmental 

change, ethnic strife, women’s health and security, and 

education. 

2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Traditional African political 

organizations in the form of 

bands, tribes, and 

chiefdoms have existed for 

several millennia and 

continue to influence 

contemporary African 

governments. Uncommon 

in modern society, bands 

are limited to hunting and gathering economies, such as the

!Kung of the southern African Kalahari Desert and foragers of 

central African forests. 

Tribes are still represented today across the African political 

landscape, although the use of the word “tribe” is sometimes 

misinterpreted due to its western notion of “primitiveness” and 

oftentimes substituted with the term “ethnic group.” Lacking 

centralized authority, tribes are organized around segmented 

descent groups or in some cases age groups. 

Everyday governance is discharged through councils of 

respected elders and sanctioned through ritual and other 

means. East African pastoralist groups such as the Maasai, 

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along with some West African tribes and the Berbers in North 

Africa, represent this type of organization. 

Chiefdoms or kingdoms are ruled by kings or queens from a 

royal clan and generally incorporate millions of subjects. 

Kingdoms such as the Zulu or Swazi in southern Africa 

developed through conquest, while others like Ghana’s 

Ashante developed through an association of related traditional 

states. However, colonialism eventually diluted the power and 

reach of these empires, 

whose leaders were often 

retained as indirect rulers 

or figureheads. 

Today, all three of these 

political organizations still 

exist, although in the 

confines of modern African 

nation-states created by 

colonial powers who had little regard or understanding of 

African cultures. This juxtaposition of modernity with tradition 

has caused severe conflict throughout the continent. 

Challenged to construct their respective “national” identities, 

regional leaders attempt to do so by diluting the traditionally 

cohesive power of ancestry. These national ruling elites, who 

derive their power from wealth and commerce rather than tribal 

affiliation, feel threatened by loyalty to these traditional 

organizations, labeling their rule as “tribalism.” 

This “class versus descent” scrimmage for power has resulted 

in conflicts across the continent and a dramatic divergence of 

interests. As a means to overcome these and other issues on

the continent, a 53-nation federation, the African Union (AU), 

was formed in 2002. AU’s charter is to promote “greater unity 

and solidarity between African countries and peoples” by 

building partnerships in all segments of “civil society.”

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

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RAL
individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. Prior to the arrival of Islam and Christianity, the 

African continent consisted of orally transmitted indigenous

religious practices. As in many societies, African indigenous 

beliefs influenced diet, subsistence patterns, family structures, 

marriage practices, and healing and burial processes. In 

essence, Africans constructed their worldview through their 

indigenous religions. 

Today, the African continent

is primarily either Muslim or 

Christian. Other faiths such 

as Judaism and Hinduism 

exist as pockets in different

regions of the continent, 

primarily in urban areas. The 

historical trajectories of 

Islamic and Christian 

expansion in Africa offer intriguing commonalities in how 

Africans across the continent initially reacted to the introduction 

of each of those religions. For example, it is common 

throughout the continent to find a blending of many elements of 

indigenous religious practices with local Islam and Christianity

(Photo courtesy of Wikimedia).

Consequently, many African native religions share similarities 

with religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism in their 

understanding of God as the creator 

and ruler of all life, although He is 

considered untouchable by humans. 

However, unlike Christianity and 

Islam, many African indigenous 

religions believe that God is not 

directly involved in people's lives. To 

them there is a spirit world 

populated with former good and bad 

human beings. The good spirits 

intercede with God on behalf of their 

living families to whom they then 

relay God's will through dreams and acquired possessions. 

The bad spirits work to bring misfortune through sickness, 

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death, or natural disasters to those who behave 

inappropriately. 

Many indigenous African religions revere "nature" spirits living 

in the sky, water, and forests. These impersonal spirits help 

protect people from harm and provide them with life’s essential 

ingredients such as water, sun, and wildlife. This belief system 

is commonly referred to as animism.

Just as spirits mediate relations between God and humans,

religious specialists act as mediators between spirits and 

humans to provide protection from harm. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called “fictive kin”).The traditional 

African family with respect to marriage, family structure, and 

descent is a much 

different arrangement

than is found in most 

American families. 

Likewise, there are 

several components of 

the traditional African 

family that are common 

to all African cultures. 

First, perhaps the most 

difficult feature to 

reconcile to Americans 

is that of polygyny – the practice of a husband having more 

than one wife. A benefit of this arrangement is that it promotes

societal alliances through marriage, procreation, and family 

wealth through female labor. 

Second, due to polygyny, the family in most African cultures 

has historically consisted of an expanded set of kin or relatives 

that extends well beyond the American notion of a nuclear 

family. This arrangement created a family environment where 

children considered all siblings as “brothers and sisters” and all 

of the wives/mothers as “mother.” 

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Third, the extended African family traces descent through 

either the male or female side of the family, a practice which 

differs considerably from the American family. Patrilineal 

descent (through the male side of the family) is the more 

common approach and usually features polygyny. The

matrilineal (through the female bloodline) marriage pattern is 

more uncommon and almost always features monogamy – it is 

rare to encounter a wife having more than one husband. 

Lastly, it is common for two or more blood lines (lineages) to 

share a common ancestor and collectively form a clan, which is 

the largest social unit. Clans do not have formal leaders or 

organizational structures. Membership is transferred from 

father to child and cuts across ethnic and social boundaries. 

The dramatic social changes in Africa during and after 

colonialism in the last 4 decades have obviously affected the 

traditional family, and variations on these 3 features can be 

found across the continent.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. Gender roles in Africa 

follow no single model nor is there a generalized concept of 

sex and common standard of sexual behavior. 

Prehistorically, gender role differentiation in Africa’s hunting 

and gathering cultures was based on a division of labor 

featuring different, yet complementary, sets of responsibilities 

for males and females, adults and children. Females gathered 

over half the caloric 

needs from natural 

vegetation, while also 

reproducing and raising 

offspring. Males were 

primarily hunters but also 

assisted with gathering. 

These gender patterns 

continued as agricultural 

practices advanced. 

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Females shared in farming while continuing to provide for the 

family’s subsistence, and males produced the cash crops. 

Pastoralists like the Maasai of Kenya traditionally have featured 

males involved in cattle-raising and females in food production. 

The 19th-century European colonial period introduced a cash 

economy into Africa, with female labor used to produce the 

cash crops. By inserting male authority over females, colonial 

administrators disrupted the distinct yet complementary 

male/female relationship that had been traditionally African. 

More recently, western influence across the continent has 

dramatically altered the traditional gender roles. Educational 

and professional opportunities for females, along with 

increased family migrations to urban areas, have radically

altered traditional male and female gender roles. 

Likewise, the number of singles parents and even child- or 

other relative-led families has increased with the predominance 

of HIV/AIDS-related deaths and warfare, further altering 

traditional gender responsibilities. Additionally, ethnic conflicts 

involving abuse of women are prevalent in many unstable 

countries, and while the rubric of traditional African gender 

generally remains, the forces of change are gradually ripping it 

away.

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural 

practice of sharing 

meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and nonverbally. America is 

predominantly a 

monolingual society, 

where traditionally, 

fluency in a second 

language has been 

considered a luxury 

rather than a necessity. 

Conversely, national survival for many societies in Africa 

required them throughout their existence to adopt multilingual 

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practices, if for no other reason than to preserve their native 

heritage. 

You may find it challenging to comprehend the scope of 

Africa’s linguistic diversity. There are over 2,000 African 

languages (many spoken-only) from 6 major language families, 

and perhaps 100 of these languages are used to communicate 

among the more dominant ethnic groups such as Berber, 

Swahili, Yoruba, and others. 

Official languages of African nation-states are few, yet the 

linguistic diversity expressed across the continent (Nigeria has 

250 languages) has prompted an awareness of the value of 

Africa’s linguistic traditions. While most areas of the continent 

speak the adopted language of their colonial past – such as 

French and Portuguese in West Africa, French and Arabic in 

Morocco, and English in Kenya and South Africa – the majority 

of people also speak one or more traditional “indigenous” 

languages of their and other ethnic groups. As African 

independence spread throughout the continent, ethnic groups 

continued to depend on their indigenous identifiers, such as 

language, to celebrate their “release” from colonial rule and to 

preserve a sense of 

indigenous identity. 

While communication 

styles tend to vary by 

ethnic or social groups, 

Africans generally are 

friendly and outgoing 

people although they 

tend to communicate 

with reserve to avoid 

confrontation. As in most kin-based societies, Africans believe 

that saving face or protecting one’s honor and dignity are of 

utmost importance; therefore, they avoid public criticism and 

controversial topics at all costs – even to the extent of 

withholding their honest opinion or modifying the truth. 

Africans admire and even expect extended greetings and small 

talk, and to attempt to rush or avoid social graces is considered 

disrespectful. Similarly, Africans avoid direct eye contact when 

communicating with new acquaintances and people of status, 

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particularly elders. They also are fond of non-verbal gestures, 

and it is common throughout African societies for members of 

the same gender to hold hands or touch while conversing.

7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as 

schools or through informal

learning by watching adults or 

peers.

The contemporary African 

educational system hardly 

resembles the traditional precolonial structure, whereby 

community elders were primarily responsible for preparing 

youth for adulthood. Their instruction included fundamentals of 

ethnic ritual and ceremony, along with customary protocol for 

their distinctive gender roles. A rite-of-passage commemorating 

their successful journey from childhood to adulthood served as 

a form of graduation.

European colonialism brought a more structured, formal 

educational system that catered to a small group of African 

elite who demonstrated potential to administer expanding 

colonial territories. Following independence, many African 

nations adopted the European system because they believed it 

would prepare them to be more competitive in intra-continental 

and global marketplaces, thereby enhancing their quality of life.

However, progress in developing and maintaining reliable 

educational institutions has been slow for a variety of reasons. 

Since most Africans live in rural environments, they continue to 

rely heavily on child labor for family survival, resulting in 

decreased school enrollments or early withdrawals. Likewise, 

widespread HIV/AIDS epidemics, ethnic conflict, teacher and 

resource deficits, and inaccessibility to remote rural areas also 

hamper progress. According to 2005 statistics, only half of the 

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continent’s children were enrolled in primary school, leaving 

over 40 million African children without any schooling at all. 

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In low-context 

western cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, most African cultures are traditionally high-context 

societies, whereby people center their activities on socializing 

and establishing close associations, having little regard for the 

passage-of-time. 

Only after establishing trust and honor will your typical African 

counterpart agreeably proceed with business. In his worldview, 

time is a precious commodity used to establish relationships 

and form alliances. Any 

attempt to accelerate the 

tempo at the expense of 

social pleasantries will 

likely result in deadlock. 

To an African, close 

physical proximity between 

individuals encourages 

cooperative trust, and for 

centuries they have 

viewed human linkage as 

a core element to survival. This closeness is best represented 

in a traditional African village where strong kinship connections

are evidenced by a display of close interpersonal relations 

among family members. 

While conventional African concepts of time and space remain 

intact, throughout the continent western influence and 

globalization have stepped up the pace of African living, mostly 

in urban areas. Consequently, rural-to-urban migrations have 

reshaped traditional social and subsistence patterns. 

9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Prior to 19th-century European colonization of Africa, 

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recreation served a vital subsistence role, whereby adolescents 

and adults alike participated in intellectually stimulating 

leisurely activities that concurrently served to develop essential 

hunting and pastoral skills.

Games of chance and skill were important to early childhood 

development, providing social outlets within and outside their 

community. Featuring 

wrestling, jumping and 

running; traditional African 

sport was steeped in 

religious ritual.

Along with colonialism 

came the introduction to 

Africa of western sports 

such as soccer, cricket, 

rugby and track and field. This emphasis on western sport 

continued to thrive with African independence and 

globalization, as seen in sporting events such as the Olympics 

and the World Cup. 

Leaders such as Nelson Mandela skillfully employed sport to 

promote a unified South African nation. Importing the 

predominantly “white” game of rugby, Mandela used it to fuse a 

racially divided country following his election in 1992. This 

event is the theme of the motion picture “Invictus,” exemplifying 

how sport can serve to create national identities and overcome 

ethnic division. His efforts 

have inspired many other 

African nations to follow 

suit.

Likewise, East African 

countries such as Kenya 

and Ethiopia have 

produced the world’s 

dominant male and 

female distance runners, 

and South Africa, Cameroon and Nigeria emerged as strong

contenders in the 2010 World Cup. African nations are now 

competing in leagues such as the International Basketball 

Association (FIBA) World Championships, and there is also a 

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growing number of African basketball players on US college 

campuses and in the National Basketball Association (NBA). 

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

Despite having only 11% of the global population, Africa is a 

victim of many of the world’s debilitating health disorders. 

According to the World 

Health Organization, 60% of 

the global HIV/AIDS cases 

and 90% of malarial 

diseases occur in Africa. 

These and other medical 

conditions are attributed 

primarily to viral infection 

and widespread poverty 

caused by extreme climatic 

conditions and civil unrest, coupled with inadequate 

preventative measures. While extensive drought generates 

widespread famine, civil disturbances generate millions of 

displaced persons. Likewise, with only 58% of the SubSaharan African population having access to safe drinking 

water, water-born bacterial diseases 

such as cholera and schistosomiasis

are common.

Many people in Africa lack access to 

western medicine, and as a result 

depend on traditional health 

practices to combat disease. In 

addition, some traditional beliefs run 

counter to western medical practice

and perhaps discourage individuals 

from utilizing those services even 

when they are available. This 

problem is further intensified by lack of federal regulatory 

healthcare management. 

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While modern healthcare procedures are more common in 

urban areas, many rural people rely on traditional practitioners 

who use a variety of plants and herbs to treat patients. 

Similarly, many families have their own secret remedies. While 

in some cases traditional medicine proves effective with fewer 

side effects than modern drugs, traditional practices do not 

adequately treat many of the more serious conditions.

On a positive note, western influence has stimulated some 

progress in combating Africa’s health crisis. More resources 

are devoted to achieving basic human security by assessing

disease symptoms early and with scientific accuracy. 

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Traditionally having an agrarian-based economy, 

Africa today remains predominantly agricultural, featuring less 

industrialization than 

most other parts of the 

world. Post-colonial 

adversities such as 

civil war, disease, 

poverty, and unstable 

dictatorships posed 

unusual hardship on

several young African 

nations; however, 

Africa currently stands 

at the cross-roads of economic development with many nations 

becoming some of fastest growing regions in the world. 

Colonialism institutionalized the exploitation of Africa’s mineral 

resources, resulting in today’s oil industry dominating the 

economic market in several coastal regions. A surge in global 

oil prices; a growing African middle class; and reduction in civil 

wars, foreign aid, and inflation collectively promise a more 

positive outlook for the future.

Countries such as Botswana, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, and 

South Africa are economically the wealthiest on the continent, 

with regions such as East Africa showing signs of economic 

stability. Despite the economic upswing, much of sub-Saharan 

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Africa’s future economic prosperity is held hostage by 

devastating diseases such as AIDS, particularly in areas of 

southern Africa, and the growing effects of climate change and 

man-made environmental degradation throughout the 

subcontinent. 

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. Africa lags far behind most of the world in 

manufacturing capacity and output. Even the more 

economically-developed nations such as South Africa are 

competitively weak when compared to non-African 

industrialized nations. During the 1970s and 1980s, Africa 

experienced some growth in raw exports although this increase 

did little to boost long-term manufacturing capacity. 

Today, Africa is experiencing an actual decline in 

manufacturing capacity due primarily to a lull in the global 

economy, along with other indigenous issues such as 

environmental stress, poor physical and organizational

infrastructure, and a 

shortage of skilled 

personnel. Likewise, 

African manufacturing 

capacity is no match 

against global powers 

such as China and 

significant Southeast 

Asian markets. 

International aid from 

both governmental and non-governmental organizations has 

helped African nations establish preliminary economic 

footholds. For example, many of them have dedicated 

industrial developmental zones to attract foreign investment 

and increase export-related manufacturing capacity, although 

Africa is far removed from having a significant role in the global 

marketplace in the foreseeable future. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize African society at large, we will now focus on 

specific features of Tunisian society.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

A distinct territorial unit for centuries, Tunisia has blended 

foreign cultures and indigenous traditions into a homogenous 

society. Although it is the smallest North African state, Tunisia 

has set important precedents—most recently, it was the first 

Arab country to overthrow its despot in a popular movement. 

Early History

Early hominids and their descendants have lived in Tunisia for

200,000 years. Between 7000 and 4500 BC, a group of settlers

from Berber descent inhabited present-day Gafsa, Tunisia (see 

p11 of Political and Social Relations). Known today as the 

Capsians, this group domesticated sheep and cattle, established 

villages, and cultivated snails for food and art. The Capsian 

culture left behind paintings, pottery, jewelry, and decorated 

ostrich eggs, in addition to stone and bone tools. These and 

other early inhabitants enjoyed lush landscapes until 

desertification began around 8,000 years ago.

Carthage

The sea-faring Phoenicians from 

present-day Tyre, Lebanon first 

settled the Tunisian coast in 1100 BC, 

establishing the city of Carthage in 

814 BC. Although originally a minor 

Punic (Phoenician) outpost, Carthage 

eclipsed its homeland to become a 

major regional trading empire 

defended by a strong navy and linked 

to inland Berber communities for labor 

and raw materials. A rival of both the 

Greeks and Romans, Carthage fought Rome and lost 3 Punic 

Wars fought between 264-241 BC, 218-201 BC, and 149-146 

BC respectively (Pictured: 19th century painting of the Second 

Punic War).

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

In the Second Punic War, famed military genius Hannibal

commanded Carthage’s attacks into Europe, leading columns of 

men and elephants across the Alps. Carthage ultimately lost to 

Rome, and Hannibal committed suicide. Yet, his larger-than-life 

actions have been immortalized in Tunisia. Today, Tunisian 

streets, cafes, and the Hannibal Club, an institution promoting 

Tunisian culture abroad, bear his name.

Following this defeat, Carthage lost territory and was forced to 

pay tributes to Rome. Slowly, Carthage began to lose control of

the Berbers at home, in part because it could not pay its Berber 

mercenaries. At the end of the third disastrous war in 146 BC, 

Rome destroyed Carthage and sowed its land with salt.

Carthage’s Mythical Founding 

In contrast to history, which is a record of the past that 

is based on verifiable facts and events, myths 

embody a culture’s values and often explain the 

origins of humans and the natural world. Myths can 

provide a sense of unique heritage and identity. 

According to a Carthagian myth, a widowed Punic 

princess named Dido fled with her husband’s fortune 

to North Africa in 814 BC. When the local Berber chief 

allowed her only the amount of land an ox hide could 

cover, Dido trimmed the hide into long strips that

covered a hill, which became the center of Carthage. 

When the Berber chief insisted she marry him, Dido 

killed herself to save the city from the war that would 

have resulted from her refusal. 

The historical details about Carthage’s founding are 

unclear, but the myth may be rooted in facts. Some

believe Carthage must have been founded by a 

woman because the mythical details are so unusual. 

Carthage’s actual connection to exiled royalty is 

unproven, yet this assertion likely justified the city’s 

supremacy among other Punic outposts. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Influence of Regional Empires

Berbers: With Rome’s agreement, Berbers filled the resulting 

power void. The region called Numidia (part of modern Algeria 

and Tunisia) was united and divided several times as Berber 

kings supported or opposed Rome, which ultimately defeated 

the last independent Berber king in the 1st century BC.

Romans: In 46 BC, the Romans began colonizing and directly 

governing what comprises modern Tunisia as a province called 

Africa Proconsularis. With the rebuilt city of Carthage as its 

capital, Roman Tunisia became a melting pot of Latin-speaking 

settlers living among Berber and Punic speakers and Jews 

arriving from Palestine (see p4 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Tunisia produced grains, wine, and olives to help feed the 

Roman Empire. In return, Rome invested heavily in the region’s 

infrastructure, creating an extensive network of roads with mile 

markers, aqueducts, baths, stadiums, and other structures now 

seen as ruins across Tunisia

(pictured). Tunisia and greater

North Africa were wellrepresented in Rome’s Senate: at 

one point, 15% of senators came

from the region. From 193 to 211 

AD, North African native 

Septimius Severus ruled as 

Caesar. After his dynasty ended in 

235, political turmoil resulted from frequent leader turnover, 

inflation, steep taxes, and diminished Roman power. As Rome

declined, Christianity made significant in-roads into Tunisia (see 

p5 of Religion and Spirituality).

Vandals and Byzantines: In 429, Germanic Vandals crossed 

into Algeria from Spain, defeated the Romans, and established

a short-lived kingdom with Carthage as its capital. The Roman 

Empire’s Greek-speaking successor based in the Byzantine 

Empire’s capital, Constantinople (known today as Instanbul),

routed the Vandals in 533. As inattentive landlords, the 

Byzantines gave the Berbers de facto autonomy during their 

rule. In 646, a bold Byzantine governor declared independence 

but was killed the next year by Arab Muslims from the East.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Advent of Islam

Eager to spread their new religion, early converts to Islam from 

the Arabian Peninsula moved into Tunisia in the latter half of the 

600s. While the first Muslim raid on Tunisia in 647 did not convert 

many people or establish Islamic rule, over time, Islam would

fundamentally reshape Tunisian society (see Religion and 

Spirituality). Uqba bin Nafi al-Fihri, a general associated with the 

Islamic Umayyad caliphate in Damascus, Syria, established the 

city of Kairouan in 670. Strategically located near Carthage and 

remote from Berber strongholds, Kairouan became militarily and 

religiously significant as the capital of various Islamic dynasties.

Some Berbers accepted Islam, intermarried with Arabs, and 

facilitated further Arab conquests. Other Berbers, including 

some Christian and Jewish populations, initially resisted and 

fought the Arabs independently or as allies to Byzantine forces.

Still others embraced the Kharijite school of Islam, which

rejected central Islamic governance and solely Arab caliphs, to 

assert their uniqueness.

Islamic Rule

Various Islamic groups administered Tunisia from the late 7th to 

the 16th centuries. The Damascus-based Sunni Umayyads 

governed the region as the province Ifriqiyya (Arabic for Africa, 

Tunisia’s Roman name), then were followed by the Baghdadbased Sunni Abbasid caliphate. Both caliphates considered 

Tunisia too distant to warrant 

sustained attention. 

Aghlabids: In 800, the 

Abbasids named Ibrahim bin alAghlab governor. He 

successfully suppressed various

Kharijite rebellions and founded the hereditary Aghlabid 

dynasty, which remained nominally subordinate to the Abbasid 

caliphate. The Aghlabid dynasty presided over the first golden 

Islamic age in Tunisia: it built the Great Mosque at Kairouan, 

constructed several ribats (forts), repaired Roman 

infrastructure, revitalized agriculture, and even conquered Sicily, 

Italy (Pictured: Coin from Kairouan, Tunisia with a reference to

the Abbasid caliph and Aghlabid emir).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Fatimids: In 909, Shi’a Muslim Berbers called Fatimids 

conquered Kairouan and overthrew the Sunni Muslim Aghlabids. 

The Fatimids continued their march to Egypt and then 

outsourced their rule to the Berber Zirids. In 1049, the Zirid emir 

returned Tunisia to Sunni Islam (see p6 of Religion and 

Spirituality for an explanation of Muslim sects).

Zirids and Banu Hilal: Angered by the reversion to Sunni Islam, 

the Fatimids encouraged the Arab Banu Hilal tribe to punish the 

Zirids. Local Arabs plundered Tunisia, weakening it so much that 

the crusading Normans of England were able to move in and 

control Tunisian coastal cities between 

1135 and 1160. The Banu Hilal had a 

lasting effect on Tunisia: the tribe 

expedited Arabization, the process by 

which the non-Arab indigenous 

populations adopted Arabic language 

and cultural customs in place of their own

(Photo: The Great Mosque of Kairouan).

Almohads and Hafsids: The Sunni 

Almohads of Morocco conquered Tunis 

in 1159 and in 1207 installed the Hafsid 

dynasty. Ruling from their capital of Tunis, the Hafsids reestablished trade ties with Europe that were so durable that even 

the French King Louis IX’s short-lived, unsuccessful Eighth 

Crusade in 1270 could not penetrate them. Although their rule 

officially continued until 1574, the Hafsids began a long, slow 

decline well before then.

Spain and the Ottoman Empire

To help control their territory, the Hafsids turned to pirates, 

including Barbarossa (Red Beard). When the Hafsids later 

rejected their pirate allies, Barbarossa sought and received

Turkish Ottoman support against them. In 1534, Tunis fell into 

Ottoman hands after a seaborne attack. The Hafsid ruler, 

Hassan, fled to his trading partner, Spain. There, he appealed to 

the king, and a year later, Hassan was back on the throne in 

Tunis thanks to Spanish support. In the ensuing years, Tunisia 

changed hands multiple times as the Ottomans and Europeans 

vied for control. In 1574, the Turks finally routed Spain and made 

Tunisia an Ottoman province.
HISTORY &

MYTH

In the Ottoman Empire, beys (provincial governors), deys

(military leaders), and pashas (governors) competed for 

influence while nominally reporting to the sultan in Istanbul, 

Turkey. Turkish-speaking Ottoman administrators generally 

excluded Arabic-speaking natives from leadership positions. 

Nevertheless, the Ottoman era was a prosperous time for 

Tunisia as the Ottomans constructed and 

restored buildings and infrastructure. In 

the 16th century, Tunisia welcomed 

thousands of Jews and Muslims 

escaping persecution in Spain (Pictured: 

Turkish depiction of the Ottomans 

marching on Tunis in 1569).

In 1705, after thwarting an Algerian 

invasion attempt, Tunisian Bey Hussein 

bin Ali established a hereditary line of 

beys known as the Husseinids that

swore allegiance to Istanbul but operated 

autonomously. Each generation the bey selected the best suited 

Husseinid prince as heir. Eventually broadening their support 

base to include Arab elites, the Husseinids would continue to 

govern nominally until independence in 1957.

By the 19th century, Berber and Arab leaders In Tunisia’s interior

stopped paying taxes, which eventually curtailed the army’s 

capability to control the hinterlands. The Husseinids sought 

foreign loans to compensate for lost revenue, rebuild the military, 

and add to their personal wealth. This foreign assistance thrust

Tunisia deeply in debt under the condition of reforms favoring 

the foreigners.

Khayr ad-Din and the First Constitution 

Tunisia’s rulers hoped that modernizing reforms would ensure 

Tunisian independence by appeasing the foreign powers active 

in the region, namely France in Algeria and the Ottoman Empire 

in Libya. In 1857 France directed Tunisia to adopt the so-called 

Fundamental Pact, granting citizens equal treatment under the 

law regardless of religion and allowed foreigners to own 

property. By guaranteeing foreigners equal protection under 

Tunisian law, the Pact undermined Tunisian sovereignty. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

In 1861, Khayr ad-Din Pasha al-Tunsi (known as Hayreddin 

Pasha) drew up the Arab world’s first destour (constitution),

establishing Tunisia as a constitutional monarchy with a 

representative Supreme Council and a secular Supreme Court.

Hayreddin Pasha was an Ottoman Tunisian political reformer 

during this period of growing European ascendancy and 

considered the father of Tunisian nationalism.

Indebtedness and French Control

Popular discontent due to Tunisia’s bankruptcy led to the 

constitution’s 1864 suspension and the country’s alignment 

under the management of an international commission

comprised of British, French, and Italian members. First as

Tunisia’s commission representative and 

then as Prime Minister, Khayr ad-Din 

(pictured) introduced reforms that ran afoul

of European interests. As famine and 

cholera ravaged the countryside, the 

French replaced him with a leader they 

could control in 1877. 

In 1881, France occupied Tunisia under 

the pretext of defending Algerian borders. 

Under pressure from over 40,000 French 

troops plus naval assaults, the bey signed a treaty that gave 

France political and economic control while nominally leaving 

Ottoman Husseinid rule intact. As the new system overlaid 

existing structures, parallel legal systems evolved making

Europeans subject to French law and Tunisians to the Islamic 

legal system. 

French rule in Tunisia was less heavy-handed than in 

neighboring Algeria. Through the civilian leadership of French 

resident generals, France pursued primarily economic 

interests in Tunisia and modernized agriculture, infrastructure, 

and sanitation systems. Because its goal in Tunisia was 

generating wealth rather than annexing its territory, France 

encouraged far fewer European settlers and conducted fewer

land confiscations than in Algeria. Although many Tunisian 

reformers believed that French rule would have a positive, 

modernizing influence, French contributions did little to help the 

Tunisian people prepare for self-government.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Growing Nationalism and WWII

Inspired by the modernizing Young Turks’ movement in Turkey, 

young French-educated Tunisian elites began demanding equal 

rights with Europeans. In 1920, some of these “Young 

Tunisians” established the Destour Party, named for the 1861 

constitution. Although the party program called for gradual 

reforms, the French made only minor concessions, arrested 

party leaders, and ultimately banned the party in 1933.

In 1934, young Tunisian nationalist Habib Bourguiba founded 

the Neo-Destour party, which encouraged protests and civil 

disobedience. On the eve of World War II, Bourguiba was 

arrested and his party banned. Deported to France and then 

Italy, Bourguiba vocally supported the Allied cause. 

When France fell to Germany in 1940, Tunisia came under the 

jurisdiction of Vichy France, which collaborated with the Nazis.

In November 1942, 

Germany invaded Tunisia 

to block Allied advances in 

the region.

The first major battle 

between American and 

German forces took place 

in central Tunisia’s

Kasserine Pass (pictured) 

in February 1943. The US 

Army performed poorly yet 

learned from its mistakes. 

The Allies took Tunis in May 1943, pushed Axis forces from the 

Maghreb, and paved the way for the Allied invasion of Italy.

Independence 

Bourguiba returned to Tunisia in the early 1950s, but was forced 

to leave again because France’s anti-nationalism stance

towards Tunisia had not softened. In exile, he lobbied for his 

cause in the US, Europe, and the Middle East. Upon his return, 

Bourguiba was imprisoned again, while some of his NeoDestour supporters committed terrorist acts that prompted

reprisals and arrests. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

By 1954, France’s colonial empire was crumbling as French 

Indochina, Algeria, and Morocco opposed French rule. Evading

a stand in Tunisia, France negotiated Tunisian autonomy, which 

led to full independence on 20 March 1956. By 1957, as the last 

Ottoman bey was deposed, Tunisia became a presidential 

republic with Bourguiba at the helm.

Bourguiba: Builder of Modern Tunisia

To create the modern, secular Tunisia he envisioned, Bourguiba

(pictured) prioritized social and legal reforms. At his urging, 

Tunisia adopted the Personal Status Code that gave women 

unprecedented rights in the Arab world (see p5 of Family and 

Kinship). The code proclaimed equality before the law,

empowered women to vote, and 

disallowed Islamic divorce. Bourguiba 

devoted a quarter of Tunisia’s budget to 

education, which raised literacy and 

school attendance rates (see p2 of

Learning and Knowledge). Economic 

reforms and investments in the health

care system improved living standards 

and life expectancy.

Democratic reforms did not follow from 

these social, economic, and legal

reforms: Bourguiba was named 

President for life in 1974. Throughout his Presidency, Bourguiba 

believed Islam contributed to Tunisia’s backwardness and tried 

to limit its influence (see p6 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Consequently, clerics and many Muslim constituents protested 

this threat to their values. Islamic opposition groups arose in the 

1970s and were persecuted throughout the 1980s. After 30 

years in power, Bourguiba and his policies began to grow more 

erratic.

Ben Ali Takes the Reins

In 1987, Prime Minister Zine El Abidine Ben Ali declared 

Bourguiba mentally unfit for his presidential duties. To preempt 

a popular uprising over the planned execution of some Islamists, 

Ben Ali seized power. A soldier by profession who had served in 

various government posts, Ben Ali promised political openness 

and respect for human rights. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

In reality, Ben Ali continued Bourguiba’s policies of reform and 

repression. In contrast to Bourguiba, Ben Ali was more willing to 

tout his Islamic credentials when it suited him politically. He 

changed the name of the Neo-Destour Party to the Democratic 

Constitutional Rally (RCD) and in 1989 was elected President 

after running unopposed. He banned the Islamist en-Nahda 

party in 1989 and arrested many of its activists. Illogical vote 

totals well over 90% in the 1999, 2004, and 2009 elections 

suggested that he was no democratic reformer.

Tunisia’s Jasmine Revolution

In December 2010, a young fruit vendor named Muhammad 

Bouazzi set himself on fire after government officials treated him 

unfairly. This action drove Tunisians to the streets to protest 

unemployment, a lack of political freedom, and corruption. 

Following this series of popular protests that Tunisians called the 

“Jasmine Revolution,” President Ben 

Ali (pictured) fled Tunisia for Saudi 

Arabia in January 2011. Tunisia thus 

became the first Arab country to oust 

its authoritarian leader. These events 

triggered a wave of protests that swept 

the Arab world and came to be known

in the West as the “Arab Spring.” 

Following Ben Ali’s ouster, his RCD 

party dissolved. In elections held in

October 2011, the once-banned enNahda party won a plurality of parliamentary seats (see p4 of

Political and Social Relations).

Since 2011, the Islamist-led government under interim President 

Moncef Marzouki has pivoted between factions desiring a 

secular society with expanded rights and those wanting Islam to 

be the basis for society and law. The politically motivated 

murders of 2 anti-Islamist opposition figures sparked new waves 

of protests in 2013. Consequently, dissenting tensions impeded

the process of drafting a new constitution (see p3 of Political and 

Social Relations).
Official Name

Tunisian Republic

al-Jumhuriya at-Tunisiya (Arabic)

République Tunisienne (French)

Tagduda n Tunes (Tamazight)

Political Borders

Libya: 285 mi

Algeria: 600 mi

Coastline: 713 mi

Capital

Tunis

Note: In Arabic, Tunis refers to 

both the capital city and the 

country itself. 

Demographics

Tunisia’s population of 11.1 million 

is growing at a rate of 0.86% per 

year, close to the US growth rate 

of 0.81%. Tunisia has been more urban than rural since the 

1970s, and as of 2015, 67% of Tunisians lived in urban areas, 

mostly concentrated in the North. About 17.5% of the population 

or 1.993 million people lived in Tunis, the largest city, in 2015.

Flag

The Tunisian flag design is based on the Ottoman flag (see p5 

of History and Myth) and features 

a red field with a central white 

circle containing a red crescent 

and a 5-point star. Red 

symbolizes the blood of Tunisian 

martyrs who fought oppression, 

and white stands for peace. The 

crescent represents the unity of 

Muslims and the 5-point star the Five Pillars of Islam.

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

Tunisia is 63,170 square miles in area or slightly larger than the 

US state of Georgia. Located in North Africa, Tunisia borders 

Libya to the southeast, Algeria 

to the west, and the 

Mediterranean Sea (its 

longest boundary) to the 

north. Tunisia is 90 miles from 

the Italian island of Sicily.

Tunisian terrain varies widely. 

In the North, the Dorsal

Mountains (pictured) dominate the landscape. North central 

Tunisia consists of a fertile coastal plain, while in the South, the

semiarid central plateau transitions to desert. The southern 

desert landscape varies from sand dunes to rocks to oases.

Tunisia’s highest point is Jebel ech-Chambi, a 5,066-ft peak in 

the Northwest. The lowest point is Chott al-Gharsah, a salt flat

56 ft below sea level, which is often depicted on maps as a lake

but rarely contains water. The Medjerda River is Tunisia’s 

longest and only perennially wet river, serving as an important 

waterway and irrigation source. A producer of grain and olives 

since Roman times, 17% of Tunisian land today is arable with

13% used for permanent crop cultivation.

Climate

Tunisia’s climate varies with its terrain. The North enjoys a 

Mediterranean climate with mild, rainy winters having

temperatures in the 50s°F and warm summers with average 

temperatures in the low 80s°F. High temperatures in August, the 

hottest month, can reach 104°F. Colder temperatures occur at 

higher elevations where some mountains get snow. Northern 

Tunisia’s average annual rainfall is about 40 inches.

In the central region, average rainfall totals approach 6 in.

Precipitation is even rarer further south where the semiarid 

plateau transitions into the Sahara, the world’s largest 

subtropical desert. Some parts of the Sahara do not receive rain

for years at a time, where daytime temperatures can soar to over 

120°F in July and August. In summer, sandy Sirocco winds blow 

across Tunisia and into some parts of Europe carrying heat and 

dust from the Sahara.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Natural Hazards

Tunisia’s few natural disasters include occasional deadly 

flooding—8 floods killed 222 people between 1980 and 2010.

During the hot summer months in particular, water shortages 

can occur, stressing Tunisia’s limited natural freshwater supply. 

Man-made hazards include improper waste disposal, 

deforestation, soil erosion, and desertification (Photo: the 

Sahara Desert).

Government

An electoral democracy with 24 

provinces, Tunisia is in a time of 

transition. While Islamists did 

not inspire the uprisings that led 

to Ben Ali’s overthrow,

nevertheless, they gained 

political clout in fair interim elections held in October 2011 (see

p10 of History and Myth). Since then, Islamist and secular 

political forces have remained at odds over how best to govern

the country (see p9 of Religion and Spirituality). 

In conjunction with the 2011 elections, the National Constituent 

Assembly was appointed to draft a new constitution. A revision 

was adopted in January 2014, following an extended period of 

controversy and debate. Fundamental provisions include a 

guarantee of religious freedom, gender equality, and 

government accountability for protecting women from violence, 

among others. With the new constitution, Prime Minister Mehdi 

Jomaa appointed a caretaker Cabinet to negotiate an end to the

crisis between Tunisia's Islamist party and its secular opposition,

pending elections scheduled the end of 2014.

Legislative Branch

Prior to the 2011 revolution, the President appointed legislators 

who largely rubber stamped his initiatives. The 2011 elections

were designed to select legislators empowered to govern, 

resulting in the installment of 217 interim Assembly members. 

The Islamist en-Nahda was reinstated, acquiring a majority 

coalition with 2 left-leaning parties—the Congress for the

Republic (CPR) and et-Takatol. The new constitution retained 

Tunisia’s single-body legislature, the Chamber of the Peoples’ 

Deputies, whose members are elected to 5-year terms. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Executive Branch

The new constitution establishes a mixed-party system, 

distributing executive powers between the President and Prime 

Minister, each elected to a 5-year term. Appointed almost 

unanimously by the former legislature, President Moncef 

Marzouki (pictured), a human rights advocate from the CPR 

party, was the interim government’s chief-ofstate and commander of the Armed Forces.

Current President Beji Caid Essebsi was 

elected in December 2014 with 55.7% of the 

vote.

The Tunisian Prime Minister acts as head-ofgovernment. After Prime Minister Hamadi 

Jebali resigned in February 2013 after failed 

attempts to form an apolitical technocratic 

government, Ali Laarayedh of en-Nahda’s 

hardline wing became Prime Minister. He also resigned in 

January 2014 and was replaced by Mehdi Jomaa as interim 

incumbent pending new elections. Prime Minister Youssef 

Chahed took office in August of 2016.

Judicial Branch

Under the control of the executive branch until 2011, Tunisia’s 

judiciary under its new constitution has taken strides to be in step 

with the post-revolutionary government. Judges are appointed 

by the President and confirmed by the Supreme Judicial Council. 

Tunisia’s legal code was based on French civil laws and 

transferred power from shari’a (Islamic law) courts to secular 

courts in the 1950s. Strong representation from Islamists

instrumental in drafting the new constitution promises to provide

Islamic law with an official judicial position.

Political Climate

Tunisia was the first Arab country to overthrow its authoritarian 

government in a series of uprisings across the region, known in 

the West as the “Arab Spring.” Despite some setbacks and 

renewed protests, Tunisia has become the most successful and 

peaceful post-revolution Arab country. It held free and fair 

elections while the military maintained order without usurping

power. En-Nahda, the main Islamist party, agreed not to 

overhaul Tunisia’s social contract. Nevertheless, the ultimate 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
political outcomes of the “Jasmine Revolution” are unclear (see 

History and Myth). The new constitution and forthcoming 

elections will be critical to setting Tunisia’s future course. 

Supporters of secular and religious visions for Tunisia are at 

odds, sometimes violently (see p9 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Drafts of the constitution have energized Tunisians hoping to 

maintain a progressive stance on issues like women’s rights

(see Sex and Gender & 5 of Family and Kinship). Meanwhile, 

Salafist groups are interested in applying a literal interpretation 

of the Qur’an to Tunisian society, protesting what they see as 

dangerous departures from fundamental 7th- century Islam (see

Religion and Spirituality). 

Tunisia’s government faces extreme challenges in satisfying 

such divergent competing demands. Many Tunisians took to the 

streets in 2013 to call for a new technocratic government and 

protest issues ranging from political violence to Salafist influence 

to specific constitutional provisions. Lawmakers struggle to cope 

with day-to-day governing requirements while implementing the

new constitution under enormous pressure 

from politicians and protesters alike.

Defense

The Tunisian 40,500-member Armed 

Forces comprise the Land Army, Navy, 

and Air Force. Males ages 20-23 are 

obligated to complete a year of military 

service. Active duty personnel are not 

authorized to vote while serving. (Photo: 

Tunisian Defense Minister Abdelkarim Zbidi with former US 

Defense Secretary Leon Panetta in 2012).

Between 2003 and 2013, Tunisia spent less than 2% of GDP on 

its military annually. Its estimated $583 million military outlay in 

2011 was the smallest military expenditure in North Africa. 

Furthermore, there are no indicators of significant military 

changes in spending; 2015’s military expenditure was 2.28% 

GDP. 

Many commentators believe former President Ben Ali’s lack of 

personal ties with the military contributed to the military’s 

deliberately disobeying his orders to fire on protestors during the 

“Jasmine Revolution” (see p10 of History and Myth). The 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
military’s decisions to side with the public and stay out of politics 

have earned it respect.

Land Army: It is Tunisia’s largest service with approximately 

27,000 personnel, although small compared to other regional 

armies. The Land Army is charged with protecting the country 

from external threats, maintaining domestic stability as directed 

by the civilian government, and aiding development programs. 

Embedded in the Land Army is the Tunisian Air Defense Force, 

which defends Tunisian air space. Land Army personnel have 

gained valuable experience through their participation in African 

Union and United Nations (UN)

peacekeeping missions since 

1960.

Air Force: Created in 1959, the 

Tunisian Air Force provides 

airlift and transport on behalf of 

the other services and executes

a supporting role in countering security threats from the air. To 

support this mission, the Air Force had 12 combat and 13 

transport aircraft, 76 helicopters, and roughly 4,000 personnel 

as of mid-2016. Poorly equipped, the Air Force is unable to 

mount credible air defense or strike capabilities (Photo: Tunisian 

and US military personnel load a Tunisian helicopter during a

military exercise). 

Navy: With about 4,800 personnel, Tunisia’s Navy defends

Tunisia’s coastline and territorial waters and patrols for

smugglers, traffickers, and illegal fishing from its bases in Tunis, 

Bizerte, Sfax, and Kelibia. Constrained by its small budget, the 

Navy has limited, largely outdated equipment, no deep-water 

capable ships or submarines, and has not been combat-tested.

Internal Security Forces: The Internal Security Forces (ISF) fall 

under the Ministry of the Interior’s authority and include the 

police, National Guard, Judicial Police, Intervention Forces, and 

Presidential Guard Forces. For their respective actions in

Tunisia’s uprisings, the ISF are as despised as the Land Army 

is respected. Some reforms are underway to improve respect for 

human rights. Total membership in these forces is currently 

difficult to estimate, although proposed reforms would likely 

increase transparency.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Security Issues

Terrorism: Regional terrorist groups like al-Qaeda in the Islamic 

Maghreb (AQIM) and others in Mali, Algeria, and elsewhere

threaten Tunisia’s security. Several Tunisian nationals involved 

in terrorist activities abroad have turned their attention to Tunisia 

with the goal of spreading Islamic law (see Religion and 

Spirituality). In summer 2013, the government declared the 

Tunisian Salafist group Ansar al-Shari’a a terrorist organization

after it had violent clashes with the Armed Forces. Members of 

this and other suspected extremist groups have been arrested

since 2011. In 2015, Tunisia experienced 3 acts of terrorism; 

ISIL claimed responsibility for the attacks. In addition to 

jeopardizing Tunisia’s internal security, increased terrorist 

activities could undermine tourism and foreign investment.

Regional Instability: Porous borders and the increased 

availability of weapons from post-Qaddhafi Libya jeopardize

Tunisian security. Violence in neighboring countries has the 

propensity to spill over into Tunisia, as it did in 2011 when 

Libyans crossed the border and briefly engaged Tunisia’s Armed 

Forces. Arms from the Libyan conflict, available on the regional 

black market, support the reprehensible activities of criminals

and pro-Salafist groups 

Nearby conflict and chaos have resulted in other problems as 

well. Tunisia is a country of origin, destination, and transit for 

human-trafficking due to its proximity to Europe and various 

African trouble spots. Tunisian smuggling and human- trafficking 

networks have been especially busy during regional unrest and 

are adaptable to a range of illicit purposes. In contrast to the prior 

government’s tendency to ignore the trafficking activity, the 

interim government drafted 

laws to combat the problem. 

Approved in 2016, a national 

body will be created to fight 

trafficking and enable victims 

to seek justice (Photo: 

Tunisian soldiers learn 

ordnance disposal techniques 

from members of the West 

Virginia National Guard).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Foreign Relations

Since independence, Tunisia has sought friendly diplomatic 

relations with its European and Arab neighbors and the US and

has largely honored the previous regime’s international 

commitments. In the past decade, Tunisia has made the Middle 

East and nearby sub-Saharan Africa its highest foreign relations 

priorities, a stance likely to continue under current 

circumstances. 

Tunisia’s role in pan-Arab affairs was relatively minor until 2011, 

when its regional influence emerged, and likely to grow if it

remains on course with its democratic transition. As a beacon 

for other Arab Spring countries to emulate, Tunisia has 

facilitated Libya’s transition and offered safe haven to Syria’s

dictator as the country seeks to end its violence. 

Tunisians favor the Palestinians in their conflict with Israel and 

supported Palestine’s recent UN bid for statehood. In addition, 

Tunis previously served as the headquarters for the Palestinian 

Liberation Organization in exile. Nevertheless, former President 

Bourguiba was the first Arab leader to call for Israel’s 

recognition, leading to Tunisia having unofficial diplomatic 

representation in Israel until 2000. While most Tunisians oppose 

normalizing relations with Israel, hard-liners’ demands to 

criminalize ties with Israel are not expected to receive broad 

support.

Tunisia-US Relations: Security 

issues are major drivers of close USTunisian ties. The US was the first 

major world power to recognize 

Tunisia’s independence and has 

provided extensive training support 

and military equipment to Tunisia’s 

military. A long-time US strategic 

ally, Tunisia is the top International 

Military Education and Training 

recipient in Africa: over 4,600 

Tunisian personnel have trained in 

all US service academies since 1956 (Photo: US Commerce and 

Trade Representative officials with Tunisian representatives). 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Tunisia participates in the US-led Trans Sahara 

Counterterrorism Partnership (TSCTP), a program that fosters

CT cooperation among Algeria, Mauritania, Mali, Chad, Niger, 

Nigeria, Senegal, Morocco, and Tunisia. The TSCTP augments

these countries’ capacity to eliminate AQIM and other terrorists’ 

safe havens, movement, and illicit activities in the Sahara.

Although the US initially greeted the “Jasmine Revolution” with 

caution, the events did not diminish the bilateral relationship.

Hardly 18 months after Ben Ali’s overthrow, US military 

assistance to Tunisia stood at $32 million, nearly twice the 

amount in the same period before the leadership change. Highlevel US officials continue to meet with their Tunisian 

counterparts: the US Secretary of State John Kerry visited 

Tunisia in 2015.

Tunisia-France Relations: France is an important Tunisian 

trade partner due to proximity, shared language, and colonial 

legacy. In 2015, France accepted 29% of Tunisian exports and 

provided almost 19% of its imports (see p3-4 of Economics and 

Resources). Many Tunisians were irritated that France initially 

sided with Ben Ali during their protests. Although the Tunisian

government has tried to play up its Islamic and Arab roots while 

minimizing French ties, a rupture in relations is unlikely. France 

welcomed President Essebsi in 2015 and ministers in 2016. 

Ethnic Groups

While nearly all Tunisians 

have mixed Arab and 

Berber ethnicity, most of 

them identify solely as 

Arabs. The vast majority of 

Tunisians are native Arabic 

speakers, claim Arab 

heritage, and have fully 

adopted Arab customs as 

their primary cultural identity. The waves of Arabization that 

swept through Tunisia starting in the 7th century homogenized 

Tunisian culture and nearly erased Berber identity (see p4 of

History and Myth). Since Tunisia’s Berber minority is tiny 

compared to those of Algeria and Morocco, the significance and 

impact of Berber identity politics are negligible.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Arabs

Arab Tunisians speak Arabic as their primary language and 

follow Arab cultural customs, which link them to Islamic and 

Arabic history and the larger Arab Middle East. Many Tunisian 

Arabs are also aware of earlier cultural groups such as the 

Carthagians and Berbers who also contributed to Tunisia’s 

historical past (see p3 of History and Myth).

Berbers

Tunisians who identify primarily as Berbers constitute about 1% 

of the population and live primarily in the South. Berbers refer to 

themselves collectively as Imazighen or “free or noble men” 

(singular Amazigh). They typically embrace their Berber identity 

by speaking a Berber language (see p2 of Language and 

Communications), referencing Berber historical and cultural 

narratives, wearing traditional Berber dress, and maintaining 

unique Berber-style homes. 

Social Relations

As with the Middle East and North Africa, Tunisian society is 

status-conscious. Employment, wealth, age, educational 

attainment, and family status are key determinants of social 

status. Salary, position, and job title are especially important. 

Consequently, unemployment and underemployment present 

an array of serious social problems for young Tunisians (Photo: 

Tunisian business school 

students with Ambassador 

William Taylor).

In fact, the lack of opportunity 

among young adults—

particularly the frustration of 

being unable to find a decent 

job and afford to marry and 

have children—contributed to

the “Jasmine Revolution” that overthrew the government in 2011

(see p10 of History and Myth). Thus far in the post-revolutionary 

period, young Tunisians’ prospects have not improved much. 

Economic and political uncertainty in the transition has made

both Tunisian and foreign business-owners reluctant to invest, 

expand, and employ (see p1 of Economics and Resources).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Within Tunisian society there are several different classes. The

political and military elite, aristocratic families, top businessmen, 

administrators, and well-educated professionals comprise the 

elite class. Tunisian elites are concentrated in urban areas and 

can afford lifestyles that are quite distinct from those of their 

poorer compatriots. Tunisia’s elite tend to marry each other, are 

well educated, wear designer clothes, use Internet-enabled 

technologies, and have a more Western-oriented outlook. 

Elitists tend to view their countrymen in poverty with disdain, 

although poor Tunisians may rise on the social ladder through 

education, networking, and tenacity to join Tunisian’s relatively 

large middle class. 

Tunisian social relations also revolve around personal and family 

relationships and the concepts of generating or upholding

sharaf (honor) and avoiding ‘ayb (shame). Honor implies 

maintaining the collective family’s good reputation. Failing to do 

so can shame the individual and damage his standing within the 

family as well as society at large. 

Shame is associated with a variety of behaviors—from breaking

Islamic laws to displaying inadequate hospitality towards guests

to being embarrassed publically. Shame likely played a role in 

catalyzing Tunisia’s “Jasmine Revolution:” the fruit vendor who 

helped to spark the event did so, in part, because of his shame 

for being publicly slapped by a police officer (see p10 of History 

and Myth).

Maintaining family honor also 

allows family members to 

benefit from their relatives’ 

personal and professional 

connections. Likewise, an 

active social network is 

essential to livelihood in 

Tunisian society, from finding 

work to navigating 

bureaucracy to hiring a 

plumber. There are negative societal consequences when family 

interconnections contribute to corruption and nepotism, 

reinforcing the poverty cycle.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview

Some 98% of Tunisians are Sunni 

Muslims, a few thousand are Christian,

while a formerly large Jewish population 

has dwindled to about 1,500. Tunisia’s 

society is largely liberal and tolerant. 

While Islam was enshrined as the 

country’s official religion in the 1959 

constitution, Tunisia’s postindependence leaders worked

deliberately and successfully to keep 

religion and state separate. Today, Tunisia is the Arab world’s 

most secular state (Photo: Courtyard of El Abidine mosque in 

Carthage).

Since the 2011 “Jasmine Revolution” (see p10 of History and 

Myth), Tunisia’s new Islamist government has condemned 

many but tolerated some Salafists’ (fundamentalist Sunni 

Islamist groups) attacks on Tunisia’s modern secular society. In 

addition, it has occasionally ignored Salafists targeting

moderate Sunni Muslim leaders, forcefully seizing control of 

mosques across the country. It appears from the January 2014 

constitution that mosque and state will remain separate in postrevolutionary Tunisia.

Muslim Faith

Origins of Islam

Islam dates to the 6th century when Muhammad, whom 

Muslims consider God’s final Prophet, was born in Mecca in 

present-day Saudi Arabia. Muslims believe that while 

Muhammad was meditating in the desert, the Archangel 

Gabriel visited him over a 23-year period, revealing the Qur’an

or “Holy Book,” to guide peoples’ everyday lives and shape 

their values. 

Meaning of Islam

Islam is more than a religion to its adherents – it is a way of life. 

The term Islam literally means submission to the will of God, 

and a Muslim is “a person who submits to God.”

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Muslim Sects

Islam is divided into 2 sects: Sunni and Shi’a. Sunnis are 

distinguished by their belief that the leader (Caliph) of the 

Muslim community (Ummah) should be elected. Conversely, 

Shi’a Muslims believe the religious leader should be a direct 

descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. Almost all of Tunisia’s 

Muslims belong to the Maliki school (see below) of Sunni Islam.

Five Pillars of Islam

There are 5 basic principles of the Islamic faith. 

• Profession of Faith (Shahada): “There is no god but God,

and Muhammad is His Messenger.”

• Prayer (Salat): Pray 5 times a day while facing the Ka’aba in 

Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The Ka’aba is considered the center of 

the Muslim world and a unifying focal point for Islamic 

worship (Photo: US Marine at the Ka’aba in 2012).

• Charity (Zakat): Donate a 

percentage of one’s 

income to the poor or 

needy.

• Fasting (Sawm): Abstain

from food, drink, and 

sexual relations from 

sunrise to sunset during 

the holy month of Ramadan.

• Pilgrimage to Mecca (The Hajj): Perform the pilgrimage to 

Mecca, Saudi Arabia once a lifetime. 

Shared Perspectives

Many Islamic tenets parallel those of Judaism and Christianity. 

In fact, Muslims consider Christians and Jews “people of the 

Book,” referring to biblical scriptures, because they also believe 

in one God. 

Abraham: All 3 faiths trace their lineage to Abraham, known as 

Ibrahim in Islam. Christians and Jews trace their descent to 

Abraham, his wife Sarah, and their son Isaac; Muslims trace 

theirs to Abraham and his Egyptian concubine, Hagar, and 

their son Ishmael.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Scriptures: Much of the content 

of the Qur’an is similar to 

teachings and stories found in the 

Christian Bible’s Old and New 

Testaments, and Muslims view 

Islam as a completion of previous 

revelations to Jewish and 

Christian prophets. However, 

Muslims believe Jews and 

Christians altered God’s word and 

only Muhammad received the true revelation of God (Pictured: 

Qur’an page from 8th century North Africa).

Jesus: The 3 religions differ significantly in their understanding 

of Jesus. While Christians consider Jesus the divine Messiah 

who fulfills the Jewish Scriptures, Jews are still waiting for the 

Messiah to come. Muslims recognize Jesus as a prophet but 

do not acknowledge Jesus’ divinity or the Christian Trinity.

View of Death: Muslims believe that the time of death, like 

birth, is determined by God. While people grieve the loss of 

family members or friends, they do not view death itself as a 

negative event, as Muslims believe that a person who lived a 

good life goes on to live in heaven.

Concept of Jihad

The concept of jihad, or inner striving, is a fundamental 

element within Islam. Traditionally, it is the principled and moral 

pursuit of God’s command to lead a virtuous life. It should not 

be confused with the publicized violence often associated with

jihad. Most Muslims are strongly opposed to terrorism and 

consider it contrary to Islamic beliefs. 

Ramadan

Ramadan is a month-long time for inner reflection, self-control,

and focus on God. During this time, Muslims who are physically 

able are required to fast from dawn to sunset. Many Muslims 

believe that denying their hunger helps them to learn selfcontrol, appreciate the difficulties of the poor, and gain spiritual 

renewal – by fasting, one learns to appreciate the good in life. It 

is common for Muslims to break their fast at sunset with dates 

and a light meal followed by prayer and then dinner. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Ramadan is observed during the 

9th month of the Islamic calendar

(see p3 of Time and Space) and 

includes 3 holy days (Photo: 

Kairouan Great Mosque and 

cemetery).

• Lailat al-Qadr: Known as “The 

Night of Power,” this event

marks Muhammad’s receipt of 

the first verses of the Qur’an. 

• Eid al-Adha: This “Festival of 

Sacrifice” commemorates

Abraham’s willingness to 

sacrifice his son, Ishmael (or Isaac, according to the 

Christian faith), as proof of his loyalty to God. It is celebrated 

the day the Hajj ends. 

• Eid al-Fitr: This is a 3-day “Festival of Fast-Breaking” 

celebrated at Ramadan’s end.

Sufi Tradition: Some Tunisians follow the Sufi tradition of 

Islam, characterized by mysticism and ritualistic prayer. In the 

past, marabouts (Islamic teachers) believed to hold baraka

(special spiritual powers) were venerated as healers and 

saints. Sufi religious centers where followers built shrines to 

marabouts that are still places of pilgrimage today. 

The Introduction of Organized Religion

Judaism

The first Jews arrived in Tunisia from Palestine well over 2,000 

years ago and began to convert local Berbers to Judaism. Still 

other Jews came from Spain when King Philip III expelled them

in the late 15th century.

During its occupation of Tunisia during World War II (see p8 of

History and Myth), Nazi Germany confiscated Jewish property, 

sending its occupants to forced labor camps. Tunisia’s Jewish 

population in 1948 was estimated to be about 105,000 but was 

reduced by 40,000 who left immediately following 

independence with more following in subsequent decades. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Christianity

By the beginning of the 2nd-century AD, Romans had 

introduced Christianity to Jewish communities in North Africa 

and gained converts. Roman Christians built a church in 

Carthage in 170 AD, where they taught the Scriptures in Latin. 

Over the next several centuries, Christianity spread throughout 

North Africa while Tunisia became an important Christian 

center. Christianity in Tunisia then retreated gradually after the 

Arab invasions beginning in the 7th century, disappearing 

almost entirely by the 12th century.

Islam

Unlike Judaism and Christianity, the arrival of Islam had 

pervasive and long-lasting effects on the region. Islamization 

and Arabization collectively displaced Jewish, Christian, and 

native Berber social, political, educational, and religious

structures (see p4-5 of History and Myth).

Introduction of Islam: After 

Muhammad’s death, Islam spread as 

conquering armies departed Arabia. In 

the 7th century, Arab armies began their 

sweep across northern Africa, and, by 

670 AD, Arabs had founded Kairouan, 

Tunisia, which would become Islam’s 

4th holiest city after Mecca, Medina, 

and Jerusalem (Photo: Kairouan’s 

Mosque of the Three Doors, built in 

866).

Empires and Dynasties: Waves of Islamic expansion followed 

as several different Arabic dynasties struggled over centuries 

to control Tunisia as part of their extended empires (see p4-5 

of History and Myth). Although there was some Berber 

resistance, Islam and Arab culture spread relatively rapidly. 

Some Berbers converted to Islam when they married Arabs, 

while others converted and joined military service to avoid 

Arab-imposed taxes. Still others like the Kharijites (see p8 of 

this section and p4 of History and Myth) converted but defied

the Arabs, protesting Arab interpretations of Islam and being 

treated as second-class Muslims. A few Berbers maintained 

their pre-Islamic religious beliefs and practices.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Most Islamic ruling groups were Sunni, except for about 100 

years in the 10th century when a Shi’a Berber dynasty called 

the Fatimids ruled (see p5 of History and Myth). Tunisia 

experienced a cultural and religious revival during Sunni Hafsid 

rule from the 13th to the 16th centuries. With its library of 

36,000 Islamic texts, the Hafsid’s Zituna Mosque in Tunis

became the center of Islamic learning in the Maghreb.

Islam in the Protectorate: As a protectorate of France from 

1881 to 1956 still under the nominal control of the Turkish 

Ottomans (see p7 of History and Myth), Tunisia retained its 

Islamic identity and its system of shari’a (Islamic law). 

Gradually, Islamic and Arab identity became a source of 

opposition to the French as nationalist Tunisians rallied for 

reform and independence (see p7-9 of History and Myth).

Islam in the Post-Independence Period: After independence,

President Bourguiba initiated reforms 

intended to neutralize the power of 

Muslim clerics and to secularize 

Tunisian society (see p9 of History 

and Myth). He abolished shari’a

courts, reformed religious education, 

outlawed polygyny (the practice of 

men having multiple wives 

simultaneously), banned beards and 

veiling, and legalized birth control and 

abortions. These reforms were largely 

successful, resulting in Tunisia 

becoming the most secular, nominally 

Islamic, country in the region. 

Religious observance dropped in subsequent decades, 

particularly in urban areas and among young people. 

This trend reversed course during the last few decades. Many 

new mosques, resourced with both local and foreign funding, 

opened and attendance increased. For political 

fundamentalists, a return to Islamic values was coupled with

the desire to reinstate shari’a law and apply Islamist principles 

to Tunisian society. For more politically moderate Tunisians, 

this return to Islamic values was part of a larger criticism of the

government’s corruption and its inability to correct the vast 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
economic disparities in Tunisian society. For many youth, 

identification with Islam even had a countercultural appeal.

After he deposed Bourguiba in 1987, President Ben Ali 

emphasized his Islamic identity when it suited him politically

(see p10 of History and Myth). He was also determined to keep 

state and religion separated and continued to repress Islamic 

fundamentalists. When broader protests against the lack of 

political freedom and widespread corruption resulted in Ben 

Ali’s ouster in 2011, the Islamists took advantage of the political 

opening. The formerly banned moderate Islamist en-Nahda 

party took power (see p3-4 of Political and Social Relations).

Religion Today 

Tunisia is presently at a crossroads. Despite its tradition of 

secularism, there is a strong movement within Tunisia calling 

for policies and structures that would “re-Islamize” its people 

and institutions, including the army, police, educational system, 

and media. While the January 2014 constitution recognizes

Islam as the national religion, it

allows for religious freedom and

separation of religion and politics.

(Photo: Mosque in Nefta).

Regardless of Tunisians’ political 

and religious affiliations, Islam

pervades their social, cultural, 

and ethical lives. Even secular 

Tunisians often promote their Arab-Islamic heritage. Although 

they may not strictly follow Islamic teachings, almost all 

Tunisians consider Islam as an important part of family and 

community life at special occasions such as births, weddings, 

burials, and annual holidays (see Family and Kinship).

Islam

About 95% of Tunisia’s Muslims belong to the Maliki school of 

Sunni Islam, a generally tolerant school of thought that teaches 

the primacy of the Qur’an over later teachings and stresses the 

importance of community consensus. Observant Muslims 

consume neither alcohol nor pork.

Sufis: Sufism remains important in some communities in 

southern Tunisia, where followers belong to brotherhoods that 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
focus on attaining a mystical communion with God at 

zaouinas, tombs of Sufi marabouts (Muslim religious leaders 

and teachers). Members of the Sunni establishment generally 

frown on this practice of “saint worship,” and recently, members 

of Salafist groups defaced or burned over 30 such shrines.

Kharijites: The Kharijites trace their history to a Berber protest 

movement that arose shortly after the Arabs arrived in North 

Africa (see p4 of History and Myth). Fairly successful in 

establishing their own kingdoms in the 10th century, the 

Kharijites were eventually defeated and forced to retreat to 

Djerba Island, where they live today. Known also as Ibadis, 

they are admired for their religious austerity and simplydesigned mosques. 

Folk Beliefs

Many Tunisians combine local cultural traditions with Islamic 

beliefs and practices, although many of these practices appear 

to be vanishing. For example, some Tunisians believe that 

certain individuals possess baraka that allows them to perform 

miracles. Others may wear amulets inscribed with Qur’anic 

verses to protect them from djinn (spirits). Mothers often sew 

Qur’anic verses into their newborn babies’ clothes for 

protection as well (see p2 of Family and Kinship).

Christianity

Although there are no official statistics, it is estimated that

fewer than 24,000 Christians remain in Tunisia. The Roman 

Catholic Church has the largest 

presence and operates several 

private schools, libraries, and clinics. 

Other denominations include Russian 

Orthodox, French Reformist, 

Anglican, Seventh-day Adventist, 

Greek Orthodox, and Jehovah’s 

Witnesses (Photo: Catholic Church 

on Djerba Island).

Judaism

Tunisia’s Jewish population of about 

1,500 is concentrated in Tunis and 

on Djerba Island where the El Ghriba Synagogue contains one 

of the world’s oldest Torahs and is a site of Jewish pilgrimage.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
A 2002 al-Qaeda-linked attack against the synagogue killed 21 

people, mostly German tourists. The Tunisian government 

condemned this and other sporadic acts against the Jewish 

community, such as vandalism and anti-Semitic chanting 

outside synagogues. The government has generally allowed 

the Jewish community freedom of worship, paying the grand 

rabbi’s salary, providing security at all synagogues, and having

subsidized some of their restoration and maintenance (Photo: 

The Great Synagogue of 

Tunis).

Religion and the Law 

As Tunisians framed a 

new constitution (see p3-

5 of Political and Social 

Relations), they grappled

with the notion of what it 

means to be Muslim and 

Tunisian and ultimately

what those answers

entail for Tunisian society. Earlier decrees that restricted the 

wearing of religious attire have been lifted, and women are

permitted to wear the niqab (face-covering veil) at public 

educational institutions as of May 2013. 

Although the 1959 constitution did not permit the establishment 

of political parties based on religious principles, it appears that 

religious-based political parties will now play a much larger role 

in Tunisian politics. Previously banned, the ruling Islamist enNahda party was granted official party status after Ben Ali’s 

ouster in 2011. Recently, the government has allowed a 

Salafist group to register as an official political party. The new 

2014 constitution offers prospects for definitive religious and 

political identity (see p3 of Political and Social Relations).

Religion and Education: Islamic religious education is 

mandatory in all public schools (see p4 of Learning and 

Knowledge), although secondary students also learn about the 

history of Judaism and Christianity. The government has 

permitted Djerba’s Jewish community to operate its own private 

religious schools that Jewish schoolchildren attend in addition 

to public school.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

Tunisian society revolves around the family. Individuals are 

generally expected to subordinate their own desires to those of 

their extended families to demonstrate respect, honor their 

elders, and maintain family harmony. To do otherwise would 

bring shame upon the family unit at large.

Family Structure

While Tunisian men and women have equal legal rights, men

traditionally are the heads-of-households, decision-makers, 

and primary breadwinners. Women are responsible for 

domestic chores even though many of them also work outside 

of the home.

Tunisians typically live in nuclear family units composed of 

parents, children, and often grandparents. These households 

typically maintain close ties to their extended families which

include aunts, uncles, cousins, and parents’ cousins. Children 

usually live with their parents until they marry.

Polygyny: In accordance with shari’a (Islamic) law, Muslim 

men may have as many as 4 wives simultaneously. Known as 

polygyny, this practice has been illegal in Tunisia since 1957. 

Although some hardline Islamists (see p7 of Religion and 

Spirituality) have advocated overturning this prohibition, the 

practice remains illegal. 

Children: Tunisians consider children to be one of life’s 

blessings and an investment toward elderly parental care. It is 

customary for Tunisian adults to care for and live with their 

elderly parents. 

Parents teach their children to 

be obedient at a young age. 

Many Tunisians treat their sons

and daughters differently in 

preparation for their future 

gender roles. For example, 

even very young daughters 

from all economic classes 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
perform chores such as caring for younger siblings or cousins.

Sons in less affluent households learn to accomplish small jobs 

to help care for their families, while upper- and middle-class 

sons enjoy more carefree, playful childhoods.

Residence

The home ownership rate in Tunisia is almost 80%, and 

Tunisians take great pride in maintaining their homes. Tunisian 

homes typically have a formal living room for receiving visitors, 

a less formal family room, several bedrooms, a kitchen, and at 

least one bathroom. The vast majority of homes have electricity 

and running water. Many also have balconies, terraces, or 

verandas from which Tunisians enjoy the mild Mediterranean 

climate. The most traditional 

homes have gardens and a 

central open courtyard. 

In urban areas, white-washed 

homes often dating to the precolonial era are close together 

(pictured) and often 

surrounded by external walls 

to ensure privacy. Rural residences are spaced farther apart for 

privacy. In the desert regions of southern Tunisia, some 

Berbers live in homes carved from rocks or up to 20ft

underground to protect the family from the extreme external

temperatures (see p2 of Political and Social Relations).

Rites of Passage

Tunisians commemorate major life transitions such as birth, 

adulthood, and death through various celebrations.

Birth and Naming: The birth of a baby is a happy occasion. 

Following the Muslim call to prayer just moments after birth, the 

child is dressed in clothing decorated with Qur’anic verses to 

protect him from harm. A week after birth, the baby officially 

receives its name in a ceremony attended by family and 

friends, who gather to celebrate with food and gifts.

Circumcision: Tunisian boys typically undergo circumcision

between ages 5-7. Conducted either during the boy’s first trip 

to the mosque or at home, a doctor or specially trained barber

performs the procedure. The boy is dressed in fine clothes and 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
receives presents from extended family members who have

gathered to celebrate the occasion. Female circumcision is rare 

in Tunisia although a common practice in some African 

countries.

Dating: Tunisian dating practices differ based on location and 

religious observance. Particularly in rural settings, strict Islamic 

traditions prevent many Tunisians from interacting with 

unrelated members of the opposite sex. Occasionally, though,

rural or religious couples date secretly or get to know each 

other after they are engaged. 

Western influence is more prominent in urban areas, where 

liberal dating practices occur. Thus, most urban Tunisians have 

greater opportunities and freedom to date. Some Western 

practices, like online dating and celebrating Valentine’s Day, 

have recently filtered into Tunisian society (Photo: Tunisians 

and tourists dance in 

Tabarka, Tunisia). Some 

Tunisian men target Western 

women under the pretense of 

love to acquire visas or 

money, a practice known as 

bezness.

Marriage

Tunisians view marriage as a 

bond between 2 people and 

their families and an important 

rite of passage to adulthood for both men and women. For 

many women, it marks a transition to a new way of life, as they

sacrifice their jobs and education to become dedicated to their 

homes and families (see p1-2 of Sex and Gender). Both males 

and females may legally marry at age 20, although many

Tunisians delay until their late 20s.

Individuals usually choose their marriage partners, although 

Tunisian families remain involved in the pairing process to 

ensure the future spouse’s financial, moral, religious, and 

social suitability. Family participation in spouse selection is 

most pronounced in traditional, religious families in which the 

couple does not date beforehand. Family consent is not a legal 

requirement for a couple to marry. Virginity before marriage is 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
considered ideal for Tunisian women, and marriage between 

cousins remains relatively common.

Wedding Arrangements: Once a man identifies a potential 

wife, he and his relatives visit her parents with gifts to request

her hand in marriage. After the potential bride agrees and her

family accepts the offer, both families recite the first surah

(Qur’anic chapter). The families then select a wedding date, 

begin making arrangements, and negotiate the brideprice the

groom will pay to show his commitment. An engagement party 

is often held to celebrate the betrothal publicly.

Weddings: Tunisian wedding 

festivities can last up to a 

week, although most modern 

ceremonies combine some 

festivities to shorten the 

celebration. A few days 

before the wedding itself, the

Tunisian bride gathers her 

friends and relatives to 

celebrate in her new home. 

The next day, the bride and 

her female relatives go to a 

hammam (Turkish bath). Her hands and feet are then 

decorated with henna (pictured), a reddish brown dye made 

from the henna plant. Typically, she wears an extravagant red 

dress and jewelry, which are gifts from her future husband. On 

the same day, the groom often shaves off his beard.

On the wedding day and in the presence of witnesses, the 

bride and groom sign the marriage contract, usually at the 

bride’s home. Then the new couple attends a wedding 

reception, often held at a hotel or banquet hall, where they sit

together as well-wishers greet them. The bride typically wears 

heavy make-up and changes outfits several times during the 

festivities. Sometimes male and female guests separate for the 

dinner and dancing portions of the wedding festivities.

Death

Per Islamic tradition, Tunisian funerals occur as soon as 

possible after death—usually within 24 hours. Female relatives 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
bathe the body in rosewater and wrap it in a white shroud. Male 

relatives then carry the body to the cemetery and bury it with 

the head oriented towards the Islamic holy city of Mecca, Saudi 

Arabia (see p2 of Religion and Spirituality).

Some wealthier Tunisians hold lavish funerals with paid Qur’an 

reciters and catered dinners in social halls. Friends and family 

then gather for 3 days of prayers and Qur’anic readings to 

assist the deceased through God’s judgment. The family of the 

deceased receives visitors one day each week until the 40th

day, at which point the mourning period officially ends. 

Personal Status Code

Implemented prior to Tunisia’s 1959 postindependence constitution, the 1956 Personal 

Status Code (PSC) affords Tunisian women greater

equality before the law than in many other Muslim 

majority countries. The PSC is largely due to the 

efforts of President Bourguiba, who considered 

himself Tunisia’s liberator of women (see p9 of 

History and Myth and p1 of Sex and Gender) It

established men and women equal before the law, 

prohibited polygyny, raised the marriage age, 

disallowed verbal Islamic divorce, and required 

women’s consent for marriage. Amendments to the 

PSC in the 1990s granted more rights, including a 

woman’s right to transfer her Tunisian nationality to 

her children regardless of their father’s origin. 

Tunisians commemorate the progressive PSC’s

passage on August 13th as National Women’s Day. 

Despite these reforms, Islamic customs still govern 

inheritance, which grant male heirs twice the 

inheritance of female heirs. As of summer 2013, the

main Islamist party, en-Nahda, has promised to 

keep the PSC in place (see p1 of Sex and Gender

and p4 of Political and Social Relations). 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Through its progressive Personal Status Code (PSC) (see p5 of

Family and Kinship), Tunisia has led the Arab world in equality 

for women before the law. Nevertheless, such top-down legal 

reforms have long been at odds with conservative Islamic 

values, which thus far have kept Tunisian women subordinate to 

men at work and home. The negative association of women’s 

rights with earlier despotic Tunisian regimes (see p8-10 of

History and Myth) plus the increasing influence of Islamism in 

Tunisian politics (see p9 of Religion and Spirituality) likely could

slow if not halt any further

expansions of women’s rights

(Photo: Friends relax at a café, 

courtesy of Culture Grams, 

ProQuest 2014).

Gender Roles and Work

Men typically provide financial 

support to the family through work 

outside the home, while women traditionally have been

responsible for maintaining the household and caring for 

children—often in addition to holding a paid job. Access to 

education, family planning services, and legal protection has 

allowed more women to enter the workforce. As of 2014, over 

27% of Tunisian women worked outside the home.

During their tenures, former Presidents Bourguiba and Ben Ali 

enacted a variety of laws supporting working women, including 

a 1993 law that outlawed gender-based discrimination. Tunisia’s 

female workers—including the self-employed—are entitled to 

maternity leave benefits at 67% of their pay while Tunisian men

may take paternity leave at full pay. Daycare facilities are 

available for working parents.

Despite these positive developments and promise for greater 

social freedoms, as outlined in the new constitution (see p3 of 

Political and Social Relations), sexual harassment and equal 

hiring practices and pay are issues that continue to hinder 

women’s workplace success and will take time to resolve.

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Historically, women have been particularly well-represented in 

dentistry, pharmacology, civil service, banking, and the law. 

Tunisia’s recent high unemployment rates have driven both men 

and women to cash-paid jobs in the informal sector where labor 

is not taxed or factored into GDP; women are estimated to 

represent roughly a 5th of all informal sector workers.

While many Tunisian women provide financial support to their 

families, more traditional, religious families are often reluctant to 

allow their female family members to work outside the home.

The notion that women have different physical and mental 

capacities than men continues to restrict women to more 

traditional gender roles.

Gender and Politics

Women have been entitled 

to vote since 1959 and 

provisions are in place to 

help bolster female 

participation in politics.

Nevertheless, women’s 

representation in the 

political sphere lags behind that of men. Under former President

Ben Ali, Tunisia installed a voluntary quota system that 

increased women’s political representation to almost 30%. 

Following the “Jasmine Revolution” (see p10 of History and 

Myth), political parties were required to alternate male and 

female candidates on their voting lists. As a result, in 2014 

women held 68 of 217 seats (or 31%) in Tunisia’s Constituent 

Assembly—better than the 19% rate in the 2016 US House of 

Representatives (Photo: Tunisian participants in a US women’s 

political leadership program). 

Tunisia’s 1959 constitution required the President to be a male 

Muslim, a provision which changed in the new constitution (see

p3-5 of Political and Social Relations). The new language 

stipulates that the presidential candidate can be male or female 

Muslim and a national citizen since birth. Women have 

historically been underrepresented in other parts of the 

executive branch as well. In Prime Minister Chahed’s cabinet, 

only 5 of 27 ministries (20%) are headed by women.

SEX &

GENDER
Several Muslim groups (see p9 of Religion and Spirituality) are 

enjoying increased influence in political affairs, a development 

that worries many who fear such groups will reverse Tunisia’s 

progress on women’s rights. Despite its conservative stance, the 

ruling en-Nahda party (see p4 of Political and Social Relations) 

has stated publicly that it does not support polygyny (see p1 of

Family and Kinship), that women’s dress will remain a personal 

choice, and that it will retain Tunisia’s PSC (see p5 of Family and 

Kinship). Although en-Nahda has some prominent female

politicians in its ranks, they typically espouse the traditional 

Muslim views on women’s societal roles common to all party 

members.

Gender and Education

All Tunisian children are required to 

attend initial 9 years of school (see p3 

of Learning and Knowledge). Nearly 

all girls attend primary school, and

over 87% attend secondary school. 

Females are even the majority in most 

post-secondary institutions, making

up over 57% of the student body (Photo: Tunisian participants in 

the US-sponsored TechGirls Initiative for girls in technology).

Despite this high rate of attendance, females are far less likely 

than their male counterparts to use their education in a 

professional career. While Tunisian families are proud of their 

daughters’ intellect and educational attainment, many families

view education mostly as a productive way for their daughters to 

bide time before they marry and enter domestic life.

Rape and Gender-Based Violence (GBV)

Despite the criminalization of rape and other acts of GBV, 

violence against women still exists. About 47% of Tunisian 

women are likely victims of GBV, usually from a husband or 

boyfriend. The 1959 constitution considered it an assault and 

punishable by fine and prison sentence. With the new

constitution, the government is responsible for protecting women 

(see p3 of Political and Social Relations); however, traditionally, 

the norm has been to treat domestic violence as a private matter 

within the family and is rarely punished. 

SEX &

GENDER
While Tunisia penalizes statutory rape for victims under the legal 

age of consent (20) and all forcible rape cases regardless of age, 

most victims are too ashamed to report such crimes. In fact, 

victims are often pressured to marry their assailants to preserve 

family honor. In 2012, there was a highly publicized case in 

which policemen raped a woman and then accused her of

indecency. This incident prompted protests against Tunisia’s 

“blame the victim” approach and a history of abuse by internal 

security forces (see p6 of Political and Social Relations).

Sex and Procreation

Tunisian families are small 

compared to those of their North 

African neighbors: the average 

Tunisian woman has only 2

children, down significantly from

averages of 7 children in 1956

and more than 3 in the 1990s.

Over 65% of women in Tunisia use contraception. Before the 

“Jasmine Revolution,” the government actively supported and 

funded family planning: in the last decade of former President 

Ben Ali’s rule, Tunisia spent $10 million annually on public 

education for family planning. Tunisian women have access to 

free birth control methods through the country’s healthcare 

system (see p4 of Sustenance and Health). Legal since 1965, 

abortion is available and safe, although easy access to birth 

control and emergency contraception methods have helped 

make it a relatively rare last resort (Photo: Young urban women 

in Tunis, courtesy of Culture Grams, ProQuest 2014).

Homosexuality

Islam forbids homosexuality, a practice that most Tunisians 

consider “Western,” immoral, and against Islamic and family 

values. Not only do homosexuals face discrimination and 

harassment, but homosexual behavior is illegal and punishable 

with up to 3 years of prison. Although this law was rarely 

enforced under former President Ben Ali, the number of arrests 

has risen since the “Jasmine Revolution” (see p10 of History and 

Myth). While there is no organized gay rights movement in 

Tunisia, individual activists recently started an online magazine

to address topics of interest in the homosexual community

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Most Tunisians speak Tunisian Arabic as a first language and

French as the language of business. Concentrated in the 

South, members of the country’s Berber populations speak 

their own Amazigh languages (see p11 of Political and Social 

Relations). Arabic, French, and English are taught in Tunisia’s 

schools (see p3 of Learning and Knowledge).

Arabic

Arabic is the country’s 

official language and 

used in different forms 

for diverse purposes. 

Modern Standard 

Arabic (MSA) is a 

version used across 

the Arab world for

education, media, religious purposes, literature, and in 

government. The vast majority of Tunisians speak a darija

(dialect) in social and informal situations. Unlike MSA, this 

colloquial form—often called Tunsi—borrows from several 

other languages, including Berber, Italian, Turkish, French, and 

Spanish (Photo: Arabic inscription from Sousse, Tunisia).

Urban and rural versions of Tunisian Arabic vary in 

pronunciation and pronoun use. Despite these distinctions, 

Tunisians from different parts of the country can usually 

communicate with each other and with Arabic speakers from 

other North African countries such as Morocco and Algeria. 

Speakers of Arabic dialects from beyond North Africa may find 

Tunsi difficult to understand.

French

As Tunisia’s dominant language during colonial times (see p7 

of History and Myth), French is still widely spoken, especially 

within the educated upper classes and in business settings. It 

is the second language of over half the population and is taught 

alongside Arabic and English in Tunisian basic education 

program (see p3 of Learning and Knowledge). 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Since former President Ben Ali’s ouster (see p10 of History and 

Myth), some politicians have urged Tunisians to learn and use 

English over French, as they believe English can better 

connect Tunisia to the global economy.

Berber Languages

Less than 1% of Tunisians are speakers of Berber or Amazigh 

languages spoken by the Berbers of Algeria, Libya, Mali, 

Morocco, and Niger. Due to certain social influences, some 

Berbers, particularly among the younger generation, 

understand but do not speak their native languages. These

influences include exposure to Arabic media and education, 

intermarriage, and social necessity to speak Arabic or French. 

Nevertheless, some Berber activists are seeking official 

government recognition of their languages, which hardline 

Islamists strongly oppose (see p4 

of Religion and Spirituality).

Communication Overview

Beyond speaking Arabic or 

French, effective communication 

with Tunisians requires an ability 

to interact in culturally appropriate 

ways. Communication competence 

includes paralanguage (speech, volume, rate, and intonation), 

nonverbal communication (personal space, touch, and 

gestures), and interaction management (conversation initiation, 

turn-taking, and termination). When used properly, these 

elements of communication help ensure that Tunisians will 

interpret statements as the speaker intends (Photo: US 

Ambassador Jacob Walles, right, shaking hands with a 

Tunisian at an embassy celebration).

Communication Style

Most Tunisians strive to be helpful and hospitable, typically

expressing warmth in their conversations. While many 

Tunisians appear to be reserved initially, this formality 

diminishes with time and familiarity. Conversations reflect 

Tunisian cultural preferences for showing appropriate respect 

and avoiding shame (see p12 of Political and Social Relations). 

Tunisians value conversational courtesy, considering it impolite 

to critique or otherwise embarrass each other in public. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Greetings

Greetings in Tunisia allow participants to facilitate or reaffirm

friendly relations. In fact, Tunisians consider it impolite not to 

greet a friend or acquaintance even if that person is otherwise 

occupied. Tunisians typically greet by shaking right hands and 

may maintain that hold for an entire conversation. In rural 

areas, a handshake may be followed by placing one’s hand 

over heart to indicate sincerity.

Although unrelated Tunisian 

men and women often shake 

hands, a male foreign national 

should wait for a Tunisian 

woman to extend her hand 

first. If she does not offer a 

hand, he may simply nod to 

acknowledge her presence. 

Many urban Tunisian men and women touch cheeks and make 

kissing noises to greet family, friends, or close acquaintances.

This custom is typically limited to people of the same sex in 

rural regions. When making introductions, a Tunisian host will 

usually introduce women first, followed by men in order from 

highest social rank to the lowest and youngest (Photo: Samegender friends often walk holding hands in Tunisia, courtesy of 

Culture Grams, ProQuest 2014). 

Forms of Address

Tunisians usually address superiors and people they are 

meeting for the first time by their professional French or Arabic

title and last name. Alternatively, they may use only the 

singular term monsieur, sidi, or si (roughly equivalent to “sir”) or 

their female equivalents, madame, mademoiselle, and lella or

combine the term with the last name. 

Tunisians may also address both strangers and acquaintances 

using terms that translate as “my father,” “my mother,” “my 

sister,” or “my brother.” They also use a term of respect Hajj

(male) or Hajja (female) for those who have completed a 

pilgrimage to Mecca (see p2 of Religion and Spirituality). Since

the improper use of these more personal terms can be 

insulting, foreign nationals should generally avoid using these 

forms of address. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Work colleagues and peers typically address each other by first 

names. Even when using more formal titles, Tunisians tend to 

use the informal French “you” (tu) rather than the formal “you” 

(vous) when conversing. 

Conversational Topics

Tunisians typically begin conversations with small talk about 

health, family, and other general topics to establish a personal 

connection before discussing more serious matters. Topics like

sports, movies, art, travel, and work are generally acceptable 

when conversing with people of both sexes. Foreign nationals 

can help establish rapport by showing an appreciation for 

Tunisian common interests, such as soccer (see p2 of

Aesthetics and Recreation). Tunisians tend to avoid potentially 

sensitive topics such as sex, religion, and politics that could 

cause disagreement or embarrassment in polite conversation.

If conversations veer toward contentious topics, foreign 

nationals should remain neutral and courteous.

Gestures

Tunisians often use hand gestures to stress or replace spoken 

words, and some gestures have multiple meanings. For 

example, joining the fingers to the thumb and holding up the 

hand can mean various things depending on the hand’s 

movement: annoyed waving suggests impatience, slow waving 

or holding indicates the need to wait or have patience, and 

shaking underscores the speaker’s authority on an issue.

Tunisians often pair the word “no” with a tongue click and 

dismissive head movement. 

Some Tunisian gestures resemble US 

gestures but have different meanings. 

The “OK” sign (pictured) means “zero” 

or “bad” in Tunisia. Tunisians beckon a 

person by moving a hand with palm 

down. Generally, foreign nationals 

should avoid using the index finger to 

point at people.

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil for language training resources. 

Click on the Menu tab in the upper right, then Resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Arabic Pronunciation and Transliteration

Transliteration is the process of spelling out Arabic words using 

the Roman (Latin) alphabet. Although Arabic dialects and 

scripts generally are consistent pronouncing and spelling 

words, there are many different ways of converting Arabic 

sounds into the Roman alphabet. Countries like Tunisia that 

were under French rule spell words differently. Some common 

consonant differences are summarized below. 

Common English 

Transliteration

Common French 

Transliteration Romanized Arabic

S or ss C

Said vs. Caid (name 

pronounced Sī-eed)

Sh Ch

Rashid Ghannoushi

vs. Rached 

Ghannouchi (name of 

en-Nahda party cofounder)

J Dj

Mejerda vs. Medjerda 

(name of Tunisia’s 

longest river) 

Since Arabic words often include sounds or letters having no 

equivalent in the Roman alphabet, the following symbols and 

letters are used to represent those sounds and letters when 

they are transliterated into the Roman alphabet.

Letters or Symbol Description Example

gh Like the guttural 

French “r”

Paris (as 

pronounced by a 

French person)

Kh or x Strong “h”

loch (as 

pronounced by a 

Scottish person)

H Whispered “h” hoot

dH Soft “th” this

‘ Glottal stop Pause in the middle 

of “uh-oh”

q

“k” sound from the 

throat; “g”; or glottal 

stop

cough; golf; pause 

in the middle of “uhoh”

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Translations

English French Romanized 

Tunisian Arabic

Yes Oui Ayi, aywa

No Non La

Please S’il vous plaît Minfadlak(m)/

Minfadlik (f)

Thank you Merci Shukran

You are welcome De rien Min gheer muzeeya

Hello Bonjour Assalama

Goodbye Au revoir Bisalama

Excuse me/sorry Pardon moi Samahanee

Do you speak 

English?

Parlez-vous 

anglais?

Tikallem 

ingleezeeya?

I do not speak 

Tunisian Arabic

Je ne parle pas 

l’arabe tunisienne

Ma nitkallamsh arbi

toonsee

I understand Je comprends Fahem

I do not understand Je ne comprends 

pas

Mish 

fahem/mefehemsh

How are you? Comment allezvous? Ashnooa ahwalik?

I am fine, thank you. 

How are you?

Bien, merci, et 

vous?

Laa-baas, shukran.

Winti/winta?

I am fine Bien Laa-baas

What is your name? Comment vous 

appelez vous? Sismik?

My name is ___ Je m’appelle ___ Ismee ___

I am pleased to 

meet you Enchanté Nitsharrafoo

Help Au secours ‘Awnoonee

Call the police Appelez la police Jeeboolee il-bolees

Thank you for your 

help

Merci pour 

votre aide

Shukran ‘ala almoosaa’eda

Where are the 

bathrooms?

Oú sont les 

toilettes? Ween it-twalet?

Straight ahead Droit Ala Tul

Right À droite Limin

Left À gauche Lisaar

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 81.8% 

• Male: 89.6%

• Female: 74.2% (2015 estimate)

Overview

Traditionally, Tunisian family members conveyed knowledge

and skills to the next generation at home. While the introduction 

of Islam offered the elite greater access to formal education, it

was not widely available to average Tunisians until after 

independence (see History and Myth).

Introduction of Formal Education

Formal education came to Tunisia with the 7th-century

introduction of Islam, which would become the foundation for all 

academic pursuits (also see Religion 

and Spirituality). Built in 670 AD by 

Arab general Uqba ibn Nafi, the 

Mosque of Uqba at Kairouan (also 

known as the Great Mosque, pictured, 

courtesy of Culture Grams, ProQuest 

2014) was established as a regional 

center of Islamic education and 

scholarship.

During the Ottoman era (see History 

and Myth), poorer children were 

limited to practical learning at home, 

while formal educational opportunities expanded for society’s 

elite. Wealthy families often sent their sons to kuttabs (Islamic 

primary schools) and then to madrasas (Islamic residential 

colleges) to study the Qu’ran and receive a basic education. 

Higher education options were restricted to the Bardo Military 

Academy and the Islamic Ez-Zitouna University until Sadiqi 

College opened in 1875 in Tunis. Sadiqi College was the first 

Tunisian institution to offer non-Islamic and non-military subjects

such as science and mathematics at the tertiary level.

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Education under French Colonialism

The French created modern government-run schools for the 

children of French nationals and Tunisian elites, while leaving 

most Islamic educational institutions intact. Many educated 

Tunisian elites promoted Tunisian nationalism and paved the 

way for independence (see History and Myth). 

French schools did little to educate the general public, which 

France primarily regarded as a labor force. In turn, most 

Tunisians had negative attitudes toward French-run schools, as 

their curriculum and limited capacity were not designed to 

address Tunisian needs and preferences. Consequently, 

Tunisian-run educational institutes emerged to fill the gap. 

Reformed kuttabs and the Khalduniyya, an educational society 

that supported the study of classic Arab-Islamic and modern 

Western subjects, flourished.

Post-Independence Education

After independence in 1956, President Bourguiba created the 

Ministry of Education to expand education for all young 

Tunisians in an effort to address the country’s economic and 

labor demands. The ministry established a post-primary 

education system that selected students based on French 

standards and proportionally controlled enrollments based on 

the requirements of Tunisia’s economy.

Education under Ben Ali 

Education was one of Tunisia’s highest priorities under former 

President Ben Ali whose educational system was considered 

one of the best in the Middle 

East and North Africa. Nearly 

22% of the 2009 national 

budget was spent on 

education. By 2010 school 

enrollment reached 97.7% for

primary school-aged children 

and 75.5% for secondary 

school-aged children. In the 

same year, over 360,000 

students were enrolled in tertiary education, of which nearly 60% 

were females (Photo: A US Army lieutenant colonel visiting a 

Tunisian elementary school class in 2006).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Basic Education

Today, basic education is free and compulsory for Tunisians 

ages 6 to 16. It consists of 6 years of primary education and 3

years of lower secondary education. The curriculum includes

Arabic, French, English, Islamic studies, history, mathematics, 

science, music, art, and technical education. After 6th grade, 

students take regional exams to determine placement in lower 

secondary programs. At the end of 9th grade, students must 

pass the National Basic Education Graduation Exam with a 

grade above 50% to continue on to upper secondary school.

Secondary Education

Secondary education is a 4-year program, divided into 2 stages. 

The first 2-year segment is a general academic track for all 

students. For the second 2-year stage, students may pursue 

vocational or college preparatory studies. Vocational programs, 

typically overseen by the Ministry of Employment, train students 

for a particular profession. At the conclusion of their studies, 

vocational students receive a certification called the Certificat 

d’Aptitude Professionnelle. 

College-bound students must specialize in one of the following 

areas: experimental sciences, technical sciences, mathematics, 

language arts, economics, or management. Science and math 

classes are taught in French, while language arts, economics, 

and management classes are taught in Arabic. Students must

pass the comprehensive Examen National du Baccalaureate

to continue their education at the tertiary level. Annually, roughly

64% of students pass and receive a diploma called the Diplôme 

du Baccalauréat.

Tertiary Education

Higher education is 

guaranteed to recipients of

the Diplôme du 

Baccalauréat. The national 

university orientation system

takes into account student 

preferences, exam scores,

specializations, and government-set field quotas to assign 

students to particular colleges (Photo: The University of Tunisia).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
There are three 2-year stages of higher education. The first

stage focuses on general academics, while the second stage is 

specialized for students’ selected fields of study. Upon 

completing the second stage, students are awarded the 

Maîtrise, which is considered the first degree in Tunisia’s

university system. The third stage requires a thesis and 

culminates in the Diplôme d’Etudes Approfondies, which is 

required for entry into doctoral programs. 

Post-Revolution Education

While the full impact of the “Jasmine Revolution” on education is

still unclear (see p10 of History and Myth), some problems have 

been identified along with proposed solutions. In 2012, the 

Ministry of Education sponsored a conference on educational 

reform during which participants 

identified key educational 

challenges. These challenges 

included declining performance, 

increased rates of academic 

failure, inefficient teacher training, 

and regional achievement 

disparities (Photo: US 

Ambassador Jacob Walles at the Instituts Superieurs des 

Études Technologiques de Sidi Bouzid).

Religious Instruction

While religious instruction traditionally has been a component of 

compulsory education, its tone has changed in the last few 

decades. Appointed Minister of Education in 1989, human rights 

activist Mohamed Charfi spearheaded religious education 

reforms. His initiatives included removing intolerant references 

to other religions, reemphasizing Islam’s liberal aspects, and 

addressing creation and evolution in textbooks. 

Presently, 2 hours-per-week of public primary school are 

dedicated to Islamic studies. In public secondary school, 

students attend an “Islamic Thinking” class that promotes 

analytical thinking in the tradition of the Maliki school of Sunni 

Islam and also teaches the history of Christianity and Judaism

(see Religion and Spirituality). Although kuttabs and madrasas

were unpopular in the 1990s, they are enjoying some renewed 

popularity since the “Jasmine Revolution.”

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Concept of time

Tunisia is largely a society where interpersonal relationships 

are valued over productivity, particularly in rural areas. In 

modern urban areas, some Tunisians such as business 

professionals value efficient time management as an integral 

part of their work lives.

Time and Work

The Tunisian work week extends Monday-Thursday from

8:00am- 6:00pm with a half-day on 

Friday, the Muslim holy day. Lunch 

breaks begin around 12:30pm, 

usually lasting about 2 hours.

Regular summer hours may be

shortened to 7:30am-1:30pm to 

avoid the extreme afternoon heat. 

For some Tunisians, the workday is 

punctuated by salat, the 5 daily 

Islamic prayers (see p2 of Religion 

and Spirituality). Tunisia is on 

Central European Time (CET), one hour ahead of Greenwich 

Mean Time (GMT) and 6 hours ahead of Eastern Standard 

Time (EST). 

Punctuality

While punctuality in Tunisia is preferred in business settings

and everyday life, tardiness is more commonly accepted than 

in the US. In Tunisian culture, meetings/deadlines generally

occur/are fulfilled on schedule, although taking extra time to 

develop a relationship properly is more important than 

timeliness. Consequently, foreign nationals should be prepared 

for business meetings to start late and/or run long.

Personal Space and Touching

Tunisians generally maintain less personal space while

interacting, and touching between friends and family is normal 

behavior. Depending on the level of familiarity, men may sit 

closer to each other than Westerners typically do. In addition,

physical contact may be used to reinforce verbal conversation. 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
In contrast, when speaking with 

strangers or members of the 

opposite sex, Tunisians usually 

refrain from conversational 

touching and maintain a greater 

distance. Generally, foreign 

nationals are advised to limit or 

avoid conversational touching 

until their Tunisian counterpart

initiates contact or until a solid relationship has been 

established (Photo: US Ambassador Jacob Walles, left,

shaking hands with a Tunisian official).

Eye Contact

The use of eye contact in Tunisia varies by status and 

circumstance. Generally, avoiding eye contact with elders and 

superiors shows respect and an awareness of social order and 

authority. In more relaxed contexts, eye contact indicates an 

understanding of, and genuine interest in, the topic being 

discussed. Eye contact between males and females is 

appropriate if initiated by the female, although it is considered 

disrespectful for a male to force eye contact with a Tunisian 

female.

Physical Taboos

As is common throughout many Muslim cultures, Tunisians 

consider feet unclean and consider it inappropriate to move

objects by foot or show feet or shoe soles. Similarly, Tunisians 

consider the left hand unclean because it is typically reserved

for personal hygiene. Foreign nationals are advised to avoid 

using the left hand when eating, accepting or offering items, 

gesturing, or greeting another person.

Public Space

In Tunisia’s public spaces, litter is common. There are relatively 

few waste receptacles, while some towns lack garbage 

collection altogether. Likewise, building exteriors are generally

not as well maintained as their interiors. While Tunisians often 

form lines when waiting, they are known to sometimes skip 

ahead of foreign nationals, so polite assertiveness is on 

occasion necessary. Public displays of affection, such as 

couples holding hands, are considered inappropriate. 

SPACE

TIME &
Photographs

Although many Tunisians are willing to be photographed and 

appreciate the opportunity to see themselves in the picture, it is 

best to request permission before taking a photograph. This 

advice is especially important in rural parts of Tunisia, where

some communities forbid photographs of people due to 

religious traditions. In addition, military or government 

personnel or installations should not be photographed. 

Lunar Islamic Calendar

While they use the Western calendar for daily events, 

Tunisians rely on the Islamic lunar calendar to calculate Islamic 

holidays. Based on moon phases, the Islamic year consists of 

12 months, 29 or 30 days each. Consequently, dates fall 11 

days earlier each year in relation to the Western calendar. 

Days begin at sunset on what Westerners consider the 

previous day. Each new week begins at sunset on Saturday, 

and the Muslim holy day (Friday) on Thursday evening.

Public Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• March 20: Independence Day

• March 21: Youth Day

• April 9: Martyrs’ Day

• May 1: Labor Day

• July 25: Republic Day

• August 13: Women’s Day

• October 15: Evacuation Day

• November 7: New Era Day

Islamic Holidays 

• Mawlid al-Nabi: Birthday of the Prophet Muhammad

• Ramadan: Holy Month of Fasting

• Eid al-Fitr: End of Ramadan

• Eid al-Adha: The Festival of the Sacrifice

• Awwal Muharram: Islamic (Lunar) New Year

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Tunisia’s clothing, games, music, theater, literature, and 

artwork reflect a variety of Berber, Arab, and European cultural 

influences. Tunisian aesthetic and recreational preferences, at 

times, represent a stark contrast between Tunisians’ interest in

globalization and modernity on one hand and their attachment 

to Islamic traditions on the other.

Dress

Dress in urban Tunisia is a modest blend of modern European 

and traditional North African styles. In rural areas, men and 

women often cloak themselves in fabric both for modesty and

for protection from the elements. Like their Tunisian hosts, 

visitors to Tunisia should dress conservatively and blend in.

Men: Tunisian men’s clothing varies based on daily needs and

activities. Tunisian businessmen typically wear US- and

European-style suits and ties to the office, sometimes 

accompanied with more traditional attire like a jelaba and/or a

chechia. The jelaba, a long-sleeved cloak or gown, is often 

worn over a suit but can also be worn alone over loose pants. 

The chechia is a popular red or brown brimless felt hat

(pictured). In rural areas and the South, men often wrap fabric 

around their heads, 

similar to a turban, and 

wear a loose tunic to 

protect against rain, 

wind, sun, and sand.

Women: Many Tunisian 

women, particularly in 

urban areas, dress in an 

American or European

style. In offices, women 

typically wear modest dresses or long-sleeved blouses with 

skirts below the knee. Women tend to dress more 

conservatively in rural settings, where some of them wear fullbody clothing when outside the house both for religious 

modesty and to protect themselves from dust and rain.

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Women’s right to wear the hijab (Islamic headscarf) has been 

controversial since former President Bourguiba banned it from 

public places in the early 1980s. Citing the hijab’s nonTunisian origin, Bourguiba encouraged women to dress in line 

with traditional norms of Tunisian modesty, which did not 

require a veil. After the “Jasmine Revolution” (see p10 of 

History and Myth), the hijab’s legality was reinstated. Likewise, 

the ruling en-Nahda Party (see p4 of Political and Social 

Relations and p3 of Sex and Gender) has issued decrees 

permitting use of the niqab, an Islamic veil covering the head 

and face except the eyes (see p9 of Religion and Spirituality).

Recreation

Tunisians typically spend their leisure time enjoying activities

with their families or friends. Popular pastimes include outings 

to the beach, playing and watching soccer, and playing board 

or card games. Men often socialize at coffeehouses or 

markets, while women tend to socialize with friends at home.

Sports: Soccer, known as football in Tunisia and throughout 

Africa, is the country’s largest and most popular sport. 

Tunisians avidly follow the exploits of the national team, 

nicknamed Les Aigles de Carthage (the Eagles of Carthage), 

which has made 4

appearances in the FIFA 

World Cup and won the 

Tunisia-hosted 2004 African 

Cup of Nations. The 

Championnat de Tunisie is 

Tunisia’s top-tier soccer 

league where the nation’s 

fiercest rivalry between 2 Tunis-based clubs, Esperance 

Sportive de Tunis (EST) and Club African, is exhibited (Photo: 

A soccer game between EST and Club Africain).

Although the government encourages a healthy lifestyle and 

participation in sports for both males and females, relatively 

few Tunisians are involved with sports due, in part, to the 

nationwide lack of adequate sporting facilities. Tunisia’s coast 

is a popular destination for diving, sailing, and windsurfing for 

Tunisians and tourists alike. Golf, volleyball, hunting, handball,

and horse or camel riding are popular in the countryside. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Games: Tunisians like to play games while socializing at home 

or in coffeehouses. Chkouba, derived from the Italian game 

Scopa, is a popular card game in which 2 players or teams try 

to collect as many cards as possible to amass the highest 

value and win. Dominoes, backgammon, and classic Western 

card games, such as rummy, are also common.

Music

Originating in 15th-century Islamic Spain, malouf has become 

the typical music heard throughout Tunisia. Meaning “normal,” 

malouf experienced a surge in popularity when it became a 

symbol of national identity. Malouf is traditionally played by a 

band consisting of a violin, a hand drum, an oud (a pearshaped stringed instrument), and vocal. 

Many young Tunisians enjoy Algerian rai, a genre of primarily 

love songs that combines elements of traditional Arabic vocal 

styles with Western pop. A mix of French, US, and Arab pop 

music is heard on the radio and 

played in nightclubs. Western

styles like jazz, reggae, and rock 

are also performed in many 

venues (Photo: 2010 concert in 

Carthage).

Dance

Tunisia is home to unique 

traditional dance forms 

commonly performed during 

weddings and festivals and as entertainment at restaurants. A 

dance called raqs al-maharem developed into a symbol of 

resistance during the 1950s. It involves dancers showcasing

red and white scarves to signify their support for an

independent Tunisia (see p8-9 of History and Myth). 

Theater

During the French colonial period (see p7 of History and Myth), 

translations of European classics and colloquial Arabic theater

performances were primary entertainment media for 

expatriates and local elites. Tunisian theater took shape in the 

1950s and is funded today through the Ministry of Culture.

Current works often offer insight into modern Tunisians’ lives

and tend to be satirical or melodramatic.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Cinema

Tunisia’s cinema industry has historically been one of the most 

successful in Africa. Former Presidents Bourguiba and Ben Ali 

sponsored a national production company and created 

attractive financial incentives to encourage both domestic and 

foreign film production. Although parts of the critically 

acclaimed Star Wars series were filmed in southern Tunisia, 

the country’s economic hardships and instability in recent years

diminished Tunisia’s appeal to major studios (see p9-10 of

History and Myth). Consequently, no major films have been 

produced in Tunisia since 2011. Tunisia’s domestic film 

industry has been negatively affected by the widespread 

availability of pirated DVDs and the public’s preference for films 

from Hollywood, India, Egypt, and France.

Literature and Folklore

Tunisia is a regional standout in the quality of its Arabic 

literature, although its French works are not as well-known as 

those of neighboring Algeria and Morocco. Poetry and short 

stories are popular, as are literature forms that employ humor. 

Since Tunisian writers were censored both during French 

colonization and after independence, many well-known and 

influential Tunisian writers relocated to Europe. Folklore in 

Tunisia often has a religious theme and 

recounts tales of heroic and pious Muslim 

leaders.

Arts and Crafts

Traditional Tunisian crafts are both 

functional and decorative, and the artisan 

craft industry has long been an important 

source of income. As of 2005, over 

120,000 craftsmen worked in the 

production of ceramics, pottery, and iron 

and leather work. The government 

passed laws that require craftspeople to authenticate their 

wares in order to safeguard industry products for export and to 

encourage craft-making as a tourist attraction. Carpet-making, 

which typically involves knotting or weaving fibers into 

geometrical and abstract patterns, is another important moneymaking craft (Photo: Tunisian woman weaving a carpet with a 

traditional pattern).

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Tunisian cuisine consists of a unique blend of Berber, Arab, 

French, and other cultural influences created from Tunisia’s local

resources. Staple foods include bread, couscous (traditional 

Berber pasta), seafood, and slow-simmered meat stews.

Dining Customs

In rural areas, Tunisians often eat their meals seated on the floor 

around a ma’ida (low, round table). Food is served typically from 

a common plate or group of dishes. Using the right hand,

Tunisians prefer to scoop the food with a piece of bread (see 

“Physical Taboos” in Time and Space). In urban areas, they

typically sit at a dining table and use utensils to eat from separate 

plates.

Tunisians are hospitable and encourage their guests to have 

multiple servings at meals. It is considered impolite to refuse

these offers. When full, Tunisians often say Khamsa Aalik (You 

have done an excellent job) or al-Hamdu lillah (Thanks be to 

God) to indicate they enjoyed the meal. 

Typical Meals

A typical Tunisian breakfast consists of coffee or milk and, 

depending on the season, eggs, fritters, assida (a flour-based 

pudding with dates), sohlob (sorghum mixed with milk, sugar,

and cinnamon), or hsou (a caper-based spicy soup). 

Both lunch (the main meal of the day) and dinner meals begin 

with soups, salads, vegetables, or tajine, a frittata-like egg and 

meat dish, followed by 

couscous.

Staples

Couscous is Tunisia’s national 

dish. Although it is popular 

throughout the Maghreb region, 

Tunisia’s version is unique in its use of harissa, a North African

spicy chili paste (pictured center with tuna and black olives). 

Couscous is often served with a sauce of vegetables, chickpeas, 

and a meat. Bread, either a French style baguette or the Berber 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
tabouna, is served with most meals and is used to scoop 

harissa, olive oil, or sauce.

Seafood

Tunisia’s Mediterranean coast offers an abundance of seafood, 

which is a staple in modern Tunisian cuisine: red mullet, 

mackerel, grouper, tuna, and perch are especially popular. 

Usually baked or fried, fish is often paired with olive oil and 

spices or cooked with couscous. Tunisians also eat octopus, 

squid, mussels, clams, prawns, oysters, crayfish, and lobster.

Meat

Chicken, beef, and lamb are primary meats in the Tunisian diet 

and are most commonly combined with couscous or slowcooked in a stew. Pork is forbidden under Islamic law, although

wild boar is sometimes served to 

visitors. Camel meat is served 

occasionally in the South (Photo: 

Lamb sausage over couscous and 

vegetables).

Fruits and Sweets

Abundant in Tunisia, fruit is included 

in meat dishes and desserts and also

a popular snack. Oranges, figs, 

grapes, melons, apricots, and dates grow in Tunisia alongside 

the less familiar bousa’a (medlar fruit of the rose family) and

boutabguai (France’s peche de vigne, a cross between a peach 

and a raspberry).

Makroudh and baklawa are popular desserts often served in 

Tunisian restaurants and homes. Makroudh is a honey topped 

pastry with a date filling, while baklawa is a filo dough pastry 

filled with nuts and honey. Nuts, in either crushed or paste form, 

are often added to Tunisian desserts. 

Beverages

Coffee, tea, and juices are popular throughout Tunisia.

Noteworthy drinks are Citronnade (lemonade in French)—a

mixture of blended whole lemons, sugar and water—and lait de 

poule, literally translates as “chicken’s milk” but actually a fruit 

milkshake with egg whites. They are served in cafes along with 

mineral waters and sodas. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Coffee is served in variations similar to those of France and Italy

and usually includes milk and sugar. Black, green, and mint teas

are boiled with sugar and 

are served without milk. 

Mint tea (pictured) is 

sometimes prepared 

with pine nuts or 

almonds. 

Although Islam prohibits 

alcohol consumption, 

wine and beer are 

produced in Tunisia and 

sold at restaurants and 

stores. While men may 

frequent the bars of larger cities, women usually confine 

themselves to bars of European-style hotels. The local Tunisian 

beer Celtia and the German brand Löwenbräu, which is 

produced under license in Tunisia, are popular. Boukha and 

thibarine are strong spirits made of dates and figs, respectively. 

Out of respect for the Islamic holy day, alcohol typically is not 

sold on Fridays. Some hardline Islamists have criticized

establishments that sell alcohol for their un-Islamic practices. 

Nevertheless, in the post-Ben Ali era, the Islamist government 

has not changed alcohol laws, although alcohol taxes have 

increased.

Health Overview

Due to government efforts to improve the nation’s overall health, 

the Tunisian healthcare system has become a model for 

neighboring Arab countries and is regarded as the second best 

in Africa after South Africa. 

As of 2016, infant mortality ratio had fallen to 22 deaths per 

1,000 births, a rate far lower than most of Africa but still higher

than the US rate of 6 per 1000. In 2016, life expectancy from 

birth rose to a high of 76 years, an increase of 20 years since 

1966 and slightly higher than rates in Algeria and Morocco. As

of 2010, there were 122 physicians per 100,000 people in 

Tunisia, which was identical to that of neighboring Algeria.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Modern Healthcare

Managed by the Ministry of Public 

Health, the Tunisian healthcare 

system has 4 levels of integrated 

public facilities—basic centers, 

district hospitals, regional 

hospitals, and university 

facilities—and a growing private 

sector. With increased economic 

pressures over the past decades, 

the public sector’s state funding 

has been declining gradually, forcing individuals to pay for a 

larger portion of their medical costs out-of-pocket (Photo: 

Former US ambassador Gordon Gray, center, outside a hospital 

in Remada, Tunisia).

Employing around 1,800 doctors, the basic healthcare center is 

the first level entry point of preventative care and site for the 90% 

of Tunisians who live within 5 km of the 2,091 centers. The 121 

district and 33 regional hospitals comprise the second and third 

levels, employing specialists and providing in-patient services. 

The final referral level comprises the university facilities that 

provide advanced specialist treatment and medical training 

programs. These facilities comprise 70% of specialists in the 

public sector and most of its heavy medical equipment.

The private health care sector represents 12% of the total 

capacity in beds and 70% of the top range medical equipment in 

the country. Most of the private hospitals and medical facilities 

are located in the major cities and it employs over 50% of the 

doctors, 73% of the dentists, and 80% of the pharmacists. 

Although these private centers principally serve only residents 

of major coastal cities, they receive 50% of the total health 

expenditure in Tunisia. 

Mental Healthcare

Tunisia’s mental health care industry suffers from an increasing 

demand for services coupled with a negative social attitude

towards mental health issues and psychiatric care. The exact 

amount of funds dedicated to these services is difficult to 

calculate since they are integrated in the total healthcare budget

of roughly 4.4% of gross domestic product. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Challenges

Tunisians have relatively good access to preventative and 

general healthcare and therefore experience few serious health 

challenges. Measles and polio have nearly been eradicated, and 

malaria and schistosomiasis have not been present since the 

1980s. Conversely, rates of non-communicable disease are 

rising mostly due to obesity and tobacco use. Women suffer from 

hypertension, diabetes, and stroke, while men’s leading issues

are heart and pulmonary disease and lung cancer. 

Tuberculosis: Tuberculosis is a problem for both humans and 

animals in rural, southern Tunisia where milk is largely 

unpasteurized. With a prevalence rate of 31 cases per 100,000 

people, Tunisia is well below the regional average of 173 cases 

per 100,000 people.

HIV/AIDS: The government-implemented HIV/AIDS control 

program ensures blood transfusions are safe and provides free 

condoms and antiretroviral drug treatments. Consequently, 

HIV/AIDS prevalence has been contained at a low and stable 

rate of 0.04% of the population, one of the world’s lowest rates. 

High risk groups include men having same-sex relations (5% 

prevalence rate), intravenous drugs users (3%), and female sex 

workers (0.4%).

Water

Although Tunisia is a water-scarce country, it has some 

of the highest regional rates of access to water and 

sanitation. Nearly 100% of urban Tunisians have access 

to clean water, while over 93% of rural Tunisians have 

similar access. To ease problems of water scarcity and 

infrequent and changing rainfall patterns, Tunisian 

officials have made concerted efforts to conserve 

available water resources. The government continues to 

seek ways to reduce water demand, while actively 

managing water conservation through dams, lakes, and 

wells.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

Tunisia’s strategic location and abundant natural resources 

promote a diversified economy and one of Africa’s strongest. 

Although Tunisia historically supported sizeable service and 

industrial sectors, its economy has weakened due to lingering

effects of the former regime’s economic mismanagement, 

ongoing state of political uncertainty, and long periods of high 

unemployment. In the 2 years following the 2011 “Jasmine 

Revolution” (see History and Myth), public discontent rose as the 

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) fell and unemployment, debt, 

and inflation increased. However, in the past few years, the 

economy has stabilized.

Services

Accounting for 62% of GDP and roughly half of the total labor 

force, the services sector comprises the largest portion of 

Tunisia’s economy. The main subsectors are government 

services (16% of GDP); retail, hotel, and restaurants (14%); and 

transport, storage, and 

communication (14%). 

Tourism: The political uncertainty 

following the “Jasmine Revolution”

(see Political and Social Relations)

harmed the industry: that year, only 

3 million tourists visited Tunisia—

less than half of the annual totals 

from the 3 previous years. Tourism rebounded somewhat in 

2012 when the number of total visitors increased to 5.76 million

and revenue from tourism increased from $1.38 billion in 2011 

to $1.98 billion in 2012.

A small but important sub-sector of the services industry, tourism 

encompassed 7.4% of GDP, employed 473,000 workers directly 

and indirectly, and provided 14.1% of Tunisia’s foreign exchange 

revenue in 2014. This improvement was short-lived; the tourism 

industry collapsed after the 2015 Bardo National Museum 

attack, decreasing by 35%. However, tourism is recovering, with 

arrivals growing by more than 20% in 2016. Decreased tourism 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
revenue had a negative effect on the country’s overall economic 

climate and important tourist-related industries like the artisan 

handicrafts industry (see Aesthetics and Recreation).

Industry

The industrial sector is the second largest component of 

Tunisia’s economy, accounting for 28% of total GDP and 33% of 

the labor force. The largest subsector by far is manufacturing,

followed by mining and quarrying, and construction. The mining 

sector centers on preparing phosphates and fertilizers for export; 

Tunisia is one of the world’s leading phosphate producers. Many

industries have struggled during a European economic crisis 

over the last several years, but have rebounded recently in step 

with Europe’s improving outlook.

Manufacturing: Tunisia’s manufacturing industry centers on the 

production of automotive and aeronautic components, 

machinery and equipment, steel and construction materials, 

and, to a lesser extent, 

shipbuilding. Many of these 

products are bound for export, 

primarily to European 

countries. Although textiles 

were Tunisia’s leading export 

in the early 2000s, other 

manufactured goods such as 

automotive components, chemicals, and fertilizers have 

surpassed textiles. In 2016, Tunisia exported an estimated 

$11.08 billion in manufactured products (Photo: Workers at 

Starz Electronics in Bizerte, Tunisia).

Agriculture

Agriculture accounts for only about 10% of Tunisia’s total GDP 

and employs 15% of the labor force. Tunisia’s primary

agricultural exports are olives (exported in the form of olive oil)

and cereals, both of which are primarily grown in the North. 

Other prominent crops include tomatoes and other fruit, 

peppers, artichokes, and potatoes, while the most popular types 

of livestock are cows, sheep, and goats. Tunisia is a regional 

standout for its self-sustaining production of dairy products, 

vegetables, fruit, and red meat. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Most of Tunisia’s arable land is divided into small, 

unmechanized farms of less than 50 acres. Due to their 

inefficiencies in production, these farms suffer low yields. The

government has enacted measures to increase capacity and use 

of available water (see Sustenance and Health), although 

agricultural yields vary greatly due to Tunisia’s unpredictable 

rainfall.

Fishing: Home to 41 fishing ports and 165 fish-processing 

plants, Tunisia supports a fishing industry that employs 53,000 

people. Although pollution has begun to deplete fish populations 

in the Mediterranean, fishermen catch an average of 98,000 tons 

of fish per year, most of which are for internal consumption. This 

subsector accounts for 8% of the agricultural production value 

and 11% Gross National Product (GNP).

Currency

The currency is the Tunisian dinar (TND), which is subdivided 

into 1,000 millimes. The dinar is issued in 5 banknotes (TND 5, 

10, 20, 30, 50), 3 dinar coins 

(TND 1/2, 1, 5), and 5 millim

coins (5, 10, 20, 50, 100). In 

2016, the value of the dinar 

averaged 2.141 TND to 1 US 

dollar (USD), above the 2010

average of 1.43 (Photo: 

Front and back of a 1 TND

coin). Strictly enforced laws prohibit both Tunisian citizens and 

foreign visitors from taking dinars out of the country to give 

Tunisia more control over its currency’s value.

Foreign Trade

Most of Tunisia’s trade is with Europe. Since the 2008 free trade 

agreement between Tunisia and the European Union, the 

exports to Europe have boosted Tunisia’s economic growth

significantly. Product exportation totaled $12.88 billion in 2016, 

of which over 50% went to European countries. Around 40% of 

total foreign direct investment (FDI) comes from Europe. FDI 

currently represents 10% of productive investments, generates 

one-third of exports and over 15% of the total number of jobs.

Tunisia's product importation equaled $17.75 billion in 2016, 

$4.87 billion more than exports, and created a trade deficit that 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
equaled roughly 3.7% of GDP in 2016. Imports are primarily 

textiles, machinery, hydrocarbons, chemicals, and foodstuffs. 

Tunisia’s major import partners include France, Italy, Algeria, 

Germany, and China. 

Foreign Aid

Many foreign governments and non-governmental organizations 

have offered generous aid to help support and improve Tunisia’s 

struggling economy and bolster its fledgling democracy (see 

Political and Social Relations) (Photo: Former Tunisian 

Ambassador Mohamed Salah Tekaya and Former Secretary of 

State Hillary Clinton signing a 2012 agreement for aid to 

Tunisia).

Between January 2011 and 

November 2012, the US 

government, the European 

Union, and the World Bank 

provided $300 million, $400 

million, and $500 million in 

aid, respectively. In 2012 

alone, the Qatari and 

Libyan governments provided $500 million and a $132 million 

development package, respectively. For 2013 the Tunisian 

government predicted it would require $4.4 billion to support job 

creation programs, limit budget deficits, and control inflation. In 

2014 and 2015, Tunisia received $1.309 billion and $1,446 

billion, respectively. Around 75% of total official development 

assistance (ODA) comes from Europe: the EU, France and 

Germany are three of the largest providers of Tunisia’s 

ODA.Debt Repayment: Former President Ben Ali accrued large 

public debts to fund his regime and lavish lifestyle; he and his 

cronies often squandered the money through mismanagement, 

used it to bribe opponents or pocketed it themselves. After his 

ouster (see History and Myth), the interim government has 

debated whether Tunisia should pay the debts of its former 

dictatorial regime since they were incurred without the people’s 

consent. In June of 2013, the International Monetary Fund 

agreed to a bailout loan, $1.75 billion over 2 years, to help 

Tunisia keep making debt payments, with austerity and 

liberalization conditions attached.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

To support economic growth, the current and previous Tunisian 

governments have prioritized infrastructural upkeep and 

technical development, as evidenced by Tunisia’s good roads, 

ports, rail systems, and airways. Even though former President 

Ben Ali used censorship and restrictions on technology to help 

maintain his power (see History and Myth), Tunisia’s interim 

government allowed the growth of independent media outlets 

and relatively unrestricted Internet access.

Transportation

Most Tunisians do not own cars and thus rely on public 

transportation such as buses or private modes of transport like 

bicycles, motorbikes, or walking for local travel. Tunisia features

one of Africa’s only metro and light rail systems in the greater 

metropolitan area of Tunis (see “Railways” below). Taxis are 

also a viable option for local travel in larger cities.

Common means of transportation for longer trips between cities

include trains, full-sized domestic buses, and louages, shared

8-seat minibuses that follow no set schedule and depart only 

when full. Although trains are generally the fastest means of 

transportation between major cities, louages are often the most 

convenient and sometimes the only option to reach smaller, less 

accessible towns.

Roadways: Tunisia has 12,066

miles of roadways, almost 

9,169 miles of which are paved. 

Most paved roads are 2-lane,

well-maintained, and welltraveled and located in the more 

heavily populated North. While 

roads in and around large cities 

are often congested, secondary 

roads and most roads in the South and West are unpaved and 

often in poor condition (Photo: Road along an ancient Roman 

aqueduct in northern Tunisia).

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Tunisian drivers tend to be unsafe: motorists often ignore speed 

limits and traffic signals and rarely maintain situational 

awareness when changing lanes. Bicyclists and motorcyclists 

are also negligent, often darting in and out of traffic or traveling

too close to the edge of the road.

Railways: As of 2014, Tunisia had a total of 1,350 miles of 

railway. The Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Tunisiens 

(SNCFT) operates Tunisian trains, which travel at relatively slow 

speeds, but are usually on schedule. The main line runs from 

Tunis to Gabès via Sousse and Sfax with multiple lines 

branching off the main North-South line. Most of Tunisia’s rail

traffic is dedicated to moving freight rather than passengers. The 

few existing passenger trains are modern and climate controlled, 

although overcrowding can be a problem in less expensive 2ndclass compartments. 

In addition to intercity freight and passenger rail options, Tunisia 

developed and expanded an above-ground metro line in 1985 to 

serve the greater Tunis metropolitan area. This metro line is 

slated to expand annually through 2021.

Airways: Tunisia has 29 

airports and airstrips, 15 of 

which have paved runways. 

The country’s largest airport 

is Enfidha-Hammamet 

International Airport, located 

60 miles south of Tunis in the city of Enfidha. Other international 

airports are in Djerba, Gabès, Gafsa, Monastir, Sfax, Jendouba, 

Tozeur, and Tunis. The national airline, Tunisair, offers

international flights to 22 European and 12 Arab and African 

destinations. Tunisair’s subsidiary Sevenair offers a limited 

number of domestic flights. Several smaller Tunisian airlines 

service international cities and provide private charter service. 

Foreign carriers such as Air France, British Airways, Lufthansa, 

and Egyptair connect Tunisia to several global gateways.

Ports and Waterways: Tunisia’s location on the Mediterranean 

Sea provides convenient access to Europe. Each of the 7 large 

commercial ports along Tunisia’s 807 mile coast—Bizerte, La 

Goulette (serving Tunis), Rades, Sousse, Sfax, Gabès, and 

Zaris—provides specific services. For example, Bizerte 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
specializes in petroleum activities, while La Goulette 

concentrates on passenger travel. Multiple ferry companies

transport people and their vehicles between Tunisia and Europe, 

including popular destinations like Genoa and Palermo in Italy 

and Marseille in France. Depending on the season, ferries run 

once each weekly or daily. In addition, domestic ferries run 

between Sfax and the Kerkennah Islands and between El-Jorf 

and Djerba Island.

Energy

Unlike oil-rich Algeria, Tunisia has limited hydrocarbon

resources and must import oil and natural gas to meet its 

growing energy demands. As of 2016, Tunisia produced enough 

oil, natural gas, and renewable energy to supply over 85% of its 

own energy needs. A significant share of the country’s energy 

imports is in the form of gas sourced from Algeria, either as a 

transit fee for gas destined to Italy or as imports. Nearly all 

electricity in Tunisia is generated by fossil fuels, only 3% of its 

grid grid capacity is supplied by renewables. Thanks to the 

former government’s investment, Tunisia’s 100% rate of 

electricity coverage is one of Africa’s highest.

Media 

Under former President Ben Ali’s regime (see p9-10 of History 

and Myth), the government controlled all state media 

broadcasts. Consequently, Tunisians tended to prefer larger

international media outlets, such as France 24 and Al-Jazeera, 

to local or national sources for

their news and analytical 

commentary. 

After the 2011 “Jasmine 

Revolution” (see p10 of History 

and Myth), Tunisia’s media 

gained unprecedented 

freedom, although many media 

outlets still lack professional standards, produce inferior content, 

and are biased. Despite the new constitution’s promise for even

greater social freedoms (see p3 of Political and Social 

Relations), it will take time to implement change (Photo: Tunisian 

journalists at a 2011 US-sponsored best practices in journalism 

workshop).

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Radio and TV: As of 2011, nearly 94% of Tunisians had 

television access, mostly through free satellite dish channels. 

The main Free-to-Air channels are state-run Wataniya 1 and 2

and privately owned Messma TV and Hannibal TV. Since the 

revolution (see p10 of History and Myth), most Tunisian TV

stations have expanded their programing, while formerly staterun channels are under new management. As of January 2012, 

there were also 7 new privately-owned TV channels. Tunisian 

radio’s coverage is more limited, so post-revolution changes

have been less extensive. As of early 2013, there were 9 public 

and 12 private radio stations. 

Print Media: Both established and new print media outlets are 

adjusting to Tunisia’s new press freedoms. Since former 

President Ben Ali’s ouster following the “Jasmine Revolution,”

over 200 new print publications 

have emerged. Many have used 

their platforms to settle political 

scores or they have employed

sensationalism simply to make

money. In 2013, several major 

daily newspapers existing under 

the previous regime were 

transitioning from publishing

political propaganda to providing more objective and impartial

coverage and analysis.

Telecommunications

Tunisia has one of the best developed telecommunications 

markets in North Africa. As of 2017, there were over 13 Internet 

service providers (ISPs). In 2016, the overall Internet penetration 

rate was 52%, with higher rates for urban and more affluent 

areas. Most Tunisians access the Internet at work, school, or 

publinets (Internet cafés). With nearly 15 times as many cellular

phones as landlines, many Tunisians can also access the web 

through their cellular phones.

Tunisia’s former regime strictly controlled ISPs and curtailed 

access to websites that contained critical political and social 

opinions. Under the interim government, the public generally 

enjoys access to most Internet content, although sites that are 

considered offensive to public decency remain restricted. 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
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