THAILAND

Lopburi• •NakhonRatchasima

•UdonThani

Lopburi•

•Phuket

•SuratThani

•ChiangMai

•Phitsanulok

USForcesPaciĕc

CultureGuide

Malaysia

Cambodia

Vietnam

Laos

Myanmar

(Burma)
This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained within will help you 

understand the cultural dimension of your assigned location 

and gain skills necessary 

for success. 

The guide consists of 2

parts: 

Part 1 “Culture General”

introduces the foundational 

knowledge you need to 

operate effectively in any 

global environment – Southeast Asia in particular (Photo: AF 

Chief shows family photos to Thai youth).

Part 2 “Culture Specific” describes unique cultural features of 

Thai society. This section is designed to complement other predeployment training. It applies culture-general concepts to help

increase your knowledge 

of your deployment 

location (Photo: Exercise 

Cope Tiger Commander 

dines with children in 

Udon Thani, Thailand).

For further information, 

visit the Air Force Culture 

and Language Center 

(AFCLC) website at 

http://culture.af.mil/ or contact AFCLC’s Region Team at 

AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the expressed permission 

of AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the US 

government, Wikimedia, and other sources as indicated.

About this Guide

Thailand Culture Guide
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes 

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to 

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the 

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that 

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also usually assign the same meanings 

to the symbols in that culture. A symbol is when one thing – an 

image, word, object, idea, or story – represents another thing. 

For example, the American flag is a physical and visual symbol 

of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, the 

story of George Washington 

admitting to having chopped 

down a cherry tree is also 

symbolic, representing the 

importance Americans place 

on personal honesty and 

leadership integrity. 

Force Multiplier

The military services have 

learned through experience the importance of understanding 

other cultures. Unlike the 20th-century bipolar world order that 

dominated US strategy for nearly half a century, today the US 

military is operating in what we classify as asymmetric or 

irregular conflict zones where the notion of cross-cultural 

interactions is on the leading edge of our engagement 

strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE 
economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success.

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner

that is appropriate to our culture and encourages us to 

perpetuate that culture into the future. 

We can organize these behaviors and systems into categories 

– what the Air Force refers to as “cultural domains” – in order to 

better understand the primary values and characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally competent military member can use 

these domains – which include kinship, language and 

communication, and social and political systems among others

(see chart on next page) – as tools for understanding and 

adapting to any culture. For example, by understanding the 

ways different cultures define family or kinship, a deployed 

military member can more 

effectively interact with 

members of that culture.

Social Behaviors Across 

Cultures

While humankind shares basic 

behaviors, various groups 

enact or even group those 

behaviors differently across 

cultural boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for 

survival, although agrarian societies generally produce their 

own food for limited consumption using very basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized nations have more sophisticated 

market economies, producing foodstuffs for universal 

consumption. Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
although they represent these concepts through a variety of 

unique forms of symbolism. While the dominant world religions 

share the belief in one God, their worship practices vary with

their traditional historical development. Similarly, in many kinbased cultures where familial bonds are foundational to social 

identity, it is customary for family or friends to serve as 

godparents, while for other societies this practice is nearly nonexistent.

Worldview

One of our basic human 

behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or 

different according to our 

cultural standard. As depicted 

in the chart below, we can 

apply the 12 cultural domains 

to help us compare similarities 

and differences across 

cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if they are 

“people like me” or “people not like me.” Consequently, we 

assume that individuals falling into the “like me” category share 

our perspectives and values. 

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CULTURE 
This collective perspective forms our worldview – how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for our actions and a logical 

explanation of why we individually or collectively act in a certain 

manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system sets its universal standards of what 

is good and bad, defines right and wrong behavior, and assigns 

a value of meaningful or meaningless. Our beliefs form the 

fundamental values we hold to be true – regardless of whether 

there is physical evidence to support these ideas. Beliefs are a 

central facet of human culture. They are shared views about 

world order and how the universe was physically and socially 

constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have help 

shape our characters. Likewise, 

these values are ingrained in our 

personalities and shape our 

behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are 

difficult, though not impossible, to 

change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve to 

rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of their activities. We will use 

the iceberg model for classifying culture to illustrate two levels 

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CULTURE 
of meaning, as depicted. Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

deeper and greater level of the submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / referenced by our 

behaviors and symbols (top level). It is important to recognize, 

though, that the parts of culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping what is being made 

visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors that 

are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many regions 

where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend judgment in 

order to understand another perspective is essential to 

establishing relationships with your host-nation counterparts. 

The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to understand a 

culture from a member of that culture’s perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It often involves taking an alternate

perspective when interpreting others’ behaviors and is critical 

to your ability to achieve mission success. 

As you travel throughout Southeast Asia, you will encounter 

cultural patterns of meaning that are common across the 

region. What follows is a general description of 12 cultural 

domains which are used to frame those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story 

which members of a culture use to explain community origins 

or important events that are 

not verifiable or which 

occurred prior to written 

language. 

Southeast Asia includes 5 

countries on the mainland

(Burma, Thailand, Laos, 

Cambodia, and Vietnam)

and 5 maritime countries in 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

GENERAL

CULTURE 
the North Pacific Ocean and the South China Sea (Malaysia, 

Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Brunei). As early as 

150 BC, the scattered communities on the mainland traded 

with and paid tribute to the dominating kingdoms of China and 

India. China maintained a presence in Vietnam for over 1000 

years, while’s India’s influence was felt mainly as its inhabitants 

spread Hinduism, Buddhism, and later Islam across the region. 

Southeast Asia’s most famous ancient empire, the Khmer, 

ruled for 4 centuries beginning around 800 AD from its center 

at Angkor in Cambodia. Later, Thai kings expanded across the

mainland, while a Hindu kingdom from India united the 

Indonesian archipelago.

China began to halt its 

expeditions to the region 

in mid-15th century, just 

as European nations 

began sending theirs. The 

Portuguese were the first 

to conquer a Southeast 

Asian settlement in 1511, 

although their influence in the region was short-lived.

Observing their success, the Dutch and English moved into the 

area as well. The Europeans sought to acquire trade routes 

and territories, and from the 17th through the 19th centuries the 

Dutch worked to consolidate their power in today’s Indonesia, 

the Spanish their control of the Philippines, the English their 

hold over Burma and Malaysia, and the French their control 

over Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. By the beginning of the 

20th century, virtually all of Southeast Asia was controlled by 

colonial powers; only Thailand remained independent. 

During World War II, Japan invaded and occupied portions of 

Malaysia, Burma, Thailand, and the Philippines. After the war, 

independence movements regained traction, and following 

years of struggle against the occupying Americans, the 

Philippines became the first country in Southeast Asia to gain 

its independence in 1946. Other countries endured years of 

instability and conflict on their way to independence. In 

Vietnam, communist rebels battled and defeated the French 

but then engaged the US in a controversial war. A civil war in 

Cambodia ended in the rise to power of the Khmer Rouge, 

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CULTURE 
during whose reign in the late 1970s almost 2 million people 

died. A few years after the Dutch ceded power in Indonesia, a 

dictator took control in a coup and ruled for 32 years before 

resigning in 1998. Similarly, a military junta wielding absolute 

power has ruled Burma since 1962. Since the 1990s, 

Southeast Asia has largely enjoyed renewed stability. Both 

Thailand and Malaysia now have an affluent, educated middle 

class; Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam are well on the road to 

recovery from decades of conflict; and even Burma has 

recently held elections and initiated reform to a civilian 

democracy.

2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

Differences in the physical 

environment affected the 

social and political structures 

that historically developed in 

Southeast Asia. Where 

people were nomadic or 

semi-nomadic, systems of 

government were less permanent and bureaucratic. In areas 

where populations were more settled, a reliable tax base 

allowed the development of more elaborate and permanent 

governing structures. These early states, though, often found it 

difficult to extend their authority into the remote highlands, 

where small tribal groups resided, and the islands, where some 

groups lived permanently in water communities of small boats. 

Significant changes occurred in Southeast Asia around 2000 

years ago as peoples from China and India began to move into 

the region (see History and Myth). New leaders formed new 

empires and states, and spiritual beliefs and practices changed 

as religious leaders introduced new religious traditions (see 

Religion and Spirituality). 

Many colonial-era governments, fearing the threat that an 

educated class might hold, largely denied education and civil 

liberties to most Southeast Asians and discouraged political 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
activities. Political participation swelled around the time of 

independence, although many post-independence political 

structures in the region were dictatorial and repressive. While 

most countries are healing from their 20th century conflicts, 

many governments continue to reflect authoritarian elements. 

Elites across the region continue to seek to control access to 

the political system. They are typically from the country’s 

dominant class, which is often comprised of members of a 

particular ethnic group. 

Some countries, such as Vietnam and Cambodia, are 

somewhat ethnically homogenous, while others, such as the 

Philippines and Indonesia, are much more diverse. Many 

countries also have minority communities of ethnic Chinese 

and Indians. So-called hill tribes, minority groups with distinct 

ethnic and linguistic identities, are found in Burma, Laos, 

Thailand, Vietnam, and the Philippines.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), formed 

in 1967, is a regional intergovernmental organization whose 

goal is to promote economic and political cooperation among 

its members, including the creation of a free trade community 

by 2015. ASEAN priorities include fostering economic and 

diplomatic relations with India and China, which have been 

strained due to longtime territorial disputes in the region. The 

European Union has a strong relationship with the organization 

and has taken steps to deepen trade and business links. The 

US also has close political, 

security, and economic 

relations with most of the 

member states. 

The relationship between 

Japan and the countries of 

Southeast Asia has 

improved significantly since 

World War II, and Japan is 

a crucial economic and aid 

partner today. 

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

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CULTURE 
preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. 

The earliest populations of Southeast Asia were animists, 

which means they believed that many different spirits inhabited 

elements in the natural environment, such as trees and rocks, 

or were represented in natural phenomena, such as thunder 

and lightning, or represented deceased ancestors. In many 

areas today, these traditional beliefs are still very important, 

and many Southeast Asians incorporate them in their practice 

of Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity.

Indian traders and priests first brought Hinduism to Southeast 

Asia in the 1st century AD, where it eventually became the 

dominant religion in several kingdoms. In the 14th century the 

influence of Hinduism began to wane as people turned to 

Islam. Today, although there remain only small communities of 

Hindus in Indonesia, the Hindu principles of absolutism and 

hierarchy remain significant in politics across the region. 

Indian merchants also brought Buddhism to Southeast Asia 

beginning in the 1st century AD where it became well 

established in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, 

and Malaysia. Later, Chinese immigrants introduced Buddhism 

to Vietnam and Singapore. Many Southeast Asian mainlanders 

are Buddhist today, 

although their beliefs and 

practices may also include 

some animist and Hindu 

traditions. 

Chinese people spread the 

teachings of Confucius 

primarily in what is today 

Vietnam and Singapore. 

These teachings embody a complex belief system emphasizing 

stability, consensus, hierarchy, and authority that still 

influences ideas of social harmony across the region.

Islam reached Southeast Asia beginning in the 10th century 

through Muslim traders from the Middle East, China, and India, 

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CULTURE 
with a large number of Southeast Asians converting to Islam 

beginning in the 14th century to escape the Hindu caste 

system. The largest population of Muslims in the world, 

approximately 234 million, lives in Indonesia today. Muslim 

minority communities in Thailand and the Philippines have 

historically suffered economic and political marginalization.

Christianity was introduced to the region by European 

colonizers beginning in the 16th century. Today, although parts 

of Indonesia have Christian communities, the Philippines is the 

only predominantly Christian country in Southeast Asia.

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called 

“fictive kin”).

Family life is very important 

to Southeast Asians and 

relationships among family 

members are highly valued. 

As in the US, kinship is 

generally traced through both 

parents. Children are 

generally very respectful of their parents, and parents are 

devoted to their children, making economic or other sacrifices 

as a matter of course to ensure their well-being. 

Traditionally, close proximity of kin was a valuable resource in 

Southeast Asia’s agriculturally-based villages. Families were 

large and close-knit as individual members supported each 

other economically and socially and the rhythms of family and 

village life mirrored those of the agricultural cycle.

Family life in Southeast Asia has changed in recent decades as 

societies have become more economically and socially diverse 

due to industrialization and urbanization. Today, a much wider 

variety of occupations is open to both men and women, and the 

middle class is growing in cities across the region. Women 

have fewer children today than they did 3 decades ago, and 

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CULTURE 
many households in the cities no longer contain 3 or 4 

generations of extended family but are mostly nuclear families.

Many Southeast Asian countries that have large rural 

hinterlands, such as Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand, 

also have large metropolises, such as Jakarta, Manila, and 

Bangkok. In these sorts of countries, there is a sharp ruralurban divide in economic and educational opportunities that 

results in stark differences in rural and urban family life. In rural 

villages, extended families may remain intact whose activities 

revolve around agricultural production, while in urban centers 

the household is usually much smaller and family structures 

are much more diverse.

Although arranged marriages are much less common today, 

most Southeast Asians depend on their family’s input when 

choosing a marriage partner. The ages of both the bride and 

groom have increased as young people postpone marriage to 

pursue economic and educational opportunities, and divorce 

rates have risen in recent decades. Of note, in Indonesia and 

Malaysia Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny, or have 

more than one wife, if they can afford to support them all. For 

these Southeast Asians, matrimony and divorce are under the 

jurisdiction of Islamic law.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive 

differences between males and 

females, while gender is a more flexible 

concept that refers to a culture’s 

categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

Southeast Asia’s dominant philosophies 

and religions (Confucianism, Daoism, 

Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity) 

privilege the male’s role as provider and 

stress female subordination. Despite most countries’ 

commitment to gender equality, women across Southeast Asia 

may find participation in the business and political spheres 

difficult, and in some countries there is still a marked 

preference for sons over daughters.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
Despite these challenges, there is widespread acceptance of 

women in the workplace, though women usually receive less 

pay than men. Industrialization has provided new opportunities 

for women, and many Southeast Asian women continue to 

work beyond marriage and children. Hundreds of thousands of 

Southeast Asian women even relocate to other countries to 

work as nurses and domestic workers. 

Within the agricultural sector, women produce about 50% of 

food in the region and represent a significant share of the 

agricultural labor force. They are particularly involved in 

harvesting rice, tea production, and working on rubber and fruit 

plantations. Women generally have access to education and 

training, and in Thailand and the Philippines there are actually 

more post-secondary female graduates than males.

Opinion on sexual orientation and gender identity is most 

liberal in the Philippines, where homosexuality is legal and 

there have been attempts to pass anti-discrimination legislation 

to protect sexual minorities. But in many parts of Southeast 

Asia homosexuals suffer discrimination and stigmatization. 

Malaysia criminalizes homosexuality and cross-dressing, and 

in Indonesia transgender individuals are often the victims of 

violence and exploitation.

6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural 

practice of sharing 

meaning in interaction, 

both verbally and nonverbally.

Southeast Asia is 

linguistically very 

diverse; of the 

approximately 6000 

languages spoken in the 

world today, about 1000 of them are found in Southeast Asia. 

Many of the ancient indigenous languages that were present in 

the region have become extinct as a result of war, cultural and 

economic domination, and small population size.

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CULTURE 
The languages of mainland Southeast Asia belong to 3 groups:

Austro-Asiatic (such as Cambodian and Vietnamese), Tai 

(such as Thai and Lao), and Tibeto-Burmese (including 

highland languages and Burmese). Languages that belong to 

these 3 groups are also found in India and China. Conversely, 

most of the languages spoken on the islands of Southeast Asia 

belong to the Austronesian family, a group of languages 

originating from southern China and Taiwan.

The colonial powers that controlled Southeast Asia until the 

20th century primarily promoted and used their own languages

including French, Dutch, English, and Spanish. Since 

independence, several states have named one local linguistic 

variety as the “standard,” such as Bahasa Indonesian and 

Bangkok Thai, and promoted its use over both European and 

other local languages. Recently, after years of aggressively 

promoting their national languages, many Southeast Asian 

countries have re-introduced English as a language of 

instruction in school and 

allowed ethnic Chinese 

and Indians to attend 

school in their own 

languages. 

Ancient Southeast 

Asians developed their 

own writing systems 

based on scripts from 

India and China. Today, 

Vietnamese, Malaysian, Indonesian, and Filipino, like English 

and most western European languages, use the Latin alphabet, 

while Burmese, Laotian, Thai, and Cambodian use writing 

systems derived from ancient Indian scripts.

Southeast Asians are rarely confrontational or highly 

demonstrative and emotional in their communication. They 

value respect as a key component in maintaining social 

harmony, and conveying respect is a significant aspect of both 

verbal and non-verbal communication. For example, proper 

greetings, such as pressing the palms together and slightly 

bowing as is common in Thailand, are extremely important 

across Southeast Asia.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as schools or through informal 

learning by watching adults or peers. 

Throughout their history, the cultures of Southeast Asia have 

willingly borrowed and adapted ideas, practices, and 

institutions from beyond the region. This willingness is evident 

in the history of education. Prior to colonization, both Hindu and 

Muslim traders and migrants from India and beyond brought 

their own traditions of education to the region, and local 

Southeast Asian communities adopted these curricula and 

educational methods to 

their needs. 

Later, during the colonial 

period, the European 

powers were largely 

uninterested in providing 

education to Southeast 

Asians because they 

viewed them principally as 

agricultural laborers. If the 

colonial powers did provide educational opportunities, they 

were largely confined to members of privileged groups. 

Still later, as populations across the region began to resist 

colonization, the lack of educational opportunities became a 

topic around which to rally. In many countries, local activists 

adopted western educational methods but also drew on local 

traditions to devise new educational opportunities through 

which they articulated their arguments for independence.

Today, education in Southeast Asia is viewed as both a tool for 

developing the region and as a human right. Consequently, in

most countries education is open to every citizen regardless of 

race, ethnicity, religion, or socio-economic background. Rapidly 

growing populations challenge most national governments in 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
their goals of providing 12 years of basic education to all, often 

forcing a sacrifice in the quality of services. Students in both 

urban and rural areas often suffer from a lack of adequate 

classrooms, teachers, and good text books, although primary 

school enrollment averages an excellent 93% in the region.

8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In most western 

cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. 

Conversely, in most Southeast Asian cultures establishing and 

maintaining relationships within the group can take precedence 

over accomplishing a task in the most efficient manner. 

Southeast Asians’ emphasis on the well-being of the group and 

maintaining social 

harmony often 

means people will 

deliberately avoid 

embarrassment of 

themselves and 

others, a strategy 

often referred to 

as “saving face.” 

Many Southeast 

Asians try to 

manage their time 

efficiently while still showing respect to their co-workers and 

maintaining “face.”

Time is maximized by multi-tasking, and engagements usually 

start when scheduled. Networking is very important in 

Southeast Asia, and new contacts are often best made through 

a high status third party who knows both parties well. Only after 

the establishment of a good rapport can business negotiations 

proceed. 

Public and private spaces often overlap in a way that is 

unfamiliar to Americans. Shop owners may also live at their

place of business, so entering into a public space can also 

mean entry into an individual’s private space. Consequently,

customers and clients should always show proper respect. 

GE

CULTURE 

NERAL
9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most of Southeast Asia’s forms of creative expression, 

such as art, architecture, dance, music, and theater, reflect the 

diversity of cultures and ethnicities of the region as well as the 

influence of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. Ancient and 

elaborate Hindu temples and highly symbolic statues of 

Buddha are found in many countries. Similarly, across 

Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, Islamic art and 

architecture intermingle with examples of Hindu and local 

animist traditions.

Traditional classical 

dance and theater 

are enjoying a 

revival after some 

forms came close to 

extinction during the 

wars and conflicts of the 20th century. These traditions trace 

back to the ancient kingdoms of the region and often include 

dancers dressed in elaborate masks and costumes. Ancient 

forms of shadow-puppet theater, in which paper puppets are 

manipulated against a lighted backdrop, are also popular in 

several countries.

Combat sports of Asian and Western origins are popular in 

Southeast Asia today. With the end of the colonial-era ban on 

martial arts, indigenous forms such as Pentjak Silat and 

Bersilat combined with other Asian forms to make up Muay 

Thai, Pencak Silat and Kali, the main components of today’s 

Mixed Martial Art fighting. 

The Southeast Asian Games are an important regional sporting 

event. These biennial games bring together over 4,000 athletes 

for 11 days of competition in the Olympic sports and promote

regional cooperation and understanding.

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

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CULTURE 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

As expected from Southeast Asia’s location on the water, more 

fish is consumed than any other form of animal protein. Rice, a 

grain that has been cultivated in the region for thousands of 

years, is the primary food staple. Everyday meals are typically 

simple, consisting of chopped pieces of meat and vegetables 

that are fried or steamed and served with rice, often 

accompanied by spicy chili condiments. Influences from India 

and China are obvious in popular dishes such as spicy curries 

and rice noodle soups. Members of Muslim communities in 

Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines typically do not eat 

pork or drink alcohol. 

Malaria, HIV/AIDS, and the lack of clean drinking water are the 

main health concerns in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 

15% of worldwide cases coming from the region, malaria is a 

major problem. The HIV/AIDS epidemic was delayed in 

reaching Southeast Asia 

but turned into a major 

cause of death 

throughout the 1980s 

and 1990s. Since then, 

due to successful HIV 

prevention programs 

including those aimed at 

sex workers and their 

clients, transmission 

rates have steadily declined, and recent HIV/AIDS incidence 

rates have been similar to those of the US. Access to clean 

water has increased in most regions but in Cambodia and Laos 

half of the population still lacks access to clean drinking water. 

All countries are faced with the rise of non-communicable 

diseases among their aging populations, and most face the 

threat of emerging infectious diseases, such as the avian flu. 

The countries of Southeast Asia confront many challenges in 

providing health care for their growing populations. Rapid but 

unequal socioeconomic development has resulted in significant 

disparities in health and access to healthcare. Despite these 

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CULTURE 
challenges, most countries have experienced a continual 

increase in life expectancy since the 1950s.

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Most Southeast Asian communities practiced wet-rice 

and slash-and-burn agriculture for centuries before the arrival 

of Europeans in the 16th century. In addition, Southeast Asia’s 

geographical location between China and India as well as its 

position on navigable waterways which connect the West and 

Middle East with Asia and Australia made the area an 

important center of trade well before European presence.

With European expansion into the area came the introduction 

of plantations and the mechanization of agriculture as well as 

the entry of the region into the global marketplace. Worldwide 

demand for rice increased dramatically in the 19th century, 

further changing the agricultural landscape of the region. 

Today, all 3 agriculture types – wet-rice, slash-and-burn, and 

plantation – are still practiced in the region and all have caused 

serious ecological damage such as massive deforestation and 

an increase in the production of greenhouse gases. 

Beginning in the 20th century the region experienced a 

dramatic industrialization process with growth rates exceeding 

even those of developed 

nations. Explosive growth 

in exports such as textiles, 

electronics, auto parts, 

and petroleum lead to 

double-digit economic 

growth, greatly increasing

local GDPs. Though 

roughly 1/3 of the 

population currently lives 

below the poverty line, 

regional economies have grown and now supply both skilled 

and semi-skilled workers to other countries.

The 2008 global financial crisis caused damage to the 

economies of Southeast Asia. While the financial sector did not 

engage in high-risk lending practices, there was a severe drop 

GENERAL

CULTURE 
in exports due to a global reduction in spending from which the 

countries are still recovering. 

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. After the colonial period, the countries of Southeast 

Asia have expanded at different rates and currently experience 

varied levels of economic development. Their places in the 

global market range from 

Singapore, which has the 

third-highest GDP worldwide, to Burma and 

Cambodia which are 

ranked among the poorest 

countries in the world.

Prior to colonial rule, the 

region’s inhabitants were 

expert farmers, having adopted domesticated rice from India

and China and developed complex rice-farming techniques, or 

mariners who traded across the region. European colonists 

brought additional skills in metalworking, agriculture, sailing, 

and navigation. The introduction of commercial agriculture, 

mining, and an export-based economy during the colonial 

period placed Southeast Asia on its current technological path.

Southeast Asian nations are generally open to trade and 

investment, having transformed from inward-looking economies 

dominated by agriculture to outward-looking, market-oriented 

economies in just a few years. As China’s “backyard,” 

Southeast Asia is often seen as the site of economic 

competition between China and the US and between India and 

Japan. Despite lingering mistrust of China because of several 

unresolved maritime territorial disputes, some Southeast Asian 

nations welcome China’s investment in infrastructure, energy, 

agriculture, and mining. About 15% of Southeast Asia’s total

trade is conducted with China. By comparison, about 12% of 

Southeast Asia’s trade is conducted with the US.

Now that we have introduced general concepts that 

characterize Southeast Asian society at large, we will focus on 

specific features of Thai society.

GENERAL

CULTURE 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

As the only nation in Southeast Asia to avoid direct European 

colonization, the Kingdom of Thailand (known as Siam for much 

of its history) traces its founding to 1238 and its present 

monarchy to 1782. Since converting from an absolute to a 

constitutional monarchy in 1932, Thailand has experienced a 

series of coups and military dictatorships interspersed with

periods of democratic governance. 

Prehistoric Thailand

Scientists believe humans have lived in the territory of modernday Thailand for at least 40,000 years. Archaeological evidence 

at Ban Chiang in northeast Thailand suggests that by 2000 BC 

inhabitants engaged in wet-rice agriculture, animal 

domestication, bronze metalwork, and ceramics manufacture.

Early History

The Mon and Khmer ethnic groups were early settlers in the 

region. In the first millennium AD, the ancestors of the modern 

Thai people, called the Tai, gradually 

migrated from southern China through 

Vietnam and Laos into Thailand. 

Between the 6th and 9th centuries, a Mon 

civilization called Dvaravati dominated 

Thailand’s central plains as Indian culture 

and religion arrived through trade routes 

(see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality). 

From the 9th- 13th centuries, the Khmer 

Kingdom expanded from its capital at Angkor, Cambodia into 

much of present-day Thailand. Greatly influenced by the 

Khmer’s Hindu- and Buddhist-based ceremonies, dance, and 

literature, Tai people formed several small city-states within the 

Khmer Kingdom by the 12th century (Photo: 10th century Khmer 

sculpture).

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

Sukhothai Period

Thailand’s founding, in 1238, occurred when Tai leaders 

declared independence from the Khmer, establishing the first 

Tai-speaking kingdom at Sukhothai in central Thailand. To 

distinguish themselves from other Tai groups still under foreign 

rule, these people called themselves Thai, meaning “free.” Of 

note, Sukhothai King Ramkhamhaeng, The Great, developed a 

writing system that became the basis of the modern Thai 

alphabet (see p. 1 of Language and Communication). 

Meanwhile, in the northern part of Thailand, the Tai Kingdom of 

Lanna with its capital at Chiang Mai became an independent 

city-state in 1296. 

Thai concepts of monarchy have their origins in Sukhothai, 

founded in the early part of the 13th century and generally 

regarded as the first truly independent Thai kingdom. Here, 

particularly under the reign of King Ramkhamhaeng the Great 

(1275-1317), was born the ideal of a paternalistic ruler alert to 

the needs of his people and aware of the fact that his duty was 

to guide them, a view markedly different from the divine kingship 

practiced by the Khmers. 

The paternalistic ideal was at times lost during the long 

Ayutthaya period, when Khmer influence regarding kingship 

reappeared and the monarch became a lofty, inaccessible 

figure, rarely seen by most citizens. Nevertheless, the 4-century 

era witnessed the reigns of some remarkable rulers whose 

achievements were far reaching.

Ayutthaya Period

Founded in 1350, the Kingdom of Ayutthaya expanded in 

subsequent decades, capturing Angkor, Cambodia in 1431 and 

absorbing the Kingdom of Sukhothai in 1438. The Kingdom of 

Ayutthaya adopted many aspects 

of the Khmer’s Hindu-influenced 

culture, including the idea that the 

ruler is divine (Photo: Ruins of a 

Buddhist temple at Ayutthaya). 

At its greatest extent, the Kingdom 

of Ayutthaya covered most of 

present-day Thailand plus parts of Cambodia, Laos, and Burma. 

Aspects of Ayutthaya culture had long-lasting impact. In 1360,
HISTORY &

MYTH

the king declared Theravada Buddhism the official religion (see 

p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality). In addition, he combined Hindu 

texts and Thai customs to produce legal codes that remained in 

effect through the late 19th century. 

The Kingdom exchanged diplomats and benefitted from strong 

commercial ties with many European and Asian countries –

including England, France, the Netherlands, India, Japan, and 

China – in the 16th and 17th centuries. Anti-European feelings 

arose in the late 17th century due to 2 reasons: the growing 

presence of French Christian missionaries (see p. 7 of Religion 

and Spirituality) and the appearance of European warships off 

the Kingdom’s coast. The Kingdom expelled the French in 1688 

and strictly limited contact with other Western nations for the 

next 150 years.

Fall of Ayutthaya: Beginning in the 16th century, the Kingdom

experienced repeated conflicts with neighboring Burma. After 

repeated attempts, Burmese forces invaded in 1765 and lay 

siege to Ayutthaya. In 1767, the Burmese 

sacked and burned the city, leaving it in 

ruins and taking thousands of prisoners.

Thonburi Period

Two years later, a Chinese-Thai general 

later known as Taksin the Great

(pictured) engaged and defeated the 

Burmese, in the process re-establishing 

Thai control of the region. After promoting 

himself king, Taksin established his 

capital at Thonburi, across the river from 

Bangkok. Although Taksin enjoyed

diplomatic relations with many countries, he especially 

encouraged Chinese merchants and craftsmen to settle in the 

new capital. While Taksin successfully extended the each of 

Thai control to Lanna, Cambodia, and much of Laos, his

increasingly erratic behavior disturbed his followers. In 1782, 

General Chao Phraya Chakri led a group of followers in Taksin’s

overthrow. 

The Rise of Modern Thailand

General Chakri took the throne in 1782, becoming King Rama I 

and establishing the monarchy that endures today. As a first act, 
HISTORY &

MYTH

he moved his court to Bangkok. Later, he worked to expand his 

kingdom in addition to reestablishing court rituals and issuing

legal codes. Rama I took a particular interest in reinvigorating 

Buddhism. To this end, he modified the 

Buddhist monastery system and constructed 

Bangkok’s famed Temple of the Emerald 

Buddha (see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality).

While Chakri’s successors pursued 

diplomatic and trade relations with several 

countries, historians credit the actions of 

Mongkut or King Rama IV (reigned 1851-

1868) (pictured previous page) as having the 

greatest impact on Thailand’s historical trajectory. Through 

successful treaty negotiations, Rama IV avoided colonization by 

a Western country while embracing many new ideas and 

innovations that spurred Thailand’s modernization. 

Basis of Modern Thailand

Modernization continued when Chulalongkorn or King Rama V 

(reigned 1869-1910) (pictured) implemented significant reforms. 

These included the abolishment of slavery and the system of 

forced labor; the introduction of a conscription-based army; the 

centralization of the state administration; and the establishment 

of courts of law. Forced by Britain and France to renounce its 

claims in Cambodia, Burma, Laos, and Malaysia, the Kingdom

managed to retain its independence during 

this period by acting as buffer between the 

British and French colonies on either side.

King Rama VI (reigned 1910-1925) 

supported educational reforms and 

opened Thailand’s first university (see p. 1

of Learning and Knowledge). To integrate 

the Kingdom’s Chinese population, Rama 

VI identified a standard Thai dialect (see p. 

1 of Language and Communication) that all students were 

required to read, write, and speak. A number of Thai resented

the Chinese residents because they dominated government 

positions and the rice trade. To promote unity, Rama VI pursued 

policies intended to inculcate loyalty to nation, religion 

(Buddhism), and king among all of Thailand’s residents. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Shift to Constitutional Rule

Economic hardships during the 1930s fueled popular discontent 

with the monarchy. Meanwhile, a rising middle class grew 

frustrated with its exclusion from political decision-making. In 

1932, Western-oriented, nationalist government officials and 

army officers led a coup against King Rama VII that ended the 

absolute monarchy. Agreeing to transfer power to a constitutionbased system of government, Rama VII signed Thailand’s first 

constitution.

Since 1932, kings of Thailand have exercised their constitutional 

legislative powers through a bicameral National Assembly, 

which currently comprises a House of Representatives elected 

by popular vote and a senate, with one half elected and the other 

half appointed through the constitutional process. Thai kings 

exercise executive powers through the cabinet headed by a 

prime minister, and judicial powers 

through the law courts.

The First Military Dictatorship

Six years later, democracy had not yet

taken root, and the military was 

becoming more politically assertive. In 

1938, Army Field Marshal 

Phibunsongkhram (known as “Phibun”

– pictured) took control as a military 

dictator, a position he would hold 

through most of World War II. 

A staunch nationalist, Phibun pursued 

an anti-Chinese, pro-Japanese 

agenda. His government heavily taxed 

Chinese-owned businesses while 

subsidizing Thai-owned ones. While strengthening relations with 

Japan, Phibun attempted to reclaim territory in Laos and 

Cambodia that Thailand had earlier ceded to France.

World War II

In December 1941, shortly before Japan’s attack on Pearl 

Harbor, Japanese forces landed on the isthmus connecting

Thailand and the Malay Peninsula. Seeking passage across 

Thai territory in order to attack the British in Malaya and Burma, 

the Japanese engaged Thai troops. Having few other options, 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Thailand surrendered. Encouraged by a string of Japanese 

victories against the US and its allies in the following months, 

Phibun signed a mutual defense pact with Japan. Although 

Thailand declared war on the US and Britain in early 1942, the 

Thai ambassador in Washington never delivered the declaration. 

Consequently, the US did not declare war on Thailand. Instead, 

the US supported a “Free Thai” movement by training Thai for 

anti-Japanese underground 

activities. 

During the war, Japan 

stationed some 150,000 troops 

in Thailand. Among other 

activities, the Japanese built 

the so-called “death railway” to 

Burma across the River Kwai 

(pictured) using Allied 

prisoners of war. Thai public opinion eventually turned against 

the Japanese, forcing Phibun to resign his office in 1944, a full 

year before Japan surrendered and World War II officially ended.

Immediate Postwar Years

Thailand’s initial postwar years were tumultuous. In 1946, 

Thailand’s teenaged king died under unclear circumstances. 

Political opponents then hampered the newly-elected civilian 

Prime Minister (PM) in the ensuing investigation. In 1947, the 

military toppled the civilian government, setting the stage for 

Phibun’s return as PM in 1948.

Military Rule & Anti-Communism

Because China had come under communist control, Phibun’s

anti-Chinese stance shifted to include anti-communism. To 

prevent a feared communist insurgency in Thailand, Phibun 

(pictured) took several steps. First, he aligned his government 

closely with the US, receiving in return substantial economic and 

military aid that fueled the military’s rapid growth. In addition, he 

provided troops to support United Nations (UN) forces fighting

the North Korean communist regime during the Korean War. 

Internally, he closely monitored and even restrained Chinese 

residents in Thailand. 

Phibun’s term ended abruptly in 1957 when Field Marshall Sarit 

Dhanaraj deposed him in a coup. Despite brief periods of civilian 
HISTORY &

MYTH

leadership, the military effectively retained control of the country

through 1973. During this time, Thailand’s foreign policy focused

on anti-communism. Thailand provided US forces a staging area 

for the war in Vietnam, where more than 11,000 Thai troops 

served by 1969. Because of this support, Thailand received 

huge revenues from the US that enabled economic development 

but also contributed to the growth of corruption. While the 

government laid plans for transition to a popularly-elected 

government in the early 1970s, popular discontent, particularly 

among impoverished groups, grew. 

Demonstrations against Military Rule

Three issues fueled demonstrations in 1973: the public’s 

dissatisfaction with the government, a fear that the monarchy 

was vulnerable to being overthrown, and growing antiAmericanism. In October 1973, some 250,000 people gathered 

in Bangkok, prompting government forces to fire on them, killing 

75. The king stepped in, forcing government leaders to resign or 

go into exile. Despite this move, the subsequent period of 

parliamentary democracy was brief. Following elections, 2 

separate coalition governments were unable to stabilize the 

situation. 

In October 1976, security forces again violently suppressed 

demonstrations, killing hundreds of students and arresting many 

more. With communist governments ruling Laos, Cambodia, and 

Vietnam, there was fear of communism’s spread to Thailand. 

The military stepped in again, 

suspending the constitution, 

banning political parties, and 

declaring martial law (Photo: 

Bangkok’s Democracy 

Monument, site of the protests). 

A Cycle of Coups

The 1976 coup polarized the 

country, causing many opposition members to join insurgencies 

and the Communist Party of Thailand. In response, the new 

government became even more repressive, supporting strict 

censorship, tightly controlling the labor unions, and purging 

suspected communists from the civil service and the educational 

system.
HISTORY &

MYTH

The new government, led by Prime Minister Thanin Kraivichien, 

a strident anticommunist (pictured), was more repressive in 

many ways than the earlier military regimes. Strict censorship 

continued, and the regime tightly controlled labor unions and 

purged suspected communists from the civil service and 

educational institutions. As a result, many students joined the 

communist insurgency. Thanin was replaced in 1977 by General 

Kriangsak Chomanand. He promulgated a new constitution in 

December 1978 with a popularly elected 

House of Representatives and an 

appointed Senate, but the military 

controlled cabinet and Senate 

appointments. Economic instability, 

however, brought down the Kriangsak 

government in March 1980.

Despite these measures, political stability 

remained elusive. The monarchy 

mediated a power-sharing agreement 

between the military and parliament in 

1980, yet the cycle of coup/reform/new 

elections kept repeating. The government 

quelled most dissent in the 1980s by granting amnesty to all 

communist insurgents. Nevertheless, students and democratic 

activists continued to protest the government’s authoritarian 

actions. In 1991, Thailand saw its 17th coup since 1932.

Multiparty Democracy

While demonstrations and repression again followed the 1991 

coup, the 1992 elections signaled the beginning of Thailand’s 

most democratic period. With no party winning the simple 

majority in the 1992, 1995, and 1996 elections, majority parties 

formed successful coalitions. By 1996, for the first time in 

Thailand’s history, more Senators were civilians than military 

members. In 1997, Thailand published a new constitution.

Financial Turmoil: A major Asian financial crisis in 1997 caused

the sudden devaluation of the Thai currency (the baht – see p. 

1 of Economics and Resources). Despite the economy’s failure

to rebound quickly, Thailand retained its democratic process as 

power transferred between civilian leaders without the military’s 

interference. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Thaksin Shinawatra

In the 2001 election, Thaksin Shinawatra’s (known as “Thaksin”) 

Thai Rak Thai (TRT) party took power as leader of a coalition. A 

Chinese-Thai from the North, Thaksin (pictured) was a multimillionaire entrepreneur who cultivated influence in Thailand’s 

business world, not with the military and 

monarchy. In addition, his focus on 

providing affordable healthcare to 

Thailand’s rural poor provided him broadbased support. As PM, Thaksin launched 

an intensive anti-drug campaign and 

stepped up the fight against terrorist 

violence. When Islamic militants in the 

Malay Muslim South carried out 

coordinated attacks on police bases in 

2004, Thaksin ordered the use of military 

force to suppress the insurgency (see p. 9 of Political and Social 

Relations). The strategy exacerbated the conflict and intensified 

the violence, influencing Thailand’s royal family and key military 

figures to criticize its effectiveness.

Anti-Thaksin “Yellow Shirts”

In 2005, the TRT increased its dominance, winning 75% of the 

vote and forming a single-party government for the first time in 

Thailand’s history. In Thaksin’s 2nd term as PM, evidence of 

corruption emerged. Protestors nicknamed “Yellow Shirts” (see 

p. 6 of Political and Social Relations) called for Thaksin’s 

resignation. Since he no longer held the loyalty of many military 

leaders, Thaksin was not able to order the military to suppress 

the demonstrations. Instead, he called for a snap election which 

the opposition parties boycotted, resulting in the Supreme Court 

invalidating the results. While Thaksin was at the UN in New 

York in 2007, the military staged another coup, suspended the 

1997 constitution, and set up a military-controlled regime. These 

events signaled the end of Thailand’s longest democratic period. 

Although initially welcomed in Bangkok, the coup leaders

declined in popularity after violence with Islamic separatists in 

the South flared and progress toward a new constitution was 

slow. In a clear rejection of the coup, voters gave their support 

to a restoration of Thaksin’s banned TRT in December 2007 

elections. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Democracy was restored, yet Yellow Shirts began 

demonstrating again in mid-2008, claiming the new PM was a 

puppet for the exiled Thaksin. Consequently, the parliament 

elected a different PM, Thaksin’s brother-in-law. Despite this 

change, protests continued and gradually became increasingly 

violent. When the PM rejected the army’s call for new elections, 

the Constitutional Court removed the new PM from office. In just 

over 2 years, Thailand had 5 PMs.

Pro-Thaksin “Red Shirts”

Thaksin’s supporters, the “Red Shirts” (see p. 6 of Political and 

Social Relations), periodically held demonstrations through 

2009. In early 2010 the Supreme Court stripped Thaksin’s family 

of half its wealth, stating he had acquired it illegally while in 

office. Objecting to these and other judicial acts they deemed 

undemocratic, Red Shirts paralyzed Bangkok with protests. The 

subsequent military crackdown resulted in the deaths of nearly 

100 Red Shirts. In mid-2011 elections, the Phak Puea Thai party 

headed by Yingluck Shinawatra, Thaksin’s sister, won a 

landslide victory. As the 1st female PM, Yingluck was popular 

among rural people, although

many Thai saw her as her 

brother’s puppet.

Thailand’s Latest Coup

In late 2012, Yellow Shirts called 

for Yingluck’s ouster. The 

situation escalated in 2013 when 

Yingluck’s government attempted 

to pass a bill granting amnesty to Thaksin. Some 200,000 people 

gathered in Bangkok to demonstrate against Yingluck and 

Thaksin. Yingluck dissolved parliament and called for new 

elections in February 2014. After the election was disrupted, the 

courts ruled the results invalid. Before the rescheduled elections 

could take place, the Constitutional Court in early May ordered 

Yingluck to leave office and appointed an acting PM. On May 

20, Army General Prayuth Chan-ocha (“Prayuth”) declared 

martial law. Two days later the military staged a bloodless coup, 

suspending the constitution and naming Prayuth head of a 

military council to lead the country (see p. 3-4 of Political and 

Social Relations) (Photo: Prayuth receives the US Legion of 

Merit from US Army General Odierno in 2013).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Myth Overview

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and the 

natural world. Myths are important because they provide a sense 

of unique heritage and identity. In Thailand, myths are used to 

convey moral lessons based on Buddhist teachings or tell of the 

gods’ participation in historical events. Yet others use animals to 

represent desirable human characteristics.

Myths of Himapan Forest and Rajasiha the Mighty 

Popular in Thai mythology is the legend of Himapan Forest, a 

fictitious woodland in the Himalayas believed to exist below the 

mythical Buddhist heaven invisible to mortals. The fabled forest 

is home to a great number of mythical beasts that represent

exemplary Thai traits. Some of these creatures are half human 

and beast; others a pairing of dissimilar animals.

There are also a variety of stories in classical Buddhist 

mythology pertaining to Rajasiha, a mighty lion living in India’s 

Himalayan jungle. The Thai adapted this customary Indian 

legend to their own cultural traditions. As a symbol of authority 

and power, the Rajasiha is depicted on the emblem of the Thai 

Ministry of Interior – the overseer of the central provisional 

government. During the coronation of Ayutthayian kings, a lion’s 

skin was used for the king to sit on as a symbol of royal authority 

and might. 

King Rama IX

Bhumibol Adulyadej (“Strength of the Land, 

Incomparable Power”), grandson of Chulalongkorn, 

King Rama V, was born in 1927 in Massachusetts while

his father was attending Harvard University. After 

spending World War II in Switzerland, Bhumibol took the 

throne as King Rama IX in 1946 and reigned until his 

death in October 2016. Although it was 1951 before he

permanently returned to Bangkok to assume his duties, 

he quickly became a beloved figure and is the world’s 

longest-serving head-of-state.
Official Name

Kingdom of Thailand

Ratcha Anachak Thai

ราชอาณาจักรไทย (Thai)

Political Borders

Cambodia: 499 mi

Laos: 1,090 mi

Burma: 1,118 mi

Malaysia: 314 mi

Coastline 2,000 mi

Capital

Bangkok

Demographics

Experts estimate Thailand’s 

population at about 68 million,

making it the world’s 21st most 

populous country. Thailand’s 

annual population growth has 

slowed significantly in recent years, reaching its present rate of 

just 0.32% per year. This low growth trend is due to several 

factors including dramatically decreased fertility rates due to

successful family planning programs (see p. 3 of Sex and 

Gender) and the effects of an HIV/AIDS epidemic lasting over 2 

decades (see p. 6 of Sustenance and Health). Approximately

50% of the population lives in urban areas.

Flag

Officially adopted in 1917, the 

Thai flag consists of 5 

horizontal red, white, and blue 

stripes. Red represents the

nation and the blood of life. 

White symbolizes Buddhism, 

Thailand’s predominant religion

(see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality). The double-width center

blue band symbolizes Thailand’s monarchy. 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

With most of its territory in the middle of mainland Southeast 

Asia, Thailand also extends down the Malay Peninsula on the 

Isthmus of Kra. Thailand shares a border with Laos to the 

Northeast and East, Cambodia to the Southeast, Malaysia to the 

South, and Burma to the West and Northwest. The southern

coast of Thailand faces the Gulf of Thailand, while the Isthmus 

of Kra is bordered on the East by the Gulf of Thailand and on the 

West by the Andaman Sea. Several small islands in the Gulf and 

Andaman also belong to Thailand, including Phuket, a wellknown tourist destination. Thailand’s total land area is about 

198,000 sq mi – slightly smaller than Texas (Photo: Mu Ko Ang 

Thong National Park in the Gulf 

of Thailand).

Thailand has 4 main 

geographical regions with 

distinct topographical features. 

While the upland Khorat Plateau

dominates the Northeast, steep,

forested mountains characterize

the continental highlands of the 

Northwest. Here, Thailand’s highest peak, Doi Inthanon, rises 

8,415 ft. Known as Thailand’s “rice bowl,” the central plains of 

the Chao Phraya River basin are home to several cities, 

including Bangkok, Samut Prakan, and Nonthaburi. The 

southern Isthmus of Kra comprises low hills covered in dense 

rainforests.

Climate

Thailand’s tropical climate has 3 distinct seasons: a rainy season 

characterized by southwest monsoons (June through midNovember), a dry and cool season (November through 

February), and a hot season (March through May). The Gulf of 

Thailand coast experiences a slightly different weather pattern, 

characterized by monsoonal rains coming from the northeast 

between October and January. While the North may experience 

lower temperatures during the cool season, temperatures in the 

South are consistently warm throughout the year. Temperatures 

in the central plains range from 73°F- 90°F during the rainy 

season, 68°F-86°F in the cool season, and 77°F-95°F in the hot 

season.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Natural Hazards

Thailand is vulnerable to several 

types of natural hazards. The 

Northeast is most susceptible to 

drought, while the plateau, the 

central valley, and the southern 

coastal areas experience flash 

floods caused by heavy 

monsoonal rains and exacerbated by deforestation (see 

“Environmental Issues” below). In 2011, Thailand suffered 

severe flooding that affected over 75% of the country, killing 

more than 815 people and causing over $45 billion in economic 

loss. The flooding was the worst in over 5 decades, crippling the

manufacturing industry and causing global shortages of several 

goods (see p. 1 of Economics and Resources) (Photo: US Navy 

helicopter flies over flooding in 2011). 

Tsunamis, large ocean waves caused by earthquakes and other 

geologic disturbances, threaten Thailand’s shores. In December 

2004, a massive tsunami generated by an undersea earthquake 

off the coast of Indonesia struck southern Thailand and 

neighboring countries. More than 230,000 people (over 5,300 in 

Thailand) were killed and much of Thailand’s tourism 

infrastructure along the Andaman Sea coastline was destroyed.

Environmental Issues

Deforestation due to illegal logging and commercial farming

causes environmental degradation across Thailand. Negative 

outcomes include loss of biodiversity and soil erosion, resulting 

in increased flooding and landslides. Farm, industry, and 

untreated sewage run-off contaminate Thailand’s water supply, 

often causing disease outbreaks. Depletion of Bangkok’s water 

table often results in land sinkage. Urban areas suffer air and 

noise pollution.

Government

Between 1932 and May 2014, Thailand had a constitutional 

monarchy consisting of a parliamentary government marked by 

periods of military dictatorship. In 2014, the Royal Thai Army

staged a coup, declared martial law, dissolved the elected 

government, and suspended the 2007 constitution while 

maintaining the monarchy (see p. 9 of History and Myth). 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Following the death of King Rama IX, Privy Council head, Prem 

Tinsulanonda, was appointed Regent pending ascension of the 

Crown Prince. Crown Prince Maha Vajiralongkornhas became 

King Maha Vajiralongkorn Bodindradebayavarangkun (Rama X) 

in December 2016, succeeding his deceased father. 

In July 2014, the National Council for Peace and Order (NCPO)

endorsed an interim constitution effective until the next election 

(currently unscheduled) that gives considerable power to the 

military government. In addition to establishing a new Cabinet 

and legislature, the interim constitution created a National 

Reform Committee to propose political improvements. It also 

established a Constitution Drafting Commission charged with

delivering a permanent constitution by July 2015. With the 

powers granted it in the interim constitution, the NCPO remains 

politically active. For example, it collaborates with the Prime 

Minister (PM) and his Cabinet in all peacekeeping and security 

matters.

Executive Branch

According to the dissolved 2007 constitution, executive power 

resided in the PM, who led the Council of Ministers and was 

head-of-government. Elected by the legislature and formally 

appointed by the King, the PM was typically the leader of the 

majority political party at the time of a national election. 

Royal Thai Army Commander Prayuth Chan-ocha currently 

serves as PM after dissolving previous PM Yingluck 

Shinawatra’s democratically-elected government in the May 

2014 coup (see p. 9 of History and Myth) with the King’s 

endorsement. Since assuming office, Prayuth has approved the 

arrest of academics, dissidents, and rival politicians, among 

other repressive acts.

Legislative Branch

The dissolved 2007 constitution

established Thailand’s 

legislature as a 2-chamber 

parliament called the National 

Assembly (pictured), consisting

of a 500-seat House of 

Representatives and 150-seat Senate. While legislation 

originated in the House, the Senate ultimately controlled most 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
legislative powers, including amending the constitution, 

appointing positions in government, approving declarations of 

war, and modifying and passing legislation. As head-of-state, 

Thailand’s King approved bills passed by the Senate.

In May 2014, the NCPO dissolved the 

National Assembly and temporarily 

assumed all legislative power. With the

interim constitution, the NCPO created a 

provisional 1-chamber National Legislative 

Assembly that consists of 250 members 

appointed by the NCPO. The NCPO has 

filled a majority of the seats (120) with

military officers, while it hand-picked the 

remaining members from public, private, 

civil, academic, and professional sectors. 

Potential members are ineligible if they have been associated 

with a political party in the last 3 years – a restriction designed 

to re-engineer Thailand’s political landscape (Photo: A member 

of Thailand’s Military Security force).

Judicial Branch

The judiciary includes a 3-level court system consisting of the

Supreme Court, a Constitutional Court, and Supreme 

Administrative Courts and collectively known as the Courts of 

Justice. As the highest court, the Supreme Court is the final 

court of appeal for both civil and criminal cases. A system of 

lower courts of first instance and courts of appeal oversee minor 

cases. Both the Judicial Commission and the King may appoint 

judges followed by confirmation from the Senate. 

The judicial branch continues to operate under NCPO oversight 

following the May 2014 coup. Granted the power to keep “public 

order” under the interim constitution, the NCPO ultimately 

controls all judiciary actions through its ability to overturn 

verdicts and control other court actions.

Political Climate

Since becoming a constitutional monarchy in 1932, Thailand has 

endured a series of military coups, the most recent occurring in 

May 2014 (see p. 4-9 of History and Myth). This ongoing political 

instability is linked to a long-standing class-based, regional, and 

ideological divide between Thailand’s urban, conservative, and 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
wealthy elite who live largely in Bangkok, and its poorer, more 

rural population, many of whom live in the country’s North.

Typically supportive of both the monarchy and the military, the 

urban elite were the driving force behind the “Yellow Shirts”

campaign that drove PM Thaksin out of office in 2007 (see p. 8-

9 of History and Myth). Generally, the Yellow Shirts favor a weak 

centralized government backed by a powerful military and an 

elite faction of bureaucrats.

Pro-Thaksin supporters called the “Red Shirts” were behind 

mass demonstrations in 2009 and 2010 that eventually resulted 

in Thaksin’s sister, Yingluck, becoming PM in 2011. The Red 

Shirts generally resent the control of the Bangkok elite, prefer

decentralized government power, seek more affordable 

healthcare, and desire increased aid to rural communities. 

Clashes between the 2 groups escalated into vigorous street 

protests in recent years, resulting in the worst demonstration 

violence in decades. In an effort to curtail violent protest, 

Thailand’s current military government has declared martial law, 

imposed a night curfew, arrested both Red and Yellow Shirt 

leaders, and limited public gatherings to 5 or fewer people. 

Compounding the political instability is pervading anxiety 

concerning the succession of King Rama X (see p. 10 of History 

and Myth). Since the death of his father, Rama X has 

disregarded the provisions of the Thai constitution and it’s 

conventions to a level unprecedented in the modern history of 

the nation. These actions have caused concern among prodemocracy forces.

Defense

Thailand’s armed forces consist

of ground, maritime, and air 

branches, with a joint strength of 

approximately 306,000 active 

duty and 245,000 reserve 

personnel. The armed forces are 

charged with defending the 

monarchy against both foreign and domestic threats, ensuring 

public order, and aiding in disaster relief and peacekeeping 

operations (Photo: Royal Thai and US Marines during an 

exercise in Thailand). 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
In addition, the forces ensure national defense, including 

operations against Malay Muslim insurgents in the South and

incursions from Burma in the West and North (see “Security” 

below).

The military plays a significant role in Thai politics, having

orchestrated several coups over the years (see p. 4-9 of History 

and Myth). As the largest military unit, the Royal Thai Army is

the dominant service whose 

commander-in-chief wields 

considerably more political 

power than the other 2 service 

chiefs. This notion is evidenced 

by recent appointment of Royal 

Thai Army Commander Prayuth 

Chan-ocha as Thailand’s Prime 

Minister (see “Executive 

Branch” above) (Photo: US Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff 

Gen. Martin E. Dempsey speaks with Thailand’s Joint Chiefs 

during a visit to Bangkok in 2012).

Royal Thai Army (RTA): The RTA is a well-equipped, welltrained force of 190,000 active-duty troops. It has 4 regional 

commands, 2 Special Forces units, 13 maneuver divisions and 

brigades (including mechanized, light, and aviation), numerous 

combat support divisions, and 4 combat service support 

divisions for economic development.

Royal Thai Navy (RTN): Consisting of 71,000 active-duty 

personnel, the RTN is a well-equipped force of naval aviation, 

marine, and coastal defense units. It has 11 principal surface 

combatants, 84 patrol and 

coastal combatants, 17 mine 

warfare and countermeasure 

vessels, and 14 logistics and 

support vessels. 

Royal Thai Air Force

(RTAF): The RTAF consists of 

45,000 active-duty personnel 

and has 4 air divisions with 76 fighters/interceptors, 95 fixedwing attack aircraft, and 20 squadrons (Photo: A RTAF F-16 

conducting a tactical flight in 2013).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Security Issues

Thailand’s security concerns 

focus on 3 main issues: an 

influx of refugees from 

neighboring Cambodia, Laos, 

and Burma; an ongoing 

insurgency in the southern 

provinces; and clashes on the 

Burmese border (Photo: 

Royal Thai Army soldiers). 

Malay Muslim Insurgency: Thailand’s main security concern is 

sectarian violence in its Malay Muslim majority southern 

provinces. Since 2004, clashes between insurgents and the Thai 

military have left around 6,500 dead and over 11,000 wounded. 

The insurgency comprises individuals and groups with varied 

agendas: separatists, members of organized crime syndicates, 

Islamic radicals, and corrupt police forces. While the 

movement’s overarching motivation remains unclear, there is 

some speculation that its overall goal may be to create an 

autonomous Islamic state. 

The Thai government responded harshly to the insurgency, 

declaring martial law in the region when the violence flared in 

2004 (see p. 8 of History and Myth). Since then, critics charge 

the Thai government has mistreated suspects and fueled local 

resentment with its counter-insurgency tactics. Although peace 

talks between the government and the insurgents began in 2013 

under Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra, talk stalled after the 

military overthrew her government in 2014.

Thai-Burmese Border: Thailand has a long, tense history with 

Burma (see p. 3 of History and Myth). The 1,100 mi ThaiBurmese border is a major security concern, plagued by clashes 

between the Thai military and various armed Burmese groups

including insurgents, drug-traffickers, and refugees.

The most significant clashes are skirmishes between the Thai

military and Burmese ethnic minority rebel groups who oppose 

the central Burmese government. Living in Burma’s

mountainous border region, some of these rebel groups

regularly smuggle illegal drugs into Thailand, further 

exacerbating Thai-Burmese tensions.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Foreign Relations

Thailand’s foreign relations center on its relationship with the 

US, lucrative trade relationships with several countries, and its 

role in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). 

Relations with the US: US-Thai relations were formally 

established in 1954 and cemented through Thailand’s support of 

US operations during the Korean and Vietnam wars (see p. 6 of

History and Myth). More recently, Thailand provided support to 

US operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. The US in turn provides 

Thailand financial assistance for the purchase of weapons and 

other military equipment along with training for Thai military 

members and police officers. Further, the US and Thailand 

collaborate in regional intelligence gathering and in military 

exercises (Photo: A Thai soldier shows US troops how a 

constrictor kills its prey 

during Cobra Gold 

exercises, the largest 

multilateral military 

exercises in Asia). 

Thailand provides the 

US access to strategic 

military facilities, 

including the U-Tapao 

Royal Thai Navy Airfield 

and the Sattahip Royal 

Thai Naval Base. These facilties enable logistical support for US 

relief operations in Southeast Asia and for US forces serving in 

the Middle East. Following the 2014 coup, the US suspended 

some funding to Thailand, including freezing military assistance 

and training programs.

Relations with China: Thailand has strong ties with China, 

which has sold weapons and other equipment to the Thai military 

since 1980. Bilateral trade has boomed since a 2010 ChinaASEAN Free Trade Agreement. In 2011 the Chinese and Thai 

militaries launched joint patrols along the Mekong River after 

Burmese insurgents attacked 2 cargo ships and killed 13 

Chinese sailors. Further, Thailand has served as a mediator

between China and ASEAN nations engaged in territorial 

disputes.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Relations with Burma: Some 150,000 Burmese refugees live 

in Thailand. While the Thai government has been tolerant of the 

displaced population, frustration with their long-term presence 

plus a seemingly unending flow of new arrivals has caused the 

Thai government to close its borders with Burma periodically 

(Photo: A Thai-Burmese 

border checkpoint in Mae 

Sai, Thailand).

Thailand promotes an 

economic relationship with 

Burma as a way to

encourage Burmese political 

stability. For example, 

Thailand financed much of 

Burma’s natural gas 

infrastructure, while becoming the primary importer of Burmese 

natural resources and encouraging investment in Burma. 

Thailand seeks to further improve relations by supporting the 

inclusion of Burma in regional security initiatives, such as the 

Cobra Gold exercises (see “Relations with the US” above).

Relations with Malaysia: Violence associated with the Malay 

Muslim insurgency has heightened tensions with Malaysia. The

Malaysian government does not support the insurgency and has

developed joint initiatives with Thailand to help counter extremist 

groups. Nevertheless, some Malaysians criticize the Thai 

government’s harsh response to the insurgency, citing human 

rights violations. Meanwhile, the Thai government occasionally 

has accused the Malaysian government of allowing insurgents 

passage across its border.

Relations with ASEAN: As the largest and one of the most 

economically developed nations in Southeast Asia, Thailand 

takes a leadership role within ASEAN (consists of Indonesia, 

Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Brunei Darussalam, 

Vietnam, Laos, Burma, and Cambodia). Despite some 

intermittent tensions, Thailand maintains close economic and 

political relations with its ASEAN counterparts. Having much to 

gain from regional economic integration, Thailand supports the 

long-planned ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) (see p. 4 of 

Economics and Resources).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Ethnic Groups

Approximately 75% of Thailand’s population are ethnic Thai, a

group which divides broadly by dialect and region. Sub-groups 

include the Central Thai, Northern Thai, Southern Thai (also 

known as the Thai Pak-Thai), and the Northeastern Thai (also 

known as the Thai-Lao). While members of all Thai groups 

speak regional Thai dialects, standard Thai is based on the 

Central Thai dialect (see p. 1 of Language and Communication). 

Chinese-Thai: About 14% of the population is ethnic Chinese,

primarily descendants of Chinese immigrants who arrived in the 

late 19th and early 20th centuries (see p. 4 of History and Myth).

Most have assimilated fully into Thai society, many by

intermarrying with the Thai. Today, many Chinese-Thai are 

successful businesspeople, controlling much of the country’s 

wealth (see “Thaksin Shinawatra,” p. 8 in History and Myth).

Thai Malays: Thailand’s southern provinces are home to the 

Thai Malays. Making up about 3% of Thailand’s population, the 

Thai Malays are members of the Malay ethnic group that is 

predominant in neighboring Malaysia. In contrast to the majority 

Thai population, most Thai Malays are Muslim and Malay 

speakers, although most also speak Thai. 

Hill Tribes: About 1% of the population are members of about 

20 indigenous minority groups 

known as “hill tribes,” 

predominantly residing in 

Thailand’s mountainous North. 

The largest tribes are the Karen

(or Kariang), Hmong (or Meo), 

Yao (or Mien), Lahu (or Messur), 

Akha (or Ekaw), Lisu (or Lisaw), 

and Lawa – each having a 

distinct culture and language (Photos: Members of the Kayan, a 

Karen subgroup). 

Other Groups: Thailand is also home to small groups of other 

non-Thai peoples, including Khmer (Cambodians), Vietnamese, 

and Indians. Thailand further hosts about 500,000 refugees and 

stateless people, mostly displaced from neighboring Burma, 

Laos, and Cambodia.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Social Relations

Before King Rama V’s reforms in the late 19th century (see p. 4

of History and Myth), Thai society was stratified and hierarchical. 

Citizens received economic, legal, and social privileges based 

on their rank and status, which ranged from slave, peasant, and 

artisan to government official and royalty.

Today, Thai society affords its citizens more social mobility,

although it remains hierarchical. In addition to occupation, 

wealth, and family connections, education also defines a 

person’s position in the social hierarchy. At the pinnacle of Thai 

society are the king and royal family, followed by Buddhist 

monks (see p. 5 of Religion and 

Spirituality). Thai admire all successful 

people and have a high regard for civil 

servants and teachers. Manual laborers

have the lowest social status (Photo: 

Thai men show respect for a Buddhist 

monk). 

Significant disparities in wealth, 

infrastructure, and services between city 

and village reflect a pronounced ruralurban divide often revealed through

political schisms (see “Political Climate” above). The majority 

rural population further divides into more prosperous central 

plains farmers and poorer northern subsistence farmers. 

Other social cleavages follow ethnic lines. Fearing further 

marginalization, Thai Malays historically resist Thai nationalist 

rhetoric and control. Instead, the Muslim-majority provinces seek 

some autonomy through a separate regional economy and 

education system (see p. 5 of Learning and Knowledge). 

Finally, Thailand’s northern hill tribes exist on the fringes of Thai 

society. Most members are poor, living in rural, isolated 

communities where they pursue a subsistence agricultural

lifestyle. Although the Thai government has implemented

economic development programs in these regions, some 

members must earn their livelihoods solely through the 

intermittent sale of handicrafts, jewelry, and textiles to Western 

tourists (see p. 5 of Aesthetics and Recreation).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview

Along with nation and king, 

Buddhism is a traditional 

pillar of Thai society (see p. 

4 of History and Myth). 

According to the 2010 

census, 93% of Thailand’s 

population is Buddhist, 

mostly of the Theravada 

school of Buddhism. About 

5% of Thai are Muslims who reside in Thailand’s far southern 

provinces. About 0.7% of the population identifies as Christian. 

Followers of the Baha’i faith (a monotheistic religion founded by

Bahá'u'lláh in 19th-century Persia), Hindus, and Sikhs together 

make up another 0.7% of the population (Photo: Bangkok’s 

famed Wat Phra Kaew or Temple of the Emerald Buddha). 

Thailand’s 2007 constitution and other laws protect religious 

freedom and forbid discrimination based on religious belief. 

Thailand’s government officially recognizes 5 religious groups: 

Buddhists, Muslims, Brahmin-Hindus, Sikhs, and Christians. 

The constitution names no official religion, requiring the state to 

promote harmony among followers of all religions. 

Nevertheless, it also specifies that the state shall patronize and 

protect Buddhism while requiring the monarch to be Buddhist. 

Consequently, although the government is officially secular, 

Buddhist organizations, education, temples, and the Buddhist 

monkhood receive significant state support. 

Thai are typically very tolerant of other faiths, although ongoing 

separatist violence (see p. 9 of Political and Social Relations) 

has caused some tensions between Thai Buddhist and Malay 

Muslim communities in the southern Muslim-majority provinces. 

Since ethnic and religious identities are interlinked for both 

groups, this violence is perhaps as much ethnic-based as 

religious. Regardless of their origins, such violent events 

negatively impact both groups’ ability to engage in religious 

activities (see “Religion and the Law” below). 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
The Region’s Early Spiritual Landscape

Many early inhabitants of Southeast Asia practiced animism, 

the belief that a spirit or consciousness resides in all objects, 

both animate and inanimate. Animism promotes the notion that 

all natural objects—for example, trees and animals—are 

sacred, and this conviction establishes a close connection 

between animists and their environment. Some local religious 

traditions also recognized guardian spirits that inhabited 

homes, gardens, and rice fields, while others acknowledged 

spirits of the dead who could help or hinder the living.

The Origins of Buddhism

Buddhism traces its beginning to around 500 BC, when 

Siddhartha Gautama, a South Asian prince, attained spiritual 

insight through meditation. Buddhists believe that humans are 

fated to suffer, that suffering is caused by greed or desire, and 

can be stopped by following a spiritual path that includes 

unselfish living and meditation. Buddhists’ ultimate goal is to 

achieve nirvana, a state of 

peace and unity with the 

universe. 

Although Buddhism is based on 

a substantial set of scriptures, it 

does not focus on the worship 

of a god or gods. Instead, it 

emphasizes ethical and moral 

instruction to help people follow a spiritual path. Buddhism also 

offers an explanation of life after death, specifically, that 

humans proceed through cycles of birth, death, and rebirth or 

reincarnation. 

Several centuries after its founding, Buddhism split into 2 main 

streams: Mahayana and Theravada. Although the 2 traditions

embrace and practice the same core teachings, they differ in 

several monastic rules and academic points. As the dominant 

form of Buddhism in China, Japan, and South Korea today, 

Mahayana Buddhism encompasses a variety of schools. 

Buddhism’s 2nd stream, Theravada, focuses more strictly on 

scripture and is considered the more orthodox form of 

Buddhism. It is the predominant form of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, 

Cambodia, Laos, Burma, and Thailand today.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
The Spread of Buddhism in Thailand

During the early centuries of the first millennium AD, Indian 

traders on their way to China carried Hindu and Buddhist 

beliefs and practices to Thailand. Members of Thailand’s Mon 

ethnic group became the first inhabitants of Southeast Asia to 

adopt Buddhism. Between the 6th 

and 9th centuries, Buddhism spread 

through the Dvaravati kingdoms of 

central Thailand (see p. 1 of History 

and Myth). 

Meanwhile, the Theravada school of 

Buddhism gained influence on Sri 

Lanka, an island off the southeast 

coast of India, which became the 

center of the Theravada movement 

in the 10th century. By the 13th

century, Sri Lanka’s Theravada 

missionary monks were spreading the religion in Southeast 

Asia, including the Tai kingdoms of Sukhothai and Lanna (see 

p. 2 of History and Myth) (Photo: Sukhothai Period depiction of 

the Buddha).

In 1360, Theravada Buddhism became the state religion of the 

Kingdom of Ayutthaya (see p. 2 in History and Myth). When 

Ayutthaya leaders conquered the Khmer capital of Angkor (see 

p. 2 of History and Myth), they incorporated certain Hindu ideas 

and practices into Theravada Buddhism. Over the next 400 

years of the Ayutthaya Period, Theravada Buddhism took deep 

root in Thai society. As the monkhood (sangha) was 

established, the temple became the center of community life.

Like previous rulers, those of the Chakri dynasty, which began 

in 1782 and continues to this day (see p. 3 of History and 

Myth), adopted Buddhism as the state religion. The dynasty’s 

first king, Rama I, issued religious laws, re-established 

Buddhist court rituals, reorganized the sangha, and constructed 

Bangkok’s Temple of the Emerald Buddha.

Subsequent monarchs instituted other changes. A Buddhist 

monk for 27 years before he took the throne, King Rama IV 

disapproved of prevailing Buddhist practices, even calling them 

superstitious beliefs. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Consequently, he started a new fundamentalist Buddhist sect 

in the 1830s. Although adoption of the sect’s philosophy was 

not widespread, his other reforms, such as those 

institutionalizing the sangha’s hierarchy, were significant.

Rama V’s Sangha Law of 1902 further solidified the 

relationship between the sangha and the state by formalizing 

the hierarchy of monks with the king in Bangkok at its apex and 

bringing disparate regional forms of Buddhism under his 

authority. Later, the 1932 switch from an absolute to a 

constitutional monarchy (see p. 4 in History and Myth) formally 

recognized the monarchy, Buddhism, and nation as the pillars 

of Thai society. 

Buddhism Today

Today, Thailand’s king is both head-of-state and protector of 

Theravada Buddhism. Although religion is a regular part of 

everyday life for many Thai Buddhists, most do not focus on 

achieving nirvana or enlightenment. Instead, most followers 

look to Theravada Buddhism as a guide for living. 

Specifically, the faithful follow Buddhism’s instructions to take 

the so-called Middle Way between extreme self-denial and 

sensual indulgence, to avoid evil, and to acquire bun or merit. 

To obtain bun, followers may perform a variety of acts, 

generally trying to live according to the Buddhist ethical code. 

They may also perform good deeds, give alms or shelter to 

monks, provide offerings at a temple, 

perform worship regularly, or enter 

the monkhood temporarily (see “The 

Monkhood” below).

The Wat: This term refers to a 

Buddhist temple complex that 

typically includes prayer rooms, 

libraries, meeting halls, healthcare 

and education facilities, guesthouses, 

living quarters for monks, and a 

crematoria and/or buildings to house 

the cremated remains of departed 

family members (Photo: Buddhist wat in Chiang Mai). Almost 

every community in Thailand has a wat.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Worship: Buddhist temples do not hold 

formal, collective, regularly-scheduled 

worship services. Instead, followers 

worship by chanting, praying, or 

performing other acts of devotion before 

an image of the Buddha when it is 

convenient for them. Some followers 

may assemble at the wat on special 

occasions, such as during certain 

phases of the moon or for festivals. On 

such occasions, a monk may preach a 

short sermon while followers engage in 

meditation, make lotus bud offerings, and burn candles or 

incense at altars (Photo: Shrine at Wat Kham Chanot in Udon 

Thani province).

The Monkhood: Traditionally, all Thai males spent at least a 

few months of their lives as Buddhist monks, often during 

childhood or before marrying (see p. 3 of Family and Kinship). 

While fewer males follow this practice today, ordination 

ceremonies continue to be important community events. 

After education and ordination, during which they take 227 

vows associated with piety and celibacy, monks typically live in

a wat and administer its many activities. In addition, they may

spend considerable time studying 

scriptures, meditating, collecting 

alms from the community

(pictured), and carrying out rituals, 

such as weddings and funerals. 

Some monks work as missionaries 

in the northern border areas 

among the hill tribes (see p. 12 of

Political and Social Relations). Still

others focus on alleviating social 

injustice, protecting the 

environment, and participating in interfaith dialogues. Of note, 

while Buddhist monk is traditionally a male-only occupation, 

females may enter the sangha as nuns, although they have 

fewer roles and responsibilities and enjoy less respect and 

prestige than their male colleagues.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Beliefs and Rituals from Other Traditions: Thailand’s form of 

Theravada Buddhism contains elements from other religious 

traditions such as Southeast Asia’s animist “spirit houses” 

constructed to distract harmful spirits from homes (see p. 2 of

Family and Kinship). The Thai court engages Brahmin-Hindu 

religious specialists to carry out certain rituals. Many Thai 

regularly visit shrines dedicated to 

Hindu deities, such as the 4-faced 

Hindu creation god Brahma (pictured)

or the elephant-head deity, Ganesha. 

Finally, the Thai tradition of consulting 

astrologers (see p. 4 of Family and 

Kinship) has Hindu-Brahmin roots.

Islam

Islam has a long history in Southeast 

Asia. Arab and Persian Muslims on their 

way to East Asia probably first brought Islam to the Malay 

Peninsula not long after Islam’s founding in the 6th century. By 

the 10th century, several city-states on the Malay Peninsula 

controlled regional trade and extended Muslim influence in the 

region. By the 1400s, most of peninsular Malaysia was Muslim. 

The Malay inhabitants of southern Thailand converted to Islam 

during the 14th and 15th centuries. Over the next 400 years, 

Thai kingdoms and Malay states contested control of the 

region. Although the Thai state eventually prevailed, it was 

1909 before the present Thai-Malaysian border was set. 

Despite centuries of dominion 

by Thai Buddhists, Malay 

Muslims in the southern 

provinces have largely 

retained their own language 

and religion. 

While most Muslims in the

southern provinces are ethnic 

Malay, Muslims in other parts 

of the country include ethnic Thai as well as descendants of 

immigrants from South Asia, China, Cambodia, and Indonesia. 

Like 85% of the world’s Muslims, most of them in Thailand 

identify with the Sunni sect (Photo: Mosque in Chiang Rai).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Christianity

Christian missionaries first arrived in Thailand in the 16th 

century but were expelled in 1688 when a pro-Christian 

Ayutthaya king was forced from the throne. In 1785, King 

Rama I (see p. 3 of History and Myth) invited Catholic 

missionaries to return. While their schools and hospitals had a 

significant influence on Thailand’s educational and healthcare 

systems, their religious influence in ensuing years was much 

smaller. Christian missionaries have had the most success

among Thailand’s ethnic minorities, including Chinese Thai and 

members of Thailand’s hill tribes (see p. 12 of Political and 

Social Relations). 

Religion and Education

By law, both primary and secondary 

level students must attend religious 

education classes. Public school 

lessons generally provide an overview 

of Thailand’s officially recognized 

religions. Students in pursuit of indepth studies need to receive private 

religious instruction (Photo: Figure at 

Bangkok’s Temple of the Emerald 

Buddha).

Islamic Education: Government schools in Thailand’s Muslimmajority southern provinces offer Islamic education as part of 

the national curriculum. Even so, some Muslim Malays reject 

the state-sponsored curriculum, viewing it as an effort to 

impose Thai Buddhist culture on the region. Consequently, 

many Muslim students take advantage of other Islamic 

education opportunities (see p. 5 of Learning and Knowledge). 

Religion and the Law

Although the government subsidizes activities of the 5 

recognized religious communities, its primary support goes to

the Buddhist community and then to the Muslim. Those 

subsidies are used to support Buddhist monks and Muslim 

clerics and fund the renovation and repair of Buddhist temples 

and Islamic mosques. While the government provides no 

support to non-Muslim, non-Buddhist clergy, it supports the 

restoration of their religious buildings.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Despite the government’s official support to all religions, human 

rights groups accuse the government of preferential treatment 

of Buddhist communities. For example, the government has 

provided armed escorts to Buddhist monks and protection of 

Buddhist temples in the southern Muslim majority provinces, 

support that some Malay Muslims perceive as the militarization 

of Buddhist temples. Other observers charge that government 

forces have abused Malay Muslim suspects, including 

committing extrajudicial killing, arbitrary detention, and torture. 

Visiting a Wat

Both Buddhists and Non-Buddhists alike are 

welcome temple visitors. All guests should dress 

modestly – long pants for men and long skirts/pants 

for women. Women should also wear blouses that 

cover their shoulders. All visitors must remove their 

shoes before entering, remain quiet inside, and 

refrain from touching any artwork. Photography is 

usually allowed, but visitors should always ask first. 

Although monks may choose to engage visitors in 

conversation, monks should not be interrupted 

during prayer or meditation. It is proper to show 

respect to monks by ensuring the level of one’s head

remains below that of the monks. For example, 

visitors should not stand above a seated monk. This 

rule holds true even outside the temple: if a monk is 

seated on a bus, a fellow traveler should never 

stand so that he looms over him.

Thai regard all Buddhist statues and images as 

sacred, treating them with great respect and expect 

non-Buddhists to do the same. Inappropriate 

treatment includes climbing on a statue, using a foot 

to point at a statue, or using a statue or image as a 

backdrop for a photo. Anyone who commits a 

disrespectful act against a Buddhist statue or image 

is subject to punishment, including imprisonment.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

Traditional Thai family and village organization emphasized 

respect for elders while privileging men over women.

Historically, most Thai lived in rural areas where traditional 

values such as respect, obligation, and harmony infused family 

life. In recent decades, many Thai have moved to urban areas 

seeking education and employment. While many urban 

dwellers retain strong ties to their rural roots and kin, others 

have totally adapted to urban life.

Residence

In rural areas, extended families consisting of multiple

generations traditionally live in one house together or in 

separate houses grouped in a compound. In urban areas, 

households typically comprise nuclear families (2 parents and 

their children) residing in multi-family apartment buildings.

Typical home décor includes 

statues of the Buddha and 

pictures of the royal family.

Traditional: A traditional Thai 

home (pictured) stands on

stilts so that the family’s living 

quarters always remain above 

flood waters. The home is 

typically constructed of

bamboo or teak wood with a thatched roof. A balcony or space 

beneath the home serves as a kitchen, storage area, 

workspace, or livestock pen. The living quarters typically 

consist of 1 large room with movable partitions. Residents fold 

and stack bedding in a corner during the day and bring it out at 

night. Otherwise, the room is largely unfurnished.

Modern: Most modern homes and apartment buildings are 

constructed of brick and concrete. Many urban families

experience cramped living conditions in single-room

apartments. Residents often cook on their balconies and share 

a bathroom with other apartments. Some Thai live in 

houseboats called “floating homes” on rivers and canals. 

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Spirit Houses: Many residences – even many office buildings 

and hotels – feature a traditional "spirit house” (pictured). This 

small, doll house-like structure is usually mounted on a 

pedestal or placed on a shelf. It provides a residence for the 

spirits of the land’s previous dwellers. 

Thai offer food, beverages, and flowers 

before the house to appease and 

maintain good relations with the spirits.

Family Structure

Family is a central focus of life in 

Thailand, providing a strong sense of 

continuity and security. Like Thai 

society itself (see p. 13 of Political and 

Social Relations), Thai families are

hierarchical. The oldest male is typically 

head of the household, while younger members must show 

proper deference to older relatives. Thai generally feel a strong 

obligation to kin. In addition to caring for the elderly, this 

obligation includes extending hospitality to visiting relatives and 

assisting even distant kin find jobs or finance their education.

In urban areas, a child typically lives with his parents until 

marriage, at which point the couple moves into separate 

quarters. In rural areas, newlyweds often continue to live with 

the bride’s parents until their first child is born. Although all 

adult children expect to care for their elderly parents, the eldest 

son also typically provides financial support. Traditionally, the 

youngest daughter inherited her parents’ home. In return, she 

and her husband assumed responsibility for her parents’ dayto-day care in their old age.

Children

Thai treasure their children and tend to pamper the younger

ones. Even so, Thai also teach children their place in the family 

hierarchy from a young age. Family members typically share 

childcare duties, teaching children to respect and obey their

older siblings, parents, and grandparents. Children may 

assume responsibilities such as tending to younger siblings or 

livestock around age 8, then gradually acquire more roles and 

responsibilities. As they grow older, children learn other duties 

and obligations towards the family.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Birth: Thai typically incorporate animist, Brahmin-Hindu, and 

Buddhist rituals and traditions (see p. 6 of Religion and 

Spirituality) to celebrate a child’s birth. Believing that evil spirits 

are particularly interested in small children, Thai engage in 

certain strategies to divert the spirits’ interest. Shortly after 

birth, many families hold a ceremony to promote and 

strengthen the baby’s khwan, its

life force or soul, so that the spirits 

cannot steal the baby during its 

vulnerable first month of life. 

During this period, Thai may also 

speak of a baby’s ugliness instead 

of its beauty as another way of 

warding off the spirits (Photo: 

Elderly woman with small child). 

Approximately 1 month after birth, 

the parents take the baby to a 

Buddhist temple for another

khwan-promoting ceremony. At 

this time, a monk cuts or shave 

the child's hair and places it in a 

bowl with lotus buds or other flowers as an offering. Family 

members then tie cotton thread around the baby's wrist and 

offer prayers. 

Initiation into the Monkhood: Historically, some young boys 

entered a Buddhist monastery (see p. 5 of Religion and 

Spirituality) as a samanen (novice monk) between the ages of 

8 and 10 in order to receive an education (see p. 1 of Learning 

and Knowledge). Today, both young boys and young men may

receive temporary ordination and enter a monastery for few 

weeks or months of prayer and scripture study. At age 21, a 

young man may receive the higher ordination and become a 

full monk (see p. 5 of Religion and Spirituality).

Birthdays

According to Thai astrology, time divides into 12-year cycles, 

each associated with a particular animal. Instead of celebrating 

annual birthdays, Thai traditionally commemorate a person’s 

birth-year animal every 12 years. In other words, Thai celebrate 

when a person turns 12, 24, 36, etc., with the 60th year 

celebration the most important. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Marriage

Traditionally, most marriages were arranged, and potential 

marriage partners had little contact beforehand. Today, young 

people choose their own partners. While a couple in a rural 

area may have a long period of chaperoned courtship, young 

people in urban areas may engage in group socialization or 

even Western-style dating. Once he has identified a potential 

partner, a young man must become acquainted with the young 

woman’s family members and earn their approval.

If he wishes to marry, the groom then sends his parents to 

announce his intentions to the bride’s family. Once the families 

agree to the union, the couple may consult a Buddhist monk or 

an astrologer to determine a wedding date and time that will 

promise good fortune. 

Brideprice: Brideprice is a payment that the groom’s family 

makes to the bride’s in order to compensate for the loss of the 

bride’s labor and presence. Today this brideprice usually 

includes cash, gold, or a diamond ring that the bride’s parents 

pass onto the couple as a wedding gift.

Naming Conventions

Parents often consult an astrologer for an appropriate

and prestigious name for their newborn. The 

astrologer notes the day, month, and year of the birth 

and consults a chart to determine the starting letter of 

the name. He then suggests a name beginning with 

that letter. 

Family members rarely call the child by their legal 

name for 2 reasons. First, Thai names are typically 

too long for easy use (see p. 4 of Language and 

Communication). Second, Thai traditionally engage in 

strategies to confuse any evil spirits who might want 

to kidnap the child. Consequently, parents almost 

always give their children short nicknames, such as 

Lek (small) and Moo (“pig” as in chubby). Most Thai 

retain these nicknames for their entire lives.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Weddings: A typical Thai wedding celebration involves several 

elements, including blessings by a Buddhist monk, a wedding 

ceremony, and a reception. Although Buddhist monks play 

important roles in most Thai weddings, they are not licensed to 

grant a marriage contract. 

Consequently, couples must 

visit a local government office 

to legally record the marriage. 

The night before the wedding,

the couple usually visits a 

Buddhist temple and offers

money or gifts as offerings. 

On the wedding day, monks 

come to the bride's house to 

bless her and offer prayers. Although brides traditionally wear a 

pink dress, some now wear a Western-style white gown 

(pictured). Grooms usually wear a suit or pants with a 

traditional high-neck jacket called sua phra ratchathan (see p. 

1 of Aesthetics and Recreation).

During the ceremony, a white garland is placed over the head 

of the bride and groom, and their wrists are tied loosely 

together with white thread to symbolize their unity. Family and 

friends pour water over the couple’s hands from a conch to 

wish them happiness. Today, many couples also exchange

rings according to Western tradition.

Receptions vary in size and style and often include a meal with 

toasts and speeches. In urban areas they may occur at home 

or in a hotel ballroom. In rural areas, they often take place on a 

specially-built pavilion or stage. To cover the high costs, 

wedding invitations often include an envelope for monetary 

gifts. Other common gifts for the couple are household items. 

Divorce: Separation and divorce are common in Thailand and 

do not carry a social stigma. From 2005-2014 the divorce rate

increased 27%, representing a 35% divorce rate for new 

marriages. This increase is attributed to the stress facing new

couples when they are separated from their families and the 

economic independence of women in double income 

households (see p. 1 of Sex and Gender).

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Death

Thai Buddhists typically memorialize the passing of a loved one 

by cremating then burying the remains. Many Thai believe that 

the deceased’s spirit lingers near the body after death. 

Consequently, loved ones do not leave the deceased alone

until the remains have been buried.

According to Buddhist custom, the deceased body is washed 

and dressed. A Buddhist monk ties the deceased’s palms 

together before his chest in the wai greeting (see p. 3 of 

Language and Communication). He also places a coin in the 

deceased’s mouth so that the spirit may buy release from 

purgatory. The deceased is then placed in a white coffin. 

Family members may place candles, incense, and money into 

the coffin, then decorate it with flowers and photographs. 

The coffin remains in the home or in a Buddhist temple’s 

funeral building for up to 7 days. During this time, monks chant

prayers while mourners sit in silence 

and burn incense. Colleagues and 

friends may visit to extend 

condolences and provide meals to 

family members.

Following this period, an elder family 

member leads a procession 

accompanying the coffin to the 

temple’s crematorium (pictured). After 

cremation, family members place the 

ashes in their burial vault at the 

temple. At this point the mood lightens

as guests celebrate the life of the deceased with food and 

music. The family may offer prayers for the deceased an 

additional 100 days to help the deceased’s soul gain merit in 

the next life (see p. 4 of Religion and Spirituality).

In line with Islamic tradition, Malay Muslims in Thailand’s 

southern provinces (see p. 12 in Political and Social Relations) 

bury their loved ones as soon as possible after death. The 

deceased is bathed and wrapped in a white cloth, then carried 

to a mosque for prayers and services. Afterwards, the 

shrouded body is buried in a cemetery.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Traditional Thai family and village organization privileged men 

over women. Although they often controlled household finances, 

women were considered their husbands’ possessions. Women’s 

status began to change beginning in the 20th century when they 

acquired equal education and voting rights. Today, women hold 

prominent positions in government and business. Despite 

government programs to empower women and establish gender 

equality, women remain underrepresented in politics, 

experience gender discrimination at work, and suffer high rates 

of domestic violence. 

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Work: Women in Thailand traditionally held 

responsibility for their children’s care and all housework. By 

contrast, responsibility for other chores, such as farm labor,

varied by geographic location. For example, men planted the 

crops in northern Thailand, while this responsibility fell to women 

in the central plains. 

Even if they work outside the home today, Thai women continue 

to hold primary responsibility for their children’s care, the 

housework, and the care of elderly and ill family members.

Labor Force: About 64% of Thai women work outside the home, 

compared to 57% in the US. Women work in all sectors, 

including agriculture, manufacturing, and services but are 

particularly well-represented in 

the tourism and hospitality 

industries. Of note, women work 

in construction (pictured) and 

other physical labor-intensive 

jobs at higher rates than in most 

Western countries. Further, over 

half of Thailand’s university 

graduates are women (see p. 4

of Learning and Knowledge). These women often occupy 

influential positions in business, medicine, politics, government, 

and education. 

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Despite this high participation in the labor force, women typically

receive less pay and work longer hours than their male 

counterparts. Many women work in family-owned business yet

receive no wages. Nearly one-third of women who work in 

agriculture earn below subsistence levels. 

Gender and the Law

The presently-suspended 2007 constitution stipulates equal 

gender rights, while legislation specifies equal education and 

inheritance rights. Some laws and practices support gender 

disparities. For example, women may legally own land and 

jointly control marital property, yet few women hold formal title to 

land. Instead, land is usually registered in the husband’s name, 

even if the wife inherited the land from her family.

Many Thai men support so-called “minor wives” or mistresses in 

addition to their lawful wives. This practice has some official 

support before the law: while a wife’s unfaithfulness is ample 

grounds for a husband to demand divorce, a woman must 

present further justification than her husband’s adultery to 

demand divorce from him. 

Gender and Politics

Although Thailand became the 

first Asian nation to grant women 

full voting rights in 1932, it was 

1982 before women achieved the 

right to become a phuyaiban

(village chief). As Thailand’s first female Prime Minister, Yingluck 

Shinawatra (pictured with President Obama) served from 2011 

to 2014 (see p. 9 of History and Myth). In 2014, women held 16% 

of Parliament seats, compared to 18% in the US House of 

Representatives. However, that number decreased to 5% post 

coup.

Gender Based Violence (GBV)

Rape and sexual harassment are illegal in Thailand, yet vaguely 

worded laws make prosecution difficult. A 2016 survey indicated 

that over 40% of households experienced instances of domestic 

violence. Some observers credit these high rates to Thailand’s 

tradition of male privilege. Recent efforts to diminish GBV 

include measures to create new models of manhood based on 

equality and respect.

SEX &

GENDER
Sex and Procreation

Most Thai consider intimacy a private matter. While women are

expected to abstain from sex until marriage, male promiscuity is 

tolerated if not openly acknowledged (see “Gender and the Law” 

above). Thai consider nudity inappropriate in all but the most 

private contexts. They seldom wear revealing clothing in public 

with the exception of urban areas like Bangkok where some 

younger females prefer short dresses and miniskirts. 

Before 1970, Thai women bore an average of 6 children each. 

Successful family planning programs begun in the 1970s 

resulted in a significant reduction in fertility: by the 1990s the 

average Thai woman gave birth to 2.2 children. Fertility 

continued to decline in subsequent years. Since the mid-2000s, 

Thailand’s fertility rate has hovered around 1.5 children per 

woman, a rate below the average 2.1 children born per woman 

required to maintain the current population (see p. 1 of Political 

and Social Relations). 

Prostitution

Prostitution is illegal yet openly and widely practiced, comprising 

an estimated 7% of Thailand’s GDP and involving around 

200,000 sex workers. Many bars, massage parlors, and other 

venues serve as thinly disguised fronts for prostitution. Although 

some foreigners travel to Thailand to engage in “sex tourism,” 

local demand also supports the practice. Child prostitution is a 

serious problem, involving perhaps 

30,000 children under the age of 16. US 

military personnel are prohibited from 

patronizing businesses tied to prostitution 

or human trafficking.

HIV/AIDS: Thailand faced a serious 

HIV/AIDS epidemic in the 1990s when 

almost 36% of female sex workers were 

HIV positive. Through a widespread safe 

sex campaign targeting prostitutes and 

their clients, Thailand successfully 

reduced HIV infection among female sex workers (see p. 6 of 

Sustenance and Health) to 20% by 2007. The HIV-infection rate 

in the country has fallen from 24,000 patients in 2001 to 6,900

in 2015.

SEX &

GENDER
LGBT Issues

Thailand has a reputation of relative openness to homosexuality: 

gay and lesbian activity became legal in 1956; Thailand’s 

tourism authority specifically welcomes homosexual visitors; 

and Thailand is 1 of only 7 Asian signatories to the United 

Nation’s declaration of LGBT rights. Further, activists are moving 

toward their goal of making Thailand the first Asian country to 

adopt a same-sex partnership law.

Nevertheless, homosexuals do not enjoy societal acceptance.

Some suffer discrimination, bullying, and violence. A 2013 study 

found that 1/3 of surveyed homosexual students suffered 

physical abuse because of their orientation. Consequently, a 

number of homosexuals withhold their sexual preference. 

Thailand’s transgender kathoeys (“lady boys”), well-known for 

their shows in nightclubs and on television, are accepted but 

often ridiculed. Generally, transgender people face severe 

discrimination in all employment but the entertainment and sex 

work industries, are vulnerable to violence from the police, and 

face difficulties securing health insurance.

Sex Trafficking and Forced Labor

Thailand is a notorious destination, source, and transit 

point for human trafficking. Members of Thailand’s ethnic 

minorities and citizens of neighboring countries are at 

particular risk of exploitation. Despite plans to bring the 

country in compliance with minimum international 

standards to eliminate human trafficking, Thailand has 

shown little significant improvement in recent years. 

Observers note that this lack of improvement is due at 

least in part to corrupt government officials who 

collaborate with labor brokers and sex traffickers.

Although female victims are typically exploited in the sex 

industry, many male victims are forced to labor in the 

fishing industry. In 2016, an estimated 425,000 or 0.63% 

of Thailand’s population lived in modern slavery.

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Spoken by about 96% of the population, Standard Thai is 

Thailand’s national language. It is the primary language of 

instruction in schools and dominates print and broadcast 

media. Many Thai, including members of minority groups (see 

p. 12 of Political and Social Relations) such as Chinese-Thai, 

Thai Malays, hill tribespeople, and refugees from neighboring 

countries, speak additional languages. These include Chinese, 

Malay, Lao, and Mon-Khmer, among others. Further, the Thai 

language itself encompasses several regional dialects such as 

Northern Thai (or Kammüang) and Southern Thai (or Pak Tai). 

In total, scholars estimate that Thailand’s inhabitants speak 74 

different languages. 

Standard Thai

Based on the Central Thai dialect, Standard Thai is a member 

of the Tai group of the Tai-Kadai language family that also 

includes Lao, the national language of neighboring Laos. Like 

Chinese, Thai is a tonal language – it uses tone or pitch to alter 

the meaning of individual syllables and words. Standard Thai 

has 5 tones: low, mid, falling, high, and rising. Depending on 

the tone used, Thai words can have several different 

meanings. For example, the Thai word mai can alternatively 

mean “no,” “new,” “burn,” or 

“wood” depending on the 

speaker’s tone. 

Writing System: According to 

tradition, the Thai writing 

system traces its roots to the 

13th century when a Sukhothai

Period king (see p. 2 of History 

and Myth) adapted the ancient 

Indian-based Khmer (Cambodian) alphabet to the Thai 

language (Photo: 13th century Thai script). The modern Thai 

alphabet is syllabic, consisting of 44 consonants and 15 

vowels, which means that written Thai, like English, uses 

symbols to represent sounds. It does not consist of characters 

that represent entire words or ideas, like in written Chinese.

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Thai write from left to right in horizontal lines, with no spaces 

between words. Instead, spaces are used to indicate the end of 

a sentence or a clause. Writers place vowels above, below, 

before, or after a consonant to modify it. The appropriate tone 

of the written syllable is indicated in various ways depending on 

the (1) length of the vowel (short or long) (2) use of a tonal

marker (3) type of consonant used (low, mid, high) (4) and

whether the syllable is open or closed. Of note, although Thai 

often use Arabic numerals to express dates, they often utilize

their own system of numbers. For example, in this system

๑indicates 1.

The Thai government recently instituted The Royal Thai 

General System of Transcription (RTGS) to standardize the 

transliteration of Thai words into the Latin alphabet. Although 

RTGS is used on official documents, maps, and most road 

signs, locally-produced renderings are rarely standardized, 

consequently exhibiting significant variations. 

English

Residents of large urban centers, such as Bangkok and Samut 

Prakan, are likely to understand some English. It is a 

compulsory subject in school (see p. 2 of Learning and 

Knowledge), and students who attend elite institutions become 

the most proficient English speakers. Consequently, many Thai

view English as a language 

of the middle and upper 

classes. Some street signs

include English translations 

(pictured). 

Communication Overview

Communicating competently 

in Thailand requires not only 

knowledge of Thai, but also 

the ability to interact effectively. This broad notion of 

competence includes paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, 

intonation), nonverbal communication (personal space, touch, 

gestures), and interaction management (conversation initiation, 

turn-taking, and termination). When used properly, these forms 

of communication help to ensure that statements are 

interpreted as the speaker intends.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Communication Style

Thailand is often called the “land of smiles,” reflecting the Thai 

tendency to prioritize harmony and agreement in interaction.

Thai tend to have cheerful and gentle dispositions and pride 

themselves on their ability to make others feel at ease. In 

addition, Thai try to incorporate sà nùk (fun and enjoyment) in 

all aspects of life, including tedious or difficult tasks. In this 

way, Thai seek to avoid loneliness and encourage positive

work environments. 

Due to their desire to “save face” (avoid embarrassment to 

themselves or others), Thai rarely express strong opinions and

avoid negative subjects in conversation. Thai consider raised 

voices, angry tones, and loss of temper in public to be rude.

Thai typically treat people of different age, wealth, educational 

backgrounds, and political positions with varying levels of 

respect. Because royal family members are at the pinnacle of 

Thai society (see p. 13 of Political and Social Relations), Thai 

are extremely deferential toward them. They are also very 

respectful of Buddhist monks, public officials, civil servants, 

and teachers. Thai use various forms of greeting and address 

to communicate these different levels of respect.

Greetings

Thailand’s most common greeting is the wai, performed by 

bringing flat palms together at chest level and bowing the head 

slightly. The wai can communicate numerous messages,

ranging from respect, apology, gratitude, and politeness to 

greetings and farewells (Photo: A US Airman exchanges a wai

with a Thai woman). 

Thai also use the wai to 

acknowledge different status

within Thai society. Thai of 

lower status always initiate 

the wai with a person of 

higher status. Further, Thai 

place their hands higher on 

the chest to symbolize greater respect. Royal family members 

and monks do not return the wai. While some younger and 

more educated Thai shake hands in greeting, the custom 

remains largely uncommon and limited to foreign nationals.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Forms of Address

In their hierarchical society (see p. 13 of Political and Social 

Relations), Thai commonly use titles to signify role and status. 

Every relationship, whether societal, family, or work, comprises

an elder or higher status position (pôo yài) and a younger or 

junior position (pôo nóy). Thai use the former term to address

parents, public officials, bosses, and others and use the latter 

term to address anyone subservient or of lower status to the 

pôo yài (Photo: Thai girl 

performing a wai before 

Buddhist monks). 

The use of these terms also 

reflects the obedience and 

respect owed the elder: the 

junior must never criticize or 

question the elder. Even in 

business contexts, junior employees typically do not speak up 

in meetings, performing all tasks assigned to them without 

question. Thai may use other forms to show respect to their 

conversation partner – women use the term kâ and men use 

kráp to indicate respect for their conversation partners.

Names: Thai rarely use their full legal names to address each 

other (see p. 4 of Family and Kinship). Instead, they mostly

address one another using the first name (or a shortened 

version of it) or a short, one-syllable nickname, often prefaced 

by the polite, gender-neutral term khun. It is proper to greet 

Johnathan Wesley as “khun John.” In addressing someone of 

higher status, the proper term is taan, as in “taan Prayuth” for

Prime Minister Prayuth Chan-ocha. Thai use last names only 

on formal occasions or in written communications. 

Conversational Topics

Thai typically begin conversations with general questions 

concerning occupation, age, and place of birth. They refrain 

from asking about family and other personal topics until 

familiarity is established. Generally, Thai avoid questions 

regarding income and wealth, although in some specific

contexts, it is acceptable in order to determine the other 

person’s status. In addition, Thai generally consider criticism of 

religion or Buddhist monks in particular to be extremely rude. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Despite these social constraints, Thai do appreciate inoffensive

humor, especially enjoying jokes that do not insult or 

embarrass someone. Of note, Thai enjoy speaking about food, 

often demonstrating interest and concern for another person by 

asking if he has eaten.

Lèse Majesté Laws: First enacted in 1908, Thailand’s strict 

lèse majesté laws make it illegal to publicly criticize, insult, or 

threaten the monarchy. Since no definition for “insult to the 

monarchy” exists, the laws enjoy very broad interpretation in 

court. For example, a court recently ruled that the laws apply to 

all members of Thailand’s monarchy, both living and dead. 

Any Thai may file a lèse majesté complaint against anyone, 

including a foreign national. The number of charges filed

against academic, political, and media figures has increased 

since 2006, with over 10,000 instances of lèse majesté

complaints in recent years. The police take these complaints 

very seriously, investigating all charges. Offenders may receive 

as many as 15 years’ imprisonment (Illustration: Portrait of 

current King Rama IX as a young man).

Gestures

Thai typically do not use gestures to 

augment conversations. Foreign nationals 

may use them while speaking with Thai

but should avoid aggressive body 

language. In particular, Thai consider it 

rude to point an index finger at someone 

else.

Because they consider the feet to be the 

lowest and dirtiest body part, Thai refrain from showing their 

soles and using their feet to point. In addition, Thai never allow

their feet to touch sacred items, such as a statue of the Buddha

(see p. 8 of Religion and Spirituality) or even images of the 

king. Because they consider the head the most sacred part of 

the body, Thai never touch another’s head or pass anything 

over it (see p. 3 of Time and Space). 

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil for language training resources. 

Click on the Menu tab in the upper right, then Resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Romanized Thai Thai

Hello sa wat di (khrap / 

kha) สวัสดี (ครับ / ค่า)

My name is___

phom chue___

(male) / dì-chan 

chue___ (female)

ผมชือ่(male)/

ดฉิ ันชือ่

(female)

What’s your name? khun chue a-rai? คุณชือ่ อะไร?

Can you speak 

English?

khun phut pasa 

ang-grìt dai rue 

plao?

คุณพูดภาษาอังกฤษ

ได้หรือเปล่า?

Nice to meet you Yin di thi dai ru jak ยนิ ดที ี

่ไดรู้จ้กั

Yes Krab / Kha (ครับ / ค่า)

No mai / mai chai ไม่ / ไม่ใช่

Thank you Khob khun ขอบคุณ

Ok tok long ตกลง

Excuse me/ I’m 

sorry

kho thot (khrap/

kha) / (phom / 

dichan) sia jai

ขอโทษ (ครับ/ค่า) 

(ผม / ดิฉัน) เสียใจ

Please ga roo naa กรุณา

Can someone 

assist us?

ja mi krai chuay 

phuak rao dai mai?

จะมีใครช่วยพวก

เราได้ไหม

How do you say___

in Thai?

phasa thai ___ 

phut wa yang-rai?

ภาษาไทย ___

พูดว่าอย่างไร

I want___

(phom / dichan) 

tong kan___

(ผม / ดิฉัน) 

ต้องการ__

I do not want___

(phom / dichan) mai 

tong kan___

(ผม / ดิฉัน) 

ไม่ต้องการ__

Do you have___? khun mi ___ mai? คุณมี ___ ไหม

What? a rai? อะไร

When? muea rai? เมือ่ ไหร่

Where? thi nai? ที

่ไหน

Who? khrai? ใคร

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 97%

• Male: 97%

• Female: 97% (2015 estimate)

Education before the 20th Century

Formal education in Thailand dates to the 13th century, when 

Buddhist monks provided moral and literary education to elite 

males (see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality). This system of 

education prevailed until the late 19th century, when King Rama 

V began to introduce far-ranging reforms to spur Thailand’s 

modernization (see p. 4 of History and Myth). 

As part of these reforms, the king created Thailand’s first formal 

Ministry of Education in 1887, thereby establishing a secular 

system of education catering primarily to elite males. Some of 

these new schools emphasized instruction in English with the 

goal of preparing students for 

overseas study in European and 

American universities. 

20th Century Education 

Continuing on his father’s 

reform path, King Rama VI in 

1917 established Thailand’s first 

university, Chulalongkorn University, named after his father. 

Further reforms in the 1920s introduced 4 years of compulsory 

primary school and opened education to all citizens, including 

females and non-elites. With the goal of inculcating loyalty 

among all Thai citizens, a new curriculum required students to 

read, write, and speak Standard Thai (see p. 1 of Language and 

Communication). By the late 1930s, almost all children of 

appropriate age attended at least 4 years of primary school. 

Over the next decades, the Thai education system grew rapidly 

to include secondary and tertiary institutions, monastic schools, 

and military and police academies. By 2011, Thailand had 

achieved the highest literacy rate among the 10 ASEAN member 

nations (Photo: Chemistry building at the Chulalongkorn 

University in 1939). 

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Modern Education System

In early 2009, the government instituted a program guaranteeing 

15 years of free public education. The official language of 

instruction of Thailand’s public school system is Thai. In primary 

school, children begin learning English while many schools and 

universities offer programs of study entirely in English. 

The structure and quality of education in Thailand varies by 

region. In Thailand’s southern provinces, schools incorporate an 

Islamic curriculum to accommodate the Muslim-majority 

population (see “Religious Education” below). In the rural North 

and Northeast, members of minority groups and refugees (see 

p. 12 of Political and Social Relations) often lack access to 

quality education. This deficit is mainly due to their geographic 

isolation and lack of Standard Thai language skills (see p. 1 of 

Language and Communication). Public schools across the 

country are often understaffed, resulting in large class sizes and 

limited one-on-one student-teacher interaction. 

Most instruction is lecture-based, focusing on memorization of 

facts rather than the analysis of material. Some experts criticize 

the education system as inefficient, suggesting that students are 

forced to study too many subjects simultaneously. Critics also 

claim school subjects do not match labor market demands, 

resulting in high unemployment among graduates. 

Pre-Primary and Primary: Although not compulsory, 78% of 

Thai children attend pre-primary school. Intended for children 5 

and younger, several types of facilities offer pre-primary 

education, including child 

development centers, private 

academies, and public 

schools (Photo: US Marine 

poses with Thai children). 

Consisting of 6 grades and 

starting at age 6, primary 

school (Prathom), is 

compulsory, with 92% of children of the appropriate age 

enrolling. Rather than individual subjects, the curriculum focuses

on core competency areas including basic skills (math and Thai), 

life experiences (science and social studies), character 

development (art, ethics, and physical education), work 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
experiences (technology and vocational skills), and special 

education. The latter includes English and elective subjects 

tailored to local needs. 

Due to recent reforms, students receive instruction in English 

beginning in the first grade. To advance to the next grade, 

students must pass examinations in math and Thai at the end of 

the 3rd grade and in math, Thai, science, and English at the end 

of the 6th grade. 

Secondary: Admission to the top public secondary schools is 

based on rigorous entrance exams. About 86% of primary 

school graduates move onto lower secondary school. Known as 

Matayom 1-3, lower secondary or middle school (grades 7-9) is 

compulsory. 

Middle school general education includes 5 main subject areas, 

including Thai and foreign languages (most often English), 

science and math, social studies, arts, and vocational education. 

Students who wish to continue onto upper secondary school 

(Matayom 4-6) must pass an entrance examination 

encompassing math, Thai, science, English, and social studies. 

Upper secondary or high 

school (grades 10-12), 

provides either general 

(academic) or vocational 

education. The general 

or academic track 

prepares students for 

university entrance 

examinations, requiring 

them to pass a final 

examination to graduate. By contrast, vocational programs 

prepare students for employment upon graduation and often 

include training in private sector work sites where students 

receive on-the-job instruction. Of those enrolled in upper 

secondary school, approximately 60% enroll in the general 

education track and 40% pursue vocational programs (Photo: 

High school students sing during a flag raising ceremony). 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Post-Secondary

Approximately 53% of high school students pursue higher 

education at one of Thailand’s 170 universities, institutes of 

technology, teachers’ colleges, vocational and technical 

colleges, or other institutions such as nursing colleges and 

police and military academies. Most institutions are highly 

selective and require entrance exams. Thailand has 2 “open” 

universities that require no entrance exams, collectively enrolling 

over 2 million students, some in online programs. 

Technical and professional institutes offer 2-year Associate 

degrees. Most universities offer 4-6 year bachelor degrees, 2 

year master’s degrees, and 2-5 year doctoral degrees. 

Regional Disparities in Higher Education: Students from 

Thailand’s remote, rural areas of the North, Northeast, and 

South have historically lacked access to higher education. To 

combat regional disparities in access, many universities have 

adopted a quota system that allocates a number of guaranteed 

places to students from specific regions. Several large 

universities, many located in Bangkok, have also established 

regional branches in an attempt to better serve rural inhabitants. 

Religious Education

By law, primary and 

secondary students in both 

public and private schools 

must attend religious 

education classes. These 

lessons largely provide 

historical, cultural, and 

philosophical overviews of 

Thailand's 5 officially 

recognized religions (Buddhism, Islam, Brahmin-Hinduism, 

Sikhism, and Christianity – see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Some local school systems provide additional religious studies 

courses in conjunction with the Supreme Sangha Council 

(Buddhist studies) and the Central Islamic Committee of 

Thailand (Islamic studies). The government provides some 

financial support to Buddhist and Islamic institutions of higher 

education (Photo: School in Thailand’s central Lopburi 

Province).

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Islamic Education: Government schools in Thailand’s southern 

Muslim majority provinces offer Islamic religious studies within 

the framework of the national curriculum. Nevertheless, some 

Muslim Malays prefer their own Islamic educational institutions. 

In these cases, the public school system may accept credit from 

approved external courses. Private Islamic institutions include

traditional pondoks, or private Islamic day schools, which offer 

an Islamic curriculum to students of all ages. Some private 

Islamic schools also offer non-Qur’anic subjects, such as foreign 

language. Mosques often offer tadika, after-school religious 

instruction for primary-aged children. 

Recent Reforms

Fueled by the promise of regional economic integration through 

the planned ASEAN Economic Community (see p. 4 in 

Economics and Resources), 

Thailand is reforming its 

education system to promote 

higher quality learning. 

Enacted in 2008, the Second 

15-year Long Range Plan for 

Higher Education is expected

to expand access to higher 

education to rural communities 

and improve educational quality standards by 2022. The plan 

includes a larger education budget, and provisions for improving 

research capacity, reforming administrative systems, and 

expanding curricula (Photo: A primary school classroom in 

Thailand’s eastern Nakhon Phanom Province).

Seeking to improve regional academic mobility, Thailand has 

recently promoted the ASEAN International Mobility for Students 

(AIMS) program. Its aim is to standardize regional educational 

quality and allows students of member nations to easily transfer 

between Southeast Asian schools. Currently, 7 Thai universities 

and 52 regional institutions are implementing the AIMS program. 

Of note, Thailand’s recent political turmoil (see p. 9 of History 

and Myth) threatens to stall planned educational reforms. It 

remains unclear if and how future administrations will prioritize 

Thailand’s educational system in the future.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Thai customarily emphasize community, wellness, and quality 

of life over personal achievement and material wealth. They

also value loyalty and trust among employees and colleagues, 

taking the time to build strong business relationships. Social 

status and gender dictate appropriate space and body contact

during interactions (Photo: Bangkok 

street).

Time and Work

Thailand’s work week runs from 

Monday-Friday. Business hours vary 

by establishment type: most banks are

open from 9:30am-3:30pm while

private businesses operate from

9:00am-5:00pm, except on public 

holidays. Post offices are open from 

8:00am-4:30pm Monday-Friday and

9:00am-1:00pm on weekends. Although most stores are open 

from 10:00am-10:00pm 7 days a week, local convenience 

stores typically open earlier and close after midnight. Museums 

are typically open from 9:00am-4:00pm daily, closing 1 day per 

week.

Working Environment: Many Thai businesses are familyowned. Employees tend to be very loyal, often devoting their 

entire careers to one company. Managers, in turn, are 

obligated to their employees. In addition to meeting their workrelated needs, managers also typically support their 

employees’ general welfare. Benefits include defending 

employees when they’ve made a mistake, presiding over their 

weddings, and helping their relatives find jobs. Almost half of 

the Thai workforce averages a 48 hour work week. The selfemployed and workers in manufacturing and other laborintensive industries average even longer work weeks.

Time Zone: Thailand observes Indochina Time (ICT) which is 

7 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 12 hours 

ahead of Eastern Standard Time (EST). Thailand does not 

observe daylight saving time. 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Date Notation: Thai use the Western (Gregorian) and the 

Buddhist calendars concurrently. Because it begins with 

Buddha’s death in 543 BC, the Buddhist calendar is 543 years 

ahead of the Western calendar. Thus, the year 2000 in the 

Western calendar is also the year 2543 BE (Buddhist Era).

National Anthem: The Thai National Anthem is played on all 

television and radio stations 

at 8:00am and 6:00pm

daily. When in public, 

foreign nationals should 

stand and remain quiet 

during the anthem.

Moviegoers must rise for

the King’s Royal Anthem, 

played before all film 

screenings (Photo: Pictures

of King Rama IX on Bangkok’s Thai Military Bank). 

Time and Business

Generally, business interactions tend to progress at a slower 

pace in Thailand than in the US for several reasons. First, Thai 

prefer to build personal relationships and establish trust before 

doing business. Thai generally make business decisions after

lengthy negotiations held over multiple meetings. In addition, 

several levels of firm management must approve the 

proceedings. Information typically flows slowly between 

managerial tiers, further delaying progress. Thus, initial 

meetings may consist solely of polite conversation, yielding few 

results or plans of action. A number of Thai prefer to work later 

in the evening and conduct fruitful business discussions during 

meals and other casual settings.

Thai behave in business settings in a manner that permits them

to “save face” (see p. 3 of Language and Communication) and 

communicate respect. For example, Thai admire punctuality 

because it communicates respect, but in reality, they are 

typically not punctual. In addition, Thai reject confrontational 

behavior in interactions, valuing instead tact and harmony. 

Accordingly, a foreign national should never assign blame or 

directly criticize a Thai colleague in a public forum. Instead, he 

should only provide constructive feedback in a 1-to-1 setting. 

SPACE

TIME &
Personal Space

The distance speakers maintain while conversing varies by 

setting and the nature of the relationship. When speaking with 

strangers, Thai tend to remain at least an arm’s length apart. 

By contrast, friends and family typically stand much closer. 

When in the presence of people of higher social status, Thai 

prefer to occupy a lower physical plane (see p. 8 of Religion 

and Spirituality). For example, a worker may walk in a bent 

position if his employer is seated, while waiters may stoop 

when serving restaurant customers. Further, when walking with 

an elder or superior, Thai may trail a few paces behind.

Touch

Close friends and family members commonly touch one 

another while speaking. Similarly, friends of the same gender

may hold hands in public, indicating their platonic friendship. 

Thai women are especially affectionate with female friends,

often linking arms and sitting close to one another. Thai with

higher social status may touch subordinates to demonstrate

kindness or concern. Of note, Thai consider displays of 

affection between people of the opposite sex inappropriate. 

Foreign nationals should avoid all physical contact with 

members of the opposite sex, especially in rural areas. Thai 

also view the head as the most sacred part of the body (see p. 

5 of Language and 

Communication) and, therefore, 

never touch another’s head or 

pass anything over it. Even 

clothing associated with the 

head must be treated with 

respect. Patting a small child’s

head to show affection is the 

only exception to this custom. Women must never touch 

Buddhist monks (pictured). If they must give a monk an object, 

they should pass it to the monk through a male intermediary.

Eye Contact

Thai typically maintain direct eye contact when speaking with 

friends, acquaintances, and strangers, as they consider a lack 

of eye contact a sign of insincerity. However, in conversations 

with an elder or superior, a subordinate may bow his head and 

engage only in occasional eye contact to demonstrate respect.

SPACE

TIME &
Photographs

Foreign nationals should seek permission before taking 

photographs. Although photography is usually permitted on the 

grounds of Buddhist temples, it may be prohibited inside.

Driving

With 38 fatalities per 100,000 people in 2010, Thailand has the 

world’s 3rd highest traffic-related death rate. Drivers tend to be 

aggressive, often ignoring speed limits or traveling against the 

normal flow of traffic. Many streets in Bangkok are unmarked 

and highly congested, while roads in rural areas are often

poorly lit. Of note, Thai drive on the left side of the road. 

National Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• February/March: Makha Bucha Day*

• April 6: Chakri Memorial Day (commemorates 

King Rama I – see p. 3 of History and Myth)

• April 13-15: Songkran (Traditional New Year’s)

• May: Royal Ploughing Ceremony Day (marks 

the beginning of the rice growing season)

• May/June: Visakha Bucha* (see p. 2 of 

Aesthetics and Recreation)

• May 1: Labor Day

• May 5: Coronation Day

• July: Asalha Bucha Day*

• August 12: The Queen of Thailand’s Birthday

• August 12: Mother’s Day

• October 23: Chulalongkorn Day

(commemorates King Rama V – see p. 4 of 

History and Myth)

• December 5: The King of Thailand’s Birthday

• December 5: Father’s Day

• December 10: Constitution Day

• December 31: New Year’s Eve

* Commemoration in honor of the Buddha

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Thai enjoy diverse artistic and recreational activities, often 

incorporating sà nùk (fun and enjoyment – see p. 3 of 

Language and Communication) into a range of traditions, from 

energetic martial arts to intricate dance and colorful crafts. 

Many activities reflect regional cultural and religious influences.

Dress and Appearance

Traditional: Made of silk and cotton, Thai clothing historically 

varied by region. Today, many Thai wear a variety of traditional 

styles on both formal and informal occasions. For special 

occasions, women often wear a pasin, a full-length silk version 

of a sarong (a length of fabric wrapped around the waist). The 

pasin sometimes is paired with a long-sleeved silk blouse 

and/or sash draped over one shoulder. Men wear a sua phra 

ratchathan, a short- or long-sleeved high-necked cotton or silk 

jacket, usually white, with black trousers. They may add a 

colorful silk cummerbund during very special occasions.

In rural areas, some Thai wear 

traditional dress on a daily basis. 

Around their waists, men may 

wear a phakoma, a rectangular 

piece of cloth that serves as a 

towel, handkerchief, and head 

protection against the sun. Rural 

women may wear a sarong with 

a simple blouse or wear tie-dyed clothes called mawn khwaan. 

Thailand’s hill tribes have their own distinctive traditional styles, 

including intricate headdresses (pictured).

Modern: Western-style clothing is common in Bangkok and 

other urban areas. Businessmen and women wear Westernstyle suits and dresses, while younger people prefer jeans and 

T-shirts. School children usually wear uniforms. Of note, most 

Thai consider revealing clothing such as shorts or low-cut or 

tight clothing inappropriate. Urban dwellers and foreign 

nationals typically wear swimsuits, while some Thai prefer to 

swim fully clothed.

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Recreation

In rural areas, social life revolves around festivals and Buddhist 

temple events. Many city-dwellers travel to their home villages 

to participate in these occasions. Because they have limited 

socializing space at home (see p. 1 of Family and Kinship), 

urban Thai enjoy meeting their family and friends at 

restaurants, bars, or other venues. Other popular pastimes in 

the city include visiting Internet cafes, shopping, and watching 

movies and television. Many Thai enjoy traditional medicinebased massages (see p. 3-4 of Sustenance and Health).

Festivals: Thai celebrate diverse holidays and festivals that 

commemorate historic and religious events, honor the

monarchy, mark agricultural phases, or simply promote sà nùk. 

One important holiday is Visakh Bucha, a remembrance of the 

Buddha’s birth, death, and enlightenment (see p. 2 of Religion 

and Spirituality). Thai celebrate the Queen’s and King’s

birthdays by decorating with pictures of the royal family, flags, 

and flowers and honoring their own mothers and fathers (see p. 

4 of Time and Space for a list of national holidays.)

Sports and Games

Muay Thai: Based on an

ancient form of military 

combat, muay thai (Thai 

boxing, pictured) is the

national sport of Thailand. 

Boxers use knees, elbows, 

shins, and feet to deliver blows to all body parts except the 

head or groin. Unlike American boxing, Thai boxers may clinch, 

a technique in which boxers hold an opponent while delivering 

blows. Muay thai matches involve several traditions, including a 

dance-like pre-match ritual honoring trainers and supporters. 

Other sports: Other sports unique to Thailand include krabikrabong, a traditional form of fencing utilizing various swords 

and clubs, and sepak takraw, a competitive form of kick 

volleyball played with small rattan balls. Football (soccer) is 

also popular, with several active national and youth leagues. 

Badminton, table tennis, volleyball, and basketball are played 

widely. Golf has received increased interest in recent years 

with the success of Tiger Woods, whose mother is Thai.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Games and Activities: Thai enjoy playing board games such 

as makruk, similar to chess. Other popular activities include 

kite-flying and kite-fighting, in which teams attempt to ‘snag’ an 

opponent’s kite. Some villages in eastern Thailand hold 

amateur rocketry competitions before the annual rainy season. 

Music

Traditional: Unlike Western music, classical Thai music is 

non-harmonic and typically delivered with several instruments 

simultaneously playing variations of a melody. Instruments are 

numerous and varied and include the ranad (curved 

xylophone), glong (drums), and ching (cymbals). Although 

different ensembles combine varied types and numbers of 

instruments, they almost always include a khawng wong, a set 

of tuned gongs arranged in a semi-circle.

Modern: Modern Thai artists, such as soloist Thongchai “Pi 

Bird” Macintyre and the group Carabao often blend traditional 

sounds with pop or rock. Other modern genres include luk 

thung, which uses electric guitars and keyboards and is 

comparable to American country music, and mor lam, a fastpaced pop-Thai mix played with khaen (bamboo mouth 

organs) and phin (small guitars).

Dance and Theater

Classical dance (pictured), once performed solely for the royal 

court, is often part of weddings, festivals, and other special

occasions. Thai also enjoy 

Western-style dancing as well as

ramwong, a Thai folk dance 

popularized during World War II.

Dance-dramas: Traditional 

dance is featured prominently in

theatrical productions known as 

dance-dramas. Khon showcases segments of Ramakien (see 

textbox next page) with energetic dances performed by 

dancers in colorful costumes and masks. Lakhon combines 

graceful movements with jātakas (stories from past lives of the 

Buddha) and traditional folklore. Likay, a casual, opera-style 

performance, often features humorous or rowdy pieces focused 

on modern topics such as politics or social issues. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Nang yai: This is a type of traditional shadow-puppet theater

popular in southern Thailand. During performances, skilled 

puppeteers manipulate 3-6 foot tall puppets so that they cast 

shadows on a white screen. Performers use songs, chants, 

and music to tell a folktale or legend.

Cinema

Thailand’s film industry dates to the 1920s. The first Thai film to 

win the Cannes Film Festival Golden Palm award was titled

Uncle Boonmee Who Can Recall His Past Lives from 2010.

Another well-known Thai film was the 2013 comedy Pee Mak, 

one of Asia’s highest grossing films of all time.

Literature

Thai written literature dates to the 12th century when Buddhist 

monks composed poetry praising rulers, exploring Buddhist 

philosophy, and promoting morals and values. One of 

Thailand’s best-known works of literature is the 19th-century 

epic poem Phra Aphaimani. Contemporary Thai literature often 

centers on love and family. Some authors explore how 

modernization and Western influences affect Thailand, 

focusing on corruption, globalization, or inequality.

Ramakien – Thailand’s National Epic

Ramakien is an adaptation of the ancient Hindu epic 

poem Ramayana. In the Hindu version, King Rama is 

a reincarnation of the Hindu deity Vishnu. The story 

recounts Rama’s efforts to save his wife Sita from the 

demon Ravana. Thai people adopted the story in the 

first millennium AD, adapting it to their Buddhist 

beliefs and values. Consequently, in the Thai version, 

first documented in the 18th century, Rama represents 

a former life of the Buddha. The morals and principles

highlighted in the poem – including justice, hospitality,

gratitude, integrity, reverence for kings, respect for 

elders, and honor for the dead – remain important 

cultural values today.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Arts and Crafts

Early Thai artisans labored to honor the Buddha and to gain

religious merit (see p. 4 of Religion and Spirituality). Although 

many modern artists are inspired by religious themes, others 

incorporate political and social themes in their work.

Buddha Statues: Statues of the Buddha are common in 

Thailand. Made of bronze, stone, wood, ivory, stucco, 

terracotta, or ceramic, they vary in style and appearance. 

Statues display the Buddha in a variety of poses and positions

(sitting, walking, or lying) and using various hand gestures and 

finger postures (mudras). These poses and gestures may 

symbolize a characteristic of the Buddha or refer to specific 

events in his life. These characteristics or events include the 

Buddha teaching, bestowing charity, reassuring, or meditating, 

among others. All images of the Buddha are considered sacred

(see p. 8 of Religion and Spirituality) and may not be removed

or destroyed without the government’s permission. Worn 

statues often are refinished or used to fashion new pieces.

Architecture: Thailand is renowned for the architecture of its 

Buddhist temples (see p. 4 of Religion and Spirituality). Usually 

separated from the outside world by enclosing walls, temple 

buildings typically have intricate 

decorative features such as high 

pitched roofs, carved doors and 

window sills, and murals. Temple 

architecture and decoration often 

feature glass, gold leaf, mother of 

pearl inlay, porcelain, and other fine

materials.

Other Arts and Crafts: Thailand has 

an ancient tradition of pottery-making. 

Its celadon (green ceramic) and 

lacquerware products were traded throughout Asia. Thailand is 

also known for its neilloware (silver engraving), gemstone 

cutting, woven bamboo and rattan baskets, and high quality 

silk. Members of Thailand’s hill tribes (see p. 12 of Political and 

Social Relations) produce embroidered and woven cotton 

textiles (pictured) that they fashion into clothing, scarves, 

purses, pillows and other products. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

The cuisine of Thailand incorporates a variety of flavors and 

traditions from Southeast Asia, China, and Europe. Thai cuisine 

varies widely by region, from spicy in the Northeast and South

to mild in the central lowlands. Of note, the most well-known Thai 

food originated with the monarchy’s palace chefs.

Dining Customs

Rural Thai often eat while sitting on the floor on straw mats 

(pictured). By contrast, many urban residents sit in chairs at 

Western-style tables. Dinner is the main meal of the day, which 

the family usually enjoys 

together. Breakfast and lunch 

are typically simpler affairs. At 

meals, each individual receives 

a portion of rice and shares

several other dishes with the 

group. Thai customarily use a 

fork held in the left hand to push 

food onto a spoon held in the

right hand, from which they eat. Thai rarely use knives as most 

food is served in bite-sized pieces. Thai use chopsticks to 

consume a few dishes such as noodles or spring rolls.

Diet

Rice (khaao) is the most common staple. Its importance is 

evident in the Thai language: the Thai word for “eat”, kin khaao,

also means "to eat rice." Northern Thai prepare sticky (glutinous)

rice, while long-grain jasmine rice is common elsewhere. 

Another common staple are noodles (kway, tiaw, or bamee) 

made from rice, egg, wheat, or bean starch.

Seafood, poultry, and pork are common proteins, although rural 

Thai may also eat snake, turtle, deer, or frog. A variety of 

vegetables including onion, pepper, mushroom, and bean 

sprouts are featured in many dishes. Thai also enjoy tropical 

fruits such as mango, pineapple, and native South/Southeast 

Asian jackfruit, rambatan, and durian – a fruit with an odor so 

strong, it is sometimes banned from hotels or public transit.

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Meals and Popular Dishes

Although Thai cuisine varies regionally, most meals combine

spicy, sour, sweet, and mild flavors. Breakfast traditionally 

includes rice porridge, khaao tom (rice with minced meat, fish 

sauce, and dried chilies) or a vegetable omelet. Lunch is often a

rice or noodle dish. Typical dinners include rice, soup, salad, and 

a stir-fry or curry entrée. Thai also commonly eat several snacks 

throughout the day, such as fruit served with salt or chili powder, 

fruit drinks, or noodles.

Popular dishes include pad thai, stir-fried rice noodles with 

meat, lime juice, garlic, chilies, bean sprouts, and crushed 

peanuts; plaa pao, 

grilled peppered fish;

kaeng khio wann, green 

curry with chicken or 

beef; som tam, a salad 

with spicy chilies, green 

papaya, and lime juice; 

and tom yum, a spicy 

soup flavored with 

lemongrass, kaffir lime 

leaves, and galangal, an 

aromatic ginger (Photo:

tom yum with catfish). Thai use many different sauces and 

condiments such as chilies, fish sauce, ground peanuts, and 

vinegar to complement their dishes.

Sweets: Typically served as a snack and not as dessert, Thai 

sweets usually incorporate a variety of creams or syrups. Some

include combinations unusual to Westerners, like red bean and 

corn ice cream or gelatin with coconut and spring onions. Other 

sweets include banana fritters, pumpkin custard, mango sticky

rice with coconut cream, and syrup over crushed ice.

Dining Out: City dwellers in particular enjoy eating out. Urban 

areas offer a range of choices, from restaurants featuring 

international cuisine to simple noodle shops. When Thai eat out, 

the person who extends the invitation generally pays the entire 

bill. Tipping is uncommon except in high-end restaurants. Fast 

food and coffee shops are becoming widespread and are 

popular among younger Thai.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Street vendors: Common in urban areas, street vendors sell a

range of food items from full meals to simple snacks. The food 

is typically of high quality, authentically Thai, and enjoyed by rich 

and poor alike. Some vendors sell specialties such as fried ants, 

grasshoppers, silkworms and cockroaches (Photo: A US Marine 

eats a cooked insect 

during 2012 Cobra Gold 

exercises).

Beverages

Thai enjoy a variety of 

beverages. While they

typically drink tea without 

milk or sugar, Thai prefer 

coffee flavored with

chicory and may drink it

black or with condensed milk. Many Thai also enjoy fruit juices 

flavored with syrup and salt, such as naam manao (iced lime 

juice with sugar). Because beer and wine are heavily taxed (see 

“Modern Healthcare System” below), many Thai prefer more 

inexpensive brandy, whiskey, and rice liquors.

Health Overview

Since the 2002 introduction of universal coverage, 99% of Thai 

citizens now have health insurance, and Thailand has seen a 

steady decrease in maternal and infant mortality rates.

Meanwhile, life expectancy at birth has risen to 75 years, 

significantly higher than the regional average and the global 

average of 71. While government healthcare spending has 

increased substantially in recent years, disparities in healthcare 

quality and availability persist between rural and urban areas. 

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine consists of the knowledge, practices, and 

skills derived from a native population’s beliefs, experiences, 

and theories. Thai traditional medicine (TTM) aims to achieve 

balance in the body by considering the 4 environmental (earth, 

fire, wind, and water) and certain seasonal elements. Primary 

therapies include therapeutic massage, herbal steam baths, 

traditional midwifery, and herbal, animal, or mineral-based 

medications. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Over centuries, practitioners have standardized and passed 

along TTM to succeeding generations, although TTM suffered a 

decline in popularity following the arrival of Western medicine.

After renewed interest and international encouragement in the 

1970s, TTM enjoyed resurgence and is now a separate branch 

of the official healthcare system. Many Thai, particularly in rural 

areas, use TTM as part or all of their healthcare practices. 

TTM practitioners must receive a degree from an accredited 

university or certified institution, then pass examinations and

complete an apprenticeship before obtaining a license. Although 

only certified TTM practitioners historically prescribed TTM 

treatments, health officials are beginning to incorporate TTM

practices into the Western-style medical system. Thus, medical 

staff are trained on TTM 

treatments and the use of 

herbal medicines (Photo: 

Medicinal herb garden at a 

Thai hospital). 

Modern Healthcare System

In 2002, Thailand introduced 

its Universal Health Coverage

Scheme (UCS), also known as

the "30 Baht Plan." USC quadrupled government healthcare 

funding and reduced individual costs to a 30-baht ($.75) copay,

a fee which was later waived completely. The scheme

succeeded in substantially decreasing infant mortality in rural

areas. It also provided the poor access to reproductive and 

primary healthcare and reduced mortality rates due to infectious 

diseases.

Experts generally praise Thailand’s innovative healthcare

system, which focuses mainly on primary healthcare, along with

its progressive health promotion program. The latter utilizes 

tobacco and alcohol taxes to finance health promotion activities.

Despite its successes, critics argue the scheme may be unable

to match increased demand. Critics also point to disparities

between the various healthcare plans within the scheme. For 

example, some high quality services are available only at 

expensive private institutions.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Challenges

Thailand faces several challenges in the delivery of healthcare. 

In 2012, it is estimated that the country had just 0.5 physicians 

per 1,000 people, below the regional average of 0.6 per 1,000

people and far lower than the US average of 2.5. Since most 

doctors practice in the cities, many hospitals and clinics in rural 

areas lack qualified personnel. Likewise, many Thai doctors 

specialize, thereby limiting the number of general practitioners 

available to treat routine ailments. Emergency transportation is 

inefficient and hampered by heavy congestion in major cities.

As healthcare’s overall quality has increased, rates of most 

infectious diseases have declined significantly. While malaria 

and tuberculosis remain threatening in some remote areas, just 

18% of all deaths in 2014 were due to communicable diseases, 

compared to the regional average of 40%.

As is common in countries with ageing populations (see p. 1 of 

Political and Social Relations), the incidence of 

noncommunicable diseases in Thailand has increased. In 2014, 

71% of all of deaths were attributed to stroke, heart disease, 

diabetes, lung disease, and other such diseases. Obesity and

alcohol and drug abuse rates are 

also increasing. Despite heavyhanded enforcement policies, 

abuse of methamphetamines in 

pill form (ya ba) remains high. 

Injuries resulting in death occur at

a higher rate than the regional

average. Thailand has the 2nd

highest incidence of death by road accidents in the world (see p. 

4 of Time and Space) (Photo: Hospital in Kamphaeng Phet 

Province).

Refugees and Migrant Workers: An estimated 3.9 million 

migrant workers and about 650,000 refugees, asylum-seekers, 

and stateless people reside in Thailand. Migrants are now able 

to immediately buy and access the country’s universal health 

care. HIV prevalence among migrants to Thailand is up to four 

times the rate of HIV prevalence found among the general Thai 

population. Migrants in Thailand are also more likely to suffer 

from communicable diseases.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
HIV/AIDS: Through its safe-sex campaign and provision of

antiretroviral treatment to infected pregnant women, Thailand 

has successfully slowed its HIV/AIDS epidemic. The number of 

annual new HIV infections has declined steadily from a high of 

143,000 in 1991 to 61,000 in 2001, 24,000 by 2009, and 

approximately 6,900 in 2016. Experts estimate that 440,000 

adults live with HIV in Thailand today. Others estimate a slightly 

higher prevalence rate of 1.1% of the adult population.

Regardless of the exact figures, Thailand’s HIV/AIDS infection 

rate remains significantly higher than the regional average.

Over the past decade, HIV infection patterns have changed: the 

virus is now spreading rapidly among homosexual men, 

transgender people, and male sex workers (see p. 3 of Sex and 

Gender). Approximately 50% of new HIV infections are among 

these groups, and studies estimate that 29% of homosexual 

men in Bangkok are HIV positive. To fight this alarmingly high 

infection rate, in 2014 Thailand began offering free antiretroviral 

drugs to all HIV patients, including undocumented migrants. 

Efforts to expand the state’s HIV/AIDS monitoring and treatment 

systems are hampered by many men’s reluctance to report 

suspected infection due to their fear of social exclusion or 

discrimination on the job.

Medical Tourism

Thailand has become the world’s foremost destination 

for “medical tourism,” a form of travel undertaken solely 

for healthcare procedures. Individuals from Asia, 

Europe, and the Middle East travel to Thailand to 

purchase treatments and procedures ranging from 

plastic and cosmetic surgery to open heart surgery.

These patients typically pay a fraction of the cost 

charged in their home countries. Many patients stay in 

Thailand to recuperate post procedure, since 

accommodations are typically inexpensive. Although 

medical tourism supports Thailand’s economy, critics 

accuse medical tourists of monopolizing services and 

resources intended for Thai patients.

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

Prior to 1960, Thailand’s economy was based largely on the 

production of rice and other crops for domestic consumption. By 

the 1980s, Thailand began to develop a manufacturing 

infrastructure supporting new export policies. The rapid pace of 

industrialization in the 1980s and 90s took a toll on the environment. Large swaths of land were transformed as the government 

built hydroelectric complexes to meet growing energy needs.

Consequently, thousands of people were displaced and natural 

flood patterns and forests disrupted.

Because industries relied heavily on foreign investment, a

sudden decline in Thailand’s currency, the baht, in 1997 spurred 

a debt-fueled financial crisis that spread through much of Asia.

Meanwhile, Thailand’s export-oriented growth strategy left the 

country vulnerable to foreign economic issues. Hit hard by the 

2007 global economic recession, industries experienced severe 

drops in profit as Thailand’s 

exports significantly shrank

(Photo: Bangkok street). 

Economic recovery began but 

then slowed after record-setting 

floods destroyed Bangkok’s 

manufacturing centers in 2011, 

crippling the manufacturing 

industry for over a year (see p. 3 of Political and Social 

Relations). To prevent future economic loss, the government 

allocated $12 billion in flood mitigation projects and $75 billion in 

infrastructure development. Due to recent political unrest (see p. 

9 of History and Myth), spending on infrastructure has been

suspended with economic growth remaining slow. 

In spite of these setbacks, the standard of living in Thailand has

steadily increased over the last decade. While slow, the 

economy is growing as unemployment remains extremely low at 

0.9% - currently the 4th lowest in the world. Even though

Thailand still ranks poorly on the income inequality index, its

poverty rate decreased from 43% in 2000 to 10.4% in 2016. 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Today, about 88% of the impoverished live in the rural North, 

Northeast, and Deep South. Although the government raised the 

daily minimum wage to 300 baht (currently about $9) in 2013,

the cost of living (food, fuel, and utilities) has risen as well. 

Further, household debt has increased, attributed to easy

access to credit cards and incentives introduced to spur 

domestic spending after the 2011 floods. Despite its fragile 

political state (see p. 5-6 of Political and Social Relations), slow 

economic growth, and wealth disparities, Thailand remains the 

world’s 21st largest economy and the 2nd largest in Southeast 

Asia behind Indonesia. 

Services

Accounting for 55% of GDP and 49% of employment, the 

services sector is the largest component of Thailand’s economy. 

Primary services include wholesale and retail sales, tourism, 

banking, and finance. The majority of both wholesale and retail 

establishments are small, family-owned shops.

Tourism: The tourism industry is vital to Thailand’s economy. 

Accounting for over 18% of the country’s GDP and 8% of all 

employment. Chinese, residents of ASEAN countries, Russians, 

Japanese, South Koreans, Indians, French, British, and 

Americans accounted for the majority of visitors. Although 

tourism has slowed since the May 2014 coup (see p. 9 of History 

and Myth), the industry has historically recovered quickly after 

similar events. Thai officials report numbers of arrivals in 2016 

as 32,588,303 (Photo: Phuket, a popular tourist destination).

Industry

Thailand’s economic growth in the 

1980s and 90s was primarily due 

to industrial activities. Despite 

recent growth in the services 

sector, the industrial sector 

remains significant. It is only 

slightly smaller than the services sector, accounting for 36% of 

GDP and 23% of employment. 

Manufacturing: Accounting for 27% of GDP, manufacturing is 

the foremost component of Thailand’s industrial sector. The 

majority of Thai companies specialize in food and beverage 

processing (25%), followed by apparel (18%) and textile (18%)

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
production. Other goods include motor vehicles, computer parts, 

and electrical machinery. Although some large-scale businesses 

exist, 94% of establishments are small-scale, employing fewer

than 15 workers. 

Construction: Construction currently accounts for about 2.8% 

of GDP and 6% of employment. Projects include private-sector 

housing development and large-scale public infrastructure

development. Projects also include rail and highway extensions,

as well as the construction of deep seaports and other coastal 

improvements.

Agriculture

Consisting of farming, fishing, and forestry, the agricultural 

sector was traditionally the backbone of Thailand’s economy.

Despite the recent expansion of the service and industry sectors,

agriculture still accounts for 29% 

of employment and 9% of GDP. 

The majority of agricultural 

production occurs on small, 

family-owned farms (pictured). 

Farming: About 36% of 

Thailand’s territory is suitable for 

cultivation, with the largest concentrations of farmland in the 

northern, northeastern, and central regions. While most farms 

only cultivate crops, about 1/3 also produce livestock. Important 

food crops include rice, cassava (a tuberous starchy root), 

rubber, corn, sugarcane, coconuts, and soybeans. 

Fishing: Thailand is the world’s 3rd largest seafood exporter, 

having a fishing industry worth about $6 billion. Profitable 

harvests include shrimp, squid, and tuna. Recently, the industry

has come under international scrutiny for dismal working 

conditions. Fishermen typically toil extremely long hours, 

averaging 62 hours per week. Migrant workers, some of whom 

are victims of trafficking (see p. 4 of Sex and Gender), often

endure slave-like conditions, working for little or no pay and

under constant threat of violence. 

Forestry: After widespread deforestation in the 1980s and 90s, 

the government banned logging in natural forests. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Consequently, the timber industry remains small, consisting 

mostly of teak and rubberwood production from planted forests.

Currency

Thailand’s currency is the baht (฿), issued in 5 banknote values 

(20, 50, 100, 500, 1,000), and 4 coin values (1, 2, 5, 10). 1฿ is 

subdivided into 100 satang (cents), issued in 5 coin values (1, 5, 

10, 25, 50). Although exchange rates vary, $1 has averaged

about 34฿ over the past 5 years. Thai prefer cash for everyday 

purchases, although some locales accept credit cards.

Foreign Trade

In 2016, exports totaled $190 billion and imports $196.4 billion. 

Exports primarily included electronics, cars, computer parts, 

electrical appliances, heavy machinery, textiles, fishery 

products, rice, and rubber. The largest buyers of Thai goods 

included the US (11%), China (10%), Japan (9%), Hong Kong 

(6%), Malaysia (5%), and Australia (5%). Imports amounted to 

$171.3 billion and included capital goods, raw materials, 

consumer goods, and fuels purchased from China (20%), Japan 

(15%), the US (7%), and Malaysia (6%).

ASEAN Economic Community

Using the European Union as its model, the ASEAN Economic 

Community united 10 member nations (see p. 11 of Political and 

Social Relations) as a single market by late 2015. This union 

facilitates movement of goods, 

services, capital, and labor among 

member nations. 

Foreign Aid

Thailand receives financial assistance

from the US, the UK, Australia, Japan, 

and others to supports its military and for disaster relief, 

humanitarian assistance, and infrastructure projects. After the 

2014 coup, some donors suspended assistance while others are 

reviewed their aid portfolios amidst concerns for Thailand’s

future stability (see p. 3-4 of Political and Social Relations) 

(Photo: US Navy delivers equipment in the Gulf of Thailand).

Thailand received a total of $711,465 in disbursed aid from the 

United States government in 2017, a decrease of 504% from the 

last reported total in 2016 ($4.3 million).

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Thailand has one of the best developed physical infrastructures

in Southeast Asia. While mobile phone service extends 

throughout the country, reliable Internet connectivity is limited to 

urban areas.

Transportation

Thailand has a far-reaching and efficient public transit system. 

In and around Bangkok, for example, travelers have the option 

of traveling by bus, subway, “sky” train (above-ground rail 

system), or long-tail boats that navigate the city’s many canals. 

Usually fast and efficient, buses are a common means of transit 

between cities. Of note, long-distance overnight buses 

historically have had high accident rates (see p. 4 of Time and 

Space), due to drivers’ aggressive habits and use of stimulants.

In rural areas, songthaews (open vans equipped with benches

for passengers) and share-taxis (air-conditioned minibuses) 

supplement the bus networks. Ferries provide access to all 

major islands. Widely-available taxis come in various forms, 

including tuk-tuks (pictured - 3-wheeled, open sided vehicles), 

samlors (tricycle rickshaws), and motorbikes. Of note, taxi 

drivers do not usually 

expect tips.

Roadways: Thailand had 

about 242,335 mi of 

roadways in 2016, nearly 

all paved, with plenty of 

multi-lane highways.

Inspired by the probable 

increase in intra-regional 

trade brought by the 2015 ASEAN Economic Community (see p.

4 of Economics and Resources), Thailand has expanded and

repaired its road system which consisted of 112,000 mi in 2006. 

The signs on major routes typically include both English and 

Thai. Roads in more rural areas are less well-marked. With 543 

vehicles per 1,000 people in 2016, Thai automobile ownership 

levels were well below the US rate of 812.

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Railways: Although slower, railways are a safe alternative to 

Thailand’s buses for long distance travel. The 4 main routes are 

the North, Northeast, East, and South, with Bangkok serving as 

the main hub. In 2014, Thailand had only about 2,500 mi of 

railways, compared to 16,900 mi in Japan. All railways are 

controlled by the State Railway of Thailand. 

Ports and Waterways: Major seaports are Bangkok, Laem 

Chabang, Ranong, Phuket, and Songkhla. In addition, Thailand 

has about 2,500 mi of inland waterways navigable by small 

boats. Bangkok’s Chao Phraya River and Khlong Saen Saeb 

canal transport over 360,000 passengers daily.

Airways: Thailand has 101

airports and airstrips, of which 

63 have paved runways. The

primary international transit 

hub is Bangkok’s 

Suvarnabhumi Airport, which is 

linked by shuttle to Don Muang 

Airport, serving low-cost 

carriers and domestic flights. 

Other major international hubs include Chiang Mai International 

Airport, Mae Fah Luang–Chiang Rai International Airport, Hat 

Yai International Airport, and Phuket International Airport.

Thailand’s 2 major airlines are Thai Airways and Bangkok 

Airways (Photo: Thai Airways passenger jet).

Energy

Thailand is the world’s 24th largest energy producer, generating 

85% of its electricity from fossil fuels and the remainder through 

hydroelectric plants, renewables, and imports. Thailand is also 

the leading producer of biofuels in Southeast Asia, including 

biodiesel from palm oil and ethanol from molasses and cassava. 

Thailand is the world’s 22nd largest energy consumer and 2nd 

largest in Southeast Asia behind Indonesia. Experts expect 

energy consumption to increase by 75% in the coming decades

as the economy continues to grow and as society becomes more 

affluent. To meet the growing demand, Thailand is expanding oil 

and gas production in the Gulf of Thailand and working to 

develop alternative energy sources.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Media

Following the 2014 coup (see p. 9 of History and Myth), the Thai 

military gained control of the media, blocking any commentary 

deemed divisive, defamatory, or subversive to the government 

or monarchy. Military censorship persists, while many media 

outlets perform self-censorship.

Newspapers are popular in Thailand. With a circulation of over 

1 million daily, the Thai Rath (“Thai State”) is the largest. The 

2nd best-selling paper is the Daily News, followed by Khao Sod

(“Fresh News”) and Matichon. English-language newspapers 

include The Nation and Bangkok Post. The latter was founded 

in 1946 and is Thailand’s oldest newspaper.

TV and Radio: Thailand has 6 state-controlled TV channels 

providing primarily Thai-language programming and countless 

satellite channels, some providing international programming. 

The publicly-owned Mass Communication Organization of 

Thailand (MCOT) is the largest broadcaster. The CTH Public 

Company Limited (CTH) and the privately-owned TrueVisions 

also have extensive reach. Thailand has more than 500 AM and 

FM radio stations. 

Telecommunications

Thailand’s telecommunications 

infrastructure is well developed in 

major urban centers but remains less

developed in rural parts of the North 

and Northeast. Most of the country has 

access to mobile phone networks. 

Notably, Thailand has more mobile 

phone subscriptions (97.1 million) than 

people (68.2 million), indicating some subscribers own multiple 

accounts. Mobile carriers include Advanced Info Service, CAT 

Telecom, Total Access Communication (DTAC), and True Move

(True Corporation) (Photo: A village woman uses a cell phone).

Internet: About 40% of Thai are regular Internet users. 

Broadband (wired) Internet is available in large cities, although 

many rural areas have yet to gain access. About 70% of users 

access the Internet using mobile phones, while the rest use prepaid dial-up cards, Internet cafes, and computers at home.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
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