Rare Earth Element and Rare Metal Inventory of Central Asia

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Fact Sheet 2017–3089

March 2018

Rare earth elements (REE), with 

their unique physical and chemical 

properties, are an essential part of 

modern living. REE have enabled 

development and manufacture 

of high-performance materials, 

processes, and electronic technologies commonly used today in 

computing and communications, 

clean energy and transportation, 

medical treatment and health care, 

glass and ceramics, aerospace 

and defense, and metallurgy and 

chemical refining. Central Asia is 

an emerging REE and rare metals 

(RM) producing region. A newly 

compiled inventory of REE-RMbearing mineral occurrences and 

delineation of areas-of-interest 

indicate this region may have considerable undiscovered resources.

45°E 60°E 75°E 90°E

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RUSSIA

CHINA

IRAN

UZBEKISTAN

TURKMENISTAN

KYRGYZSTAN

AFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

TAJIKISTAN

Figure is

3.75" x 5"

Altay Mountains Altay Mountains

Alborz MountainsAlborz Mountains

Tarim Basin

Kazakh UplandsKazakh Uplands

CASPIAN

SEA

ARAL

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Karatau

Mountains

Hindu Kush Mountains

Tien Shan Mountains

Ural Mountains

Tengiz

Basin

Kunlun Mountains

Karakoram Range

Junggar Basin

DzungarianAlatau Mtns

Pamir Mountains

Kazakh Steppe

Mugodzar Hills Mugodzar Hills

Lake Balkash

0 200 400 KILOMETERS

0 100 200 MILES

Study area

Base from: U.S. Geological Survey, HYDRO1k Geographic Database (1998).

Political boundary source: U.S. Department of State (2009).

World Water Bodies, ESRI (2010).

Projection: Custom Equidistant Conic;

central meridian 69° E; latitude of origin 0.0°; 

datum D. Krasovsky 1940.

Map of central Asia, showing countries, capitals (red stars), larger cities (black dots), and major 

geographic features. 

The Silk Road and REE-RM

Central Asia, situated along the 

historic “Silk Road” trade route, has long 

been a network for the movement and transportation of people, energy, and mineral 

resources between Europe and Asia. Once 

part of the former Soviet Union, this region 

historically produced rare earth elements 

(REE), and is still an important source of 

base and precious metals, as well as rare 

metals (RM).

Today, central Asia is re-emerging as 

a REE-producing region. In the countries 

of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, 

there has been renewed interest in REE 

(and related RM), particularly following 

the REE price run-ups in 2007 and 2009, 

and a dramatic price spike in 2011. These 

countries have since implemented mining 

sector reforms to create a more attractive 

investment environment for domestic and 

foreign mineral exploration and economic 

development. 

High-quality and readily accessible 

information about the geology and mineral resources of the region is essential for 

facilitating reforms, reducing economic 

risk, and stimulating private-sector interest. 

In 2012–13, the U.S. Geological Survey 

(USGS) conducted an evaluation of the 

REE-RM mineral resources of central 

Asia, which included the development of a 

mineral occurrence inventory, and the study 

of related capacity and capacity-building 

needs of the region.

Tectonic Setting

The REE-RM-bearing mineral occurrences of central Asia are products of 

numerous magmatic, metamorphic, and 

sedimentary metallogenic (mineral-deposit 

forming) processes that took place during successive cycles of accretionary and 

extensional orogenesis (mountain building), 

and post-orogenic weathering, erosion, and 

deposition. Flanked by cratons and tectonic 

blocks of Precambrian age, the region consists of younger orogenic belts representing 

numerous continental and oceanic crustal 

fragments that were welded together during 

a complex and episodic history of subduction, accretion, arc- and continent-continent 

collisions, and ocean basin closures in 

Paleozoic and Mesozoic time (see Windley 

and others, 2007). Two of the largest of 

these belts are (1) the Paleozoic Central 

Asian Orogenic Belt, which includes the 

Kazakh Steppe, Kazakh Uplands, and the 

Tien Shan Mountains of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and easternmost Uzbekistan; and 

(2) the late Paleozoic to Mesozoic Tethys 

Orogenic Belt, the central and northern part 

of which includes the Pamir Mountains in 

Tajikistan.

REE-RM Resources

In a global context, domestic REE 

reserves are modest, accounting for about 

10 percent of the world total (Gambogi, 

2014). Currently the United States does 

not produce REE, but is a net importer, 

obtaining its REE raw materials from 

foreign sources, primarily from China. 

Over the past two decades, the importance 

of REE has increased markedly owing to 

(1) high demand for modern technologies 

and advanced materials, of which REE are 

integral components; (2) uncertain supply, given China’s dominance of over 95 

percent of global REE production; and 

(3) the unique electronic, optical, and 
LAKE

BALKASH

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UZBEKISTAN

TURKMENISTAN

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TAJIKISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

TOMAK

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PEGMATITE FIELD 1

1

2

6

magnetic properties of REE, which cannot 

be matched in performance by other metals 

or synthetic materials (Long, 2011). These 

factors have raised international concern 

that new sources of REE outside of China 

must be identified, explored, and assessed 

for economic viability.

Central Asia is of significant interest 

for mineral exploration because it hosts 

known REE-RM-bearing mineral occurrences and is thought to have considerable 

undiscovered resources. The USGS has 

compiled an inventory of 384 occurrences 

in Kazakhstan (160 sites), Kyrgyzstan (75 

sites), Tajikistan (60 sites), Uzbekistan (87 

sites), and Turkmenistan (2 sites), which 

range from mineral showings to previously developed deposits (Mihalasky and 

others, 2017). The most important attributes 

recorded in the inventory include occurrence location, geologic setting, deposit 

type, size, associated commodities, grade, 

mineralogy, and age of mineralization. 

The occurrences are associated with 

at least 16 different deposit types, among 

which 5 broad deposit-type classes are 

recognized: (1) igneous rock-related, (2) 
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Base from: U.S. Geological Survey, HYDRO1k Geographic Database (1998).

Political boundary source: U.S. Department of State (2009).

World Water Bodies, ESRI (2010).

Projection: Custom Equidistant Conic;

central meridian 69° E; latitude of origin 0.0°; 

datum D. Krasovsky 1940.

0 100 200 300 400 KILOMETERS

0 100 200 MILES

Igneous-related

!( Carbonatite

!( Peralkaline-related

!( Alkaline-related

!( Exhalative

!( Granitoid-related

!( Pegmatite

!( Intrusive/mesothermal of uncertain affinity 

!( Volcanic/epithermal of uncertain affinity 

Metamorphic/metasomatic-related

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Sedimentary-related

") Sedimentary phosphate

") Coal

") Sedimentary uranium

") Sedimentary vanadium and(or) molybdenite

Surficial weathering/erosion-related

#* Placer or paleoplacer

#* Weathering crust

Uncertain

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EXPLANATION

REE-RM-bearing mineral occurrences by deposit-type

(deposits labled)

REE-RM belts

Uraltides

Kazakh Steppe

Kazakh Uplands

North Tien Shan

South Tien Shan

Pamir

1

2

3

4

5

6

Alkaline igneous rock and carbonatite

occurrences 

REE-RM mineral resource potential

Areas of intrest (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, 

Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan only)

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Kashi

Almaty

Bishkek

Novosibirsk 

UST-Kamenogorsk

RUSSIA

CHINA

RGYZSTAN

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PAKISTAN

AKTYUZ

SARYSAY

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TOVOE

YUBILEINOE

KUTESSAY II

VERKHNE ESPE

Lake Zaysan

Lake Balkash

Lake Issyk Kol

Figure 3.

11 x 17

2

3

4

5

Lake Alakol

metamorphic/metasomatic-related, (3) 

sedimentary-related, (4) surficial weathering/erosion-related, and (5) uncertain. The 

most common host rocks recorded in the 

inventory are alkaline igneous rocks, their 

weathered derivatives, and metamorphic 

and metasomatic rocks. Occurrences associated with carbonatite and alkaline igneous 

rock-related deposit types generally display 

higher REE grades. The most commonly 

reported REE-RM-bearing minerals 

are monazite, zircon, apatite, xenotime, 

pyrochlore, allanite, and columbite. Ages 

of mineralization range from Cambrian 

through the Quaternary, with most occurrences falling within three broad intervals 

of geologic time: ~570–408 Ma (late 

Proterozoic to early Paleozoic), ~360–248 

Ma (late Paleozoic to early Mesozoic), 

and ~144–38 Ma (late Mesozoic to early 

Tertiary).

REE-RM Resource Potential

In addition to developing an inventory 

of known occurrences, another principal objective of the USGS evaluation of 

Map of central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan) 

showing rare earth element- and rare metal- (REE-RM) bearing mineral occurrences 

and areas-of-interest (AOI) for mineral resource potential. The 384 known REE-RMbearing occurrences include 16 deposit types, which are generalized into 5 broad 

classes. The AOI represent (1) regions where alkaline igneous rocks and carbonatites 

are present (from Kogarko and others, 1995; these rock types are known to be closely 

associated with commercially important REE-RM-bearing deposits worldwide); and 

(2) prospective areas, promising occurrences, and known occurrences identified in 

State agency exploration reports and presentations provided by geoscientists from 

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan at an REE-RM resources workshop, 

hosted by the U.S. Geological Survey, and held at the Kyrgyz National Academy of 

Sciences, Institute of Geology, on September 16–17, 2013, in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. The 

AOI represent mineral potential for all types of REE-RM-bearing occurrences.
ISSN 2327-6916 (print)

ISSN 2327-6932 (online)

https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20173089

K

H

B

He

Ne

Fe Co Ni

Na Mg

Rb Sr

Li Be C N

P

O F

Al

Ca Sc V

Nb

Ti

Fr

Cs Ba

Ra

Y Zr

Cr Mn Cu Zn As Br Kr

Si S Cl Ar

Ga Ge Se

In Sn

At Rn

Sb Te I Xe

Tl Pb Bi Po

Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo

Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd

Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg

Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn

La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb

Hf Ta W

Y

Lu

Actinoids

Lanthanoids

Actinoids

Rare Earth Elements of the Periodic Table

Light REE

Heavy REE

Rare metals sometimes

locally included among

the REE

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Lanthanoids

Periodic table of chemical elements, highlighting the rare earth elements (REE) and related rare 

metals, which are sometimes included among REE in central Asia.

REE-RM mineral resources in central Asia 

was to identify areas-of-interest (AOI) with 

potential for hosting undiscovered deposits 

(see center map caption for the definition of 

an AOI). Six REE-RM metallogenic belts 

containing AOI and REE-RM-bearing mineral occurrences have been delineated: (1) 

the Uraltides Belt, characterized primarily 

by weathered-crust occurrences, exemplified by the large Kundybai deposit; (2) the 

Kazakh Steppe Belt, defined by mainly 

peralkaline, carbonatite, and granitoid 

and other intrusive- and extrusive-related 

prospects and showings, as well as their 

associated metamorphic/metasomatic 

and surficial weathering occurrences; (3) 

the Kazakh Uplands Belt, dominated by 

peralkaline, granitoid, and other igneous 

rock-related and associated metamorphic/

metasomatic occurrences, including the 

peralkaline igneous rock-related Verkhne 

Espe deposit; (4) the North Tien Shan Belt, 

characterized by a wide variety of deposittypes, and which has the largest potential for commercial production from the 

Aktyuz cluster of deposits (this includes the 

peralkaline igneous rock-hosted Kutessay 

II deposit, a past-producer and supplier of 

heavy REE and RM to the former Soviet 

Union); (5) the South Tien Shan Belt, 

host to the greatest number and variety of 

occurrences and deposit-types, including 

peralkaline, granitoid, and other igneous 

rock-related prospects and showings in the 

east and east-central region of the belt, as 

well as pegmatite and sandstone-hosted uranium in the west and west-central region; 

and (6) the Pamir Belt, defined mainly by 

pegmatite, peralkaline igneous rock-related, 

and weathered-crust prospects and showings, including the Sungat granitoid-related 

prospect in the west, and the Agadjan and 

Agandzhan pegmatite prospects associated 

with Dunkeldyk and Pamir Pipes carbonatite complexes in the east.

References Cited

Gambogi, Joseph, 2014, Rare earths, in

Mineral commodity summaries 2014: 

U.S. Geological Survey, p. 128–129.

Kogarko, L.N., Kononova, V.A., Orlova, 

M.P., and Woolley, A.R., 1995, Alkaline rocks of the world, part 2—Former 

Soviet Union: London, Chapman & 

Hall, 226 p.

Long, K.R., 2011, The future of rare earth 

elements—Will these high-tech industry elements continue in short supply?: 

U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2011–1189, 41 p., available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1189/.

Mihalasky, M.J., Orris, G.J., Briggs, 

D.A., Tucker, R.D., Renaud, Karine, 

and Verstraeten, I.M., 2017, Rare earth 

element mineral occurrence database 

of the Tien Shan region, Central Asia: 

U.S. Geological Survey data release, 

available at https://doi.org/10.5066/

F7TM7913.

Windley, B.F., Alexeiev, D., Xiao, W., 

Kroner, A., and Badarch, G., 2007, 

Tectonic models for accretion of the 

Central Asia orogenic belt: London, 

Journal of the Geological Society, v. 

164, p. 31–47.

Additional Information

Contact Dr. Mark J. Mihalasky 

(mjm@usgs.gov) and Dr. Ingrid M. Verstraeten (imverstr@usgs.gov) for additional 

information about this study and USGS 

activities in central Asia.

Acknowledgments

USGS Central Asia REE-RM Team: 

Mark J. Mihalasky, Robert D. Tucker, 

Karine Renaud, and Ingrid M. Verstraeten. 

This study was funded with Economic Support Funds (ESF) from the U.S. Department 

of State project: DOS-1010104105: Rare 

Earth Element (REE) Resources of the Tien 

Shan Region, Central Asia.

Contributors and cooperators: 

Kazakhstan—Ministry of Industry and 

New Technologies, Kazgeology, Kazgeology, Satpaev, Nazarbayev University; 

Kyrgyzstan—State Agency for Geology 

and Mineral Resources, National Academy of Sciences, Stans Energy KG LLC; 

Tajikistan—Head Department for Geology, 

National Academy of Sciences; England—

Centre for Russian and Central EurAsian 

Mineral Studies.

Text prepared by Mark J. Mihalasky. 

Illustrations by John C. Wallis. Technical 

assistance for REE-RM data compilation 

from Deborah Ann Briggs.

Edited by Katherine Jacques

Layout by Vivian Nguyen

The Kutessai II rare earth element-rare 

mineral (REE-RM) mineral deposit, northeast 

of Bishkek, in Kyrgyzstan, on May 29, 2013. The 

currently inactive mine is a Soviet-era openpit operation, approximately 1 kilometer wide 

and 300 meters deep.