Recommended Simpliÿed 

Provisions for Seismic Design 

Category B Buildings 

FEMA P-1091 / September 2017 

FEMA P-1091 

Recommended Simplified Provisions for 

Seismic Design Category B Buildings

Prepared by 

APPLIED TECHNOLOGY COUNCIL 

201 Redwood Shores Parkway, Suite 240 

Redwood City, California 94065 

www.ATCouncil.org

Prepared for 

FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY 

Mai (Mike) Tong, Task Monitor 

Michael Mahoney, Project Officer 

Washington, D.C. 

APPLIED TECHNOLOGY COUNCIL 

Jon A. Heintz 

LEAD AUTHOR 

Peter Somers 

PROJECT REVIEW PANEL 

William T. Holmes 

John D. Hooper 

Kevin Moore 

September 2017 

 
Notice 

Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication do not necessarily 

reflect the views of the Applied Technology Council (ATC), the Department of Homeland Security 

(DHS), or the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Additionally, neither ATC, DHS, 

FEMA, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, expressed or implied, nor assumes any legal 

liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, product, or 

process included in this publication. Users of information from this publication assume all liability 

arising from such use. 

Cover image: Cuckoo House, located in a region of low seismicity, which was damaged in the 2011 

magnitude 5.8 Mineral, Virginia earthquake (photo by Jim Beavers, provided courtesy of the Earthquake 

Engineering Research Institute). 
FEMA P-1091 Foreword iii 

Foreword 

Simplification of seismic design provisions for buildings is desirable for 

anyone who uses the seismic provisions of the building code, including 

structural engineers and local building officials. This goal has been explored 

in various ways over decades through efforts supported by the Federal 

Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) as part of its responsibilities under 

the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) through the 

FEMA-funded NEHRP Provisions Update Committee as well as through 

other code development organizations such as the American Society of Civil 

Engineers/Structural Engineering Institute (ASCE/SEI) 7 Seismic

Subcommittee, as summarized in the Appendix of this document. 

Simplification is a continuing effort in the earthquake engineering 

community. Despite many alternative approaches, directly simplifying 

building code requirements is challenging in that simplicity must not weaken 

the seismic performance of buildings while striving to maintain general 

applicability. For Seismic Design Category (SDC) B, which designates a 

low seismic hazard region, structural engineers still need to complete a full 

seismic design process to meet the building code requirements. Seismic 

design is necessary because earthquakes are a hazard with long return periods 

and large uncertainties, and the sudden occurrence of earthquakes in SDC B 

regions, such as the 2011 Mineral, Virginia earthquake, can cause significant 

damage or collapse if buildings are not properly designed for seismic 

resistance. The recommended simplified seismic design provisions described 

in this FEMA NEHRP document aim to assist structural designers in meeting 

building code requirements for ordinary SDC B buildings without wading 

through the full, complex seismic design process in ASCE/SEI 7.

Forty four of the fifty states in the United States have areas classified as SDC 

B. It is important that Authorities Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) adopt and 

enforce the adequate building codes and consensus design standards for 

protection of buildings from earthquakes and other natural hazards, and that 

design engineers fully comply with code requirements for hazard resistance. 

FEMA is committed to providing technical resources for communities at risk 

from earthquakes to correctly and effectively mitigate and reduce the risks 

associated with this hazard. 
iv Foreword FEMA P-1091 

FEMA is greatly appreciative of the Applied Technology Council and all 

who contributed to this document. A list of participants on this project is 

provided in the back of this document. Improving seismic safety of buildings 

is a collective endeavor of many dedicated professionals, organizations, and 

local communities; we strongly encourage full and effective implementation 

of national design standards and building codes, and look forward to this 

document helping reduce code complexity and increase seismic resilience in 

relevant at-risk communities. 

Federal Emergency Management Agency 
 

Preface 

In 2016, under Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) “Seismic 

Technical Guidance Development and Support” contract (HSFE60-12-D0242), the Applied Technology Council (ATC) was awarded Task Order 

HSFE60-16-J-0237 entitled “Technical Monitoring of New and Existing 

Seismic Building Codes and Related Training” (ATC-136 Project). The 

purpose of this project was to continue FEMA’s support of the model codes 

and consensus standards development processes, and to support other coderelated activities such as outreach and education to ensure that seismic risk is 

adequately addressed at the state and local levels.

In 2009, through the Building Seismic Safety Council (BSSC) of the 

National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS), FEMA initiated a study of 

seismic code provision simplifications. The Simplified Seismic Design 

Procedures Project was intended to generate simplifications to the 2015 

National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) Recommended 

Seismic Provisions for New Buildings and Other Structures. This project 

resulted in the development of specific seismic design requirements for 

Seismic Design Category B (SDC B) buildings. These requirements were 

based on editorial deletions of provisions that are not applicable to SDC B 

buildings, judgmental deletions of provisions that are rarely, if ever, used for 

SDC B buildings, and technical simplifications validated through the use of 

FEMA P-695, Quantification of Building Seismic Performance Factors, to 

demonstrate equivalency.

The simplified provisions were included as Chapter 24 of the 2015 NEHRP 

Provisions, but they were not adopted into ASCE/SEI 7-16, Minimum Design 

Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures. To make 

these provisions available to design engineers, local building officials, the 

2020 BSSC Provisions Update Committee (PUC), and others in the

development of future simplified seismic design provisions, FEMA 

commissioned this work under the ATC-136 Project to update Chapter 24 for 

consistency with ASCE/SEI 7-16, and to publish the resulting provisions as a 

stand-alone document for future reference. 

ATC is indebted to the leadership of Peter Somers, who served as lead author 

for the work, and to the members of the Project Review Panel, including Bill 

FEMA P-1091 Preface v 
Holmes, John Hooper, and Kevin Moore, for their efforts in reviewing and 

advising on the resulting changes. 

ATC also gratefully acknowledges Mai (Mike) Tong (FEMA Task Monitor) 

and Mike Mahoney (FEMA Project Officer) for their input and guidance in 

the preparation of this report, and Carrie Perna for ATC report production 

services.

Jon A. Heintz 

ATC Executive Director

vi Preface FEMA P-1091 
FEMA P-1091 Table of Contents vii 

Table of Contents 

Foreword ....................................................................................................... iii 

Preface .............................................................................................................v 

1. Introduction ...................................................................................... 1-1 

1.1 Background and Purpose .......................................................... 1-1 

1.1.1 Scope of Chapter 24 Provisions .................................. 1-2 

1.1.2 Building Seismic Safety Council Development .......... 1-2 

1.1.3 Trial Design Studies .................................................... 1-4 

1.2 Updates Based on ASCE/SEI 7-16........................................... 1-5 

1.3 Use of Chapter 24 Provisions ................................................... 1-5 

1.3.1 Alternative to Seismic Design Provisions ................... 1-5 

1.3.2 Applicability to Building Codes .................................. 1-6 

2. Simplified Provisions and Commentary ........................................ 2-1 

2.1 Chapter 24 Alternative Seismic Design Requirements for 

Seismic Design Category B Buildings ..................................... 2-1 

2.2 Figures and Tables for Chapter 24 Alternative Seismic 

Design Requirements for Seismic Design Category B 

Buildings ................................................................................ 2-23 

2.3 Commentary to Chapter 24 Alternative Seismic Design 

Requirements for Seismic Design Category B Buildings ...... 2-29 

3. Recommendations for Future Improvement ................................. 3-1 

3.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 3-1 

3.2 Recommendations .................................................................... 3-2 

3.2.1 Structural Systems Included in the Procedure ............. 3-2 

3.2.2 Analysis Procedures and Requirements ...................... 3-2 

3.2.3 Configuration Requirements ....................................... 3-3 

3.2.4 Foundations ................................................................. 3-4 

Appendix A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions ....................... A-1 

A.1 Introduction ............................................................................. A-1 

A.2 New Studies Began in 2009 .................................................... A-3 

A.3 Framework Report ................................................................... A-4 

A.3.1 Further Simplification of ASCE/SEI 7-10, 

Section 12.14 .............................................................. A-4 

A.3.2 Development of Stand-Alone Design Provisions for 

Low and Moderate Seismic Regions .......................... A-5

A.3.3 Development of Stand-Alone Design Provisions for 

Low Seismic Regions ................................................. A-5 

A.3.4 Development of Stand-Alone Design Provisions for 

Buildings with Rigid Walls and Flexible 

Diaphragms ................................................................ A-5 
viii Table of Contents FEMA P-1091 

A.3.5 Development of Stand-Alone Design Provisions for 

Wood-Frame Buildings .............................................. A-6 

A.3.6 Use of the Ratio of Bearing Walls to Floor Area as 

a Primary Design Requirement ................................... A-7 

A.3.7 Reduce Material Detailing Requirements (to 

Achieve Ductility) with Use of Lower R Factors ....... A-7 

A.3.8 Options Studied .......................................................... A-8 

A.3.9 Conclusions from the Simplified Seismic Design 

Provisions Project (2009-2015) ................................ A-15 

A.4 Other Efforts to Simplify Seismic Design Procedures .......... A-16 

A.5 The Future of Simplified Seismic Design Provisions ............ A-17 

A.6 Acknowledgments ................................................................. A-18 

References .................................................................................................. B-1 

Project Participants ................................................................................... C-1 
FEMA P-1091 1: Introduction 1-1 

Chapter 1 

Introduction 

1.1 Background and Purpose 

Code complexity has become an issue in recent years, and seismic provisions 

are no exception. Part of the issue is that engineers in regions of low 

seismicity are required to read and interpret complex seismic provisions 

intended for regions of high seismicity because the design requirements for 

all seismic design categories are presented together. 

To help remedy this problem, a new Chapter 24, entitled Alternative Seismic 

Design Requirements for Seismic Design Category (SDC) B Buildings, was 

developed and subsequently approved for the 2015 National Earthquake 

Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) Recommended Seismic Provisions for 

New Buildings and Other Structures (FEMA, 2015a). Seismic Design 

Category B (SDC B) structures are located in regions of low seismicity, and 

include all buildings in these areas except Risk Category IV (essential 

occupancies). The area covered by SDC B design criteria applies to much of 

the densely populated eastern United States, so a very large number of 

buildings would potentially be affected. Chapter 24 was intended to provide 

separate seismic provisions in Seismic Design Category B, so that engineers 

could design SDC B buildings without having to “wade through” all of the 

provisions related to higher seismic design categories that are not applicable 

to SDC B buildings. 

The purpose of this publication is to summarize and explain the development 

of simplified seismic design provisions, update the current Chapter 24 

provisions for consistency with ASCE/SEI 7-16, Minimum Design Loads and 

Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE, 2016), and 

recommend possible future updates based on currently available information. 

It has three main parts, as follows: 

 Introduction to the simplified provisions (Chapter 1) 

 Updated Chapter 24 provisions and commentary (Chapter 2) 

 Recommendations for future updates to the simplified provisions

(Chapter 3) 
1-2 1: Introduction FEMA P-1091 

When excerpted from the NEHRP Provisions, “Chapter 24” has little 

meaning, but the numbering and formatting of Chapter 24 has been retained 

in this publication for future reference, and to remind readers of its source. 

1.1.1 Scope of Chapter 24 Provisions 

When taken in their entirety, the seismic design requirements in Chapter 24 

of the NEHRP Provisions were judged equivalent to those in Chapters 12 

and 13 of ASCE/SEI 7-10, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other 

Structures (ASCE, 2010) for SDC B buildings by the 2010-2015 Provisions 

Update Committee (PUC). The Chapter 24 requirements in this report have 

been updated for consistency with ASCE/SEI 7-16, and are judged to have a 

similar degree of equivalence (see Section 1.2). 

The simplified provisions in Chapter 24 are considered equivalent to the 

procedures in ASCE/SEI 7, but differ in two ways. First, the text and 

requirements presented in Chapter 24 are substantially shorter and less 

complex, because the chapter has been editorially simplified to include only 

those requirements that apply in Seismic Design Category B. Second, some 

of the seismic design requirements have been eliminated, or simplified, based 

on technical study. 

The provisions in Chapter 24 are required to be followed in their entirety 

without exception. If designers choose to use any provisions in Chapters 12 

or 13 of ASCE/SEI 7 that are not included in Chapter 24, then the design 

must comply with all of the requirements for SDC B structures in Chapters 

12 and 13. It should be noted that the Chapter 24 provisions are completely 

separate from the simplified design procedure in Section 12.14 of ASCE/SEI 

7, which can be used for all Seismic Design Categories. 

The Chapter 24 provisions do not modify in any way the material-specific 

requirements and material design standards referenced in Chapter 14 of 

ASCE/SEI 7. Nonbuilding structures (Chapter 15 of ASCE/SEI 7),

seismically isolated structures (Chapter 17 of ASCE/SEI 7), and structures 

with damping systems (Chapter 18 of ASCE/SEI 7) are not permitted to be 

designed using the alternative provisions in Chapter 24. 

1.1.2 Building Seismic Safety Council Development 

Beginning in 2009, through the Building Seismic Safety Council (BSSC) of 

the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS), FEMA initiated a new 

study of seismic code provision simplifications that was intended to be more 

comprehensive than previous studies. The Simplified Seismic Design 

Procedures Project was primarily intended to generate simplifications to the 
FEMA P-1091 1: Introduction 1-3 

2015 NEHRP Provisions, but was also intended to test the viability of 

various methods of simplification, including the use of stand-alone 

provisions for individual building types, and the use of procedures in FEMA 

P-695, Quantification of Building Seismic Performance Factors (FEMA, 

2009) to prove equivalency. The study included review of input on the 

subject received by FEMA since 2000, articles and papers discussing 

simplified design, new input from different regions of the country, and 

consideration of various resources currently available to assist engineers with 

seismic design. 

Several options for simplification were identified. In general, the project 

focused on simplification of the provisions in the main body of code 

requirements contained in the NEHRP Provisions, particularly those 

considering the capabilities of FEMA P-695. Obvious opportunities to 

simplify, or eliminate, material-specific detailing requirements were also 

considered. A summary of Simplified Seismic Design Procedures Project is 

provided in Appendix A. 

One option consisted of the development of specific seismic design 

requirements for SDC B buildings. These requirements could be developed 

in a stand-alone document, or as a special section of the current seismic 

design provisions. In either case, only the seismic design requirements for 

SDC B would be included, and the resulting provisions would be expected to 

be much shorter than provisions covering all Seismic Design Categories. 

This option could be pursued by editorial or technical changes to the seismic 

design requirements in ASCE/SEI 7-10. 

In this study, several concepts were considered for minimizing the provisions 

needed to design SDC B buildings: 

 Editorial Deletions. Provisions that are not applicable to SDC B 

structures could simply be removed. For example, there are nine pages 

of provisions covering nonstructural components in ASCE/SEI 7, but 

only parapets and exit stairs are specifically addressed in Seismic Design 

Category B. As a result, the necessary nonstructural provisions for SDC 

B structures could be covered in less than one page of material. 

 Judgmental Deletions. Because SDC B provisions are intended to be an 

option to the use of the full code, provisions that are rarely, if ever, used 

could also be removed. If needed in rare cases, or for an unusual 

building, the provisions of the full code could always be implemented. 

As an example, there are many structural systems listed in the “R-factor 

table” (officially titled, “Design Coefficients and Factors for Seismic 

Force-Resisting Systems”) that are never, or rarely, used in Seismic 
1-4 1: Introduction FEMA P-1091 

Design Category B. These include archaic systems (e.g., plain concrete 

shear walls) and high ductility systems (e.g., special moment frames of 

concrete or steel). As a result, the R-factor table for SDC B structures 

could be reduced from 83 systems to 36 systems. 

 Technical Simplifications. The availability of FEMA P-695 created a 

method for evaluating the significance of potential technical 

simplifications and for determining the equivalency of technical changes. 

As one example, FEMA P-695 analyses were used to determine that

consideration of accidental torsion is not required unless the building has 

an Extreme Torsional Irregularity. 

The Simplified Seismic Design Procedures Project resulted in acceptance of 

a proposal to add a stand-alone chapter to the 2015 NEHRP Provisions for 

design of SDC B buildings. The resulting simplified provisions consisted of 

35 pages as an alternate to the full seismic provisions, which were spread 

over 11 chapters comprising 87 pages. 

1.1.3 Trial Design Studies 

To test the merit of the concept and efficiency of the technical changes, four 

engineering firms practicing in SDC B regions were commissioned to 

perform trial designs using the simplified provisions (BSSC, 2015). The 

buildings used in the trial designs were previously designed using the full 

provisions of the code. Trial design buildings included the following seismic 

systems: 

 a three-story steel moment frame (R = 3); 

 a four-story wood light-frame shear wall (R = 6.5); 

 a four-story ordinary reinforced concrete shear wall (R = 4); 

 a six-story steel braced frame (R = 3). 

The results of the trial design studies can be summarized as follows: 

 The resulting designs did not differ significantly from the original 

designs completed using the full provisions of the code. 

 The stand-alone format was viewed very favorably. Trial design

engineers suggested that such a format would prevent omissions of 

requirements and prevent confusion over mixing requirements from 

different Seismic Design Categories. Trial design engineers uniformly 

reported that they would use such provisions if they were code-approved. 

 Most trial design engineers suggested additional judgmental deletions to 

further simplify the provisions on the basis that the referenced provisions 
FEMA P-1091 1: Introduction 1-5 

were seldom used. These recommendations are addressed in Chapter 3 

of this publication. 

1.2 Updates Based on ASCE/SEI 7-16 

In this publication, Chapter 24 of the 2015 NEHRP Provisions (originally 

developed to be compatible with ASCE/SEI 7-10) have been updated for 

consistency with ASCE/SEI 7-16. In performing these updates, the 

following approaches were used: 

 Updates were made to Chapter 24 to match technical changes to the same 

sections in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 12. 

 Following the same logic used in the development of the original 

Chapter 24 (see Section 1.1.2), some judgement was utilized in 

determining which updates in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 12 were 

appropriate for inclusion in the provisions for SDC buildings. Specific 

examples are listed below. 

 There were no changes to ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 13 for SDC B, so the 

nonstructural portion of Chapter 24 remained unchanged. 

There were several significant updates in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 12 that 

could be applicable to SDC B buildings, but were not incorporated into 

Chapter 24 of this publication because they were judged to be unnecessary 

for SDC B or not commonly used in SDC B. The following changes in 

ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 12 were not included in Chapter 24: 

 Alternate Structural Systems (Section 12.2.1.1) 

 Linear Response History Analysis (Section 12.9.2) 

 Strength Design for Foundation Geotechnical Capacity (Section 12.13.5) 

Provisions contained in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapters 12 and 13, which have not 

been explicitly included in Chapter 24, cannot be used in conjunction with 

Chapter 24 provisions for design. 

1.3 Use of Chapter 24 Provisions 

1.3.1 Alternative to Seismic Design Provisions 

Chapter 24 provisions are intended as an alternate to seismic design 

provisions contained in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapters 12 and 13. Chapter 24 

provisions, however, are not fully self-contained, and the use of Chapter 24 

still requires the use of other chapters in ASCE/SEI 7-16. To use Chapter 24, 

ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 11 must first be used to determine seismic ground 

motions (Section 11.4), importance factor and risk category (Section 11.5), 
1-6 1: Introduction FEMA P-1091 

and seismic design category (Section 11.6). Additionally, loads calculated in 

accordance with Chapter 24 provisions must be used considering ASCE/SEI 

7-16 Chapter 2, Combinations of Loads. 

Once Seismic Design Category B is confirmed, then, in accordance with 

ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 11.1.4, engineers may choose to use Chapter 24 as 

an alternate to ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapters 12 and 13. Use of Chapter 24 is 

subject to the following limitations: 

 The selected seismic force-resisting system must be listed in Table 

24.3-1. 

 The analysis must be based on one of the procedures listed in Section 

24.7. 

 The seismic design of nonstructural components is limited to egress 

stairways, and parapets, which are the minimum requirements in SDC B. 

 All of the provisions of Chapter 24 must be followed, and no provisions, 

exceptions, or alternates contained in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapters 12 and 

13 are permitted. There must not be any mixing of Chapter 24 

provisions and ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapters 12 and 13 provisions. 

Additional information on the application and limitations of this procedure 

are contained in the Chapter 24 text and commentary provided in Chapter 2 

of this publication. 

1.3.2 Applicability to Building Codes 

To regulate building construction in the United States, Chapter 24 provisions 

must be specifically adopted into an applicable building code, or adopted into 

a reference standard, such as ASCE/SEI 7-16. A change to adopt Chapter 24 

provisions into ASCE/SEI 7 was proposed in 2014, but this proposal was not 

successful because of arguments that: (1) simplification of the seismic code 

was not needed; and (2) parallel methods of design represented by a standalone chapter would create unwarranted ongoing risk of inconsistent 

updating and potential for a double standard. At present, engineers that want 

to use Chapter 24 provisions will need to obtain approval from local building 

officials regarding equivalency and acceptability based on the Alternate 

Materials and Methods of Construction provisions in Section 11.1.4 of 

ASCE/SEI 7-16. 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-1 

Chapter 2 

Simplified Provisions and 

Commentary 

This chapter contains the full text and commentary of Chapter 24 Alternate 

Seismic Design Requirements for Seismic Design Category B Buildings, 

updated for consistency with ASCE/SEI 7-16. The provisions and

commentary herein maintain the Chapter 24 format and numbering for 

consistency with the 2015 NEHRP Provisions. References to chapter, 

section, table, figure, and equation numbers that are not in Chapter 24, are 

referring to the relevant chapters, sections, tables, figures, and equations in 

ASCE/SEI 7-16. 

2.1 Chapter 24 Alternative Seismic Design Requirements 

for Seismic Design Category B Buildings 

24.1 GENERAL 

24.1.1 Scope and Applicability 

The seismic analysis and design requirements in this chapter are permitted to be used 

in lieu of the requirements in Chapter 12 and Chapter 13 for the seismic analysis and 

design of structures assigned to Seismic Design Category B and for the design of 

parapets and egress stairways attached to those structures. Nonbuilding structures as 

defined in Chapter 15 and below, seismically isolated structures as defined in 

Chapter 17, and structures with damping systems as defined in Chapter 18, are not 

permitted to be designed by the procedures in this chapter. 

 Where the weight of a nonstructural component is greater than or equal to 25 

percent of the effective seismic weight, W, of the structure as defined in Section 

24.8.2, the component shall be classified as a nonbuilding structure and is not 

permitted to be designed in accordance with Chapter 24. 

24.1.2 Symbols 

The unit dimensions used with the items covered by the symbols shall be consistent 

throughout except where specifically noted. Symbols presented in this section apply 

only to the seismic provisions of Chapters 24. 

ap = the amplification factor related to the response of a system or component 

as affected by the type of seismic attachment, determined in Section 

24.15.3 

Cd = deflection amplification factor as given in Tables 24.3-1 

Cs = seismic response coefficient determined in Section 24.9.1.1 

(dimensionless) 

Ct = building period coefficient in Section 24.9.2.1 
2-2 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

Cvx = vertical distribution factor as determined in Section 24.9.3

D = the effect of dead load 

Dp = relative seismic displacement that a component must be designed to 

accommodate (Section 24.15.4)

DpI = seismic relative displacement; see Section 24.15.4 

E = effect of horizontal and vertical earthquake-induced forces (Section 24.5) 

Em = seismic load effect including overstrength factor (Section 24.5.3) 

Fa = short-period site coefficient (at 0.2-s period); see ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 

11.4.3 

Fi, Fn, Fx = portion of the seismic base shear, V, induced at level i, n, or x, 

respectively, as determined in Section 24.9.3 

Fp = the seismic force acting on a component of a structure as determined in 

Sections 24.12.1 and 24.15.3 

Fpx = diaphragm seismic design force at Level x 

Fv = long-period site coefficient (at 1.0-s period); see ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 

11.4.3 

G = s

2

/g = the average shear modulus for the soils beneath the foundation at 

large strain levels (psf or Pa) 

g = acceleration due to gravity 

h = average roof height of structure with respect to the base; see Section 

24.15 

hi, hx = the height above the base to level i or x, respectively 

hn = structural height as defined in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 11.2 

hsx = the story height below level x = (hx – hx–1) 

Ie = the importance factor as prescribed in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 11.5.1 

i = the building level referred to by the subscript i; i = 1 designates the first 

level above the base 

k = distribution exponent given in Section 24.9.3 

ka = coefficient defined in Sections 24.12.2 

Lf = the span, in feet, of a flexible diaphragm that provides the lateral support 

for the wall; 

Mt = torsional moment resulting from eccentricity between the locations of 

center of mass and the center of rigidity (Section 24.9.4.1) 

Mta = accidental torsional moment as determined in Section 24.9.4.2 

n = designation for the level that is uppermost in the main portion of the 

building 

Pf = flat roof snow load 

Px = total unfactored vertical design load at and above level x, for use in 

Section 24.9.7 

QE = effect of horizontal seismic (earthquake-induced) forces 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-3 

R = response modification coefficient as given in Tables 24.3-1 

Rp = component response modification factor as defined in Section 24.15.3 

S1 = mapped MCER, 5% damped, spectral response acceleration parameter at a 

period of 1 s as defined in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 11.4.1 

SDS = design, 5% damped, spectral response acceleration parameter at short 

periods as defined in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 11.4.4 

SD1 = design, 5% damped, spectral response acceleration parameter at a period 

of 1 s as defined in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 11.4.4 

T = the fundamental period of the building 

Ta = approximate fundamental period of the building as determined in Section 

24.9.2 

V = total design lateral force or shear at the base 

Vt = design value of the seismic base shear as determined in Section 24.10.4.1 

Vx = seismic design shear in story x as determined in Section 24.9.4 

W = effective seismic weight of the building as defined in Section 24.8.2. 

Wp = component operating weight or weight of wall tributary to an anchor (lb 

or N) 

Wpx = weight tributary to the diaphragm at Level x

wi, wn, wx = portion of W that is located at or assigned to level i, n, or x, 

respectively 

x = level under consideration, 1 designates the first level above the base 

x = building period coefficient in Section 24.9.2.1 

z = height in structure of point of attachment of component with respect to the 

base; see Section 24.15.3 

β = ratio of shear demand to shear capacity for the story between levels x and 

x – 1 

 = design story drift as determined in Section 24.9.6 

a = allowable story drift as specified in Section 24.13.1 

ADVE = average drift of adjoining vertical elements of the seismic forceresisting system over the story below the diaphragm under consideration, 

under tributary lateral load equivalent to that used in the computation of 

MDD Fig. 24.4-1 (in. or mm) 

MDD = computed maximum in-plane deflection of the diaphragm under lateral 

load, Fig. 24.4-1 (in. or mm) 

max = maximum displacement at level x, considering torsion, Section 24.13.3 

M = maximum inelastic response displacement, considering torsion, Section 

24.13.3 

MT = total separation distance between adjacent structures on the same 

property, Section 24.13.3 

x = deflection of level x at the center of the mass at and above level x, 

Eq. (24.9-9) 
2-4 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

xe = deflection of level x at the center of the mass at and above level x

determined by an elastic analysis, Section 24.9.6 

 = stability coefficient for P-delta effects as determined in Section 24.9.7 

max = maximum value of stability coefficient for P-delta effects 

0 = overstrength factor as defined in Tables 24.3-1 

24.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN BASIS 

24.2.1 Basic Requirements 

The building structure shall include complete lateral and vertical force-resisting 

systems capable of providing adequate strength, stiffness, and energy dissipation 

capacity to withstand the design ground motions within the prescribed limits of 

deformation and strength demand. The design ground motions shall be assumed to 

occur along any horizontal direction of a building structure. The adequacy of the 

structural systems shall be demonstrated through the construction of a mathematical 

model and evaluation of this model for the effects of design ground motions. The 

design seismic forces, and their distribution over the height of the building structure, 

shall be established in accordance with one of the applicable procedures indicated in 

Section 24.7 and the corresponding internal forces and deformations in the members 

of the structure shall be determined. An approved alternative procedure shall not be 

used to establish the seismic forces and their distribution unless the corresponding 

internal forces and deformations in the members are determined using a model 

consistent with the procedure adopted. 

24.2.2 Member Design, Connection Design, and Deformation Limit 

Individual members, including those not part of the seismic force–resisting system, 

shall be provided with adequate strength to resist the shears, axial forces, and 

moments determined in accordance with this standard, and connections shall develop 

the strength of the connected members or the forces indicated in Section 24.2.1. The 

deformation of the structure shall not exceed the prescribed limits where the 

structure is subjected to the design seismic forces. 

24.2.3 Continuous Load Path and Interconnection 

A continuous load path, or paths, with adequate strength and stiffness shall be 

provided to transfer all forces from the point of application to the final point of 

resistance. All parts of the structure between separation joints shall be interconnected 

to form a continuous path to the seismic force-resisting system, and the connections 

shall be capable of transmitting the seismic force (Fp) induced by the parts being 

connected. Any smaller portion of the structure shall be tied to the remainder of the 

structure with elements having a design strength capable of transmitting a seismic 

force of 5 percent of the weight of the smaller portion. This connection force does 

not apply to the overall design of the seismic force-resisting system. Connection 

design forces need not exceed the maximum forces that the structural system can 

deliver to the connection. 

24.2.4 Connection to Supports 

A positive connection for resisting a horizontal force acting parallel to the member 

shall be provided for each beam, girder, or truss either directly to its supporting 

elements, or to slabs designed to act as diaphragms. Where the connection is through 

a diaphragm, then the member’s supporting element must also be connected to the 

diaphragm. The connection shall have a minimum design strength of 5 percent of the 

dead plus live load reaction. 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-5 

24.2.5 Foundation Design 

The foundation shall be designed to resist the forces developed and accommodate the 

movements imparted to the structure by the design ground motions. The dynamic 

nature of the forces, the expected ground motion, the design basis for strength and 

energy dissipation capacity of the structure, and the dynamic properties of the soil 

shall be included in the determination of the foundation design criteria. The design 

and construction of foundations shall comply with Section 24.14. 

 When calculating load combinations using the load combinations specified in 

ASCE/SEI 7-16 Sections 2.3 or 2.4, the weights of foundations shall be considered 

dead loads in accordance with ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 3.1.2. The dead loads are 

permitted to include overlying fill and paving materials 

24.2.6 Material Design and Detailing Requirements 

Structural elements including foundation elements shall conform to the material 

design and detailing requirements set forth in Chapter 14. 

24.3 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM SELECTION 

24.3.1 Selection and Limitations 

The basic lateral and vertical seismic force-resisting system shall conform to one of 

the types indicated in Table 24.3-1 or a combination of systems as permitted in 

Sections 24.3.2, 24.3.3, and 24.3.4. Each type is subdivided by the types of vertical 

elements used to resist lateral seismic forces. The structural system used shall be in 

accordance with the structural system limitations and the limits on structural height, 

hn, contained in Table 24.3-1. The appropriate response modification coefficient, R, 

overstrength factor, 0, and the deflection amplification factor, Cd, indicated in 

Table 24.3-1 shall be used in determining the base shear, element design forces, and 

design story drift. 

 Each selected seismic force-resisting system shall be designed and detailed in 

accordance with the specific requirements for the system as set forth in the 

applicable reference document listed in Table 24.3-1 and the additional requirements 

set forth in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 14 material-specific design and detailing 

requirements. 

24.3.2 Combinations of Framing Systems in Different Directions

Different seismic force-resisting systems are permitted to be used to resist seismic 

forces along each of the two orthogonal axes of the structure. Where different 

systems are used, the respective R, Cd, and 0 coefficients shall apply to each 

system, including the structural system limitations contained in Table 24.3-1. 

24.3.3 Combinations of Framing Systems in the Same Direction 

Where different seismic force-resisting systems are used in combination to resist 

seismic forces in the same direction, other than those combinations considered as 

dual systems, the most stringent applicable structural system limitations contained in 

Table 24.3-1 shall apply and the design shall comply with the requirements of this 

section. 

24.3.3.1 R, Cd, and Ω0Values for Vertical Combinations 

Where a structure has a vertical combination in the same direction, the following 

requirements shall apply: 

1. Where the lower system has a lower Response Modification Coefficient, R, 
2-6 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

the design coefficients (R, 0, and Cd) for the upper system are permitted to 

be used to calculate the forces and drifts of the upper system. For the design 

of the lower system, the design coefficients (R, 0, and Cd) for the lower 

system shall be used. Forces transferred from the upper system to the lower 

system shall be increased by multiplying by the ratio of the higher response 

modification coefficient to the lower response modification coefficient. 

2. Where the upper system has a lower Response Modification Coefficient, the 

Design Coefficients (R, 0, and Cd) for the upper system shall be used for 

both systems. 

EXCEPTIONS: 

1. Rooftop structures not exceeding two stories in height and 10 percent of the 

total structure weight. 

2. Other supported structural systems with a weight equal to or less than 10 

percent of the weight of the structure. 

3. Detached one- and two-family dwellings of light-frame construction. 

24.3.3.2 Two Stage Analysis Procedure 

A two-stage equivalent lateral force procedure is permitted to be used for structures 

having a flexible upper portion above a rigid lower portion, provided the design of 

the structure complies with all of the following: 

 The stiffness of the lower portion shall be at least 10 times the stiffness of 

the upper portion. 

 The period of the entire structure shall not be greater than 1.1 times the 

period of the upper portion considered as a separate structure supported at 

the transition from the upper to the lower portion. 

 The upper portion shall be designed as a separate structure using the 

appropriate value of R. 

 The lower portion shall be designed as a separate structure using the 

appropriate value of R. The reactions from the upper portion shall be those 

determined from the analysis of the upper portion amplified by the ratio of 

R of the upper portion over R of the lower portion. This ratio shall not be 

less than 1.0. 

 The upper portion is analyzed with the equivalent lateral force or modal 

response spectrum procedure, and the lower portion is analyzed with the 

equivalent lateral force procedure. 

24.3.3.3 R, Cd, and Ω0 Values for Horizontal Combinations 

The value of the response modification coefficient, R, used for design in the direction 

under consideration shall not be greater than the least value of R for any of the 

systems utilized in that direction. The deflection amplification factor, Cd, and the 

overstrength factor, 0, shall be consistent with R required in that direction. 

EXCEPTION: Resisting elements are permitted to be designed using the least 

value of R for the different structural systems found in each independent line of 

resistance if the following three conditions are met: (1) Risk Category I or II 

building; (2) two stories or less above grade plane; and (3) use of light-frame 

construction or flexible diaphragms. The value of R used for design of diaphragms 

in such structures shall not be greater than the least value of R for any of the systems 

utilized in that same direction. 

24.3.4 Combination Framing Detailing Requirements 

Structural members common to different framing systems used to resist seismic 

forces in any direction shall be designed using the detailing requirements of this 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-7 

chapter required by the highest response modification coefficient, R, of the 

connected framing systems. 

24.3.5 System Specific Requirements 

The structural framing system shall also comply with the following system specific 

requirements of this section. 

24.3.5.1 Dual System 

For a dual system, the moment frames shall be capable of resisting at least 25 percent 

of the design seismic forces. The total seismic force resistance is to be provided by 

the combination of the moment frames and the shear walls or braced frames in 

proportion to their rigidities. 

24.3.5.2 Cantilever Column Systems 

Cantilever column systems are permitted as indicated in Table 24.3-1 and as follows. 

The required axial strength of individual cantilever column elements, considering 

only the load combinations that include seismic load effects, shall not exceed 15 

percent of the available axial strength, including slenderness effects. 

 Foundation and other elements used to provide overturning resistance at the base 

of cantilever column elements shall be designed to resist the seismic load effects 

including overstrength factor of Section 24.5.3. 

24.3.5.3 Inverted Pendulum-Type Structures 

Regardless of the structural system selected, inverted pendulums as defined in 

ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 11.2, shall comply with this section. Supporting columns or 

piers of inverted pendulum-type structures shall be designed for the bending moment 

calculated at the base determined using the procedures given in Section 24.9 and 

varying uniformly to a moment at the top equal to one-half the calculated bending 

moment at the base. 

24.3.5.4 Shear Wall-Frame Interactive Systems 

The shear strength of the shear walls of the shear wall-frame interactive system shall 

be at least 75 percent of the design story shear at each story. The frames of the shear 

wall-frame interactive system shall be capable of resisting at least 25 percent of the 

design story shear in every story. 

24.4 DIAPHRAGM FLEXIBILITY AND CONFIGURATION 

IRREGULARITIES 

24.4.1 Diaphragm Flexibility 

The structural analysis shall consider the relative stiffnesses of diaphragms and the 

vertical elements of the seismic force-resisting system. Unless a diaphragm can be 

idealized as either flexible or rigid in accordance with Sections 24.4.1.1, 24.4.1.2, or 

24.4.1.3, the structural analysis shall explicitly include consideration of the stiffness 

of the diaphragm (i.e., semirigid modeling assumption). 

24.4.1.1 Flexible Diaphragm Condition 

Diaphragms constructed of untopped steel decking or wood structural panels are 

permitted to be idealized as flexible if any of the following conditions exist: 

1. In structures where the vertical elements are steel braced frames, steel and 

concrete composite braced frames or concrete, masonry, steel, or steel and 
2-8 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

concrete composite shear walls. 

2. In one- and two-family dwellings. 

3. In structures of light-frame construction where all of the following 

conditions are met: 

a. Topping of concrete or similar materials is not placed over wood 

structural panel diaphragms except for nonstructural topping no greater 

than 1 1/2 in. (38 mm) thick. 

b. Each line of vertical elements of the seismic force-resisting system 

complies with the allowable story drift of Table 24.13-1. 

24.4.1.2 Rigid Diaphragm Condition 

Diaphragms of concrete slabs or concrete filled metal deck with span-to-depth ratios 

of 3 or less in structures that have no horizontal irregularities are permitted to be 

idealized as rigid. 

24.4.1.3 Calculated Flexible Diaphragm Condition 

Diaphragms not satisfying the conditions of Sections 24.4.1.1 or 24.4.1.2 are 

permitted to be idealized as flexible provided: 

2 MDD

ADVE





 (24.4-1) 

Where MDD and ADVE are as shown in Fig. 24.4-1. The loadings used for this 

calculation shall be those prescribed by Section 24.9. 

24.4.2 Irregular and Regular Classification 

Structures shall be classified as having a structural irregularity based upon the 

criteria in this section. Such classification shall be based on their structural 

configurations. 

24.4.2.1 Horizontal Irregularity 

Structures having one or more of the irregularity types listed in Table 24.4-1 shall be 

designated as having a horizontal structural irregularity. Such structures shall comply 

with the requirements in the sections referenced in that table.

24.4.2.2 Vertical Irregularity 

Structures having one or more of the irregularity types listed in Table 24.4-2 shall be 

designated as having a vertical structural irregularity. Such structures shall comply 

with the requirements in the sections referenced in that table.

24.4.3 Limitations and Additional Requirements for Systems with 

Structural Irregularities 

24.4.3.1 Extreme Weak Stories 

Structures with a vertical irregularity Type 5b as defined in Table 24.4-2, shall not be 

over two stories or 30 ft (9 m) in structural height, hn. 

EXCEPTION: The limit does not apply where the “weak” story is capable of 

resisting a total seismic force equal to 0 times the design force prescribed in Section 

24.9. 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-9 

24.4.3.2 Elements Supporting Discontinuous Walls or Frames 

Columns, beams, trusses, or slabs supporting discontinuous walls or frames of 

structures having horizontal irregularity Type 4 of Table 24.4-1 or vertical 

irregularity Type 4 of Table 24.4-2 shall be designed to resist the seismic load effects 

including overstrength factor of Section 24.5.3. The connections of such 

discontinuous elements to the supporting members shall be adequate to transmit the 

forces for which the discontinuous elements were required to be designed. 

24.5 SEISMIC LOAD EFFECTS AND COMBINATIONS 

24.5.1 Applicability 

All members of the structure, including those not part of the seismic force-resisting 

system, shall be designed using the seismic load effects of Section 24.5 unless 

otherwise exempted by this chapter. Seismic load effects are the axial, shear, and 

flexural member forces resulting from application of horizontal and vertical seismic 

forces as set forth in Section 24.5.2. Where specifically required, seismic load effects 

shall be modified to account for overstrength, as set forth in Section 24.5.3. 

24.5.2 Seismic Load Effect 

For use in load combinations 6 and 7 in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 2.3.6 and load 

combinations 8, 9, and 10 in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 2.4.5, the seismic load effect, 

E, shall be determined, based only on horizontal seismic forces, in accordance with 

Eq. 24.5-1 as follows: 

E = QE (24.5-1) 

where 

E = seismic load effect 

QE = effects of horizontal seismic forces from V or Fp. 

24.5.3 Seismic Load Effect Including Overstrength Factor 

Where specifically required and for use in load combinations 6 and 7 in ASCE/SEI 

7-16 Section 2.3.6 and load combinations 8, 9, and 10 in ASCE/SEI 7-16 2.4.5, 

conditions requiring overstrength factor applications shall be determined based only 

on horizontal seismic forces in accordance with the following: 

Em = 0QE (24.5-2) 

where 

Em = seismic load effect including overstrength factor 

QE = effects of horizontal seismic forces from V, Fpx, or Fp as specified in 

Sections 24.9.1, 24.11, or 24.15.3.1. 

0 = overstrength factor 

24.6 DIRECTION OF LOADING 

The directions of application of seismic forces used in the design shall be those 

which will produce the most critical load effects. To satisfy this requirement, the 

design seismic forces are permitted to be applied independently in each of two 

orthogonal directions and orthogonal interaction effects are permitted to be 

neglected. 
2-10 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

24.7 ANALYSIS PROCEDURE SELECTION 

The structural analysis required by this chapter shall consist of either the Equivalent 

Lateral Force Analysis procedure (Section 24.9) or the Modal Response Spectrum 

Analysis procedure (Section 24.10). 

24.8 MODELING CRITERIA 

24.8.1 Foundation Modeling 

For purposes of determining seismic loads, it is permitted to consider the structure to 

be fixed at the base. Alternatively, where foundation flexibility is considered, it shall 

be in accordance with Section 24.14.3. 

24.8.2 Effective Seismic Weight 

The effective seismic weight, W, of a structure shall include the dead load, as defined 

in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 3.1, above the base and other loads above the base as 

listed below: 

1. In areas used for storage, a minimum of 25 percent of the floor live load 

shall be included. 

EXCEPTIONS: 

a. Where the inclusion of storage loads adds no more than 5% to the 

effective seismic weight at that level, it need not be included in the 

effective seismic weight. 

b. Floor live load in public garages and open parking structures need not 

be included. 

2. Where provision for partitions is required by ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 4.2.2 

in the floor load design, the actual partition weight or a minimum weight of 

10 psf (0.48 kN/m2) of floor area, whichever is greater. 

3. Total operating weight of permanent equipment. 

4. Where the flat roof snow load, Pf, exceeds 30 psf (1.44 kN/m2), 20 percent 

of the uniform design snow load, regardless of actual roof slope. 

5. Weight of landscaping and other materials at roof gardens and similar areas. 

24.8.3 Structural Modeling 

A mathematical model of the structure shall be constructed for the purpose of 

determining member forces and structure displacements resulting from applied loads 

and any imposed displacements or P-delta effects. The model shall include the 

stiffness and strength of elements that are significant to the distribution of forces and 

deformations in the structure and represent the spatial distribution of mass and 

stiffness throughout the structure. 

 In addition, the model shall comply with the following: 

a. Stiffness properties of concrete and masonry elements shall consider 

the effects of cracked sections. 

b. For steel moment frame systems, the contribution of panel zone 

deformations to overall story drift shall be included. 

 Structures that have horizontal structural irregularity Type 1a, 1b, 4, or 5 of 

Table 24.4-1 shall be analyzed using a 3-D representation. Where a 3-D model is 

used, a minimum of three dynamic degrees of freedom consisting of translation in 

two orthogonal plan directions and rotation about the vertical axis shall be included 

at each level of the structure. Where the diaphragms have not been classified as rigid 

or flexible in accordance with Section 24.4.1, the model shall include representation 

of the diaphragm’s stiffness characteristics and such additional dynamic degrees of 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-11 

freedom as are required to account for the participation of the diaphragm in the 

structure’s dynamic response. When modal response spectrum analysis is 

performed, a minimum of three dynamic degrees of freedom consisting of translation 

in two orthogonal plan directions and torsional rotation about the vertical axis at each 

level of the structure shall be used. 

 EXCEPTION: Analysis using a 3-D representation is not required for 

structures with flexible diaphragms that have Type 4 horizontal structural 

irregularities. 

24.8.4 Interaction Effects 

Moment-resisting frames that are enclosed or adjoined by elements that are more 

rigid and not considered to be part of the seismic force-resisting system shall be 

designed so that the action or failure of those elements will not impair the vertical 

load and seismic force-resisting capability of the frame. The design shall provide for 

the effect of these rigid elements on the structural system at structural deformations 

corresponding to the design story drift () as determined in Section 24.9.6. In 

addition, the effects of these elements shall be considered where determining 

whether a structure has one or more of the irregularities defined in Section 24.4.2. 

24.9 EQUIVALENT LATERAL FORCE PROCEDURE 

24.9.1 Seismic Base Shear 

The seismic base shear, V, in a given direction shall be determined in accordance 

with the following equation: 

V = CsW (24.9-1) 

where 

Cs = the seismic response coefficient determined in accordance with this 

section

W = the effective seismic weight per Section 24.8.2 

 The seismic response coefficient, Cs, shall be determined in accordance with 

Eq. 24.9-2. 

 Cs = SDS / (R/Ie) (24.9-2) 

where 

SDS = the design spectral response acceleration parameter in the short period 

range as determined from ASCE/SEI 7-16 Sections 11.4.4 or 11.4.7 

R = the response modification factor in Table 24.3-1 

Ie = the importance factor determined in accordance with Table 1.5-2 in 

ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 11.5.1 

 The value of Cs computed in accordance with Eq. 24.9-2 need not exceed the 

following: 

 Cs = SD1 / T(R/Ie) (24.9-3) 

Cs shall not be less than 

Cs = 0.044SDSIe  0.01 (24.9-4) 

where Ie and R are as defined in Section 24.9.1 and 

SD1 = the design spectral response acceleration parameter at a period of 1.0 s, as 

determined from ASCE/SEI 7-16 Sections 11.4.4 or 11.4.7 

T = the fundamental period of the structure(s) determined in Section 24.9.2 
2-12 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

S1 = the mapped maximum considered earthquake spectral response 

acceleration parameter determined in accordance with ASCE/SEI 7-16 

Sections 11.4.1 or 11.4.7 

24.9.2 Period Determination 

The fundamental period of the structure, T, in the direction under consideration shall 

be established using the structural properties and deformational characteristics of the 

resisting elements in a properly substantiated analysis. The fundamental period, T, 

shall not exceed 1.6Ta, where Ta is determined in accordance with Section 24.9.2.1. 

As an alternative to performing an analysis to determine the fundamental period, T, it 

is permitted to use the approximate building period, Ta, calculated in accordance 

with Section 24.9.2.1, directly. 

24.9.2.1 Approximate Fundamental Period 

The approximate fundamental period (Ta), in s, shall be determined from the 

following equation: 

Ta = Cthn

x

 (24.9-5) 

where hn is the structural height as defined in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 11.2 and the 

coefficients Ct and x are determined from Table 24.9-1. 

24.9.3 Vertical Distribution of Seismic Forces 

The lateral seismic force (Fx) (kip or kN) induced at any level shall be determined 

from the following equations: 

Fx = CvxV (24.9-6) 

and 



 n

i

k

i i

k

x x

vx

w h

w h C

1

 (24.9-7) 

where 

Cvx = vertical distribution factor 

V = total design lateral force or shear at the base of the structure (kip or kN) 

wi and wx = the portion of the total effective seismic weight of the structure (W) 

located or assigned to Level i or x

hi and hx = the height (ft or m) from the base to Level i or x

k = an exponent related to the structure period as follows: 

 for structures having a period of 0.5 s or less, k = 1 

 for structures having a period of 2.5 s or more, k = 2 

 for structures having a period between 0.5 and 2.5 s, k shall be 2 or shall 

be determined by linear interpolation between 1 and 2 

24.9.4 Horizontal Distribution of Forces 

The seismic design story shear in any story (Vx) (kip or kN) shall be determined from 

the following equation: 





n

i x

Vx Fi (24.9-8) 

where 

Fi = the portion of the seismic base shear (V) (kip or kN) induced at Level i.
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-13 

 The seismic design story shear (Vx) (kip or kN) shall be distributed to the various 

vertical elements of the seismic force-resisting system in the story under 

consideration based on the relative lateral stiffness of the vertical resisting elements 

and the diaphragm. 

24.9.4.1 Inherent Torsion 

For diaphragms that are not flexible, the distribution of lateral forces at each level 

shall consider the effect of the inherent torsional moment, Mt, resulting from 

eccentricity between the locations of the center of mass and the center of rigidity. For 

flexible diaphragms, the distribution of forces to the vertical elements shall account 

for the position and distribution of the masses supported. 

24.9.4.2 Accidental Torsion 

Where diaphragms are not flexible, the design shall include the inherent torsional 

moment (Mt) resulting from the location of the structure masses plus the accidental 

torsional moments (Mta) caused by assumed displacement of the center of mass each 

way from its actual location by a distance equal to 5 percent of the dimension of the 

structure perpendicular to the direction of the applied forces. The accidental torsional 

moment shall also be included in the determination of possible horizontal structural 

irregularities in Table 24.4-1. 

EXCEPTION: The accidental torsional moments (Mta) need not be included in 

design of buildings that do not have a Type 1b horizontal structural irregularity. 

24.9.5 Overturning 

The structure shall be designed to resist overturning effects caused by the seismic 

forces determined in Section 24.12.3. 

24.9.6 Story Drift Determination 

The design story drift () shall be computed as the difference of the deflections at the

centers of mass at the top and bottom of the story under consideration. See Fig. 

24.9-1. Where centers of mass do not align vertically, it is permitted to compute the 

deflection at the bottom of the story based on the vertical projection of the center of 

mass at the top of the story. Where allowable stress design is used,  shall be 

computed using the strength level seismic forces specified in Section 24.9 without 

reduction for allowable stress design. 

 The deflection at Level x (x) (in. or mm) used to compute the design story drift, 

, shall be determined in accordance with the following equation: 

d xe

x

e

C

I

   (24.9-9) 

where 

Cd = the deflection amplification factor in Table 24.3-1 

xe = the deflection at the location required by this section determined by an 

elastic analysis 

Ie = the importance factor determined in accordance with ASCE/SEI 7-16 

Section 11.5.1 

24.9.6.1 Minimum Base Shear for Computing Drift 

The elastic analysis of the seismic force-resisting system for computing drift shall be 

made using the prescribed seismic design forces of Section 24.9. 

EXCEPTION: Eq. 24.9-4 need not be considered for computing drift. 
2-14 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

24.9.6.2 Period for Computing Drift 

For determining compliance with the story drift limits of Section 24.13.1, it is 

permitted to determine the elastic drifts, (xe), using seismic design forces based on 

the computed fundamental period of the structure without the upper limit (1.6Ta) 

specified in Section 24.9.2. 

24.9.7 P-Delta Effects 

P-delta effects on story shears and moments, the resulting member forces and 

moments, and the story drifts induced by these effects are not required to be 

considered where the stability coefficient () as determined by the following 

equation is equal to or less than 0.10: 

x e

x sx d

P I

Vh C

   (24.9-10) 

where 

Px = the total vertical design load at and above Level x (kip or kN); where 

computing Px, no individual load factor need exceed 1.0 

 = the design story drift as defined in Section 24.9.6 occurring 

simultaneously with Vx (in. or mm) 

Ie = the importance factor determined in accordance with ASCE/SEI 7-16 

Section 11.5.1 

Vx = the seismic shear force acting between Levels x and x – 1 (kip or kN) 

hsx = the story height below Level x (in. or mm) 

Cd = the deflection amplification factor in Table 24.3-1 

 The stability coefficient () shall not exceed max determined as follows: 

max

0.5 0.25

Cd





  (24.9-11) 

where  is the ratio of shear demand to shear capacity for the story between Levels x

and x – 1. This ratio is permitted to be conservatively taken as 1.0. 

 Where the stability coefficient () is greater than 0.10 but less than or equal to 

max, the incremental factor related to P-delta effects on displacements and member 

forces shall be determined by rational analysis. Alternatively, it is permitted to 

multiply displacements and member forces by 1.0/(1 – ). 

 Where  is greater than max, the structure is potentially unstable and shall be 

redesigned. 

 Where the P-delta effect is included in an automated analysis, Eq. 24.9-11 shall 

still be satisfied, however, the value of computed from Eq. 24.9-10 using the 

results of the P-delta analysis is permitted to be divided by (1 + ) before checking 

Eq. 24.9-11. 

24.10 MODAL RESPONSE SPECTRUM ANALYSIS 

24.10.1 Number of Modes 

An analysis shall be conducted to determine the natural modes of vibration for the 

structure. The analysis shall include a sufficient number of modes to obtain a 

combined modal mass participation of at least 90 percent of the actual mass in each 

of the orthogonal horizontal directions of response considered by the model. 

24.10.2 Modal Response Parameters 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-15 

The value for each force-related design parameter of interest, including story drifts, 

support forces, and individual member forces for each mode of response shall be 

computed using the properties of each mode and the response spectra defined in 

either ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 11.4.5 or ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 21.2, divided by the 

quantity R/Ie. The value for displacement and drift quantities shall be multiplied by 

the quantity Cd/Ie. 

24.10.3 Combined Response Parameters 

The value for each parameter of interest calculated for the various modes shall be 

combined using the square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS) method, the 

complete quadratic combination (CQC) method, the complete quadratic combination 

method as modified by ASCE 4 (CQC-4), or an approved equivalent approach. The 

CQC or the CQC-4 method shall be used for each of the modal values where closely 

spaced modes have significant cross-correlation of translational and torsional 

response. 

24.10.4 Scaling Design Values of Combined Response 

A base shear (V) shall be calculated in each of the two orthogonal horizontal 

directions using the calculated fundamental period of the structure T in each 

direction and the procedures of Section 24.9. 

24.10.4.1 Scaling of Forces 

Where the calculated fundamental period exceeds 1.6Ta in a given direction, 1.6Ta

shall be used in lieu of T in that direction. Where the combined response for the 

modal base shear (Vt) is less than 100 percent of the calculated base shear (V) using 

the equivalent lateral force procedure, the forces shall be multiplied by Vt

V

: 

where 

V = the equivalent lateral force procedure base shear, calculated in accordance 

with this section and Section 24.9 

Vt = the base shear from the required modal combination 

24.10.5 Horizontal Shear Distribution 

The distribution of horizontal shear shall be in accordance with Section 24.9.4. 

24.10.6 P-Delta Effects 

The P-delta effects shall be determined in accordance with Section 24.9.7. The base 

shear used to determine the story shears and the story drifts shall be determined in 

accordance with Section 24.9.6. 

24.10.7 Structural Modeling 

A mathematical model of the structure shall be constructed in accordance with 

Section 24.8.3, except that all structures design in accordance with this section shall 

be analyzed using a 3D representation. Where the diaphragms have not been 

classified as rigid in accordance with Section 24.4.1, the modal shall include 

representation of the diaphragm’s stiffness characteristics and additional dynamic 

degrees of freedom as required to account for the participation of the diaphragm in 

the structure’s dynamic response. 

24.11 DIAPHRAGMS, CHORDS, AND COLLECTORS 

24.11.1 Diaphragm Design 
2-16 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

Diaphragms shall be designed for both the shear and bending stresses resulting from 

design forces. At diaphragm discontinuities, such as openings and reentrant corners, 

the design shall assure that the dissipation or transfer of edge (chord) forces 

combined with other forces in the diaphragm is within shear and tension capacity of 

the diaphragm. 

24.11.1.1 Diaphragm Design Forces 

Floor and roof diaphragms shall be designed to resist design seismic forces from the 

structural analysis, but shall not be less than that determined in accordance with Eq. 

24.11-1 as follows: 

n

i

i x

px px n

i

i x

F

F w

w











 (24.11-1) 

where 

Fpx = the diaphragm design force 

Fi = the design force applied to Level i

wi = the weight tributary to Level i

wpx = the weight tributary to the diaphragm at Level x 

The force determined from Eq. 24.11-1 shall not be less than 

Fpx = 0.2SDSIewpx (24.11-2) 

The force determined from Eq. 24.11-1 need not exceed 

Fpx = 0.4SDSIewpx (24.11-3) 

 All diaphragms shall be designed for the inertial forces determined from Eqs. 

(24.11-1) through (24.11-3) and for all applicable transfer forces. For structures that 

have a horizontal structural irregularity of Type 4 in Table 24.4-1, the transfer forces 

from the vertical seismic force-resisting elements above the diaphragm to other 

vertical seismic force-resisting elements below the diaphragm shall be increased by 

the overstrength factor of Section 24.5.3 before being added to the diaphragm inertial 

forces. For structures that have horizontal or vertical structural irregularities of the 

types indicated in Section 24.4.2, the requirements of that section shall also apply. 

 EXCEPTION: One- and two-family dwellings of light-frame construction 

shall be permitted to use Ω0 = 1.0. 

24.11.2 Collector Elements 

Collector elements shall be provided that are capable of transferring the seismic 

forces originating in other portions of the structure to the element providing the 

resistance to those forces. 

24.12 STRUCTURAL WALLS AND THEIR ANCHORAGE 

24.12.1 Design for Out-of-Plane Forces 

Structural walls and their anchorage shall be designed for a force normal to the 

surface equal to Fp = 0.4SDSIe times the weight of the structural wall with a minimum 

force of 10 percent of the weight of the structural wall. 

24.12.2 Anchorage of Structural Walls 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-17 

The anchorage of structural walls to supporting construction shall provide a direct 

connection capable of resisting the following force: 

Fp = 0.2kaIeWp (24.12-1) 

 ka=1.0+Lf/100 (24.12-2) 

ka need not be taken as larger than 2.0. 

ka need not be taken as larger than 1.0 when the connection is not at a flexible 

diaphragm. 

where 

Fp = the design force in the individual anchors 

Ie = the importance factor determined in accordance with ASCE/SEI 7-16 

Section 11.5.1 

ka = amplification factor for diaphragm flexibility. 

Lf = the span, in feet, of a flexible diaphragm that provides the lateral support 

for the wall; the span is measured between vertical elements that provide 

lateral support to the diaphragm in the direction considered; use zero for 

rigid diaphragms 

Wp = the weight of the wall tributary to the anchor 

 Where the anchorage is not located at the roof and all diaphragms are not 

flexible, the value from Eq. 24.12-1 is permitted to be multiplied by the factor (1 + 

2z/h)/3, where z is the height of the anchor above the base of the structure and h is 

the height of the roof above the base; however, Fp shall not be less than required by 

Section 24.12.1 with a minimum anchorage force of Fp = 0.2Wp. Structural walls 

shall be designed to resist bending between anchors where the anchor spacing 

exceeds 4 ft (1,219 mm). Interconnection of structural wall elements and connections 

to supporting framing systems shall have sufficient ductility, rotational capacity, or 

sufficient strength to resist shrinkage, thermal changes, and differential foundation 

settlement when combined with seismic forces. 

24.13 DRIFT AND DEFORMATION 

24.13.1 Story Drift Limit 

The design story drift () as determined in Sections 24.9.6 or 24.10.2, shall not 

exceed the allowable story drift (a) as obtained from Table 24.13-1 for any story. 

24.13.2 Diaphragm Deflection 

The deflection in the plane of the diaphragm, as determined by engineering analysis, 

shall not exceed the permissible deflection of the attached elements. Permissible 

deflection shall be that deflection that will permit the attached element to maintain its 

structural integrity under the individual loading and continue to support the 

prescribed loads. 

24.13.3 Structural Separation 

All portions of the structure shall be designed and constructed to act as an integral 

unit in resisting seismic forces unless separated structurally by a distance sufficient 

to avoid damaging contact as set forth in this section. 

 Separations shall allow for the maximum inelastic response displacement (M). 

M shall be determined at critical locations with consideration for translational and 

torsional displacements of the structure using the following equation: 
2-18 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

d max

M

e

C

I

   (24.13-1) 

where 

max = maximum elastic displacement at the critical location. 

 Adjacent structures on the same property shall be separated by at least MT, 

determined as follows: 

   2 2  MT M M   1 2 (24.13-2) 

where M1 and M2 are the maximum inelastic response displacements of the adjacent 

structures at their adjacent edges. 

 Where a structure adjoins a property line not common to a public way, the 

structure shall be set back from the property line by at least the displacement M of 

that structure. 

EXCEPTION: Smaller separations or property line setbacks are permitted 

where justified by rational analysis based on inelastic response to design ground 

motions. 

24.13.4 Members Spanning between Structures 

Gravity connections or supports for members spanning between structures or 

seismically separate portions of structures shall be designed for the maximum 

anticipated relative displacements. These displacements shall be calculated: 

1. Using the deflection calculated at the locations of support, per Eq. 24.9-9 

multiplied by 1.5R/Cd, and 

2. Considering additional deflection due to diaphragm rotation, and 

3. Considering diaphragm deformations, and 

4. Assuming the two structures are moving in opposite directions and using 

the absolute sum of the displacements. 

24.14 FOUNDATION DESIGN 

24.14.1 Design Basis 

The design basis for foundations shall be as set forth in Section 24.2.5. 

24.14.2 Materials of Construction 

Materials used for the design and construction of foundations shall comply with the 

requirements of Chapter 14. Design and detailing of steel piles shall comply with 

ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 14.1.7 Design and detailing of concrete piles shall comply 

with ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 14.2.3. 

24.14.3 Foundation Load-Deformation Characteristics 

Where foundation flexibility is included for the linear analysis procedures in this 

chapter, the load-deformation characteristics of the foundation–soil system 

(foundation stiffness) shall be modeled in accordance with the requirements of this 

section. The linear load-deformation behavior of foundations shall be represented by 

an equivalent linear stiffness using soil properties that are compatible with the soil 

strain levels associated with the design earthquake motion. The strain-compatible 

shear modulus, G, and the associated strain-compatible shear wave velocity, vS, 

needed for the evaluation of equivalent linear stiffness shall be determined using the 

criteria in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 19.2.1.1 or based on a site-specific study. A 50 

percent increase and decrease in stiffness shall be incorporated in dynamic analyses 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-19 

unless smaller variations can be justified based on field measurements of dynamic 

soil properties or direct measurements of dynamic foundation stiffness. The largest 

values of response shall be used in design. 

24.14.4 Reduction of Foundation Overturning 

Overturning effects at the soil–foundation interface are permitted to be reduced by 

25 percent for foundations of structures that satisfy both of the following conditions: 

a. The structure is designed in accordance with the Equivalent Lateral 

Force Analysis as set forth in Section 24.9. 

b. The structure is not an inverted pendulum or cantilevered column type 

structure. 

 Overturning effects at the soil–foundation interface are permitted to be reduced 

by 10 percent for foundations of structures designed in accordance with the modal 

analysis requirements of Section 24.10. 

24.15 SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR EGRESS 

STAIRWAYS AND PARAPETS 

24.15.1 Scope 

This section establishes minimum design criteria for parapets and egress stairways 

and their supports and attachments in Seismic Design Category B. All other 

nonstructural components and their supports and attachments are exempt from the 

requirements of Section 24.15. 

24.15.2 General Design Requirements 

24.15.2.1 Submittal Requirements 

Evidence demonstrating compliance with the requirements of this section shall be 

submitted for approval to the authority having jurisdiction after review and 

acceptance by a registered design professional. Parapets and egress stairways may 

also be seismically qualified by analysis, testing, or experience data in accordance 

with ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 13.2.1. 

24.15.2.2 Construction Documents 

The design of parapets and egress stairways, and their supports and attachments, 

shall be shown in construction documents prepared by a registered design 

professional for use by the owner, authorities having jurisdiction, contractors, and 

inspectors. 

24.15.3 Seismic Design Force 

Parapets and egress stairways, and their supports and attachments, shall be designed 

for the seismic forces defined in this section. Where non-seismic loads on 

nonstructural components exceed Fp, such loads shall govern the strength design, but 

the limitations prescribed in this chapter shall apply. 

 The horizontal seismic design force (Fp) shall be applied at the component’s 

center of gravity and distributed relative to the component’s mass distribution and 

shall be determined in accordance with Eq. 24.15-1: 

0.4

1 2 p DS p

p

p

p

aS W z F

R h

I

               

 (24.15-1) 
2-20 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

and Fp shall not be taken as less than 

Fp = 0.3SDSIpWp (24.15-2) 

where 

Fp = horizontal seismic design force applied to the parapet or egress stairway 

SDS = spectral acceleration, short period, as determined from ASCE/SEI 7-16 

Section 11.4.4 

ap = component amplification factor. ap shall be taken as 2.5 for parapets that 

are unbraced or braced to the structural frame below the center of mass, 

1.0 for parapets braced above the center of mass, and 1.0 for egress 

stairways 

Ip = component importance factor. Ip shall be taken as 1.0 for parapets and 1.5 

for egress stairways. 

Wp = weight of the parapet or egress stairway 

Rp = component response modification factor. Rp shall be taken as 2.5. 

z = height in structure of point of attachment of parapet or egress stairway 

with respect to the base of the structure. For items at or below the base, z

shall be taken as 0. The value of z/h need not exceed 1.0 

h = average roof height of structure with respect to the base of the structure. 

 The force (Fp) shall be applied independently in at least two orthogonal 

horizontal directions in combination with service loads associated with the 

component, as appropriate. For vertically cantilevered systems, however, the force 

Fp shall be assumed to act in any horizontal direction. The overstrength factor, 0, 

does not apply. 

24.15.4 Design of Egress Stairways for Seismic Relative 

Displacements

Egress stairways, and their supports and attachments, shall be designed to 

accommodate the seismic relative displacement requirements of this section. Egress 

stairways shall be designed considering vertical deflection due to joint rotation of 

cantilever structural members. 

 The effects of seismic relative displacements shall be considered in combination 

with displacements caused by other loads as appropriate. Seismic relative 

displacements, DpI, shall be determined in accordance with Eq. 24.15-3 as: 

DpI = DpIe (24.15-3) 

where 

Ie = the importance factor in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 11.5.1 

Dp = displacement determined in accordance with the equations set forth in 

Sections 24.15.4.1 and 24.15.4.2. 

24.15.4.1 Displacements within Structures 

For two connection points on the same Structure A or the same structural system, 

one at a height hx and the other at a height hy, Dp shall be determined as 

Dp = xA – yA (24.15-4) 

 Alternatively, Dp is permitted to be determined using modal procedures 

described in Section 24.10, using the difference in story deflections calculated for 

each mode and then combined using appropriate modal combination procedures. Dp

is not required to be taken as greater than 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-21 

( ) x y aA

p

sx

h h

D

h

   (24.15-5) 

24.15.4.2 Displacements between Structures 

For two connection points on separate Structures A and B or separate structural 

systems, one at a height hx and the other at a height hy, Dp shall be determined as 

Dp = xA + yB (24.15-6) 

Dp is not required to be taken as greater than 

x aA y aB

p

sx sx

h h

D

h h

 

   

where 

Dp = relative seismic displacement that the component must be designed to 

accommodate 

xA = deflection at building Level x of Structure A, determined in accordance 

with Eq. (24.9-9) 

yA = deflection at building Level y of Structure A, determined in accordance 

with Eq. (24.9-9). 

yB = deflection at building Level y of Structure B, determined in accordance 

with Eq. (24.9-9). 

hx = height of Level x to which upper connection point is attached 

hy = height of Level y to which lower connection point is attached 

aA = allowable story drift for Structure A as defined in Table 24.13-1 

aB = allowable story drift for Structure B as defined in Table 24.13-1 

hsx = story height used in the definition of the allowable drift a in Table 

24.13-1. Note that a/hsx = the drift index. 

 The effects of seismic relative displacements shall be considered in combination 

with displacements caused by other loads as appropriate. 

24.15.5 Out-of-Plane Bending 

Transverse or out-of-plane bending or deformation of a parapet or egress stairway 

subjected to forces as determined in Section 24.15.3, or displacements as determined 

in Section 24.15.4, shall not exceed the deflection capability of the parapet or egress 

stairway. 

24.15.6 Anchorage 

Parapet and egress stairways, and their supports, shall be attached (or anchored) to 

the structure in accordance with the requirements of this section and the attachment 

shall satisfy the requirements for the parent material as set forth elsewhere in this 

standard. 

 Parapets and egress stairways, and their supports, shall be bolted, welded, or 

otherwise positively fastened without consideration of frictional resistance produced 

by the effects of gravity. A continuous load path of sufficient strength and stiffness 

shall be provided between the parapet or egress stairway and the supporting 

structure. Local elements of the structure including connections shall be designed 

and constructed for the forces in the attachment where they control the design of the 

elements or their connections. The design documents shall include sufficient 

information relating to the attachments to verify compliance with the requirements of 

this section. 
2-22 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

24.15.6.1 Design Force in the Attachment 

The force in the attachment shall be determined based on the prescribed forces and 

displacements for the parapet or egress stairway as determined in Sections 24.15.3 

and 24.15.4. 

24.15.6.2 Anchors in Concrete or Masonry 

Anchors in concrete shall be designed in accordance with Appendix D of ACI 318. 

 Anchors in masonry shall be designed in accordance with TMS 402/ACI 

503/ASCE 5. Anchors shall be designed to be governed by the tensile or shear 

strength of a ductile steel element. 

 EXCEPTION: Anchors in masonry shall be permitted to be designed so that 

the support that the anchor is connecting to the structure undergoes ductile yielding 

at a load level corresponding to anchor forces not greater than their design strength, 

or the minimum design strength of the anchors shall be at least 2.5 times the factored 

forces transmitted by the parapet or egress stairway. 

 Post-installed anchors in concrete shall be prequalified for seismic applications 

in accordance with ACI 355.2, ACI 355.4 or other approved qualification 

procedures. Post-installed anchors in masonry shall be prequalified for seismic 

applications in accordance with approved qualification procedures. 

24.15.6.3 Installation Conditions 

Determination of forces in attachments shall take into account the expected 

conditions of installation including eccentricities and prying effects. 

24.15.6.4 Multiple Attachments 

Determination of force distribution of multiple attachments at one location shall take 

into account the stiffness and ductility of the component, component supports, 

attachments, and structure and the ability to redistribute loads to other attachments in 

the group. Designs of anchorage in concrete in accordance with Appendix D of ACI 

318 shall be considered to satisfy this requirement. 

24.15.6.5 Power Actuated Fasteners 

Power actuated fasteners in concrete or steel shall not be used for sustained tension 

loads. Power actuated fasteners in masonry are not permitted unless approved for 

seismic loading. 

EXCEPTION 1: Power actuated fasteners in concrete used for support of 

acoustical tile or lay-in panel suspended ceiling applications and distributed systems 

where the service load on any individual fastener does not exceed 90 lb (400 N). 

Power actuated fasteners in steel where the service load on any individual fastener 

does not exceed 250 lb (1,112 N). 

EXCEPTION 2: Power actuated fasteners in steel where the service load on 

any individual fastener does not exceed 250 lb. (1,112 N). 

 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-23 

2.2 Figures and Tables for Chapter 24 Alternative 

Seismic Design Requirements for Seismic Design 

Category B Buildings 

Table 24.3-1 Design Coefficients and Factors for Seismic Force-Resisting Systems 

Seismic Force-Resisting System

ASCE 7 

Section Where 

Detailing 

Requirements 

Are Specified

Response 

Modification 

Coefficient, 

Ra

Overstrength 

Factor, 0

c

Deflection 

Amplification 

Factor, Cd

b

A. BEARING WALL SYSTEMS 

2. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear 

wallsd

14.2 4 21⁄2 4 

5. Intermediate precast shear wallsd 14.2 4 21⁄2 4 

6. Ordinary precast shear wallsd 14.2 3 21⁄2 3 

8. Intermediate reinforced masonry 

shear walls 

14.4 31⁄2 21⁄2 21⁄4 

9. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear 

walls 

14.4 2 21⁄2 13⁄4 

13. Ordinary reinforced AAC masonry 

shear walls 

14.4 2 21⁄2 2 

14. Ordinary plain AAC masonry shear 

walls 

14.4 11⁄2 21⁄2 11⁄2 

15. Light-frame (wood) walls sheathed 

with wood structural panels rated for 

shear resistance 

14.1 and 14.5 61⁄2 3 4 

16. Light-frame (cold-formed steel) 

walls sheathed with wood structural 

panels rated for shear resistance or 

steel sheets 

14.1 61⁄2 3 4 

17. Light-frame walls with shear panels 

of all other materials 

14.1 and 14.5 2 21⁄2 2 

18. Light-frame (cold-formed steel) wall 

systems using flat strap bracing 

14.1 4 2 31⁄2 

 
2-24 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

B. BUILDING FRAME SYSTEMS 

3. Steel ordinary concentrically braced 

frames 

14.1 31⁄4 2 31⁄4 

5. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear 

wallsd

14.2 5 21⁄2 41⁄2 

8. Intermediate precast shear wallsd 14.2 5 21⁄2 41⁄2 

9. Ordinary precast shear wallsd 14.2 4 21⁄2 4 

17. Intermediate reinforced masonry 

shear walls 

14.4 4 21⁄2 4 

18. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear 

walls 

14.4 2 21⁄2 2 

22. Light-frame (wood) walls sheathed 

with wood structural panels rated for 

shear resistance 

14.5 7 21⁄2 41⁄2 

23. Light-frame (cold-formed steel) 

walls sheathed with wood structural 

panels rated for shear resistance or 

steel sheets 

14.1 7 21⁄2 41⁄2 

24. Light-frame walls with shear panels 

of all other materials 

14.1and 14.5 21⁄2 21⁄2 21⁄2 

C. MOMENT-RESISTING FRAME 

SYSTEMS

 

3. Steel intermediate moment frames 14.1 41⁄2 3 4 

4. Steel ordinary moment frames 14.1 31⁄2 3 3 

6. Intermediate reinforced concrete 

moment frames 

14.2 5 3 41⁄2 

7. Ordinary reinforced concrete 

moment frames 

14.2 3 3 21⁄2 

9. Steel and concrete composite 

intermediate moment frames 

14.3 5 3 41⁄2 

10. Steel and concrete composite 

partially restrained moment frames

[System is limited to a structural 

height, hn, of 160 ft (48.8 m)] 

14.3 6 3 51⁄2 

11. Steel and concrete composite 

ordinary moment frames 

14.3 3 3 21⁄2 

 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-25 

E. DUAL SYSTEMS WITH 

INTERMEDIATE MOMENT 

FRAMES CAPABLE OF 

RESISTING AT LEAST 25% OF 

PRESCRIBED SEISMIC FORCES

 

3. Ordinary reinforced masonry shear 

walls 

24.3.5.1 and 

14.4 

3 3 21⁄2 

4. Intermediate reinforced masonry shear 

walls 

24.3.5.1 and 

14.4 

31⁄2 3 3 

6. Steel and concrete composite ordinary 

braced frames 

24.3.5.1 and 

14.3 

31⁄2 21⁄2 3 

7. Steel and concrete composite ordinary 

shear walls 

24.3.5.1 and 

14.3 

5 3 41⁄2 

8. Ordinary reinforced concrete shear 

wallsd

24.3.5.1 and 

14.2 

51⁄2 21⁄2 41⁄2 

F. SHEAR WALL-FRAME 

INTERACTIVE SYSTEM WITH 

ORDINARY REINFORCED 

CONCRETE MOMENT FRAMES 

AND ORDINARY REINFORCED 

CONCRETE SHEAR WALLSd

24.3.5.4 and 

14.2 

41⁄2 21⁄2 4 

G. CANTILEVERED COLUMN 

SYSTEMS DETAILED TO 

CONFORM TO THE 

REQUIREMENTS FOR 

[System is limited to a structural 

height, hn, of 35 ft (10.7 m)]:

 

2. Steel ordinary cantilever column 

systems 

24.3.5.2 and 

14.1 

11⁄4 11⁄4 11⁄4 

4. Intermediate reinforced concrete 

moment frames 

24.3.5.2 and 

14.2 

11⁄2 11⁄4 11⁄2 

5. Ordinary reinforced concrete moment 

frames 

24.3.5.2 and 

14.2 

1 11⁄4 1 

6. Timber frames 24.3.5.2 and 

14.5 

11⁄2 11⁄2 11⁄2 

H. STEEL SYSTEMS NOT 

SPECIFICALLY DETAILED FOR 

SEISMIC RESISTANCE, 

EXCLUDING CANTILEVER 

COLUMN SYSTEMS

14.1 3 3 3 

a

Response modification coefficient, R, for use throughout the provisions. Note R reduces forces to a 

strength level, not an allowable stress level. 

b

Deflection amplification factor, Cd, for use in Sections 24.9.6, 24.9.7, and 24.10.2. c

Where the tabulated value of the overstrength factor, Ω0, is greater than or equal to 21⁄2, Ωo is permitted to 

be reduced by subtracting the value of 1/2 for structures with flexible diaphragms. d

In Section 2.2 of ACI 318. A shear wall is defined as a structural wall. 
2-26 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

FIGURE 24.4-1 Flexible Diaphragm (ASCE, 2016, with permission from ASCE) 

Table 24.4-1 Horizontal Structural Irregularities 

Type Description 

Reference 

Section 

1a. Torsional Irregularity: Torsional irregularity is defined to exist where the 

maximum story drift, computed including accidental torsion with Ax = 1.0, 

at one end of the structure transverse to an axis is more than 1.2 times the 

average of the story drifts at the two ends of the structure. Torsional 

irregularity requirements in the reference sections apply only to structures 

in which the diaphragms are rigid or semirigid. 

24.8.3 

1b. Extreme Torsional Irregularity: Extreme torsional irregularity is defined 

to exist where the maximum story drift, computed including accidental 

torsion with Ax = 1.0, at one end of the structure transverse to an axis is 

more than 1.4 times the average of the story drifts at the two ends of the 

structure. Extreme torsional irregularity requirements in the reference 

sections apply only to structures in which the diaphragms are rigid or 

semirigid. 

24.8.3 

24.9.4.2 

4. Out-of-Plane Offset Irregularity: Out-of-plane offset irregularity is 

defined to exist where there is a discontinuity in a lateral force-resistance 

path, such as an out-of-plane offset of at least one of the vertical elements. 

24.4.3.2 

24.8.3 

5. Nonparallel System Irregularity: Nonparallel system irregularity is 

defined to exist where vertical lateral force-resisting elements are not 

parallel to the major orthogonal axes of the seismic force-resisting system. 

24.8.3 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-27 

Table 24.4-2 Vertical Structural Irregularities 

Type Description 

Reference 

Section 

4. In-Plane Discontinuity in Vertical Lateral Force-Resisting Element 

Irregularity: In-plane discontinuity in vertical lateral force-resisting 

elements irregularity is defined to exist where there is an in-plane offset of 

a vertical seismic force-resisting element resulting in overturning demands 

on a supporting beam, column, truss, or slab. 

24.4.3.2 

5b. Discontinuity in Lateral Strength–Extreme Weak Story Irregularity: 

Discontinuity in lateral strength–extreme weak story irregularity is defined 

to exist where the story lateral strength is less than 65% of that in the story 

above. The story strength is the total strength of all seismic-resisting 

elements sharing the story shear for the direction under consideration. 

24.4.3.1 

FIGURE 24.9-1 Story Drift Determination (ASCE, 2016, with permission from ASCE) 

Note: i = story drift; i/Li = story drift ratio; x = total 

displacement; i = level under consideration. 

Story Level 1: F1 = strength-level design earthquake force; 

1e = elastic displacement computed under strength-level 

design earthquake forces; 1 = Cd 1e/IE = amplified 

displacement; 1 = 1 ≤ a (Table 24.13-1) 

Story Level 2: F2 = strength-level design earthquake force; 

2e = elastic displacement computed under strength-level 

design earthquake forces; 2 = Cd 2e/IE = amplified 

displacement; 2 = (2e1e)/IE ≤ a (Table 24.13-1) 
2-28 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

Table 24.9-1 Values of Approximate Period Parameters Ct and x

Structure Type Ct x

Moment-resisting frame systems in which the frames resist 

100% of the required seismic force and are not enclosed or 

adjoined by components that are more rigid and will 

prevent the frames from deflecting where subjected to seismic 

forces: 

 

 Steel moment-resisting frames 0.028 (0.0724)a 0.8 

 Concrete moment-resisting frames 0.016 (0.0466)a 0.9 

All other structural systems 0.02 (0.0488)a 0.75 

a

Metric equivalents are shown in parentheses. 

Table 24.13-1 Allowable Story Drift, Δa

a

Structure 

Risk Category

I or II III 

Structures, other than masonry shear wall structures, 4 

stories or less above the base as defined in ASCE/SEI 7-

16 Section 11.2, with interior walls, partitions, ceilings, 

and exterior wall systems that have been designed to 

accommodate the story drifts. 

0.025hsx b 0.020hsx

Masonry cantilever shear wall structuresc 0.010hsx 0.010hsx

Other masonry shear wall structures 0.007hsx 0.007hsx

All other structures 0.020hsx 0.015hsx

a

hsx is the story height below Level x. b

There shall be no drift limit for single-story structures with interior walls, partitions, ceilings, and exterior 

wall systems that have been designed to accommodate the story drifts. The structure separation 

requirement of Section 24.13.3 is not waived. 

c

Structures in which the basic structural system consists of masonry shear walls designed as vertical 

elements cantilevered from their base or foundation support which are so constructed that moment transfer 

between shear walls (coupling) is negligible. 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-29 

2.3 Commentary to Chapter 24 Alternative Seismic 

Design Requirements for Seismic Design Category B 

Buildings 

C24.1 GENERAL 

In recent years, engineers and building officials have become concerned that the 

seismic design requirements for Seismic Design Category B (SDC B) are complex 

and are difficult to implement because SDC B requirements could not be easily 

separated from the many other seismic design requirements that are not applicable to 

SDC B. Additionally, a systematic examination of SDC B design requirements was 

warranted, because some of the existing ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 12 and Chapter 13 

requirements may be unnecessary for the design of buildings at sites with moderate 

seismicity since the requirements have only a minimal influence on design. 

In accordance with ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 11.1.4, the alternative seismic design 

procedure presented in this chapter may be used for the structural systems and 

nonstructural components of buildings assigned to SDC B. This chapter is 

equivalent to the procedures described in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapters 12 and 13, but 

differs in two ways. First, the text and requirements presented in this chapter are 

substantially simpler and shorter, because the chapter has been editorially simplified 

to only include the requirements that apply in SDC B. Second, some of the seismic 

design requirements have been eliminated or simplified based on technical study. 

These technical simplifications apply to seismic design requirements which are 

applicable in SDC B, in accordance with ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapters 12 and 13, but do 

not have significant influence on the resulting design or seismic performance. As 

described in more detail below, the implications of removing or simplifying seismic 

design requirements was carefully evaluated through design studies and nonlinear 

structural analyses. The commentary that follows describes the important differences 

between Chapter 24 and the seismic design requirements of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 

12 and 13. 

The provisions of Chapter 24 are required to be followed in their entirety without 

exception; if a designer wants to use any provisions in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapters 12 

or 13 that are not included in this chapter, then the design must comply with all of 

the provisions of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapters 12 and 13 for SDC B structures. 

Nonbuilding structures (ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 15), seismically isolated structures 

(ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 17), and structures with damping systems (ASCE/SEI 7-16 

Chapter 18) are not permitted to be designed using the alternative procedures of 

Chapter 24. 

An abridged version of the list of symbols in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 11.3 that apply 

to the seismic requirements of Chapter 24 has been included in this section for 

convenience. 

C24.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN BASIS 

The requirements of this section closely follow those of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 

12.1. The only modifications in this section are editorial simplifications, in which 

requirements have been eliminated when not applicable to SDC B buildings. In 

particular, a small change has been made in the design strength calculation for 

connections. In SDC B, all connections must be designed for 5% of the weight of 

the smaller portion of the structure. There is no need to calculate 0.133 times SDS, as 

required in Chapter 12, because the 5% limiting value will always govern designs in 

SDC B. 
2-30 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

C24.3 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM SELECTION 

The requirements of this section closely follow those of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 

12.2. The only modifications in this section are editorial simplifications, in which 

requirements have been eliminated when not applicable to SDC B buildings. For 

example, numerous requirements found in Section 12.2, e.g. the requirements for 

Steel Intermediate Moment Frames in SDC D, have been eliminated because they are 

not applicable to SDC B buildings. 

Additionally, the Table of Design Coefficients and Factors for Seismic ForceResisting Systems (Table 24.3-1) has been substantially editorially simplified. 

Structural systems not commonly used in SDC B have been removed, including all 

“special” systems, which are used primarily in the higher SDCs. When rows were 

deleted from the Table of Design Coefficients and Factors for Seismic ForceResisting Systems (Table 24.3-1), the numbering of the rows was intentionally kept 

unchanged and identical to the numbering used in Table 12.2-1. In addition, the 

columns relating to Structural System Limitations have been removed because all 

systems in the table are allowable in SDC B. The few remaining systems that have 

height limits imposed in SDC B have the height limits listed directly in the table, 

rather than in a separate column. 

Another difference is that the provisions for alternate structural systems in Section 

12.2.1.1 are not included in this simplified chapter, both because these alternate 

systems are not commonly used in SDC B and based on the level of rigor required to 

demonstrate compliance of such systems, the simplified provisions of this chapter 

are not appropriate. Alternate systems must be designed using the provisions of 

Chapter 12. 

C24.4 DIAPHRAGM FLEXIBILITY AND CONFIGURATION 

IRREGULARITIES 

The requirements of this section closely follow those of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 

12.3. The only modifications in this section are editorial simplifications, in which 

requirements have been eliminated when not applicable to SDC B buildings. The 

tables defining Horizontal Structural Irregularities and Vertical Structural 

Irregularities (Tables 24.4-1 and 24.2-2) have been simplified to only include the 

irregularities that affect the design procedures in SDC B. Other irregularities, while 

they may be present, do not affect the design requirements and have been eliminated 

from the table. The numbering of the irregularities in Table 24.4-1 and Table 24.4-2 

was intentionally kept identical to those of Tables 12.3-1 and 12.3-2. The 

irregularities of Tables 12.3-1 and 12.3-2 omitted from the Chapter 24 tables are 

horizontal irregularities Type 2 and 3, and vertical irregularities Type 1a, 1b, 2, 3, 

and 5a. These irregularities were omitted because they do not apply to SDC B. 

C24.5 SEISMIC LOAD EFFECTS AND COMBINATIONS 

The equations for seismic load effects and load combinations in the alternative 

design procedure are consistent with those for the general procedure of ASCE/SEI 

7-16 Chapter 12, with the one notable exception being that the requirement for 

including the vertical seismic load effect has been removed. Accordingly, Ev is taken 

as zero in the Section 24.5 requirements and the Ev = 0.2SDSD term in the design load 

combinations has been removed. 

The elimination of the vertical load effect requirement in SDC B was supported by 

design studies. These studies indicated that, due to the small SDS values in SDC B 

and, the small associated increase in design dead loads due to vertical seismic 

effects, there is no meaningful difference in member sizes and detailing if the 

vertical seismic load is considered in SDC B. Note that in the general Chapter 12 

requirement, Ev may already be taken as zero when SDS < 0.125g, so this change 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-31 

simply expands the range of SDS values for which Ev may be zero up to SDS < 0.33g. 

Additionally, the redundancy factor, ρ, has been removed from the load 

combinations because this factor is always equal to unity for SDC B buildings. 

The final simplification in Section 24.5 is that the seismic load effect including the 

overstrength factor, Em, must be computed using Equation 24.5-2 and the exception 

has been removed. If a designer wants to use the more complex method of 

computing the maximum force that can be developed in the element, then Chapter 24 

cannot be used and the general procedures of Chapters 12 and 13 must be used. 

C24.6 DIRECTION OF LOADING 

The requirements of this section closely follow those of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 

12.5. Most of the text in Section 12.5 is related to SDC C and above, so the 

procedures in Section 24.6 have been shortened substantially. 

C24.7 ANALYSIS PROCEDURE SELECTION 

The structural analysis procedure must be either the Equivalent Lateral Force 

Analysis or the Modal Response Spectrum Analysis procedure. If a designer wants 

to use the more advanced Linear Response History Analysis procedure, then Chapter 

24 cannot be used, and the building must be designed in accordance with the 

provisions in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapters 12 and 13. 

C24.8 MODELING CRITERIA 

The requirements of this section closely follow those of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 12.7 

and only small editorial changes have been made. 

C24.9 EQUIVALENT LATERAL FORCE PROCEDURE 

In this section, the seismic design requirements have been simplified using both 

editorial and technical simplifications. The discussion below describes the technical 

differences between the general procedures of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 12 and the 

alternative procedures of this chapter. 

C24.9.1 Seismic Base Shear 

Determination of the seismic base shear is similar to the general procedure of 

ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 12. The primary technical simplification is the elimination 

of the long-period region of the spectrum, i.e. for T > TL. In the Chapter 24 design 

procedure, longer period structures are to be designed following the same 1/T

spectral shape used in the velocity sensitive region of the spectrum. The elimination 

of the long period region of the spectra is conservative, but it is not expected that it 

will affect many, if any, designs in SDC B. 

Reductions associated with soil structure interaction are not permitted when using 

the alternative Chapter 24 design procedures. 

C24.9.2 Period Determination 

The approximate period, Ta, is computed according to Equation 24.9-5, and the other 

period determination equations from ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 12 have been 

eliminated for simplicity. As in Chapter 12, the fundamental period of the structure 

may not exceed CuTa, but in these alternative procedures, for simplicity, Cu is taken 

as a constant value of 1.6. This 1.6 value is used because the Chapter 12 Cu values 

range only from 1.6 to 1.7 for all sites in SDC B. Use of the constant lower-bound 

1.6 value is both simpler and slightly conservative, but will not result in any 

substantial change in the building design. 
2-32 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary FEMA P-1091 

C24.9.4.2 Accidental Torsion 

To simplify the process of computing member forces from seismic effects, the 

accidental torsional moment need not be included in design of SDC B buildings, 

unless the building has a Type 1b horizontal irregularity (Extreme Torsional 

Irregularity). 

The decision to remove the accidental torsion requirement for most regular buildings 

is supported by rigorous analytical studies using nonlinear dynamic analysis of SDC 

B buildings designed both with and without use of the accidental torsion 

requirements. These analytical studies showed that the collapse resistance of 

buildings was not significantly altered if the accidental torsion requirements were 

eliminated in the design, for buildings with a torsional irregularity ratio of up to 1.4 

(which is the torsional irregularity ratio corresponding to Type 1b horizontal 

irregularity). For structures with extreme torsional irregularities, the additional 

strength resulting from the use of the accidental torsion design requirements becomes 

critical for maintaining sufficient building collapse resistance. The details of this 

study, including the detailed design information for the 240 buildings analyzed, are 

available in DeBock et al. (2014). 

C24.10 MODAL RESPONSE SPECTRUM ANALYSIS 

The requirements of this section closely follow those of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 12.9 

and only small changes have been made. The requirement to include a sufficient 

number of modes to obtain 100 percent mass participation was removed, and 

replaced by the exception in Section 12.9.1.1 allowing 90 percent mass participation, 

which is deemed appropriate for SDC B. The section on Scaling of Drifts was 

removed for editorial reasons because it does not apply to SDC B. Also, for 

simplicity, reductions associated with soil structure interaction are not permitted 

when using these Chapter 24 alternative procedures, and the associated guidelines 

were removed from the simplified procedure. 

C24.11 DIAPHRAGMS, CHORDS AND COLLECTORS 

The requirements of this section closely follow those of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 

12.10, and only minor editorial simplifications were made to remove requirements 

not applicable to SDC B buildings. The alternate design procedure for diaphragms, 

chords, and collectors in Section 12.10.3 was removed since it is not required for 

precast diaphragms in SDC B, and it is not expected to be commonly used as a 

voluntary alternate for other diaphragm systems in SDC B. If a designer wants to 

use that procedure, the building must be designed in accordance with Chapters 12 

and 13. 

C24.12 STRUCTURAL WALLS AND THEIR ANCHORAGE 

The requirements of this section closely follow those of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 

12.11, and only minor editorial simplifications were made to remove requirements 

not applicable to SDC B buildings

C24.13 DRIFT AND DEFORMATION 

The requirements of this section closely follow those of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 

12.12. The only modifications in this section are editorial simplifications, in which 

requirements have been eliminated when not applicable to SDC B buildings. 

One specific editorial simplification is that the table for Allowable Story Drifts 

(Table 24.13-1) has been simplified to only provide the displacement limits for Risk 

Categories I, II and III, since it is not possible for Risk Category IV to occur in 

SDC B. 
FEMA P-1091 2: Simplified Provisions and Commentary 2-33 

C24.14 FOUNDATION DESIGN 

The requirements of this section closely follow those of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Section 

12.13. The only modifications in this section are editorial simplifications, in which 

requirements have been eliminated when not applicable to SDC B buildings. 

In addition, the provisions for Strength Design for Foundations Geotechnical 

Capacity in Section 12.13.5 were removed for simplicity. If a designer wants to use 

these provisions, then ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapters 12 and 13 must be used. 

C24.15 SEISMIC DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR EGRESS 

STAIRWAYS AND PARAPETS 

Section 24.15 includes all of the seismic design criteria for nonstructural components 

in Seismic Design Category B. In the general procedures of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 

13, all mechanical and electrical components, and most architectural components, in 

SDC B are exempt. Accordingly, Section 24.15 seismic design requirements are 

oriented exclusively toward egress stairways and parapets. 

Additional editorial and technical simplifications have been made to the seismic 

design requirements for nonstructural components. The discussion below describes 

the technical differences between the general procedures of ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 

13 and the alternative procedures of Section 24.15. 

C24.15.2 General Design Requirements 

The alternative procedure does not permit manufacturer’s certification that a 

component is qualified by testing or experience data; this simplification was made 

because it is expected that the use of this approach would be rare in SDC B. If it is 

desirable to use one of these removed approaches in design of nonstructural 

components, Chapter 24 should not be used and the general provisions of ASCE/SEI 

7-16 Chapters 12 and 13 should be followed. 

Additionally, the requirements related to flexibility and consequential damage were 

removed in the alternative procedures because they are not required for the design of 

egress stairways or parapets. 

C24.15.3 Seismic Design Force 

The alternative seismic design requirements do not permit accelerations to be 

determined by the modal analysis procedures, as this approach is not commonly used 

in SDC B. 

C24.15.4 Design of Egress Stairways for Seismic Relative 

Displacements 

Only egress stairways are required to be designed for seismic relative displacements 

because design for seismic relative displacements does not affect the design of 

parapets. 

FEMA P-1091 3: Recommendations for Future Improvement 3-1 

Chapter 3 

Recommendations for Future 

Improvement 

3.1 Introduction 

This chapter provides recommendations for future improvements to Chapter 

24. These recommendations are based primarily on the feedback from 

engineering firms with design experience in Seismic Design Category B 

regions that were commissioned to perform trial designs using the simplified 

provisions (BSSC, 2015). The improvements recommended herein, and 

other changes, could be considered during the 2015-2020 update cycle of the 

NEHRP Provisions. 

Overall, the trial design engineers found Chapter 24 easy to use. They 

appreciated the consistency with ASCE/SEI 7 Chapter 12, calling the new 

Chapter 24 provisions “familiar.” They stated that Chapter 24 would be 

readily useable by engineers that design buildings in Seismic Design 

Category B, and also by engineers that design buildings in multiple Seismic 

Design Categories, because it would be easy to go back and forth between 

Chapter 24 and ASCE/SEI 7 Chapter 12. 

Although the simplified provisions were viewed favorably by the trial design 

engineers, several recommendations for additional simplifications to Chapter 

24 were suggested. These recommendations can be grouped into the 

following broad categories: 

 Structural systems eligible for the procedure (Table 24.3-1) 

 Analysis procedures and requirements 

 Configuration requirements 

 Foundations 

Recommendations for which there appeared to be consensus among the trial 

design engineers, and that were considered reasonable for inclusion in future 

versions of Chapter 24, are provided below. 
3-2 3: Recommendations for Future Improvement FEMA P-1091 

3.2 Recommendations 

3.2.1 Structural Systems Included in the Procedure 

Most of the trial design engineers recommended additional simplifications to 

Table 24.3-1 to eliminate seismic force-resisting systems that are not 

commonly used in Seismic Design Category B. Recommendations included 

removing the following systems (Table 24.3-1 designation in parenthesis): 

 Steel and concrete composite systems (C9 and C10) 

 Dual systems (E3, E4, E5, E7, and E8) 

 Shear wall-frame interaction systems (F) 

Other systems were also recommended for deletion, including all

“intermediate” systems and all steel systems other than R = 3 systems. 

However, it is recommended that these systems remain included in Chapter 

24 to provide more flexibility for designers using the provisions. 

3.2.2 Analysis Procedures and Requirements 

3.2.2.1 Dynamic Analysis 

Several trial design engineers recommended further simplification of 

Chapter 24 by removing the modal response spectrum analysis procedure 

(Section 24.10). This was recommended for the following reasons: 

 Dynamic analysis is not commonly used in Seismic Design Category B, 

especially among the intended users of Chapter 24 provisions. Designers 

who typically perform dynamic analyses are likely to be comfortable 

using ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 12. 

 For structures in which dynamic analysis may be beneficial (e.g., 

buildings that are taller, or have higher mode effects), wind is likely to 

govern the lateral design, reducing the advantages of the modal response 

spectrum analysis procedure. 

 The new requirement in ASCE/SEI 7-16 to scale forces determined using 

modal analysis to 100 percent of the equivalent lateral force (ELF) base 

shear (instead of 85 percent used in ASCE/SEI 7-10) further reduces the 

potential benefits of the modal response spectrum analysis procedure. 

3.2.2.2 Two-Stage Analysis 

Several trial design engineers recommended removing the two-stage analysis 

procedures from Chapter 24. Similar to dynamic analysis, this procedure is 

not commonly used in Seismic Design Category B, and those who use the 
FEMA P-1091 3: Recommendations for Future Improvement 3-3 

procedure are expected to be comfortable using ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 12 

for analysis and design. 

However, one trial design engineer recommended keeping this procedure in 

Chapter 24, noting that it is a useful procedure for low-rise, mixed-use type 

podium structures even in Seismic Design Category B. Further review of 

this procedure is recommended. 

3.2.2.3 Period Determination 

Trial design engineers recommended adding the alternate period 

determination formulae (ASCE/SEI 7-16 Equations 12.8-8 through 12.8-10) 

back into Chapter 24, and recommended keeping the Cu factor in Chapter 24 

the same as defined in ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 12. In the current version of 

Chapter 24, these simplifications were judged to be unnecessary, and would 

remove provisions that could be beneficial to designers in Seismic Design 

Category B. It was noted that when designers use commercial software or 

in-house analytical tools, it is helpful to have Chapter 24 provisions 

consistent with the ASCE/SEI 7-16 Chapter 12 on which these analysis tools 

are based, in order to avoid the need for customization of software for use 

with Chapter 24. 

3.2.3 Configuration Requirements 

Based on information from the trial designs, simplification of the accidental 

torsion requirements is potentially the most significant simplification in 

Chapter 24, but the current approach is ineffective because the user is 

required to include accidental torsion in the preliminary analysis to determine 

whether or not the building has a plan torsional irregularity, and to, therefore, 

determine if accidental torsion can be excluded in the design process. 

Accordingly, in the current approach, the user does not get much benefit 

from this simplification, and the trial design engineers strongly suggested 

additional simplification related to checking for torsional irregularity. 

The quantitative impacts of the accidental torsion simplification were also 

tested in the trial designs. Even though two of the four trial buildings had a 

torsional irregularity ratio of nearly 1.4 (on the verge of an extreme plan 

torsional irregularity), removal of the torsion check only changed component 

design forces by about 2-14% in the cases tested. Based on the trial design 

results, and associated discussions among the trial design engineers, the 

consensus was that the removal of accidental torsion did not have a 

significant impact on design in Seismic Design Category B. 
3-4 3: Recommendations for Future Improvement FEMA P-1091 

3.2.4 Foundations 

It is recommended that the foundation load-deformation provisions (Section 

24.14.3) be removed, and the scope of Chapter 24 be limited to fixed-based 

analysis assumptions. A fixed-base assumption is the more common 

approach in Seismic Design Category B, and designers familiar with flexiblebase foundation design are expected to be comfortable using ASCE/SEI 7-16 

Chapter 12 for analysis and design. 
FEMA P-1091 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions A-1 

Appendix A 

 Simplification of Seismic 

Code Provisions 

This appendix is a reprint, and limited update, of a white paper authored by 

W. Holmes and published by the Building Seismic Safety Council (BSSC) 

under the BSSC Simplified Seismic Design Procedures Development

Program (Holmes, 2015). 

A.1 Introduction 

Over the past several decades, the seismic design procedures and provisions 

in U.S national model codes and standards have continuously been refined 

and been made more comprehensive to cover more building types and sizes, 

to be efficient for design of buildings located in regions with a wide range of 

seismicity, to accommodate an ever-expanding state-of-the-art, and to 

incorporate lessons learned from damaging earthquakes. As a result, the 

design provisions have grown in number and complexity. In addition, 

national standards such as ASCE/SEI 7-05, Minimum Design Loads for 

Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE, 2005) reference extensive material 

standards for various material design details, which also contribute to the 

complexity of the design process. 

Some engineers and building officials have articulated their concern that 

current code provisions are difficult for them to understand and to correctly 

implement, particularly for simple and small buildings that are expected to be 

designed quickly and efficiently (Hess, 2009; Hamburger, 2010; Tong, 

2017). These concerns are particularly troublesome if lack of understanding 

or short-cuts lead to incomplete or incorrect designs of buildings that will 

perform poorly in strong ground shaking or, on the other hand, of buildings 

that are unreasonably over-designed as a compromise to avoid complex code 

requirements. Although training is available in various forms for correct use 

of seismic design provisions, only a minority of engineers take advantage of 

these opportunities. Automation has also been suggested as a partial 

solution, but in the U.S., many engineers are wary of such applications due to 

potential misuse on the wide variety of materials and configurations used in 

building construction here. In recognition of this dilemma, exploration of the 

development of simplified design procedures was encouraged by FEMA and 
A-2 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions FEMA P-1091 

a modest start was contained in the 2003 NEHRP Recommended Provisions 

for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings and Other Structures (NEHRP 

Provisions; FEMA, 2003) covering simple short and stiff structures. 

Subsequently, the national load standard, ASCE/SEI 7-05 incorporated 

similar simplified design provisions in Section 12.14. The initial 

development effort was the result of a more comprehensive planning study 

previously completed during the development of the 2000 NEHRP 

Provisions (FEMA, 2000). The 2000 study concluded that simplification and 

improved understanding of the code procedures could be accomplished in 

several ways, including editing and clarifying the current provisions, 

reducing prescription and emphasizing performance-based design, reducing 

complexity by increasing conservatism, or developing structure-specific 

provisions parallel to the main design standard that might not even follow the 

current general procedures but would yield equivalent performance. 

The issues, interests, and viewpoints related to simplification of seismic 

design are multiple. They include the public need for provision of adequate 

seismic safety, highly variable designer interest and motivation (particularly 

in regions of infrequent seismic activity), the economic interests of various 

material industries, the inherent complexity of the design process due to 

variation of design ground motion by geographic area and site soil 

conditions, the nonlinear dynamic response of structures to shaking, and the 

rich variety of building systems and styles used in the United States. The 

very process of building code development encourages consideration of 

additional aspects and nuances of structural seismic response, which tends to 

continually add provisions, and seldom eliminates or simplifies the 

procedures. Some are concerned that seismic code changes are occurring 

faster than they can be absorbed, that added complexity may not assure safer 

buildings, and that the costs to design professionals and owners are 

excessive. Although many different approaches have already been proposed 

or explored in various attempts to meet the largely dispersed interests in 

simpler and more efficient seismic design methods, it is widely recognized 

that there is no practical overall simplification to the seismic design 

procedures as a whole. The only existing simplified design procedures in 

ASCE/SEI 7 (Section 12.14) were developed in 2003 as a conservative subset of the existing standard design requirements, applicable only to a narrow 

type of low rise buildings, primarily because there was concern about 

proving code equivalency for design provisions that used completely 

different procedures (e.g., displacement based design). 

Since then, the recently developed procedures for qualifying new structural 

systems for incorporation in the building code as described in FEMA P-695, 
FEMA P-1091 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions A-3 

Quantification of Building Seismic Performance Factors (FEMA, 2009), also 

can be used to demonstrate equivalency with code objectives for alternative 

design methodologies with less prescription or that are not based on 

traditional force-based design concepts. This capability was not available 

during the development cycles of the 2000 or 2003 NEHRP Provisions, 

when the initial simplified design procedures were studied. 

It also must be noted that a considerable portion of perceived complexity in 

overall seismic code provisions stems from the material-specific detailing 

requirements needed to provide the ductility and toughness assumed in the 

main body of the code. These detailing requirements are typically provided 

by expert committees organized and sponsored by various groups that 

promulgate material-specific design standards. There has been little effort to 

simplify these provisions, other than industry sponsored handbooks and 

tables intended to clarify requirements and pre-calculate parameters. 

A.2 New Studies Began in 2009 

Beginning in 2009, FEMA, through the National Institute of Building 

Sciences’ Building Seismic Safety Council (BSSC), initiated new studies of 

seismic code simplifications, intended to be more comprehensive than 

previous studies. The study (the Simplified Seismic Design Procedures 

Project) was intended primarily to generate simplifications to the 2015 

NEHRP Recommended Seismic Provisions for New Buildings and Other 

Structures, FEMA P-1050-1 (FEMA, 2015a), but also to test the viability of 

various methods of simplification, including use of stand-alone provisions 

for individual building types and use of FEMA P-695 to prove equivalency. 

The study included review of input on the subject received by FEMA since 

2000, articles and papers discussing simplified design, new input from 

various regions of the country obtained by the project team, and 

consideration of various guidelines currently available to assist engineers 

with seismic design. 

Various options for simplification were identified. In general, the project 

focused on simplification of provisions in the main body of the code 

contained in the NEHRP Provisions, particularly considering the capabilities 

of FEMA P-695. Obvious opportunities to simplify, or eliminate, materialspecific detailing requirements were also considered. The background study, 

identification of options, and final recommendations were documented in a 

report, Development of Simplified Seismic Design Procedures, Framework 

Report (FEMA, 2010), available on the BSSC Portal. 
A-4 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions FEMA P-1091 

A.3 Framework Report 

The Framework Report described many options for simplification of seismic 

design provisions. Complete overhaul of the U.S seismic design provisions, 

suggested by some, was not an option because: (1) such a massive effort is 

completely beyond the scope of this project; and (2) it is not clear that such 

an effort would result in simplification, considering that the state of the art of 

seismic design is inherently complicated and the code must cover many 

building types. Similarly, a major editorial rewrite to improve clarity was 

not an option, primarily because just such an effort was completed for the 

2003 NEHRP Provisions (FEMA, 2003). Therefore, realistic options that 

were identified were generally focused on narrowly defined buildings types, 

or groups of buildings with similar seismic characteristics, that could 

potentially be designed for more specific—and simpler—requirements than 

the base code. The very large number of structural materials and systems 

used in the U.S., coupled with somewhat unlimited configurations, results in 

a variation in building stock covered by the seismic code that is perhaps the 

largest in the world. This variation somewhat limits the applicability of 

simplifications with a narrow focus. The primary options included in the 

Framework Report are discussed below. 

A.3.1 Further Simplification of ASCE/SEI 7-10, Section 12.14 

ASCE/SEI 7 includes Section 12.14, Simplified Alternative Structural Design 

Criteria for Simple Bearing Wall or Building Frame Systems, which is the 

result of previous developmental work by BSSC. This section allowed a 

simplified version of the equivalent static force analysis for seismic load 

effects along with a somewhat simpler statement of required strengths for 

selected components. It is applicable to buildings up to three stories tall and 

regular configuration, as long as the seismic-force-resisting system (SFRS) is 

composed of bearing walls or braced frames. One of the premises is that 

such buildings do not require the computation of lateral drift, which is a 

substantial simplification. 

The section is useful for qualified buildings with flexible diaphragms, but it 

was widely criticized as not being particularly useful for qualified buildings 

with rigid diaphragms. The reason is that a check for sensitivity to horizontal 

torsion is required for such buildings (ASCE/SEI 7-05 Equations 12.14-2A 

and 12.14-2B). The check itself required computation of the stiffness of each 

vertical element of the seismic force resisting system, and it was 

algebraically complex, essentially negating other simplifications of the 

procedure. 
FEMA P-1091 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions A-5 

Suggestions were made for simplifying this portion of Section 12.14 and, 

given the investment of effort to date in development, plus the generally 

favorable acceptance of the remainder of the section, an attempt to overcome 

this shortcoming appeared to be justified. 

A.3.2 Development of Stand-Alone Design Provisions for Low 

and Moderate Seismic Regions (Seismic Design Category 

B and C) 

The concept of reducing complexity and increasing clarity using stand-alone 

and targeted design provisions for buildings with certain characteristics has 

been suggested before, but never tested. 

Developing stand-alone seismic design requirements for Seismic Design 

Category (SDC) B and C buildings was an option for consideration. Seismic 

Design Categories B and C represent low-to-moderate seismic hazard areas 

that cover a large portion of the United States, and stand-alone provisions 

would be useful to many structural engineers. However, the seismic design 

requirements for SDC B and SDC C differ on many key seismic design 

issues. Physical separation of the provisions would make them easier to 

follow; however, simplification would probably imply identifying 

commonality in requirements. This would result in an increase in the design 

requirements for SDC B, reductions in requirements for SDC C, or would 

demand development of completely new provisions. These options appeared 

to present difficult issues that would require extensive analysis in accordance 

with FEMA P-695, to resolve. 

A.3.3 Development of Stand-Alone Design Provisions for Low 

Seismic Regions (for Seismic Design Category B) 

This option consisted of development of specific seismic design requirements 

for SDC B buildings. These requirements could be developed in a standalone document or as a special section of the current seismic design 

standards. For either approach, only the seismic design requirements for 

SDC B would be included in the stand-alone document or special section, 

and would be expected to be much shorter than provisions that must cover all 

regions of seismicity. This option could be pursued by editorial and/or 

technical changes to the seismic design requirements of ASCE/SEI 7-10, 

Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE, 2010). 

A.3.4 Development of Stand-Alone Design Provisions for 

Buildings with Rigid Walls and Flexible Diaphragms 

Single-story buildings with rigid walls and flexible diaphragms (RWFD 

buildings) are common throughout the United States, and are often used for 
A-6 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions FEMA P-1091 

warehouse buildings and “big box” retail stores. These buildings have stiff 

walls constructed of reinforced concrete or masonry, or braced frames of 

structural steel, and relatively flexible diaphragms of bare metal deck or 

wood structural panels. For typical large footprint RWFD buildings, 

deformation and cyclic behavior of the flexible diaphragm dominates the 

response to earthquake ground motions. Seismic provisions of building 

codes used in the United States, including those of ASCE/SEI 7-10, are 

developed based on seismic response dominated by deformation of the 

vertical elements of the seismic force-resisting system. Engineers involved 

in building code development have long suspected that the standard code 

model for seismic provisions does not fit well for design of RWFD buildings. 

The committee that studied code simplification for the 2000 NEHRP 

Provisions Update Committee considered developing stand-alone seismic 

provisions for RWFD building that would focus on the diaphragm response. 

Simplification or clarification could occur because the design engineer would 

only have to refer to the stand-alone provisions; in addition, stand-alone 

provisions could more easily use a response model that was different from 

the primary code (i.e., diaphragm rather than vertical elements). But separate 

design provisions were not fully developed at that time, primarily because a 

procedure for establishing equivalent performance to that intended by the 

base code was not available. This hurdle has been overcome with the 

availability of FEMA P-695. 

A.3.5 Development of Stand-Alone Design Provisions for WoodFrame Buildings 

The vast majority of building construction in the United States utilizes wood 

light framing—bearing, closure, and partition walls of repetitive studs 

supporting floors and roofs framed with repetitive joists or trusses. The 

walls, floors, and roofs act as shear panels with the wood structural panels 

and gypsum wallboard providing the strength and stiffness for the shear 

panel action. This structure type is so common for single family residences 

that simplified, prescriptive rules have been available in codes for decades 

that can be used without engineering design. In addition, the American 

Wood Council (AWC) has developed the Wood Frame Construction Manual 

for One- and Two-Family Dwellings (AWC, 2015) to address design and 

construction issues for this building type. However, there are still many such 

buildings that are designed directly from code provisions. 

The shear panel systems develop substantial ductility, mostly through 

inelastic action in and around the panel connectors. The fact that there are 

many components in the system means that there are many boundaries across 
FEMA P-1091 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions A-7 

which forces must be transferred, and design and detailing of these load paths 

causes the bulk of design time and complexity. Providing details for transfer 

of force across the many boundaries within the typical light-frame structure 

is a painstaking and time-consuming task. 

The availability of a stand-alone set of seismic provisions limited to wood 

light-framed structures would be convenient for designers, but would 

probably not be substantially simpler than the base code, and will not reduce 

the complexities from providing load paths. Furthermore, proposed changes 

to the base code to achieve further simplifications using FEMA P-695 would 

require a very extensive set of archetypical designs because there are so 

many actual configurations of wood frame structural systems exist. 

A.3.6 Use of the Ratio of Bearing Walls to Floor Area as a Primary 

Design Requirement 

Rules allocating the amount and location of walls for seismic design in a 

concrete bearing wall building could be established using FEMA P-695, and 

could be determined independently for each SDC. The specific limitation on 

wall location would be determined consistent with the occupancy of the 

building. For instance, wall locations for a residential structure would be 

different from those for an office building. The archetype design space 

would need to be selected based on building occupancy and the resulting 

rules for wall placement consistent with the analysis results. 

Rules-of-thumb consistent with this approach have been used in Chile, where 

mid- to high-rise residential structures consist almost exclusively of concrete 

bearing wall systems. Given the wall layout mandated by the various 

occupancy types, the large amount of variation in U.S. building

configuration, and the amount of wall that would likely result (two to three 

times greater that is currently used in the U.S.), this option was not 

recommended for further investigation. 

A.3.7 Reduce Material Detailing Requirements (to Achieve 

Ductility) with Use of Lower R Factors 

The detailing requirements for systems with high R factors generally involve 

design checks to avoid brittle limit states (e.g., tensile fracture of structural 

steel or compressive crushing of concrete) and to avoid focusing the inelastic 

demand in a small portion of the system (e.g., the “strong-column, weakbeam” rule for special moment frames). Many of these detailing rules are 

rooted in the concept of “capacity design,” in which the structure is 

constrained by design to perform in certain desirable manners. These 

detailing requirements can be very time consuming in engineering practice. 
A-8 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions FEMA P-1091 

The NEHRP Provisions and ASCE/SEI 7-10 are written to exclude the most 

brittle systems, generally those with the lower R factors, from use in higher 

seismic design categories, generally in locations with the potential for very 

large seismic ground motions. In some cases, the restrictions apply primarily 

to tall structures whereas in others, the restrictions apply to all heights. 

Suggestions to relax these restrictions by requiring higher loading (smaller R

factors) have been made in the past. Since the design procedures include a 

reduction in the MCE ground motion as a part of the basic equation for an 

equivalent design force, even an R of 1.0 implies acceptable structural 

performance beyond the design loading assumptions. Some individuals 

cognizant of this fact suggest a value of R equal to 2/3 as a safe alternative. 

Given that the ground motions to be considered exhibit a significant 

variability in key parameters, and that the capacity of a structure is not 

known with certainty, a probabilistic approach is probably needed when 

considering these marginal cases. The FEMA P-695 methodology would 

provide guidance in this regard, but the amount of work required to perform 

these analyses systematically for a wide category of structural systems would 

be overwhelming. Therefore, this option was not recommended for further 

study. 

A.3.8 Options Studied 

In 2010, the Project Management Committee, in consultation with a Project 

Review Committee and FEMA, selected three options for study and

development, based on somewhat limited resources, the most needed subject 

areas, and potential benefits. The results of these studies are described 

below. 

A.3.8.1 Further Simplification of ASCE/SEI 7-10, Section 12.14 

The primary goal for this simplification was to eliminate the complex 

torsional check for qualifying buildings with rigid diaphragms that was 

described as part of the Framework Report. Considering that using flexible 

diaphragm assumptions is a desirable design simplification, studies were 

undertaken to determine what conditions would require rigid diaphragm 

assumptions for the sub group of buildings that qualified for ASCE/SEI 7-10 

Section 12.14. General use of flexible diaphragm assumptions in ASCE/SEI 

7-10 Section 12.14 for all diaphragms would not only eliminate the need for 

the torsional check, but also introduce additional simplification. Extensive 

FEMA P-695 analyses were run on small structures with a variety of wall 

and brace layouts to determine under what conditions the results of design 

would diverge using assumptions for both flexible and rigid diaphragms. 

The FEMA P-695 methodology yields an index related to probability of 
FEMA P-1091 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions A-9 

collapse and, as long as the index for designs using flexible diaphragm 

assumptions was equal to or better than design using rigid diaphragm 

assumptions, flexible diaphragm assumptions were acceptable. 

It was found that design in which the seismic forces are apportioned to the 

vertical lateral force resisting elements as if the diaphragm was flexible was 

acceptable under the following conditions: 

 For structures with two lines of resistance in a given direction, and the 

distance between the two lines is at least 50% of the length of the 

diaphragm perpendicular to the lines; 

 For structures with more than two lines of resistance in a given direction, 

and the distance between the two most extreme lines or resistance is at 

least 60% of the length of the diaphragm perpendicular to the lines; 

 Where two or more lines of resistance are closer together than one-half 

the horizontal length of the longer of the two walls or braced frames, the 

lines can be replaced by a single line at the centroid of the group for the 

initial distribution of forces, and to distribute the resulting force to the 

members of the group based on their relative stiffness. 

The conditions outlined above are relatively easy to achieve in the structures 

that qualify for design under ASCE/SEI 7-10 Section 12.14, so in most cases, 

flexible diaphragm assumptions can be used, simplifying ASCE/SEI 7-10 

Section 12.14 considerably. 

A change based on this approach was proposed and adopted by the

Provisions Update Committee for the 2015 NEHRP Provisions, and adopted 

into ASCE/SEI 7-16, Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for 

Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE, 2016). 

A.3.8.2 Development of Stand-Alone Design Provisions for 

Low Seismic Regions (for Seismic Design Category B) 

Seismic Design Category B (SDC B) structures are located in regions of very 

low seismicity where maximum considered ground motion spectral 

accelerations, as modified for local soil conditions are: 

 0.167 ≤ SDS < 0.33 

where: 

SDS = design spectral response acceleration for short periods, 

and: 

 0.067 ≤ SD1 < 0.133 
A-10 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions FEMA P-1091 

where: 

SD1 = design spectralresponse acceleration for a period of 1.0 sec. 

SDC B structures include all buildings in these areas except Risk Category 

IV (essential occupancies). The area covered by the SDC B design criteria 

applies to much of the densely populated east so a very large number of 

buildings in the U.S. are covered by the SDC B design criteria. Seismic 

design provisions for these buildings are minimal but design engineers must 

still use all 80 pages of the seismic design provisions in ASCE/SEI 7, even 

though most provisions are not applicable. 

In this study, several concepts were used to minimize the provisions needed 

to design SDC B buildings: 

 Editorial Deletions. All the provisions that do not apply to SDC B 

buildings are simply removed. For example, there are nine pages of 

provisions in ASCE/SEI 7 covering nonstructural components, but only 

parapets and exit stairs are specified for protection in Seismic Design 

Category B. The necessary provisions could thus be covered in about 

one-third of a page. 

 Judgmental Deletions. Since SDC B provisions are to be specified as 

an option to the use of the full code, regulations that are very rarely used 

could be eliminated. If these regulations are needed for an unusual 

building, the design engineer can resort to design by the full code. For 

example, there are many structural systems listed in the so-called 

“R-factor table”, (officially titled, “Design Coefficients and Factors for 

Seismic Force-Resisting Systems”) that are never, or rarely, used in SDC 

B. These are primarily archaic systems (e.g. Plain concrete shear walls) 

and high ductility systems (e.g. Special moment frames of concrete or 

steel), neither of which, according to several engineers familiar with 

SDC B design, are used. This reduces the table of 83 systems to 36. 

 Technical Simplifications. The availability of FEMA P-695 allows 

determination of equivalency for technical changes. For example, 

FEMA P-695 was used to demonstrate that the use of accidental torsion 

is not required unless the building has an Extreme Torsional Irregularity. 

This study resulted in acceptance of a proposal to add a stand-alone chapter 

in the 2015 NEHRP Provisions for design of SDC B buildings. The 

simplified chapter consists of only 35 pages as an alternate to the full seismic 

provisions spread over 11 chapters comprising 87 pages. Engineers 

designing SDC B buildings will only need to refer to this chapter and the 

associated material standards previously discussed. 
FEMA P-1091 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions A-11 

To test the merit of the concept and the efficiency of the technical changes, 

trial designs were commissioned to three engineering companies practicing 

in SDC B regions. The buildings used in the trial designs had been 

previously designed using the full code provisions. The structures 

incorporated the following seismic systems: 

1. a three-story steel moment frame (R = 3); 

2. a four-story, light-framed wood shear wall (R = 6.5); 

3. a four-story ordinary reinforced concrete wall (R = 4); 

4. a six-story steel braced frame (R = 3). 

The results of the trial design study are summarized as follows: 

 The resulting designs did not differ significantly from the original 

designs previously completed using the full code. 

 The stand-alone format was viewed very favorably. Trial design

engineers suggested that such a format would both prevent omissions of 

requirements and prevent confusion from mixing requirements from 

different Seismic Design Categories. Design engineers uniformly 

reported that they would use such provisions if they were code-approved. 

 Most of the engineers suggested additional judgmental deletions on the 

basis that they are seldom used—provisions for spectral analysis, 

foundation modeling, and two stage analyses. 

 The attempted simplification to eliminate accidental torsion was not seen 

favorably. The analytical tests needed to eliminate the inclusion of 

accidental torsion were seen to be equal to, or in some cases, more time 

consuming than the original provision. 

This particular test of the concept of stand-alone provisions for specific 

building types or groups of buildings was found to be successful and useful. 

However, to be incorporated into building codes commonly used in the U.S., 

the chapter must be adopted into ASCE-SEI 7. Such a change proposal was 

made in 2014 and rejected, due to arguments that: (1) simplification of the 

seismic code was not needed at all; and (2) parallel methods of design, 

represented by a stand-alone chapter, created unwarranted ongoing risks of 

inconsistent updating and a potential double standard. This result was 

disappointing, but the stand-alone chapter is available in the 2015 NEHRP 

Provisions as well in the final report, Report on the 2015 NEHRP Chapter 24 

Stand-Alone Seismic Design Requirement for SDC B Buildings, (BSSC, 

2015). However, it will be necessary for engineers wanting to use this 
A-12 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions FEMA P-1091 

chapter to obtain approval from local building departments as to it 

equivalency and acceptability.

A.3.8.3 Development of Stand-Alone Design Provisions for 

Buildings with Rigid Walls and Flexible Diaphragms 

This study, in addition to developing improved design provisions for 

buildings with rigid walls and flexible diaphragms (RWFD), was also a test 

of the concept that design provisions narrowly directed at a single building 

type could be simpler and provide designs that would more consistently meet 

expected performance standards. The seismic response of this type of 

structure is practically all in the displacement of the large and relatively 

flexible diaphragms. However, the standardized design methods used in 

current seismic codes for all buildings assume primary response occurs in 

deformation of the vertically oriented lateral force-resisting elements (i.e., 

the moment frames, braced frames, or shear walls). A design approach for 

this building type that was more technically correct, and that could be shown 

to meet accepted code performance, had been sought for some time. Such an 

approach would also meet some, if not all, of the code simplification goals by 

eliminating confusion and creating more consistent designs. The benefits of 

a “stand-alone” format in this situation were not initially anticipated. 

As part of the study, test data for wood and steel diaphragms were collected. 

A highly detailed nonlinear model of a one-story prototype RWFD building 

was developed at University at Buffalo to improve understanding of response 

characteristics, and to enable application of FEMA P-695 methods to 

demonstrate full code equivalency of proposed design provisions. The 

prototype building was 200’ × 400’ in plan, had perimeter concrete “tilt-up” 

walls, and was modeled with both wood and steel diaphragms. From this 

base building, FEMA P-695 archetypes were developed with aspect ratios of 

1:1, 2:1, and 1:2, and spans of 100’, 200’ and 400’. 

Insights into the seismic response of this structural type include: 

 Wood diaphragms are considerably stiffer than steel, and the two are 

probably not interchangeable in design provisions (as assumed in current 

seismic provisions). 

 Acceptable ductility levels of these diaphragms often do not justify the 

Response Modification Coefficient, R, currently assigned to this system. 

Steel diaphragms using some connection methods have low ductility 

capacity, reinforcing the notion that a single R factor for this building 

type, regardless of the specifics of construction, is not justified. 
FEMA P-1091 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions A-13 

 Current diaphragm design methods incorporate a linear reduction of 

shear stress from the supporting exterior walls to the center of the 

building. Connector type and spacing is typically “zoned” to envelop the 

demand. FEMA P-695 analyses of typical designs indicates that 

inelasticity is limited to the high shear zone near the walls. If the 

adjacent zones near the center of the building are weakened, inelasticity 

is spread out over a larger area, and collapse probability, as measured by 

FEMA P-695, decreases. 

 The lateral displacement of diaphragms in typical use, and in 

conformance with current design standards, can often be in the 12- to 

18-inch range near the center of the building, creating significant rotation 

at the important diaphragm-wall connection. Structural connections for 

both shear and out-of-plane tension are currently not designed for this 

rotation, and it is not specifically required to estimate this diaphragm 

deformation. Requirements to estimate this deformation should be 

required, and connection details should be shown to be capable of 

accommodating the resulting rotation. 

 The historical weakness of wall-to-diaphragm ties was briefly studied. 

In general, the current design force level was found to be adequate, and 

collapse simulation in the FEMA P-695 studies was the result of sidesway (P-delta) collapse due to large diaphragm displacements. However, 

higher force levels were noted for diaphragms with short (100’) spans, 

for diaphragms expected to stay elastic for large loadings, and near 

corners. These special cases are not directly related to this study and 

should be pursued by code committees separately. 

 Procedures for considering wall-to-diaphragm connections for the 

combined loading of out-of-plane (tension/compression) and in-plane 

(shear) forces are not included in the code for either wood or metal 

diaphragms. Detailing of this connection varies by material and by 

region. When the connections for these two forces are not separate, the 

combined loading could be critical on the diaphragm. 

The results of this study will be included in Part 3 of the 2015 NEHRP 

Provisions. Part 3 contains code change proposals and associated studies

that are judged to require further study prior to implementation. The 

recommendations include: 

 A formula for determining the fundamental period of these buildings 

considering the primary response occurs in the diaphragm; 

 A design procedure that changes the traditional straight-line reduction of 

shear demands as a function of distance from the lateral force-resisting 
A-14 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions FEMA P-1091 

elements. The strength of certain interior portions of the diaphragm is 

reduced relative to the perimeter to spread inelastic behavior over more 

of the diaphragm. Designs using this philosophy were shown to have 

reduced FEMA P-695 collapse probabilities. 

 The change in fundamental period, and the reduction of diaphragm 

design strengths, is easily accommodated by the existing equivalent 

lateral force procedures in current seismic codes, and, therefore, the 

development of a “stand-alone” set of provisions for these buildings is 

not justified. 

 The inelastic capacity of steel deck diaphragms based on currently 

available fasteners and completed testing is not adequate for the purposes 

of the proposed new design procedure. At this time, the new procedure 

is recommended for wood diaphragms only. Additional testing may 

qualify certain steel deck diaphragm and fastener combinations before 

these recommendations are considered for adoption into the building 

code. 

This study produced a far greater understanding of the seismic response of 

RWFD buildings, and will probably result in future code changes. However, 

as noted above, changes to reflect an improved design method can probably 

be made within the context of current code procedures, reducing or 

eliminating the potential simplification of a stand-alone set of provisions. It 

was also noted during a meeting between the Project Management 

Committee and a Project Review Panel, which included several big box store 

representatives, that if a stand-alone design procedure was developed for 

RWFD buildings, industry would probably expect complete detailing 

guidance for issues such as collectors and wall-to-diaphragm connections for 

combined directions of loading, as well as tolerance for very large diaphragm 

drifts. These detailing issues are traditionally not covered by the code, and 

are the purview of design engineers and contractors. Future efforts of code 

simplification or clarification using stand-alone provisions should consider 

the level of design detail appropriate to be included in the stand-alone 

provisions. 

In addition to the project description in Part 3 of the 2015 NEHRP 

Provisions, a final project report is available from BSSC, and the design

process is described in FEMA P-1026, Seismic Design of Rigid Wall-Flexible 

Diaphragm Buildings: An Alternate Procedure, (FEMA, 2015b). 

Although FEMA P-695 was originally intended as a procedure to allow code 

approval of seismic systems using new materials or configurations, the 
FEMA P-1091 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions A-15 

RWFD study has confirmed that the procedure is equally useful for testing 

alternate design rules or analytical methods for existing systems. 

A.3.9 Conclusions from the Simplified Seismic Design Provisions 

Project (2009-2015) 

The project was intended to provide recommended simplification to the 2015 

NEHRP Provisions as well as test certain simplification techniques for 

viability in the future 

All three initiatives that were studied resulted in changes to the 2015 NEHRP 

Provisions: (1) in ASCE/SEI 7-16, Section 12.14 was changed to allow the 

assumption of flexible diaphragm in most cases, eliminating the need for an 

excess-torsion check; (2) the 2015 NEHRP Provisions included a stand-alone 

chapter for buildings of Seismic Design Category B; unfortunately, this 

change was not be carried forward into ASCE/SEI 7-16; and (3) the 2015 

NEHRP Provisions included a description of the study on RWFD buildings 

and a proposed new design procedure in Part 3. The proposal is being 

studied as a code change in the current update cycle (2015-2020). 

The procedures of FEMA P-695 were very useful for measuring changes in 

expected performance when introducing simplifying code changes. 

However, the procedures require extensive nonlinear modeling and 

calculation time, particularly when applied to situations that could affect a 

wide variety of structures. 

Tests of the technique of using stand-alone design procedures for welldefined structural types, or groups of buildings had mixed results. Standalone provisions for SDC B buildings simplified and clarified design of those 

buildings and were popular with engineers who performed trial designs. 

However, as previously noted, ASCE/SEI 7 committees did not accept the 

stand-alone chapter. To obtain the full benefits of stand-alone seismic design 

provisions, particularly if the provisions differ from the full code, a process 

must be developed to obtain an approval for use of the provisions acceptable 

to local building departments. 

The focus of FEMA’s simplification efforts has been on the seismic loading 

and analysis procedure—material that is covered in the NEHRP Provisions

and ASCE/SEI 7. It was previously noted that much of the perceived 

complexity, demand on design resources, and design and construction 

misinterpretation or errors associated with seismic design provisions stems 

from material-specific design rules or detailing of load path that are not 

specifically covered in these documents. The importance of this issue was 

demonstrated in the Project Review Panel meeting for the RWFD initiative. 
A-16 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions FEMA P-1091 

A “design guidance” document was prepared to define and explain the 

proposed new design approach. The majority of participants suggested the 

document was inadequate because specific detailing guidance was not 

included on such issues as wall-to-diaphragm connections, cross-building 

ties, and collector design—none of which were addressed by the proposed 

new analytical approach. 

A.4 Other Efforts to Simplify Seismic Design Procedures 

During the ASCE/SEI 7-16 code development cycle (2013-2015), several 

attempts were made for code simplification. The first was somewhat similar 

in concept to the stand-alone seismic provisions for Seismic Design Category 

B, described earlier. The proposal was to break the ASCE/SEI 7 standard 

into two volumes, one containing the more straightforward existing 

procedures covering most structures, and the second containing more 

complex procedures. Most engineers would seldom, if ever, consult the 

second document and the procedures most commonly used (in the first 

volume) could be more streamlined and less confusing. This proposal was 

intended to cover all design procedures, not just for seismic. Although there 

was favorable discussion, the proposal failed to achieve consensus support of 

the committee because members feared the extra work associated with 

producing two volumes and keeping them consistent (Hamburger, 2014). 

These reasons are not unlike the arguments used against the stand-alone 

provisions for Seismic Design Category B. 

The second initiative within the ASCE/SEI 7-16 committee came from a 

special subcommittee, Task Committee TC-2S, charged with investigation of 

simplification of the seismic design procedures. That committee drafted a 

proposal for a simplified alternate procedure that would keep structures 

elastic during expected seismic events (using a force reduction factor, R, of 

1.0). If structures had no inelastic demand during earthquakes, many code 

requirements, most of which are focused on providing adequate inelastic 

performance, could be eliminated, including detailing requirements contained 

in material design standards. The total alternate provision was only 5 pages 

in length (Heausler, 2014). Due to code development protocols previously 

agreed to by ASCE and BSSC, this proposal was sent to the Provisions 

Update Committee (PUC). The PUC rejected the proposal because it had not 

been justified using the FEMA P-695 procedures, which had been previously 

set as a standard for consideration of such proposals. However, the proposal 

was then revised to be limited to Seismic Design Categories B and C, and, 

although it received considerable interest, was not passed to be included in 

ASCE/SEI 7-16. 
FEMA P-1091 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions A-17 

A.5 The Future of Simplified Seismic Design Provisions 

Overall simplification of the seismic provisions was not studied in the 

project. Instead, as knowledge about the hazard and structural response 

increases, code-writers have tended to add options and nuances, essentially 

increasing complexity. Current analytical studies of performance, and 

performance based design in general, are also tending to demand more 

detailed consideration of system response. Based on ASCE/SEI 41, Seismic 

Evaluation and Retrofit of Existing Buildings (ASCE, 2013), substituting 

displacement-based design for force-based design will not reduce 

complexity, and might increase it. Efforts have already been made to 

reorganize and edit the seismic provisions to improve logic and clarity. 

Therefore, it presently appears that no overall simplification of seismic 

design provisions is possible. 

However, the availability of FEMA P-695 presents opportunities to simplify 

portions of the seismic provisions, or seismic provisions as applied to certain 

building types. For example, the studies of SDC B buildings found that the 

accidental torsion provisions may not be needed in many cases. 

Consideration of accidental torsion adds considerably to the calculations 

necessary for seismic design. A more thorough study of this provision may 

be justified for all Seismic Design Categories. 

The concept of stand-alone provisions for certain buildings or groups of 

buildings remains a possibility for future development. However, the barrier 

to ASCE/SEI 7 adoption of such provisions must be overcome. A parallel 

adoption process to prove equivalency to the full code is a possibility, either 

locally or nationally (perhaps through the International Code Council’s 

Evaluation Service). If such an approval procedure could be identified, other 

stand-alone design provisions could be considered, perhaps starting with the 

most common building type in the U.S., which is wood light-frame 

construction. 

The study of SDC B buildings as well as the proposal to split ASCE/SEI 7 

into two volumes was revealing. Discussions within Issue Team 7 (IT 07) of 

the Provisions Update Committee-2015 included the possibility of combining 

Seismic Design Categories B and C into one. Those discussions are ongoing 

in the 2015-2020 cycle. A reorganization and simplification of the Seismic 

Design Categories would enable development of a new set of provisions for 

the combined SDC B and SDC C. A complete separation of the provisions 

into three groups could be considered at that time: one very simple set for 

what is now SDC A; a slightly more complete set for the combined SDC B 

and SDC C; and a “full” set for what is now SDC D and above. Based on the 
A-18 A: Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions FEMA P-1091 

studies of Seismic Design Category B, it is believed that the intermediate 

provisions could be greatly simplified over the full set. Presenting each set 

of requirements separately would further clarify and reduce confusion and 

errors. The development of Chapter 24 exclusively for SDC B buildings has 

clearly shown the advantages of this organization. 

Considering the complexity of some material design standards, and the 

popularity in low seismic zones of R = 3 steel buildings (requiring little no 

detailing rules), an elastic design option for would apparently be widely used 

for many structures. Although such a proposal was rejected by the PUC, 

FEMA P-695 studies of one or several structural systems would develop the 

data needed for the technical provisions. These studies may show that force 

reduction factors less than 1.0 are needed for brittle structures, but this 

requirement will probably not reduce use of this alternate. 

It is recommended that any future initiative for code simplification, including 

those discussed above, be thoroughly vetted through the BSSC Provisions 

Update Committee before any significant development work is completed, 

including the need for specific equivalency studies (e.g. FEMA P-695). 

A.6 Acknowledgments 

The Simplified Seismic Design Procedures Project was funded by the 

Federal Emergency Management Agency through the Building Seismic 

Safety Council of the National Institute of Building Sciences under contract 

HSFEHQ-09-D-0147. The FEMA Project Officer was Mai Tong, with 

technical assistance from Robert Hanson, and the BSSC Executive Director 

was Philip Schneider. The Project Management Committee, in addition to 

the author, consisted of Jim Harris, John Hooper, Dominic Kelly, and Barry 

Welliver. The Section 12.14 study was led by Jim Harris, assisted by Gene 

Stevens, Jared DeBock, Holly Bonstrom, and Dr. Abbie Liel. The SDC B 

study was led by John Hooper and Dr. Curt Haselton, assisted by Dr. Abbie 

Liel and Jared DeBock. Trial uses were conducted by Marshall Carmen, 

William Jacobs, and Elizabeth Jones. The RWFD study was led by Dominic 

Kelly, assisted by Dr. Andre Filiatrault, Maria Koliou, and John Lawson. 

Review was provided by Project Review Panel members Doug Thompson, 

Trent Nagele, Joe Steinbicker, Ryan Kersting and James Kramer. 
FEMA P-1091 References B-1 

References 

ASCE, 2005, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, 

ASCE/SEI 7-05, American Society of Civil Engineers, Structural 

Engineering Institute, Reston, Virginia. 

ASCE, 2010, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, 

ASCE/SEI 7-10, American Society of Civil Engineers, Structural 

Engineering Institute, Reston, Virginia. 

ASCE, 2013, Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Existing Buildings, 

ASCE/SEI 41-13, American Society of Civil Engineers, American 

Society of Civil Engineers, Structural Engineering Institute, Reston, 

Virginia. 

ASCE, 2016, Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings 

and Other Structures, ASCE/SEI 7-16, American Society of Civil 

Engineers, Structural Engineering Institute, Reston, Virginia.

AWC, 2015, Wood Frame Construction Manual (WFCM) for One- and TwoFamily Dwellings, 2015 Edition, American Wood Council, 

Leesburg, Virginia. 

BSSC, 2015, Report on the 2015 NEHRP Chapter 24 Stand-Alone Seismic 

Design Requirements for SDC B Buildings, prepared by the Building 

Seismic Safety Council, Washington, D.C. 

DeBock, D.J., Liel, A.B., Haselton, C.B., Hooper, J.D., and Henige, R.A., 

2014, “Importance of seismic design accidental torsion requirements 

for building collapse capacity,” Earthquake Engineering and 

Structural Dynamics, Vol. 43, No. 6, pp. 831-850. 

FEMA, 2000, NEHRP Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for 

New Buildings and Other Structures, FEMA 386, prepared by the 

Building Seismic Safety Council of the National Institute of Building 

Sciences for the Federal Emergency Management Agency, 

Washington, D.C. 
B-2 References FEMA P-1091 

FEMA, 2003, NEHRP Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for 

New Buildings and Other Structures, FEMA 450, prepared by the 

Building Seismic Safety Council of the National Institute of Building 

Sciences for the Federal Emergency Management Agency, 

Washington, D.C. 

FEMA, 2009, Quantification of Building Seismic Performance Factors, 

FEMA P-695, prepared by the Applied Technology Council for the 

Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C. 

FEMA, 2010, Development of Simplified Seismic Design Procedures, 

Framework Report, prepared by the Building Seismic Safety Council 

for the Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C. 

FEMA, 2012, NEHRP Recommended Seismic Provisions: Design Examples, 

FEMA 751, prepared by the Building Seismic Safety Council for the 

Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C. 

FEMA, 2015a, NEHRP Recommended Seismic Provisions for New Buildings 

and Other Structures, FEMA P-1050-1, Volume I: Part 1 Provisions, 

Part 2 Commentary, prepared by the Building Seismic Safety 

Council for the Federal Emergency Management Agency, 

Washington, D.C. 

FEMA, 2015b, Seismic Design of Rigid Wall-Flexible Diaphragm Buildings: 

An Alternate Procedure, FEMA P-1026, prepared by the Building 

Seismic Safety Council for the Federal Emergency Management 

Agency, Washington, D.C. 

Hamburger, R.O., 2010, “On building codes and complexity,” presented at 

NASCC/ASCE Structures Congress, Orlando, Florida. 

Hamburger, R.O., 2014, “A look ahead to ASCE 7-16,” C + S Engineer, 

Fayetteville, Arkansas, http://csengineermag.com/article/a-look 

-ahead-to-asce-7-16/, last accessed June 22, 2017. 

Heausler, T., 2014, Personal communication. 

Hess, R., 2009, “Does the building code need simplification?” Structure 

Magazine, American Society of Civil Engineers, Structural 

Engineering Institute, Reston, Virginia. 

Holmes, W.T, 2015, Simplification of Seismic Code Provisions: A White 

Paper, Building Seismic Safety Council, Washington, D.C. 

NIST, 2017, Technical Briefs, National Institute of Standards and 

Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland, http://www.nehrp.gov/library 

/techbriefs.htm, last accessed on June 22, 2017. 
FEMA P-1091 References B-3 

SEAOC, 2013, 2012 IBC SEAOC Structural/Seismic Design Manual (five 

volumes), Structural Engineers Association of California, 

Sacramento, California. 

Tong, M., 2017, Personal communication, Federal Emergency Management 

Agency, Washington, D.C. 

FEMA P-1091 C: Project Participants C-1 

Project Participants 

Federal Emergency Management Agency

Mai (Mike) Tong (Task Monitor) 

Federal Emergency Management Agency 

400 C Street, SW, Suite 313 

Washington, D.C. 20472 

Mike Mahoney (Project Officer) 

Federal Emergency Management Agency 

400 C Street, SW, Suite 313 

Washington, D.C. 20472 

Applied Technology Council 

Jon A. Heintz 

Applied Technology Council 

201 Redwood Shores Parkway, Suite 240 

Redwood City, California 94065

Lead Author

Peter Somers 

Magnusson Klemencic Associates 

1301 Fifth Avenue, Suite 3200 

Seattle, Washington 98101 

Project Review Panel

William T. Holmes 

Rutherford + Chekene 

375 Beale Street, Suite 310 

San Francisco, California 94105 

John D. Hooper 

Magnusson Klemencic Associates 

1301 Fifth Avenue, Suite 3200 

Seattle, Washington 98101

Kevin Moore 

Simpson Gumpertz & Heger, Inc. 

100 Pine Street, Suite 1600 

San Francisco, California 94111 


FEMA P-1091

Catalog No. 17153-1