CERP System-wide Performance Measure Northern Estuaries Oyster Habitat 

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Northern Estuaries Performance Measure 

Oyster Habitat 

Last Date Revised: March 21, 2007 

Acceptance Status: Accepted 

1.0 Desired Restoration Condition 

In the St. Lucie Estuary and Lake Worth Lagoon, the restoration expectation is to promote the expansion of 

oyster reef communities and add substrate to increase areal extent of oyster reef, where ecologically 

appropriate. In the Caloosahatchee Estuary, the restoration expectation is to improve the recruitment and 

survivorship of the Eastern Oyster by restoring oyster beds in suitable habitat, and maintaining habitat function 

of oyster beds for fish, crabs and birds. In the Loxahatchee Estuary restoration expectations are still being 

developed. 

1.1 Predictive Metric and Target 

A variety of ecological and physiological responses of oysters will be used to determine the health of oysters 

and oyster reefs. These include: density of living oysters, condition index, reproductive activity, larval 

recruitment, disease prevalence and intensity of Perkinsus marinus (and MSX in east coast estuaries). A Habitat 

Suitability Index (HSI) model currently under optimization will be used to determine exact numbers of live 

oyster reef acreage increase and suitable locations for reef development (see below). A 5-10 fold increase in 

live oyster reef coverage is targeted with an overall goal of increasing % oyster reef coverage compared to 

current conditions. On a longer term (3-5 years), distribution and aerial coverage of oyster reefs will also be 

considered. 

1.2 Assessment Parameter and Target 

The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) is being implemented as a means of reinitiating, to 

the greatest degree possible, natural freshwater flow to coastal waters on both coasts of south Florida. The 

Monitoring and Assessment Plan (MAP) component of CERP is designed to provide a diverse approach to 

documenting and describing the impacts of changed freshwater flow to the flora and fauna inhabiting inland 

landscapes and coastal waters. Because of its wide distribution, historical context, and essential habitat value, 

the Eastern Oyster is included as a target species for monitoring. Changes in oyster distribution, health and 

abundance will be monitored within several estuarine ecosystems encompassing both the Atlantic and Gulf of 

Mexico coasts of south Florida. These ecosystems include the St. Lucie Estuary, Loxahatchee River, Lake 

Worth Lagoon, Biscayne Bay, Ten Thousand Islands area, and Caloosahatchee River. To provide a background 

for comparison, outlier oyster populations in Tampa Bay, Mosquito Lagoon, and the Sebastian River also will 

be monitored (Underwood and Chapman, 2003). We anticipate that mapping of oyster reefs to determine actual 

reef acreage needs to take place every 3-5 years. 

The targets for each of the northern estuaries, predicted with the full project implementation, are as follows: 

 St Lucie Estuary – to provide approximately 900 acres of suitable oyster habitat. 

 Caloosahatchee Estuary – to provide approximately 400 acres of suitable oyster habitat with at least 

100 acres of living oyster reefs. 

 Loxahatchee River Estuary – The restoration goal for oyster communities in the Northwest Fork of the 

Loxahatchee estuary is to maintain suitable water quality conditions for all oyster life history stages 
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near the River Delta while establishing additional oyster communities downstream. Numeric target will 

be determined once the baseline data collection is completed. 

 Lake Worth Lagoon – to provide approximately 185 acres of suitable habitat through the placement of 

appropriate material on hard bottom currently impacted by muck deposits. In addition, a performance 

measure for salinity levels has been developed, incorporating seasonality and duration limits, which 

takes into account the salinity requirements of both larval and adult oysters. 

2.0 Justification 

In the Caloosahatchee, Loxahatchee, Lake Worth Lagoon and St. Lucie Estuaries, oysters have been identified 

as a “valued ecosystem component”. Oysters are natural components of southern estuaries and were 

documented to be abundant in these systems. The Eastern Oyster, Crassostrea virginica, is the dominant 

species in these oyster reef communities. Oyster bars provide important habitat and food for numerous estuarine 

species including gastropod mollusks, polychaete worms, decapod crustaceans, various boring sponges, fish 

and birds. Over 300 macrofauna species can live in or associated with oyster beds and over 40 species may live 

in a single oyster bed (Wells 1961). Oysters are also an important commercial and recreational resource. Adult 

oysters normally occur at salinities between 10 and 30 parts per thousand (ppt) but they tolerate a salinity range 

of 2 to 40 ppt (Gunter and Geyer 1955). Short pulses of freshwater inflow can greatly benefit oyster populations 

by killing predators, such as the southern oyster drill and the whelk, that cannot tolerate low salinity water 

(Owen 1953), while excessive freshwater inflows may kill entire populations of oysters (Gunter 1953, 

Schlesselman 1955, MacKenzie 1977). 

Eastern oysters are highly valued as food, but their ecological significance remains under-appreciated and 

under-studied (Coen et al. 1999a). Individual oysters filter 4-34 liters of water per hour, removing 

phytoplankton, particulate organic carbon, sediments, pollutants, and microorganisms from the water column. 

This process results in greater light penetration immediately downstream, thus promoting the growth of 

submerged aquatic vegetation. Although oysters assimilate the bulk of the organic matter that they filter, the 

remainder is deposited on the bottom where it provides food for benthic organisms. Furthermore, the oyster's 

ability to form large biogenic reefs (Coen et al. 1999b) qualifies it as a keystone species. Oysters and the 

complex, three-dimensional, reef structure they form, attract numerous species of invertebrates and fishes. 

These "ecosystem engineers" (Coen et al. 1999b) attract predators such as mud crab (Panopeus herbstii) 

(Meyer 1994), black drum (Pogonias cromis) (Ingle & Smith 1956), and crown conch (Melongena corona) 

(Woodburn 1965) which feed on the living oysters themselves. Oyster shells serve as sites for egg laying or 

nesting in the crown conch (M. corona) (personal observation) and Florida blenny (Chasmodes saburrae) 

(Peters 1981), respectively. Oyster reef structure provides a refuge from predation for such species as the mud 

crabs Eurypanopeus depressus and P. herbstii (McDonald 1982). To date, over 300 species have been 

identified as depending, either directly or indirectly, on oyster reefs (e.g., Wells 1961, Crabtree & Dean 1982, 

Abbe & Breitburg 1992, Wenner et al. 1996, Coen et al. 1999a). Based on the relative degree of dependence, 

oyster-reef fauna can be classified as reef residents, facultative residents, and transients (Coen et al. 1999a). 

Many of these organisms in turn serve as forage for important fisheries species (e.g., spotted seatrout, 

Cynoscion nebulosus [Tabb & Manning 1961, McMichael & Peters 1989]; red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus

[Peters & McMichael 1987]; common snook, Centropomus undecimalis [Marshall 1958, Fore & Schmidt 

1973, Gilmore et al. 1983]) and birds (e.g., yellow-crowned night-heron, Nycticorax violaceus [Watts 1988]). 

For the St. Lucie Estuary, an historic acreage estimate of approximately 1,400 acres was calculated from a 

1940- 1960 oyster GIS coverage developed by Woodward-Clyde Inc. (1998a). This historic coverage 

represents an interpretation of anecdotal information and general oyster location accounts found through a 

literature review (Woodward-Clyde Inc. 1998b). This coverage was not intended for estimating acreage, but it 
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is the only known source of information for approximating acreage. In 1997, 207 acres of oyster habitat (15% 

of historic) were identified in the St. Lucie Estuary (Woodward-Clyde 1998a). Shell mining, altered freshwater 

inflow, and changes in hydrodynamics are largely responsible for this reduction. For example, large freshwater 

discharges from Lake Okeechobee and the St. Lucie Estuary watershed occurred in the Spring 1998 and 

Summer 1999, killing more than 90% of the remaining oysters. Some recruitment has been observed since then 

and a comprehensive study under the RECOVER Monitoring and Assessment Plan began in January 2005. 

This baseline monitoring study will provide information on the abundance, recruitment, and health of living 

oyster reefs in the St. Lucie, Loxahatchee, Lake Worth estuaries and Biscayne Bay. Current estimate (2003-

2004) for the Caloosahatchee River is 18.4 acres of oyster reefs. Caloosahatchee River and Estuary (including 

San Carlos Bay that forms the estuary portion of the Caloosahatchee River) has an accommodation space of 

62,644,983 m2 (6264 Ha or 15,479.36 acres) with oyster reefs comprising of 74,336 m2 (7.43 Ha or 18.37 

acres). This translates to 0.12% coverage of total surface area available in the estuarine portion (Volety et al., 

unpublished results). Percent coverage of oyster reefs along various Gulf of Mexico estuaries (Texas, Coastal 

Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Florida) ranges between 0 – 5.78%, with areas of intermediate salinities 

accounting for higher values (Data compiled by the US EPA). The lower percent coverage of oyster reefs in the 

Caloosahatchee River is a combination of freshwater inflows into the estuary from Lake Okeechobee and lack 

of suitable substrate. Most of the benthic habitat in the river is comprised of silty muds, sand, clay and shell. 

Similar estimates of present acreage and potential accommodation space for east coast estuaries is needed. 

Previous studies by URS Greiner Woodward (1999) for the St. Lucie Estuary and by the Loxahatchee River 

District (2003) for the Loxahatchee Estuary, plus a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service funded study being 

conducted by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute in 

Lake Worth Lagoon and Biscayne Bay will provide estimates of living oyster reef acreage in each of those 

systems. 

3.0 Scientific Basis 

3.1 Relationship to Conceptual Ecological Models 

The indicator for this performance measure is an ecological attribute (Oyster Habitat) in the following 

conceptual ecological models: 

Regional Models (RECOVER 2004a)

St. Lucie Estuary and Indian River Lagoon 

Loxahatchee 

Lake Worth Lagoon 

Caloosahatchee Estuary 

Ecological Model for Hypothesis Clusters (RECOVER 2005)

Oyster Abundance and Health Conceptual Ecological Model (see Figure 1 below) 

3.2 Relationship to Adaptive Assessment Hypothesis Clusters 

Ecological Premise: Prior to upstream water management (and post-inlet construction), the Northern Estuaries 

exhibited an ecologically appropriate range of salinity conditions, with fewer salinity extreme events, and supported 

healthy oyster communities 

Northern Estuary Oyster Hypotheses: 
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Hypothesis 1 - Undesirable shifts in the estuarine salinity envelope result in decreased survival, reproduction, 

spat recruitment, growth and increased susceptibility to diseases by Perkinsus marinus and MSX (in the 

southeast estuaries oysters). 

Rationale. Large rainfall events and subsequent watershed run-off, or large volume releases from Lake 

Okeechobee cause large volumes of freshwater over a short period of time to enter the estuary causing a sudden 

drop in salinity. This sudden drop can lead to significant mortality in the oyster population, and decreased 

growth, reproduction, and spat recruitment. Extreme droughts can also negatively impact oysters by making 

them prone to disease and predation. 

Hypothesis 2 - Accumulation of muck (high organic content depositional matter) on available substrate or 

nearby areas will make substrate unsuitable for oyster larval settlement and thus recruitment and growth of 

larval oysters. In addition, accumulation of muck may also impact the dissolved oxygen content making the 

area / substrate unsuitable for larval settlement and growth. 

Rationale. Oyster recruitment is negatively effected by the accumulation of mucky sediments in the estuary. 

Muck is unsuitable substrate for spat settlement. Areas that once contained sand and/or shell have been covered 

by these very soft, unconsolidated sediments. Freshwater inflow carries sediments with silt, clay and high 

organic content. Freshwater inflow from canals can also result in an increase in the transport of floating 

aquatics, which then degrade and contribute to the rate of muck accumulation. 

Hypothesis 3 - Increased sediment loads in the water column impair respiration and feeding of oysters resulting 

in decreased growth and condition index of oysters. In addition, sediment accumulation on oyster shell 

negatively affects spat recruitment. 

Rationale. Oyster populations are affected by increased sediment loads resulting from alterations to the natural 

hydrology. Adult oysters have effective morphological adaptations for feeding in much higher levels of 

suspended solids than are usually encountered under normal conditions. Oysters from relatively turbid estuaries 

appear to be capable of feeding at total suspended solid concentrations as high as 0.4 g/l but significantly reduce 

their pumping rates at as low as 0.1 g/l. Suspended solids may clog gills and interfere with filtering and 

respiration of oysters. Deposition of sediment on oyster shells also makes them unsuitable for spat settlement. 

Hypothesis 4 - Increase in oyster reef coverage will enhance secondary habitat for other estuarine species 

resulting in increased diversity and abundance. 

Rationale. Oysters are natural components of south Florida estuaries and were documented to be abundant in 

the system. Although currently less abundant, they continue to be important. Reduction in oyster coverage was 

largely due to altered freshwater inflow, shell mining, and changes in hydrodynamics. This decrease has 

resulted in a loss of oyster reef community and the estuarine species that use this habitat. 
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Figure 1 – OYSTER CONCEPTUAL ECOLOGICAL MODEL 

4.0 Evaluation Application 

4.1 Evaluation Protocol 

4.2 Normalized Performance Output 

4.3 Model Output 

4.4 Uncertainty 

5.0 Monitoring and Assessment Approach 

5.1 MAP Module and Section 

See CERP Monitoring and Assessment Plan: Part 1 Monitoring and Supporting Research - Northern Estuaries 

Module section 3.3.3.6 (RECOVER 2004a) 

See The RECOVER Team’s Recommendations for Interim Goals and Interim Targets for the Comprehensive 

Everglades Restoration Plan – Interim Goal 1.1 American Oysters in Northern Estuaries (RECOVER 2005). 

5.2 Assessment Approach 

NA 
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6.0 Future Tool Development Needed to Support Performance Measure 

6.1 Evaluation Tools Needed 

6.2 Assessment Tools Needed 

Oyster Model 

The proposed model (Volety et al. 2005; Mazzotti et al. 2005) is a modification of the original model developed 

by Cake (1983) and modified by Soniat and Brody (1988) for the Texas estuaries. For the HSI model for the 

Eastern oyster, a larval component index (LCI) and adult component index (ACI) are being examined. 

Monthly mean salinity, temperature, and inflow of freshwater comprise the LCI. The ACI is comprised of 

salinity, and temperature. The Habitat Suitability Index of oysters is calculated as: 

HSIMay-November = MIN (LarvaeComponentIndex, AdultComponentIndex) 

HSIDecember-April = (AdultComponentIndex) 

Average HSI for the year are calculated based on the monthly HSI values. The weight can take on different 

values for different variables; however, the sums of the weights must be equal to one. Refinement of the HSI 

will help identify exact locations or areas that have the greatest potential to develop as reefs, extent of reef 

coverage assuming certain growth rates, and above all reasonable predictive capability of oyster reef survival 

should conditions change in the future, e.g. amount of freshwater etc. Areas that show high HSI from this 

model are being targeted for restoration and enhancement of oysters in the Caloosahatchee Estuary. When 

baseline values of ecological responses (condition index, disease intensity of P. marinus, spat recruitment, time 

of reproduction) of oysters become available in the future, these aspects will be incorporated into the model and 

optimized. 

While this model is being developed for the Caloosahatchee Estuary, the model can be exported and used in 

other estuaries with minor modifications. The model will be strengthened and/or trained to better predict oyster 

responses with the continuous input of monitoring data. The model was generated based on the flow data from 

the SFWMD and oyster response data from the Caloosahatchee Estuary collected by Dr. Aswani Volety and his 

colleagues at Florida Gulf Coast University. 

7.0 Notes 

This Performance Measure supersedes and addresses NE-12 Northern Estuaries Oyster Habitat (Last Date 

Revised: Sep 21, 2005). 

8.0 Working Group Members 

Aswani Volety, Florida Gulf Coast University 

William S. Arnold, FWC 

Tomma Barnes, SFWMD 

Patti Sime, SFWMD 

Gregory Graves, SFWMD 

Alessandra Medri, Palm Beach County 
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Liberta Scotto, FWS 

Gretchen Ehlinger, EPJV 

9.0 References 

Abbe, G. R. and D. L. Breitburg. 1992. The influence of oyster toadfish (Opsanus tau) and crabs 

(Callinectes sapidus and Xanthidae) on survival of oyster (Crassostrea virginica) spat in 

Chesapeake Bay: does spat protection always work? Aquaculture 107:21-31. 

Cake, E. W. Jr. 1983. Habitat suitability index models: Gulf of Mexico American oyster. 37 pp. United 

States Fish Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-82/10.57. 

Coen, L. D. and M. W. Luckenbach. 2000. Developing success criteria and goals for evaluating oyster 

reef restoration: Ecological function or resource exploitation? Ecological Engineering 15:323-

343. 

Coen, L. D., D. M. Knott, E. L. Wenner, N. H. Hadley and A. H. Ringwood. 1999a. Intertidal oyster reef 

studies in South Carolina: Design, sampling and experimental focus for evaluating habitat value 

and function. In Luckenbach, M. W., R. Mann and J. A. Wesson (eds.), Oyster Reef Habitat 

Restoration: A Synopsis and Synthesis of Approaches. Virginia Institute of Marine Science Press, 

Gloucester Point, VA. 

Coen, L. D., M. W. Luckenbach and D. L. Breitburg. 1999b. The role of oyster reefs as essential fish habitat: a 

review of current knowledge and some new perspectives. In Benaka, L.R. (ed.), Fish habitat: essential 

fish habitat and rehabilitation. pp. 438-454. American Fisheries Society, Symposium 22, Bethesda, MD. 

Crabtree, R. E. and J. M. Dean. 1982. The structure of two South Carolina estuarine tide pool fish 

assemblages. Estuaries 5:2-9. 

Fore, P. L. and T. W. Schmidt. 1973. Biology of juvenile and adult snook, Centropomus undecimalis, in the 

Ten Thousand Islands. Pp. XVI 1-18. in Ecosystems analysis of the Big Cypress Swamp and estuaries. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region IV, Atlanta, Georgia Publication Number EPA 904/9-

74-002. 

Gilmore, R. G., C. J. Donahoe and D. W. Cooke. 1983. Observations on the distribution and biology of the 

common snook, Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch). Florida Scientist 46:313-336. 

Gunter, G. 1953. The relationship of the Bonnet Carre spillway to oyster beds in Mississippi Sound and 

the Louisiana marsh, with a report on the 1950 opening. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Tex 3(1):17-

71. 

Gunter, G., and R.A. Geyer. 1955. Studies of fouling organisms in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. 

Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Tex. 4(1):39-67. 

Ingle, R. M and F. G. W. Smith. 1956. Oyster culture in Florida. Rev. ed. Fla. State Board Conserv. Mar. Lab. 

Educ. Ser. No. 5. 25 p. 

Loxahatchee River District. 2003. Determination of live oyster bars in the Loxahatchee estuary west of 

the train trestle. Preliminary Report. 2 pp + figures and maps. 

Mazzotti, F. J., Pearlstine, L. G., Barnes, T., Volety, A. K., Irvin, D., and A. M. Weinstein. 2005. 

Stressor response models for the Eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica. JEM Technical Report 

2005-01. Final Report to the U. S. Geological Survey. University of Florida, Ft. Lauderdale 

Research and Education Center, Fort Lauderdale, FL. 14 pages. 

MacKenzie, C.L. Jr. 1977. Development of an aquacultural program for rehabilitation of damaged oyster 

reefs in Mississippi. U.S. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv. Mar. Fish Rev. 39(8):1-3. 

Marshall, A. N. 1958. A survey of the snook fishery of Florida, with studies of the biology of the principal 

species, Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch). Fla. Board Conserv. Mar. Res. Lab. Tech. Ser. No. 22. 
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McDonald, J. 1982. Divergent life history patterns in the co-occurring intertidal crabs Panopeus herbstii

and Eurypanopeus depressus (Crustacea: Brachyura: Xanthidae). Marine Ecology Progress Series 

8:173-180. 

McMichael, R. H. and K. M. Peters. 1989. Early life history of spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulosus

(Pisces: Sciaenidae), in Tampa Bay, Florida. Estuaries 12:98-110. 

Meyer, D. L. 1994. Habitat partitioning between the xanthid crabs Panopeus herbstii and Eurypanopeus 

depressus on intertidal oyster reefs in southeastern North Carolina. Estuaries 17:674-679. 

Owen, H.M. 1953. The relationship of high temperature and low rainfall to oyster production in 

Louisiana. Bull. Mar. Science, Gulf Caribbean 1:34-43. 

Peters, K. M. 1981. Reproductive biology and developmental osteology of the Florida blenny, 

Chasmodes saburrae (Perciformes: Blenniidae). Northeast Gulf Sci. 4(2): 79-98. 

Peters, K. M. and R. H. McMichael. 1987. Early life history of the red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus

(Pisces: Sciaenidae), in Tampa Bay, Florida. Estuaries 10(2):92-107. 

RECOVER. 2004a. Draft Conceptual Ecological Models. In: RECOVER. CERP Monitoring and 

Assessment Plan: Part 1 Monitoring and Supporting Research, Restoration Coordination and 

Verification Program, c/o United States Army Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville District, 

Jacksonville, Florida, and South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach, Florida, 

Appendix A. 

RECOVER. 2004b. CERP Monitoring and Assessment Plan: Part 1 Monitoring and Supporting 

Research. Restoration Coordination and Verification Program, c/o United States Army Corps of 

Engineers, Jacksonville District, Jacksonville, Florida, and South Florida Water Management 

District, West Palm Beach, Florida. 

RECOVER. 2005. The RECOVER Team’s Recommendations for Interim Goals and Interim Targets for 

the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan, c/o United States Army Corps of Engineers, 

Jacksonville District, Jacksonville, Florida, and South Florida Water Management District, West 

Palm Beach, Florida. 

Schlesselman, G.W. 1955. The gulf coast oyster industry of the United States. Geograph. Rev. 

45(4):531-541. 

Soniat, T. M. and M. S. Brody. 1988. Field validation of a habitat suitability index model for the 

American oyster. Estuaries 11(2):87-95.

URS Greiner Woodward Clyde. 1999. Distribution of oysters and submerged aquatic vegetation in the 

St. Lucie estuary. Final Report, Contract C-7779, to the South Florida Water Management 

District. 

Tabb, D. C., and R. Manning. 1961. A checklist of the flora and fauna of northern Florida and adjacent 

brackish waters of the Florida mainland collected during the period July, 1957 through September, 

1960. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf Carib. 11(4):552-649. 

Underwood, A.J. and M.G. Chapman. 2003. Power, precaution, Type II error and sampling design in 

assessment of environmental impacts. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 296: 49-70. 

Volety, A. K., T. Barnes, F. J. Mazzotti, L. G. Pearlstine, D. Irvine, and A. M. Weinstein. 2005. 

Development and optimization of Habitat Suitability index model for American oyster in SW 

Florida estuaries. World Aquaculture Conference, Bali, May 9-14, 2005. 

Watts, B. D. 1988. Foraging implications of food usage patterns in yellow-crowned night-herons. 

Condor 90(4):860-865. 

Wells, H.W. 1961. The fauna of oyster beds with special reference to the salinity factor. Ecological 

Monographs 31:239-266. 

Wenner, E., H. R. Beatty and L. Coen. 1996. A method for quantitatively sampling nekton on intertidal 

oyster reefs. Journal of Shellfish Research 15:769-775. 
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Woodburn, K.D. 1965. A discussion and selected, annotated references of subjective or controversial marine 

matters. Fla. Board Conserv. Mar. Lab. Tech. Ser. No. 46. 50 p.

Woodward-Clyde, Inc. 1998a. Distribution of oysters and submerged aquatic vegetation in the St. Lucie 

Estuary. Prepared for the South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach, Florida. 

Woodward-Clyde, Inc. 1998b. St. Lucie Estuary historical, SAV, and American oyster literature review. 

Final Report. Prepared for the South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach, 

Florida.