UNITEDARAB

EMIRATES

AbuDhabi

•Dubai

Fujairah

• Ummal-Qaywayn

•Sharjah •

•Ajman

Ra’s

al-Khaymah •

PersianGulf/ArabianGulf

ExpeditionaryCulture

FieldGuide
This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained within will help you 

understand the cultural dimension of your assigned location 

and gain skills necessary for success.

The guide consists of 2 parts: 

Part 1 “Culture General” provides the foundational knowledge 

you need to operate effectively in any global environment with 

a focus on the Arab Gulf States.

NOTE: While the term Persian Gulf is common in the US, this 

guide uses the name preferred in the region, the Arabian Gulf.

Part 2 “Culture Specific” describes unique cultural features of 

United Arab Emirates (UAE) society. It applies culture-general 

concepts to help increase your knowledge of your assigned 

deployment location. This section is designed to complement 

other pre-deployment training (Photo: former Air Expeditionary 

Wing Commander Brig Gen Dan Orcutt – 6th from left – and

staff pose with 

Emirati Fighter 

Group Leaders).

For further 

information, visit the 

Air Force Culture 

and Language 

Center (AFCLC)

website at 

http://culture.af.mil/ or contact the AFCLC Region Team at 

AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the express permission of 

the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources.

About this Guide

ECFG United Arab Emirates
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture, 

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also

usually assign the same 

meanings to the symbols 

in that culture. A symbol is 

when one thing – an 

image, word, object, idea, 

or story – represents 

another thing. For 

example, the American 

flag is a physical and visual symbol of a core American value— freedom. At the same time, the story of George Washington 

admitting to having chopped down a cherry tree is also 

symbolic because it represents the premium Americans place 

on personal honesty and leadership integrity (Photo: US and 

Royal Oman Air Force personnel following a training flight).

Force Multiplier

The military services have learned through experience the 

importance of understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20thcentury bipolar world order that dominated US strategy for 

nearly half a century, today the US military is operating in what 

we classify as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones, where the 

notion of cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of 

our engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

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nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner 

that is appropriate to our 

culture and encourages 

us to perpetuate that 

culture into the future.

We can organize 

behaviors and systems 

into categories—what 

the Air Force refers to 

as “cultural domains”—

in order to better 

understand the primary 

values and characteristics of a society. A cross-culturally 

competent military member can use these domains–which 

include kinship, language and communication, and social and 

political systems and others (see chart on next page)—as tools 

for understanding and adapting to any culture. For example, by 

understanding the way a culture defines family and kinship, a 

US military member operating overseas can more effectively 

interact with members of that culture (Photo: Muslim pilgrims 

visit Ka’aba, Islam’s holiest site, in Mecca, Saudi Arabia).

Social Behaviors across Cultures

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival, 

although agrarian societies generally produce their own food 

for limited consumption using very basic techniques.

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Conversely, industrialized nations have more complex market 

economies, producing foodstuffs for universal consumption.

Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, although they 

represent these concepts through a variety of unique forms of 

symbolism. While the dominant world religions share the belief 

in one God, their worship practices vary with their traditional 

historical development. Similarly, in many kin-based cultures 

where familial bonds are foundational to social identity, it is 

customary for family or friends to serve as godparents, while for 

other societies this practice is nearly non-existent.

Worldview

One of our most basic human behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or different based on our cultural 

standards. As depicted in the chart below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us compare similarities and differences 

across cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or “people not like me.” Usually, we 

assume that those in the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

This collective perspective forms our worldview—how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

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world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for actions and a logical explanation of 

why we individually or collectively act in a certain manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system assigns meaning, sets its universal 

standards of what is good and bad, defines right and wrong 

behavior, and assigns a value of meaningful or meaningless. 

Our beliefs form the fundamental values we hold to be true— regardless of whether there is evidence to support these ideas. 

Beliefs are a central aspect of human culture. They are shared 

views about world order and how the universe was physically 

and socially constructed. 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, right or wrong depends on our deeplyheld beliefs we started developing early in life that have helped

shape our characters. Likewise, these values are ingrained in 

our personalities and shape our behavior patterns and our selfidentities. Because cultural beliefs 

are intensely held, they are difficult, 

though not impossible, to change. 

Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence 

certain behaviors and also serve to 

rationalize those behaviors. 

Therefore, knowledge of individual 

or group beliefs can be useful in 

comprehending or making sense of 

their activities. We will use the 

iceberg model for classifying culture

to illustrate two levels of meaning, 

as depicted. Beliefs and values, 

portrayed by the deeper and greater level of the submerged 

iceberg, are seldom visible, but are indicated / hinted at / 

referenced by our behaviors and symbols (top level). It is 

important to recognize, though, that the parts of culture that are 

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not visible (under the waterline) are informing and shaping 

what is being made visible (above the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews may present behaviors that 

are contrary to our own beliefs, particularly in many regions 

where US forces deploy. Your ability to suspend judgment in 

order to understand another perspective is essential to 

establishing relationships with your host-nation counterparts. 

The ability to withhold your opinion and strive to understand a 

culture from a member of that culture’s perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It

often involves taking an 

alternate perspective 

when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical 

to your ability to achieve 

mission success (Photo: 

US and Kuwait Navy 

personnel).

As you travel through 

the Arab Gulf States, you will encounter cultural patterns of 

meaning that are common across the region. What follows is a 

general description of 12 cultural domains which are used to 

frame those commonalities. 

1. History and Myth

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story 

which members of a culture use to explain community origins 

or important events that are not verifiable or which occurred 

prior to written language.

The Arab Gulf States comprise 7 countries that border the 

Arabian Gulf: Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, the 

United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Oman. Scientists believe that 

the southern Gulf region was once home to early humans who 

established permanent settlements as many as 125,000 years 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

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ago. In the region’s north, the favorable soil and climate 

conditions of Mesopotamia (present day Syria and Iraq) 

allowed people to settle, farm the land, create irrigation 

systems, build structures, and 

establish towns beginning 

around 6200 BC (Photo: Mask

from an ancient Mesopotamian

civilization).

A unique culture emerged 

between 3000 and 2500 BC at 

Dilmun in present-day Bahrain 

and Saudi Arabia. As a regional 

hub, Dilmun played an important 

role in trade between the Arabian 

Peninsula and the Indus River 

valley (located in present-day Pakistan and India) as well as

along longer routes to East Africa, Southeast Asia, and China.

While the Arab Gulf was an important trading hub for centuries, 

the region never saw the birth of its own empire nor were its 

inhabitants ever united under a single local power. Instead, 

each of the region’s port cities was autonomous, with its own 

local economy and social organization. The cities’ dispersed 

power prevented their unification and also made the region a 

target for incursions from beyond the Gulf.

The first external force to exert power and influence over the 

region was the Achaemenid Empire (pictured) which controlled 

parts of the Gulf starting 

in 550 BC from its 

center in Pasargadae 

(Iran). It was followed 

by the Parthian (140 

BC) and Sassanian 

(226 AD) Empires 

centered in Iran and the 

Umayyad Caliphate (661 AD) centered in Syria and Turkey. 

The period marked by the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (570 

AD) in present-day Saudi Arabia and the subsequent 

emergence and establishment of Islam as the region’s 

predominant religion was a defining era in the Gulf’s history. 

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In the 16th century, Portugal established control over Bahrain 

and parts of the southern Gulf, a move that ushered in an era 

of European struggle for supremacy in the region. In the late 

16th century, the Safavid Dynasty of Iran allied with England to 

expel Portugal. At the same time, Iraq came under control of 

the Ottoman Empire (centered in present-day Istanbul) whose 

rule lasted until World War I, when the British assumed control.

England became active in the southern Gulf in the late 18th

century then solidified its dominance in the 19th century 

through agreements with local rulers in present-day Kuwait,

Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the UAE. Unlike in Africa and Asia, 

the British never established 

formal colonies in the region 

and left local ruling families

largely in place.

The discovery of oil in the 

1930s had a profound 

impact on the Gulf States’ 

economies and politics. 

While English and US

companies initially owned and managed the Gulf oil industry, 

local rulers confirmed their control of the industry following their 

countries’ full independence (Saudi Arabia, 1932; Oman, 1951, 

Kuwait, 1961; then Bahrain, Qatar, and UAE in 1971). Of note, 

Iraq like Saudi Arabia achieved independence in 1932, but was 

occupied by Britain during World War II. Following the 

monarchy’s overthrow in 1958, Iraq became a republic (Photo: 

Kuwaiti troops commemorate the First Gulf War in 2011).

Under the leadership of royal dynasties since independence, 6 

of the Gulf States have remained stable. By contrast, Iraq has 

been enmeshed in several conflicts that have contributed to 

regional instability. Under the autocratic rule of Saddam 

Hussein, Iraq engaged in the bloody Iran-Iraq War from 1980-

1986, then invaded and annexed neighboring Kuwait 4 years 

later, inciting the First Gulf War. Since its 2003 invasion of Iraq 

and subsequent collapse of the Hussein regime, the US has 

engaged in security cooperation activities in Iraq. In reaction to 

the 2011 Arab Spring, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Oman, and 

Kuwait have suppressed protests and calls for reform.

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2. Political and Social Relations

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all of the ways in which individuals are linked to 

others in their community. 

The Arab Gulf’s position at a crossroads for international trade 

has greatly influenced its ethnic makeup, politics, and social 

structures. The diversity of people passing through and 

residing in the region as part of its trade-based economy 

persists today—foreign non-citizen workers make up sizable 

portions of the 

populations in 

each of the Gulf 

States with the 

exception of Iraq 

(Photo: An Iraqi 

voter in 2005).

Today, the Gulf 

States minus Iraq

are governed by 

monarchy, though 

several have introduced political and institutional reforms since 

independence. While Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar have each 

adopted a constitution, the Saudi Arabian government 

considers the Qur’an, the primary religious text of Islam, its 

constitution. In 1996, Oman established the Basic Law of the 

State, which introduced a new system of government that 

includes a 2-chamber legislature that meets at the request of 

the sultan (ruler). The 2005 Iraqi constitution established an 

Islamic, democratic, federal parliamentary republic led by an 

elected Prime Minister, President, and legislature. Unlike the 

region’s other monarchies, the UAE’s government is comprised 

of the hereditary leaders of each of its 7 emirates. 

While the legal systems of the Gulf States have incorporated 

many aspects of English, French, and Egyptian law, Sharia

(Islamic) law continues to play a central role, particularly in 

criminal and family matters. In recent years, the Gulf States 

have undertaken efforts to create formalized legal systems that 

combine Sharia and civil systems.

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Despite some political tensions, relations among most of the 

Gulf States are largely amicable. Their good relations are 

primarily a result of their participation in the Gulf Cooperation 

Council (GCC)—a political, economic, and military alliance 

uniting Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, and 

Oman. Since the organization’s inception in 1981, member 

states have undertaken efforts to integrate their economies, 

militaries, and other social 

and political structures 

(Photo: US Secretary of 

State Kerry and GCC

leaders in Saudi Arabia in 

2014).

Iraq’s role in fomenting 

regional instability has 

affected its relations with

the other Gulf States. While the UAE, Qatar, and Oman have 

strong trade and diplomatic relations with Iraq, Saudi Arabia

and its close ally Bahrain frequently clash with Iraq. 

Disagreements center on Iran’s role in the region fueled by 

ideological differences between Saudi Arabia and Bahrain’s 

Sunni Islam leadership and Iran’s Shiite Islam leadership. 

While Iraq and Kuwait have taken steps to repair their 

relationship, tensions continue to linger from Iraq’s 1990 

invasion of Kuwait. 

Due to their significant sizes, populations, and resources, Iraq 

and Iran compete for influence in the Gulf. Saudi Arabia with its 

large oil reserves is also a powerful regional player even 

though its military forces are significantly smaller than those of 

either Iraq or Iran. 

Most of the Gulf States rely on the US to augment their military 

capabilities. With some 35,000 US troops stationed at several 

military installations throughout the region, the US has entered 

into agreements to sell or transfer arms and defense services 

to most of the States. The US remains in Iraq to train, support, 

and advise Iraqi security forces. Bahrain is the site of the 

longest-serving permanent US military presence in the Gulf, 

while Kuwait, the UAE, and Qatar also host large numbers of 

US military personnel.

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While Gulf States citizens are predominantly Arabs, the region 

is also home to several ethnic minorities—Persians in the UAE 

and Kuwait; Palestinians in Qatar; and Baloch and Persians in 

Oman. In Iraq, strong tensions exist between the country’s 2

primary ethnic groups, the Arabs and the Kurds. In each of the 

States, except Iraq, significant portions of the population are 

foreign non-citizens—about 25% in Saudi Arabia, 50 in Bahrain 

and Oman, 65 in Kuwait, 85 in the UAE, and 90 in Qatar.

Of note, the Gulf’s tribal networks were historically a 

fundamental element of social relations. While the region’s 

governments have attempted to supplant tribal allegiances with 

national identity in recent decades, the tribe continues to play 

an important role in social life in most States.

3. Religion and Spirituality

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. Early regional inhabitants worshipped various gods 

and objects, such as the sun, moon, animals, and tribal heroes. 

Between 500 BC and the 5th century, Zoroastrianism, one of 

the world’s first monotheistic religions, gained followers in the 

region. Although Christianity arrived in the Arab Gulf in the 1st

century, most of the region’s 

Christians fled or converted 

following the arrival of Islam. 

In 610 AD, a merchant from 

Mecca (in present-day 

Saudi Arabia), Muhammad 

ibn Abdullah, began 

preaching the worship of 1

God, Allah, marking the 

founding of Islam. Through 

conquest and proselytization Muhammad and his followers had 

united the entire Arabian Peninsula under Islam by the time of 

his death in 632 AD (Painting: A 1307 depiction of Muhammad 

receiving his first revelation from the angel Gabriel). 

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Without a chosen successor to Muhammad, his death ushered 

in an era of infighting that eventually split Islam into 2 sects,

Shias and Sunnis. This divide persists and occasionally causes 

conflict in the region today. Sunni Muslims began moving 

beyond Arabia shortly after Muhammad’s death, making their 

way to Iraq in 638.

Since its introduction, Islam has been a defining factor in 

shaping the region’s cultures, societies, and political systems. 

Today, Islam is the official religion of each of the Gulf States. 

Further, the majority of the region’s non-citizen residents are 

also Muslim. While the Arab Gulf is also home to some 

religious minorities—primarily Christians, Hindus, Buddhists, 

Baha’is—these nonMuslims are largely noncitizen foreign residents.

The Gulf States 

governments exhibit 

varying levels of religious 

freedom. For example, 

Saudi Arabian law does 

not recognize or protect religious freedom. While conversion 

from Islam is punishable by death, Saudi courts rarely inflict 

this sentence and instead issue lengthy prison sentences and 

lashings as punishment. Although the Iraqi constitution 

guarantees religious freedom, the government has been 

unable to stop recent acts of violence against Shia Muslims, 

Christians, and others (Photo: The Prophet Muhammad’s burial 

site at Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Saudi Arabia).

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members (often called “fictive kin”).

A fundamental element of Gulf society, family may refer to a 

person’s household and extended family, clan (a group of 

families), or tribe. Family, clan, and tribal connections typically 

play an important role in an individual’s life—they may

determine a person’s social status, potential marriage partners, 

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business opportunities, and inheritance rights. While residence 

patterns differ slightly among the States, multiple generations 

typically reside together in 

1 household (Photo: Iraqi 

mother with her children).

Historically, marriage was 

an arranged union

intended to bring both 

families social and 

economic advantages. 

Although arranged 

marriages are still 

common across the region, many regional residents now 

choose their own spouse, particularly in urban areas. Married 

couples typically live with the man’s family. While divorce was 

traditionally uncommon in the Gulf States, divorce rates have 

increased in some of the Gulf States yet remained steady in 

others. Of note, polygyny, the practice of a man having multiple 

wives, is legal in the Gulf States. 

The urbanization of Gulf society has changed family life in 

recent years. As both men and women take advantage of the 

enhanced educational and employment opportunities available 

primarily in urban areas, family structures have become much 

more diverse.

5. Sex and Gender

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

The Arab Gulf States’ cultures and religions (primarily Islam) 

traditionally privilege the male’s role as leader and provider. 

For example, Sharia law grants men privileges in inheritance 

and other family matters. While most of the region’s inhabitants 

continue to adhere to traditional gender roles—men as 

breadwinners and guardians and women as mothers and 

companions—recent influences from external and internal 

sources have introduced some changes.

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Women, like most men, were largely uneducated for much of 

the Gulf’s history. In recent decades, literacy rates for women 

have increased significantly across the Gulf. Further, women 

now make up more than 50% of the university student 

population in all States, although they often face challenges to 

getting their education. For example, women are often 

encouraged to pursue traditional “female” disciplines such as 

education and healthcare. In Kuwait, they are required to score 

higher than men on entrance exams for traditionally maledominated fields such as engineering.

Because the Gulf States’ legal systems permit gender-based 

discrimination, women are far less likely to participate in politics 

than men. Some progress has occurred: Saudi Arabia became 

the last Arab Gulf State to 

extend the right to vote to

women in 2015. Although 

women may serve in 

prominent diplomatic and 

judicial posts, the number 

of women serving in 

elected political office 

across the region remains 

very low (Photo: US 

Department of Commerce officials with students from Sultan 

Qaboos University in Oman and the University of Bahrain). 

Historically, Gulf women rarely worked outside the home, a 

tradition that has changed over the past decades. For example, 

female participation in the workforce has increased 3-fold in 

Qatar and nearly 4 times in the UAE since 2003. Despite steps 

towards gender equality, women still face barriers to their full 

participation in society. For example, it remains traditional for

male guardians to accompany women to events outside of the 

home, while many workplaces and schools continue to practice 

gender segregation. 

Homosexuality is illegal in all of the Gulf States except Iraq, 

where it was decriminalized in 2003. Most Gulf residents 

consider homosexuality, bisexuality, and transgender issues 

inappropriate topics of conversation. 

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6. Language and Communication

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural practice of sharing meaning in 

interaction, both verbally and non-verbally.

Arabic is the official language of each of the Arab Gulf States. 

Most residents regularly use 2 Arabic varieties—Modern 

Standard Arabic (MSA), derived from the classical Arabic of the 

Qur’an and used in school, the media, and in official 

government proceedings, and Gulf Arabic or Khaleeji Arabic, a 

widely spoken dialect. The residents of some States speak 

additional languages and dialects. For example, Iraq names 

Kurdish as its 2nd official language, and most Iraqis speak a 

unique dialect of Arabic called Mesopotamian Arabic. Some

residents of Oman 

speak other Arabic 

dialects.

The Arab Gulf 

nations are also 

home to millions of 

non-citizens who 

speak their own 

native languages.

These include

Farsi (spoken in 

Iran); Malayalam, Tamil, Hindi, Balochi, Bengali, Pashto, and 

Urdu (spoken in South Asia); African languages such as 

Somali and Swahili; and Asian languages such as Thai, 

Tagalog, and Korean. English is also widely spoken in 

business and by the expatriate communities of the Gulf (Photo: 

Computer keyboard with Arabic script).

Generally, Gulf residents demonstrate respect, generosity, and 

hospitality in their communication practices. Residents tend to 

share information about themselves and expect Westerners to 

do the same: they may ask personal questions about salary, 

marital status (particularly of unmarried people of a certain 

age), and family. Regional residents commonly use gestures 

when they speak, particularly if they are passionate about the 

topic of conversation.

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7. Learning and Knowledge

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such as schools or through informal 

learning by watching adults or peers. 

Prior to the 20th century, formal education in most Arab Gulf 

States was limited to madrasas, religious schools that taught 

memorization of Qur’anic verses and the fundamentals of 

Islamic beliefs and practice, primarily to males. Following the 

20th-century discovery of oil, educational opportunities 

expanded greatly. Bahrain became the first Gulf State to 

establish a public educational system in 1932. In the mid1950s, governments began to establish departments of 

education and allocate funds for schools and other resources. 

An exception was Oman, where educational offerings until 

1970 consisted solely of 3 primary schools reserved for 900 

boys hand-selected by the Omani sultan (Photo: Al-Hidaya AlKhalifia Boys 

school, the first 

public school in 

Bahrain).

Today, most of the 

Gulf States invest 

heavily in 

education, often at 

rates higher than 

many other 

developed nations. Consequently, adult literacy is over 90% in 

all States except Iraq where it is a low 80%. Further, the past 

several decades have witnessed a significant growth in the 

number of higher education institutions across the region. 

Due to years of conflict, Iraq continues to have inadequate 

education facilities and a shortage of teachers and resources. 

Because many students are displaced, their education is often 

incomplete. 

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8. Time and Space

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. In most western 

cultures, people tend to be preoccupied with strict time 

management, devoting less effort to relationship-building. By 

contrast, in the Arab Gulf States, establishing and maintaining 

relationships with others often takes precedence over meeting 

deadlines, punctuality, or accomplishing a task in the most 

efficient manner.

As in other Islamic societies, men and women in the Arab Gulf 

region often interact differently than Americans are used to. For 

example, in many parts of the 

Gulf unrelated women and 

men seldom interact, and 

when they do, it is only in

group settings.

Concepts of personal space 

also differ from those in the 

US. For example, Gulf State

residents of the same sex 

commonly sit and stand closer

to each other than Westerners 

do. They may also touch more 

often during conversations 

than Westerners (Photo: 

Former US President George 

W. Bush and King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia holding hands, a 

sign of close friendship among men).

Residents of the Arab Gulf States also tend to manage time 

differently. While residents typically agree in advance on 

scheduled start times, meetings frequently begin late. Further,

Gulf residents may prefer to deliberate for an extended period 

before making final decisions.

The Arab Gulf States use both the Islamic and Western 

calendars. Because Friday is considered a holy day in Islam, 

most Arab Gulf States observe a Sunday-Thursday workweek, 

except for Oman, which observes a Saturday-Wednesday 

workweek.

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9. Aesthetics and Recreation

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most of the Arab Gulf’s forms of artistic expression,

including its art, architecture, dance, music, and theater, reflect 

the region’s Arabic and Islamic influences. Gulf artists 

historically favored geometric designs and patterns to depict 

plants, flowers, and animals on buildings, jewelry, and 

household items. 

Due to historic trade relationships and intermingling of cultures, 

music and dance in the Arab Gulf States reflect Persian, 

Indian, and east African influences. Popular throughout the 

region, Khaleeji music combines local Bedouin (Arab 

seminomadic group) music with styles from Africa, India, and 

Iran.

For some regional residents, dance forms are an integral part 

of Islamic worship. Others

perform dances only in 

same-sex settings. Many 

of the region’s dances are 

done in line, circle, 

square, or semicircle 

formations with 

participants moving in 

tandem. Dances in the 

Arab Gulf are generally 

grouped by type, including warfare, work-related, “foreign,” 

women’s, weddings, healing, and Sufi religious dances (Photo: 

Iraqi National Folk Dance Troupe performs a traditional dance).

Regional residents practice a variety of arts and crafts including 

weaving (typically using camel or goat hair) and calligraphy—

the art of handwriting in which artists transform letters and 

words into intricate designs. While soccer is the most widely 

followed sport in the region, wealthier residents also enjoy

falconry, horse racing, and camel racing. 

10. Sustenance and Health

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures and economics. Theories of disease 

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and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness. 

While cuisine varies across the region, residents throughout 

the Arab Gulf use many common staple ingredients and spices 

such as mutton, lamb, and fish prepared with cardamom, 

turmeric, saffron, and dried limes. Fruits, yogurt, various 

salads, and rice are common accompaniments to meals. The 

most popular drink, tea is served sweetened and prepared 

either with or without milk. Observant Muslims in the Arab Gulf 

consume neither pork nor alcohol.

Health in most of the Arab Gulf countries has improved 

significantly in recent decades as evidenced by decreased 

infant and maternal mortality rates and longer life expectancies. 

Most residents in all States except Iraq have access to quality 

healthcare that is largely subsidized by governments (Photo: 

Machbūs, a spiced meat 

dish enjoyed throughout 

the Gulf). 

Years of conflict and the 

Saddam regime’s 

defunding of public 

healthcare by 90% 

created significant 

problems in the Iraqi 

healthcare system. In 

2009, with funding from the World Health Organization, the 

Iraqi Ministry of Health introduced a plan to reform and 

decentralize the country’s healthcare system. Additionally, 

international humanitarian organizations have expanded their 

efforts in Iraq to provide healthcare to both the local population 

as well as those fleeing conflict areas.

The region’s healthcare systems face several challenges, 

particularly rapidly growing healthcare expenditures associated 

with a large, aging population and lifestyle changes that have 

negative health implications. For example, fewer residents 

adhere to the region’s traditional diet and instead have 

increased their consumption of pre-packaged and fast foods. 

Simultaneously, rapid urbanization, the increased use of 

GENERAL

CULTURE
mechanized transportation, and a lack of dedicated green 

spaces for physical activities have led to an increasingly 

sedentary lifestyle for many residents. As a result, obesity rates 

have increased and noncommunicable diseases (such as 

diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and chronic 

respiratory disease) now 

cause more than 60% of 

all deaths in all of the 

Arab Gulf States, except 

Iraq (Photo: King Saud 

Medical Complex, Riyadh, 

Saudi Arabia).

Communicable diseases 

remain a concern in Iraq, 

where contaminated 

water supplies, inadequate sanitation, and poor hygienic

practices contribute to the spread of typhoid, cholera, and 

tuberculosis.

11. Economics and Resources

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Besides fishing and agriculture, the Gulf States’ 

economies have been enmeshed with local and international 

trade since ancient times. During the 17th and 18th centuries,

the Arab Gulf’s port cities were integral elements of the trade 

routes connecting India, Europe, and East Africa.

In the late 19th century, the region began exporting dates and 

pearls to new markets in Europe and North America. After 

global demand for pearls grew significantly around the turn of 

the 20th century, pearl diving became a major contributor to the 

economies of the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain before the 

industry collapsed in the 1930s. The region then entered a 

period of socioeconomic hardship until the discovery of oil.

The growth of the oil industry in in the 1950s-60s significantly 

changed the region. Within a few decades the States had 

transformed from some of the world’s poorest countries to

some of the wealthiest. This wealth has facilitated investment

in infrastructure, enhanced the quality of life, and encouraged 

GENERAL

CULTURE
rapid urbanization throughout the region with the exception of 

Iraq.

Prior to 1980, Iraq had one of the most advanced economies of 

all Arab Gulf States. Years of conflict, however, have had a 

profound effect on Iraq’s economy. In late 2015, Iraq 

implemented an economic reform 

proposal intended to cut excess 

government spending and 

crackdown on corruption (Photo: 

The Abraj Al Bait Towers complex 

in Mecca, Saudi Arabia).

Oil remains an important part of 

the region’s economies today—in 

Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait, oil 

exports make up over 90% of 

government revenues. Over the 

past several decades, the Gulf 

States collectively have taken

steps to reduce their economic dependence on oil through 

diversification efforts. For example, Bahrain has worked to 

develop its banking sector; Kuwait produces cement and ships 

and specializes in food-processing; Qatar is expanding its 

agricultural sector; and the UAE is investing in tourism, airport

and aviation services, and facilities management services. 

Despite these efforts, the region remains dependent on oil: all 

of the region’s economies were adversely affected by the 

decline in oil prices and a reduced demand for oil during the 

2008 global financial crisis. The States are currently exploring 

ways to adapt to the decline in oil prices that began in 2015.

12. Technology and Material

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology.

Most of the Arab Gulf States have invested heavily into 

extensive road networks. The governments of Oman and Saudi 

Arabia, for example, have put significant sums of funding 

towards building large freeways and roads that extend to 

GENERAL

CULTURE
remote areas. Despite years of conflict, Iraq’s 24,000 miles of 

roads remain in relatively good condition. In 2015, 6 of the 

region’s governments allocated $200 billion for the construction 

of a regional rail network which will link Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, 

the UAE, Oman, Bahrain, and Qatar when completed in 2018.

Information technology is spreading rapidly throughout the 

Arab Gulf. Between 2000 and 2014, Internet usage grew from 

between 2 and 23 users per 100 people to between 63 and 91 

users. The exception is Iraq where just 11 out of every 100 

people are Internet users. Cell phones are extremely popular—

the States report 

between 95 and 218 

mobile phone 

subscriptions per 100 

people (Photo: Freeway 

in Dubai, UAE). 

As the destination of 

11% of all GCC exports, 

the European Union (EU) is the region’s largest trading partner. 

Of note, the EU and the GCC States (with the exception of 

Iraq) are pursuing a free trade agreement. The Gulf States also 

maintain important trade relationships with several Asian 

nations. For example, China depends on the Arab Gulf for 35% 

of its oil imports, India for 45%, and South Korea and Japan for 

70%.

The Arab Gulf faces challenges in meeting its growing energy 

needs. As a result of the region’s rapid urbanization and 

population growth, the Gulf States are shifting from being 

energy suppliers to major energy consumers. Energy 

consumption grew by about 8% annually since 1972 

(compared to 2% globally). While the UAE, Kuwait, Qatar, and 

Saudi Arabia have less than 1% of the world’s population, 

these countries now use more than 5% of the world’s oil. Iraq 

has had difficulty meeting its own power needs, relying on 

imported electricity and petroleum products. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that 

characterize Arab Gulf society at large, we will focus on 

specific features of society in the United Arab Emirates.

GENERAL

CULTURE
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has experienced tremendous 

societal and economic changes since its formation in 1971. 

While oil revenues improved healthcare, education, and the 

nation’s infrastructure, economic growth required a large influx 

of foreign workers who now make up a majority of the 

population. Recent efforts to diversify the UAE’s oil-based 

economy have fueled a boom in business, tourism, and 

construction. The UAE today is a blend of ancient traditions 

and modern technology, and of conservatism and tolerance. 

NOTE: While readers may know the body of water to the UAE’s

north by its more common name, the Persian Gulf, this guide 

uses the Arabian Gulf, the 

name preferred in the UAE 

(Photo: Satellite photo of the 

Arabian Gulf).

Early History

Archaeological findings 

suggest that humans have 

inhabited the Gulf States 

region for millennia. The UAE’s 

oldest artifacts include handaxes and other tools found at 

Jebel Faya archaeological site 

in Sharjah emirate (principality). Since these tools are similar to 

those used by early modern humans in East Africa, scientists 

believe these artifacts are at least 100,000 years old. This 

finding suggests that humans arrived on the Arabian Peninsula 

directly from Africa as early as 125,000 years ago.

Around the 5th millennium BC, people began to congregate in

coastal settlements where they engaged in trade with 

Mesopotamia (present-day Syria, Iraq, and Kuwait). 

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

Archaeological finds in Sharjah indicate that inhabitants also 

began to harvest pearls from Gulf oysters at this time. 

Between about 2600 and 2000 BC, a settlement arose on the 

island of Umm al-Nar off the coast of Abu Dhabi. Ancient 

structures visible today include buildings constructed of marine 

rocks from nearby beaches as well as large, multi-room circular 

tombs, some decorated with carved camels. Artifacts indicate 

that inhabitants participated in a vast trading network that 

included Mesopotamia, Balochistan (in present-day Pakistan), 

and the Indus Valley (in present-day Pakistan and India). 

While much of the Gulf region was under the domination of 

various foreign empires through subsequent centuries, the 

region of the present-day UAE 

remained largely untouched due 

primarily to its lack of water and small 

population.

The Arrival of Islam

In 630, envoys of the Prophet

Muhammad arrived in the region from 

present-day Saudi Arabia, bringing 

with them a new religion, Islam (see p. 

2 of Religion and Spirituality). Islam 

spread rapidly through proselytization 

and Arabian Muslim invasions. In 632, 

the year of Muhammad’s death, 

Arabian Muslims defeated local 

tribesmen in a major battle in the present-day emirate of

Fujairah. Just 2 years later, Arabian Muslims staged their 

conquest of Iran from present-day Ras al Khaimah (Pictured: A 

1595 depiction of Muhammad leading his army into battle).

While the Gulf region as a whole experienced social and 

political upheaval as Islamic dynasties and sects competed for 

supremacy over the next 900 years, the UAE region as a 

frontier zone was largely uninvolved in this scrimmage for 

power. 

The Activities of Foreign Powers

Beginning in the early 1500s, Gulf frontiers to include the 

present-day UAE caught the attention of certain foreign 
HISTORY &

MYTH

powers. First, the Portuguese, the Ottomans (centered in 

present-day Turkey), and the Safavids (from modern-day Iran) 

began to compete for 

regional political and 

economic dominance, 

struggling for strategic 

ports and settlements. 

When Portugal used 

territories in the presentday UAE as a base in its 

fight against Persia (Iran), 

the English and Dutch 

assisted Persia in its defeat 

of the Portuguese. These 

events attracted more European attention to the region, along 

with occasional incursions into present-day UAE from

neighboring Oman until the mid-18th century (Pictured: Late 

17th century map of the Arabian Peninsula).

The Emergence of the Ruling Families

Many of the UAE’s citizens today trace their lineage to tribal 

groupings that coalesced in the 18th century. Primarily land 

and sea traders, the Al Qasimi had lived along the coast in 

current-day emirates of Ras al Khaimah and Sharjah since preIslamic times, often engaging in pearl harvesting and piracy. 

Today, descendants of 

the Al Qasimi continue to 

rule these 2 emirates.

By contrast, the Bani Yas 

originated in a band of 

interior oases where they 

cultivated date palms and 

engaged in nomadic 

pastoralism (animal herding). In the 1700s, Bani Yas groups 

began to move to the coast where they engaged in fishing and 

pearling, constructing a watchtower on Abu Dhabi Island in the 

late 1700s. A prominent Bani Yas family, the Al Nahayan, 

today rules Abu Dhabi. Following dynastic strife within the Bani 

Yas, tribal members founded Dubai in 1833. Today, their 

descendants, the Al Maktoum family, are the rulers of Dubai

(Photo: An 18th century watchtower in Hatta, Dubai emirate).
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Pirate Coast: In the 1770s, the Al 

Quwasim (the tribe led by the Al Qasimi

family) increasingly attacked passing 

British merchant ships. Such piracy on the 

part of both Europeans and Arabs 

prompted the English to call the region the 

“Pirate Coast.” Eventually, the Al Qasimi 

assembled their forces to include 60 ships 

and 20,000 sailors (Pictured: An 1837 

sketch of an infamous local pirate).

The Rise of the Pearling Industry: With 

easy access to India, a major market for 

pearls, merchants in Ras al Khaimah

began organizing a commercial pearl 

harvest. Over the next century, pearling 

expanded greatly, providing significant 

income to the region and attracting more settlers from the 

interior.

The Arrival of the British

As part of its competition with France to control Indian Ocean 

trade, Great Britain signed a treaty with neighboring Oman in 

1798. With this act, Britain became a major power in the 

Arabian Gulf, a role it would play for the next 170 years.

Commercial competition between British and Al Qasimi

merchants to control trade between India and the Arabian Gulf 

intensified in the early 19th century. In 1809, British merchants 

enlisted the support of the British navy to launch attacks again 

Al Qasimi strongholds. Despite this resistance, Al Qasimi 

attacks against British ships continued for the next decade.

The pacification of the southern Arabian Gulf region began with 

an 1819 British naval expedition against the Al Qasimi rulers in 

Ras al Khaimah and other ports. Comprising 11 warships and 

3,500 sailors, the expedition resulted in the destruction of the 

Al Quwasim as a sea power. 

Meanwhile, the region’s tribes engaged in other armed 

struggles. While the Bani Yas experienced significant dynastic 

strife, Saudi tribes moved in from the Arabian interior and allied 

with the Al Quwasim against forces from neighboring Oman. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

For several years, the region saw an almost constant state of 

war between equally matched foes. 

The Trucial States

With their own military activities in the region, the British sought 

to protect their trade interests and to exclude rival European 

powers from the Gulf. Significantly, they did not want to 

politically administer the region or rule its inhabitants. Instead, 

they constructed a 

network of alliances by 

signing a series of 

treaties and truces with 

local tribal rulers who 

remained in power. 

Because of these 

truces, the area 

became known as the 

“Trucial States,” with 

the region as a whole, including Bahrain and Qatar, known as 

the “Trucial Coast” (Pictured: Stamps from the British Post 

Office in Dubai in 1961).

In 1820, the British and several sheikhs (Arab tribal leaders) 

signed a treaty which required the Arabs to refrain from piracy 

and register their ships with 

British authorities. 

Following an outbreak of 

maritime violence in 1835, 

the British and local rulers 

agreed to a series of truces 

that culminated in the 1853 

Treaty of Perpetual 

Maritime Peace signed by 

Britain and 6 of the 7 

present-day UAE emirates: 

AbuDhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, 

Ras al Khaimah, Ajman, and Um al Quwain (Pictured: 1838 

British drawing of Arabian Peninsula inhabitants).

Over the next decades, the British established similar 

arrangements with other regional powers, including the local

leaders of Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, and Iraq. In 1882, British 
HISTORY &

MYTH

signed a treaty with these nations giving Britain full power over 

their international affairs in exchange for military protection.

Significantly, the treaty also recognized the sovereignty of local

rulers over certain areas and specified that borders could not 

be changed without British consent. Consequently, the treaty

buttressed the authority of a handful of ruling families by giving

them ownership of vast tracts of land. For example, the Al 

Nahayan family of Abu Dhabi came to rule over several other 

groups while acquiring about 28,000 sq mi of land.

The Rise and Fall of the Pearl Industry

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the pearling 

industry provided employment and income to the majority of 

the region’s inhabitants, fueling the growth of both Dubai and 

Abu Dhabi. By 1909, Abu 

Dhabi, with its population 

of 15,000, became the 

southern Gulf’s most 

important pearling site 

(Photo: Pearl divers in 

the early 20th century).

The region’s economy 

began a dramatic shift in 

the 1930s. Not only did the worldwide Great Depression

significantly reduce demand for pearls, the Japanese 

developed a cheaper way to breed oysters and make “cultured” 

pearls. These events signaled the beginning of the end of the 

Gulf’s pearl industry. This shift resulted in a significant loss to 

the region since fully 1/4 of the workforce labored in the 

pearling industry. The industry eventually faded completely in 

the 1940s, when newly-independent India imposed a heavy tax 

on pearls from the Arabian Gulf. 

The Discovery of Oil

About the same time the pearl industry was declining in the 

1930s, Western oil companies began surveying for oil. The fact 

that just a few ruling families owned and controlled great tracts 

of land became very important when oil was discovered in 

1958. As defined by treaty, the heads of these families would 

directly receive all oil revenues. Not surprisingly, some ensuing 

disagreements over boundaries resulted in armed conflict.
HISTORY &

MYTH

As the significance of the oil discoveries became apparent, 

both the tribal boundaries and the authority of the ruling 

families became permanent. Socially, differences between 

tribes became significant sources of identity (see p. 13 of 

Political and Social Relations). Residents began to see 

themselves as members of a distinct emirate or sheikhdom 

(territory under the control of a sheikh) with certain rights and 

obligations. 

Initially, most sheikhs passed on their oil revenues in the 

traditional way – as gifts to their tribesmen. As revenues grew, 

sheiks began bestowing gifts that would benefit the entire 

community, such as schools, hospitals, and roads.

The Trucial States Council: While still somewhat hampered 

by rivalry and conflict, the sheikhs formed their first 

collaborative political organization, the Trucial States Council,

in 1952. In 1956, the Council implemented a 5-year plan to 

develop educational and medical services and in 1965 founded 

a Development Office 

that oversaw road 

construction and 

agricultural improvement 

projects (Photo: Dubai in 

the mid-1950s).

Because these projects 

relied on donations from 

the sheikhdoms, 

development across the 

emirates was uneven. 

Dubai experienced rapid 

improvements in social services first under the leadership of 

Sheikh Said bin Al Maktoum until his death in 1958 and then 

under his son Sheikh Rashid bin Said Al Maktoum (known as 

Sheikh Rashid). 

By contrast, Abu Dhabi’s leader, Sheikh Shakhbut, refused to 

spend early oil revenues on education or medical services. 

Although Abu Dhabi’s population was about 20,000 when it 

began exporting oil in 1962, it had just 1 school and 1 paved 

road.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Dissatisfied with Sheikh Shakhbut’s handling of oil revenues, 

members of Abu Dhabi’s ruling family ousted him from office in 

1966 and installed his brother, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al 

Nahayan (known as Sheikh Zayed). The new leader soon 

made a very large donation to the development fund. In this 

way, Sheikh Zayed set a precedent for Abu Dhabi’s significant 

financial support to public works projects.

The British Withdraw

In 1968, fearing that continued support to the Trucial States 

would severely tax its overextended military, Britain suddenly 

announced that in 3 years it would discontinue its protectorate 

commitments on the Trucial Coast. The rulers of Abu Dhabi 

and Dubai invited the 

other 5 local rulers of 

the Trucial States 

plus the leaders of 

Bahrain and Qatar to 

join them in a

confederation of Arab 

emirates. Despite 

disagreements on 

the details, including 

the location of the 

capital of the 

proposed federation 

and the content of its constitution, the rulers initially accepted 

the proposal. Eventually unable to resolve certain issues, 

Bahrain and Qatar withdrew from negotiations, each declaring 

independence in late summer 1971 (Photo: Dubai’s leaders 

confer in 1968).

Because their oil reserves provided them an economic 

foundation, Abu Dhabi and Dubai believed their future without 

Britain was secure. By contrast, because the other 5 

sheikdoms had no mineral resources, small populations, and 

little development, Abu Dhabi and Dubai considered them

unprepared for independence. Further, none of the sheikdoms 

had any military defense capability. Consequently, Abu Dhabi 

and Dubai offered to pay Britain to maintain military forces in 

the region. Although Britain rejected this arrangement, it did 

support the development of a provisional federal constitution.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Independence

The British-Trucial States treaty expired on December 1, 1971. 

A day later, the 6 former Trucial States of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, 

Fujairah, Dubai, Sharjah, and Um al Quwain joined to form the 

United Arab Emirates. The 7th emirate, Ras al Khaimah, joined 

the federation in early 1972. As leader of the largest and 

wealthiest emirate, Abu Dhabi’s Sheikh Zayed (pictured in 

1988) became the UAE’s first 

President. Sheikh Rashid, the ruler 

of Dubai, became the VicePresident, while his son, Sheikh 

Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, 

Dubai’s crown prince, became the 

UAE’s first Prime Minister (PM).

The newly-independent UAE faced 

several challenges, including Iran’s 

immediate occupation and 

annexation of 3 Gulf islands whose 

ownership is still disputed today 

(see p. 10-11 of Political and Social 

Relations). In addition, many 

observers doubted that the new, rather loose confederation 

could successfully bind the UAE’s tribes and clans. When 

dynastic strife within Sharjah’s ruling family threatened the new 

country’s stability just weeks after independence, the UAE 

government successfully stepped in to restore order. 

With its accumulation of oil wealth, Abu Dhabi quickly proved to 

be the tie that binds. By distributing oil earnings to the poorer 

emirates, Abu Dhabi alleviated economic tensions within all the 

UAE’s ruling families and provided an equal foundation for 

development across the country. With its own revenues from 

more modest oil reserves and economic diversification 

programs (see p. 1-2 of Economics and Resources), Dubai 

resented Abu Dhabi’s domination. Consequently, Dubai argued

for increased emirate autonomy and even threatened

secession over the issue in the mid-1970s. 

The Modern UAE

Despite this and other internal conflicts since independence, 

the UAE’s oil revenues have enabled massive development 
HISTORY &

MYTH

projects that brought about economic and political stability and 

one of the world’s highest standards of living for its citizenry. 

New roads, housing, and communications systems 

transformed daily life (see p. 1-2 of Family and Kinship); 

improved medical care extended life expectancy and 

decreased infant mortality (see p. 10 of Sustenance and 

Health); and an expanded education system increased literacy 

rates (see p. 2 of Learning and Knowledge). 

Lacking a skilled labor force to support these construction, 

transportation, communications, health, and education projects, 

the UAE turned to foreign laborers to fill the gap. Today, noncitizen foreign workers make up more than 3/4 of the UAE’s 

total population (see p. 1 and 12-14 of Political and Social 

Relations). 

Gulf Cooperation Council: Since independence, the UAE has 

become an important actor within regional affairs. In 1981, 

Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the UAE 

formed the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) to provide for 

regional defense and to 

coordinate policy on trade 

and economic issues 

(see p. 10 of Political and 

Social Relations). 

Following the 1990 Iraqi 

invasion of Kuwait, the 

UAE and other GCC 

states entered into a 

closer security relationship with the US (see p. 11-12 of 

Political and Social Relations) (Photo: US Secretary of State 

Kerry meets with GCC members in 2015).

Leadership Transitions: In 1990, following his father’s death, 

Sheikh Maktoum became ruler of Dubai and Vice-President 

and PM of the UAE. In 2004, UAE President Sheikh Zayed 

died and was succeeded by his eldest son, Sheikh Khalifa bin 

Zayed Al Nahayan (known as Sheikh Khalifa) as ruler of Abu 

Dhabi. Following the custom that Abu Dhabi’s ruler should also 

be the UAE’s leader, the Federal Supreme Council then 

elected Sheikh Khalifa President. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Upon the 2006 death of Sheikh Maktoum, his younger brother, 

Sheikh Mohammad bin Rashid Al Maktoum (known as Sheikh 

Mohammad) assumed the roles of leader of Dubai and VicePresident and PM of the 

UAE (Photo: US 

Secretary of the Navy 

Mabus greets Sheikh 

Mohammad in 2012).

Joining other regional 

states in their efforts to 

provide their citizens a 

more representative 

government, the UAE 

held its first elections in 2006, when 7,000 Emirati citizens (out 

of a population of 400,000 citizens) were chosen to comprise 

an electoral college to indirectly elect 20 members of the UAE’s 

Federal National Council (FNC-see p. 5 of Political and Social 

Relations).

During the 2011 “Arab Spring,” when pro-democracy 

movements swept North Africa and the Middle East, the UAE 

saw relatively little unrest. While 5 protestors were found guilty 

of insulting the President in a trial widely condemned by 

outside observers, the President quickly pardoned them. In the 

FNC elections that fall, the government expanded the electoral 

college to include 129,000 voters. While some 468 candidates 

ran for 20 seats, there was little active campaigning and turnout 

on election day was only 25%.

Beneath the UAE’s political calm and economic success lie 

potential causes of instability. These include lax immigration 

and financial controls, regional terrorist activity (see p. 9 of 

Political and Social Relations), and the economy’s reliance on 

non-citizen foreign workers (see p. 1 of Economics and 

Resources). Of note, in recent years the UAE has strived to 

suppress social dissent through laws that ban criticism of the 

government and restrict use of the Internet (see p. 3 of 

Technology and Material). 

Since suffering a stroke in early 2014, President Sheikh Khalifa 

has delegated many governing responsibilities to his younger 

brother, Sheikh Mohammad bin Zayed Al Nahayan.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Myth Overview

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and 

the natural world. Myths are important because they provide a 

sense of unique heritage and identity. Story-telling historically 

played a very important role among Arab tribespeople. Both the 

desert and the sea inspired many tales, which people often 

shared while sitting around the campfire (see p. 5 of Aesthetics 

and Recreation). Many stories tell of the exploits of heroes who 

were particularly charitable, clever, or able, providing models of 

proper behavior. Others tell of evil spirits or djinn (see p. 2 of 

Religion and Spirituality). Still others relate the adventures of 

mystical creatures.

Tale of the Girl and the Henna Tree

“Kan fi qadeem al zaman...” or once upon a time, a henna tree

(a flowering plant containing a dye) flirted with young girls as 

they passed on their way to draw water from a well. Emiratis 

traditionally use henna to color hair, fingernails, silk, wool or 

leather. Women also use it to 

draw temporary tattoos 

(pictured – see p. 5 of Family 

and Kinship).

Most of the girls ignored the 

henna tree when it said 

things like, “Hello beautiful. 

Come over here and sit and 

talk to me.” One girl 

responded, asking him why he said such ridiculous things. The 

tree told her, “I love you. If you marry me, all your dreams will 

come true.” The girl agreed to marry the tree. Although her 

parents thought the arrangement strange, they gave the couple 

their blessing. On the wedding day, the tree demanded that the 

girl kiss him. She did, and he immediately turned into a prince.

An expert in UAE tales and legends recently related this story 

to school girls in Sharjah. He noted that this traditional story 

has a strong moral message: that people should not be judged 

on their appearance and that women should be able to tell their 

parents who they want to marry.
Official Name

United Arab Emirates

Dawlat al-Imārāt al-‘Arabīyah al-Muttaḥidah

(Arabic (اإلمارات العربية المتحدة

Political 

Borders

Oman: 378 mi

Saudi Arabia: 

284 mi

Coastline: 819

mi

Capital

Abu Dhabi

Demographics

Due to large fluctuations among non-citizen foreign workers, 

population estimates for the UAE diverge greatly. While the US 

estimated the UAE’s population at 5.93 million in 2016, the UN 

estimate was 9.4 million in 2014. Estimates of the non-citizens’ 

proportion of the total population also vary, ranging from 76% -

89%. Regardless of the exact figures, Emirati citizens 

(“Emiratis”) make up a minority of the population, between 11% 

and 24%. While about 50% of non-citizens are from South 

Asia, significant numbers also come Southeast Asia, the 

Middle East, and North Africa. Almost 86% of residents live in 

urban areas, and over 80% reside in the 3 major metropolitan 

areas of Dubai, Sharjah, 

and Abu Dhabi.

Flag

Officially adopted in 

1971, the UAE flag 

consists of 3 equal 

horizontal stripes of 

green, white, and black, with a wider red band perpendicular 

and to the left of the stripes. While the red band represents the 

unification of the 7 emirates (see p. 9 in History and Myth), 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
green represents fertility, white denotes neutrality, and black 

symbolizes petroleum resources. Of note, 6 of the 7 emirates 

also use distinct state flags whose designs were used by each 

of the sheikhdoms prior to the UAE’s founding.

Geography

Situated on the southeastern shore of the Arabian Peninsula, 

the UAE borders the Arabian Gulf to the north, Oman and the 

Gulf of Oman to the east, and Saudi Arabia to the south and 

west. The UAE’s total land area is about 52,000 sq mi, making 

it slightly larger than South Carolina. Each of UAE’s 7 emirates 

is named after its principal city. Abu Dhabi is the largest 

emirate, constituting nearly 87% of the UAE’s total territory.

Flat, coastal plains extend along the coastlines of the Arabian

Gulf and Gulf of Oman, eventually becoming the vast Arabian 

Desert of rolling sand 

dunes and salt flats. 

The desert contains

occasional oases, the 

largest of which are Al 

Ain, located on the 

southeastern border 

with Oman, and Liwa, 

situated in the South. 

South of Liwa, 

stretching into Saudi 

Arabia and encompassing almost 1/3rd of the Arabian 

Peninsula, is the Rub' al Khali (“Empty Quarter” - pictured), 

the largest sand desert in the world. In the East, the al-Hajar 

Mountains stretch north-south along the UAE border with 

Oman.

Climate

Located in an arid, tropical zone that stretches from North 

Africa to East Asia, the UAE experiences a temperate climate

with little precipitation that divides into 2 seasons: a summer or 

hot season and a winter or cool season. Between May and 

September it is extremely hot, with temperatures as high as 

122°F in mountain and inland desert areas and 115°F along 

the coast. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Temperatures are more moderate in the winter months,

averaging around 75°F during the day and 55°F at night from

November - February. While humidity can be heavy near the 

coast, rains are infrequent. December is the wettest month, 

with rainfall reaching about 1.4 in. Desert winds from the north 

and northwest generate powerful sandstorms throughout the 

year.

Natural Hazards

The UAE is vulnerable to frequent sand and dust storms which 

severely reduce visibility and regularly force city closures. 

Abundant coral reefs and frequently shifting sandbars make 

maritime navigation in the Arabian Gulf difficult. Strong wind 

gusts and powerful tides can further complicate ship 

movements near the shore.

Environmental Issues

Despite improved recycling and wastewater treatment 

programs, waste disposal remains a problem, particularly in 

Dubai and Abu Dhabi. Because the UAE lacks both natural 

freshwater resources and adequate desalination facilities to 

process seawater, the 

government has 

implemented strict water 

conservation measures.

Oil spills, sewage runoff, 

and other human 

activity create marine 

and coastal pollution, 

while urban areas suffer 

from air and noise 

pollution. Recently, climate-change scientists predicted that the 

region may suffer temperature levels intolerable to humans by 

2100 (Photo: The desert outside Dubai).

Government

The UAE is a federation of 7 emirates, each one a patriarchal

(male-controlled) monarchy led by a hereditary ruler who 

administers a local government. Adopted provisionally in 1971

and permanently in 1996, the constitution grants the federal 

government responsibility for defense, foreign affairs, and 

national economic policy. It also grants the emirates 

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considerable autonomy in running their 

economies and social systems. Of 

note, Abu Dhabi and Dubai are the 

largest, wealthiest, and most politically 

predominant emirates (Photo: Sheikh 

Mohammad, ruler of Dubai).

Executive Branch

The highest constitutional authority is 

the Federal Supreme Council (FSC), 

composed of the 7 emirate rulers. 

Acting as the UAE’s top policy-making 

entity, the FSC has both executive and 

legislative powers, including the authority to ratify federal laws 

and decrees. The FSC meets formally 4 times a year to 

establish policy, although leaders of the 7 emirates meet more 

frequently to consult on relevant matters. Of note, the rulers of 

Abu Dhabi and Dubai have veto power within the FSC. 

The FSC elects both the President and Vice President from 

among its members for unlimited 5-year terms. The President

acts as chief-of-state and personally selects the Prime Minister, 

who is head-of-government and leads the Council of Ministers

(CM). The CM, with roughly 20 members, initiates all legislation 

to be ratified by the FSC and effectively guides the nation in 

education, health, religious, agriculture, and energy policy. 

The FSC customarily elects Abu Dhabi’s ruler as President,

currently Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahayan. The ruler of 

Dubai, Sheikh Mohammad bin Rashid Al Maktoum, is currently 

Vice President and Prime Minister.

The 7 Emirates and their Rulers

• Abu Dhabi - Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahayan 

• Dubai - Sheikh Mohammad bin Rashid Al Maktoum 

• Ajman - Sheikh Humaid bin Rashid Al Nuaimi

• Fujairah - Sheikh Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi

• Ras al Khaimah - Sheikh Saud bin Saqr Al Qasimi

• Sharjah - Sheikh Sultan bin Muhammed Al Qasimi

• Um al Quwain – Sheikh Saud bin Rashid Al Mu’alla

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Legislative Branch

The UAE’s legislature is a one-chamber parliament called the 

Federal National Council (FNC), an advisory body of 40 

members. Of note, the distribution of seats reflects the 

emirates’ relative wealth, not their populations. The emirate 

rulers choose 20 FNC members, while an electoral college 

indirectly elects the 

other half (see p. 11

of History and 

Myth).

Because it cannot 

enact or veto 

legislation, the 

FNC’s primary 

function is to advise 

the CM and the 

FSC, review 

constitutional amendments, appraise national budgets, and 

debate international conventions and treaties. Few Emiratis 

express dissatisfaction with a lack of representation in the 

legislative branch, noting that traditional, local-level majlis

(councils) also provide a channel for Emiratis to express their 

concerns (Photo: UAE Foreign Minister Abdullah bin Zayed 

greets US Secretary of State Kerry in 2015).

Judicial Branch

The judiciary includes a dual system of both Sharia (Islamic) 

and civil courts. The legal environment varies by emirate. While 

some emirates, like Dubai, tend to be more liberal, others are 

more conservative. The highest federal institution is the

Supreme Court, which handles both inter-emirate issues and 

disputes between emirates and the federal government. The 

Courts of First Instance oversee all administrative, commercial, 

and civil disputes arising between government and individuals. 

Locally, secular courts handle civil cases, while Sharia courts 

oversee criminal and personal matters.

Political Climate

The UAE has a closed political system dominated by a 

powerful federal government. Political parties are outlawed and 

participation in FNC elections is severely restricted, open only 

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to electoral-college members hand-selected by the 7 emirate 

rulers (see p. 11 of History and Myth). 

While their political system is not a democracy, many Emiratis 

are satisfied with it due to the country’s perceived social 

tolerance and distribution of wealth. Some Emiratis advocate 

having an elected parliament with more legislative power to 

better represent the interests of UAE citizens. Generally,

though, there has been little public support for political reform.

Politically, each emirate is controlled by its most prominent

tribe (see p. 3 of History and Myth), whose hereditary leader 

rules the emirate. Because of its large size and substantial oil 

wealth, Abu Dhabi and its royal 

family have historically been the 

dominant force in UAE politics 

(see p. 7-9 of History and Myth)

(Photo: Sheikh Khalifa, ruler of 

Abu Dhabi). With its large 

population and substantial 

wealth generated from economic 

diversification programs (see p. 1

of Economics and Resources), 

Dubai is the second most 

powerful emirate. Together, the 2 

emirates generate over 80% of 

the UAE’s income, while the 

remaining 5 emirates are

substantially less developed and consequently less politically 

influential. 

Defense

The UAE’s Union Defence Force (UDF) is a unified federal

military force consisting of ground, maritime, air, and 

Presidential Guard branches. Although the UDF is among the 

smaller militaries of the region with just 63,000 active duty 

troops, it comprises a relatively large percentage of the 

population and its components maintain an extensive array of 

high quality equipment. 

Challenges in recruiting Emiratis have led the UDF to absorb a 

large number on non-citizens, including Pakistani and 

Jordanian nationals. Further, some of the UDF’s higher ranks 

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are held by foreign nationals from Western countries who seek 

careers after retirement or as temporary duty. Although the 

UDF currently does not maintain reserves, the introduction of 

conscription in 2014 

could lead to the 

creation of a reserve 

force and increased

military participation by

Emiratis. 

Army: The UAE’s Army 

is composed of 44,000

active-duty troops and 

has 5 maneuver 

divisions and brigades 

(including armored, 

mechanized, and light) and 2 combat support brigades (Photo: 

UAE soldiers participating in a US Coast Guard search and 

seizure course).

Navy: Consisting of 2,500 active-duty personnel, the UAE’s 

Navy is a well-equipped force organized into 29 patrol and 

coastal combatants, 10 submarine units, 2 mine warfare and 

countermeasures units, 29 amphibious ships and craft, and 5

logistics and support units. 

Air Force: Composed of 4,500 active-duty personnel, the 

UAE’s Air Force has 157 fighter aircraft and 18 squadrons and 

fleets.

The Presidential Guard:

Responsible for the 

security of the UAE’s 7 

royal families, the

Presidential Guard consists 

of 12,000 active-duty 

personnel dispersed across

3 maneuver squadrons and 

brigades (reconnaissance, mechanized, and amphibious). It 

also encompasses royal protection and dedicated aviation units 

with 18 helicopters and light-attack aircraft (Photo: UAE Honor 

Guard members).

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Security Issues

Following the “Arab Spring” protests that took place across the 

Middle East in 2011, some pro-democracy groups attempted to 

challenge the UAE’s monarchy. While the protests were shortlived and the UAE successfully preserved political stability, 

some tensions persist, especially after the government heavily 

restricted the media (see p. 3 of Technology and Material). 

Although the UAE has not experienced acts of domestic 

terrorism, the volatility of the Gulf region and the activities of

regional militant Islamist groups, including the Muslim 

Brotherhood organization, concern the UAE government. The 

UAE considers Islah, an affiliate of the Muslim Brotherhood 

based largely in the poorer and more religiously conservative 

northern emirates, a security threat. Although Islah does not 

have a history of violent acts, the UAE fears its own proWestern policies and long-standing alliance with the US could 

incite future attacks from similar organizations. Consequently, 

the UAE has taken an assertive stand against regional Islamist 

movements, including targeting and diffusing domestic 

supporters of the 

Muslim Brotherhood. 

Despite concerns of 

retaliation, the UAE 

participated in 

international air strikes 

against Islamist 

militants in Libya, 

Syria, and Iraq in 

2014. Although the 

UAE briefly ceased participation in the air strikes, citing fears 

for the safety of its pilots, it resumed air operations in early 

2015 after the US stationed additional forces in the region

(Photo: Sheikh Mohammad, ruler of Dubai and Vice President 

and PM of the UAE, shakes hand with US Airmen during the 

Dubai Air Show).

The UAE continues to participate in joint operations against 

militant Islamist groups, frequently hosting forces from other 

nations participating in such efforts, including French, 

Australian, German, and US personnel.

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Foreign Relations

Two factors shape the UAE’s foreign relations: its desire to 

augment the limited strength of its armed forces through 

diplomatic ties and its goal of industrial and economic 

advancement. Consequently, over the last decade, the UAE 

has strengthened existing military and economic ties with the 

US, France, the UK, and Australia and cultivated new relations 

with South Africa and South Korea. The UAE is also an active

member the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), an economic 

and political union composed of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, 

and Saudi Arabia (see p. 10 of History and Myth). A significant 

regional force, the GCC strengthens the security of partner 

countries and promotes military and economic cooperation 

(Photo: UAE aircraft fly in 

formation during a joint 

training exercise).

Relations with Oman: The 

UAE has a strong, stable

relationship with neighboring 

Oman. Both countries are 

active members of the GCC, 

linking them economically and politically. The UAE also has 

provided Oman with financial assistance to help quell 

opposition movements related to the “Arab Spring.” Of note, 

Oman is geographically intertwined with the UAE - its

northernmost territory lies entirely within the borders of the 

UAE, completely separated from the rest of the country. 

Relations with Saudi Arabia: Despite maintaining strong 

trade and political ties, unresolved border disputes have 

clouded relations between the UAE and Saudi Arabia. The 2

nations have yet to agree on an official border, primarily 

because of the potential for oil deposits within the disputed 

area.

Relations with Iran: The UAE views Iran’s ongoing religious

fundamentalism and suppression of protest movements as 

threats both to the UAE and the entire Arabian Gulf region.

Further, although Iran accepted a long-term nuclear deal in 

2015 that heavily restricts its nuclear program, Iran’s nuclear 

activities have long strained the UAE-Iran relationship. Still

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wary of Iran’s intentions in the Gulf, the UAE works closely with 

its allies to counter Iranian power and capabilities.

Further destabilizing relations is Iran’s claim to disputed islands 

in the Strait of Hormuz between the UAE and Iran (see p. 9 of 

History and Myth). The dispute escalated in 2008 when Iran 

deployed intermediate-range ballistic weaponry on the island of 

Abu Musa, posing a threat to both maritime transport and the 

UAE’s coastline. The UAE continues to dispute the claim and 

objects to Iran’s development activities on the islands. Although 

the 2 nations have not reached a resolution, they have 

engaged in dialogue since 2013. Experts believe Iran may

cede control of the islands in exchange for maritime rights 

around them.

Despite strained relations, the UAE is Iran’s largest non-oil 

trading partner and its largest source of imported goods. 

Consequently, Iran’s reintegration into the global economy 

following the 2015 nuclear deal will likely have far-reaching 

economic implications for the UAE. Specifically, while the 

removal of economic sanctions against Iran could significantly 

stimulate investment opportunities for the UAE, lingering

military and political tensions could still hamper their profitable

economic relationships.

Relations with the US: The 

UAE has maintained a strong 

diplomatic relationship with the 

US since its independence in 

1971. The 2 countries 

cooperate on a range of 

bilateral issues including 

defense, trade, nonproliferation, energy policy, and 

law enforcement. The US and 

the UAE are strategic partners who work jointly to promote 

regional peace and security in the Middle East. For example, 

the UAE supported US-led efforts to pressure Iran into

restricting its nuclear program, even imposing economic 

sanctions against Iran despite their adverse effect on UAE 

industries (Photo: US Secretary of State Kerry greets UAE 

Minister of Foreign Affairs Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahayan). 

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In addition to its recent support to US operations against 

Islamist military movements, the UAE also has participated in 

other US-led military operations, including in Somalia (1992), 

the Balkans (late 1990s), and Afghanistan (since 2003). The 

UAE maintains that sustained US military involvement is vital to 

its national and regional security. Recently, both nations 

established a Joint Strategic Military Dialogue to better 

integrate UAE and US military capabilities, as well as facilitate 

cooperation in case of an attack on the UAE. 

The UAE provides the US access to strategic military facilities, 

enabling tactical and logistical support for US operations in the 

Arabian Gulf. Of note, 

UAE ports hold more US 

Navy ships than any 

other facility outside of 

the US. About 5,000 US 

military personnel are 

stationed on UAE bases. 

Ethnic Groups

Because of its large 

proportion of non-citizen 

foreign workers, the UAE’s population is much more diverse 

than other Gulf countries. Called muwatineen (citizens) in 

Emirati Arabic, Emirati citizens are primarily Arabs, although 

some have Persian (Iranian) ancestry. Arab Emiratis typically 

identify with one of the UAE’s native tribes (see p. 3 of History 

and Myth). A few Emirati identify as Bedouin, Arabian tribes

whose members traditionally lived in the desert where they 

herded camels and other animals. The UAE’s arts reflect 

significant Bedouin influence (see p. 3 of Aesthetics and 

Recreation) (Photo: A non-citizen labors at Dubai’s port).

Foreign non-citizens are known as wafideen (expatriates) and 

comprise between 76% and 89% of the UAE’s total population. 

About half of the UAE’s non-citizen population is from South 

Asia, primarily Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. The UAE also 

has a large non-citizen Iranian community as well as significant 

numbers of Palestinians, Egyptians, Jordanians, Yemenis, and 

Omanis. Finally, wafideen also include people from China, 

Southeast Asia, North America, and Europe.

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Social Relations

Kinship is the governing principle of Emirati social relations. 

Emiratis trace their identity first to their household and family, 

then to a clan (groups of families), and finally to a tribe having

its geographical home in a particular emirate. Family and clan 

connections are important in almost all political and economic 

activities, and Emiratis typically share all their resources with

their extended family (see p. 2-3 of Family and Kinship).

The chief of a tribe is typically a sheikh (see p. 5 of History and 

Myth) who derives his authority from the power and 

connections of his extended family. Of note, succession within 

the tribe does not 

always pass from 1

generation to the next. 

Instead, it often 

passes laterally to a 

brother, nephew, 

uncle or cousin. 

Significantly, a sheikh 

does not wield power 

but influence. Instead 

of issuing decrees or 

laws, a sheikh traditionally mediates disputes based on 

custom. Further, to justify his claim to rule, a sheikh is bound to 

demonstrate deep generosity to his tribal members (see p. 7 of 

History and Myth and p. 5 of Aesthetics and Recreation)

(Photo: Emiratis enjoy American entertainment).

With its vast oil reserves, the UAE developed a unique 

economy (see p. 1 of Economics and Resources). Fulfilling 

their roles as sheikhs, the UAE’s leaders have distributed oil 

revenues, ensuring a high standard of living for all citizens (see 

p. 9-10 of History and Myth). Because it grants the holder the 

right to claim a share of this national wealth, citizenship in the 

UAE has become an economic asset. This right to claim a 

share of oil wealth is one reason the UAE rarely grants 

citizenship to outsiders. Another reason is the tribal basis of 

Emirati identity. A tribe typically traces its lineage to a (perhaps 

mythic) ancestor; all members must prove their connection to 

that figure or to other tribal members. Accordingly, tribes rarely 

admit new members who can show no such connection.

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This separation between Emirati citizen and non-citizen is the 

UAE’s most significant social division. Citizens are eligible for 

an array of free or subsidized services, including free health

care (see p. 4 of Sustenance and Health), free education 

through college (see p. 2 of Learning and Knowledge), and 

housing and land grant programs (see p. 1 of Family and 

Kinship). These benefits are not open to non-citizens. 

There are also significant social divisions within the non-citizen 

population. UAE businesses tend to recruit foreign workers 

based on their ethnicity. For example, they may engage South 

Asians for construction jobs while hiring other Arabs or 

Europeans for managerial or technical positions. Emiratis tend 

to view North American and European non-citizens more 

favorably than workers from Asia. Because they usually labor 

as domestic workers or in other low status roles, non-citizen 

women receive little or no respect. Sometimes their Emirati 

employers even abuse or 

mistreat them (see p. 1 of 

Sex and Gender) (Photo: 

Abu Dhabi).

Within the Emirati 

population, divisions exist 

between members of more 

or less influential tribes (see “Political Climate” above), or 

residents of richer or poorer emirates. In the past, economic 

inequality spurred internal labor migration as Emiratis from 

poorer Ras al Khaimah and Fujairah moved to Abu Dhabi and 

Dubai for work. Despite efforts to level opportunities across the 

UAE, inequalities persist. For example, instead of developing 

their own economies, Sharjah and Ajman emirates have 

essentially become commuter satellites of Dubai. Generally, 

social class and family background tend to be more significant 

factors than individual character and achievement in defining 

an individual’s social status.

The UAE government centered in Abu Dhabi tends to view the 

Iranian community in Dubai as a potential threat to UAE 

stability. Similarly, because of the Shi’a Muslim community’s 

religious and cultural ties to Iran, the government views Shi’a 

Muslims with suspicion (see p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality). 

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Overview

According to a 2010 UAE government estimate, 85% of UAE 

citizens are Sunni Muslims and 15% Sh’ia Muslims. The 

majority of the UAE’s non-citizen residents are also Muslim: a 

2005 UAE census found that 76% of the total population (both 

citizens and non-citizens) are Muslim, 9% Christian, and 15% 

follow other traditions, primarily Hinduism or Buddhism. 

Followers of other traditions, including Judaism, Sikhism, the

Baha’i faith, Zoroastrianism (Parsis), and other forms of Islam

comprise less than 5% of 

the population (Photo: 

The Sheikh Zayed 

mosque in Abu Dhabi).

The UAE’s constitution 

establishes Islam as the 

country’s official religion 

but also includes a 

provision guaranteeing 

freedom of religion while 

outlawing discrimination 

based on religion. The UAE automatically classifies its citizens 

as Muslim and denies them the freedom to change religion.

Consequently, while the government supports Muslim efforts to 

convert non-Muslims to Islam, UAE laws forbid proselytization 

by non-Muslims. 

Sharia or Islamic law (see p. 5 of Political and Social 

Relations) forms the country’s legal foundation, particularly on 

family-related matters. Further, the government expects nonMuslims to respect Islamic sensibilities although they are not 

subject to all prohibitions. The government encourages the

practice of moderate Islam and publicly condemns violent 

extremism as anti-Islamic.

The government exerts control over religious activities. For 

example, the government appoints most Sunni clerics and 

oversees their weekly sermon topics. Despite a general policy 

of tolerance toward the activities of non-Muslims, the 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

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government may grant or withhold plots of land for all religious 

(including non-Muslim) buildings. It also restricts interfaith 

marriages, and it may limit access to religious information. 

Early Spiritual Landscape

Many early inhabitants of what is now the UAE followed a faith 

that included many gods and objects of worship. The sun, 

moon, some animals, and important tribal heroes were revered 

and often depicted as idols. These early inhabitants also often 

believed in djinn, supernatural spirits that could bring good or 

bad fortune. 

Between 500 BC and the 5th century, Zoroastrianism gained 

popularity on the Arabian Peninsula. Founded by Persian 

(Iranian) prophet Zarathustra between 1500-1200 BC, 

Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic religion that focuses on the 

divide between good and evil and uses fire as a form of 

worship.

Christianity arrived in the region in the early 3rd century. Living 

on islands near Abu Dhabi, Christians built several churches 

and monasteries over the next several centuries. Following the 

7th century introduction of Islam, most members of Christian 

communities fled or converted to Islam (Photo: Late 7th century 

Arabian Qur’an).

Islam

Origins of Islam

Muhammad, who Muslims consider God’s final Prophet, was 

born in Mecca in 

570 in what is today 

Saudi Arabia. 

Muslims believe that 

while Muhammad 

was meditating in 

the desert, the 

Archangel Gabriel 

visited him over a 

23-year period, 

revealing the

Qur’an, or “Holy Book,” to guide their everyday lives and shape 

their values.

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Meaning of Islam

Islam is a way of life to its adherents. The term Islam literally 

means submission to the will of God, and a Muslim is “a person 

who submits to God.”

Muslim Sects

Islam is divided into 2 sects: Sunni and Shi’a. Sunnis are 

distinguished by their belief that the leader (Caliph) of the 

Muslim community (Ummah) should be elected. Conversely, 

Shi’a Muslims believe the religious leader should be a direct 

descendant of the Prophet Muhammad.

Five Pillars of Islam

There are 5 basic 

principles of the Islamic 

faith. 

• Profession of Faith 

(Shahada): “There is 

no god but God, and 

Muhammad is His 

Messenger.”

• Prayer (Salat): Pray 5 times a day while facing the Ka’aba in 

Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The Ka’aba (pictured) is considered 

the center of the Muslim world and a unifying focal point for 

Islamic worship.

• Charity (Zakat): Donate a percentage of one’s income to 

the poor or needy. 

• Fasting (Sawm): Abstain from food, drink, and sexual 

relations from sunrise to sunset during the holy month of 

Ramadan.

• Pilgrimage to Mecca (The Hajj): Perform the pilgrimage to 

Mecca, Saudi Arabia once in a lifetime. 

Shared Perspectives

Many Islamic tenets parallel those of Judaism and Christianity. 

In fact, Muslims consider Christians and Jews “people of the 

Book,” referring to biblical scriptures, because they also believe 

in one God. 

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Abraham: All 3 faiths trace their lineage to Abraham, known as 

Ibrahim in Islam. However, Christians and Jews trace their 

descent to Abraham, his wife Sarah, and their son Isaac; while 

Muslims trace theirs to Abraham and his Egyptian concubine, 

Hagar, and their son Ishmael.

Scriptures: Much of the content of the Qur’an is similar to 

teachings and stories found in the Christian Bible’s Old and 

New Testaments, and Muslims view Islam as a completion of 

previous revelations to Jewish and Christian prophets. 

However, Muslims believe Jews and Christians altered God’s 

word and that Muhammad received the true revelation of God.

Jesus: The 3 religions differ significantly in their understanding 

of the role of Jesus. While Christians consider him the divine 

Messiah who fulfills Jewish Scriptures, Jews are still waiting for 

the Messiah to come. Muslims recognize Jesus as a prophet 

but do not acknowledge his divinity or the Christian Trinity.

View of Death: Muslims believe that God determines the time 

of death and birth. While people grieve the loss of family 

members or friends, they do not view death as a negative 

event, as Muslims believe that 

a person who lived a good life 

goes on to live in Heaven 

(Photo: Abu Dhabi’s Sheikh 

Zayed mosque at night).

Concept of Jihad

The concept of jihad, or inner 

striving, is a fundamental 

element within Islam. 

Traditionally, it is the principled 

and moral pursuit of God’s 

command to lead a virtuous 

life. It should not be confused

with the publicized violence 

often associated with jihad. Most Muslims are strongly opposed 

to terrorism and consider it contrary to Islamic beliefs. 

Ramadan

Observed during the 9th month of the Islamic lunar calendar 

(see p. 2 of Time and Space), Ramadan is a month-long time 

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for inner reflection, self-control, and focus on God. During this 

time, Muslims who are physically able fast from dawn to 

sunset. Many Muslims believe that denying their hunger helps

them to learn self-control, appreciate the difficulties of the poor, 

and gain spiritual renewal – by 

fasting, a Muslim learns to 

appreciate the good in life. 

During Ramadan, UAE leaders 

may forgive some debts and 

pardon criminals. Of note, UAE

law requires Muslims and nonMuslims to refrain from eating, 

drinking, and smoking in public 

during daylight at this time

(Photo: Sahoor, a pre-dawn meal 

enjoyed during Ramadan, 

celebrated at the US embassy in 

2014).

UAE Muslims typically break their 

daily fast at sunset with a meal known as iftar. Ramadan 

includes several holidays:

• Lailat al-Qadr: This “Night of Power” marks Muhammad’s 

receipt of the first verses of the Qur’an.

• Eid al-Fitr: This “Festival of Fast-Breaking” celebrates 

Ramadan’s end and is a national holiday in the UAE. 

Another important holiday is celebrated when the Hajj ends, 

about 70 days following the end of Ramadan.

• Eid al-Adha: This “Festival of Sacrifice” commemorates 

Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son, Ishmael (or Isaac, 

according to Christians), as proof of his loyalty to God. 

The Arrival of Islam in UAE

The UAE’s proximity to Islam’s birthplace in Saudi Arabia led to 

its exposure to the new religion even before Muhammad’s 

death (see p. 2 of History and Myth). Following the defeat of 

local tribesmen by Arabian Muslims in 632 and widespread 

proselytization, Islam spread rapidly.

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Religion Today

Islam

The Islamic faith is an 

important part of most 

Emiratis’ identity and 

frames many aspects of 

daily life, ethics, and 

culture. It defines socially 

acceptable public 

behavior for Muslims and 

non-Muslims alike. 

Further, its frequent calls to prayer shape the rhythm of daily 

life. Islam also permeates the Arabic language: the common 

use of the phrase insha’allah (“if God wills”) reveals the

shared belief that God directly and ultimately controls all events

(see p. 3 of Language and Communication) (Photo: US 

Secretary of State Kerry visits the Sheikh Zayed Grand 

Mosque).

Sunni Islam: Most of the UAE’s Sunni Muslims, including the 

country’s leadership, are followers of the Maliki school, a 

generally tolerant school of Islamic 

thought that preaches the primacy of 

the Qur’an over later teachings. 

Some Emiratis living along the alBatinah coast and in the al-Buraimi 

oasis adhere to more conservative 

forms of Sunni Islam.

The UAE government provides 

funding, support, and direction to 

about 95% of the country’s 5,000 

Sunni mosques. Almost all Sunni 

imams (worship leaders) are 

employees of the state, giving the 

government substantial control over 

mosques’ religious activities. Only the most senior imams 

choose their own sermon topics: the rest must follow the 

government’s guidance. The remaining 5% of Sunni mosques 

are private (Photo: US Navy Admiral tours the Sheikh Zayed 

Grand Mosque). 

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Shi’a Islam: About 15% of Emiratis are Shi’a Muslim, residing 

mostly in Dubai and Sharjah. The UAE’s Shi’a Muslims tend to 

have a lower social status than Sunni Muslims (see p. 14 of 

Political and Social Relations). Unlike most Sunni mosques, 

Shi’a mosques are private organizations that receive no 

governmental support or oversight. Although the government

allows Shi’a-specific 

calls to prayer and 

religious practices, Shi’a 

Muslims must observe 

some Shi’a holidays 

privately to avoid 

offending public 

assembly restrictions. In 

addition to its citizen 

Shi’a population, many

non-citizens are also

Shi’a Muslims, primarily from Iran. The UAE government at 

times views the Shi’a community with suspicion due to its 

religious and cultural ties to Iran (see p. 14 of Political and 

Social Relations) (Photo: Sharjah city).

Christianity

About 9% of UAE residents practice some form of Christianity, 

including Catholicism, forms of Protestantism, and Coptic 

Orthodoxy, among others. Christians residing in the UAE 

typically come from many different countries, including India, 

the Philippines, Egypt, and the US. The UAE has about 35 

churches. Some of them house multiple Christian communities, 

where prayers, worship, and Bible studies are conducted in a 

variety of languages. Four emirates house Christian schools.

Hinduism

Most of the UAE’s Hindus are ethnically Indian. Based on 

ancient scriptures, Hindu worship focuses on a Supreme Being 

with many forms and natures, including Brahma, the creator, 

Shiva, the destroyer, and Vishnu, the preserver. While Hindus 

in Dubai may pray and worship at 2 Hindu temples, Hindus in 

other emirates hold their religious activities in homes or rented 

spaces. Four emirates offer Hindus cremation facilities and 

cemeteries to carry out their funerary customs.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Buddhism

Many Asian non-citizens in the UAE are Buddhists. Although 

Buddhism is based on a voluminous set of scriptures, it does 

not focus on the worship of a god or gods. Instead, it 

emphasizes ethical and moral instruction to help people follow 

a spiritual path.

Buddhists in the UAE tend to follow either the Theravada 

school common in Southeast Asia or Mahayana school popular 

in East Asia depending on their nationality. While there is no 

Buddhist temple in the UAE, Sri Lanka’s embassy in Abu Dhabi 

hosts Buddhist services on a monthly basis. Most meditation 

and observances occur in private homes.

Sikhism

Dubai has a Sikh temple that serves 50,000 Sikh non-citizens 

primarily from India. A monotheistic religion based on the 

teachings of a 16th century poet-philosopher, Sikhism 

emphasizes doing good works and keeping God in mind for 

virtuous living. Observant male 

Sikhs do not cut their hair and 

wear 4 symbols, including a 

ceremonial sword.

Religion and the Law

While some aspects of sharia

law apply to all UAE residents

regardless of their religious 

affiliation, non-Muslims typically 

receive civil rather than Qur’anic 

punishments. 

Of note, the law prohibits 

blasphemy, swearing, and 

profanities (see p. 4 of 

Language and Communication), 

as well as use of the Internet to preach against Islam. To deter 

proselytization efforts by non-Muslims, the government 

prohibits the distribution of non-Islamic religious literature and 

threatens to revoke the residence permits of persons 

suspected of proselytization (Photo: A minaret or tower in Abu 

Dhabi from which a cleric calls Muslims to pray).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

While rapid urbanization and a decrease in birthrates have 

altered housing patterns and family structures in recent 

decades, traditional values such as regard for community, 

loyalty, and 

respect for elders 

are still the basis 

of family life. 

Residence

Over 85% of the 

population resides 

in urban areas

located primarily

along the coast. 

Cities like Dubai, Abu Dhabi, and Sharjah feature high-rise 

apartment buildings and condominiums which primarily house 

non-citizens (Photo: High-rises in Dubai).

As UAE citizens, Emiratis may claim free land within their home 

emirate and enjoy access to subsidized housing and interestfree home loans. Consequently, Emiratis typically live in more 

spacious accommodations than non-citizens, usually detached 

houses in urban and suburban neighborhoods.

Larger homes often have separate majlis (living rooms) for 

entertaining guests that feature thick carpets, coffee tables, 

and plush sofas. While most modern brick and cement homes

exhibit Western-style architecture, many also incorporate 

traditional Arabic elements, such as a small dome over the 

main entrance. Homes are painted in brown and yellow tones 

to mimic the natural landscape. 

Many Emiratis live in communal homes or compounds that 

house multiple generations of an extended family. A home or 

compound may also provide separate quarters for staff and 

servants. Constructed of modern materials, compounds 

typically contain several buildings that serve various purposes, 

including a kitchen, a men’s majlis, and a large 2-story building

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
which contains bedrooms and a women’s majlis. Depending on 

family size, a compound can contain over 100 housing units

and include shopping, recreational, and community facilities. 

Rural: Some Emiratis occasionally retreat to the desert where 

they recreate a Bedouin lifestyle (see p. 12 of Political and 

Social Relations) with modern amenities. Historically, Bedouin 

homes were portable tents made of palm fronds and blankets 

of black goat hair. Open on one side, tents were divided into a 

haram (forbidden area) reserved for women and a separate 

“public” section for men, where the family also received guests.

Family Structure

Family is at the center of Emirati social life and forms the 

backbone of society. Generally, extended family members are 

expected to help each other, avoid actions that may bring 

shame to the family, and value the needs of the family over 

individual desires. Of note, even though some younger Emiratis

place a greater emphasis on their personal careers, education, 

Islamic Tradition and Physical Space

With the intention of protecting the chastity, purity, 

and honor of women, Islamic societies tend to limit 

interaction between unrelated members of the 

opposite sex. Physical separation of women and men 

during social gatherings is common.

Traditionally, Emirati society also follows these 

conventions. Consequently, most Emirati homes 

include separate dining and sitting areas, as well as 

separate bathrooms for men and women. While

small families may dine together, large families 

commonly segregate by gender for social gatherings, 

especially when guests are present. Further, houses 

and compounds are typically surrounded by tall walls, 

meant to further shield women from public view. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
and social status than older generations, they still feel a strong 

obligation to their kin. 

While urban households increasingly comprise small nuclear 

families, consisting of parents and their children, households in 

rural areas may comprise an extended family of 10 people or 

more including parents, children, grandparents, and even

great-grandparents. Children typically remain in the family 

residence as young adults and only move into their own 

quarters after marriage.

Many Emirati families employ domestic servants to perform 

daily household chores, while married women commonly hire a 

nurse to help in child rearing. Traditionally, Emirati women

manage all domestic affairs, including household budgets and 

supervising servants (see p. 1 of Sex and Gender). 

Children

Traditionally, families in 

rural regions had as 

many as 12 children and 

relied on their offspring to 

fulfill household labor 

needs. Today, Emirati 

women typically have 2-3

children (see p. 4 of Sex 

and Gender). Extended family members help raise children, 

serving as mentors and supporting the parents as needed. 

Allowed by sharia (Islamic) law (see p. 5 of Political and Social 

Relations), physical discipline or corporal punishment for 

disobedience is common (Photo: UAE schoolgirls receive a 

basketball lesson from an American player).

Birth: It is an Islamic tradition for the father to whisper an 

adhan (call to prayer) into a baby’s ear immediately following 

his birth. Once home, newborns are wrapped in a gumat, a 

thin white blanket. In the first weeks after birth, guests visit the 

mother and child, tucking money into the gumat for luck. 

Meanwhile, the father plans an aqiqa, a ceremony involving 

the slaughter of an animal to provide a feast for guests, 

neighbors, and the poor. When the infant is 40 days old, male 

family members may gather to shave the baby’s head as a 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
cleansing ritual. Guests and family members then donate a 

sum of money equivalent to the weight of the hair to charity.

Circumcision: Emirati boys traditionally underwent

circumcision between ages 5-6, signifying their passage into 

adulthood and membership in the Islamic community. Today, 

most newborn males are circumcised at the hospital 

immediately following birth.

Marriage

Marriage in the UAE is an important rite that grants prestige, 

social status, and greater economic opportunity to both 

spouses. Traditionally, a marriage was an arranged union 

among families, typically between first cousins or other distant 

relatives. It was often used to strengthen and extend alliances 

among the region’s royal families and ruling tribes (see p. 3 of 

History and Myth). 

While arranged marriages still occur, some Emiratis choose 

their own spouse based upon mutual attraction. While casual 

dating is socially unacceptable, Emirati youth regularly interact 

at educational gatherings, through social media, or by phone 

and may encourage family members to contact potential mates 

on their behalf. In judging a suitable spouse, families consider

education, social status, and wealth. Families generally do not 

force arranged matches and either marriage prospect can 

reject a proposed 

mate (Photo: An 

Emirati with his 

camels).

Emirati women 

rarely marry nonEmirati men. If they 

do, their families 

may shun them or

force them to leave 

the UAE. Although it 

is more acceptable for Emirati men to marry non-Emiratis, 

there is a societal concern that such non-traditional marriages 

dilute Emirati culture. Consequently, the government has 

considered restricting the practice. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
To encourage marriage between citizens, the government 

provides cash incentives to Emirati couples. Of note, many 

women are postponing marriage or even choosing to remain 

unmarried. For example, in 2012 about 60% of Emirati women 

in their early-30s were unmarried, up from 20% in the 1990s. 

Bridewealth: Upon marriage, Emirati men traditionally pay 

mahr or a so-called bridewealth to the bride which becomes 

her sole property. A legal requirement for Islamic marriages, 

the mahr symbolizes the bride’s financial independence. 

Further, some women may rely on the payment in the event of 

a husband’s death or after divorce. While the bridewealth can 

be as high as $100,000, 

some families agree to set 

the amount at a symbolic 

$1 to ease the young 

groom’s financial burden. 

Weddings: Segregated 

by gender, wedding 

festivities typically last 

between 3 days and a 

week and consist of a 

series of family-sponsored celebrations. At the Laylat al 

Henna (henna party), the bride receives intricate temporary 

henna tattoos (pictured - see p. 12 of History and Myth). She 

then receives gold jewelry from the groom during her “gold 

night” party. 

The actual wedding occurs on the last night of celebrations and 

is usually held at a wedding hall or hotel. To officially seal the 

marriage, couples sign a nikah (wedding contract). Afterwards, 

feasting and dancing are held for hundreds of family and 

friends. The festivities conclude when the groom enters the 

women’s party to claim his bride.

The families typically split the high wedding costs, which can 

reach $100,000. To help relieve this financial burden and 

discourage young couples from delaying marriage, the 

government has set up a national wedding fund for couples 

needing assistance. Further, some emirates host group 

weddings, during which 20 or 30 couples marry at once.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Polygyny: Polygyny is the practice of a man having multiple 

wives simultaneously. In accordance with sharia law (see p. 5

of Political and Social Relations) Emirati men may have up to 4 

wives if they can financially support them all. In practice, only a 

few men have 2 or more. 

Divorce: With about 1/3 of all marriages ending in divorce in

the emirates of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, and Sharjah, the UAE has 

one of the highest divorce rates in the Arabian Gulf. Although 

the majority of those divorces occur among non-citizen 

couples, divorce rates among Emiratis are also relatively high.

While slightly lower than in the US, Emirati divorce rates have 

increased in recent years. Experts suggest that the increase is

largely due to changing expectations of married life and 

financial strain.

Death

According to Islamic tradition, Emiratis bury their loved ones as 

soon as possible after death, usually within 24 hours. The

deceased is bathed, dried, perfumed, and wrapped in a kafan

(clean white cloth). Male relatives and friends transport the 

deceased to a mosque where a cleric offers prayers. Next, 

relatives deliver the deceased

to a cemetery where the body 

is buried (Photo: The Sheikh 

Zayed Grand Mosque in Abu 

Dhabi)

Family members and friends 

gather for the graveside funeral 

service, during which they pray 

for the deceased and offer 

condolences to the family. Of 

note, while female relatives 

may attend the ceremony, they 

must remain separated from 

the men. For 3 days following 

the funeral, the family receives

mourners who offer further condolences and read prayers from 

the Qur’an in gender-separate majlis within the family 

residence. On the final day, the family hosts a large dinner to 

honor the deceased. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Although traditional UAE society privileged men over women, 

this trend is slowly changing. The UAE’s growing economy and 

resulting need for workers since independence have created

education and employment opportunities for women. Besides

comprising over 70% of all university students, Emirati women 

are gaining employment in government and business. Despite 

this progress, gender inequity persists in the workplace, and 

women face barriers to equal treatment before the law.

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Labor: Although many Emirati women work outside 

the home, most continue to hold responsibility for household

affairs. Women manage the family budget and usually the 

household duties of 

domestic servants (see 

p. 3 of Family and 

Kinship). 

Labor Force: In 2016, 

about 42% of Emirati 

women worked outside 

the home, a significantly 

higher rate than 

neighboring Saudi Arabia (20%) and Oman (30%), but lower 

than regional neighbor Qatar (53%) and the US (56%). Emirati 

women tend to be highly educated and hold positions in

education, healthcare, government, and business, including 

high-paying service industries such as banking and finance

(Photo: Former US First Lady Laura Bush greets Emirati 

women).

Despite women’s growing participation in the work force, men 

typically receive preferential job placement and earn higher 

wages than women. Of note, many non-citizen women hold 

domestic service jobs where they must work extremely long

hours and suffer physical abuse (p. 14 of Political and Social 

Relations and “Gender Based Violence” below).

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Gender and the Law

Although the UAE’s constitution guarantees equal rights to 

women in education, healthcare, employment, and social 

welfare, gender discrimination persists. Further, the 

implementation of sharia (Islamic) law (see p. 5 of Political and 

Social Relations) restricts women’s rights while certain cultural 

traditions hinder women’s full participation in society. 

While it is relatively easy for men to divorce under sharia law, 

women may petition for divorce only under exceptional 

circumstances, including instances of physical harm, 

abandonment, or if the husband has neglected his financial 

obligations to his wife or children, and only through an official 

judicial arbitration process. In the absence of exceptional 

circumstances, women may choose to file a khula divorce

(results in a monetary payment to the husband) but risk losing 

certain rights. Further, sharia law grants men privileged status 

in inheritance and child custody matters, such as granting only 

fathers legal guardianship of children and assigning them sole 

custody following divorce. Emirati women do not automatically 

pass on their UAE 

citizenship to their children 

if the father is a noncitizen. Instead, these 

children must apply for 

citizenship once they 

reach age 18.

Other examples of 

unequal treatment are 

rooted in tradition. While the constitution recognizes equal 

property rights, Emirati do not consider it culturally appropriate 

for women to own property or live alone. Consequently, Emirati 

women rarely take advantage of the subsidized housing 

programs open to citizens (see p. 1 of Family and Kinship) 

(Photo: Students with US Ambassador Leaf).

Husbands or male guardians typically must grant permission 

before women can receive bank loans or engage in business 

activities. Although women are legally permitted to move freely 

within and outside the UAE, Emirati men commonly prohibit 

their wives and daughters from leaving home without a male 

SEX &

GENDER
guardian. Emirati society typically faults women for failed 

marriages. Consequently, divorced women may be 

stigmatized, have difficulty remarrying, and even disowned by 

their families and excluded from inheritances. 

Gender and Politics

When the UAE held its first election in 2006 (see p. 11 of 

History and Myth), women comprised less than 20% of the 

hand-picked electorate. By the next election in 2011, women 

made up nearly half of the 129,000 electors. As of 2016,

women held 8 of 20 seats in the Council of Ministers and 9 

seats in the 40-seat Federal 

National Council (FNC - see 

p. 5 of Political and Social 

Relations). 

A female FNC member acts 

as speaker, the highest 

position held by a woman in 

any equivalent Arabian Gulf 

governing body. About 20% 

of UAE diplomats are female, and in 2013 the government 

selected a woman to serve as the UAE’s Permanent 

Representative to the United Nations (UN) (Photo: US 

Secretary of State Kerry confers with a UAE representative at a 

UN assembly).

Gender Based Violence (GBV)

Rape is a criminal offense under both civil and sharia law and 

carries severe penalties, though many victims do not report 

these crimes to avoid an accusation of adultery or bringing 

shame to their families. Excluded from legal protection and 

often denied any legal recourse, female non-citizens are 

particularly vulnerable to physical and sexual abuse (see p. 14

of Political and Social Relations).

Female Circumcision

Commonly referred to as female genital mutilation (FGM), 

female circumcision is intended to modify the sex organ in 

order to decrease sexual desire and promote virginity. Although 

FGM is not explicitly outlawed, the Ministry of Health prohibits 

the practice in government hospitals and clinics. Nevertheless, 

some Emirati families employ private doctors to conduct the

SEX &

GENDER
procedure. According to a 2011 survey, as many as 34% of 

Emirati females have undergone some form of FGM.

Sex and Procreation

Emiratis consider sexual intimacy a private matter. Public 

displays of affection, including kissing and holding hands, are 

socially unacceptable and forbidden by law. Further, all sexual 

relations outside marriage are illegal. This means it is unlawful 

for unmarried couples to live together or share a hotel room. 

While this law also applies to UAE residents, visitors, and 

tourists, it is rarely enforced against foreign nationals.

The UAE’s birthrate has dropped dramatically in recent 

decades, from 6.9 children per woman in 1960 to 2.33 in 2016.

This drop is primarily due to the large influx of non-citizens, 

many of whom do not have children while living temporarily in 

the UAE (see p. 14 of Political and Social Relations). While the 

birthrate among Emiratis has decreased in recent decades, it is 

still significantly higher than that of non-citizens. For example, 

in 2012, non-citizens in Abu Dhabi averaged just 1.6 births per 

woman while Emiratis averaged 3.4 children per woman

(Photo: UAE students).

While not as dramatic as it 

appears, the decrease in 

birth rates among Emiratis 

has been significant and is 

primarily due to changes in 

women’s place in society. 

As more Emirati women 

become better educated, work outside the home, and marry 

later, they have fewer children. Besides encouraging marriage, 

the government’s wedding assistance programs (see p. 4-5 of 

Family and Kinship) are also intended to encourage couples to

have children. Of note, UAE government employees receive a 

“child allowance” meant to alleviate the costs of child rearing.

Homosexuality: Strictly enforced civil and sharia laws prohibit

homosexual acts. Punishment includes fines, deportation (of 

non-citizens), and prison time. Although the federal penal code 

includes a death penalty for offenses, there are no recorded 

cases of its application. 

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

The official language of the UAE is Arabic, the native language 

of Emirati citizens. While well-educated Emiratis tend to speak 

both Arabic and English fluently, less educated Emiratis living 

in rural areas may speak only Arabic. 

Due to the large influx of non-citizen foreign workers from a 

variety of countries over the last 50 years (see p. 10 of History 

and Myth and p. 12 of Political and Social Relations), many 

other languages are spoken today in the UAE. Non-citizens 

speak a variety of languages, including English; other Arabic 

dialects such as Egyptian and Omani; South Asian varieties 

such as Hindi and

Urdu; and Southeast 

Asian and African 

varieties (Photo: UAE

stop sign in Arabic 

and English).

Arabic

Most Emiratis speak a 

local dialect of Arabic 

known as Gulf Arabic

or Khaleeji as their 

first language. In school, Emiratis learn to read and write

Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), a standardized variety used 

across Arabic-speaking countries. Emiratis use MSA for 

writing, formal discussions, speeches, and in many national

news broadcasts. With a 28-character alphabet, Arabic is 

written horizontally from right to left.

Khaleeji differs from MSA in several ways, including vocabulary 

and pronunciation. For example, Khaleeji speakers may 

replace a “q” sound with a “g” or “j” sound. Similarly, they may 

replace the “k” sound with a “ch” sound, pronouncing the word 

kalb (“dog”) like “chalb”. Further, Khaleeji speakers often 

pronounce a “j” sound as “y.” Of note, Khaleeji is mutually 

intelligible with most other regional Arabic dialects except for 

certain local varieties from Iraq and North Africa.

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
English

Among the UAE’s total population, consisting of both Emiratis 

and non-citizens, English is the most commonly shared 

language. English has played a role in the region since the 

formation of the Trucial States under the protection of the 

British in the 19th century (see p. 4 of History and Myth). 

English is currently an important part of the national education 

curriculum, with English instruction beginning in kindergarten 

(see p. 2-3 of Learning and Knowledge). English also plays a 

significant role in post-secondary education, where remedial 

English courses constituted 30% of university budgets in 2011.

Emiratis’ English skills are often dependent on a speaker’s age 

and location of residence. In general, younger Emiratis in urban 

areas are much more likely to speak English than older 

Emiratis or inhabitants of rural areas. Many Emiratis alternate 

between Arabic and English with ease, often mixing the 2 

languages in the same sentence or conversation. Many foreign 

businesses use English. Similarly, most non-citizen employees, 

regardless of their native language, conduct business dealings 

and negotiations in 

English (Photo: Dubai 

road sign in Arabic and 

English).

Other Languages

Among the UAE’s noncitizens, Hindi and Urdu

are the most widely 

spoken languages. While 

exact numbers of 

speakers are unknown due to constant fluctuation in the foreign 

worker population, there are likely more than 1 million speakers 

each of both Hindi (an official language of India) and Urdu

(Pakistan’s national language). In addition to Urdu, large 

numbers of Pakistanis also speak Northern Pashto and

Southern Balochi. Indians living in the UAE often speak 

Malayalam or other South Asian languages in addition to Hindi 

and English. Finally, sizeable populations of the UAE’s noncitizens speak Persian (the official language of Iran), Somali

(spoken in Somalia, Djibouti, and Ethiopia), and Tagalog (the 

official language of the Philippines).

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Communication Overview

Communicating competently in the UAE requires not only 

knowledge of Arabic, but also the ability to interact effectively 

using language. This broad notion of competence includes 

paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, intonation), nonverbal 

communication (personal space, touch, gestures), and 

interaction management (conversation initiation, turn-taking, 

and termination). When used properly, these forms of 

communication help to ensure that statements are interpreted 

as the speaker intends 

(Photo: Then US Secretary

of Defense Robert Gates 

meets with Crown Prince 

Muhammad bin Zayed Al 

Nahayan in 2011).

Communication Style

Emiratis highly value their 

families, friends, and elders

as well as the traits of 

generosity and hospitality. Emirati communication patterns 

reflect these values. In their interactions, Emiratis strive to 

emphasize respect for their conversation partners and their

social status while avoiding embarrassment to themselves or 

others. Consequently, Emiratis regard the manner of speech

almost as important as the content, viewing the ability to speak 

eloquently a sign of education and refinement.

Further, politeness demands that Emiratis express goodwill 

instead of criticizing another person’s ideas. Consequently, a

foreign national should avoid giving direct criticism, especially 

in front of others. Instead, he should combine indirect criticism 

with praise for any positive points while reassuring the 

individual of his high regard for him personally.

Of note, etiquette also requires that Emiratis always provide a 

positive response to a request. Usually accompanied by the 

phrase insha’allah (“if God wills” – see p. 6 of Religion and 

Spirituality), a “yes” answer is not necessarily a promise of 

action. Similarly, foreign nationals should not interpret a 

noncommittal answer to a request as neutral. Instead, such an 

answer might actually be negative. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Emiratis tend to be talkative, often repeating themselves to 

make a point or shouting when excited. Emiratis may also 

punctuate their speech with oaths to emphasize their point and 

exaggerate for effect. They tend to be tolerant of interruptions

during discussions and of several people speaking at once.

Emiratis consider the display of emotions during discussions to 

be indicative of deep and sincere concern for the subject. 

Foreign nationals should avoid swearing and making obscene 

gestures, as Emiratis find this sort of behavior offensive. 

Further, vulgar language and behavior are prohibited by law, 

with offenders subject to fines, imprisonment, and deportation.

Greetings

Emiratis typically extend greetings with great care and respect. 

Upon entering a room, Emiratis say Salaam Aleikum (“peace 

be upon you”), to which all present then respond, Wa Aleikum 

as-Salaam (“and upon you be peace”). Emiratis always 

perform this greeting, even 

if it interrupts conversations 

or business negotiations. 

Following this verbal 

exchange, men may shake 

hands lightly, exchange 

kisses on the cheek, or 

touch noses, depending on 

their familiarity and status 

of their relationship. To 

indicate deep respect and 

sincerity, men may place their right hands to the hearts after 

shaking hands. Emirati women commonly exchange cheek 

kisses when they greet each other. If the women are not well 

acquainted, they may only shake hands (Photo: US Secretary 

of Defense Ash Carter exchanges greetings with Yousef Al 

Otaiba, UAE Ambassador to the US in 2015).

Emiratis of the opposite sex do not touch when greeting. Men

usually greet women only verbally or with a nod, though some 

women may extend their hands for a handshake. Foreign 

nationals should wait for members of the opposite sex to 

initiate the greeting.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Names

Arab names for both genders reflect the genealogy of the 

father’s side. The full name consists of a first (given) name, the 

person’s father’s (first) name, sometimes the paternal 

grandfather’s name, a family name, and sometimes a tribal 

name. Emiratis typically include the term bin (son of) or bint

(daughter of) between a person’s given name and his/her 

father’s name. For example, the President’s name Khalifa bin 

Zayed Al Nahayan indicates that he is the son of Zayed. An 

Emirati’s family or tribal name indicates membership in an 

extended family, a relationship with a tribal ancestor (see p. 13

of Political and Social Relations), or origins in a particular 

geographic location. Of note, Emirati women do not take their 

husband’s name upon marriage. 

Forms of Address

Emirati friends and relatives of the same sex usually address 

one another by first name. Members of the opposite sex

typically combine military 

ranks and professional or

personal titles, such as 

Dr., Engineer, Mr., or

Mrs., with the person’s 

first name. Of note, 

Emiratis may also 

address foreign nationals 

in this manner, such as 

calling Dr. Bill Smith “Dr. 

Bill” (Photo: UAE and US Air Force Majors converse).

Adult Emiratis may address each other using the titles um

(mother) for women and abu (father) for men, followed by the 

name of the addressee’s oldest son. Emiratis address 

members of the nation’s ruling families with the title Sheikh (for 

males) or Sheikha (for females) (see p. 5 of History and Myth).

Conversational Topics

Polite conversation following greetings typically involves 

inquiries about the well-being of each other and extended 

family members. Of note, Emirati men never inquire directly

about another man’s female relations, nor should male foreign 

nationals.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Emiratis are inclined to share more information about 

themselves than Westerners typically do. For example, they 

may elaborate on their family’s status and social connections 

while expecting foreign nationals to do the same.

They do, however, tend to withhold less favorable information

about themselves, such as their humble origins or family 

discord. In fact, some Emiratis may avoid speaking directly of 

all unfortunate occurrences. For example, an Emirati may 

describe a relative on his deathbed as “a little tired” or use 

certain euphemisms for “cancer” or “death.”

Foreign nationals should avoid certain topics, including drugs 

and alcohol (see p. 2 of Sustenance and Health), colonialism, 

and the invasion of Iraq. Any current regional conflicts may also 

be sensitive issues. Generally, foreign nationals should avoid 

discussing politics and religion, particularly in reference to

Israel and its supporters. Of note, the law prohibits speaking ill 

of Islam and insulting any religion.

Gestures

Emiratis often use gestures to 

augment, and sometimes replace, 

spoken words. To point, an Emirati 

uses the entire hand (pictured). 

Moving the head slightly back and 

raising the eyebrows means “no,” as does moving the head 

back and the chin upwards. Holding the right hand out, palm 

upward, then touching the thumb and tips of the fingers 

together and slowly moving the hand up and down means 

“calm down,” “be patient,” or “slowly.” Holding the right 

forefinger up and moving it from left to right quickly several 

times means “no, never.” Foreign nationals should avoid 

showing the soles of feet or shoes to Emiratis, who consider 

both unclean. Further, foreign nationals should never walk in 

front of a praying person or making the Western “OK” sign, 

both of which Emiratis consider offensive.

Language and Training Sources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil for language training resources. 

Click on the Menu tab in the upper right, then Resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Arabic Pronunciation and Transliteration

Transliteration is the process of spelling out Arabic words using 

the Roman (Latin) alphabet. The table below shows sounds or 

letters having no English equivalent or that vary from MSA 

pronunciations. Of note, when texting or writing informally 

online in Romanized Arabic, Emiratis frequently replace certain 

Arabic letters with numbers, also depicted below.

Arabic 

Letter

Transliteration 

and 

Description

Number 

(if 

applicable)

Example

أ a 2 Africa

ع’ a or aa

3 sound from 

deep in the 

throat as in the 

name ‘Ali or the 

instrument ‘oud

خ kh; strong “h”

5 loch (as 

pronounced in 

Scotland)

ط ṭ or t 6 tar

ح

ḥ or h; 

whispered “h”

7

hoot

 g ق

8 golf 

(pronounced like 

cough; 

transliterated q 

in MSA)

ص ṣ or s 9 saw

.

غ

gh; like the 

guttural French 

“r”

Paris (as 

pronounced by a 

French person)

ذ dH; Soft “th” this

ء) ‘ glottal stop)

pause in the 

middle of “uhoh”

ج y (or j) yes

ك ch (or k) chin

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Emirati Arabic (Romanized)

Hello (May peace be upon 

you)

Salaam Aleikum

Response: And upon you 

be peace

Wa Aleikum as-Salaam

Hi Marhaba

Good morning Sabah el kheer

Good afternoon/evening Masaa el kheer

My name is... Esmee...

Yes N’em

No La

Please Men fedlek

Thank you Shukran

You’re welcome ‘Afwan

Good night (when leaving) Tosbeho (tosbeheena for female) 

‘ala khair

Where are you from? Men ayna anta (anti? for female)

Where do you live? Ayna taskun (Ayna taskuneen? for 

female)

I am American Ana amreeki (amrekiah for female)

Do you speak 

(English/Arabic)?

Hal tatakallamo alloghah al 

enjleziah/alarabiah?

Today/Now Alyawm/Al aan

Tomorrow Ghadan

Yesterday Albareha

The meal was very good Alwajba tayba waayed

Look! Onzor (Onzori! for female)

Excuse me A ‘ederney

Pardon? Al ‘efew?

I don’t understand you Ana la afhem ‘eleyk

What? Shoo?

Where? Ayn?

How? Kaif?

Me/you Ana/anta/anti (you for female)

Him/her Houwa/hiya

What time is it now? Kam assa’a al aan?

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 93.8%

• Male: 93.1%

• Female: 95.8% (2015 estimate)

Early Education

Before the 7th-century arrival of Islam (see p. 2 of Religion and 

Spirituality), inhabitants of the region’s desert and coastal 

communities informally transmitted values, skills, beliefs, 

historical knowledge, and a sense of community to younger 

generations. With the spread of Islam, educators developed 

more formal methods of teaching Qur’an verses, Islamic rituals 

and duties, and Arabic calligraphy to the children of elite 

families.

Eventually, schools

known as madrasas

began to provide

instruction in theology, 

ethics, and Arabic. In 

addition, scholars and 

intellectuals shared their 

knowledge of history, 

religion, and grammar in their homes or mosques through what 

became known as the “scientific circle” form of education 

(Photo: Students at Al Ain Men’s College).

The Expansion of Educational Options

As the region prospered with the pearling industry boom in the

late 19th - early 20th centuries (see p. 6 of History and Myth), 

residents sought expanded educational opportunities. 

Influenced by Arabian reform and nationalist movements, 

merchants engaged Egyptians, Palestinians, or local residents

educated abroad to teach in new schools.

Following the collapse of the pearling industry in the 1930s 

(see p. 6 of History and Myth), communities found it

increasingly difficult to maintain their schools and pay their 

teachers. Consequently, locally-administered formal education 

in the region declined considerably.

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
The education landscape changed mid-century when foreign 

governments began to promote education. First, the British 

government opened the Al Qassemia School in Sharjah in 

1953. Then in 1958, Kuwait began to build and fund schools, 

followed by Bahrain, Egypt, Kuwait, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia. 

Because the schools were staffed with teachers who followed 

the textbooks and curricula from their respective countries, the 

resulting education system was considerably fragmented.

When Abu Dhabi began exporting oil in 1962, just 20 schools

served fewer than 4,000 mostly male students across modernday UAE. When the UAE declared independence in 1971, 

there were fewer than 28,000 students. As part of broader 

development schemes, the government began to focus on 

improving education, including training and hiring Emirati rather 

than foreign teachers. Standardization efforts eventually

culminated in the development of a national curriculum in 1985.

Modern Public Education System

The UAE has invested heavily in education in recent decades. 

Presently, the government allocates more money to education 

than almost any other country: 21% of its total 2017 budget.

The UAE’s efforts have largely paid off: the literacy rate has 

improved from only 54% of 

men and 31% of women in 

1975 to an average of almost

94% for the 2 in 2015 (Photo: 

Zayed University students).

About 40% of students in the 

UAE attend public schools. 

Emiratis may attend all public 

schools, from pre-school 

through university, at no cost. 

In addition, Emiratis receive school-day meals, textbooks, and 

uniforms for free. While non-citizens may attend public schools, 

they must pass an entrance exam in Arabic with a 90% score

to be admitted. Because most non-citizen children speak 

languages other than Arabic at home (see p. 2 of Language 

and Communication), this requirement is a significant barrier to 

their enrollment. Further, to attend public schools, non-citizen 

students must pay fees. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
All public school classes after kindergarten are segregated by 

sex, with boys receiving instruction from male teachers and 

girls from female teachers. Public schools employ over 11,000 

female Emirati teachers but fewer than 1,000 male Emiratis.

Consequently, most male teachers are non-citizen foreigners.

Pre-Primary: Public institutions offer 2-year non-compulsory 

kindergarten programs for children aged 4-5. In 2014, 92% of 

children of the appropriate age were enrolled in such programs.

Primary: Consisting of grades 1-6, primary school is 

compulsory. Since every village in the UAE has at least 1

public primary school, 

education is accessible 

and almost all Emirati 

children complete these 

grades.

Primary instruction is 

mainly in Arabic, although 

some schools teach math 

and sciences in English. 

The national primary 

curriculum includes Islamic education, Arabic, English, math, 

science, and social studies. Other courses include art, music, 

physical education, and family education for girls (Photo: US 

Navy Hospital Corpsman works with a student at the Dubai 

Center for Special Needs).

Secondary: Lower secondary school (grades 7-9) is also 

compulsory. After 1 year of the general curriculum students

choose to specialize in 1 of 2 tracks: humanities/social 

sciences (economics, geography, history, and sociology), or 

physical sciences (biology, chemistry, geology, and physics).

Upper secondary school (grades 10-12) is not compulsory. 

After an additional year of general coursework students then 

deepen their studies in their chosen track.

Alternatives to secondary school include 6-year technical 

schools where students study agriculture, business, religion, or 

technical topics. Such schools, including the Petroleum 

Institute and the Emirates Aviation Academy, focus on specific 

skills for particular industries or fields. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
While 70% of youth in the UAE complete their secondary 

education, completion rates tend to be higher in urban areas. 

Of note, about 95% of girls and just 80% of boys who complete 

secondary school apply for college.

Post-Secondary: Every Emirati who completes secondary

school and passes all exit exams may attend a UAE public 

university at no cost. While each emirate has at least 1 

university, the UAE also provides scholarships to citizens who 

wish to pursue mainly applied or technical degrees abroad. Of 

note, almost 70% of UAE university students are women.

Founded in 1977, United Arab Emirates University (UAEU) is 

the UAE’s flagship public institution of higher learning, serving

about 15,000 students on its Al Ain campus. Another prominent 

public institution is Zayed University, with campuses in both 

Abu Dhabi and Dubai. The UAE also is home to several private 

universities such as the American Universities in the cities of 

Dubai, Ras al Khaimah, and Sharjah (pictured); and Ajman 

University and the Masdar 

Institute of Science and 

Technology in Abu Dhabi.

Private Schools

Offering fee-based 

education that usually 

follows American or 

British curricula, private 

schools were founded primarily to serve the needs of the noncitizen population seeking education in languages other than 

Arabic. While just 40% of schools in the UAE are private, they

serve about 60% of students. Private schools are particularly 

concentrated in Dubai, which actually has more private than 

public schools.

Government Oversight

The government strictly regulates both private and public 

education. For example, the Ministry of Education (MoE)

censors teaching materials and educators’ speech. Further, the 

government closely oversees school events that touch on 

political issues. Finally, the MoE grants operating approval only 

to private schools whose classes and curricula are deemed 

consistent with Emirati culture and values. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Emiratis believe that trust, respect, and consensus are 

fundamental to building strong personal and business 

relationships. In general, public displays of affection are 

inappropriate and even unlawful, although social touching 

between same sexes is common, even more-so than in the US.

Time and Work

The UAE work week runs from Sunday-Thursday, and 

business hours vary by establishment type. While public sector 

employees generally work from 7:30am-2:30pm or 3:00pm, 

private businesses typically open from 9:00am-5:30pm. Some 

businesses may close for a mid-day break from 1:00pm4:00pm and consequently open earlier or extend the workday 

to 7:00pm. During Ramadan (see p. 4-5 of Religion and 

Spirituality), the work 

day is 2 hours shorter.

While some shops are 

open 9:00am-1:00pm 

and 4:00pm-9:00pm, 

others are open all day. 

Most shopping centers 

are open 10:00am10:00pm or later. Many shops also have limited opening hours 

on Fridays. Most banks are open 8:00am-1:00pm SundayThursday and 8:00am-noon on Saturday (Photo: Dubai gold 

souk, or open-air market).

Working Hours: Labor laws limit the UAE work week to 48 

hours, with an 8-hour day/6-day week. Additional work requires 

overtime pay. Despite these regulations, there are many 

exceptions to the laws that allow employees to work longer 

hours. While few Emiratis work on Fridays, the Islamic day of 

worship, wage laborers – primarily non-citizens (see p. 12-14 of 

Political and Social Relations) often do. International

organizations have denounced the UAE’s inconsistent 

enforcement of labor laws as well as human rights violations 

regarding the UAE’s non-citizen workers. 

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Time Zone and Date Notation: The United Arab Emirates 

Time Zone, or Gulf Time Zone, is 4 hours ahead of Greenwich 

Mean Time (GMT) and 9 hours ahead of Eastern Standard 

Time (EST). The UAE does not observe daylight savings time. 

Lunar Calendar: Emiratis use the Hijiri (Islamic) calendar to 

track Muslim holidays. Since it is based on lunar phases, dates 

fall 11 days earlier each year in relation to the Western 

calendar. The Islamic calendar’s 12 months each have 30 days 

or fewer. Days begin at sunset on what the Western calendar 

would show as the previous day. For example, each new week 

begins at sunset on Saturday, and the Muslim holy day of 

Friday begins on Thursday evening. 

Time and Business

Business tends to occur more slowly in the UAE than in the 

US. Because they view time as flexible, Emiratis consider 

schedules and deadlines less important than relationships and 

social obligations. For example, meetings typically begin with 

an extended period of conversation about family, health, and 

recent activities (see p. 5-6 of Language and Communication).

National Holidays

These holidays occur on fixed dates:

• January 1: New Year’s Day 

• November 30: Martyrs’ Day

• December 2: National Day

These holidays occur on variable dates according to 

the lunar calendar:

• Mawlid al-Nabi: Birth of the Prophet Muhammad

• Lailat al-Miraj: The Ascension of Muhammad

• Eid al-Fitr:: End of Ramadan

• Arafat (Haj) Day: Second day of the Haj

pilgrimage (see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality)

• Eid al-Adha: Festival of Sacrifice

• Ra’s al-Sana: Islamic New Year

SPACE

TIME &
Building and maintaining trust is essential to conducting 

business in the UAE. Emiratis believe that success is more 

dependent on developing and maintaining interpersonal 

relationships than adhering to business rules or regulations.

During meetings, advisors and others who are not part of the 

meeting may enter and exit at will. Emirati businessmen may 

answer phones or check email during meetings without 

apology. Emiratis traditionally reach business deals through 

consensus rather than bargaining or by directive (Photo: A US 

Navy Admiral meets 

with UAE Armed 

Forces media 

representatives).

While Emirati 

workplaces typically

have a clear 

hierarchy, work 

relationships are often 

less formal than in the 

US. Emiratis conduct 

themselves in business settings in a manner that 

communicates their values: respect for others, generosity, and 

hospitality (see p. 3 of Language and Communication).

Employees expect direct praise as reassurance of their 

superior’s appreciation for their work. Supervisors typically 

deliver criticism only indirectly and in private (see p. 3 of 

Language and Communication). 

Personal Space

In the UAE, personal space depends on the context and nature 

of the relationship. In general, Emiratis maintain slightly more 

than an arm’s length when conversing with strangers and stand 

closer to family and friends. Friends of the same gender may 

maintain very little personal space when interacting.

Touch: Close friends and family members commonly touch 

one another while speaking. Friends of the same gender may 

hold hands in public, signaling their deep platonic friendship.

Because the display of affection between the opposite sexes is 

prohibited (see p. 4 of Sex and Gender), unrelated Emiratis of 

SPACE

TIME &
the opposite sex do not typically touch, even during greetings 

(see p. 4 of Language and Communication).

Emiratis use only the right hand when eating, gesturing, 

passing and accepting items, and shaking hands because 

traditionally the left hand is used for personal hygiene and 

considered unclean. Foreign nationals should adhere to this 

custom to avoid offense.

Eye Contact: Emiratis generally consider direct eye contact 

during conversation an indication of sincerity and credibility and 

may interpret rapid or constant shifts in eye contact as a sign of 

dishonesty. Nonetheless, men typically avoid extended eye 

contact when interacting with unrelated women. Likewise, most 

Emiratis do the same with elders as a sign or respect.

Photographs

Foreign nationals should always obtain permission before 

taking an Emirati’s picture. Mosques, airports, government 

offices, and military or industrial areas may prohibit 

photography.

Driving

Like Americans, Emiratis drive on the right side of the road.

Drivers in the UAE commonly ignore posted speed limits and 

traffic signals, habits that result in a rate of almost 11 traffic 

deaths per 100,000 

people per year. 

This rate is

significantly lower 

than neighboring 

Saudi Arabia’s 

annual rate of 

almost 27 deaths 

per 100,000 people 

but slightly higher 

than the US rate of 

12. Government 

efforts to improve 

traffic safety aim to reduce that rate to 3 by 2021 and 0 by 2030

(Photo: A traffic roundabout in Dubai).

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Emiratis’ clothing, sports, music and arts reflect the UAE’s 

place in the modern global economy as well as Emiratis’ pride 

in their Arab and Islamic traditions. 

Dress and Appearance

Standards of dress in the UAE tend to be conservative for both 

men and women. While people from rural areas typically wear 

traditional clothing, residents of urban areas may wear 

Western-style clothes. Both male and female visitors to the 

UAE should dress conservatively, avoiding shorts, mini-skirts 

and sleeveless tops.

Men: Emirati men traditionally wear a kandurah, a loose white 

robe designed to keep the wearer cool. This attire is 

complemented by a kaffiyeh (cap) underneath a white or 

checkered guthra (headscarf) that is held in place by an agal

(black cord). Guthra

styles vary by wearer’s 

status, tribe, or age. 

Some Emirati men may

wear a khanjar, curved 

dagger made from 

bone, wood, and 

intricate silverwork on a 

leather or fabric belt, as 

a traditional accessory. 

Of note, the khanjar is 

more popular in Oman. Some Emirati men wear Western-style 

suits for business meetings (Photo: US Secretary of State 

Kerry meets the UAE Ambassador to the US).

Women: Emirati women traditionally wear an abaya, a loose 

black robe that covers much of the body, accompanied by a 

shayla (headscarf). Women from very religious families may 

wear a niqab (face veil) that reveals only the eyes or a burqa

(full face mask). Under the abaya, women typically wear long 

skirts with blouses, though young women and urban-dwellers

may prefer jeans, colorful designer dresses, and high heels.

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Many Emirati women favor gold jewelry and cloth embroidered 

with gold thread. Common items include al-mirtaesha, a gold 

necklace that covers the chest and extends to the waist; altasa, a golden mesh head covering; and al-kaff, a bracelet that 

covers much of the hand. For special events such as 

weddings, Emirati women typically decorate their hands with 

intricate temporary henna tattoos (see p. 12 of History and 

Myth and p. 5 of Family and Kinship) 

Children: Children typically wear Western-style pants, shirts, 

and dresses. All government and most private schools require 

children to wear uniforms. Older children begin to wear 

traditional adult clothing around puberty, about the time they 

enter secondary school and when the sexes are segregated in 

traditional households (see p. 2 of Family and Kinship).

Recreation and Leisure

Emiratis enjoy spending their leisure time with family and 

friends. Private and public occasions such as weddings, 

birthdays, sporting events, and religious holidays (see p. 5 of 

Religion and Spirituality) are cause for celebration and 

strengthening of social bonds. International vacations are 

popular among Emiratis, 

particularly during the hot 

summer months.

Modern shopping malls 

(pictured) have largely

replaced traditional souks

(covered open air 

markets) and coffee 

houses as Emiratis’ 

preferred leisure 

destinations. These often enormous and lavish malls provide 

convenient and accessible common areas for Emiratis to visit, 

eat, shop, and enjoy entertainment. 

Festivals: Over the past 2 decades, the UAE has invested 

significantly in international events, festivals, and business 

tourism. While Dubai hosts international film, art, and air 

shows, as well as the Emirates Air Festival of Literature, Abu 

Dhabi hosts an international book fair, several arts fairs, and a 

film festival. Other notable events include the Sharjah Biennial 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
(one of the most important art events in the Arab world) and the 

Sharjah International Book Fair.

In 2020 Dubai will host the World Expo. Expected to attract 25 

million visitors, the Expo will occur from October 2020 - April 

2021 under the theme “Connecting Minds, Creating the 

Future.” A purpose-built 438-hectare site serviced by a worldclass transport network 

will house the event.

Sports and Games

Soccer: ‘Football,’ as it 

is known to Emiratis, is 

the most popular sport

in the UAE. Besides 

following various European leagues, Emiratis enjoy their own

domestic league. Part of the Asian Football Confederation, the 

UAE men’s national team won the Gulf Cup of Nations in 2007 

and again in 2013. While few Emirati women traditionally 

participated in sports after primary school, this tradition has 

changed in recent years. In 2010, the UAE founded its first 

national women’s soccer team (Photo: US embassy officials

with the UAE women’s soccer team).

Two UAE airlines sponsor international soccer teams. Emirates 

Air sponsors Arsenal FC, an English team that hosts 

opponents in its new Emirates Stadium. Etihad Airways 

sponsors Manchester United, another elite English team.

Traditional Sports: For centuries, desert-dwelling Bedouins 

(see p. 12 of Political and Social Relations) raced camels 

across the desert for sport. Although betting on the outcomes is 

illegal, camel races take place at several racetracks in the UAE 

and are often televised. Owners and trainers often use remotecontrolled robots as camel jockeys.

A sport popular in Fujairah traces to the 16th-century presence 

of Portuguese in the region (see p. 2-3 of History and Myth). 

Known as bull-butting, the sport involves handlers leading 2 

bulls into an arena where the animals fight. The bull that 

causes the other to back away in submission is proclaimed the 

winner. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
For centuries, Emirati men trapped 

peregrine falcons and trained them

to hunt and return prey such as

other birds, hares, and gazelles. 

Today, Emirati men practice

falconry during a season that lasts 

from October – March. Because 

falconry is associated with the 

sheikhs, leaders of the UAE’s ruling 

families (see p. 4 of Political and 

Social Relations), Emiratis highly 

respect the sport. Both the sport 

and the bird are symbols of traditional Emirati culture, and the 

falcon is the UAE’s national emblem (Photo: Former US 

President Bush holds a falcon next to Sheikh Mohammad).

Other Sports: Emiratis enjoy sports such as rugby, sailing in 

traditional dhow sailboats, tennis, basketball, golf, cricket, and 

water sports, as well as outdoor adventure and motor sports.

The UAE hosts several important international sporting events 

such as the Dubai Tennis and Abu Dhabi Golf championships; 

the Dubai World Cup, the richest horse race in the world; and 

the Formula 1 Grand Prix motor race in Abu Dhabi.

Music

Traditional: Emiratis historically composed music to 

accompany certain tasks. For example, captains of pearling 

ships (see p. 6 of History and Myth) would hire a naham

(professional singer) to lead fidjeri (songs) as their ships sailed 

into the Gulf. Traditional instruments include drums, nayy

(flute), rababa (1 or 2-stringed fiddle), ‘oud (pear-shaped,

fretless, stringed lute), and tamboura (6-stringed lyre, similar 

to a harp). With its distinctive 5-tone scale and 6/8 waltz-like 

rhythms, Emirati Khaleeji music unites regional Gulf Arabic 

styles with traditions from Africa, India, and Iran.

Modern: While many Emiratis enjoy a modern pop version of

Khaleeji music, other Arabic and Western genres are also 

popular. Radio stations broadcast music in a variety of styles 

and languages, including Arabic, English, Hindi, Urdu, and 

Malayalam. An underground rock and metal scene has also 

recently developed among young, urban Emiratis.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Dance

Dance has been an important part of Emirati culture for 

centuries. Perhaps the most famous traditional dance, the 

ayyalah al-ardha, involves men leaping between swords in a 

mock battle accompanied by drums or singing. In a dance 

called na’ashat, young female dancers enter swaying their hair 

from side-to-side in a gesture intended to remind the men of 

their duty to protect women. The rezeef dance features lines of 

boys who face each other, carrying bamboo canes over their 

shoulders. While chanting a melodic tune, the boys display an 

intricate pattern of footwork. 

Yowalah is a dance traditionally performed at midnight to 

celebrate war victories or successful pearl diving (see p. 6 of 

History and Myth). While the dance has several varieties, men 

typically wield sticks, swords, or guns while moving to the 

music of goatskin bagpipes, flutes, and drums. Emiratis today 

perform the dance on many different special occasions 

including religious holidays (see p. 5 of Religion and 

Spirituality), festivals, national holidays, and during wedding 

festivities (see p. 5 of 

Family and Kinship) 

(Photo: Emirati and 

Coalition forces perform 

the yowalah at the UAE 

compound at Bagram Air 

Field, Afghanistan in 

2012).

Literature

The UAE has a rich 

tradition of poetry and storytelling. For centuries, men from 

isolated communities met to exchange news, tell stories, and 

recite poetry, often while sitting around a desert campfire. 

Some myths taught moral lessons (see p. 12 of History and 

Myth), while other stories reflected the principles of Islam, 

defined tribal identities, or promoted certain values such as 

hospitality, generosity, and endurance. 

There are 2 styles of Emirati poetry: Classical, based on verses 

and stories from the Qur’an and written in Modern Standard 

Arabic, and Nabati, written in the UAE’s Khaleeji Arabic dialect 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
(see p. 1 of Language and Communication). Meaning 

“vernacular” or “popular,” nabati includes a wide range of 

themes. For example, famous 19th-century nabati poet 

Muhammad ibn Li’bun wrote about the UAE’s desert and sea, 

old age, and love. 

Today, televised poetry contests, such as Prince of Poets and 

Million’s Poet, attract millions of viewers from across the region 

and require contestants to compose and recite their own 

poems. A new show, Al Bayt Nabati, uses Twitter as a platform 

for its nabati competition. While poetry composition and 

recitation is traditionally a male pastime, several female poets 

are now well-known with Hissa Hilal becoming Million’s Poet’s

first female finalist in 2010. Sheikh Mohammad, ruler of Dubai,

and Sheikha Maisoon of Sharjah are renowned published 

poets.

Arts and Crafts

Traditionally, certain Sunni Islamic teachings (see p. 3 of 

Religion and Spirituality) have prohibited the lifelike portrayal of 

humans and animals. Instead,

traditional Emirati visual artists have 

used geometric designs, 

ornamental, repetitive patterns, and 

calligraphy to produce highly 

complex decorative motifs (Photo: 

Islamic designs in Sharjah).

Emirati women traditionally used 

looms to weave camel and goat hair 

to make tents, camel bags, carpets, 

and other functional textiles that 

featured simple patterns with 

elaborate borders. The UAE

government has taken steps to preserve weaving and other 

traditional handicrafts, such as metalwork and pottery.

As part of Abu Dhabi’s Vision 2030 development plan, the 

Emirate’s new cultural district on Saadiyat Island eventually will 

include branches of Paris’ Louvre (slated to open in 2016) and 

New York’s Guggenheim art museums, the Zayed National 

Museum, a maritime museum, and a performing arts center.

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Meals are an important social affair in the UAE, providing 

Emiratis an opportunity to visit with family and friends. 

Accented by bold and flavorful spices, Emirati dishes typically 

incorporate fresh, local ingredients.

Dining Customs: Most Emiratis augment 3 daily meals with 

several snacks throughout the day. While women typically 

prepare all meals, men usually shop for the family’s meat in 

livestock markets. In more traditional households (see p. 2 of 

Family and Kinship), female and male family members eat 

separately, though this habit is slowly changing among urban 

and younger Emiratis. Even in households where male and 

female family members typically eat together, women and 

children may not join a meal when unrelated male guests are 

present. To begin a meal, the host gives thanks to Allah (God) 

by saying “Bismillah” (“In 

the name of God”), then 

ends the meal by saying

“Al-hamdu lillah” (“Praise 

be to God”).

While some Emiratis use 

Western-style tables and 

chairs, most Emiratis sit on 

carpeted floors and pillows 

during meals. (Photo: Former AEW Commander Brig Gen John 

Quintas – second left – and staff enjoy a traditional lamb roast 

dinner on the family farm of an Emirati colleague) Families eat 

from large, centrally-placed shared dishes, using their right 

hand to scoop up food. Because they consider the left hand 

unclean, most Emirati do not use it to eat (see p. 4 of Time and 

Space). To mark the end of a meal, hosts provide a dish of 

scented water in which diners rinse their hands. 

Diet

Prepared in variety of ways and served with almost every meal, 

rice is the UAE’s most common staple. In addition to rice, most 

dishes include an animal protein, such as lamb, chicken, or 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
goat along with fruits and vegetables. Many dishes incorporate 

fragrant spices, including cardamom, turmeric, cumin, ginger, 

chili, nutmeg and cinnamon. Residents of coastal communities 

enjoy fish, which is typically grilled, fried, or dried and served 

with rice, vegetables, and lemon. Among the Bedouin (see p. 

12 of Political and Social Relations), goat cheese and camel 

milk are staples, along with dried meat, bread, and dates. 

Bread (khobz) is served with most dishes and comes in over 

40 varieties. A common form is a flat, unleavened disk about 

the size of a plate. Emiratis use torn pieces of the flatbread to 

pinch up morsels of food in place of utensils. Many Emiratis 

enjoy raqaq, a thin bread spread with dried anchovy sauce or 

cheese. 

Many Emiratis snack on fruit throughout the day. Although 

dates are the most common, other popular fruits include 

mango, pomegranate, 

rambutan (pictured – a 

small, spine-covered fruit 

similar to a lychee), and 

mangosteen (a small, 

purple fruit with a white 

edible interior that has a 

sweet-tart flavor). 

Observant Muslims 

consume neither pork nor 

alcohol. In addition, they observe particular rules of animal 

slaughter and meat preparation to ensure that food is halal, 

allowed by Islamic law. Fareed, a lamb-flavored broth with 

bread, is a popular dish served during the holy month of 

Ramadan (see p. 4-5 of Religion and Spirituality).

Meals and Popular Dishes

Emiratis often consume eggs for breakfast, pairing them with 

salty cheese, labneh (yogurt), sweetened tahini (ground 

sesame seeds), olives, and lentils. Balaleet, a dish of thin 

noodles served with date syrup, saffron, rosewater and 

sautéed onions, is another common breakfast meal. 

As the largest meal of the day, lunch typically includes rice

flavored with cardamom, saffron, and raisins and served with 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
seasoned chicken, lamb, or goat. Dinner ranges from a large 

meal with multiple courses to a light snack of bread, salad, and 

fruit. Popular entrées include hareis, slow-cooked lamb and 

ground wheat stew; khuzi, whole roasted lamb stuffed with 

rice, nuts, eggs, and spices and served on a bed of rice; 

madrooba, chicken or salt-cured fish cooked together with raw 

dough; and makbus, rice casserole with lamb or fish, 

garnished with fried onions, nuts, and raisins. 

Emiratis enjoy their sweets, such as baklava (a pastry of 

layered filo dough, nuts, and honey), ice cream, or pudding 

after lunch or dinner. Dates are also a common treat, which 

Emiratis enjoy dried, raw, baked into cakes and cookies, or 

covered in chocolate. 

Beverages

Emiratis typically drink tea (shai) and coffee (qahwa), both 

heavily laden with sugar, throughout the day. Traditional 

Bedouin coffee is spiced with cardamom and poured from 

ornate, long-spouted pots (dalla) into small cups (finjan). 

Hosts or servers continuously provide refills until the guest 

gently swivels his cup to indicate he has had enough.

Fresh-squeezed juices from pomegranates, mangos, hibiscus, 

avocados, mint, and lemons are very popular. Valued for its 

health benefits, fresh camel milk is another widely available 

drink. While not offered at most Muslim-owned establishments, 

alcohol is available in most urban areas but by law can only be 

sold in restaurants, hotel 

bars, or members-only 

clubs. Of note, Sharjah 

emirate prohibits all 

alcohol consumption. 

Eating Out

Eating out is a part of 

everyday life for many 

Emiratis. Restaurants are 

popular socializing spots

where people may spend hours conversing over a meal. Coffee

shops offering shisha (flavored tobacco smoked through a 

water pipe—pictured) are also popular gathering spots. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
While men and women often eat together in large, modern 

restaurants and hotel bars, many smaller eateries divide into

gender-specific dining rooms. Casual fare includes kebabs

(skewers of meat), falafel (fried balls of ground chickpeas), and 

shwarma (sliced meat served with bread and tomatoes). 

Restaurants serving Lebanese, Indian, and Iranian fare are 

very common, and many urban residents enjoy Western-style 

fast food. Restaurants commonly add a 10% service charge to 

bills; additional tips are neither required nor expected. 

Health Overview

Emiratis’ health has improved significantly over the last 

decades, largely due to dramatic improvements to the UAE’s

healthcare system. Emirati life expectancy at birth has 

increased considerably from 52 years in 1960 to 77.5 years in 

2016, somewhat higher than the global average of 71. 

Similarly, infant mortality (the proportion of infants who die 

before age 1) was 10 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2016, the 

4

th lowest rate in the Arabian Gulf and higher than the US rate. 

Maternal mortality also dropped significantly in the past 25 

years, from 16 deaths per 100,000 live births in 1990 to 6 by 

2016. All Emiratis have access to free, publicly funded 

healthcare. By contrast, non-citizens (see p. 14 of Political and 

Social Relations) are not 

eligible for free healthcare

and must instead pay a part 

of employer-provided health 

insurance or out-of-pocket 

(Photo: Emirati with camel). 

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine 

consists of the knowledge, 

practices, and skills that are derived from a native population’s 

beliefs, experiences, and theories. Traditional Emirati medicine 

relies on herbal and “hands-on” treatments to identify and cure 

the causes of illness, both physical and spiritual. Besides

herbal remedies, common treatment methods include 

acupressure (a process in which a practitioner presses firmly 

on particular body points), wasm (a method of holding a 

heated piece of iron over ailing areas), and bloodletting (the 

removal of blood from a patient for therapeutic purposes). 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Traditional medicine has received considerable official support 

in recent decades. Founded by the UAE’s first President, Abu 

Dhabi’s Zayed Complex for Herbal Research and Traditional 

Medicine supports all types of traditional, complementary, and 

alternative medicine. In urban areas, clinics offer therapies 

from many traditions, particularly East and South Asian, to 

supplement modern treatments for a range of diseases and 

maladies. Traditional medicine is popular among many noncitizens who cannot afford modern treatments.

Modern Healthcare System

Since independence in 1971, the UAE has developed a 

universal healthcare system that is now one of the most 

modern in the Arabian Gulf. Through numerous general and

maternity hospitals, 

clinics, and

specialized health 

centers, the UAE 

provides free 

healthcare to its 

citizens. In addition, 

numerous private 

hospitals and clinics 

offer high quality 

services, while

mobile clinics 

provide screenings 

and specialized care for prevalent diseases like diabetes. Of 

note, 80% of doctors and over 90% of nurses employed at UAE 

health institutions are non-citizens (Photo: Downtown Dubai). 

Despite the UAE’s state-of-the-art healthcare system, some 

members of its population still lack access to adequate care. 

While rural dwellers are technically eligible for free services, 

healthcare facilities are typically concentrated in cities, making 

access difficult. Although the government is building clinics in 

the more remote areas of Fujairah, Um al Quwain, and Sharjah 

emirates, many local facilities remain inadequately staffed or 

offer substandard care. Further, because non-citizens must pay 

out-of-pocket or rely on costly insurance, quality healthcare is 

unaffordable for many of them. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Health Challenges

Rates of communicable and infectious diseases, such as 

tuberculosis, measles, and malaria are low in the UAE due to 

significant government investment into immunization and postexposure treatments. While the UAE reports a very low rate of 

HIV infections, some experts argue that this rate is inaccurate 

because the UAE does not collect adequate data.

By contrast, the UAE’s rapid social and economic changes

(see p. 1 of Economics and Resources) have caused an 

increase in chronic and non-communicable “lifestyle” diseases.

Accounting for about 67% of all deaths, lifestyle diseases are 

now the leading cause of death. While cardiovascular diseases 

alone contributed to over 1/3rd of all deaths in 2015, cancer 

was another prominent cause, accounting for 13% of deaths 

that year. About 15% of adults suffer from diabetes, while an 

additional 18% are at risk of developing the disease.

What experts call preventable deaths – those caused by 

smoking, injury (including traffic accidents, falls, and drowning), 

and suicides – occur at high rates. For example, injury caused 

23% of all deaths in 2014, compared to the US rate of 6%. 

Also alarming, according to a study in Abu Dhabi, about 28% of 

teens younger than 15 years are smoking.

Obesity: About 70% of UAE adults rated as overweight or

obese in 2016, twice the world average but still below the US 

rate of 69%. Increased obesity has resulted in increased rates 

of associated diseases and is a focus of national concern.

Medical Tourism in Dubai

Dubai’s world-class healthcare system drew over 

296,000 medical tourists in 2015. Officials expect the 

industry to grow by about 12% annually, fueled by 

Dubai’s recently constructed Healthcare City - a large 

medical complex of private hospitals, clinics, and 

research facilities. Patients from Europe, Asia, and the 

Arabian Gulf seek a range of services including 

cosmetic procedures, fertility treatments, dentistry, 

orthopedics, and cardiac surgery. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

Prior to the discovery of oil in 1958, the region’s economy was 

based on a small and declining pearling industry, fishing, and 

small-scale farming (see p. 6 of History and Myth). With the 

development of the oil and gas industries beginning in the 

1960s, the UAE gained enormous wealth. Economic growth

enabled massive 

development projects that 

eventually provided UAE 

citizens one of the world’s 

highest standards of living.

To diversify the economy

and reduce its dependence 

on oil revenues, the UAE

has invested in other 

industries in recent 

decades. It has opened several free trade zones where 

businesses may be 100% foreign owned and avoid UAE taxes 

in order to attract foreign investment (Photo: US Army Golden 

Knights above Dubai’s Palm Island Resort).

Today, the UAE’s economy is the world’s 33rd and the region’s 

2nd largest, behind Saudi Arabia. Average economic growth

between 1996 and 2016 was a healthy 4%, with the only 

negative growth occurring in 2009 during the Dubai banking 

and financial crisis. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita 

in 2016 was $67,700, the 3rd highest in the region and similar 

to rates in Norway and Ireland.

The UAE economy is heavily dependent on foreign labor (see 

p. 10 of History and Myth). Of the nearly 5 million people in the 

UAE’s labor force, about 85% of them are non-citizens, 

primarily men from South Asia (see p. 12 of Political and Social 

Relations). Many non-citizens work in the private sector under 

the Kafala Sponsorship System, a temporary guest worker 

program that largely segregates workers from Emirati society, 

often providing poor living and work conditions (see p. 14 of 

Political and Social Relations).

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Emiratis fill just 0.5-1% of jobs in the private sector. By 

contrast, they prefer and historically dominate the public sector 

where jobs typically offer higher salaries, better benefits, job 

security, and shorter working hours. Although the UAE’s 

unemployment rate for the entire population was a low 3% in 

2014, unemployment among Emiratis was over 20%. This high 

rate is mainly due to limited availability of public sector jobs and 

Emiratis’ unwillingness to consider private sector positions that 

do not offer the advantages of public sector jobs.

To increase employment among citizens, the government has 

instituted a quota system that requires some private sector 

businesses to hire Emiratis. Further, the government has made 

large investments in public education (see p. 2 of Learning and 

Knowledge) and instituted compulsory military service for 

young Emirati men (see p. 7 of Political and Social Relations).

A potential shortfall in the UAE’s future economic sustainment 

is its dependence on oil exports, especially with a recent slump 

in oil prices. Other concerns include lack of a large citizen 

workforce and resulting reliance on non-citizens to perform 

many jobs and growing inflation pressures, notably in housing. 

Industry

While industrial activity accounts for 45% of GDP in the UAE, it 

employs just 45% of the labor force. The extraction, 

processing, and export of oil and gas (commonly called 

“hydrocarbons”) dominate the sector.

Oil: The UAE currently 

has the world’s 7th

largest oil reserves: 98 

million barrels of proven 

crude oil, with more than 

80% in Abu Dhabi. At the 

current export rate of 2.5-

2.7 million barrels per 

day, experts estimate 

that reserves will last 

100-150 years. Oil accounts for about 20% of export revenues, 

77% of the national budget, and 25% of GDP (Photo: Satellite 

view of oil fields in Abu Dhabi).

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
To secure its oil from perceived Iranian threats in the Strait of 

Hormuz (see p. 11 of Political and Social Relations), the UAE 

opened the Abu Dhabi Crude Oil Pipeline in 2012 to transport

oil from Abu Dhabi’s oilfields directly to the Gulf of Oman.

Natural Gas: The UAE also has the 7th largest proven supply 

of natural gas in the world, most of which is located in Abu 

Dhabi. Despite this large supply, which experts believe will last 

some 200 years, the UAE is presently a net importer of natural 

gas, receiving 27.1 billion cubic meters in 2015, but exporting 

just 13.2 billion. This imbalance is primarily due to difficulties in 

processing the highly sulfuric gas. Observers believe that 

advances in technology and growing domestic demand will 

resolve this imbalance in the near future.

Manufacturing: The UAE primarily manufactures 

hydrocarbons and petrochemical products, such as fertilizer 

and plastics, followed by cement, aluminum, and urea, used in 

fertilizers. Other manufactured products include electronics, 

machinery, and air conditioners, as 

well as sporting, security, and 

medical equipment. 

Construction: The UAE’s 

infrastructure is the most advanced 

of the Arabian Gulf countries (see 

p. 1-2 of Technology and Material), 

largely due to an extended 

construction boom. With an annual 

growth close to 10% in recent 

years, the construction industry 

alone accounts for more than 11% 

of GDP. Opened in 2010 and 

designed for commercial and residential use, Dubai’s Burj 

Khalifa (pictured) is the world’s tallest building.

Services

In contrast to the industrial sector, the services sector employs 

more people (51% of the labor force) and accounts for more 

GDP (55%). Banking and financial services, 

telecommunications, real estate sales, and tourism are all 

significant components of the economy. 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Tourism: Tourism is the fastest-growing component of the 

UAE’s economy. In 2016, Dubai was the 4th most-visited city in 

the world (ahead of New York, the only US city in the top 10)

and had an income that surpassed its oil revenue. Abu Dhabi 

has also launched an ambitious long-term program to develop 

its tourism industry, including the construction of a new cultural 

district on Saadiyat Island (see p. 6 of Aesthetics and 

Recreation). 

Popular UAE tourist attractions include beaches, luxury hotels 

and shopping, first-rate restaurants, theme parks, international 

events (see p. 2-3 of Aesthetics and Recreation), and 

adventure sports 

like skydiving 

and desert 

safaris (Photo: 

US marines and 

sailors ride 

camels during a 

sunset safari 

tour).

Agriculture

Because less 

than 1% of the 

UAE’s land is arable, the agriculture sector accounts for just

0.7% of GDP and 4% of employment. With their long tradition 

of desert and oasis farming, Emiratis dominate the agriculture 

sector. 

To support agriculture, the government provides seeds, 

pesticides, irrigation systems, and veterinary services to 

farmers. Major products include dates, tomatoes, citrus, 

mangoes, dairy, poultry, and eggs. While the UAE imports over 

80% of its food, it is nearly self-sufficient in the production of 

dates, dairy products, and some vegetables.

Fishing: The UAE’s fishing industry is one of the region’s 

largest, with non-citizens accounting for 71% of employment. 

While much of the catch is consumed locally, dried fish is one 

of the UAE’s few non-hydrocarbon exports. Over the past 

decade, the government has sought to protect the industry 

from overfishing.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Currency

The UAE’s currency is the dirham (AED), issued in 7 banknote 

values (5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, 1,000) and 5 coin values (1, 5, 

10, 25, 50). One dirham subdivides into 100 fils, but because

there are few 1, 5, and 10 fils coins in circulation, most people 

quote prices to the nearest 25 fils. The dirham was pegged to 

the dollar in 1997, and currently $1 is equal to 3.67 dirhams (1 

dirham is 27¢). Most businesses accept credit cards, although 

small vendors may 

only accept cash 

(Pictured: 5-dirham

banknote).

Foreign Trade

In 2016, the UAE’s 

exports totaled 

$316 billion and 

consisted of crude oil (45%), natural gas, re-exports, dried fish, 

and dates. The UAE’s most important export partners were Iran 

(15%) Japan (10%), India (9%), China (5%), and Oman (4%). 

In 2016, imports to the UAE totaled $246.9 billion and included

machinery and transport equipment, chemicals, and food 

purchased from China (16%), India (13%), the US (10%), 

Germany (7%), and the UK (4%).

Of note, the UAE has been a member of the Organization of 

Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) since 1967. OPEC is

an inter-governmental organization that coordinates petroleum

production levels among its 12 members.

Foreign Aid

The UAE contributes far more aid than it receives and has not 

received aid from the US since 2011. Notable UAE 

contributions include $550 million to Palestinian development 

projects, $14 billion in loans to Egypt, $1.25 billion in aid to the 

Jordanian government to provide support to Syrian refugees, 

and forgiveness of $7 billion of Iraqi debt. UAE government and 

non-governmental organizations have also donated to causes 

in developed countries, including the US and Australia. The 

Abu Dhabi Fund for Development is the largest aid contributor, 

distributing over $4 billion to 207 projects in 53 countries since 

1971.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

The UAE has a modern physical infrastructure, including a 

system of well-maintained roads, public transit systems, and 

the Gulf region’s first automated metro. While UAE residents 

enjoy an advanced telecommunications network, the 

government censors the 

Internet and most media 

content.

Transportation

Most Emirati families as 

well as American and 

European non-citizens have 

at least one privately-owned 

vehicle (POV) and usually 

travel within the UAE by 

POV or taxi. By contrast, most other non-citizens use mass 

transit. Abu Dhabi, Dubai, and Sharjah have efficient local 

public transportation systems. While Abu Dhabi residents rely 

on a 24-hour bus system, residents of Dubai use a metro 

system. Buses are a common means of transport between 

emirates (Photo: A street in Khor Fakkan, Sharjah emirate).

Public transit systems typically have separate sections for men 

and women. Taxis are readily available throughout the country

and include special pink taxis with female drivers to offer

transport for women. Passengers who chew gum, eat, drink, or 

smoke in public transport may be subject to fines or detention.

Roadways

All of the UAE’s nearly 3,000 mi of roadways are paved, a 

result of the country’s investment in public infrastructure 

projects (see p. 7-8 of History and Myth). Further, the country 

has 1 of the region’s best highway networks, with well-lit, multilane highways connecting major cities. The UAE’s longest and

most important road, Highway E-11, is known as Sheikh 

Maktoum Road in Abu Dhabi and Sheikh Zayed Road in Dubai. 

It extends 347 mi from Al-Silah in Abu Dhabi emirate along the 

Gulf coast to Ras al Khaimah emirate on the Omani border.

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Railways

The Dubai Metro (pictured), 

inaugurated in 2010, 

includes 2 lines that serve

450,000 people daily and

plans to add 3 lines by 2030.

A transit system under 

construction in Abu Dhabi

will include an underground metro, 2 light rails, and a rapid bus 

transit loop by 2017.

The UAE’s national railway system, Etihad Rail, is currently 

under construction, with 1 of 3 stages opened by late 2015.

Once complete, the 745 mi railway network will provide freight 

and passenger service to all the UAE’s population and 

industrial centers. Further, it will link the UAE to the Gulf 

Cooperation Council (GCC – see p. 10 of Political and Social 

Relations) railway network that will connect Saudi Arabia, 

Qatar, Oman, Bahrain, 

and Kuwait when it is 

complete in 2018. 

Ports and Waterways

Major Arabian Gulf 

ports in the UAE include 

Jebel Ali, Khor Fakkan, 

Khalifa Port, Mubarraz 

Island, Mina Rashid, and Mina Saqr. Jebel Ali, located in 

Dubai, is the largest port in the Middle East and is slated to 

become the largest port in the world by 2030. Abras (small 

wooden motorized boats, pictured), water buses, and water 

taxis transport passengers along waterways in Abu Dhabi and 

Dubai. 

Airways

The UAE has 43 airports, of which 25 have paved runways. 

Dubai International and Abu Dhabi International are the UAE’s 

primary transit hubs, although air traffic through Sharjah has 

increased. In 2016, Dubai served more international 

passengers than any other airport. Dubai’s Emirates Airlines is 

the world’s largest international carrier. Etihad Airlines, Air 

Arabia, FlyDubai, and RAK Airways are also based in the UAE.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Energy

The UAE is the 34th largest energy producer and 35th largest 

consumer. While the UAE generates 99.8% of its energy from 

fossil fuels, it is beginning to invest in the development of

renewable energy sources 

(Photo: Traffic in Dubai).

Media

Although the constitution 

guarantees freedom of 

speech and press, the 

UAE’s National Media 

Council regulates media 

and restricts content by

blocking and filtering

websites, monitoring and intimidating users, and denying some 

foreign journalists entry. Accordingly, many journalists practice 

self-censorship. Despite these restrictions, publishers print 

newspapers in Arabic, English, and many other languages. 

Major English papers include the Khaleej Times, The National, 

and Gulf News. Of note, these media regulations and 

restrictions do not apply to foreign-owned media companies in 

the UAE’s free trade zones (see p. 1 of Economics and 

Resources). 

Radio and TV: UAE television and radio offer programs 

primarily in Arabic and English. Satellite dishes are common

primarily because they offer access to regional and 

international broadcasts that are not always censored.

Telecommunications

The UAE has the Arab world’s most extensive

telecommunications network. In addition to its 2.2 million fixedline fiber-optic telephone subscribers, the UAE has 17.9 million 

mobile phone subscriptions. The 2 major mobile networks,

Etisalat and du, are both majority-owned by the government.

Internet: While 91% of the UAE’s population had Internet 

access in 2015, the high cost of broadband services limits

home Internet access for many relatively poor non-citizens. 

The government monitors the Internet, regularly blocking

certain sites deemed offensive or indecent. Of note, the UAE 

blocked Skype until 2013.

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
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