This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained within will help you 

understand the cultural dimension of your assigned location 

and gain skills necessary for success (Photo: Souvenir vendor 

in the old part of Plovdiv, 

Bulgaria, courtesy of 

CultureGrams, ProQuest).

The guide consists of 2 parts: 

Part 1 “Culture General”

provides the foundational 

knowledge you need to 

operate effectively in any 

global environment with a focus on Eastern Europe. 

Part 2 “Culture Specific” describes unique cultural features of 

Bulgarian society. It applies culture-general concepts to help

increase your knowledge of your assigned deployment 

location. This section is 

designed to complement 

other pre-deployment 

training (Photo: USAF and 

Bulgarian senior NCOs 

discuss enlisted force 

development concerns).

For further information, visit

the Air Force Culture and 

Language Center (AFCLC) website at http://culture.af.mil/ or

contact the AFCLC Region Team at AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the express permission of 

the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources.

About this Guide

ECFG Bulgaria
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture,

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also usually assign the same meanings 

to the symbols in that culture. A symbol is when one thing – an 

image, word, object, idea, or story – represents another thing. 

For example, the American flag is a physical and visual symbol 

of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, the 

story of George Washington admitting to having chopped down 

a cherry tree is also symbolic because it represents the 

premium Americans 

place on personal 

honesty and leadership 

integrity (Photo: A 

Ukrainian fighter jet 

conducts a low-altitude 

fly over in Mykolaiv, 

Ukraine). 

Force Multiplier

The military services 

have learned through experience the importance of 

understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20th-century bipolar 

world order that dominated US strategy for nearly half a 

century, today the US military is operating in what we classify 

as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones, where the notion of 

cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of our 

engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE
influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner 

that is appropriate to our culture and encourages us to 

perpetuate that culture 

into the future. 

We can organize 

behaviors and systems 

into categories – what 

the Air Force refers to as 

“cultural domains” – in

order to better understand 

the primary values and 

characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally 

competent military member can use these domains–which 

include kinship, language and communication, and social and 

political systems and others (see chart on next page)—as tools 

for understanding and adapting to any culture. For example, by 

understanding the way a culture defines family and kinship, a 

US military member operating overseas can more effectively 

interact with members of that culture (Photo: Winter in 

Slovenia).

Social Behaviors across Cultures 

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival, 

GENERAL

CULTURE
although agrarian societies generally produce their own food 

for limited consumption using very basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized nations have more complex market 

economies, producing foodstuffs for universal consumption.

Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, although they 

represent these concepts through a variety of unique forms of 

symbolism. While the dominant world religions share the belief 

in one God, their worship practices vary with their traditional 

historical development. Similarly, in many kin-based cultures 

where familial bonds are foundational to social identity, it is 

customary for family or friends to serve as godparents, while for 

other societies this practice is nearly non-existent.

Worldview

One of our most basic human behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or different based on our cultural 

standards. As depicted in the chart below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us compare similarities and differences 

across cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or “people not like me.” Usually, we 

assume that those in the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
This collective perspective forms our worldview—how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for actions and a logical explanation of 

why we individually or collectively act in a certain manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system assigns meaning, sets its universal 

standards of what is good 

and bad, defines right and 

wrong behavior, and 

assigns a value of 

meaningful or 

meaningless. Our beliefs 

form the fundamental 

values we hold to be true

– regardless of whether 

there is evidence to 

support these ideas. Beliefs are a central aspect of human 

culture. They are shared views about world order and how the 

universe was physically and socially constructed (Photo: A river 

boat in Prague, the capital of Czech Republic). 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, 

right or wrong depends 

on our deeply-held beliefs 

we started developing 

early in life that have 

helped shape our 

characters. Likewise, 

these values are 

ingrained in our 

personalities and shape 

our behavior patterns and our self-identities. Because cultural 

beliefs are intensely held, they are difficult, though not 

impossible, to change (Photo: Ukrainian soldiers). 

CULTURE

GENERAL
Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence certain behaviors and also 

serve to rationalize those behaviors. Therefore, knowledge of 

individual or group beliefs can be useful in comprehending or 

making sense of their activities. We will use the iceberg model 

for classifying culture to illustrate two

levels of meaning, as depicted. 

Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

deeper and greater level of the 

submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / 

referenced by our behaviors and 

symbols (top level). It is important to 

recognize, though, that the parts of 

culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping 

what is being made visible (above 

the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews 

may present behaviors that are contrary to our own beliefs, 

particularly in many regions where US forces deploy. Your 

ability to suspend judgment in order to understand another 

perspective is essential to establishing relationships with your 

host-nation counterparts. 

The ability to withhold 

your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from 

a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It often 

involves taking an 

alternate perspective 

when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success (Photo: Romanian military personnel converse in front 

of a plane in the Bucharest airport).

As you travel through Eastern Europe, you will encounter 

cultural patterns of meaning that are common across the 

region. What follows is a general description of 12 cultural 

domains which are used to frame those commonalities. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
1. History and Myth 

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story 

which members of a culture use to explain community origins 

or important events that 

are not verifiable or which 

occurred prior to written 

language (Photo: 1909 

Russian painting of Slavic 

peoples). 

Eastern Europe comprises 

10 countries on the eastern

side of the European 

continent: Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, 

Moldova, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine. 

Archaeological finds suggest people inhabited the region as 

early as 40,000 BC. From approximately 10,000-3,000 BC, 

hunter-gatherers formed semi-permanent settlements, 

sustained by agriculture and cattle herding. Slavic tribes settled 

in the plains of present-day Ukraine as early as 2000 BC, 

eventually moving west and south along the fertile basin of the 

Danube River. Notably, although short-lived, the Roman 

Empire’s incorporation of much of the region’s South in the 

early centuries AD significantly influenced culture in presentday Romania, Bulgaria, and Slovenia. 

Over the following centuries, various migratory peoples from 

elsewhere in Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia 

continued to settle in the region, expelling, conquering, or 

mixing with the Slavs and other inhabitants. By the 10th 

century, loosely aligned settlements coalesced into large, 

powerful kingdoms, including the Bohemian Empire centered in 

present-day Czech Republic and the Kingdoms of Hungary, 

Poland, and Bulgaria. In the 14th century, much of the region 

fell to the Ottoman Empire, based in present-day Turkey, with 

many of the region’s residents experiencing several centuries 

of Turkish raids. 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

GENERAL

CULTURE
While present-day Bulgaria and Romania remained under 

Ottoman rule for over 500 years, in the 16th century, many

regions became subject to the rule of the Austrian House of 

Habsburg – one of Europe’s most influential royal dynasties 

that later joined Hungary to form the powerful AustroHungarian Empire. Meanwhile, Poland formed an independent 

state, eventually uniting with neighboring Lithuania to control 

large parts of the region, including Ukraine and Belarus. 

Unable to repel persistent attacks from neighbors, the PolishLithuanian Empire disintegrated in the late 18th century, with 

Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus falling under Russian control for 

the next nearly 120 years. During this time, Russia violently 

quelled nationalist movements, suppressed regional 

languages, and deported 

thousands of native

inhabitants while 

encouraging Russian 

immigration into the region. 

All 10 Eastern European 

states experienced 

substantial conflict during 

World War I (WWI). 

Immediately following the war, most states enjoyed brief 

periods of independence. By contrast, the newly formed Union 

of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) absorbed Belarus, 

Moldova, and Ukraine, all of which suffered severely under 

communist repression. Notably, after its defeat in WWI, the 

Austro-Hungarian Empire splintered. Hungary consequently 

lost nearly 2/3 of its territory and 3/5 of its people to 

neighboring nations (Photo: Russian army in 1920s Kiev). 

With the onset of World War II (WWII), all 10 states again 

became battlegrounds. While some immediately sided with the 

Axis powers, others were unable to withstand German 

aggression. All 10 states suffered heavy casualties throughout 

the war. During its occupation of the region, Nazi Germany 

murdered, deported, or confined most of the region’s sizeable 

Jewish population and other “undesirables.” 

At war’s end, the USSR either absorbed or heavily influenced 

the political, social, and economic systems of each Eastern 

GENERAL

CULTURE
European state. Adopting communist tenets, each state 

nationalized private companies, appropriated private property, 

and rapidly expanded industrial development. Communist 

leaders also encouraged Russification in the region, violently 

repressing national languages, religions, and cultures. 

In the late 1980s, democratic movements swept across the 

Soviet bloc, and within a few years, all 10 states had declared 

independence from the USSR. Further, they removed 

communist leaders, transformed their governments, and 

adopted market capitalism. Since then, all states but Belarus

largely pivoted away from Russian influence to pursue political, 

military, and economic integration with the West. 

2. Political and Social Relations 

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all the ways 

in which individuals are 

linked to others in their 

community. All 10 

Eastern European states 

are parliamentary 

republics led by an 

elected Prime Minister, 

President, and legislature. In most states, Presidential powers 

are largely ceremonial with executive power vested in the 

Prime Minister, who leads the government together with the 

support of a Cabinet of Ministers. In most states, political 

parties typically form coalitions in order to attain and maintain 

power (Photo: Hungarian Parliament). 

With most having suffered crippling dictatorial rule for much of 

the late 20th century, each Eastern European state emerged in 

the 1990s with new political, social, and economic structures. 

While some states have since created relatively stable, well-run 

democracies, others face challenges to the democratic 

process. Corruption is a prevalent problem in the region. In 

some cases, governments’ inability to adequately curb 

widespread corruption results in frequent public protests, 

causes distrust of public officials, and creates an overall 

skepticism of the democratic process. Moreover, weakened by 

GENERALCULTURE
overly broad and at times differing ideological profiles, ruling 

political coalitions and parties tend to dissolve frequently, 

resulting in a political landscape marked by infighting and 

successive changes of government. 

Most states are members of strong regional alliances, such as

the European Union (EU) and NATO. Although somewhat

fraught with political instability, most states remain committed 

to improving democratic processes, serving as advocates of a 

democratic and pro-Western agenda in the region. By contrast, 

Belarus is politically aligned with Russia, while Ukraine and 

Bulgaria have historically attempted to balance relations 

between the West and Russia, at times resulting in internal 

tension between 

ideologically opposing 

political groups (Photo:

Kiev, Ukraine).

With the exception of

Belarus, the states rely 

on NATO, the EU, the 

US, and other 

international support to defend against external, state-level 

threats. Russia’s recent aggression in the region, notably its

2014 annexation of Crimea and ongoing support of separatist 

rebels in eastern Ukraine, has significantly heightened regional 

tensions and consequently dominates the states’ security 

environment. 

The region exhibits differing levels of ethnic diversity. Poland, 

for example, is largely homogenous, with ethnic Poles 

comprising 97% of the population. By contrast, the native 

populations of Ukraine and Czech Republic are significantly 

lower, 78% and 64%, respectively. Notably, the Roma and 

other ethnic minorities suffer significant social division, 

discrimination, and stigmatization across Eastern Europe. 

3. Religion and Spirituality 

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

GENERAL

CULTURE
individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. 

Early residents of Eastern Europe practiced a variety of 

indigenous religions, venerating multiple deities and spirits who 

inhabited the natural world. Romans introduced Christianity as 

early as the 1st century. By the 10th century, many Eastern 

European kingdoms had adopted Christianity as a state 

religion. In the early 11th century, theological differences 

between western and eastern branches of the Christian 

movement forced a permanent divide between the Roman 

Catholic Church centered in Rome and the Eastern Orthodox 

tradition of the Byzantine Empire. Over subsequent centuries, 

both branches of Christianity flourished in the region. Later, as 

the Protestant Reformation swept across Europe, some states 

saw the Catholic Church reorganize under Lutheran authority. 

Across the region, 

Christianity became closely

linked to national identity. 

In Poland, for example, the 

Catholic Church became 

entrenched in daily life, 

influencing education, social 

services, and remaining 

politically influential even 

today. Throughout the centuries, Judaism also enjoyed growth 

in the region, with among others, Polish and Czech Jewish

communities growing significantly until their annihilation during 

WWII (Photo: Bulgarian Orthodox imagery hangs in a church). 

During their years of occupation and influence, the Soviets 

suppressed all religious institutions and activities in the states, 

while simultaneously cultivating atheism and encouraging the 

devout to abandon long-held religious beliefs. To do so, the 

states’ communist governments carefully regulated religious 

affairs and deported clergy, while destroying or converting most 

churches and synagogues for other uses. Consequently,

membership in religious organizations decreased significantly

over the years. Nevertheless, most states saw a resurgence in 

religiosity once religious freedom was restored following the fall 

of communism. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Today, some of the region’s inhabitants are Orthodox Christian, 

while others – including the majority of Poles (90%), Slovaks 

(62%), Slovenes (58%), and Hungarians (52%) – are Roman 

Catholic. Notably, while most Eastern Europeans retain deep 

religious convictions, others remain religiously unaffiliated. For 

example, only about 50% of Belarusians claim a religious 

affiliation – the lowest rate in the region – while large numbers 

of Slovenes, Slovaks, and Czechs are atheist. In parts of the 

region, small Jewish and Muslim communities are experiencing 

some growth. One notable exception is Bulgaria, where a 

relatively large Muslim community (8% of the population) traces 

back to the early 14th century. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members 

(often called “fictive 

kin”). 

Family life and 

relationships are 

highly valued within 

Eastern European 

societies. Residents 

maintain strong 

connections with 

both immediate and 

extended family members, supporting them emotionally and 

financially and providing physical care for elderly or ailing kin if 

needed. Most households comprise 2 parents and their 

children (nuclear family), with many families choosing to have 

just 1 or 2 children. Nevertheless, extended kin on both sides 

of the family often live nearby and are significantly influential in 

family matters (Photo: A Romanian girl).

Rapid urbanization has changed family life in recent years, as 

urban inhabitants marry later or cohabit (live in long-term, 

unmarried partnership) and have fewer children. Consequently, 

while the traditional family structure remains common in rural 

areas, it is more diverse in urban centers. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
While historically marriage was an arranged union, today 

Eastern Europeans typically choose their own partners. 

Couples may spend several years dating, live together, and 

have children before choosing to marry. In some states, 

divorce is increasingly prevalent among younger generations, 

with rates comparable to the US. Still in others, the practice is 

relatively uncommon and carries social stigma. 

5. Sex and Gender 

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

The Eastern European states’ historically patriarchal culture 

privileged men as leaders and providers. While some of the 

region’s inhabitants continue to adhere to traditional values – 

men as breadwinners and heads of household and women as 

mothers and wives – gender roles and responsibilities began to 

transform during the Soviet era and continue to change today, 

particularly among younger generations (Photo: Polish woman 

holds a copy of 

Poland’s Constitution). 

Although women hold 

equal rights under the 

law, political, social, and 

economic inequalities 

between the genders 

remain. For example, 

women often face 

discrimination in the 

hiring and promotion process, routinely receive lower wages 

than their male counterparts, and suffer from sexual 

harassment in the workplace. 

Despite these barriers, the number of women serving in the 

political sector across the region has increased over the past 

few decades. Eastern European women hold a significant 

proportion of national and sub-national government positions, 

with most states maintaining similar or higher female 

participation rates in their national legislatures as the US. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Notably, the region’s women suffer high rates of gender-based 

violence (GBV), particularly domestic abuse and rape. Often 

considered private matters, many incidences of GBV go 

unreported. If cases are reported, the prosecution of 

perpetrators is rare. Although homosexuality is legal throughout 

the region, homosexuals still suffer discrimination, 

stigmatization, and violence in some areas. 

6. Language and Communication 

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural practice of sharing meaning in 

interaction, both verbally and non-verbally. Most of the region’s 

languages derive from the 

Slavic branch of the IndoEuropean language family, 

while Moldovan and 

Romanian belong to the 

same family’s Eastern 

Romance branch. A 

member of the Uralic 

family, Hungarian is the 

region’s only language not 

part of the Indo-European family. Notably, the Bulgarian, 

Belarusian, and Ukrainian languages are written in the Cyrillic 

alphabet. By contrast, all other state languages employ the 

Latin script (Photo: Rural Ukrainian shop). 

Some states managed to largely avoid harsh Russification 

policies during the Soviet era. Others suffered years of 

linguistic repression when Russian became the predominant 

language in education, the media, and government 

proceedings. Today, with the exception of Belarus, Russian is 

no longer the region’s main language. Instead, native 

languages have largely supplanted Russian, though some 

residents continue to use Russian in business and everyday 

life. The states are also home to native speakers of other

languages, notably Romani (the language of the Roma), 

Turkish, German, and other regional languages. English has 

become increasingly popular over the last several decades and 

is spoken widely in business and by young, urban residents. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Generally, the region’s residents demonstrate respect, privacy, 

and candor in their communication practices. In some states, 

communications reflect notable emotion and engagement. By 

contrast, others typically refrain from displaying strong 

emotions in public, feel comfortable in silence, and prefer quiet 

speech. Across the region, residents usually share personal 

information only with family or close friends and are reserved 

when interacting with strangers. 

7. Learning and Knowledge 

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems 

such as schools or 

through informal 

learning by watching 

adults or peers (Photo: 

Central School in 1910 

Ukraine).

Prior to the 14th 

century, most formal 

education in the region 

occurred in religious institutions where clergymen taught 

religion and basic literacy. Notably, while Hungary, Poland, and 

the Czech Republic had established universities as early as the 

14th century, secular centers of higher academic learning were 

slow to develop elsewhere in the region. Nevertheless, by the 

late 1800s, extensive public school networks administered both 

religious and secular curricula to millions of students across the 

region. 

Most Eastern European governments established free and 

compulsory public education systems in the early 20th century. 

The subsequent Soviet occupation and influence brought 

significant changes to schools and curricula. During that period, 

the education system promoted Soviet ideology and communist 

tenets and emphasized Russian culture and language. It also 

GENERAL

CULTURE
prioritized vocational instruction, while simultaneously 

suppressing Eastern European languages and culture. 

Today, most Eastern European students receive free and 

compulsory schooling at the primary and secondary levels. 

School enrollment rates are high, and nearly 100% of Eastern 

European residents are literate. Challenges to the education 

systems include low teacher salaries, rural school closures, 

and disparities in educational attainment between majority 

groups and linguistic and ethnic minorities. 

8. Time and Space 

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. As in most Western 

cultures, Eastern Europeans tend to be preoccupied more with 

time management than relationship-building. They too value

punctuality, a sense of responsibility, and candid professional 

interactions. Within their personal lives, however, most Eastern 

Europeans invest significant time into establishing and 

maintaining relationships (Photo: A Polish paratrooper interacts 

with a US National 

Guard soldier). 

They also like to build

relations before 

conducting business,

which tends to move 

more slowly in 

Eastern Europe than 

in the US. Throughout 

the region, residents 

usually begin discussions with light conversation. Most 

communication is explicit and direct, with frequent eye contact.

Eastern Europeans generally require less personal space when 

conversing than is common in the US. One exception is in 

Slovenia, where residents maintain about the same personal 

distance as in the US. 

Eastern European states observe a number of public holidays

such as Christmas, Easter, and their respective independence 

day. Further, all Eastern European states commemorate both 

the end of World War II and the Soviet era, as well as unique 

seasonal or harvest holidays.

GENERAL

CULTURE
9. Aesthetics and Recreation 

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most Eastern European forms of artistic expression – 

including art, architecture, dance, music, and theater – reflect

the region’s rural peasant past, history of foreign presence, and 

modern global trends.

Traditional music and dance in Eastern Europe typically 

promote themes such as nature, the seasons, rural life, and 

love. Folk songs, festivals, and dance are particularly popular 

in rural areas, often utilizing traditional instruments. Most 

common dances are performed in pairs, circles, or lines. Under 

Russian and Soviet influence, classical ballet became a 

common form of dance across the region. Classical music and 

opera remain popular, as well as rock, jazz, and international 

pop music. Government financing for the arts largely declined 

after the Soviet era, yet artistic freedom has increased 

significantly (Photo: 

Slovak dancers perform 

in a circle). 

Rural landscapes and 

geometric designs are 

common themes in visual 

arts. Eastern Europeans

also practice various 

traditional handicrafts 

and folk art that reflect 

the region’s rich peasant history, along with Christian or ancient 

pagan motifs. Common handicrafts include pottery, 

embroidery, and baskets. Soccer is the most widely followed 

sport in the region, followed by basketball, volleyball, and 

gymnastics. During the winter, residents also enjoy ice hockey,

skiing, and ice skating.

10. Sustenance and Health 

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures, and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness.

GENERAL

CULTURE
Eastern European dishes tend to be simple, hearty, and mildly 

seasoned. Most meals consist of a staple, such as potatoes, 

oats, or barley served with a meat, fresh salad, and various 

breads. While beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage, 

some residents enjoy unique 

herbal liquors or vodka. Notably, 

the region also has a rich 

history of wine production, 

dating back to the 1st century 

BC (Photo: Hungarian pork 

goulash and dumplings). 

Health in Eastern Europe has 

improved significantly in recent 

decades, evidenced by 

decreased infant and maternal 

mortality rates and longer life expectancies. Most residents 

have access to free, state-funded healthcare in modern 

facilities. 

Nevertheless, the region’s healthcare systems face several 

challenges. The quality of care varies significantly between 

private/public and urban/rural facilities. Generally, public

facilities concentrate in cities and are ill-equipped, 

overcrowded, understaffed, and plagued by corruption. 

Meanwhile, private facilities offer first-rate care mostly to the 

wealthy. Finally, a shrinking yet aging population threatens to 

burden already overloaded national healthcare services in 

many states.

Non-communicable “lifestyle” diseases such as cardiovascular, 

cancer, respiratory, liver and diabetes account for the majority 

of deaths across Eastern Europe. In addition, the region’s 

residents suffer from high rates of suicide and alcohol 

poisoning. Mostly a result of Soviet-era industrial policies, 

pollution is a widespread hazard throughout Eastern Europe, 

causing further health-related issues.

11. Economics and Resources 

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Prior to the 19th century, the Eastern European 

states maintained largely agrarian economies, with residents 

GENERAL

CULTURE
engaging in subsistence agriculture or laboring as serfs on 

large elite landholdings (Photo: Belarusian currency). 

During the 1800s, several states began to industrialize, while 

Bulgaria, Moldova, Romania, and Slovenia remained primarily 

agrarian. Industrialization intensified throughout the region in 

the Soviet era, when all states followed a centrally-controlled 

and planned 

economic system, 

establishing large 

collective farms and 

developing various 

heavy industries. 

Following the end of 

communism, the 

states immediately 

sought to decentralize their economies and adopt liberal, free 

market systems. While the transition initially caused their 

economies to contract, by the early 2000s, all 10 nations 

experienced growth. For most states, accession into the EU 

further spurred economic expansion. In 2008, the global 

financial crisis slowed investment in the region, reducing 

demand for exports and causing severe economic contractions 

in every state except Poland and Belarus. 

Some of the states reacted quickly to the crisis with strict 

internal reforms which allowed their economies to rebound 

within a few years. Others were slow to respond and suffered a 

protracted recession. Notably, the crisis in Ukraine has hurt 

that country’s recent economic growth, while Belarus continues 

to experience economic stagnation. 

The economic outlook in the region is varied. Some states such 

as Romania, Czech Republic, and Slovenia appear poised to 

maintain stable growth rates. The non-EU member states of

Ukraine, Belarus, and Moldova are impacted the most by 

geopolitical events in Russia. All 10 states are vulnerable to 

economic fluctuations due to their export-oriented economies. 

Some common economic challenges include persistent 

corruption, aging populations, and emigration of skilled 

workers. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
The EU is by far the region’s largest trading partner, except for 

Belarus, which heavily relies on trade with Russia. As EU 

members, most Eastern European states benefit from a secure 

business environment and free movement of goods and 

services. 

12. Technology and Material 

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. All 10 Eastern European states have invested in 

extensive road networks and efficient public transportation 

systems, particularly in urban areas. While Slovenia maintains

the region’s best roads, Ukraine and Romania have some of 

the world’s worst. Rural infrastructure is typically less 

developed, and 

corruption often 

impedes progress on 

road and rail projects. 

Generally in better 

condition than roads, 

railways connect major 

cities throughout the 

region, though some services are slow and inefficient. The 

Black Sea and major rivers, notably the Danube, host important 

ports. Although modern information technology is available in 

all states, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Bulgaria, and Romania 

have some of Europe’s least developed networks. Internet use 

also varies widely, with well over 80% of Slovaks using the 

Internet at home compared to just under 50% of Ukrainians

(Photo: US soldiers speak with a Polish resident).

While Poland relies on fossil fuels for 87% of its energy needs, 

nuclear fuels account for 61% of Hungary’s energy usage. 

Most Eastern European states depend on imported natural gas 

and oil from Russia and the Middle East. Governments

throughout the region have announced their intention to

increase the use of renewable resources such as hydroelectric 

plants, wind, and other renewables. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize Eastern European society at large, we will focus 

on specific features of Bulgarian society. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview 

Tracing its founding to 681, Bulgaria prides itself as the only 

European nation-state never to have changed its name. The 

Balkan Peninsula’s greatest power in the medieval period, 

Bulgaria became part of the Ottoman Empire for almost 500 

years. After achieving independence in the late 19th century, 

Bulgaria participated in a series of devastating conflicts. At the 

end of World War II, Bulgaria’s communist leaders closely 

aligned it with the Soviet Union. Since 1989, Bulgaria has 

transformed its government into a democracy, adopted market 

capitalism, and joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization 

(NATO) and the 

European Union (EU).

Early History

Archaeological finds 

indicate early humans

settled the region of 

modern-day Bulgaria as 

early as 40,000 BC. 

Between 10,000-3,000 

BC, regional inhabitants

formed semi-permanent 

settlements where they lived as hunters, gatherers, and 

farmers. Of note, Bulgaria is home to some of the world’s 

oldest buildings. Ruins near Stara Zagora date to about 6,000 

BC, while Europe’s oldest town, a salt production center 

located near the modern-day town of Provadia, dates to around 

4,000 BC (Photo: Drawings in Magura cave are 8,000-10,000 

years old).

The Thracians

Beginning around 2,500 BC, members of nomadic IndoEuropean tribes from Central Asia began to move into the 

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

region. After mixing with the native inhabitants, these people 

were known as the Thracians and their land, Thrace. 

Famed winemakers and metalworkers, the Thracians were also 

excellent horsemen and warriors. Beginning in the 7th century 

BC, Greeks set up trading posts along present-day Bulgaria’s 

Black Sea Coast. In the 6th century BC, Persians from the area 

of present-day Iran conquered the region. About a century 

later, several Thracian tribes united to repel the Persians, 

forming the Odrysian Kingdom. Over the next centuries, the 

Thracians suffered attack or conquest by various foreign 

forces, notably Philip II of Macedonia – the father of Alexander 

the Great – in the 4th century BC and the Celts in 3rd century 

BC. Nevertheless, the Odrysian Kingdom managed to survive 

in some 

form for 

several 

centuries 

(Photo: 

The 3000-

year-old 

site of 

Nessebar on Bulgaria’s Black Sea coast was originally a 

Thracian settlement, then a Greek colony, then a Byzantine 

town).

Roman Control

Meanwhile, the Romans had begun building their empire in 

central Italy around 500 BC, then pursued rapid expansion 

eastwards during the 2nd century BC. In 188 BC, they invaded 

Thrace, and by the 1st century AD controlled the entire Balkan 

Peninsula. At the crossroads of important trading routes 

between Asia and Europe, the region prospered, enjoying 

relative unity and stability under Roman rule.

The Byzantine Empire: In 285, Emperor Diocletian 

reorganized the Roman Empire, dividing it into western Latinand eastern Greek-speaking halves. In 330, his successor, 

Constantine, moved the Empire’s capital from Rome to 

Byzantium, a settlement in the territory of modern-day Turkey. 

Renamed Constantinople, the city became the capital of the 

eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Slavs and Proto-Bulgars Arrive

While the Byzantines technically ruled the territory of modernday Bulgaria, their hold on the region was constantly tested by 

invading tribes, mostly the Alani, Goths, and Huns. Beginning 

in the 6th century, Slavic tribes from the North moved in. 

Peaceful farmers rather than fighters, the Slavs were so 

numerous that they gradually absorbed the Thracians. 

Meanwhile, a nomadic people called the Proto-Bulgars had 

moved into the steppes north of the Black Sea from northern 

Afghanistan in the 2nd century. Skilled horsemen and warriors 

ruled by khans (chiefs), the Proto-Bulgars invaded Central and 

Eastern Europe in the 

4th and 5th centuries. 

Following a military 

defeat in the mid-7th

century, one ProtoBulgar tribe led by 

Khan Asparuh moved 

south into the territory 

of modern-day 

Bulgaria and 

proceeded to conquer, expel, or form alliances with the Slavic 

tribes (Photo: Khan Asparuh monument in Dobrich).

First Bulgarian Kingdom (681-1018)

In response, the Byzantine Emperor assembled an army 

against the Proto-Bulgars but was defeated in 680. A peace 

treaty negotiated the next year established the First Bulgarian 

Kingdom under the leadership of Khan Asparuh. 

Over the next 2 centuries, relations with the neighboring 

Byzantine Empire were largely hostile, with the 2 states 

engaging in ongoing raids and battles. Following a significant

military success against the Byzantines in the early 9th century, 

the Bulgarians expanded their control to modern-day 

Macedonia and parts of present-day Serbia and Croatia. As the 

Slavic and Bulgar inhabitants of the Kingdom intermixed, so did 

their languages and cultures (see p. 1 of Language and 

Communication). Consequently, the Kingdom replaced the old 

term khan with the Slavic form tsar. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

In 864, Bulgarian leader Tsar Boris I adopted Christianity (see 

p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality). Besides ensuring the 

Kingdom’s legitimacy before its Christian neighbors, the move 

served to centralize Boris’ rule while he suppressed the Bulgar 

elite who clung to paganism (see p. 2 of Religion and 

Spirituality). The adoption of Christianity also served to further 

unite the Bulgar and Slavic populations into a single Bulgarian 

people. 

Under Boris I’s son, Simeon I, the Kingdom reached its 

greatest size bordering the Black, Aegean, and Adriatic seas

while experiencing a Golden Age. Bulgarian monks introduced 

the Cyrillic 

alphabet to the 

Kingdom in the 

early 10th century

(see p. 1 of 

Language and 

Communication), 

enabling the 

Church to use its own Slavo-Bulgarian language rather than 

Greek (see p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality). As a result,

literature and art flourished as Bulgarian cities became centers 

of education and culture (Illustration: A 12th-century depiction 

of Tsar Simeon I battling the Byzantines).

Following Simeon I’s death in 927, the Kingdom experienced 

significant internal strife caused by the rise of religious cults 

that threatened the authority of the state (see p. 3 of Religion 

and Spirituality). Further, foreign powers continued to assault 

the Kingdom, including the Byzantines, the Hungarian 

Magyars, the Pechenegs (a Turkic people), and the Kievan 

Rus (the Russians). A 1014 loss to the Byzantines was 

particularly devastating (see “Myth” below). By 1018, the 

Kingdom had collapsed, accepting incorporation into the 

Byzantine Empire. 

Return to the Byzantine Fold

For the next 167 years, Bulgaria remained a Byzantine 

province. During that period, Byzantine leaders attempted to 

extend their linguistic and cultural traditions into Bulgarian 

society but were largely unsuccessful. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Ultimately, the Byzantines were also unable to maintain their 

political hold in the region due to a new threat from the east: 

the Muslim Seljuk Turks. Despite tensions with the Roman 

Catholic Church, the Byzantines requested help from the Pope 

in 1095, who declared the first in a series of holy crusades 

against the Muslims. Preoccupied with attacks from the Seljuk 

Turks as well as the disturbances of the Crusaders, the 

Byzantines’ hold on the region loosened. Meanwhile, 

Bulgarians’ resentment of high taxes and forced conscription

periodically flared into revolts. 

Second Bulgarian Kingdom (1185-1396)

In 1185, brothers Petur and Asen led the Bulgarians in a 

successful revolt against the Byzantines, forming the Second 

Bulgarian Kingdom. The Kingdom reached its height during the 

reign of Tsar Ivan Asen II (1218-41) when Bulgaria was again 

the foremost power in the Balkans 

with borders on 3 seas. 

Nevertheless, the 2nd Kingdom

proved more short-lived than the 1st. 

Bulgaria continued to suffer attacks 

from foreign groups such as the 

Central Asian Tatars. Further, many 

peasants resisted the central 

authority of the Kingdom, even 

revolting in 1277-80 (Illustration: 

19th-century depiction of Tsar Ivan 

Asen II). 

Decline continued in subsequent 

decades. The Bulgarian Kingdom 

faced a major battlefield defeat to the 

Serbs in 1330 and never recovered. 

Meanwhile, its nobles were splintered by in-fighting and 

factionalism. The Kingdom was on the verge of disintegration 

when a new threat emerged: the Muslim Ottoman Turks.

The Ottoman Turkish “Yoke” (1396-1878)

In the late 13th century, a Turkic leader named Osman I took 

control of a small community in the territory of western modernday Turkey. He established the Osmanlı or Ottoman 

principality, which would become one of the world’s greatest 
HISTORY &

MYTH

empires. At its height in the mid-18th century, the Ottoman 

Empire effectively controlled the entire Balkans, parts of central 

and southern Europe, and the Middle East from Egypt to the 

Persian border. From its capital in Constantinople, which the 

Turks renamed Istanbul, the Empire’s ships ruled the 

Mediterranean, Black, and Red 

Seas. 

The Ottomans quickly pursued 

rapid expansion, and by the 

1350s, they were invading 

Bulgarian territory. While the 2nd

Bulgarian Kingdom’s last tsar

declared his state a vassal of the 

Ottomans in 1371, the Ottomans 

sought complete domination. Over 

the next 25 years, the Ottomans 

seized all major settlements in the 

Balkans. The final blow occurred 

at the 1396 Battle of Nicopolis 

(modern-day Nikopol, Bulgaria)

when the Ottomans soundly defeated a combined army of 

Bulgarians, French, Hungarians, Croatians, English and others, 

and took control of the entire Balkan Peninsula. Bulgaria would 

remain in Ottoman hands for almost 500 years (Illustration: 

16th-century depiction of the Battle of Nicopolis).

Although providing a measure of safety and stability, Ottoman 

rule effectively isolated Bulgaria from the rest of Europe, while 

reducing it to a supplier of goods and labor to the Empire. 

Bulgaria’s nobility was destroyed as its members perished or 

fled, while the peasants became serfs to a Turkish spahi, or 

regional lord, who controlled the land and levied troops for the 

imperial army. Further, the Empire instituted devsirme. Within 

this system, Christian Bulgarian peasants were required to give 

a son in service to the Ottoman sultan. After forced conversion 

to Islam and a period of education, the young men became civil 

servants or Janissaries (professional soldiers). For these and 

other reasons, Bulgarians usually consider the Ottoman era to 

be a dark period of suffering, often referred to as the Turkish

“yoke.”
HISTORY &

MYTH

Ottoman Administration: Religion lay at the heart of Ottoman 

governance. In 1454, the Ottoman Empire introduced the 

millet system which hierarchically divided its subjects by 

religious affiliation, while 

providing them a certain 

level of autonomy within 

their internal affairs.

Although the Empire 

demonstrated significant 

religious tolerance, in 

practice the Empire’s 

Christian residents 

suffered as 2nd-class 

subjects. They were 

denied some privileges 

and legal rights and endured heavy taxation and various 

discriminations. Consequently, some Bulgarians converted to 

Islam (see p. 4 of Religion and Spirituality), hoping to regain 

some rights and privileges. Nevertheless, most Bulgarians 

remained Christians, though their church lost its autonomy 

when it was placed under the control of the Greek-language

Eastern Orthodox Church (see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality) 

(Illustration: Bulgarian women in 1586).

While the Ottomans sent Turkish administrators to Bulgarian 

cities and towns, Turks did not settle in the country in large 

numbers. Consequently, most Bulgarians continued to live in 

their own communities where they were able to maintain their 

own language and cultural traditions. Largely comprised of 

fewer than 200 inhabitants, such communities were run by 

local leaders with little Ottoman supervision aside from tax 

collection. Over the years, Bulgarians occasionally rose in 

revolt, but such uprisings were usually quickly repressed.

Ottoman Weakness and Bulgarian Resistance

A series of weak Ottoman sultans in the late 16th and 17th

centuries coincided with the rise and expansion of other 

European powers, notably the Austro-Hungarians and 

Russians. Both powers viewed Bulgaria’s Christian population 

as potential allies as they sought territory and influence in the 

Balkans. Austrian propaganda even provoked a Bulgarian 

uprising against the Ottomans in 1598. Meanwhile, the 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Ottoman economy began to falter in the face of increased 

competition, and the Empire grew increasingly weaker through 

continued wars. 

In the 18th century, Ottoman central governance effectively

collapsed in the Balkans. During this period called the

kurzhaliistvo, regional strongmen known as ayans took 

advantage of the Empire’s lack of authority. These ayans 

included Ottoman officials, janissaries, and wealthy locals. 

Meanwhile, Turkish refugees from other Ottoman provinces

poured into Bulgaria, further pressuring the Bulgarian 

peasantry. This turmoil caused many Bulgarians to retreat to

mountain towns where the haiduk (bandit) tradition against the 

Turks thrived (see “Myth” below). To shore up their authority, 

the Ottoman Empire instituted several reforms, replacing the 

powerful and corrupt janissary corps with a professional regular 

army in 1826, dissolving the spahi system, and reorganizing 

the bureaucracy.

The National Revival

Despite the ongoing turmoil, Bulgaria’s economy prospered in 

the late 18th and early 19th centuries as the region became a 

significant provider of 

resources to the 

Ottoman Empire. By the 

mid-19th century, a 

small Bulgarian middle 

class had developed in 

the mountain towns. 

Bulgarian merchants, 

manufacturers, and 

trade guilds used their 

new wealth to fund 

schools and other public 

works that in turn fueled a broader cultural revival (Illustration: 

1810 painting titled “Dance of the Bulgarian Peasants”). 

In 1834, the first secular school offering instruction in Bulgarian 

opened, and within 2 decades, most communities possessed a 

primary school. The sense of a Bulgarian national 

consciousness was further supported by the opening of cultural 

centers called chitalishta, each serving as a forum for 
HISTORY &

MYTH

community discussion, public library, and space for the arts.

The sense of Bulgarian identity was further strengthened in 

1870, when the Ottomans recognized the Bulgarian Orthodox 

Church’s autonomy from the Eastern Orthodox Church (see p. 

4 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Political Awakening

Meanwhile, Bulgaria was also experiencing a political 

awakening. In the mid-19th century, Russian sympathies for 

Orthodox Christians within the Ottoman Empire evolved into a 

broader movement called Panslavism. Noting the groups’

common Slavic identity, the Russians claimed a moral 

responsibility to free their Bulgarian “brothers” from the Turkish 

yoke. Suspicious of the Russians’ objectives, the other 

European powers sided with the Ottomans against the 

Russians in the Crimean War in 1853-56. While the Russians 

eventually lost, the 

episode encouraged 

Bulgarian aspirations for 

independence and 

spawned a generation of 

revolutionaries.

By the 1860s, Bulgarian 

activists established the 

Bulgarian Secret Central 

Committee to conduct an 

armed uprising against the Ottomans. From neighboring 

Romania, Vasil Levski organized a network of guerrilla fighters, 

hoping to inspire widespread support from the Bulgarian 

population along with military assistance from Russia or Serbia. 

Captured by the Ottoman authorities during a bungled raid in 

1873, Levski was slain but remains a hero today (Photo: Vasil 

Levski, 3rd from left on the front row, and other members of the 

Second Bulgarian Legion in 1868).

The 1876 Uprising: In 1876, an Ottoman spy infiltrated the 

Bulgarian revolutionaries, causing them to launch an uprising 

earlier than planned. The Ottomans answered with ferocity, 

crushing the revolt and massacring some 15,000 Bulgarians. 

Shocked at the barbarity, the other European powers 

condemned the act, referring to it as “The Bulgarian Horrors.”
HISTORY &

MYTH

Bulgaria Strives for Independence

In response, Russia declared war on the Ottomans, winning in 

less than a year. The subsequent Treaty of San Stefano 

provided for an autonomous Bulgarian state almost as large as 

the 1st Bulgarian Kingdom. Again fearing the Russians’ 

regional intentions, Britain and Austria-Hungary rejected the 

arrangement. 

The parties returned to negotiations and at the 1878 Congress 

of Berlin they agreed to the creation of a much smaller 

Bulgarian state. Though the new state was legally under the 

sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire, it effectively functioned 

independently. The treaty also designated a separate 

Bulgarian-majority province called Eastern Rumelia that would 

remain within the Ottoman Empire with a Bulgarian governor. 

Further, it returned Macedonia to the Ottoman Empire, an act 

that would result in hostility among Serbia, Macedonia, Greece, 

and Bulgaria for the next 60 years.

The Principality of Bulgaria

Bulgaria’s new constitution designated a parliamentary 

government led by a Prince. Notably, the constitution strictly 

limited the Prince’s power while 

extending universal male suffrage to 

elect members of a National 

Assembly. In 1879, the National 

Assembly named Alexander of 

Battenberg (pictured), a German

noble and nephew of the Russian 

tsar, Prince (knyaz) of Bulgaria. 

Liberation from Turkish rule also 

resulted in significant land reform. 

First the Russian occupation 

authorities and then the Bulgarian 

government confiscated Turkish 

estates and divided them for sale to 

the Bulgarian peasantry. Consequently, the new state exhibited

one of Europe’s most equitable land distributions at the time. 

Despite this progress, stability was elusive in the new 

principality as Bulgarian factions and Russian advisers 
HISTORY &

MYTH

jockeyed for power. In 1885, Bulgarians in Eastern Rumelia, 

with the support of Prince Alexander, staged a bloodless 

internal coup and announced unification with Bulgaria. Fearing 

the threat of a unified Bulgaria, neighboring Serbia immediately 

declared war, though the Bulgarians quickly crushed the Serbs. 

Meanwhile, Muslim Turks wary of living under Christian rule 

began to emigrate in large numbers, with the Muslim share of 

the population falling from 33% to 14% between 1875-1900. 

In 1886, pro-Russian Bulgarian officers dissatisfied with his

liberal tendencies arrested Alexander, forcing him to abdicate

the throne and leave the country. Although the National

Assembly named a new Prince, Ferdinand of Saxe-CoburgGotha, the other European powers initially withheld their 

recognition of his rule. Nevertheless, Ferdinand’s position 

strengthened with the support of a Prime Minister (PM) 

(referred to as Minister President at that time), who ruthlessly 

suppressed all opposition. By 1896, Europe formally

recognized the legitimacy of Ferdinand’s rule.

Bulgaria Finally Achieves Independence

The last 2 decades of the 19th century saw significant 

modernization efforts. Besides renewing the legal system, the 

government prioritized industrialization, building new railways 

and developing new trade relations within Europe. With 

industrialization came a new class of 

laborers struggling under harsh

working conditions. Increased military 

expenditures were financed by higher

taxes, as government’s growing 

bureaucracy and increasing 

corruption invited significant criticism. 

Prince Ferdinand (pictured during 

World War I) tightly controlled the 

political sphere by encouraging party 

fragmentation, controlling election 

results, and rewarding or punishing 

political leaders in various ways. 

Amidst a climate of growing inequality, corruption, and 

powerlessness of the poor, new political parties developed. 

Founded in 1891, the Social Democratic Party (eventually 
HISTORY &

MYTH

becoming the Bulgarian Communist Party) focused on socialist 

ideas to support urban industrial workers. By contrast, the 

Agrarian Union, founded in 1899 by Aleksander Stamboliiski, 

sought its support among rural agricultural workers. 

Meanwhile, the Bulgarian state still faced regional challenges. 

Seeking incorporation into Bulgaria, neighboring Macedonia 

revolted against its

Ottoman rulers in 1903. 

Again, the Turks brutally 

suppressed the uprising 

as Bulgaria, seeking to 

avoid war, refused to 

provide aid. A 

subsequent flow of

Macedonian refugees 

into Bulgaria further tested the government (Photo: 

Macedonian refugees on the Bulgarian border in 1903).

Taking advantage of unrest among the Turkish leadership in 

Istanbul in 1908, Prince Ferdinand declared Bulgaria’s full 

independence from the Ottoman Empire then assumed the title 

of Tsar, previously used in the 2nd Bulgarian Kingdom. 

First and Second Balkan Wars

Aggressive nationalism soon caused conflict to flare again. In 

1912, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece formed an 

alliance known as the Balkan League and declared war on the 

Ottoman Empire. Following the League’s quick battlefield 

success in this First Balkan War, the Ottomans requested an 

armistice. In the ensuing 

treaty, the Empire agreed to 

give up all of its European 

territories except for a small 

strip. Unfortunately, League 

members had not 

negotiated territory 

arrangements before 

forming their alliance and 

were unable to reach an 

agreement (Photo: Bulgarian soldiers during the First Balkan 

War).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Consequently, within a few weeks Bulgaria turned on its former

allies, attacking Serbian and Greek positions in Macedonia and 

starting the Second Balkan War. The Ottomans and 

Romanians soon joined the fight against Bulgaria, which was 

quickly defeated, losing most of the territory it had gained in the 

First Balkan War. 

World War I (WWI)

When WWI broke out between the Central Powers (Germany, 

Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire) and the Allies (the 

US, Britain, France, and Russia, among others) in 1914, 

Bulgaria initially declared its neutrality. Later, realizing that 

support to the Central Powers could provide another 

opportunity for territorial expansion, Bulgaria committed to 

them in 1915, declaring war on Serbia in the fall. Of note, 

Agrarian Union party leader Stamboliiski objected to the move 

and urged troops to resist mobilization. Consequently, he was 

arrested and 

condemned to life 

imprisonment.

Bulgaria’s activities 

during the war were 

primarily confined to 

the Balkans. Bulgaria 

initially succeeded in 

annexing territories in 

Macedonia, Serbia, 

Greece, and Romania but was plagued by food and fuel 

shortages, rampant inflation, and frequent civil unrest. 

Gradually, the tide turned against the Central Powers

(Illustration: WWI postcard depicting the leaders of Germany, 

Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria).

By fall 1918, Bulgaria had conscripted some 900,000 men, 

nearly 40% of the male population, and suffered some 300,000 

casualties – the worst per capita casualty rate of any country 

involved in the war. Despite calls to surrender, Tsar Ferdinand 

was determined to continue the fight. When Allied forces

entered Bulgaria in September 1918, many Bulgarian troops 

deserted to return home while others marched on the capital 

Sofia to communicate their dissatisfaction to the tsar. Released 
HISTORY &

MYTH

from prison to help restore order, Stamboliiski instead led a 

short-lived rebellion. Amidst the chaos, the Allies granted 

Ferdinand’s request for an armistice. Four days later,

Ferdinand abdicated the throne in favor of his son, Boris III.

Interwar Bulgaria

The Treaty of Neuilly between Bulgaria and the victorious Allied 

powers outlined Bulgaria’s punishment for its part in WWI. 

While Bulgaria’s terms and reparations were less harsh than 

those imposed on the other Central Powers, the re-division of 

territory meant that 16% of Bulgarians now lived outside 

Bulgaria’s borders. Bulgaria lost its Aegean Sea coastline to 

Greece and a strip of land on the Black Sea to Romania. 

Further, Macedonia became part of the newly-formed Kingdom 

of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (subsequently called 

Yugoslavia), prompting even more Macedonian refugees to 

flee to Bulgaria and worsening the pre-existing refugee crisis 

near the border.

Generally, the interwar years were an unstable period marked 

by terrorist activity, protests, and political oppression. Rallying 

radical anti-establishment sentiments within both the 

Communist and Agrarian Union parties became significant 

forces.

Stamboliiski (pictured) became PM in 1919. Over the next 4 

years, his government introduced various reforms such as a 

progressive income tax, land reform, 

school expansion, and obligatory 

labor service as an alternative to

military conscription. Despite this 

progress, he eventually lost public 

support due to his government’s 

authoritarian tendencies. His foreign 

policy, namely his support for 

Yugoslavia’s claim to Macedonia, 

cost him the support of most 

politicians and Tsar Boris III. In 

1923, Stamboliiski was ousted in a 

coup by his opponents, then 

murdered. A right-wing government 

subsequently took office.
HISTORY &

MYTH

The next 2 years were marked by significant violence. 

Following a communist uprising, the Bulgarian government 

outlawed the Bulgarian Communist Party in 1924. 

Nevertheless, the communists continued their activities, 

committing a series of terrorist acts. The most notable one was

an attempt to assassinate Tsar Boris III by blowing up a Sofia 

cathedral in 1925, in the process killing 123 people. In 

response, the government imposed martial law, compelling 

some communist leaders to escape abroad. Among them was 

Georgi Dimitrov who would later achieve international fame 

when he was accused by Nazi Germany of setting the 

Reichstag fire in 1933 before returning to Bulgaria at the end of

World War II. 

After 1925, the violence from communists calmed, though 

Macedonian activists continued some terrorist activities. 

Following the 1929 New York stock market crash, the 

worldwide Great Depression intensified rural poverty and 

ongoing political tensions. The collapse of agricultural prices 

and widespread unemployment facilitated the growth of an 

authoritarian, fascist movement. The fascists held control 

briefly in 1934 before Tsar Boris III took over, establishing a 

royal-military dictatorship 

in 1935 that would 

persist through World 

War II.

World War II (WWII)

When Nazi Germany 

under Adolf Hitler 

invaded Poland in 

September 1939, 

officially beginning WWII, Bulgaria declared neutrality. Over the 

next year, Bulgaria gradually shifted its allegiance to Germany, 

especially when Germany forced Romania to restore territory to 

Bulgaria in 1940. Anticipating the opportunity to acquire 

additional territory upon Germany’s victory, Tsar Boris III 

allowed the German military the right of passage across its 

territory in February 1941, then officially joined the Axis Powers 

(Germany, Italy, and Japan) 2 months later (Photo: The 

Bulgarian PM with Italian leader Benito Mussolini in 1941).
HISTORY &

MYTH

During the war, German troops used Bulgaria as a base to 

attack Yugoslavia and Greece. In return, the Germans allowed 

Bulgaria to occupy Macedonia and Greek territory, although

Germany supervised the 

occupation. While Macedonia 

welcomed Bulgarian troops after 

years of seeking Bulgarian 

annexation, the Greeks revolted

and were brutally suppressed

by the Bulgarians. 

Tsar Boris III successfully 

resisted German attempts to 

increase Bulgaria’s role in the

war effort. While Bulgaria declared war against the US and 

Britain, Bulgaria never sent troops to the front lines beyond the 

Balkans. Boris took special care to avoid sending Bulgarian 

troops to support Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union 

(USSR, formerly and currently Russia), fearing that such an act 

would provoke internal dissent. Consequently, Bulgaria 

remained relatively untouched by military operations until mid1943, when the Allies began bombing Bulgarian industrial and 

rail centers (Photo: US bombers over Sofia in 1944).

When Bulgaria originally joined the Axis, many Agrarian Union 

leaders immediately protested. Later, Bulgaria’s communists

established an anti-Nazi initiative, 

organizing formal resistance efforts, 

including sabotage and small 

operations. With about 10,000 

participants, Bulgaria’s resistance 

was the largest among Germany’s 

allies. 

Tsar Boris (pictured) unexpectedly 

died in August 1943. Because his 

son Simeon II was only 6 years old, 

a regency council assumed control. 

Meanwhile, a leftist opposition, 

including the communists and some 

left-leaning Agrarians, formed a coalition called the Fatherland 

Front (FF) that vocally supported a return to neutrality.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Surrender

Faced with extensive German losses, Bulgarian government 

officials considered surrendering to the Allies in mid-1944. 

Before they could act, the USSR invaded neighboring Romania 

and set its sights on Bulgaria. Forced to act, Bulgaria prepared 

to break with Germany. As the Soviets declared war on 

Bulgaria and entered the country unopposed, FF leaders 

carried out a coup against the Bulgarian PM and sought an 

immediate armistice with the Soviets. 

Happy to see the Germans depart, most Bulgarians welcomed 

the Soviets. After officially joining the Allied cause, Bulgaria 

sent troops to fight alongside the Soviet army as it moved 

through Hungary and Austria. During this campaign, some 

32,000 Bulgarian soldiers died. 

Generally, Bulgaria’s war years were harsh. Although its

Jewish population avoided the fate of annihilation as many of 

those in other countries, the war brought severe economic 

hardships and starvation to many Bulgarians. Nevertheless, 

The Fate of Bulgaria’s Jews

Under German pressure, Bulgaria enacted antiSemitic legislation in 1941 that curtailed the rights of 

Bulgaria’s Jewish population (see p. 5 of Religion 

and Spirituality). Met with a wave of widespread 

protest, the laws were never implemented. Bulgaria 

later complied with a German order to deport Jews

living in Bulgarian-occupied territories to a Nazi 

concentration camp in Poland. But when the order 

came for the deportation of Bulgaria’s Jews, protest

was immediate and widespread. Politicians, 

Orthodox Church leaders, union officials, and the 

general public alike voiced strong opposition. 

Despite intense pressure from Nazi Germany, Tsar 

Boris III cancelled the deportation order. Due to his 

courageous action, not a single Bulgarian Jew was 

deported to a Nazi concentration camp. For this 

reason, Boris III is still revered today.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Bulgaria was the only German ally to increase its territory after 

the war, incorporating a strip on the Black Sea from Romania, 

though Macedonia was returned to Yugoslavia.

The Communist Takeover

Following WWII, the Soviets remained in Bulgaria as occupiers. 

Within the FF coalition, communists from the Bulgarian 

Workers’ Party (BWP) held key positions, allowing them to 

expand their influence under the direction of their Soviet 

sponsors. 

Bulgaria’s government quickly 

convened “people’s courts” to 

prosecute wartime political leaders. 

After about 6 months of trials, some 

2,700 people were condemned to 

death. Historians believe as many as 

30,000 other political opponents 

were killed without trial.

In November 1945, communist 

leader Georgi Dimitrov returned from 

22 years of exile, taking office as PM 

in 1946. A September 1946 

referendum proclaimed Bulgaria a people’s republic, while 

requiring Tsar Simeon II and the royal family to leave the 

country. The Agrarian Union attempted to organize resistance 

to the communist takeover, but when its leader was charged 

with plotting to overthrow the government, arrested, and then 

executed in 1947, political opposition to the communists was 

effectively eliminated (Photo: Dimitrov with Soviet leader Stalin 

in 1936).

Meanwhile, the National Assembly collaborated with a team of 

Soviet jurists to write the country’s new constitution, called the 

“Dimitrov Constitution,” in honor of the communist hero. 

Modeled on the Soviet constitution and enacted in 1947, it 

outlined the Bulgarian state’s communist principles, one of 

which was the nationalization of all privately-held enterprises.

In 1948, the BWP was renamed the Bulgarian Communist 

Party (BCP) and by 1949 had either absorbed or dissolved all

other parties. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Stalinist Bulgaria

As Bulgaria’s first communist PM, Dimitrov sought to build a 

socialist state modelled after Joseph Stalin’s USSR. Following 

Dimitrov’s death in 1949, subsequent communist leaders 

continued Dimitrov’s focus on strengthening ties with the 

USSR, implementing 5-year industrial plans, collectivizing

agriculture, clamping down on religious institutions (see p. 5-6 

of Religion and Spirituality), and remaking the educational 

system (see p. 2-3 of Learning and Knowledge). During this 

period, the BCP also suppressed any potential opposition, 

including imprisoning thousands.

Zhivkov’s Bulgaria

Changes occurring in the USSR following Stalin’s death in 

1953 also impacted Bulgaria. For example, censorship was 

relaxed somewhat while some political prisoners were 

rehabilitated. In 1954, Todor Zhivkov became BCP leader and 

then assumed the 

position of PM in 1962. 

He would remain in 

power until 1989, 

becoming the longestserving party leader of 

any Soviet bloc country. 

During his decades in 

power, Zhivkov focused 

primarily on agricultural 

collectivization, industrialization, and control of all aspects of 

people’s lives. To this end, Zhivkov relied on his secret police, 

the Committee for State Security, and a network of informers. 

To further cement his rule, Zhivkov cultivated a “Man of the 

People” image promoted by the state-run media (Photo: 

Bulgarian communist youth participate in a parade).

Zhivkov’s loyalty to the Soviets helped ensure Bulgaria’s 

economic stability for a time, with the USSR providing a ready 

market for Bulgaria’s manufactured goods and refined oil (see 

p. 4 of Economics and Resources). Living standards rose 

slowly but noticeably in the 1950s-60s with the introduction of 

universal healthcare and Eastern Europe’s first agricultural 

pension and welfare system.
HISTORY &

MYTH

By the 1970s, Bulgaria’s plans for scientific and technological 

advancement were unrealized as economic growth stalled. 

Concerned with the low birthrate of ethnic Bulgarians, Zhivkov 

introduced policies encouraging larger families, without effect. 

Then in the mid-1980s, Zhivkov promoted a campaign to 

“Bulgarize” or assimilate Bulgaria’s ethnic Turkish population 

(see p. 13-14 of Political and Social Relations), estimated at 

800,000. Although the Turkish language had been removed 

from schools in the 1970s, new measures outlawed all Turkishlanguage media. Further, the government required Turks to

replace their Turkish names with Bulgarian ones. Following 

widespread protests, more 

than 350,000 Turks left 

Bulgaria. 

An Opening

Meanwhile, Soviet leader 

Mikhail Gorbachev introduced 

a series of reforms in 1985 

that would eventually result in 

the dissolution of the USSR. 

These reforms – most notably 

perestroika (restructuring) 

and glasnost (openness) –

introduced market forces into the Soviet economy and 

increased individuals’ freedom of expression. Although the

reforms were largely unsuccessful, they helped ignite 

democratic movements across Eastern Europe, Bulgaria

included (Photo: Gorbachev and US President Reagan in 

1987).

When Zhivkov seemed to reject these Soviet reforms, 

Gorbachev encouraged other Bulgarian BCP members to 

remove him. As the Berlin Wall fell, signaling the end of 

communism in East Germany in November 1989, Zhivkov 

resigned.

Post-Communist Bulgaria

Following Zhivkov’s resignation, the BCP immediately 

reorganized as the Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP), easily 

winning Bulgaria’s first free elections in 1990 amidst a highly 

fragmented political environment. Over the following year, the 
HISTORY &

MYTH

BSP struggled to form a stable government, while newlyformed democratic splinter groups demanded further political 

reform and public accountability. Within a year, public protests 

forced the BSP to withdraw. 

In 1991, Bulgaria adopted a new constitution that formally 

established the nation as a parliamentary democratic republic 

and further outlined basic civil rights such as freedom of 

speech, press, and religion. Subsequent elections yielded a 

new, multiparty Parliament led by a loose alliance of small

political parties called the Union of Democratic Forces (UDF). 

In 1992, Zhelyu Zhelev, a popular former dissident and critic of 

the communists, became Bulgaria’s first directly elected 

President. Together with 

Zhelev, the UDF 

government transitioned 

Bulgaria into a 

democracy and market 

economy, working to 

privatize industry, 

liquidate collective 

farms, and return 

property confiscated 

during the communist era (Photo: Bulgarian soldiers participate 

in joint military training exercises in Hohenfels, Germany).

Despite this progress, Bulgaria continued to struggle with 

corruption, public unrest, and economic turbulence for years to 

follow. Meanwhile, socialist and conservative political groups 

competed for power, resulting in successive UDF- and BSP-led 

governments. Although Bulgaria began to stabilize its economy 

by the late 1990s (see p. 2 of Economics and Resources), 

stringent financial reforms regularly prompted social unrest. 

Further, rampant corruption and surging organized crime 

hindered the pace of economic, political, and social progress. 

In 2001, former Tsar Simeon II Saxe-Coburg-Gotha became 

PM in a surprise electoral victory over the ruling UDF 

government. While rapid inflation, high unemployment, and 

other economic woes continued to plague the nation, Simeon’s 

pro-Western government pursued democratic reform, nurtured 
HISTORY &

MYTH

a market economy, and sought accession into the EU. 

Although economic and social conditions improved, higher 

standards of living were slow to materialize. Consequently, the 

2005 elections returned the BSP to power (Photo: Simeon II 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in 

a crowd in 2005).

Under BSP’s leadership

over the next several 

years, Bulgaria 

continued to pursue 

political, social, and 

economic integration 

with Europe. Following 

substantial economic 

and political reform, Bulgaria joined NATO in 2004 and the EU 

in 2007 despite the government’s inability to curb stillwidespread corruption and organized crime. 

Contemporary Bulgaria

Bulgaria’s recent political climate has been marked by protests 

and volatility. In 2009, a newly-formed center-right party, the 

Citizens for European Development of Bulgaria (GERB), 

defeated the ruling BSP government in the parliamentary 

elections. The landslide 

victory resulted in the 

GERB’s leader, Boyko 

Borisov, assuming the 

role of PM (see p. 4-5 of 

Political and Social 

Relations). A few years 

later, another GERB 

member, Rosen 

Plevneliev, was elected 

President (Photo: Former US Secretary of State Kerry meets 

with Bulgarian Foreign Minister Daniel Mitov in Sofia in 2015). 

Although the GERB gained considerable political control as a 

result of the 2 elections, its influence was short lived: economic 

instability and allegations of corruption triggered riots barely a 

year later. By 2013, massive public unrest had forced Borisov 

to resign and was replaced by Plamen Oresharski of the BSP. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Immediately upon taking office, Oresharski and the BSP made 

a series of unqualified and questionable official appointments, 

prompting thousands of Bulgarians to demand the government 

once again resign (Photo: Borisov addresses protesters in 

2013).

Following the 2014 

elections, the GERB 

possessed the most 

parliamentary seats. 

Although the win 

allowed Borisov to 

reassume his role 

as PM, the elections 

produced an extremely fragmented Parliament, with a record 

number of political parties garnering votes and no single party 

or coalition winning an absolute majority. Notably, after BSP 

newcomer Rumen Radev unexpectedly defeated a GERB 

candidate in the 2016 Presidential elections, PM Borisov 

resigned. President Radev then named an interim PM in early 

2017. Just a few months later, new parliamentary elections 

returned Borisov to the position of PM, which he still holds 

today (see p. 5-6 of Political and Social Relations).

Five changes of government in under 2 years have alienated 

many of Bulgaria’s voters from the political process. In addition, 

corruption persists in all levels of government, poverty and 

healthcare issues affect the majority of the population, and 

organized crime continues to flourish. While the transition to 

democracy has been 

challenging, Bulgaria 

continues to slowly 

address these and 

other issues, looking to 

Western Europe as a 

model for social, 

economic, and political 

development (Photo: 

Before becoming 

President, Radev was a Bulgarian Air Force Maj Gen. Here, he 

receives a plaque from Lt Gen Kwast at Air University in 2014).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Myth Overview

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and 

the natural world. Myths are important because they provide a 

sense of unique heritage and identity. For Bulgarians, myths 

and folklore served to maintain Bulgarian identity through 

centuries of foreign domination. 

Battle of Kleidion: One well-known Bulgarian tale dates to the 

end of the First Bulgarian Kingdom, when the long struggle 

between the Bulgarians and Byzantine Empire culminated in 

the Battle of Kleidion. The battle occurred in 1014 near the 

modern-day village of Klyuch, where Bulgarian Tsar Samuel’s 

forces engaged those of Byzantine Emperor Basill II. 

While history records Bulgaria’s loss, the details remain 

mythical. According to legend, the Byzantines captured some 

15,000 Bulgarian prisoners of war, then blinded all but 150 of 

them so that they could lead their crippled comrades home. 

Devastated by the loss, Tsar Samuel reportedly fainted then 

died a few days later. Basil II, by 

contrast, acquired the title Basil 

Bulgaroctonus or Basil, Slayer of 

the Bulgars.

The Haiduk Tradition: The 

legendary feats of heroes from 

earlier generations also inspired 

Bulgarians in their struggles against 

foreign domination. In one 

legendary tale, the exploits of 

Bulgaria’s haiduks – bandits and 

partisans who attacked the 

Ottomans from mountain hideaways 

in the 17th-18th centuries – served 

to inspire Bulgarian revolutionaries 

in the 19th century. For Vasil Levski 

and other guerilla fighters, the haiduks were comparable to 

Robin Hood or American patriots during the Revolutionary War

(Illustration: Early 18th-century depiction of a haiduk). 
Official Name

Republic of Bulgaria

Republika Bǎlgariya

Република България 

(Bulgarian)

Political Borders

Romania: 376 mi

Turkey: 139 mi

Greece: 293 mi

Macedonia: 101 mi

Serbia: 214

Coastline: 219 mi

Capital

Sofia 

Demographics

Bulgaria has a population of about 7.1 million. Significantly, its

population has reduced by about 20% since 1988, due in part 

to historically low birth rates (see p. 4 of Sex and Gender) and 

a stagnant economy which prompted many Bulgarians to

emigrate (see p. 1-3 of Economics and Resources). Today, the 

population continues to decline at an annual rate of -0.6%. 

Nearly 74% of the population

lives in metropolitan areas, 

with about 1/5 living in the 

capital city of Sofia. 

Flag

First adopted in 1879 and 

reinstated in 1990 following 

the end of communism (see 

p. 20 of History and Myth), 

the Bulgarian flag consists of 3 equal horizontal white, green, 

and red stripes. The top white band stands for peace and love, 

while the green band denotes freedom, as well as Bulgarian 

agriculture. The red band represents courage and the struggle 

for independence. 

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

Situated in southeastern Europe on the northeastern portion of 

the Balkan Peninsula, Bulgaria borders Romania to the North, 

the Black Sea to the East, Turkey and Greece to the South, 

and Macedonia and Serbia to the West. Bulgaria’s total land 

area is about 42,000 sq mi, making it slightly larger than 

Tennessee and about the same size as Ireland. 

Plains and plateaus cover over 2/3 of Bulgaria, while 

mountains dominate much of the rest. The rugged Balkan 

Mountains run east to 

west through the center 

of the country, 

separating the hilly and

fertile Danubian Plain in 

the North from the lowlying, central Thracian 

Plain. The highest 

ranges on the Balkan 

Peninsula, the Rila and 

Pirin Mountains, dominate Bulgaria’s South. The Rila range 

includes the nation’s highest point, Mount Musala, rising to 

about 9,600 ft. Steep cliffs interspersed with sandy beaches 

characterize the Black Sea shoreline (pictured) in the East. The 

Danube, Europe’s longest river, forms much of Bulgaria’s

northern border. Bulgaria is home to over 330, mostly glacial, 

lakes scattered throughout the mountains. Forests cover about 

37% of the country.

Climate

Similar to the Midwest region of the US, Bulgaria experiences a 

temperate continental climate with 4 distinct seasons. 

Summers are hot and dry, while winters are long, cold, and 

wet. Generally, northern and mountainous regions experience 

colder temperatures than southern and coastal regions, which 

are warmed by winds sweeping in from the Mediterranean Sea. 

Temperatures in the summer month of July average 72°F in the 

North, but can reach 84°F in the South. By contrast, in the 

winter month of January, temperatures average 23°F in the 

North and 36°F in the South. Snowfall typically occurs 

December-February and is heaviest across the northern plains 

and at higher elevations. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Natural Hazards

Bulgaria is vulnerable to several types of natural hazards, 

predominantly floods and earthquakes. While the last 

significant earthquake occurred in 1928, in 2014 massive 

floods damaged much of eastern Bulgaria, killing dozens of 

people and leaving hundreds without food, clean water, or 

electricity for several weeks. The country also occasionally 

experiences wildfires. Landslides are a threat in mountainous 

regions. 

Environmental Issues

Rapid and unrestrained industrialization during Bulgaria’s 

communist era (see p. 18-20 of History and Myth) resulted in 

massive nationwide environmental degradation. Detrimental 

activities, such as the 

improper disposal of 

industrial waste, 

untreated sewage, and 

hazardous chemicals, 

caused significant water 

and air pollution. By the 

mid-1990s, over 40% of 

the population resided in 

areas contaminated with 

dangerous levels of pollutants, severely affecting residents’ 

health (see p. 7 of Sustenance and Health) (Photo: An 

abandoned factory in Vratsa). 

Despite the Bulgarian government’s efforts to clean up affected 

areas, rivers and lakes remain polluted by raw sewage, 

industrial waste, and agricultural runoff. In addition, industrial 

emissions continue to significantly degrade air quality in urban 

areas, where inefficient and often decrepit coal burning power 

stations emit toxic fumes. Notably, Sofia ranks as Europe’s 

most polluted capital city, where a combination of automobile 

emissions and industrial discharge result in poor air quality. Air 

pollution in turn contributes to acid rain, which contaminates 

soils and groundwater, poisons wildlife, and scars forests. 

Today, about 1/4 of forests exhibit signs of damage. Finally, 

deforestation due to commercial logging, agricultural 

development, and illegal timber production contributes to

flooding and landslides in some areas.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Government

Bulgaria is a constitutional republic with a parliamentary 

government. The country divides into 28 provinces (oblasti) 

administered by governors, which further subdivide into 262 

municipalities run by mayors and elected local councils. 

Adopted in 1991 (see p. 21 of History and Myth), Bulgaria’s

constitution separates power among the executive, legislative, 

and judicial branches while outlining the fundamental rights of 

Bulgarian citizens, such as the freedom of speech, media, and 

religion. 

Executive Branch

The President, who is head-of-state and commander-in-chief of 

Bulgaria’s Armed Forces, is elected by popular vote to serve up 

to 2 consecutive 5-year terms. Presidential powers are largely 

ceremonial. The current 

President, Rumen Radev, 

took office in 2017. 

By contrast, executive power 

is vested in the Prime 

Minister (PM), who is headof-government. With the 

support of an 18-member

Council of Ministers, the PM 

oversees the country’s dayto-day affairs of managing the 

national budget, enforcing domestic and foreign policies, and 

maintaining law and order. Elected by the National Assembly

(NA) (see “Legislative Branch” below), the PM is traditionally 

the leader of the political party or coalition that holds the most 

seats in the legislature. Although PM Boyko Borisov (pictured

with former US Secretary of State Kerry) resigned in late 2016

amid political infighting (see p. 23 of History and Myth), a snap 

election in May 2017 once again brought Borisov to power, 

allowing him to serve for the 3rd time as Bulgaria’s PM. 

Legislative Branch

Bulgaria’s legislature is a single chamber NA (Narodno 

Sabranie) composed of 240 members serving 4-year terms

and are directly elected in multi-seat constituencies through a 

nationwide vote based on proportional representation. The NA

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
controls all national legislative powers such as amending the 

constitution, appointing positions in government, approving 

declarations of war, passing the national budget, and ratifying 

international treaties

(Photo: The National 

Assembly in Sofia). 

Judicial Branch

The judiciary includes a

Supreme Court of 

Cassation, a Supreme 

Administrative Court, a 

Constitutional Court, 

Courts of Appeals, and a 

system of lower courts. 

A 25-member judicial council elects the 72 Supreme Court of 

Cassation justices and all Supreme Administrative Court 

justices, each formally appointed by the President to serve until 

age 65. Meanwhile, the NA nominates and the President 

appoints the 12 Constitutional Court justices to serve 9-year 

terms. As the highest courts, the Supreme Court of Cassation 

and the Supreme Administrative Court are the final courts of 

appeal for both civil and criminal cases. 

Political Climate

Bulgaria’s political landscape is characterized by a multi-party 

system in which political parties or coalitions of parties compete 

for power. Generally, those parties and coalitions hold the 

majority of seats in the NA and the bulk of government 

leadership positions and retain considerable control over 

Bulgaria’s political climate. 

First sweeping into power in 2009, Bulgaria’s current 

government consists of the Citizens for European Development 

of Bulgaria (Grazhdani za Evropeisko Razvitie na Bulgaria, 

or GERB), led by PM Boyko Borisov. Presently the largest 

party in the NA with 95 seats, the center-right and populist 

GERB finds support among urban, middle-income, and wealthy 

Bulgarians and the younger generations. In addition to a rigid

anti-corruption and organized crime stance, the GERB 

promotes integration with Europe, conservative social policies, 

and the development of Bulgaria’s energy industry. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Serving as the GERB’s primary opposition, the NA’s 2nd 

largest member (with 80 seats) is the Coalition for Bulgaria

(CfB) – a union of several parties led by the historically 

powerful Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP). First formed in 1989 

from communist roots (see p. 20-21 of History and Myth), the 

BSP draws its support from older Bulgarians who fondly 

remember the nation’s communist era and from lower income,

rural dwellers. Other notable parties that currently hold seats in 

the NA include the United Patriots (with 27 seats), a nationalist 

and generally anti-Muslim coalition of 3 smaller parties, and the 

Movement for Rights and Freedoms (DPS) (with 26 seats), 

which represents the interests of Muslim ethnic Turks and 

Pomaks (see “Ethnic Groups” below).

Although elections are generally free and fair, rampant 

corruption at all levels of government provokes public distrust 

of officials and threatens to disrupt the democratic process and 

its institutions. As a result, voter turnout for both Presidential 

and NA elections is generally low. Despite recent efforts to curb 

crime, poverty, and corruption, Bulgaria continues to rank as 

the EU’s poorest (see p. 3 of Economics and Resources) and 

one of its most corrupt members. After years of civil 

disengagement, anti-government protests have become more 

common, resulting in recent changes of government (see p. 22-

23 of History and Myth). Of note, in 2013 six people publicly 

committed suicide by setting themselves on fire in protest of 

ongoing corruption and desperate socioeconomic conditions

(Photo: Multinational flags on display in Shumen).

Defense

The Bulgarian Armed 

Forces (BAF) are a 

unified force consisting 

of land, maritime, and air 

branches and recently 

formed Joint Forces 

Command with its 

subordinate Special Operations Command. The BAF defends

against domestic and foreign threats and contributes to 

international peacekeeping and security operations. Bulgaria 

abolished mandatory military service in 2008. Today, both men 

and women may voluntarily enlist at age 18. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
With a joint strength of 31,300 active duty troops, 303,000 

reserve personnel, and 16,000 paramilitary troops, Bulgaria

relies on the support of its allies to respond to large, state-level 

threats. Bulgaria receives military support primarily from the US 

and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) – a political 

and military alliance among 28 nations (the US included) that 

promotes its members’ security through collective defense. 

Land: The Bulgarian Land Force consists of 16,300 active-duty 

troops (53% of total BAF), consisting of a special forces 

brigade, 3 maneuver battalions and brigades (reconnaissance 

and mechanized), 3 combat support regiments and battalions, 

and a combat service support regiment. 

Navy: Consisting of 3,450 active-duty personnel (13%), the 

Bulgarian Navy is equipped with 4 principal surface 

combatants, 3 patrol and coastal combatants, 6 mine 

countermeasures vessels, an amphibious vessel, and 14 

logistics and support 

vessels. 

Air Force: The Bulgarian 

Air Force consists of 

6,700 active-duty 

personnel (25%) and has 

2 fighter/intelligence, 

surveillance, and 

reconnaissance (ISR) 

squadrons, a fighter/ground attack squadron, a transport 

squadron, 2 training squadrons, an attack helicopter squadron, 

and a transport helicopter squadron. These units are equipped 

with 42 fighter aircraft and 30 helicopters (Photo: A Bulgarian 

Air Force MIG-29 aircraft in airbase Graf Ignatievo). 

Joint Forces Command (JFC): comprises 9% of the total 

BAF. The JFC develops operational action plans of the Armed 

Forces, both in peacetime and during war. Other defense 

branches are subordinate to the JFC.

Paramilitary: The Bulgarian Paramilitary forces consist of 

12,000 Border Guards divided into 12 maneuver regiments and 

equipped with 26 patrol and coastal combatants, and 4,000 

Security Police members. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Foreign Relations 

Upon emerging from communism, Bulgaria pursued political, 

economic, and military integration with Western Europe and the 

US but continued to maintain bilateral ties with Russia. By

joining NATO in 2004 and the EU in 2007, Bulgaria more 

decisively demonstrated its divergence from Russian influence. 

Yet, it continues to balance its foreign policy between its 

Western allies and Russia, with which it shares religious, 

historical, and cultural ties (see p. 9 of History and Myth). 

International Cooperation: As a NATO member, Bulgaria has 

contributed to military operations in Libya, Iraq, and 

Afghanistan and regularly participates in and hosts NATO 

military exercises. In addition, Bulgaria has participated in UN 

and EU peacekeeping and humanitarian assistance missions. 

Bulgaria also works with other international organizations, 

including the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, the 

Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the 

International Monetary 

Fund, the World Bank, and 

the World Trade 

Organization.

Relations with the EU: 

The EU is a political and 

economic partnership 

among 28 nations located 

in Europe. Although 

Bulgaria is an EU member, ongoing economic woes and a 

record of corruption and organized crime prevent its full 

political, economic, and social integration within the EU. Since 

2007, the EU has repeatedly reproached Bulgaria for not 

adequately addressing corruption and social inequities, and on 

multiple occasions, has suspended foreign aid and threatened

economic sanctions (Photo: Former US Secretary of the Navy

Mabus visits Bulgaria in 2011). 

Despite these tensions, membership remains popular among 

Bulgarian citizens, who generally view the European nations as 

positive political, economic, and social influences. Although the 

EU initially blocked Bulgaria from joining the Schengen 

passport-free zone, in 2014 it eased restrictions to allow

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Bulgarians visa-free travel and work within the EU. In addition, 

in 2018 Bulgaria will hold the rotating Presidency of the Council 

of the EU – an institution that determines and steers the EU’s 

general political direction and priorities.

Relations with Macedonia: Although Bulgaria was one of the 

first nations to recognize Macedonia’s 1991 independence, for 

years relations remained strained. This tension was due 

primarily to Bulgaria’s reluctance to officially recognize the

uniqueness of the Macedonian language, which it views as 

closely related to Bulgarian (see p. 2 of Language and 

Communication). Bulgarians generally remain reluctant to 

recognize the Macedonian language despite a 1999 formal 

agreement settling the language dispute and establishing

diplomatic relations. Further, Bulgarians continue to question 

the existence of a Macedonian nationality separate from theirs

(see p. 14 of History and Myth). 

Relations with the US: Although the US and Bulgaria first 

established diplomatic ties in 1903, they became strained at 

the onset of World War I. Relations continued to deteriorate 

during World War II and subsequently remained tense during

Bulgaria’s communist era (see p. 18-20 of History and Myth). 

Following Bulgaria’s emergence from communism, the 2 

nations have worked diligently to restore political, economic, 

and military ties

(Photo: US and 

Bulgarian Air Force 

aircraft fly in formation 

during bilateral 

training exercises in 

Bulgaria). 

Over the last 2 

decades, the US has 

worked with the 

Bulgarian government to develop its free market economy and 

democratic institutions, advocating Bulgaria’s accession into 

various international organizations such as NATO and the EU. 

Today, Bulgaria has become a strategic ally and important 

regional sponsor for the US, promoting a democratic and proWestern agenda in the Black Sea region. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
The US provides substantial defense assistance to Bulgaria 

(see p. 6 of Economics and Resources). In addition to financial 

resources, the US provides military training and equipment to 

bolster Bulgarian military capabilty and aid its interoperabilty 

with NATO forces. In return, Bulgaria allows the US use of 

Bulgarian military facilities primarily to house US military 

personnel and provide the US with strategic access to the 

Black Sea region. Further, the US and Bulgaria have signed 

several bilateral trade and investment agreements protecting

intellectual property and allowing goods, services, and capital 

to move freely between the 2 nations. 

Security Issues

Bulgaria’s security environment is dominated by increased 

tensions with a recently aggressive Russia. An influx of 

migrants from the Middle East and Africa presents additional 

security concerns. Of note, Bulgaria relies on military and 

economic support from NATO, the UN, and the EU to maintain 

its security (Photo: US and Bulgarian military personnel inspect 

tanks during a military 

training exercise in 

Bulgaria). 

Tensions with Russia:

Russia’s 2014 

annexation of Crimea, its 

continuing support of 

rebels in eastern 

Ukraine, and the 

bolstering of Russian military capacity along the Black Sea

have caused friction between Bulgaria and Russia. Although 

Bulgaria accepted increased NATO presence within its borders 

to deter further Russian aggression, it is concerned that further 

militarization of the Black Sea region will rapidly escalate 

regional tensions. As a result, Bulgaria remains reluctant to 

fully participate in military operations against Russia. In 2016, it 

rejected a Romanian proposal for a permanent NATO fleet in

the Black Sea, reasoning the move would significantly increase 

military tensions and hurt tourism. 

Generally, Bulgaria’s deep historical, economic, and cultural 

ties with Russia considerably diffuse bilateral tensions. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Prominent political figures often attempt to balance national 

interests between Western Europe and Russia, affirming both 

NATO and EU commitments while avoiding anti-Russian 

rhetoric. For example, Bulgaria was one of the few nations 

advocating the reduction of US and EU economic sanctions 

against Russia following its annexation of Crimea. In addition, 

Bulgaria’s significant reliance on trade with Russia (see p. 2, 6

of Economics and Resources) helps smooth relations further. 

Nevertheless, while some Bulgarians feel a cultural affinity with 

Russia and support its economic and political integration with 

Bulgaria, others are committed to continuing Bulgaria’s 

sociopolitical alignment with the West. Further, there is some 

concern that Russia desires to leverage its historical and 

cultural ties with Bulgaria

to weaken its alliance with 

Western Europe and the 

US. 

Accordingly, observers 

assert that the Russian 

government is waging an 

information warfare 

campaign to promote proRussian propaganda, while simultaneously eroding public faith 

in the EU and the US. In addition, far-right political parties such 

as the nationalist Attack (Ataka in Bulgarian) foster proRussian sentiment, while a number of Bulgarian media outlets 

openly propagate Russian nationalist ideas (Photo: Bulgarian 

and US pilots complete combat training during a multinational 

military exercise in Bulgaria). 

Illegal Migration: Thousands of migrants seeking refuge from 

conflict in Syria, Afghanistan, and Iraq illegally pass through 

Bulgaria before attempting to reach Western Europe. As of 

2016, about 13,000 migrants resided in temporary camps 

within Bulgaria. This influx stresses national resources and stirs 

interethnic tensions, occasionally resulting in protests, riots, 

and clashes between Bulgarians, the police, and migrants. 

Hoping to contain cross-border movement, Bulgaria has 

erected fences along its southern borders and reinforced 

security along the Black Sea coast.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Ethnic Groups

While Bulgaria has historically been a crossroads of various 

ethnic groups (see p. 1 of History and Myth), today it is a 

relatively homogenous country. According to the 2011 census, 

about 85% of the 

population is ethnically 

Bulgarian (Photo: A 

Bulgarian farmer). 

Turks make up Bulgaria’s 

largest minority group, 

comprising about 9% of the 

population. First settling in 

Bulgaria during Ottoman 

rule (see p. 5-10 of History 

and Myth), Turks faced significant discrimination and 

persecution by the Bulgarian communist government. 

Consequently, there was a notable reduction of their population 

in the 1980s (see p. 20 of History and Myth), though many 

Turks returned following the communists’ fall. Today, the 

majority of Bulgarian Turks live in the southern Kardzhali 

province bordering Turkey, and the northeastern Razgrad, 

Shumen, Silistra, and Targovishte provinces.

The 2011 census reports 325,000 Roma or “Gypsy” residents, 

equivalent to nearly 5% of the population, yet other reports 

estimate the actual number is over 750,000, or about 10% of 

the total population. An ethnic group of northern Indian origins, 

the Roma probably settled in the region during the 14th 

century. Today, Roma live throughout Bulgaria in small, 

secluded communities, often located on the peripheries of 

urban areas. These communities tend to be socially 

segregated from broader Bulgarian society, with residents 

suffering from relatively high rates of poverty, illiteracy, and 

significant health issues (see “Social Relations” below). 

Pomaks are ethnically Slavic Muslim Bulgarians who speak a 

Bulgarian dialect and likely number around 100,000. Although 

nearly 200,000 Macedonians lived in Bulgaria in the 1950s, this 

number shrank to under 10,000 by the end of the communist 

era. Other small minority groups include Armenians, Vlachs,

Jews, Russians, Ukrainians, and Greeks, among others.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Social Relations

Bulgarians typically identify with several regions (including 

Northern Bulgaria, Central Bulgaria, Southern Bulgaria, and 

Black Sea coast) or with urban centers and sub-regions such 

as Sofia, the Rhodopes, and Pirin. Differences in the ethnic 

makeup of each area result in some regional variance of 

language, customs, dress, and the arts (see p. 1-2 of 

Language and Communication and p. 1 of Aesthetics and 

Recreation). As is common in other societies, Bulgaria divides 

along rural-urban, male-female, rich-poor, generational, and 

ethnic lines. Urban dwellers, men, and the wealthy typically 

enjoy greater access to economic opportunities and hold the 

most prestige. By contrast, rural dwellers, the poor, and women 

are more likely to face economic and social barriers (see p. 1-4 

of Sex and Gender). 

Some social divisions exist between Bulgarians and ethnic 

minorities. While relations between ethnic Bulgarians and 

Turks were severely strained during the communist era (see p. 

18-20 of History and Myth), today the 2 groups generally 

coexist harmoniously but do not always mix. Living in small, 

tight-knit communities, Turks often choose to socialize among 

themselves, follow their own faith, and attend Turkish language 

schools (see p. 4 of Learning and Knowledge). Religious 

discrimination of Turks by ethnic Bulgarians occasionally leads 

to heightened tensions 

(see p. 7 of Religion and 

Spirituality) (Photo: A 

mosque in Sofia).

The most pronounced 

social division lies 

between Bulgarians and 

the Roma, who regularly face socio-economic exclusion. 

Existing on the periphery of national life, the Roma suffer from 

abject poverty, reduced access to healthcare, and chronic 

unemployment. Illiteracy forces some Roma into low-skilled or 

informal jobs in agriculture, construction, or illicit activities. 

While the EU has pressured Bulgaria to improve Roma welfare 

and protect their culture, the Roma continue to suffer from 

negative social stereotypes, employment discrimination, and 

low school attendance rates.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview 

According to the 2011 

census, about 76% of 

Bulgarians are 

members of the 

Bulgarian Orthodox 

Church (BOC), around 

10% are Muslims, and 

fewer than 2% identify 

as Roman Catholics, 

Protestants, Armenian 

Apostolic Orthodox

Christians, Jews, Mormons, or Jehovah’s Witnesses. About

12% of the population does not identify with any religious 

tradition (Photo: Christmas decorations in Varna).

Bulgaria’s constitution protects freedom of religion, 

criminalizing discrimination and advocating tolerance and 

respect of both non-believers and religious followers, 

regardless of denomination. The law allows all religious groups 

to practice freely yet also outlines a registration process 

allowing the Bulgarian government to grant religious groups 

legal recognition. Notably, the constitution designates Eastern 

Orthodox Christianity as Bulgaria’s “traditional” religion and 

exempts the BOC from the registration process.

Registered groups retain rights and privileges not granted to 

unregistered groups. These include receiving government 

funding; performing religious services; owning assets (such as

places of worship and cemeteries); participating in commercial 

ventures; providing followers with medical, social, and 

educational services; distributing religious media and literature;

and opening religious schools. Besides the BOC, Bulgaria 

presently has 132 registered religious groups. 

Bulgaria’s Early Spiritual Landscape

The region’s early inhabitants had a rich spiritual life. 

Archeological finds indicate early Thracian settlements (see p. 

1-2 of History and Myth) featured massive temples. They also 

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
included necropolises, large above-ground burial sites housing

numerous graves of Thracian kings, aristocrats, and other 

members of elite society. While there are few if any records of 

early inhabitants’ religious practices and beliefs, scholars

believe they recognized and worshipped multiple gods. The 

region’s later arrivals, the Slavs and Proto-Bulgars (see p. 3 of 

History and Myth), worshipped a number of deities, particularly 

an all-powerful god of thunder known as Perun by the Slavs

and Tangra by the Bulgars. 

The Arrival and Spread of Christianity 

The Romans first introduced Christianity to the region in the 3rd

century, and in the 4th century, the Roman Empire adopted 

Christianity as its official religion, facilitating its spread. By the 

9th century, Bulgaria had formally adopted Christianity (see p. 

4 of History and Myth). 

With the support of the Byzantine Church, Bulgaria’s leaders

converted much of its population to the new faith, while 

violently suppressing followers of pagan traditions (see p. 4 of 

History and Myth). Instead of the traditional Greek, Latin, and 

Hebrew languages used by most other Christians, Bulgarian 

clergy taught Christianity using their own Slavic language and 

Cyrillic alphabet (see p. 1 of Language and Communication). 

As a result, the region

established a distinct 

religious identity that 

helped preserve

Bulgarian culture and 

avoid assimilation by 

the Byzantine Empire. 

Fusing both Byzantine 

and indigenous 

traditions, Bulgarian 

clergy eventually 

formed the Bulgarian Orthodox Church (BOC). During

subsequent centuries of Byzantine and Ottoman domination

(see p. 4-10 of History and Myth), the BOC played an important 

role in the definition and preservation of Bulgarian identity, 

serving as a center of Bulgarian cultural and literary life (Photo: 

Interior of a Bulgarian Orthodox Church).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
For centuries, theological differences had been forming within 

the Christian tradition. In 1054, these differences resulted in a 

permanent division between the Roman Catholic Church 

centered in Rome and the Eastern Orthodox Church in the 

Byzantine capital of Constantinople (present-day Istanbul, 

Turkey). To escape persecution by the Pope’s religious 

crusaders in the 12th century, Bulgaria accepted the authority 

of the Roman Catholic Church. By doing so, Bulgaria avoided 

forced conversion of its population to Catholicism and retained 

its Orthodox traditions, although the BOC lost some of its 

religious autonomy for a period (see p. 5 of History and Myth). 

Religion during Ottoman Rule

In the late 14th century, Bulgaria fell to the Ottoman Empire

(see p. 5-6 of History and Myth). While the Muslim Ottomans 

dominated Bulgaria until the 19th century, they generally chose 

not to impose their religion on the region. Instead, the Ottoman 

Empire divided Bulgaria’s population according to faith, 

privileging some groups over others but allowing each 

community to manage its own affairs (see p. 6-7 of History and 

Myth). Although this system allowed the Bulgarians to continue 

practicing their religion, it placed the BOC under the authority 

of the Eastern Orthodox Church in Constantinople.

Cults in Bulgaria’s History

Beginning in the 10th century, cults rooted in Christian 

beliefs but with widely varying theologies gained 

popularity across the region. Born from the despair of 

the destitute and ill-treated peasantry, the cults were 

harshly critical of the Orthodox Church and of 

Bulgaria’s political and social order (see p. 4 of History 

and Myth). They discouraged the populace from 

joining the BOC and rejected participation in 

community politics. Although the state persecuted 

members of these movements, cults continued to

thrive among peasants for several centuries, 

occasionally obstructing the BOC’s spread and 

reducing its influence. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
During this time, Bulgarian society consisted mostly of small, 

remote settlements relatively free of Ottoman influence (see p. 

7 of History and Myth). As a result, Bulgarian religious leaders 

were able to retain their cultural traditions and continue to 

preserve a Bulgarian identity and follow the BOC’s distinctive 

rituals. 

Of note, the Ottomans allowed many Jews to settle in Bulgaria

following their expulsion from Hungary, Bavaria (in present-day 

Germany), and Spain in the 14th 

and 15th centuries. These arrivals 

joined the few small Jewish 

communities already settled in the 

region, moderately increasing 

Bulgaria’s Jewish population by the 

15th century.

During almost 5 centuries of 

Ottoman rule, the Empire forced

some Bulgarians to convert to Islam 

(see p. 6 of History and Myth), while 

favorable social and economic 

policies toward Muslims prompted 

others to convert voluntarily. The 

descendants of these Muslims are known as Pomaks (see p. 

13 of Political and Social Relations). Nevertheless, most

Bulgarians remained Christian. Bowing to nationalist pressures 

(see p. 8-10 of History and Myth), the Ottomans officially 

recognized the BOC as separate from the Eastern Orthodox 

Church in 1870, thereby establishing its religious autonomy

(Photo: A 17th-century Orthodox Bulgarian icon depicting St. 

George fighting a dragon). 

The Bulgarian National Revival and Independence

By the 19th century, Bulgarian society was experiencing a 

cultural revival (see p. 8-10 of History and Myth). The BOC 

continued to expand its influence during this period as 

Bulgarian national identity became closely linked to the BOC. 

When Bulgaria became a principality led by a Christian prince 

in the late 19th century (see p. 10 of History and Myth), Muslim

Turks who had settled in the region during the Ottoman era left

Bulgaria in large numbers (see p. 11 of History and Myth). 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
World War II (WWII)

Although Bulgaria participated in WWII as an ally to Nazi 

Germany, its Jewish population managed to escape the 

devastating consequences endured by Jewish residents in 

neighboring Romania and other European countries (see p. 17

of History and Myth). As a result, Bulgaria saved its entire 

Jewish population, some 50,000 people, from deportation and 

certain death.

Religion during the Communist Period

When the communists assumed control at the end of WWII

(see p. 18 of History and Myth), they brought significant 

changes to Bulgaria’s religious landscape. The communist 

worldview included atheism, or the disbelief in deities and the 

rejection of religion. Consequently, the Bulgarian communist 

state confiscated religious property, destroyed places of 

worship, persecuted or outlawed religious organizations, and 

generally discouraged 

religious worship (Photo: 

Bulgaria’s famous Rila 

Monastery, founded in the 

10th century by St. John 

of Rila). 

While the BOC continued 

to function, the communist 

regime pushed it to the 

fringes of social life and 

strictly supervised all church activities. For example, the 

government banned religious education in public schools and 

renamed religious holidays while replacing traditional rites-ofpassage rituals such as marriage, baptism, and burial with 

secular ceremonies. In addition, the regime forced some BOC 

members to become agents of the state’s secret police (see p.

19 of History and Myth). With some of its members working as 

spies and even disclosing the contents of confessions to the 

regime, the BOC engendered public distrust of church officials 

and further alienated the populace from the Church. 

The regime was particularly harsh to followers of non-Christian 

faiths. For example, the state attempted to strip ethnic Turks of 

their cultural identity by severely restricting Islamic religious 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
practices and banning the use of the Turkish language, among 

other policies (see p. 20 of History and Myth). As a result, over 

350,000 Bulgarian Turks had migrated to Turkey by the late 

1980s. Similarly, Bulgaria’s Jewish community shrank

dramatically during the communist era, as some 43,000 

Bulgarian Jews chose to flee the 

religiously restrictive environment, 

emigrating to Israel and elsewhere.

Religion Today

According to a recent survey, over 

a majority of Bulgarians believe in 

the positive influence of religion. 

Over the last 25 years, the 

government has rebuilt many 

places of worship and restored 

ancient religious altars, icons, and 

frescoes. Of note, religious 

participation tends to vary by 

geography and age: it is higher in rural areas and among older 

generations (Photo: Sofia’s Alexander Nevsky Orthodox 

Cathedral). 

Muslims, Jews, and other members of minority religious groups 

report incidences of harassment and vandalism of their places 

of worship. In some regions, these groups are subjected to 

routine discrimination and prejudice by local authorities. 

Further, public figures and some nationalist political parties 

promote anti-religious rhetoric and hate speech towards 

minorities. To diffuse rising tensions, the government convened 

a “Festival of Religions” in 2014 to promote interfaith tolerance 

and has occasionally issued statements condemning hate 

speech and ethnic intolerance. 

BOC: Following communism’s collapse in 1989, there was a 

significant revival of Orthodox religious activity. Approximately 

80% of Bulgaria’s urban dwellers and 62% of the rural 

population identify as Orthodox Christian. The Church 

continues to play an important social role in society, with many 

Bulgarians intrinsically linking the BOC to their Bulgarian 

national identity. As of 2016, the BOC has some 5 million 

members, over 2,600 parishes, and 120 monasteries. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Nevertheless, the Church has its challenges. An ideological 

split between young religious leaders born during or since the 

democratic movement and those who came to power during 

the communist era causes some tensions. The younger group 

views communist-era church leaders as corrupt and morally 

compromised, occasionally accusing them of continuing to 

promote communist interests. 

Islam: According to the 2011 census, almost 710,000 

Bulgarians are Muslim. Most Muslims are adherents of the 

Hanafi sect of the Sunni branch, a generally tolerant and liberal 

school of Islamic thought. Some Bulgarian Muslims live in the 

Rhodope Mountains bordering Greece and Turkey in the 

South, while others live in large communities along the Black 

Sea coast and in the Northeast. While most Muslim Bulgarians

are ethnic Turks, a few are Roma (see p. 13 of Political and 

Social Relations), Pomaks, or recent immigrants from Asia or 

the Middle East. 

Although the law prohibits religious discrimination, Muslims 

repeatedly report 

harassment and 

intimidation by local 

police and security 

services. Further, 

some schools ban 

the wearing of the 

hijab (a veil worn by 

some Muslim 

women), and in 

some regions, 

authorities prevent 

the construction of 

new mosques. Religious tensions escalated in 2014, when a 

district court convicted 13 Muslim leaders of propagating 

extremist ideology and hatred of other religions. Further, police 

detained 26 others for spreading anti-democratic dogma and 

incitement of war (Photo: A mosque in rural Bulgaria). 

Judaism: Bulgaria’s Jewish population today is very small, 

numbering about 2,200. Most Jews live in Sofia, Plovdiv, or

along the Black Sea coast.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

Typically maintaining strong family ties, Bulgarians consider the

ideal home as a multi-story dwelling where parents and their 

adult children’s families each have their own floor. Extended 

family members remain involved significantly in each other’s 

lives even though challenging economic realities limit the 

number of multigenerational households today. 

Residence

At the end of World War II, the vast majority of Bulgarians lived 

in the countryside, with just 24% of the population residing in 

cities. As Bulgaria’s communist government pursued rapid 

industrialization in the 1960s-80s, many Bulgarians moved to 

the cities. As of 2015, 

just 26% of Bulgarians 

live in rural areas. 

Rural: During much of 

Bulgaria’s almost 500 

years of Ottoman rule, 

most Bulgarians lived in 

small, isolated farming 

communities (see p. 5-

10 of History and 

Myth). With their 

depopulation during the communist era, most rural villages

declined and saw little modern development. Consequently, 

rural residences today generally lack modern conveniences

such as indoor plumbing even though they are typically larger

than their urban counterparts (Photo: Village of Zabardo in the 

Rhodope Mountains).

A rural Bulgarian farmhouse usually is constructed of cement 

and brick and contains 2-3 bedrooms. The home interior is 

often decorated with colorful handmade carpets, paintings, and 

religious icons. Grounds usually include a garden, orchard, and 

outbuildings. Some farmhouses feature an attached summer 

kitchen where family members live during the summer months 

to avoid bringing soil from farm work into the main house.

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Urban: Slightly less than 3/4 of Bulgarians live in urban areas. 

Although some families reside in old historic houses, most 

urban residents live in multi-story apartment buildings 

constructed during the 

communist era 

(pictured).

Apartments also consist 

of 2-3 rooms, 1 often 

serving as both the

living room and a 

bedroom. With the 

privatization of the

housing market 

following the end of

communist rule, apartment prices in cities skyrocketed. Today, 

urban residents still struggle to find affordable housing, while

homelessness is a continuing issue. Consequently, many 

Bulgarians prefer to live in newly-constructed apartment 

buildings or single-family homes in suburban areas, while

others simply return to rural areas. 

Family Structure

Since Bulgarians traditionally preferred to live with or near their 

extended family, households typically included 3-4 generations. 

While this custom continues in many rural areas, housing

shortages in urban areas force most families to live as nuclear 

families (2 parents and their children). Traditionally, the father 

was the head of the household and primary breadwinner. While 

communist policies brought many women to the workplace, 

they continued to have the responsibility for household chores 

and child-rearing (see p. 1-2 of Sex and Gender). 

Children

Members of the extended family customarily share childcare 

responsibilities. If parents work away from home, either in other 

Bulgarian communities or outside the country, their children 

often live with relatives, especially grandparents. Children 

usually live with their parents or relatives until their education 

ends or until they become financially independent. Adult 

children frequently support their parents financially, also 

providing care when they are no longer self-sufficient. 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Bulgaria’s government continues to encourage childbearing 

(see p. 4 of Sex and 

Gender) in order to 

reverse the country’s

negative population 

growth (see p. 1 of 

Political and Social 

Relations). While 

ethnic Bulgarian 

families normally

average 2 children, 

Roma and Turkish 

families may have 3 or 

more (Photo: US Marines play with Bulgarian children). 

Childhood Ceremonies

Birth: Following a child’s birth, Bulgarian parents typically 

appoint godparents who provide moral and financial support to 

the child throughout his life. Friends and family gather to toast 

the child’s birth and present gifts. Bulgarians often name their 

children after their grandparents (see p. 4 of Language and 

Communication). 

First Birthday: Around a child’s first birthday, his parents host 

a gathering called proshtapulnik. During the event, the child is 

presented numerous items, such as pencils, books, money, 

tools, balls, or other sporting equipment. Tradition holds that 

the child’s preference among the items indicates his future 

career path.

Dating and Marriage

Boys and girls typically interact from a young age and tend to

begin casual dating in their early teens. Popular activities for

young couples include taking walks, dancing, and going out to 

movies, restaurants, bars, or parties. 

The legal marriage age in Bulgaria is 18 years, though most 

Bulgarians marry in their late 20s or early 30s. While unmarried 

cohabitation is increasingly common, unmarried couples 

occasionally face societal disapproval. Of note, some Roma 

communities (see p. 13-14 of Political and Social Relations) 

practice arranged child marriage (see p. 3 of Sex and Gender). 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Engagement: Serious courtship may proceed to betrothal or 

engagement. Traditionally, members of the 2 families would 

meet to negotiate the engagement. Today, the prospective 

groom typically proposes directly to his bride. The couple 

exchanges rings, which they wear on their left hands while 

engaged and on the right after marriage. 

Weddings: Weddings in both rural and urban areas often 

involve both civil services and religious ceremonies. During the 

civil service, the marriage official informs the couple of their 

rights and obligations followed by the bride and groom signing

the legal documents. 

Bulgarian Orthodox weddings customarily occur on a Sunday

in the early spring or fall and usually are preceded by several 

days of traditional rituals. The best man traditionally constructs 

a wedding banner from a piece of wood, decorating it with 

colorful ribbons and ivy. On the day of the church ceremony, 

the groom’s

family gathers 

to present gifts 

to the best 

man and maid 

of honor, then 

travels to the 

bride’s house. 

The entire 

wedding party 

then proceeds 

to the church, 

usually in cars 

decorated with ribbons and flowers. During the ceremony, a 

priest sanctifies the union while the bride and groom speak 

their vows, then exchange rings while wearing special wedding 

crowns. Ceremonies are generally followed by feasting, 

dancing, and special traditions. During the reception, the 

groom’s mother traditionally presents 2 loaves of bread, 1 salty 

to represent the difficulties the young couple will face and the 

other dipped in honey, representing life’s joys (Photo: Bulgarian 

bride and groom in Vratsa).

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Bulgarian Muslims (see p. 7 of Religion and Spirituality) enjoy 

their own unique wedding traditions. For example, Pomaks 

(see p. 13 of Political and Social Relations) traditionally 

celebrate wedding ceremonies for 2-3 days during the winter 

months with feasting, dancing, and a parade. Some Pomak 

women recently have revived customs that were repressed 

during the communist era. One such custom is gelina or facepainting, whereby an artist applies special colors to the bride’s 

face and finishes the design with sequins in a floral pattern. 

Divorce: Marriage dissolution is relatively uncommon and

sometimes carries social stigma. In 2014, Bulgaria’s divorce 

rate of 1.4 per 1,000 inhabitants was significantly lower than 

the US rate of 3.6 

per 1,000 people. 

Death

Following a loved 

one’s passing, 

Bulgarian Orthodox 

mourners gather in 

the deceased’s 

house, where the 

coffin is displayed. 

On the day of the 

funeral, family and 

friends accompany the coffin to a church for a funeral service

then follow the coffin to a cemetery for burial. The family holds 

another memorial service at the grave 40 days later to mark the 

end of the mourning period (Photo: Grave of Bulgarian 

revolutionary Hristo Tatarchev in Sofia).

In line with Islamic tradition, Muslim Bulgarians bury their loved 

ones as soon as possible after death, usually within 24 hours. 

After a death, the deceased’s body is cleansed, wrapped in a 

clean white cloth, and placed in a coffin. Male relatives and 

friends then transport the coffin to a mosque where a cleric 

offers prayers. Relatives then transport the deceased to a 

cemetery for burial. At the gravesite, family and friends remove 

the deceased from the coffin for direct placement in the grave. 

Following the burial, the family receives mourners who bring 

food, offer condolences, and pray.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Traditionally, Bulgaria had a patriarchal society which means

men held most power, authority, and social prestige. While this 

outlook on gender roles is changing as women and men have 

equal rights before the law, traditional attitudes continue to 

hinder women’s full social, economic, and political participation. 

Gender Roles and Work

Bulgarian women traditionally were responsible for all 

household chores, child rearing, preparing food, and caring for 

the elderly. During the communist era, the government 

promoted equality between men and women in all spheres of 

life, expecting most citizens to participate in the workforce. As a 

result, urban women usually worked in a variety of industries, 

often earning the same wages as their male counterparts. 

Meanwhile, rural women labored on farms alongside men. 

Today, some women continue to work outside the home, 

although they still perform the majority of domestic chores 

(Photo: A Bulgarian 

teacher and her 

students speak with 

US soldiers in 

Kilifarevo). 

Labor Force: In 

2014, about 48% of 

Bulgarian women 

worked outside the

home, lower than 

averages in the US (56%) and the EU (51%). While the 

majority of Bulgarian working women occupy low-skill and lowpaying jobs in the services, agriculture, and manufacturing

sectors, others attain high-level positions in government and 

business. In 2011, almost 37% of women in the workforce held 

positions as legislators, senior officials, or managers, up from 

31% in 2007 and closing in on the US rate of 43%. 

Despite this trend, women typically earn 13% less than men 

with comparable education levels and work experience, about 

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
the same as the EU average. Women are also likely to 

experience discrimination in hiring and promotion and sexual 

harassment in the workplace (see “Gender and the Law” 

below). 

Gender and the Law

In 1985, new legislation granted men and women equal rights 

within marriage, divorce, and their authority over their children. 

In addition to 

recognizing a female 

head of household, the 

1985 law also provides 

women with equal 

access to land, 

property, and financial 

services, while 

guaranteeing equal 

inheritance rights to 

wives, widows, and daughters. Further, the 1986 Labor Code 

prohibits discrimination and harassment based on gender, 

race, or nationality in the workforce and in higher education. 

Infractions are punishable under criminal law (Photo: 

Bulgarians in traditional costumes perform in Plovdiv).

Nevertheless, discrimination and harassment laws are rarely 

enforced. Women often face discrimination and sexual 

harassment in the workplace. In addition, fear of losing their 

jobs or incurring social stigma and a general mistrust of the 

judicial system discourages victims from reporting such crimes. 

Consequently, as of 2015, no sexual harassment cases have 

been prosecuted. Further, the government routinely fails to 

enforce child maintenance orders following a divorce, often 

leaving mothers unable to attain childcare benefits from former 

spouses.

Gender and Politics

Bulgarian women’s political participation rates have risen over 

the last several decades. In 1998, Reneta Indzhova became 

Bulgaria’s first and so far only female Prime Minister. In recent 

years, women have held prominent public positions, including 

mayor of the capital city of Sofia, speaker of the Parliament, 

members of the Council of Ministers, and Presidential 

SEX &

GENDER
candidates. Today, women hold 35% of ministerial positions 

and 20% of 

Parliamentary seats –

about the same rate as 

in the US, where some 

20% of Congress 

members are women 

(Photo: Former US 

President and Mrs. 

Obama with Bulgarian 

Minister of Foreign 

Affairs Rumiana Jeleva and another official, far left, in 2009).

Gender Based Violence (GBV)

Bulgarian women are sometimes victims of violence, mostly 

related to domestic incidents. While rape is a criminal offense 

that carries severe penalties, the law does not criminalize 

domestic violence, nor does it account for spousal rape. In 

2015, over 11% of Bulgarian women were victims of domestic 

violence, with levels higher among Roma (18%) (see p. 13 of 

Political and Social Relations) and other ethnic minorities. 

Women generally are hesitant to report GBV crimes or to seek 

help following an incident. While some consider it a private 

matter, others fear stigmatization and social exclusion. 

Consequently, victims typically consult friends and family rather 

than the police. Moreover, despite recent government initiatives 

and public media campaigns to raise awareness of domestic 

violence, some women remain unaware of their rights to 

protection and of available reporting and support mechanisms. 

Generally, when GBV cases are reported, indictment and 

prosecution of perpetrators is rare. In fact, courts often dismiss 

GBV cases outright, labeling them “family” or “private” matters. 

While early (before age 18) and forced marriage are

criminalized, the practices persist within some Roma and other 

ethnic minority communities. Further, “honor killings” (the killing 

of females perceived to have brought dishonor to their families) 

occur among some such communities. 

Trafficking: Bulgaria is a source, transit, and destination 

country for sex and labor trafficking of men, women, and 

children. Although the government has sought to eliminate the 

SEX &

GENDER
practice, Bulgaria struggles to meet minimum international antitrafficking standards. Moreover, corruption in government, law 

enforcement, and the judiciary enables some trafficking crimes. 

Besides insufficient prevention methods, government victim 

support services such as shelters, medical services, and 

reintegration assistance are inadequate. In 2014, Bulgaria 

remained one of the largest source countries for trafficking in 

the EU.

Sex and Procreation

While public displays of affection and sexuality were largely 

uncommon during the communist era, attitudes have liberalized 

in recent years. Young urban couples more commonly hold 

hands, kiss, and show 

affection in public. 

Bulgaria’s birth rate is 

just 1.5 births per 

woman, far below the 

rate required to 

maintain the population. 

Alarmed at this low rate, 

the government has 

instituted programs to encourage families to have children. 

Notably, Bulgaria has one of the world’s most liberal parental 

leave policies: women are entitled to over 2 years of maternity 

leave during which they receive 90% of their salaries for the 

first 12 months and for the remainder the average national 

monthly wage. Further, mothers may choose to transfer the 

benefit to the father after the first 6 months. (Photo: US soldier 

with children in Mokren).

Homosexuality 

Bulgarian law decriminalizes homosexual activity but does not 

recognize same-sex marriage nor grants homosexual couples 

the same legal rights as heterosexual couples. Enacted in 2003 

and amended in 2015, the Protection Against Discrimination 

Act outlaws discrimination, hate speech, and violence against 

members of the LGBT community, although in practice, cases 

are rarely reported and perpetrators are even more rarely 

prosecuted. Generally, LGBT members experience significant 

social stigmatization.

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Bulgaria’s official language is Bulgarian. Almost 98% of the 

population have some knowledge of the language, while over

85% speak it as a native language. 

The modern Bulgarian language traces its roots to the 7th

century, when the Slavs and Proto-Bulgars began to intermix 

(see p. 3 of History 

and Myth). In the 9th

century, Greek 

missionary brothers 

Cyril and Methodius 

devised a new 

alphabet to translate 

parts of the Bible into 

this Slavo-Bulgarian 

language (also 

known as Old Church 

Slavonic or Old Bulgarian). In the 10th century, Orthodox 

monks Naum and Kliment published additional Christian texts

written in this Cyrillic alphabet. They also opened a religious 

educational center that trained more than 3,000 Bulgarian 

priests. These monks facilitated the spread of Christianity (see 

p. 2-3 of Religion and Spirituality) by providing regional 

inhabitants access to religious books in their own language, 

while laying the foundation for a Bulgarian national identity (see 

p. 4 of History and Myth) (Photo: 16th-century Bulgarian book).

Today, Bulgaria celebrates the invention of the Cyrillic alphabet 

annually on May 24, the Day of Slavonic Culture and Literacy. 

Of note, Bulgaria is the only EU member to use the Cyrillic 

alphabet. Variants of the Cyrillic alphabet are also used to write

Russian, Belarusian, and Ukrainian, among other languages. 

Bulgarian

Bulgarian belongs to the southern Slavic branch of the IndoEuropean language family and exhibits features also present in 

ancient Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit. Bulgarian is most similar to 

other southern Slavic languages such as Bosnian, Serbian, 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
and Croatian and the eastern Slavic language, Macedonian. 

Bulgaria historically disagrees with the recognition of 

Macedonian as a language distinct from Bulgarian (see p. 10 of 

Political and Social Relations). Loanwords from other 

languages such as Greek, Turkish, Russian, and English also 

add to modern Bulgarian vocabulary (Photo: US and Bulgarian 

Army leaders during 

the closing

ceremony of 

exercises in 2015).

In spoken 

Bulgarian, stress

occurs on any 

syllable of a word, 

and each letter is 

spoken exactly as 

written. Written 

Bulgarian uses a 30-letter Cyrillic alphabet. While each region 

has its own variant, the Contemporary Standard Bulgarian is 

based on the dominant Palityan dialect. 

Other Languages

About 8% of the population speaks Turkish, usually as a 2nd

language after Bulgarian. Predominantly Muslim (see p. 7 of 

Religion and Spirituality), Bulgaria’s Turkish speakers live 

primarily in south-central and northeastern Bulgaria. According 

to the national census, around 4% of the population speaks 

Romani, the language of the Roma, though those numbers are 

likely higher (see p. 13 of Political and Social Relations and p. 

5 of Learning and Knowledge). 

Some Bulgarians speak Macedonian, the Wallachian dialect of 

Romanian, Greek, and Armenian. Popular 2nd and 3rd

languages include English, German, and Russian.

English: Since the fall of communism and Bulgaria’s 

orientation to Western Europe (see p. 20-23 of History and 

Myth), English has become increasingly popular. English 

instruction begins in primary school and continues into 

secondary, where the majority of students study the language.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Communication Overview

Communicating effectively in Bulgaria requires not only 

knowledge of the language but also the ability to use the 

language to interact effectively. This broad notion of 

competence includes paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, 

intonation), nonverbal communication (personal space, touch, 

gestures), and interaction management (conversation initiation, 

turn-taking, and 

termination). When used 

properly, these forms of 

communication help to 

ensure that statements 

are interpreted as the 

speaker intends (Photo: 

A US Marine interacts 

with Bulgarian youth).

Communication Style

Bulgarian communications are typically engaging and 

emotional. Loud conversations are not uncommon, as many 

Bulgarians regard quiet speech as a sign of insecurity or lack of 

confidence. Often talkative, Bulgarians prefer to avoid breaks in 

conversations. Nevertheless, Bulgarians may be reserved 

when interacting with strangers or new acquaintances. 

Whether in professional or personal conversations, foreign 

nationals should follow the lead of Bulgarian counterparts in

defining the formality of communications. Bulgarians typically 

remain formal and professional within business settings.

Greetings 

Bulgarian greetings are usually simple and direct, consisting of 

a firm handshake with continuous eye contact, a smile, and a 

verbal greeting appropriate for the time of day (see “Useful 

Words and Phrases” below). A simple “Hello” (zdrasti between 

good friends or family members, zdravei to a single 

acquaintance or stranger, zdraveite to a group) also suffices.

In less formal circumstances, members of either gender may 

extend both hands to each other, while women may exchange 

1 or 3 cheek kisses. Of note, rural Bulgarians do not kiss twice 

on the cheek, as even numbers are typically considered

unlucky.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Forms of Address

Bulgarians use different forms of address, depending on the 

nature of the relationship. For instance, they typically address 

new acquaintances 

with Gospodin (Mr), 

Gospozha (Mrs), or 

Gospozhitsa (Miss), 

or another appropriate 

title followed by the

family name. In

informal settings or 

with family, friends, 

and close colleagues, 

Bulgarians commonly 

call each other by first name (Photo: US and Bulgarian 

soldiers).

Bulgarian has distinct “you” pronouns that reflect different

levels of formality and respect. They usually use the formal 

“you” or vie when meeting for the first time or with business 

associates, elders, or authority figures. They tend to reserve 

the informal ti for friends, relatives, and close colleagues. 

Foreign nationals should use formal forms of address unless 

directed otherwise. 

Names

Bulgarians typically have 3 names: a given or first name, their

father’s name, and a family name. They often name their 

children using a variation of the grandfather’s name, such as 

naming a boy Miloslav after his grandfather Milko. Of note, a 

last name may also be a different form of the paternal 

grandfather’s first name. For example, names like Georgi 

Georgiev (meaning Georgi’s Georgi) are common. Slavic male

last names often end in –ov, –ev, or –chev, while women’s last 

names typically end in –ova, –eva, or –cheva.

Last names can also indicate ethnic origin, with some 

Armenians, Turks, and Jews choosing not to add Slavic 

endings to their last names. Of note, when the communist 

government tried to compel Turks to adopt Slavic last names in 

the 1980s (see p. 20 of History and Myth), the move prompted 

widespread protests and the policy was eventually discarded.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Conversational Topics 

Common conversation topics include family, work, hobbies, 

history, culture, and soccer. Some Bulgarians may also 

introduce more sensitive topics such as salary, age, or marital 

status. Potentially offensive topics include immigration (either 

legal or illegal); relations with Macedonia, Greece, or Turkey;

and the status of the Roma (see p. 13-14 of Political and Social 

Relations). 

While profanity and 

slang are common 

in some circles, 

foreign nationals 

should avoid using 

them. Bulgarians 

typically are 

appreciative when 

foreign nationals 

attempt to speak a 

local language

(Photo: Bulgarians demonstrate against shale gas operations). 

Gestures

Bulgarians are highly expressive, especially in informal 

conversation, using facial and hand movements to augment 

their words. Of note, traditional Bulgarian gestures for “yes” 

and “no” are opposite American and Western European habits. 

Specifically, Bulgarians typically shake their head side-to-side 

once to indicate agreement while nodding indicates “no.” 

However, Bulgarians who have spent time abroad may adapt 

their “yes” and “no” gestures for foreign audiences. Foreign 

nationals who are unsure of their conversational partner’s 

intent should seek verbal confirmation. Bulgarians consider 

pointing with the index finger impolite, preferring to indicate 

direction with the entire hand. They may indicate disapproval 

by clicking the tongue loudly.

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil for language training resources.

Click on the Resources tab on the upper toolbar then 

Language Resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Bulgarian

Hi / Hello Zdraveite

Good morning Dobro utro

Good afternoon Dobur den

Good evening Dobur vecher

My name is ____ Az se kazvam ____

What is your name? Kak se kazvate?

How are you? Kak ste?

I'm well, thank you. And you?

Az sum dobre, blagodarya. A 

Vie?

Please Molya

Thank you Blagodarya

You're welcome Ti si dobre doshal / Molya

Yes / No Da / Ne

Goodbye Dovizhdane

Good night Leka nosht

See you later Do skoro

I am American As sum amerikanets

Do you speak English? Govorite li angliiski?

I don't understand Ne razbiram

Sorry Suzalyavam

I don't know Ne znam

I'm lost Zagubih se

Help! Pomosht!

Cheers! Nazdrave!

What? Kakvo?

Where? Kude?

Who? Koĭ? 

How? / How much? Kak? / kolko?

When? Koga?

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 98.4% 

• Male: 98.7% 

• Female: 98.1% (2015 estimate)

Education in the Early Bulgarian Empires

Before the introduction of formal education, the region’s early 

residents informally transmitted values, skills, and knowledge 

to younger generations. Following the development of the 

Cyrillic alphabet (see p. 1 of Language and Communication) 

and his adoption of Christianity (see p. 2 of Religion and 

Spirituality), Tsar Boris I of the First Bulgarian Kingdom (see p. 

4 of History and Myth) opened 2 schools offering instruction in 

the Slavo-Bulgarian language. Other schools in Pliska and 

Ohrid (in present-day Macedonia) provided training for 

Bulgarian priests (see p. 1 of Language and Communication), 

while also serving as 

centers of translation, 

poetry, and art.

During the Second 

Bulgarian Kingdom (see p. 

5 of History and Myth), 

schools at Kilifarevo and 

Turnovo became prominent 

educational centers. 

Meanwhile, popular cults (see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality) 

provided some educational opportunities (Photo: US Marines 

with students and teachers near the Novo Selo training area).

Education under the Ottomans

Bulgarians’ educational opportunities were limited during most 

of the period of the Turkish “yoke” (see p. 5-10 of History and 

Myth). While local communities and Orthodox monasteries 

supported so-called “cell schools,” education was not 

sufficiently widespread to allow significant literary or 

educational growth. Nevertheless, these limited offerings did 

allow the Orthodox faith (see p. 1-6 of Religion and Spirituality) 

and the Bulgarian language to survive.

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Education and the National Revival

By the mid-19th century, wealth from an expanding economy 

prompted local guilds, individual merchants and manufacturers, 

and village councils to fund education in various ways. These 

included building schools and supplying them with books and 

other resources, funding scholarships for students to study at 

foreign universities, and building cultural centers called 

chitalishta (see p. 8-9 of History and Myth).

In 1834, Bulgaria’s first secular school opened in Gabrovo. By 

1840, around 12 primary schools offered education to 

Bulgarian boys, while 1 opened its doors to girls. A decade 

later, almost all Bulgarian communities had a school offering

primary education. By the late 19th century, the government 

made primary schooling mandatory. 

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, secondary school offerings 

began to expand, adding courses in business, teaching, and 

theological. By 1878, when Sofia University was founded, 

Bulgaria was home to 1479 primary schools, 50 secondary 

schools, and 130 cultural centers. 

Education in the Early 20th Century

Bulgaria’s educational 

system saw significant 

growth and important 

reforms following World 

War I. Besides opening 

thousands of new schools, 

the government mandated 

secondary school 

attendance and greatly 

expanded vocational 

education offerings (Photo: 

Bulgarian high school teachers in 1908). 

Education under Communism

Following the end of World War II (see p. 15-18 of History and 

Myth), the communists took over and quickly established full 

control over the educational system. The Ministry of Public 

Education assumed authority over all schools – public, 

religious, and those serving ethnic minorities. While the 1947 

“Dimitrov Constitution” (see p. 18 of History and Myth) 

KNO

LEARNING &

WLEDGE KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
mandated education for ethnic minorities in their own 

languages, this policy was rarely implemented. For example, 

by the early 1970s, the state had outlawed even elementarylevel lessons in the Turkish language. 

To promote its socialist system, the government implemented 

standardized curricula promoting communist tenets of atheism, 

collectivism, and Marxist-Leninist philosophy while purging the 

teaching ranks of individuals considered insufficiently patriotic. 

Focused on achieving rapid industrialization, the government 

emphasized practical technical training, with all secondary 

students required to work part-time in industry, agriculture, or 

construction. 

These efforts had both positive and negative consequences. 

Literacy rates improved considerably over the decades. By 

focusing on technical training, however, schools offered 

students limited educational opportunities. In the late 1970s, 

Prime Minister Zhivkov (see p. 19-20 of History and Myth) 

introduced sweeping educational reform in support of 

Bulgaria’s scientific and technological advancement. Intended 

to reinforce the country’s communist underpinnings, this reform 

effort failed and was abandoned.

Modern Education System

Following the fall of communism, the educational system was 

depoliticized and restructured through the 1991 Law on Public 

Education. Today, a comprehensive network of public primary 

and secondary schools offers free, compulsory education to

students aged 7-16. On average, Bulgarians complete 10.6 

years of schooling 

(Photo: School in 

Belovo).

In 2012, over 96% of 

children of the 

appropriate age attended

primary school. By upper 

secondary school, 

attendance dropped to just under 80%. In 2013, Bulgaria spent

some 9.8% of its budget on education, a slightly higher rate 

than neighboring Romania yet lower than the EU average of 

10.3%. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
While Bulgarian is the primary language of instruction in public 

schools, the government recognizes several “mother tongues” 

as other languages of instruction. Since 1992, local schools 

have provided instruction in Armenian, Greek, Hebrew, Roma, 

and Turkish. Turkish activists frequently advocate for additional 

educational opportunities in that language (see p. 14 of Political 

and Social Relations).

Pre-Primary:

Preschool is optional 

for children aged 3-5, 

although children aged 

5-6 are required to 

complete a 

kindergarten year 

before entering 1st

grade. Some facilities 

offer gardening, music, and athletic activities like tennis or 

skiing, yet others suffer from underfunding. Some ethnic 

minorities (see “The Education of Roma” below) and rural 

children are disproportionately underrepresented at this level

(Photo: US soldiers support a kindergarten renovation in 

Kilifarevo). 

Basic: Consisting of 8 grades starting at age 6, basic schooling 

comprises primary school (grades 1-4) and lower secondary 

school (grades 5-8). The curriculum includes Bulgarian 

literature, math, history, geography, science, art, music, foreign 

languages, and physical education. Generally, basic schooling 

is highly standardized with little differentiation based on 

aptitude.

Upper Secondary: Following attainment of a Basic Education 

Completion Certification, students take an exam to determine 

their entrance into secondary school. Bulgaria offers 3 types of 

upper secondary schools lasting 4-5 years: comprehensive 

(general); vocational-technical; and “profile-oriented” schools 

that focus on a language (such as English, German, Russian, 

Turkish, Italian, French, Spanish, Armenian, or Hebrew), math 

and science, or the humanities. 

Many upper secondary schools lack adequate modern 

equipment, especially for science and technical subjects. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
The Education of Roma

Bulgaria’s Roma population (see p. 13-14 of Political 

and Social Relations) exhibits significantly lower 

educational achievement than populations of other 

ethnicities. According to a 2011 study, nearly 25% of 

Roma aged 7-15 do not attend school, while about 93% 

of Roma fail to complete upper secondary school. The 

Roma’s educational underperformance is linked to a 

variety of factors, such as severe poverty, societal 

discrimination, and lack of access to education in their 

primary language, Romani.

Nevertheless, participation in vocational secondary programs is 

above the EU average. 

Post-Secondary: To pursue post-secondary academic and 

vocational studies, students must graduate secondary school 

and pass admissions exams. Some 60 universities and other

institutions offer post-secondary programs of study in various 

languages, including Bulgarian, English, German, and French. 

The most prominent institutions include Sofia University, New 

Bulgarian University, the American University in Bulgaria, the 

University of National and World Economy, and the National 

Academy of Arts. As of 2015, about 30% of Bulgaria’s 30-34 

year olds held post-secondary degrees, although this rate 

remains below the EU average of almost 39% for this age 

group. Further, over 25% of recent graduates are unemployed.

Of note, Bulgaria has experienced a “brain drain” or the 

emigration of the highly trained or educated in recent years due 

to a lack of jobs matching graduates’ qualifications. 

Religious Education

By law, public schools must offer an optional religious 

education course examining Christianity and Islam from 

cultural, historic, and philosophical perspectives. Further, all 

officially registered religious groups (see p. 1 of Religion and 

Spirituality) may request that their beliefs be incorporated into 

the course curriculum. 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Bulgarians consider trust, respect, and a sense of humor

fundamental to building strong personal and professional 

relationships. They are 

typically generous and 

hospitable hosts. 

Time and Work

Bulgaria’s workweek runs 

from Monday-Friday with

most business hours from 

9:00am-6:00pm. While 

hours vary by store size and location, some shops are open 

weekdays from 9:00am-8:00pm and Saturdays from 10:00am6:00pm. Stores are either closed on Sundays or have reduced 

hours, though major shopping centers are typically open every 

day, often for longer hours (Photo: An art gallery in Plovdiv).

Most banks are open Monday-Friday from 9:00am-4:00pm. 

Post offices typically open Monday-Friday from 8:00am5:00pm, with reduced hours on weekends. Some banks, post 

offices, and shops stay open later in urban centers than in rural 

areas. While most businesses close on public holidays, some 

large stores and 

supermarkets in urban 

areas remain open.

Working Conditions: The 

standard workweek is 40 

hours with up to 8 hours 

paid overtime, although 

some sectors such as

construction and agriculture 

require longer hours. While Bulgarian labor laws provide 

comprehensive regulations to protect workers, enforcement is

inconsistent and violations sometimes occur. In addition to paid 

public holidays, Bulgarians receive 20 days of annual paid

leave (Photo: Bulgarian rail workers with US Army equipment 

in Varna).

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Time Zone: Bulgaria observes Eastern European Time (EET), 

which is 2 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 7 

hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time (EST). Bulgaria follows 

daylight savings from the end of March-October, which makes 

Bulgaria 3 hours ahead of GMT during that period.

Date Notation: Like the US, Bulgaria uses the Western 

(Gregorian) calendar. Unlike Americans, Bulgarians write the 

day first, followed by the month and year.

Time and Business

Business tends to move slower in Bulgaria than in the US. 

Bulgarians usually prefer to build trust and develop personal 

relations before doing business, requiring extra time and 

communication. While Bulgarians appreciate punctuality in 

business, arriving late to a meeting is generally acceptable 

given prior notification. Most business discussions occur during 

scheduled office meetings, although informal meetings in other 

locations or during meals are also common.

National Holidays

• January 1: New Year’s Day

• March 3: Liberation Day

• April / May: Orthodox Easter Holidays (dates 

vary each year)

• May 1: Labor Day

• May 6: St. George’s Day / Army Day

• May 24: Culture and Literacy Day

• September 6: Unification Day

• September 22: Independence Day

• December 24: Christmas Eve

• December 25: Christmas Day

• December 26: Boxing Day

Any holiday falling on a weekend is observed on 

the following Monday.

SPACE

TIME &
When meeting for the first time, Bulgarian businesspeople

greet and shake hands (see p. 3 of Language and 

Communication). Potential business partners typically 

exchange gifts such as wine, chocolates, or dessert to help 

establish rapport. To build interpersonal relations, Bulgarians 

often begin and end 

business meetings with 

light conversation on 

topics such as health, 

family, and pastimes. 

Joking is another

common way to build 

rapport. To ensure trust 

and confidence among 

colleagues, Bulgarians 

often use personal favors and hire relatives or close friends 

(Photo: USAF CMSgt reviews procedures with a Bulgarian Air 

Force pilot).

Bulgarians favor practical, competent, and flexible business 

relations. Business conversations in Bulgaria are often direct 

and specific, supplemented by nonverbal communication (see 

p. 5 of Language and Communication). Managers generally 

deliver feedback and criticism in private in order to avoid 

conflict and embarrassment.

The Bulgarian workplace is typically hierarchical. Maintaining 

formality, respect, and deference to authority is considered

essential. While senior 

officials or upper 

management tend to run 

meetings and make most

decisions, they also value

consensus. 

Consequently, Bulgarian 

business culture may also 

include consultative and 

informal discussions that consider the opinions of all 

participants, even though managers make most final decisions

(Photo: Former US Secretary of State Kerry meets with former 

Bulgarian Foreign Minister Mitov in Sofia).

SPACE

TIME &
Personal Space

As in most societies, the use of personal space depends on the 

nature of the relationship. When conversing with strangers and 

acquaintances, Bulgarians are typically comfortable with closer

distance than Americans and even closer when conversing 

with close friends and family.

Touch

Bulgarians tend to engage in more conversational touching 

than Americans, especially among close friends and family. 

Same-sex friends of both genders may touch and embrace to 

demonstrate the close nature of their platonic relationships. 

Eye Contact

Direct eye contact is important during any greeting (see p. 3 of 

Language and Communication) or business meeting to convey 

interest, respect, and transparency. While constant eye contact 

is not always necessary, Bulgarians typically prefer to maintain 

at least periodic eye contact during conversations.

Photographs

Banks, churches, museums, secured areas, and similar places 

may prohibit photography. Foreign nationals should always 

acquire a Bulgarian’s 

permission before taking 

his photo.

Driving

Some Bulgarians have 

aggressive driving habits, 

passing vehicles on blind 

corners at high speeds or 

ignoring designated 

traffic signals. At 9.5 per 100,000 people in 2015, Bulgaria’s 

rate of traffic-related deaths was the same as neighboring 

Romania and also the highest in the EU, yet still lower than the 

US rate of 10.6. Drunk driving is a serious offense punishable 

by high fines and imprisonment. Although traffic enforcement 

has improved in recent years, it still suffers from corruption. For 

example, officials sometimes accept bribes instead of issuing 

fines. Like Americans, Bulgarians drive on the right side of the 

road (Photo: US soldiers in Stryker Combat Vehicles travel to

Bulgaria’s Novo Selo training area).

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Bulgarian dress, recreation, music, and arts reflect centuries of 

foreign influences, rural traditions, and modern global trends. 

Many traditions also are rooted in Bulgaria’s ancient pagan 

past and nearly 12 centuries of Orthodox Christianity (see p. 1-

6 of Religion and Spirituality).

Dress and Appearance

Traditional: Bulgarians tend to wear traditional dress during

special events, festivals, and sometimes on national holidays. 

While specific styles and fabrics vary across regions, folk 

costumes usually are made of wool or linen and richly 

ornamented with bold, bright embroidery. Historically, girls

learned to embroider garments, blankets, and other items from 

a young age. Even today, young single girls usually wear 

garments embroidered with the brightest and most colorful

stitching, while the clothing of older or married women features

darker colors and 

simpler patterns (Photo: 

Bulgarians wearing

traditional costume in 

Plovdiv). 

Women’s wear typically 

includes a riza, a white 

blouse decorated with 

intricate embroidery on 

the sleeves, around the 

neck, and along the hem. Depending on the region, the riza is 

worn under a sukhman (a long, sleeveless tunic) or a saya (a 

long, short-sleeved tunic with an opening at the front). The 

tunic is topped with a bruchnik, an apron often adorned with 

bold, geometric, and embroidered designs representing plants, 

flowers, animals, and the human form. While young girls 

usually wear headscarves exposing their hair, married women 

usually keep their hair completely covered. For weddings and 

festivals, headdresses tend to be elaborate. Women 

sometimes accent their costumes with jewelry. 

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Men’s wear includes a white blouse featuring colorful 

embroidered patterns at the neck and cuffs. The blouse is 

tucked into narrow trousers and topped with a jacket adorned 

with decorative braiding along the pockets and seams. Men 

complete their traditional look with a kalpak (hat made of black 

lambskin), socks, gaiters, and ox-hide or pigskin shoes. The 

costume may be topped with a long woven cloak of goat or 

sheep’s wool. 

Modern: Although specific styles vary by age and geographic 

location, Bulgarians typically wear clothing that reflects the 

latest European fashion trends. In business settings, 

Bulgarians prefer more formal attire. Men don tailored suits, 

while women may wear suit jackets with trousers or skirts, 

often paired with high heels. 

Among younger Bulgarians, denim jeans, button-up shirts, 

sweaters, denim or sport jackets, and sneakers or loafers are 

popular. Generally, older Bulgarians tend to dress more 

conservatively than younger generations, with comfort and 

utility taking precedence over style. During the winter, 

Bulgarians wear wool hats and scarves, leather gloves, fur 

coats or thick winter jackets, and sturdy boots. 

Recreation and Leisure

Bulgarians generally prefer to spend their leisure time with 

close friends and family. Younger Bulgarians often socialize in 

large groups, meeting at bars and cafes, watching movies, 

attending concerts and 

sports events, and going 

to the theater or ballet. 

By contrast, older 

Bulgarians often gather 

at home with a small,

close circle of friends. 

During the summer, 

Bulgarians enjoy 

barbecuing outdoors, 

taking long walks, and meeting friends in parks and gardens. 

Bulgarian men also enjoy making homemade wine and brandy

(see p. 3 of Sustenance and Health) (Photo: Downtown Plovdiv 

includes ancient ruins as well as modern shopping and dining). 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Bulgarians often reserve extended vacations for the summer

months. Common destinations include the mountains and the 

Black Sea coast, where camping, swimming, fishing, and 

rowing are popular activities. Wealthier Bulgarians may spend 

their holidays abroad. During the winter, Bulgarians enjoy 

skiing and other winter sports (see “Sports and Games” below)

but typically socialize indoors. Reading is a particularly popular 

pastime. 

Festivals: Easter is one of the most important Christian 

holidays of the year, when many Bulgarians observe traditional 

customs such as painting and eating boiled eggs. Important 

Muslim holidays include the month-long Ramadan, when

religious observers abstain from food, water, and tobacco 

during the day. Another Muslim holiday is Kurban Bayram, 

also known as Eid al-Adha, a festival of sacrifice in which 

participants slaughter sheep and goats and host large feasts 

with music and dancing. 

Other festivals celebrate annual events, some rooted in ancient

pre-Christian traditions (see p. 1-2 of Religion and Spirituality). 

Some of these events mark the changing of the seasons or

celebrate the bounty of the harvest. For example, Bulgarians 

celebrate the beginning of spring with Baba Marta, an 

occasion when friends exchange martenitsa (braided red-andwhite yarn adornments—pictured), 

which are believed to bring good 

fortune. After exchanging the 

martenitsa, Bulgarians often pin 

them to their clothing or tie them

around their wrists. 

During Enyovden, celebrated on 

the summer solstice, women gather

flowers and herbs to chase away 

evil spirits and promote health, love, 

and wealth. Some communities 

celebrate an ancient ritual known as

the Kukeri to mark the end of 

winter. For this ritual, participants parade through the streets 

wearing elaborate wooden masks that protect the wearers from 

evil spirits, promote fertility, and ensure a successful harvest. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Throughout the year, folk song, dance, and music festivals are

popular across the country. Held every 5 years to celebrate 

Bulgaria’s rich history of folklore and folk music, the 

Koprivshtitsa Folklore Festival is the largest and most famous 

national festival. Other notable festivals include the Varna 

Summer International Festival, the International Folklore 

Festival, the Sofia Musical Weeks, and the Festival of Roses, 

among others

(Photo: An open air 

stage in Plovdiv). 

Sports and Games

Sports: Bulgarians

enjoy a variety of 

winter sports such 

as skiing, ice 

skating, and ice 

hockey. Swimming, 

sailing, tennis, and hiking are popular during the summer. 

While Bulgarians also enjoy basketball and volleyball, football 

(soccer) is the most popular team sport. In addition to a 

national soccer team, most large cities have professional 

league teams. 

Bulgarian athletes have performed well in the Olympics,

medaling in wrestling, gymnastics, weightlifting, and ice 

skating. Notably, the Bulgarian team collectively won 20 

medals in the 1988 Olympics, ranking 8th in the world that 

year. Prominent athletes include soccer player Christo 

Stoichkov and Stefka Kostadinova, who has held the women’s 

world record for the high jump since 1987. 

Traditional Games: Traditional games are especially popular

during holidays. Children typically play “guards and thieves,” 

whereby a designated child closes his eyes and counts to 10 

while other players collect nearby objects. When done 

counting, the child randomly assigns objects to be “thieves” or 

“guards.” A game of tag follows, where children who picked the 

objects labeled as “guards” chase those who picked “thieves.” 

Backgammon, checkers, and chess are popular among all 

ages. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Music

Traditional: Bulgaria has a rich history of folk music, orally 

passed through generations. Today, it is customary to perform 

traditional music at 

weddings, funerals, 

festivals, and other 

special occasions.

Although specific 

styles vary by region, 

folk songs generally

incorporate complex 

harmonies, a variety 

of rhythms, irregular 

beats, and contrasting dissonance. For example, folk styles in 

the southern Rhodope Mountains often include slow tempos, 

melancholy lyrics, and low-pitched instruments, while songs in 

the North tend to be more energetic (Photo: Street musicians 

perform in Nessebar). 

Bulgarian folk music uses a variety of traditional instruments, 

such as simple reed instruments, horns, flutes, and stringed 

instruments. Popular instruments include the kaval, a type of 

wooden flute; the gaida, a goatskin bagpipe; and the

tamboura, a long-necked 4-string instrument similar to a lute. 

Modern: During the communist era (see p. 18-20 of History 

and Myth), the government limited Western-style rock, pop, 

and jazz, instead promoting opera and classical music. Still 

popular today, opera houses and orchestras in Sofia and other 

urban areas offer concerts featuring an array of musical styles. 

Prominent musicians include opera singers Boris Hristov, 

Nikolai Ghiaurov, and Ghena Dimitrova. Theodosii Spassov is

a legendary folk artist who fuses traditional folk music with jazz, 

classical music, and pop. A pop-folk fusion style called chalga

incorporates elements of Turkish, Roma, and Serbian music 

and has gained popularity since the 1990s. Bulgarians today 

once again enjoy international pop, rock, and jazz music.

Dance

Traditional Bulgarian folk dances vary by region yet exhibit

certain common characteristics. Groups of dancers typically 

perform in lines, open crescents, or closed circles, often while 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
singing or chanting. Dancers tend to perform their steps 

methodically and in a range of speeds. Some dances are 

reserved for women or men, while others are performed by 

both genders. 

During the popular horo dance, participants gather in either a 

straight line or a circle and perform a series of fast, repetitive 

steps, while holding each other’s belts and hands or waving

handkerchiefs. Dancers typically shake their bodies in the fastpaced shopluk. In the competitive ruchenitza, men and 

women challenge each other to a series of increasingly 

complex steps

(Photo: Bulgarians in 

traditional attire dance

in Plovdiv). 

Over time, dance 

traditions from other 

European countries 

influenced and altered 

Bulgarian folk dances.

During the communist 

era, classical ballet became an important form of dance. 

Today, Bulgarians perform dances with partners and in other 

non-traditional formations. 

Literature

Early Bulgarian folklore and folk poetry was orally transmitted 

through ballads and other traditional songs with lyrics exploring

a range of themes, such as nature, love, and friendship. The 

earliest written Bulgarian literature traces to the 9th century, 

when Christian missionaries Cyril and Methodius first 

developed the Cyrillic alphabet (see p. 1 of Language and 

Communication). Through the 14th century, most written works 

comprised historical accounts and translations of religious 

texts. During the almost 500 years of Ottoman domination (see 

p. 5-10 of History and Myth), Ottoman rulers restricted the 

spread of Bulgarian literature, allowing its use only in churches 

and monasteries.

In the late 19th century, literature, art, and education flourished 

as a part of Bulgaria’s National Revival (see p. 8-9 of History 

and Myth). During this time, Ivan Vazov penned the famous 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
and influential “Under the Yoke,” a novel chronicling the 

hardships Bulgarians endured under Ottoman rule. Meanwhile, 

poets Hristo Botev and Pencho Slavevkov published works 

encouraging the development of a Bulgarian national identity, 

influencing subsequent generations of Bulgarian authors. 

During the communist era (see p. 18-20 of History and Myth), 

the government closely supervised the literary community, 

restricting the publication of certain books, magazines, and 

newspapers. Some artists were subject to censorship, while 

others were jailed or emigrated to Western Europe or the US to

escape oppression. 

Today, Bulgaria has a flourishing literary scene. Acclaimed 

contemporary artists include poet and novelist Blaga Dimitrova, 

who briefly served as Vice President; novelist and playwright 

Yordan Radichkov; and authors Maria Stankova, Emil Andreev, 

Georgi Tenev, and Milen Ruskov. Since relatively few works of

Bulgarian literature have been translated, some contemporary 

Bulgarian poets and authors remain unknown to readers 

outside the country. 

Arts and Handicrafts

Like other creative works, Bulgaria’s arts and crafts reflect

Bulgarian folklore, its peasant 

history, and rural life. Traditional 

handicrafts include elaborate

woodcarvings, embroidered 

clothing, woven carpets, pottery, 

leatherwork, and jewelry. In 

addition, artists traditionally 

produced Orthodox Christian icon 

paintings, frescoes, mosaics, and 

illustrated religious manuscripts.

During the Ottoman era, some 

artists blended traditional 

Bulgarian styles with Islamic art. 

Today, folk art often incorporates 

geometric or abstract designs and 

stylized images of animals and plants. As noted earlier, egg 

painting is particularly popular during Easter (Photo: Statue of 

Saint Sofia, erected in 2000 in Sofia).

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Entertaining guests at home has been central to Bulgarian 

culture for centuries. Today, na gosti (visiting) remains 

important in daily life. Bulgarians enjoy socializing with friends 

and family, often sharing simple meals prepared from 

seasonal, local 

ingredients

(pictured). 

Dining Customs

Bulgarians typically 

supplement 3 daily 

meals with a 

midmorning snack 

and afternoon 

coffee with sweets. 

While lunch was

traditionally the largest meal, today dinner is usually the most

substantial. In most families, women prepare the meal, set the 

table, and wash the dishes. While some close friends and 

relatives may drop by unannounced, most visits to the home 

usually are arranged in advance. When invited to a home for a 

meal, guests may bring chocolates and flowers for the hostess

or a bottle of alcohol for the host. Upon entering the home, 

guests remove their shoes and, if provided by the hosts, 

replace them with slippers.

Hosts usually serve their guests first. After guests finish their 

portions, they either accept second servings or decline several

offers of additional food. Of note, leaving a small amount of 

food on the plate indicates the diner is finished. Dinners, 

especially on special occasions, typically last several hours, 

and hosts may consider it rude if guests depart early. In 

addition to full meals, Bulgarians often invite guests over for 

afternoon coffee and light snacks. 

Alcoholic beverages are present during most meals. Bulgarians

toast frequently and generally maintain eye contact when 

clinking glasses during a toast. 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Diet

Bulgarian cuisine reflects the 

nation’s unique geography

and history of foreign 

influence (see p. 1 of History 

and Myth). For example, 

northern and central 

Bulgarian fare resembles 

Greek and Turkish cuisine. 

Here, meats are fried, 

stewed, baked, or ground, and topped with hearty sauces or 

layered into pastries. In addition, olive oil and bold spices are a 

part of most recipes. By contrast, dishes in the Rhodope 

Mountains of southern Bulgaria are typically simple with few 

spices and little oil. These dishes usually include garlic, nuts, 

dairy products, and seasonal vegetables. Along the coasts, 

Bulgarians enjoy fresh fish, often grilled or fried and served 

with lemon (Photo: Cucumber salad dressed in yogurt flavored 

with dill and garlic). 

Fresh bread accompanies most meals. Pork is the most 

popular protein, followed closely by lamb, chicken, and fish. 

Meats are typically served 

alongside staples like 

potatoes, pasta, and rice. 

Many dishes incorporate 

or are served with yogurt, 

cheese, milk, sour cream, 

and other dairy products. 

Bulgarians consume a 

variety of native

vegetables including mushrooms (pictured), tomatoes, 

peppers, cucumbers, cabbage, green onions, carrots, and 

spinach. In addition to consuming them fresh, Bulgarians also 

enjoy pickled and soured vegetables. Popular fruits include

grapes, apples, cherries, melons, and watermelons.

Popular Dishes and Meals

Breakfast is usually a light meal, consisting of cheese, bread, 

or a pastry served with coffee, tea, or milk. In rural areas, boza

(a malt drink) is a popular breakfast beverage. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
A traditional lunch begins with salad or a thick stew or soup,

followed by a main course of meat, starch, and vegetables, and 

ends with dessert. In urban areas, lunch is typically lighter, 

usually comprised of a sandwich or salad and often purchased 

from a café, kiosk, or office cafeteria. Generally served around 

7pm, dinner is a hearty meal that typically incorporates a 

variety of appetizers known as meze, salads, or soups served 

alongside meat, chicken, or fish and potatoes, rice, or pasta. 

Popular entrées include moussaka (a casserole of pork or 

lamb, potatoes, tomatoes, and yogurt); nadenitsa (stuffed 

sausage); sarmi (cabbage or grape leaves stuffed with rice 

and pork); kufteta (fried meat 

patty mixed with spices, onions, 

and bread crumbs); and tarator

(a cold soup of yogurt, 

cucumbers, dill, garlic, walnuts, 

and oil). 

For dessert, Bulgarians enjoy 

fresh fruit, compote (stewed 

fruit), and various cakes and 

pastries, such as pumpkin-filled banitsas (fluffy layered 

pastries). A variety of confections are prepared with honey, 

such as the popular baklava (a thick, 

honey pastry made with crushed nuts) 

(pictured above). 

Beverages 

Bulgarians enjoy tea or coffee 

throughout the day, particularly

espresso and thick Turkish-style 

coffees. Fresh fruit juices and diluted 

yogurt are other popular non-alcoholic 

beverages. Alcohol is inexpensive and 

widely available. In addition to beer

(pictured), popular varieties include 

rakia (a grape or plum brandy) and mastika (an anise brandy),

both customarily consumed with salad or meze. Wine is served 

with many midday and evening meals. Tracing back over 2,000 

years, Bulgaria’s winemaking tradition is still important today 

(see p. 5 of Economics and Resources).

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Eating Out

While rural Bulgarians generally eat at home, urban residents 

eat out regularly, using restaurants and bars as popular 

socializing locations. Serving primarily national and European 

cuisine, restaurants range from upscale establishments to 

small casual eateries offering inexpensive and hearty meals. In 

the summer, outdoor 

cafés (pictured) are 

particularly popular in 

urban areas and along 

the Black Sea coast.

Prevalent across the 

country, mehana

(traditional Bulgarian 

restaurants) serve 

customary cuisine while 

featuring folk music and 

dancing. Street vendors in urban areas sell fresh fruits, 

seasonal vegetables, and light snacks such as cheese-filled 

banitsas, sausages, fried dough balls, and sandwiches. 

Although restaurants do not automatically add a surcharge to 

the bill, waiters expect a 10% tip for good service. In more 

causal cafés, it is acceptable to simply round up the bill.

Health Overview

Bulgarians’ overall health has improved in recent years. 

Between 1990-2016, maternal mortality dropped significantly 

from 25 to 11 deaths per 100,000 live births. Meanwhile, life 

expectancy at birth increased from 72 to 75 years, though it

remains below the EU average of 81. Further, infant mortality 

(the proportion of infants who die before age 1) reduced from 

18 to 9 deaths per 1,000 live births during this same period. 

Nevertheless, it remains one of Europe’s highest rates and 

more than double the EU average of 4. Pollution from industrial 

activities severely impacts residents’ health in some regions. 

While Bulgarians generally have access to free and modern 

healthcare, facilities are concentrated in cities and underserve 

rural dwellers. Further, quality of care varies signficantly 

between private, public, urban, and rural facilities. In 2015, 

Bulgaria had 322 hospitals. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine consists of the knowledge, practices, and 

skills derived from a native population’s beliefs, experiences, 

and theories. Traditional Bulgarian medicine centers on the use 

of home remedies consisting of herbal and other natural nonsurgical methods to identify and treat illnesses. Today, modern 

treatments often are supplemented with traditional therapies. 

Pharmacies and merchants in both urban and rural areas

commonly sell herbal remedies and medicinal plants. Among 

others, herbal treatments include the use of bearberry leaves, 

stinging nettle (pictured), and bilberry to treat a variety of 

ailments, ranging from 

burns and minor cuts to 

arthritis and diabetes. 

In 2004, the Bulgarian 

government legalized 

the use of medicinal 

plants and certain 

traditional procedures in 

public and private 

clinics. These 

treatments include non-traditional physiotherapy methods; 

homeopathy (a form of alternative medicine developed in 18th 

century Germany whereby a patient ingests diluted plant, 

mineral, and animal substances to trigger the body’s natural 

system of healing); and acupuncture (the process of inserting 

long, thin needles into a patient’s skin). 

Modern Healthcare System

Besides developing national healthcare policy, the Ministry of 

Health regulates Bulgaria’s national healthcare system. This 

system provides free universal healthcare for all employed and 

retired Bulgarians through the National Health Insurance Fund 

(NHIF). Funded by federal, municipal, and private 

contributions, the NHIF covers most medical services and 

procedures such as preventive care, emergency services, 

prescription medicine, maternal care and compensation, 

rehabilitation, retirement, and costs associated with death. 

Meanwhile, uninsured Bulgarians must pay out-of-pocket for all 

medical procedures, tests, and medicines. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Despite increased government investment into healthcare over 

the last several decades, Bulgaria’s healthcare system is

underfunded. While private facilities offer exceptional care to 

the wealthy, public hospitals are generally understaffed, illequipped, and overcrowded. Quality of care further diminishes 

in rural areas, where clinics offer limited medical procedures 

and generally underserve rural dwellers. In addition, low wages 

in the public sector force many of Bulgaria’s finest physicians to 

seek employment in the private sector or elsewhere in Europe.

Bulgaria’s aging population is likely to burden the nation’s 

already overloaded healthcare services in the coming decades. 

The 20% of the population aged 65 or older in 2015 is 

expected to grow to about 30% by 2050. Meanwhile, 

Bulgarians’ low fertility (see p. 4 of Sex and Gender) combined 

with high emigration 

(see p. 1 of Political 

and Social Relations) 

result in a dwindling 

number of Bulgarians 

of working age. As the 

proportion of retirees 

rises over the next

decades, these 

demographic trends 

are expected continue 

to add significant 

strain to national resources and the healthcare system (Photo: 

Elderly women converse in rural Bulgaria). 

Health Challenges

Common in most developed countries with aging populations, 

non-communicable “lifestyle” diseases include cardiovascular 

illnesses, malignant tumors, stroke, diabetes, and liver disease. 

In Bulgaria, these diseases account for over 93% of deaths. In 

addition, respiratory illnesses associated with smoking are 

pervasive: in 2008, Bulgaria’s mortality rate from smokingrelated causes was twice the EU average. Preventable 

“external causes” such as accidents, suicides, and drug use 

result in about 3% of all deaths. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
The average life expectancy of Bulgarians is 6 years less than 

the EU average – a rate that experts attribute to their unhealthy 

lifestyle habits such as unbalanced diets, smoking, inadequate

physical activity, and insufficient prevention and treatment of 

diseases. Unhealthy habits have also led to rising obesity. As 

of 2016, about 26% of Bulgarian adults are obese, higher than 

the EU average of 22% but lower than the US rate 33%. 

Significantly, Roma (see p. 13 of Political and Social Relations) 

disproportionately lack access to modern healthcare, 

experience higher rates of chronic disease, and are more likely 

to contract communicable diseases such as tuberculosis and 

hepatitis. Further, Roma have an average life expectancy 10 

years less than the national average. In addition, about 19% of 

Roma households remain unconnected to a sewage system, 

while 12% lack access to running water. 

Pollution and Waste: Unrestrained industrial development 

during the communist era (see p. 1 of Economics and 

Resources) left many Bulgarian cities heavily polluted. 

Consequently, high rates of respiratory and other pollutionrelated diseases developed by the 1990s. Today, toxic 

industrial discharge continues to contaminate the air, water, 

and soil in some regions, leading to high rates of lead 

poisoning, asthma, bronchitis, stunted growth, birth defects, 

and other medical issues. Pollution most heavily affects 

residents living in the 

south-central province of 

Stara Zagora and in 

highly industrialized cities 

such as Sofia, Devnya, 

Plovdiv, Varna, Elisseina, 

Kurdzhali, and Pirdop. 

While tap water in most 

regions is clean, 

unregulated disposal of

household and industrial waste contaminates and degrades 

groundwater in some urban areas such as the capital city of 

Sofia. As a result, some urban residents lack access to clean 

water (Photo: A congested street in Sofia).

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Overview

For centuries, most Bulgarians subsisted as peasants in an 

agrarian-based economy, although others existed as sheep 

herders or traders on the numerous trade routes linking Europe 

and Asia. Despite significant investments in light industry and 

oil refining during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, about 

80% of Bulgarians still worked in agriculture in 1940.

From 1945-90, Bulgaria pursued economic policies prioritizing

heavy industrialization and farm collectivization modeled on the 

centrally-planned Soviet system (see p. 19 of History and 

Myth). As a 

result, millions of 

Bulgarians were 

attracted to cities 

offering factory 

jobs, while most 

of those 

remaining in 

rural areas

worked on large

collective farms. 

For about 2 

decades following World War II, a rapidly growing Bulgarian 

economy brought notable a rise in living standards through the 

early 1960s (Photo: Sofia’s city center).

In subsequent years, perpetual mismanagement and corruption

resulted in economic decline. Despite an attempt to liberalize 

the economy in the mid-1980s, shortages of food and other 

goods became widespread, as regional discontent spread 

throughout the Soviet bloc. In 1989, Bulgaria’s government and 

economy collapsed (see p. 20 of History and Myth).

Thereafter, Bulgaria pursued what would become an arduous 

transition to a liberal free-market economy. Using the West as 

an economic model, Bulgaria sought to reform its economy by 

privatizing land and state-owned companies, curbing price 

controls, and reforming banks. 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Initially, corruption in the privatization process, resistance to 

change, and political instability prevented Bulgaria from

implementing the necessary reforms. As it aligned more with 

the West, Bulgaria traded less with its traditional economic

partners, further aggravating the situation. In 1996-97, inflation 

peaked at over 1000% as a major bank collapsed and 

unemployment rose steadily, triggering a political crisis (see p. 

21 of History and Myth). Consequently, most Bulgarians’ living 

standards declined through 1997. 

To combat the political and economic crises, the Bulgarian

government partnered with international financial institutions to 

introduce stabilization measures. These included strict financial 

discipline, a currency board, additional privatizations, and other 

reforms. By successfully implementing these reforms, Bulgaria 

managed to shrink its national debt and attract foreign direct 

investment (FDI). To further attract investors, Bulgaria invested 

in 6 free trade zones: Burgas, Ruse, Plovdiv, Vidin, Dragoman, 

and Svilengrad (Photo: 

Plovdiv’s old town 

center).

By 2000, the reforms 

had begun to gain 

traction, and Bulgaria’s

economy returned to 

growth. Unemployment 

and inflation declined as 

FDI increased. Despite some structural issues and persistent 

corruption, Bulgaria began to modernize its industrial sector. It 

strengthened its financial and services sectors and privatized 

more state-owned firms. Having established economic stability,

Bulgaria gained accession to the European Union (EU) in 

2007, facilitating further economic expansion and resulting in

an average annual growth rate of 7% between 2000-08.

The global financial crisis of 2008-09 hit Bulgaria hard, largely 

due to its trade-dependent economy. In 2009, the economy

shrank by about 5% and has since been slow to recover. While 

real annual growth averaged a meager 1.5% from 2010-14, 

unemployment steadily rose, reaching a peak of almost 13% in 

2013. A 2014 domestic banking crisis brought financial 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
instability and a lack of investor confidence in the economy. 

Moreover, external factors such as the war in Ukraine and 

sanctions against Russia negatively impacted tourism, real 

estate, exports, and other sectors of the economy (see p. 11-

12 of Political and Social Relations). 

More recently, the economy has begun to gradually recover, 

with experts projecting economic growth of about 3% through 

2018. Positive indications include declining unemployment, low 

corporate taxes, an increasingly stable financial sector, low 

inflation, and an improving business environment. 

Although Bulgaria has successfully transitioned to a modern

free-market economy, it remains the EU’s poorest member. 

Persistent corruption, net emigration, structural unemployment, 

organized crime, poor infrastructure, and the socio-economic 

exclusion of the Roma population and other minority groups

continue to plague Bulgaria’s economic health (see p. 13-14 of 

Political and Social Relations). Of note, the unemployment rate 

among the Roma is nearly 50%. 

Services

Accounting for about 67% of GDP and 63% of employment, the 

services sector is the largest and fastest-growing segment of 

Bulgaria’s economy. Significant sub-sectors include wholesale 

and retail trade, transportation and storage, banking, 

communications, public 

administration, and 

tourism.

Tourism: Bulgaria’s 

geographic location 

between Europe and 

Asia, its temperate 

climate, and its historical 

sites make it popular

among tourists. In 2014, tourism industry receipts accounted 

for slightly less than 4% of GDP. In 2015, Bulgaria hosted over 

9.3 million tourists who visited such key attractions as Black 

Sea beaches, ski resorts, historic centers in Sofia and Plovdiv,

and rural villages. Tourists primarily come from Romania, 

Turkey, Greece, Germany, Macedonia, Serbia, and Russia

(Photo: The Black Sea coast at the historic site of Nessebar).

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Industry

As the 2nd largest component of the economy, the industrial 

sector accounts for about 28% of GDP and 30% of the labor 

force. Manufacturing, construction, mining, and oil refining are 

the most significant sub-sectors. 

Manufacturing: Accounting for around 17% of GDP, Bulgaria’s 

diversified manufacturing sector includes metalworking, 

electronics, light machinery, textiles, tobacco, pharmaceutical 

products, as well as food and chemical processing.

Construction: In 2015, construction provided over 180,000 

jobs and accounted for almost 5% of GDP. While construction

was a catalyst for Bulgaria’s transition to a free-market 

economy, output shrank from 2009-15. Experts project the 

construction industry will 

exhibit renewed growth 

through 2020 (Photo: 

Cranes dot the horizon of 

Burgas port).

Mining: Bulgaria has 

large reserves of coal, 

copper, iron, lead, and 

zinc. Accounting for 

about 14% of exports and 2% of GDP in 2015, mining activities 

provided around 25,000 jobs.

Oil Refining: While Bulgaria has limited oil reserves, it has a 

significant capacity for oil refining. The Russian-owned Lukoil 

Neftochim Burgas refinery is the largest industrial enterprise in 

Bulgaria and the largest refinery in southeastern Europe, alone 

accounting for nearly 7% of GDP. 

Agriculture

The agricultural sector consists of farming, livestock, fishing, 

and forestry and is the smallest component of the Bulgarian 

economy, accounting for around 5% of GDP and 7% of 

employment. 

Farming and Livestock: By redistributing land from many 

collectivized farms following the end of communism, Bulgaria 

today has about 46% of its land area dedicated to cultivation.

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Despite recent efforts to consolidate and modernize holdings, 

many farms remain small family-owned enterprises. Major 

agricultural products include grains, fruits, tobacco, sunflowers, 

corn, sugar beets, and other vegetables. While Bulgaria’s wine 

industry was one of the world’s largest in the 1980s, production 

has declined notably since 

then, although quality has 

improved. Of note, Bulgaria 

is one of the world’s leading 

producers of rose attar, an 

oil extracted from roses 

used in perfumes and other 

cosmetic products. Poultry, 

pigs, cows, sheep, and 

goats are common livestock varieties (Photo: Rose attar

production sometime before 1944).

Fishing: In 2013, the relatively small Bulgarian fishing industry 

consisted of around 2,000 small vessels that harvested about 

12,000 tons of sprat, whelk, mussels, and mullet. Including 

production from both coastal and inland waterways, Bulgaria 

exported almost 10,000 tons of fish and related products, 

primarily to Romania, Sweden, and Greece. 

Forestry: With over 35% of its territory covered by woodlands, 

Bulgaria has a productive forestry industry. Timber, furniture, 

and other wood products comprise nearly 3% of GDP. While 

state-protected forests account for nearly 20% of Bulgaria’s 

total land area, commercial yields include oak, pine, beech, 

and spruce trees (Photo: 

A forested landscape in 

Bulgaria).

Currency

Bulgaria’s currency is the 

lev (лв), issued in 7

banknote values (1, 2, 5, 

10, 20, 50, 100) and 1 

coin value (лв1). A lev subdivides into stotinki (cents), issued 

in 6 coin values (1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50). The lev was pegged to the 

Euro in 2002, and with fluctuations in exchange rates, $1 has 

been worth between лв1.4-лв1.9 in recent years. While some 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
businesses in urban areas accept credit cards, smaller vendors 

and businesses in rural regions mostly only accept cash.

Foreign Trade

Totaling $25 billion in 2015, Bulgaria’s exports primarily 

consisted of clothing, machinery and equipment, iron and steel, 

footwear, and fuels sold to Germany (13%), Italy (9%), Turkey 

(9%), Romania (8%), Greece (7%), and France (4%). In the 

same year, Bulgaria imported $27 billion in machinery and 

equipment, metals and ores, chemicals and plastics, fuels, 

minerals, and raw materials from Germany (13%), Russia 

(12%), Italy (8%), Romania (7%), Turkey (6%), Greece (5%), 

and Spain (5%).

European Union

Membership in the EU (see 

p. 9 of Political and Social 

Relations) provides a large 

common market for exports, 

a more secure business 

environment, and easier 

access to FDI. In 2015, 

about 63% of Bulgarian trade was with EU countries. Notable 

disadvantages to EU membership include restrictions on the 

flow of some goods and services and easier emigration of 

Bulgarians to other EU countries, thereby reducing Bulgaria’s 

labor force (Photo: Bulgarian 

and EU flags).

Foreign Aid

The EU has pledged about 

€16 billion for Bulgaria to use 

for agricultural, rural, and 

regional development projects

between 2014-20. In early 

2016, the US contributed $3.4 

billion in military support for 

Eastern Europe in response to recent Russian military 

aggression (see p. 11-12 of Political and Social Relations) 

(Photo: US Marines train with Bulgarian and Romanian forces 

in 2016 at Bulgaria’s Novo Selo training area).

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

With a decline in physical infrastructure over the past several 

decades, Bulgaria is in the process of modernizing road, rail, 

water, and air transport. Overall, Bulgaria’s physical 

infrastructure is inferior to all other EU countries except 

Romania. Due to its strategic location between Europe and 

Asia, Bulgaria plans to ensure that its transportation system

and pipelines play a significant role in regional trade and 

transport. Despite significant investments, progress is often 

slow, and some projects remain incomplete for indefinite 

periods. Bulgarians generally enjoy free speech and 

unrestricted Internet access, though recent collusion between 

media outlets and the government has resulted fewer press 

freedoms.

Transportation

While the number of 

Bulgarian families owning

privately-owned vehicle 

(POV) is increasing, travel 

by train, bus, taxi, or foot

remain popular. Sofia has 

an extensive transport 

system consisting of trams, trolleys, minibuses, and 2 

underground metro lines. Most urban areas have efficient and 

interconnected public bus and train transit systems that 

typically run daily from 5:00am-midnight. Train and bus service 

is also available in some smaller towns. POVs, oxcarts, 

bicycles, and walking are common modes of transport in rural 

areas (Photo: Sofia’s train station).

Roadways: In 2015, over 98% of Bulgaria’s 12,300 mi of main 

roads were paved. Of Bulgaria’s 6 major highways, only 3 

(routes A1, A4, A6) are complete. Persistent corruption and 

underinvestment have delayed the completion of highways A2, 

A3, and A5. Although roads in urban areas are in reasonably

good condition, secondary roads in rural towns and the 

countryside are typically unpaved and in poor condition.

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Railways: Bulgaria has over 3,150 mi of railways that connect 

its cities and towns with the rest of Europe. The state-owned 

Bulgarski durzhavni zheleznitsi (Bulgarian State Railways) 

provides most train services. Primarily due to mismanagement 

and corruption, passenger and freight volume has decreased 

since the early 1990s. Nevertheless, the inexpensive rail 

services remain popular. In 2015, Bulgaria completed a highspeed railway between Plovdiv and Turkey.

Ports and Waterways: Bulgaria has about 292 mi of inland

waterways. Both Burgas and Varna are major Black Sea ports 

that offer ferry services to neighboring countries. Additionally,

Varna is a free trade

zone (see p. 2 of 

Economics and 

Resources). 

Airways: Bulgaria has 

68 airports, 57 with 

paved runways. The 

largest, Sofia Airport, 

served nearly 4.7 million passengers in 2016. In the same year, 

Burgas Airport on the Black Sea coast catered to 2.9 million 

passengers and is often busier than Sofia Airport in the 

summer. Bulgaria Air is the national flag carrier, offering 

services to many international destinations. Of note, the 

Bulgarian Air Force’s Vrazhdebna Air Base is located at Sofia 

Airport (Photo: Bulgaria Air plane at Sofia Airport).

Energy 

Bulgaria’s only significant 

energy source is lignite, a 

low-quality soft coal. The 

country currently relies on 

imported oil and natural gas 

from Russia for 75% of its 

total energy consumption. 

Bulgaria is pursuing the development of renewable energy 

sources such as nuclear, hydroelectric, and wind power

(pictured). In 2014, around 18% of Bulgaria’s total energy 

consumption came from renewable resources, already 

surpassing its EU 2020 goal of 16%. 

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Media

While Bulgaria’s constitution protects freedom of speech and 

press, some Bulgarian media outlets collude with businessmen 

and politicians, threatening media’s independence. As a result, 

journalists sometimes self-censor their publications to serve the 

interests of these powerful actors. Overall, Bulgaria ranks worst 

in the EU in an international index of freedom of the press.

Print Media: The Bulgarian press includes hundreds of local 

and national periodicals published in Bulgarian, English, 

Turkish, and other languages. Dnevnik, 24 Chasa, Dneven 

Trud, Capital, and Telegraf are popular national newspapers, 

while Sofia Echo is a national weekly English-language 

publication. In 2015, the Bulgarian government fined Dnevnik

and Capital over coverage of a banking crisis and corruption, 

resulting in increased tensions over media censorship.

Radio and TV: Bulgaria has a wide range of both public and 

private radio and TV broadcasters. Households generally

subscribe to cable, satellite, or Internet services that provide 

international content in Bulgarian, English, and other 

languages.

Telecommunications

Bulgaria has an extensive 

telecommunications network despite 

slow rates of modernization and 

connectivity growth. In 2015, Bulgaria 

had about 23 landline and 128 mobile 

phone subscriptions per 100 people.

Internet: Bulgaria has some of the EU’s 

lowest-quality Internet services. While 

fixed broadband coverage reaches 95% 

of households, only about 55% of Bulgarians are regular 

Internet users and nearly 35% have never used the Internet, 

compared to EU averages of 76% and 16% respectively. 

Nevertheless, Bulgarians have some of the highest rates of 

social media and video call use in the EU. Most urban areas 

are well-connected to Internet services, while small towns often 

have Internet cafes that provide online access. The 

government offers few online public services (Photo: The 

Snezhanka TV Tower).

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL