The Kindergarten Year

Findings from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,

Kindergarten Class of 1998–99

Jerry West, National Center for Education Statistics

Kristin Denton, Education Statistics Services Institute

Lizabeth M. Reaney, Education Statistics Services Institute
iii

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank NCES staff members Val Plisko, Marilyn McMillen, Ellen

Bradburn, Steve Gorman, Laura Lippman, and Edie McArthur for their comments and

suggestions on earlier drafts of this report. We also appreciate the comments we received

from program offices within the U.S. Department of Education. The report was reviewed by

Doug Downey of the Ohio State University, Carollee Howes of the University of California,

Los Angeles, Robert Pianta of the University of Virginia, Barbara Wasik of Johns Hopkins

University, Sally Atkins-Burnett of the University of Michigan, and Nick Zill of Westat.

Their comments and suggestions are appreciated, and the final report reflects many of their

suggestions.

We would also like to thank the 20,000 kindergarten children and their parents, and the more

than 3,000 kindergarten teachers who participated during the base year of the study. We

would like to thank the administrators of the schools we visited across the United States for

allowing us to work with their children, teachers and parents, and for providing us with

information about their schools. We are especially appreciative of the assistance we received

from Chief State School Officers, district superintendents and staff, and private school

officials.

Westat, Incorporated—in affiliation with the Institute for Social Research and the School of

Education at the University of Michigan, and the Educational Testing Service, under the

direction of the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)—conducted the base-year

study. We would like to express our appreciation for the efforts of the staff from each of

these organizations, and especially to the more than 400 field staff who conducted the child

assessments and parent interviews in fall 1998 and spring 1999.

We wish to acknowledge the support that we have received from the Head Start Bureau of

the Administration on Children, Youth and Families; the Economic Research Service of the

U.S. Department of Agriculture; the National Institute for Child Health and Human

Development; and the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Special Education

Programs, Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs, and Planning and

Evaluation Service.

We would like to thank Elvie Germino Hausken and Jonaki Bose of the National Center for

Education Statistics, and Amy Rathbun, Jill Walston, Nikkita Taylor, and DeeAnn Brimhall

of the Education Statistics Services Institute for their hard work and dedication in supporting

all aspects of the ECLS-K program.

A special thank you to Kendra Chandler Webb, age 9 (1994), for designing the ECLS logo,

and to Westat for aiding in the design of the cover.
v

Executive Summary

The kindergarten year marks a period of rapid change in the ways children think about

themselves and the world around them (Bredekamp and Copple 1997; Sameroff and

McDonough 1994). This change is influenced by both developmental factors (e.g., age,

maturation) and environmental factors (e.g., schooling, home educational activities, family

resources). Across this first year of schooling, children will acquire the knowledge and skills

that will prove integral to their future success in school and in life.

Children enter school demonstrating a vast array of knowledge and skills, some children

further along than others (West, Denton, and Germino Hausken 2000). The kindergarten year

serves multiple purposes and is geared toward the development of both cognitive and

noncognitive knowledge and skills (Seefeldt 1990). And, depending on the child, knowledge

and skills develop in different areas and at different rates across this year of school.

To enrich the picture of children’s first experience in formal education—the kindergarten

year—we need to understand the knowledge and skills children possess as they enter

kindergarten and we need to gain insight into how these develop across the kindergarten

year. This report attempts to answer two basic sets of questions about children’s knowledge

and skill acquisition during the kindergarten year.

1. What gains are children making from the fall of their kindergarten year to the spring of

their kindergarten year in their reading and mathematics knowledge and skills? Do these

gains differ by child, family, and kindergarten program characteristics? As children are

exiting kindergarten and preparing for first grade, how do their knowledge and skills

differ by child, family, and kindergarten program characteristics (e.g., age, family risk

factors)?

2. What gains are children making in specific knowledge and skills (e.g., recognizing

letters, recognizing numbers, paying attention)? Do children’s gains in specific

knowledge and skills differ by child, family, and kindergarten program characteristics?

At the end of their kindergarten year when children are preparing for first grade, do their
vi

specific knowledge and skills differ by child, family, and kindergarten program

characteristics (e.g., age, mother’s education)?

The findings in this report come from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten

Class of 1998–99 (ECLS-K). The ECLS-K, sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education,

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), selected a nationally representative sample

of kindergartners in the fall of 1998 and is following these children through the end of fifth

grade. The full ECLS-K sample is comprised of approximately 22,000 children who attended

about 1,000 kindergarten programs during the 1998–99 school year. The children attended

both public (85 percent) and private (15 percent) kindergartens that offered full-day (55

percent) and part-day (45 percent) programs. All kindergarten children within the sampled

schools were eligible for the sampling process, including language minority and special

education students. The sample includes children from different racial/ethnic and

socioeconomic backgrounds. In the fall of 1998, about 95 percent of kindergartners were

entering school for the first time. This report focuses on these first-time kindergartners.

When information on children’s cognitive knowledge and skills is presented, this report

focuses on the children in the sample who received the cognitive assessment in English in

both the fall and the spring of their kindergarten year.1

Findings

Question 1: Gain, Differences in Gain, and Spring Kindergarten Status in Children’s

Knowledge and Skills

To address the first set of questions, the change from the fall of kindergarten to the spring of

kindergarten in children’s reading and mathematics scale scores was examined. These scores

reflect children’s overall performance in these domains. The possibility that particular groups

of children might demonstrate more or less gain over the kindergarten was also explored

 

1 Approximately 30 percent of Hispanic children and 19 percent of Asian children were not assessed in English and are not

included in the estimates related to cognitive knowledge and skills. The Hispanic children who were proficient in Spanish were

assessed in Spanish (for details see Methodology and Technical Notes, Constructs, and Variables Used in Analysis). The

Hispanic and the Asian children not assessed in English are included in the estimates related to noncognitive knowledge and

skills. And, due to specific instructions listed in the child’s school record, about one-half percent of children were excluded

from the cognitive assessment based on a disability.
vii

(e.g., children at risk for later school difficulty might not acquire reading knowledge and

skills at the same rate as children not at risk for later school difficulty).

As their kindergarten year comes to a close, children demonstrate higher levels of reading

and mathematics knowledge and skills than they demonstrated as they entered school for the

first time. Children’s reading scale scores increased by 10 points from the fall to the spring

(figure A). Therefore, the gain from fall to spring is about one standard deviation (an

appreciable increase).

Figure A.—First-time kindergartners’ mean reading scale scores: Fall 1998 and

spring 1999

Children’s mathematics scores increased by eight points from the fall to the spring (figure

B). Thus, children’s mathematics knowledge and skills increased about one standard

deviation during the kindergarten year. For the most part, the gains children demonstrate in

their overall reading and mathematics knowledge and skills do not differ markedly by child,

family, and kindergarten program characteristics. For example, there is not more than a twopoint difference in the gains children demonstrate in reading and mathematics by mother’s

education.

 

32

22

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Reading

Fall

Spring

NOTE: The ECLS-K assessment was designed for both kindergarten and first-grade children. Therefore a mean score of

approximately 30 in the spring of kindergarten is not unexpected.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,

Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.

Scale score

72
viii

Figure B.—First-time kindergartners’ mean mathematics scale scores: Fall 1998 and

spring 1999

The absence of a substantial differential gain in children’s general reading and mathematics

knowledge and skills is seen again when we consider other characteristics of children, their

families, and their kindergarten programs, such as children’s age as they enter school and

family risks for later school difficulty. The same is true when we look at school type and

kindergarten program type. However when we consider the specific knowledge and skills

children are acquiring (e.g., letter recognition, addition and subtraction, making friends,

paying attention), children are developing particular cognitive and noncognitive knowledge

and skills at different rates.

28

20

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Mathematics

Fall

Spring

NOTE: The ECLS-K assessment was designed for both kindergarten and first-grade children. Therefore a mean score of

approximately 30 in the spring of kindergarten is not unexpected.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,

Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.

Scale score

64
ix

Question 2: Gain, Differences in Gain and Spring Kindergarten Status in Children’s

Specific Knowledge and Skills

To address the second set of questions, children’s specific cognitive and noncognitive

knowledge and skills were examined. Furthermore, the question of whether certain groups of

children were more likely to acquire specific cognitive and noncognitive knowledge and

skills than others was explored (e.g., does the probability that children acquire the reading

skill of sight-word recognition vary by the level of their mother’s education?). Finally,

information is presented on the specific knowledge and skills children demonstrate in the

spring of their kindergarten year as they are preparing for first grade.

In addition to the overall reading and mathematics scale scores, the ECLS-K assessment

battery provides information on specific proficiencies. In the reading domain, the ECLS-K

assessment battery provides information on: letter recognition; understanding of the lettersound relationship at the beginning of words; understanding of the letter-sound relationship

at the ending of words; sight-word recognition; and understanding of words in context. In the

mathematics domain, the ECLS-K assessment battery provides information on: recognizing

single-digit numbers and basic shapes; counting beyond 10, recognizing the sequence in

basic patterns, and comparing the relative size (dimensional relationship) of objects;

recognizing two-digit numbers, identifying the next number in a sequence, and identifying

the ordinal position of an object; performing simple addition and subtraction; and performing

basic multiplication and division.

Across the kindergarten year, children acquire specific knowledge and skills in reading and

mathematics (figures C and D). By the end of their kindergarten year, nearly all children

recognize their letters, their numbers and their shapes. The percent of children who can

recognize words by sight and demonstrate an understanding of words in context, though still

relatively low, increased from kindergarten entry to kindergarten exit. And the numbers of

children adding and subtracting also increased from kindergarten entry to kindergarten exit.

We see less dramatic changes in children’s social skills and approaches to learning across the

kindergarten year, with a large percentage of children exhibiting prosocial behaviors and

positive approaches to learning.
x

Figure C.—Percentage of first-time kindergartners demonstrating specific reading

 knowledge and skills: Fall 1998 and spring 1999

Figure D.—Percentage of first-time kindergartners demonstrating specific

mathematics knowledge and skills: Fall 1998 and spring 1999

4

13

52

72

94

1

2

17

29

65

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Words in context

Sight words

Ending sounds

Beginning sounds

Letter recognition

Fall

Spring

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten

Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.

Percent

2

18

56

87

99

4

21

57

93

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Multiply/divide

Add/subtract

Ordinality

Relative size

Number and shape

Fall

Spring

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,

Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.

Percent
xi

When we examined children’s overall gains in reading and mathematics knowledge and

skills, as measured by their reading and mathematics scale scores, by child, family and

kindergarten program characteristics, we found little evidence of differential gains from fall

to spring. Based on those findings, the conclusion might be that from fall to spring of

kindergarten, all children are acquiring knowledge and skills at approximately the same rate,

and that they are learning the same things. However, this is not completely accurate. We see

a very different picture when we look at children’s acquisition of specific knowledge and

skills.

To illustrate, children from the more disadvantaged backgrounds (those with at least one risk

factor) are closing the gaps in basic skills (i.e., recognizing their letters and counting beyond

10, recognizing the sequence in basic patterns and comparing the relative size of objects).

However, these same children lag further behind their more advantaged classmates when it

comes to gaining more sophisticated reading and mathematics knowledge and skills (i.e.,

recognizing words by sight or solving simple addition and subtraction problems). In fact, the

gap has widened. The same basic patterns we see when we consider cumulative family-risk

factors are present when we consider other child characteristics, such as race/ethnicity.

Furthermore, to illustrate, we see some evidence of differential gain in the frequency with

which children demonstrate specific social skills. According to their teachers, younger

children are more likely to acquire the skill of paying attention than their older counterparts

during the kindergarten year.

As children are completing kindergarten and preparing for first grade, almost all (94 percent)

children know their letters, and 72 percent understand the letter-sound relationship at the

beginning of words, while 52 percent understand the letter-sound relationship at the ending

of words. In fact, 13 percent demonstrate a proficient understanding of words by sight and 4

percent, words in context (figure C). In mathematics, 99 percent of children recognize their

numbers and basic shapes, and the majority (87 percent) demonstrate understanding of

dimensional relationships among objects (relative size). Just over half (56 percent) of

children demonstrate an understanding of the mathematical concept ordinality. Moreover, 18
xii

percent show they can add and subtract, and 2 percent are successfully performing

multiplication and division (figure D).

Summary

Young children need knowledge and new experiences to develop and thrive. Schools offer a

plethora of learning and development opportunities for children. Consequently, it is not

surprising that across the kindergarten year children are rapidly acquiring the knowledge and

skills integral to succeed in school and life.

This report presents a simple picture of the gains children make across the kindergarten year.

The ECLS-K will follow these children through the fifth grade. We will be able to track

children’s performance and the differences in their performance, not only by child and family

characteristics but also by teacher and school characteristics. This report represents only the

beginning of understanding the role of the kindergarten year in children’s development.

Future analyses, based on the information from the ECLS-K, will help us understand the role

of such things as child care, home educational environment, teachers’ instructional practices,

class size and the general climate, and facilities and safety of the schools.
xiii

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... iii

Executive Summary..........................................................................................................................v

The Kindergarten Year.................................................................................................................... 1

Organization of Report ................................................................................................................ 4

National Data on Kindergartners in the United States ................................................................ 4

Question 1: Gain, Differences in Gain, and Spring Kindergarten Status in Children’s

Knowledge and Skills...................................................................................................................... 5

Gain in Knowledge and Skills from Fall to Spring ..................................................................... 6

Differences in Gain of Children’s Knowledge and Skills by Child, Family, and

 Kindergarten Program Characteristics ................................................................................... 8

Differences in Children’s Knowledge and Skills by Child, Family, and Kindergarten

 Program Characteristics: Spring of Kindergarten .................................................................. 9

Question 2: Gain, Differences in Gain, and Spring Kindergarten Status in Children’s Specific

Knowledge and Skills.................................................................................................................... 11

Gain in Specific Knowledge and Skills from Fall to Spring..................................................... 11

Cognitive Knowledge and Skills.........................................................................................11

Noncognitive Knowledge and Skills...................................................................................14

Summary: Gain in Specific Knowledge and Skills, Fall to Spring.....................................15

Differences in the Gain of Children’s Specific Knowledge and Skills by Child, Family, and

 Kindergarten Program Characteristics ................................................................................. 16

Differences in Children’s Specific Knowledge and Skills by Child, Family, and

 Kindergarten Program Characteristics: Spring of Kindergarten .......................................... 19

Summary........................................................................................................................................ 25

Methodology and Technical Notes ............................................................................................... 27

Survey Methodology ................................................................................................................. 27

Sample Design........................................................................................................................... 27

Response Rates.......................................................................................................................... 28

Data Reliability.......................................................................................................................... 29

Standard Errors and Weights..................................................................................................... 29

Statistical Procedures................................................................................................................. 30

Constructs and Variables Used in Analysis............................................................................... 32

References ..................................................................................................................................... 37

Tables ............................................................................................................................................ 41

Appendices.................................................................................................................................... 51
1

The Kindergarten Year

The kindergarten year marks a period of rapid change in the ways children think about

themselves and the world around them (Bredekamp and Copple 1997; Sameroff and

McDonough 1994). This change is influenced by both developmental factors (e.g., age,

maturation) and environmental factors (e.g., schooling, home educational activities, family

resources). Across this first year of schooling, children will acquire the knowledge and skills

that will prove integral to their future success in school and in life.

Children enter school demonstrating a vast array of knowledge and skills, with some children

further along than others (West et al. 2000). The kindergarten year serves multiple purposes

and is geared toward the development of both cognitive and noncognitive knowledge and

skills (Seefeldt 1990). And, depending on the child, knowledge and skills develop in

different areas and at different rates across this year of school.

Classically, kindergarten has represented a place where children are given the opportunity to

explore their world through play. Over the last 100 years, this idea has been refined to stress

the importance of opportunity for active engagement and exploration in real-world settings

(Dewey 1976, 1944; Roopnarine and Johnson 1993; Seefeldt and Barbour 1994). In the

United States, kindergarten took root as an agent for change to help enrich the lives of

children from disadvantaged backgrounds, with education seen as an important tool for

social reform (Roopnarine and Johnson 1993; Seefeldt and Barbour 1994). Early childhood

education continues today to be seen as an important influence on young children’s

development and learning, and most children regardless of their backgrounds attend

kindergarten programs.

The original purpose of kindergarten—to “support children’s social and emotional

adjustment to group learning”—has been expanded to include support for children’s

cognitive development and preparation for the academic instruction to come (Bredekamp and

Copple 1997, p. 142). While the cognitive benefits seem apparent, the effect of kindergarten

on socioemotional development is less clear. Though historically the role of kindergarten

was focused on socialization, a majority of children today have experience in early care and

group settings prior to entering kindergarten (Bredekamp and Copple 1997; West et al. 2000;
2

West et al. 1992). Consequently, the role of kindergarten may be evolving toward a more

cognitive purpose.

Over the years, research on our nation’s children suggests that, by late elementary school,

children are demonstrating differences in their knowledge and skills by characteristics such

as socioeconomic status, level of maternal education, and race/ethnicity (Donahue et al.

1999; Reese et al. 1997). We are now beginning to document that some of these differences

exist as children are just entering kindergarten (West et al. 2000).

To enrich the picture of children’s first experience in formal education—the kindergarten

year—we need to understand the knowledge and skills children possess as they enter

kindergarten and we need to gain insight into how children’s knowledge and skills develop

across the kindergarten year. This report attempts to answer two basic sets of questions

about children’s knowledge and skill acquisition during the kindergarten year.

1. What gains are children making from the fall of their kindergarten year to the spring of

their kindergarten year in their reading and mathematics knowledge and skills? Do these

gains differ by child, family, and kindergarten program characteristics? As children are

exiting kindergarten and preparing for first grade, how do their knowledge and skills

differ by child, family, and kindergarten program characteristics (e.g., age, family-risk

factors)?

2. What gains are children making in specific knowledge and skills (e.g., recognizing

letters, recognizing numbers, paying attention)? Do children’s gains in specific

knowledge and skills differ by child, family, and kindergarten program characteristics?

At the end of their kindergarten year when children are preparing for first grade, do their

specific knowledge and skills differ by child, family, and kindergarten program

characteristics (e.g., age, mother’s education)?

To address the first set of questions, the change from the fall of kindergarten to the spring of

kindergarten in children’s reading and mathematics scale scores will be examined.2

 These

 

2

 The calculation of the reading and mathematics scale scores is described in the Methodology and Technical Notes.
3

scores reflect children’s overall performance in these domains. The possibility that specific

groups of children might demonstrate different rates of gain (e.g., children at risk for later

school difficulty might not be acquiring reading knowledge and skills at the same rate as

children not at risk for later school difficulty) will also be explored.

To address the second set of questions, specific cognitive and noncognitive knowledge and

skills will be examined, and whether certain groups of children acquire specific cognitive

and noncognitive knowledge and skills at different rates will be explored (e.g., do children’s

rates of acquiring the reading skill of sight-word recognition vary by the level of their

mother’s education?).

When group differences are discussed, children’s knowledge and skills are examined by a

common set of child, family, and kindergarten program characteristics. Children’s

knowledge and skills are examined in terms of children’s sex, their age when they enter

school, and their race/ethnicity. Characteristics of the family consist of the educational level

of children’s mothers and a composite index of family risks, which is comprised of children

having a non-English primary language in the home, children living in a single-parent family,

children’s mothers having less than a high school education, and children’s families having

received welfare assistance (i.e., Aid to Families with Dependent Children). Consequently,

the risk index ranges from 0 risks to 4. In this report, we collapsed the index into 3

categories, 0 risks, 1 risk, and 2 or more risks. The index provides information on the

potential related effects when these risks exist in concert. Finally, children’s knowledge and

skills are explored by whether the children are enrolled in full- versus part-day kindergarten

programs and in public versus private kindergarten programs. The characteristics examined

in this report are likely to be highly interrelated. For example, the number of first-time

kindergartners with different numbers of family risk factors varies by race/ethnicity. About

72 percent of Hispanic and black children come from families with one or more risk factors,

as compared with 61 percent of Asian children, and 29 percent of white children (Zill and

West 2000). While acknowledging this, this report looks at each characteristic separately

when describing the children’s knowledge and skills.

 
4

Organization of Report

The remainder of this report is organized into four sections. The findings are presented in

two sections followed by a summary, and a methodology and technical notes section. The

first findings’ section pertains to the overall gains children make during the kindergarten year

in reading and mathematics. Findings in this section are based on children’s overall reading

and mathematics scale scores. The second section of findings describes the extent to which

children acquire specific reading and mathematics knowledge and skills during the

kindergarten year. This section also includes information about children’s acquisition of

various social skills over the school year. In this section, findings are reported in terms of the

probabilities that children demonstrate specific reading and mathematics proficiencies, and

the percent of children who demonstrate specific social skills. Each of the two sections on

findings presents information in three basic areas. First, each section begins with a

description of the gains children make from fall of kindergarten to spring of kindergarten.

Second, differences in the gains children make are examined for different groups of children

defined by a set of child, family, and kindergarten program characteristics. Third,

differences in children’s status at the spring of kindergarten or as they are about to enter first

grade are examined for these same groups of children. Comparisons made in the text were

tested for statistical significance to ensure that the differences are larger than might be

expected, due to sampling variation. All differences described are significant at the .05 level.

National Data on Kindergartners in the United States

The findings in this report come from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten

Class of 1998–99 (ECLS-K).3

 The ECLS-K, sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education,

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), selected a nationally representative sample

of kindergartners in the fall of 1998 and is following these children through the end of fifth

grade. The full ECLS-K sample is comprised of approximately 22,000 children who attended

about 1,000 kindergarten programs during the 1998–99 school year. The children attended

 

3 Detailed information on the base-year design of the ECLS-K is presented in the ECLS-K User’s Manual (NCES 2001–029).

The data set related to this report may be obtained through NCES upon request (e-mail: ECLS@ed.gov).
5

both public (85 percent) and private (15 percent) kindergartens that offered full day (55

percent) and part day (45 percent) kindergarten programs. All kindergarten children within

the sampled schools were eligible for the sampling process, including language minority and

special education students. The sample includes children from different racial/ethnic and

socioeconomic backgrounds. In the fall of 1998, about 95 percent of kindergartners were

entering school for the first time. This report focuses on these first-time kindergartners.4

When information on children’s cognitive knowledge and skills is presented, this report

focuses on the children in the sample who received the cognitive assessment in English in

both the fall and the spring of their kindergarten year.5

This report includes information that was captured through direct one-on-one child

assessments, parent interviews, and teacher questionnaires administered in the fall and the

spring of the children’s kindergarten year. The Methodology and Technical Notes section

provides more detail on the instrumentation and operations.

Question 1: Gain, Differences in Gain, and Spring Kindergarten

Status in Children’s Knowledge and Skills

During the early elementary school years, children are rapidly acquiring both cognitive and

social knowledge and skills (Bredekamp and Copple 1997; Sameroff and McDonough 1994).

In this section, gain in children’s reading and mathematics knowledge and skills will be

addressed. The ECLS-K directly assessed children’s cognitive skills with a reading and

mathematics battery.6

 The reading assessment captured information on children’s basic

literacy skills, such as understanding the directionality of print, recognizing letters,

identifying sounds, word reading, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. The mathematics

 

4 See table 1 for the sample demographics.

5 Approximately 30 percent of Hispanic children and 19 percent of Asian children were not assessed in English and are not

included in the estimates related to cognitive knowledge and skills. The Hispanic children who were proficient in Spanish were

assessed in Spanish (for details see Methodology and Technical Notes, Constructs, and Variables Used in Analysis). The

Hispanic and Asian children not assessed in English are included in the estimates related to noncognitive knowledge and skills.

Due to specific instructions listed in the child’s school record about one-half percent of children were excluded from the

cognitive assessment based on a disability.

6 In addition to reading and mathematics, the ECLS-K also assessed children’s general knowledge. These data are not included

in this report.
6

assessment measured children’s conceptual understanding of numbers, shapes, patterns,

mathematical operations, and processes for problem solving.

To address children’s social knowledge and skills, teachers were asked to assess individual

behaviors exhibited by the children. For this report, these teacher-rated items were not

scaled. Instead, children’s individual behaviors will be reported on in the next section, where

developmental gain in relation to specific knowledge and skills is addressed.

To understand how children’s reading and mathematics knowledge and skills are changing

across the kindergarten year, their overall gains in their knowledge and skills will be

described. Next, differences in these gains by child, family, and kindergarten program

characteristics will be explored. And finally, information about their status and the

differences in their status in the spring of their kindergarten year, as they are preparing for

first grade, will be presented.

Gain in Knowledge and Skills from Fall to Spring

As their kindergarten year comes to a close, children demonstrate higher levels of reading

and mathematics knowledge and skills than they demonstrated as they entered school for the

first time (figures 1 & 2, table 2).7

 Children’s reading scale scores increased by 10 points

from the fall to the spring. Consequently, the gain from fall to spring is about one standard

deviation (an appreciable increase). Children’s mathematics scores increased by eight points

from the fall to the spring. Thus, children’s mathematics knowledge and skills increased

about one standard deviation during the kindergarten year.8

 

7 The reading scale ranged from 0–72, with fall scores ranging from 10–70 and spring 10–71. The math scale ranged from 0–

64, with fall scores ranging from 6–60 and spring scores 7–60.

8 A standard deviation provides information on the spread of the distribution of scores. In a normal distribution, approximately

68 percent of scores fall within plus or minus one standard deviation of the mean, and approximately 95 percent fall within plus

or minus two standard deviations of the mean. The means and standard deviations for children’s overall reading and

mathematics performance in this report are as follows–Mean (standard deviation): fall reading–22 (8), fall mathematics–20 (7),

spring reading–32 (10), spring mathematics–28 (9), change in reading–10 (6), and change in mathematics–8 (5).
7

Figure 1.—First-time kindergartners’ mean reading scale scores: Fall 1998 and spring

1999

Figure 2.—First-time kindergartners’ mean mathematics scale scores: Fall 1998 and

spring 1999

32

22

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Reading

Fall

Spring

NOTE: The ECLS-K assessment was designed for both kindergarten and first-grade children. Therefore a mean score of

approximately 30 in the spring of kindergarten is not unexpected.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,

Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.

Scale score

72

40

28

20

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Fall

Spring

Scale score

Mathematics

NOTE: The ECLS-K assessment was designed for both kindergarten and first-grade children. Therefore a mean score of

approximately 30 in the spring of kindergarten is not unexpected.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,

Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.

64
8

Differences in Gain of Children’s Knowledge and Skills by Child, Family and

Kindergarten Program Characteristics

Children gain reading and mathematics knowledge and skills during the kindergarten year;

and, for the most part, these gains do not differ markedly by child, family, and kindergarten

program characteristics (table 2). For example, there is not more than a two-point difference

in the gains children demonstrate in reading and mathematics by mother’s education (figure

3).

This absence of a substantial differential gain in children’s general reading and mathematics

knowledge and skills is seen again when we consider other characteristics of children, their

families, and their kindergarten programs, such as children’s age as they enter school and

family risks for later school difficulty. The same is true when we look at school type and

kindergarten program type. Thus, the differences we see in the fall have not diminished over

the school year. However, as we will see in the next section, when we consider the specific

knowledge and skills children are acquiring (e.g., letter recognition, addition and subtraction,

making friends, paying attention), children are developing particular cognitive and

noncognitive knowledge and skills at different rates.

Figure 3.—First-time kindergartners’ reading mean scale scores, by mother’s

education: Fall 1998 and Spring 1999

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Fall Spring

Bachelor's or more

Some college

High school

Less than high school

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,

Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.

Scale score
9

Differences in Children’s Knowledge and Skills by Child, Family and Kindergarten

Program Characteristics: Spring of Kindergarten

As children are just beginning school, their knowledge and skills already differ (West et al.

2000; Zill and West 2000). This begs the question—at the end of their kindergarten year as

they are preparing to enter first grade, do children’s knowledge and skills still differ by child,

family, and kindergarten program characteristics? In other words, as children enter school for

the first time, their reading and mathematics knowledge and skills differ by their age at entry,

the level of their mother’s education, their race/ethnicity, and risk factors associated with

school success, such as primary language in the home or living in a single-parent household.

Do we find these same differences after a year of formal schooling?

Age: Since kindergarten attendance is not mandatory in all states, parents have some

flexibility in deciding when to enroll their children. Most states have age of entry guidelines

that require children to have turned age 5 sometime between August 31 and January 1.

Therefore, the majority of children entering kindergarten in the fall of 1998 were born

between September 1992 and December 1993 (West et al. 2000). When considering the

variation in children’s knowledge and skills by their age, we focus our comparisons on

children born between September 1992 through December 1993 (i.e., the “mainstream”

ages). We present some limited information on children who are slightly older than the

mainstream—those born January through August of 1992. These children represent a unique

and diverse group (e.g., those whose parents may have delayed them to provide them with an

advantage or due to developmental concerns, or whose schools may have a kindergarten

readiness requirement), so we do not focus on them in our analysis.

In the spring of their kindergarten year, older children possess higher reading and

mathematics knowledge and skills than their younger counterparts9

 (table 2). Thus, the slight

advantage older children possessed as they entered kindergarten persists across the school

year.

 

9 Reaney, West, and Denton (2000) found that children’s age at school entry accounts for a minimal amount of variance in

their beginning knowledge and skills (2–3 percent), once factors such as SES and mother’s education are taken into

consideration.
10

Maternal Education: Similar to when they entered kindergarten, at the end of their

kindergarten year, children’s reading and mathematics knowledge and skills differ by the

level of their mother’s education. Kindergartners whose mothers have higher levels of

education demonstrate higher levels of reading and mathematics knowledge and skills than

kindergartners whose mothers have less education (table 2).

Race/Ethnicity: Children who are white and Asian demonstrate higher levels of reading and

mathematics knowledge and skills than their black and Hispanic classmates (table 2). Again,

this is a pattern we observed at the start of the kindergarten year.

Risk: When considering family risks for later school difficulty (e.g., low maternal education,

non-English primary language in the home), it is important to understand how these factors

behave cumulatively. Consequently, we consider the impact of multiple risks on children’s

knowledge and skills. To do this, we constructed an index which consists of the following

risk factors: mother’s education less than high school, family utilization of AFDC and/or

food stamps, single-parent family, and primary home language other than English. The index

is scored zero, one or two or more—meaning the presence of none of the risk factors, the

presence of one of the risk factors, or the presence of two or more of the risk factors.

The fewer the risk factors present, the better kindergartners seem to be doing in reading and

mathematics. At the end of the kindergarten year, just as they did at the beginning, children

who have fewer risk factors demonstrate higher levels of reading and mathematics

knowledge and skills than those with two or more risk factors (table 2).

School Type and Kindergarten Program Type: The type of school children attend and the

type of kindergarten program in which children are enrolled have been associated with their

academic school performance. Consequently, we explore children’s knowledge and skills by

the type of school (i.e., public or private) and the type of kindergarten program they attend

(i.e., full day or part day). In the spring, children who attend private kindergartens

demonstrate higher levels of reading and mathematics knowledge and skills. The differences

by school type should be interpreted with caution, for children demonstrate different levels

of knowledge and skills by their school type at the beginning of their kindergarten year (i.e.,
11

when schools have not had the opportunity to have an effect on children’s performance)

(table 2). In terms of kindergarten program type (i.e., all day or part day), there is little

meaningful difference in the level of children’s end-of-year reading and mathematics

knowledge and skills.

Question 2: Gain, Differences in Gain, and Spring Kindergarten

Status in Children’s Specific Knowledge and Skills

Previously, we described the overall gains children experience across the kindergarten year.

Seemingly, all children are gaining knowledge and skills at similar rates; however, a different

picture emerges when we explore the specific areas in which children are gaining knowledge

and skills. When we do this, we find specific groups of children are gaining certain

knowledge and skills at different rates. To illustrate this, we look at how children’s specific

knowledge and skills change from the fall of kindergarten to the spring of kindergarten.

Further, we explore whether the gains in children’s specific knowledge and skills vary by

child, family, and kindergarten program characteristics (e.g., those at risk for later school

difficulty). Finally, we examine whether the differences in children’s specific knowledge and

skills by child, family, and kindergarten program characteristics (e.g., children’s age, their

mother’s education, their race/ethnicity) persist across the kindergarten year (for more

information on such differences at school entry, see West et al. 2000).

Gain in Specific Knowledge and Skills from Fall to Spring

Cognitive Knowledge and Skills

In addition to the reading and mathematics scale scores, the ECLS-K assessment battery

provides information on specific proficiencies. Additional information on the cognitive

assessment battery is provided in the Methodology and Technical Notes section.

In the reading domain, the ECLS-K assessment battery provides information on:

• letter recognition;

• understanding of the letter-sound relationship at the beginning of words;

• understanding of the letter-sound relationship at the ending of words;
12

• sight-word recognition; and

• understanding of words in context.

In the mathematics domain, the ECLS-K assessment battery provides information on:

• recognizing single-digit numbers and basic shapes;

• counting beyond 10, recognizing the sequence in basic patterns, and comparing the

relative size (dimensional relationship) of objects;

• recognizing two-digit numbers, identifying the next number in a sequence, and

identifying the ordinal position of an object;

• performing simple addition and subtraction; and

• performing basic multiplication and division.

For simplicity, we will refer to these sets of mathematical skills by the most sophisticated

skill in the set (i.e., number and shape, relative size, ordinality, add/subtract,

multiply/divide). The addition, subtraction, multiplication and division items are presented in

the form of word problems with picture support and in numerical statements.

In terms of specific knowledge and skills in reading, at kindergarten entry, two-thirds of

children (65 percent) can recognize their letters and some understand the letter-sound

relationship at the beginning and ending of words (29 percent and 17 percent, respectively).10

When we look at these skills at the end of kindergarten, the picture is very different. As they

are finishing kindergarten, nearly all first-time kindergartners are recognizing their letters (94

percent), and nearly three out of four children (72 percent) understand the letter-sound

relationship at the beginning and about half (52 percent) understand the letter-sound

relationship at the ending of words (figure 4, table 3).

We also see that children are gaining in terms of recognizing words and understanding words

in context. At kindergarten entry, very few children recognize words by sight (2 percent) and

understand words in context (1 percent). These numbers increase by the end of kindergarten.

 

10 The estimates in this report do not exactly match those found in America’s Kindergartners (a previous report based on the

same data). This report utilizes both fall and spring child assessment scores, therefore a different weight was used in making the

estimates. The weight in this report is based on children with both fall and spring assessment scores, whereas the weight used in

America’s Kindergartners was tailored to children with only fall assessment scores. The weight in this report is stricter in its

response requirements and utilizes a slightly smaller sample of children.
13

As children are completing the first year of school, 13 percent recognize words by sight and

4 percent understand words in context (figure 4, table 3).

Figure 4.—Percentage of first-time kindergartners demonstrating specific reading

 knowledge and skills: Fall 1998 and spring 1999

Regarding children’s mathematical knowledge and skills, when children enter kindergarten

for the first time, most are familiar with basic numbers and shapes (93 percent). By the end

of kindergarten, nearly all children can demonstrate these skills (99 percent). In terms of the

skills represented by relative size, 57 percent of children demonstrate these skills at the

beginning of kindergarten, increasing to 87 percent of children at the end of kindergarten.

The number of children able to demonstrate the skills represented by ordinality more than

doubles from fall (21 percent) to spring (56 percent) (figure 5, table 4).

Though few children (4 percent) demonstrate the ability to solve simple addition and

subtraction problems at the beginning of kindergarten, almost five times as many

demonstrate these skills at the end of kindergarten (18 percent). A similar pattern is found for

multiplication and division—few (less than 1 percent) demonstrate an understanding of

4

13

52

72

94

1

2

17

29

65

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Words in context

Sight words

Ending sounds

Beginning sounds

Letter recognition

Fall

Spring

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten

Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.

Percent
14

multiplication and division at the beginning of kindergarten and the number approximately

doubles by the end of kindergarten (2 percent) (figure 5, table 4). We may not expect

kindergarten children to have these higher mathematical knowledge and skills, but some

kindergarten children demonstrate these higher level mathematical knowledge and skills.

Figure 5.—Percentage of first-time kindergartners demonstrating specific mathematics

knowledge and skills: Fall 1998 and spring 1999

Noncognitive Knowledge and Skills

Along with their cognitive knowledge and skills, children’s social skills and approaches to

learning are important for school success (Kagan et al. 1995; Meisels et al. 1996). The

ECLS-K assesses children’s social skills and approaches to learning by asking their teachers

to rate the frequency with which children exhibited certain behaviors, such as making

friends, arguing with others and persisting at tasks. Three behaviors exemplify children’s

prosocial interactions: accepting peer ideas, making friends, and comforting others. Three

behaviors exemplify children’s problem behaviors: arguing with others, fighting with others,

and getting angry easily. Finally, three behaviors capture how children approach learning:

persistence at tasks, eagerness to learn, and paying attention in class. Teachers were asked to

2

18

56

87

99

4

21

57

93

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Multiply/divide

Add/subtract

Ordinality

Relative size

Number and shape

Fall

Spring

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,

Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.

Percent
15

rate these behaviors as occurring never, sometimes, often, or very often. In this report, we

collapse the categories into never/sometimes or often/very often.

Similar to children’s cognitive knowledge and skills, we see change in children’s social skills

and in how they approach learning (tables 5, 6, and 7). According to their teachers,11 in the

spring of their kindergarten year, a majority of children often or very often accept peer ideas

in cooperative activities (77 percent), form friendships easily (82 percent) and comfort others

(62 percent). This is a slight increase from when these same children entered kindergarten,

when 74 percent often or very often accepted peer ideas in cooperative activities, 77 percent

formed friendships easily, and 52 percent comforted others (table 5). Similar to the fall, in

the spring of kindergarten relatively few children show problem behaviors often or very

often. For example, in the spring, teachers reported 13 percent of children often or very often

argue with others, 8 percent fight with others, and 9 percent get angry easily (table 6). In

terms of how children approach learning, across the kindergarten year, we see slight

increases in how often they persist at tasks (fall, 71 percent—spring, 75 percent),

demonstrate an eagerness to learn (fall, 75 percent—spring, 79 percent) and pay attention

well (fall, 66 percent—spring, 70 percent) (table 7).

Summary: Gain in Specific Knowledge and Skills, Fall to Spring

Across the kindergarten year, children are gaining specific reading and mathematics

knowledge and skills. By the end of their kindergarten year, nearly all children recognize

their letters, their numbers and their shapes. The percent of children who can recognize

words by sight and demonstrate an understanding of words in context, though still relatively

low, increased across the kindergarten year. And the numbers of children adding and

subtracting also increased across the kindergarten year.

We see less dramatic changes in children’s social skills and approaches to learning across the

kindergarten year, though we do see that for the most part, children are gaining in prosocial

interaction and in their approaches to learning. It should be noted that the gains children

make in the cognitive area cannot truly be compared to the gains children make in the social

 

11 In most cases, the same teacher rated the child at both points in time. Therefore, gains in these areas should be interpreted

with this in mind.
16

areas. For the cognitive assessment, we were able to administer a more comprehensive direct

assessment. In the social area, for these very young children, we relied on the teacher’s

report. Therefore, the less dramatic changes we report in social skills and approaches to

learning may be, in part, attributed to how well we are able to measure these different

developmental domains.

Differences in the Gain of Children’s Specific Knowledge and Skills by Child, Family, and

Kindergarten Program Characteristics

When we examined children’s overall gains in reading and mathematics knowledge and

skills, as measured by their reading and mathematics scale scores, by child, family and

kindergarten program characteristics, we found little evidence of differential gains from fall

to spring. Based on those findings, the conclusion might be that from fall to spring of

kindergarten all children are acquiring knowledge and skills at approximately the same rate

and that they are learning the same things. However, this is not completely accurate. We see

a very different picture when we look at children’s acquisition of specific knowledge and

skills.

To illustrate, children from the more disadvantaged backgrounds (those with at least one risk

factor) are closing the gaps in basic skills (i.e., recognizing their letters and counting beyond

10, recognizing the sequence in basic patterns, and comparing the relative size of objects)

(figures 6 and 7). However, these same children lag further behind their more advantaged

classmates when it comes to gaining more sophisticated reading and mathematics knowledge

and skills (i.e., recognizing words by sight or solving simple addition and subtraction

problems) (figures 8 and 9). In fact, the gap has widened.
17

Figure 6.—Percentage of first-time kindergartners recognizing their letters, by number

of risk factors: Fall 1998 and spring 1999

Figure 7.—Percentage of first-time kindergartners counting beyond 10, recognizing the

sequence in basic patterns and comparing the relative size of objects, by

number of risk factors: Fall 1998 and spring 1999

0

20

40

60

80

100

Fall Spring

0 risks

1 risk

2 or more risks

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,

Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.

Percent

0

20

40

60

80

100

Fall Spring

0 risks

1 risk

2 or more risks

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,

Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.

Percent
18

Figure 8.—Percentage of first-time kindergartners recognizing words by sight, by

number of risk factors: Fall 1998 and spring 1999

Figure 9.—Percentage of first-time kindergartners adding and subtracting, by number

of risk factors: Fall 1998 and spring 1999

0

20

40

60

80

100

Fall Spring

0 risks

1 risk

2 or more risks

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,

Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.

Percent

0

20

40

60

80

100

Fall Spring

0 risks

1 risk

2 or more risks

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,

Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.

Percent
19

The same basic patterns we see when we consider cumulative family risk factors are present

when we consider other child characteristics, such as race/ethnicity (tables 3 and 4). For

example, during the kindergarten year, black and Hispanic children closed the gap with white

and Asian children in basic reading and mathematics knowledge and skills (i.e., recognizing

letters and relative size). Yet, they are not acquiring the more advanced knowledge and skills

(i.e., sight words and addition) at the same rate as their white and Asian counterparts.

Furthermore, to illustrate, we see some evidence of differential gain in the frequency with

which children demonstrate specific social skills (tables 5, 6, and 7). According to their

teachers, younger children are more likely to acquire the skill of paying attention than their

older counterparts during the kindergarten year (table 7).

Differences in Children’s Specific Knowledge and Skills by Child, Family, and

Kindergarten Program Characteristics: Spring of Kindergarten

Kindergartners acquire specific knowledge and skills across the school year. As children

enter school, differences exist in their knowledge and skills by child and family

characteristics (West et al. 2000). We see similar differences as children are finishing

kindergarten and preparing for first grade (tables 3 and 4).

Age:

12 In the spring of their kindergarten year, older children possess higher specific reading

and mathematics knowledge and skills than their younger counterparts. For example, older

first-time kindergartners are more likely to demonstrate emergent literacy skills and

knowledge (i.e., recognizing their letters and understanding the letter-sound relationship at

the beginning and ending of words) than younger kindergartners (table 3). Older

kindergartners are also more likely than younger kindergartners to be reading (i.e.,

recognizing words by sight and understanding words in context) (table 3).

We see a similar pattern in children’s specific mathematics knowledge and skills. Almost all

kindergartners know their basic numbers and shapes; however, older kindergartners are more

 

12 Similar to the discussion on children’s reading and mathematics knowledge and skills, when we make comparisons by age,

we are comparing the children born in the mainstream age groups, those born between September 1992 and December 1993.
20

likely than younger kindergartners to demonstrate other early mathematics knowledge and

skills (i.e., relative size; ordinality) (table 4). Older kindergartners are also more likely to do

simple addition and subtraction problems and even to do simple multiplication and division

problems (table 4).

Overall, the frequency with which children, in the spring of their kindergarten year, engage

in prosocial behaviors, such as accepting peer ideas, making friends and comforting others,

does not differ by their age. However, we see a difference between the older kindergartners

(those just turning 6 as they enter school—born September through December 1992) and the

youngest kindergartners (those just turning 5 as they enter school—born September through

December 1993). How children approach learning differs by their age. Older kindergartners

are more likely to persist at tasks, seem more eager to learn and to pay attention than their

younger counterparts (table 7).

Maternal Education: Similar to when they entered kindergarten, at the end of their

kindergarten year children’s specific reading and mathematics knowledge and skills differ by

the level of their mother’s education. Children whose mothers have higher levels of

education, do better in specific reading and mathematics areas than children whose mothers

have less education. For instance, children whose mothers have higher levels of education

are more likely to demonstrate emergent literacy knowledge and skills than children whose

mothers have less education (table 3). Moreover, children whose mothers have higher levels

of education are more likely than children whose mothers have less education to be reading

(i.e., recognizing words by sight and understanding words in context) (table 3). The same

basic pattern is evident in mathematics. Children whose mothers have higher levels of

education are more likely to demonstrate mathematics knowledge and skills (i.e., relative

size, ordinality, addition/subtraction, and multiplication/division) than children whose

mothers have less education (table 4).

How often children exhibit prosocial interactions and problem behaviors at the end of their

kindergarten year differs by the level of their mother’s education. Children whose mothers

have higher levels of education are more likely to often or very often accept peer ideas in

play, make friends, and comfort others (table 5). In terms of their problem behaviors,
21

children whose mothers have less education are more likely to argue with others, fight with

others, and get angry easily than children whose mothers have more education (table 6). How

children approach learning also differs by their mother’s education. Children with mothers

who have more education are more likely to persist at tasks, seem eager to learn, and pay

attention than children whose mothers have less education (table 7).

Race/ethnicity: Children’s reading and mathematics knowledge and skills differ by their

race/ethnicity. White and Asian children tend to have higher specific reading and

mathematics knowledge and skills than their black and Hispanic classmates. White and Asian

children are generally more likely to demonstrate reading and mathematics knowledge and

skills than black and Hispanic children (tables 3 and 4).

According to their teachers, in the spring of their kindergarten year, children’s social skills

and how they approach learning differs by their race/ethnicity.13 White and Asian children

are more likely to accept peer ideas and form friendships than black children (table 5). Black

children are more likely to get angry easily, argue with others, and fight with others than

white, Asian and Hispanic children (table 6). Also according to their teachers, Asian children

are the most likely to persist at tasks, seem eager to learn, and pay attention; and white

children are more likely to exhibit these behaviors than black or Hispanic children (table 7).

Risk: To explore children’s specific knowledge and skills by family risk factors, we utilize

the risk factor index (discussed earlier in this report). At the end of the kindergarten year,

children who have fewer risk factors are doing better than children with more risk factors in

each of the specific areas of reading and mathematics measured in the ECLS-K (tables 3 and

4). This is true in terms of kindergartners’ specific reading (figure 10) and mathematics

(figure 11) knowledge and skills. For example, children who have fewer risks are more likely

than children with more risks to recognize their letters and understand the letter-sound

relationship at the beginning and ending of words. A similar pattern is evident in terms of

children’s ability to understand the mathematical concepts of relative size and ordinality.

 

13 Information on children’s social skills and how they approach learning is provided by their teachers. Consequently, there may

be an interaction between the teacher’s race/ethnicity and the race/ethnicity of the child that is not accounted for in this analysis.

For example, teachers whose race/ethnicity matches that of the children may rate children differently from teachers whose

race/ethnicity is different from other children.
22

In the spring, teachers report that kindergartners with fewer risk factors are more likely to

often or very often accept peer ideas and form friendships, and less likely to argue with

others, fight with others, and get angry easily than children with more risk factors (tables 5

and 6). How children approach learning is also associated with the number of family risk

factors. According to their teachers, children with fewer risk factors are more likely to persist

at tasks, to seem eager to learn, and to pay attention well than children with more risk factors

(table 7).

Figure 10.—Percentage of first-time kindergartners demonstrating specific reading

knowledge and skills, by number of family risk factors: Spring 1999

0

20

40

60

80

100

Letter

recognition

Beginning

sounds

Ending

sounds

Sight words Words in

context

0 risks

1 risk

2 or more risks

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten

Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.

Percent
23

Figure 11.—Percentage of first-time kindergartners demonstrating specific

mathematics knowledge and skills, by number of family risk factors:

Spring 1999

School Type and Kindergarten Program Type: In the spring of their kindergarten year,

children who attend private kindergartens are more likely to demonstrate, in specific areas,

the various reading and mathematics knowledge and skills than children in public school

kindergartens.14 However, any differences in the spring of kindergarten in children’s specific

cognitive knowledge and skills by school type need to be interpreted with caution. These

differences also exist in the fall, as children are entering kindergarten for the first time

(tables 3 and 4). In the spring of their kindergarten year, there are no differences by

kindergarten program type in children’s basic reading knowledge and skills (i.e., letter

recognition, beginning sounds) and no difference in any of their specific mathematics

knowledge and skills. Children in full-day programs are more likely to understand the lettersound relationship at the end of words, recognize words by sight, and understand words in

 

14 Differences in school type may reflect, in part, differences in socioeconomic status of the families whose children attend

public and private schools (Zill & West forthcoming).

0

20

40

60

80

100

Number and

shape

Relative size Ordinality,

sequence

Add/subtract Multiply/divide

0 risks

1 risk

2 or more risks

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,

Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.

Percent
24

context than children in part-day kindergartens (table 3).

Though no clear pattern emerges in children’s prosocial behaviors (e.g., accepting peer ideas

and forming friendships) by their school type or their program type, there are some

interesting differences when we examine children’s problem behaviors by kindergarten

program type (i.e., how often they argue with others and fight with others) (tables 5 and 6).

According to their teachers, children in full-day kindergarten programs are more likely than

children in part-day programs to exhibit these problem behaviors. Once again, caution should

be used in interpreting differences, as the same differences are observed at kindergarten

entry. In terms of kindergarten program type, it is interesting to note that children in full-day

programs may demonstrate slightly higher cognitive knowledge and skills, but they also are

more likely to exhibit a higher frequency of some problem behaviors.
25

Summary

Young children need knowledge and new experiences to develop and thrive. Schools offer a

plethora of learning and development opportunities for children. Consequently, it is not

surprising that across the kindergarten year, children are rapidly acquiring the knowledge and

skills integral to succeed in school and life.

Across the kindergarten year, children’s reading and mathematics scores increase by about a

standard deviation. Often, it is difficult to interpret what this type of gain means. Therefore,

in this report we provide information on the specific reading and mathematics knowledge and

skills children are gaining. For example, we know that as children enter kindergarten for the

first time about two-thirds know their letters, while by the end of kindergarten almost all (94

percent) children know their letters. We know that the number of children who understand

the letter-sound relationship at the beginning of words more than doubles across the

kindergarten year; and the number of children who understand the letter-sound relationship

at the ending of words triples. In mathematics, by the end of kindergarten, nearly all children

(99 percent) recognize their numbers and basic shapes, and the majority demonstrate

understanding of dimensional relationships among objects (relative size). Furthermore, the

number of children who demonstrate understanding of the mathematical concept ordinality

more than doubles across the kindergarten year; the number of children who demonstrate that

they can do basic addition and subtraction increases. We see less dramatic changes in

children’s social skills and approaches to learning. A large percentage of children exhibit

prosocial behaviors and positive approaches to learning as they are ending kindergarten and

preparing for first grade.

When we look at which children are demonstrating gains in reading and mathematics

knowledge and skills, we find an interesting picture. As children enter kindergarten, they

demonstrate a wide range of knowledge and skills. At kindergarten entry, children at risk for

later school difficulty (as indicated by the risk-factor index we formed) are less likely to

know their letters, understand the letter-sound relationship at the beginning and ending of

words, know their numbers, demonstrate an understanding of relative size and of ordinality

(West et al. 2000). Across the kindergarten year, we see that these same children (those at
26

risk) are gaining, in terms of basic reading and mathematical knowledge and skills (i.e.,

letters, relative size), on their more advantaged counterparts—in other words, the gap is

closing. However, at-risk children are falling further behind in terms of the more

sophisticated reading and mathematics knowledge and skills (i.e., recognizing words by

sight, addition/subtraction)—in other words, the gap is widening. As a result, by the end of

kindergarten, we see many of the same differences in knowledge and skills that we saw at the

beginning of the school year. After a year of formal schooling, we still see differences in

children’s knowledge and skills by child and family characteristics (e.g., children with

mothers who have higher levels of education demonstrate higher reading and mathematics

knowledge and skills, children with fewer risks for later school difficulty demonstrate higher

reading and mathematics knowledge and skills).

This report presents a simple picture of the gains children are making across the kindergarten

year. The ECLS-K will follow these children through the fifth grade. We will be able to track

children’s performance and the differences in their performance, not only by child and family

characteristics but also by teacher and school characteristics. This report represents only the

beginning of understanding the role of the kindergarten year in children’s development.

Future analyses, based on the information from the ECLS-K, will help us understand the role

of such things as child care, home educational environment, teachers’ instructional practices,

class size and the general climate, facilities, and safety of the schools.
27

Methodology and Technical Notes

Survey Methodology

The Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–99 (ECLS-K), is

being conducted by Westat for the U.S. Department of Education, National Center for

Education Statistics (NCES). It is designed to provide detailed information on children’s

early school experiences. The study began in the fall of the 1998–99 school year. The

children participating in the ECLS-K are being followed longitudinally through the fifth

grade. Estimates in this report are based on children entering kindergarten for the first time in

the fall of 1998.

Sample Design

A nationally representative sample of 22,782 children enrolled in 1,277 kindergarten

programs during the 1998–99 school year were sampled to participate in the ECLS-K. The

children attended both public and private kindergartens that offered full-day and part-day

programs. The sample includes children from different racial/ethnic and socioeconomic

backgrounds, and includes oversamples of Asian children, private kindergartens, and private

kindergartners.

Sampling for the ECLS-K involved a dual-frame, multistage sampling design. The first stage

of sampling involved the selection of 100 primary sampling units (PSU) from a national

sample of PSUs. The PSUs were counties and county groups. Public and private schools

were then selected within the PSUs, and children were sampled from the selected schools.

Public schools were selected from the Common Core of Data, a public school frame, and

private schools were selected from a private school frame developed from the Private School

Survey.15 Approximately 23 kindergartners were selected on average in each of the sampled

schools.

 

15 During the spring of 1998, Westat identified new schools that were not found on either frame. A sample of these schools was

included in the ECLS-K school sample.
28

Fall kindergarten data were obtained from September to December 1998. Spring kindergarten

data were obtained from March to June 1999.

Response Rates

A total of 944 of the 1,277 originally sampled schools participated during the base year of

the study. This translates into a weighted response rate of 74 percent for the base year of

the study. The school response rate during the spring of the base year (74.2 percent) was

higher than during the fall (69.4 percent), due to some of the schools that originally declined

to participate changing their minds and participating in the spring. Nearly all (99.4 percent)

of the schools that participated in the fall of the base year also participated in the spring.

The child base-year completion rate was 92 percent, i.e., 92 percent of the children were

assessed at least once during kindergarten. The parent base-year completion rate was 89

percent (i.e., a parent interview was completed at least once during kindergarten). Thus, the

overall base-year response rate for children was 68.1 percent (74 percent x 92 percent) and

the base-year response rate for the parent interview was 65.9 percent (74 percent x 89

percent). About 95 percent of the children and 94 percent of the parents who participated in

the fall of kindergarten also participated in the spring.

A nonresponse bias analysis was conducted to determine if substantial bias is introduced due

to school nonresponse. Five different approaches were used to examine the possibility of

bias in the ECLS-K sample. First, weighted and unweighted response rates for schools,

children, parents, teachers, and school administrators were examined to find large response

rate differences by characteristics of schools (e.g., urbanicity, region, school size, percent

minority, and grade range) and children (e.g., sex, age, race/ethnicity). Second, estimates

based on the ECLS-K respondents were compared to estimates based on the full sample. The

distributions of schools by school type, urbanicity, region, and the distributions of enrollment

by kindergarten type (public versus private), race/ethnicity, urbanicity, region and eligibility

for free and reduced-price lunch were compared for the responding schools and all the

schools on the sampling frame. Third, estimates from the ECLS-K were compared with

estimates from other data sources (e.g., Current Population Survey, National Household

Education Survey, Survey of Income and Program Participation). Fourth, estimates using the
29

ECLS-K unadjusted weights were compared with estimates using the ECLS-K weights

adjusted for nonresponse. Large differences in the estimates produced with these two

different weights would indicate the potential for bias after nonresponse adjustments. Fifth,

and last, simulations of nonresponse were conducted. The results of these analyses are

summarized in the ECLS-K User’s Manual and reported in detail in the ECLS-K

Methodology Report. Findings from these analyses suggest that there is not a bias due to

school nonresponse.

Data Reliability

Estimates produced using data from the ECLS–K are subject to two types of error, sampling

and nonsampling errors. Nonsampling errors are errors made in the collection and

processing of data. Sampling errors occur, because the data are collected from a sample

rather than a census of the population. A detailed discussion of these types of errors can be

found in America’s Kindergartners (West et al. 2000).

Standard Errors and Weights

In order to produce national estimates from the ECLS-K data collected during the fall and

spring of the 1998–99 school year, the sample data were weighted. Weighting the data

adjusts for unequal selection probabilities at the school and child levels and adjusts for

school, child, teacher, and parent nonresponse. The first stage of the weighting process

assigns weights to the sampled primary sampling units (PSUs) equal to the inverse of the

PSU probability of selection.16 The second stage of the weighting process assigns weights to

the schools sampled within PSUs. The base weight for each sampled school is the PSU

weight multiplied by the inverse of the probability of selecting the school. The base weights

for eligible schools are adjusted for nonresponse. These adjustments are made separately for

public and private schools.

The base weight for each child in the sample is the school nonresponse adjusted weight for

the school the child attends, multiplied by a post-stratified within-school student weight

 

16 The approach used to develop weights for the ECLS-K is described in the ECLS-K User’s Manual and the ECLS-K

Methodology Report .
30

(total number of students in the school, divided by the number of students sampled in the

school). The child-parent panel weight (BYCOMW0), which is the weight used to produce

the estimates found in this report, is the base child weight adjusted for nonresponse to the

parent interview at each round of data collection. Only those cases with completed child

assessments in both fall and spring of kindergarten are included in these weighting

procedures. Again, these adjustments are made separately for public and private schools.

In addition to properly weighting the responses, special procedures for estimating the

statistical significance of the estimates were employed, because the data were collected using

a complex sample design. Complex sample designs, like that used in the ECLS-K, result in

data that violate the assumptions that are normally required to assess the statistical

significance of the results. Frequently, the standard errors of the estimates are larger than

would be expected, if the sample was a simple random sample and the observations were

independent and identically distributed random variables. WesVarPC was used in this

analysis to calculate standard errors.

Replication methods of variance estimation were used to reflect the actual sample design

used in the ECLS-K. A form of the jackknife replication method (JK2) using 90 replicates

was used to compute approximately unbiased estimates of the standard errors of the

estimates in the report. The jackknife methods were used to estimate the precision of the

estimates of the reported national percentages and means.

Statistical Procedures

Comparisons made in the text were tested for statistical significance to ensure that the

differences are larger than might be expected due to sampling variation. For reference,

standard errors for tables 2 and 3 are included in the appendix.

When comparisons in estimates at one point in time (e.g., fall kindergarten) were made

between categorical groups (i.e., gender, race/ethnicity, school type and program type), t

statistics were calculated. The formula used to compute the t statistic was:
31

t = Est1 – Est2 / SQRT[(se1)

2 + (se2)]2

Where Est1 and Est2 are the estimates being compared and se1 and se2 are their corresponding

standard errors.

When comparing the gains of groups of children on the social rating scale items where

frequencies are reported (e.g., change in the frequency with which males persist at tasks

versus change in the frequency with which females persist at tasks), the following formula

was used:

t = (Est11 – Est21) – (Est12 – Est22) / SQRT[(se11

2 + se212

) + (se12

2 + se222

)]

Where Est11 and Est21 are the estimates being compared within a category (e.g., male fall

reading and male spring reading) and Est12 and Est22 are the estimates being compared

within the other category (e.g., female fall reading score, female spring reading score). And

se11, se21, se12, and se22 are their corresponding standard errors.

To guard against errors of inference based on multiple comparisons, the Bonferroni

procedure to correct significance tests for multiple contrasts was used in this report. The

Bonferroni procedure divides the alpha level for a single t test (e.g., .05) by the number of

critical pairwise comparisons, in order to provide a new alpha that adjusts for the number of

comparisons being made.

When comparisons with continuous or ordinal independent variables were made (i.e., age at

entry, mother’s education, and the risk index), regression analysis was used. When the

analyses involved continuous dependent variables—all of the cognitive scores—linear

regression was used; with dichotomous dependent variables—social skills, problem

behaviors, and approaches to learning—logistic regression was used.
32

Constructs and Variables Used in Analysis

Children’s Cognitive Knowledge and Skills

The ECLS-K direct child cognitive assessment was administered using a computer-assisted

personal interview (CAPI), administered one-on-one with each child. The assessment

included two cognitive domains (reading and mathematics). The ECLS-K battery was a twostage assessment approach, in which the first stage in each domain contained a routing test

that determined a child’s approximate skills. According to the child’s performance on the

routing test, the child was administered the appropriate skill level assessment for that domain

(the second stage). The reading and mathematics assessments had three skill levels. Children

were administered the routing stage and the appropriate skill level stage in the fall of

kindergarten, and again in the spring of kindergarten.

To be sensitive to the needs and capabilities of the children in the sample, an English

language proficiency screener, called the Oral Language Development Scale (OLDS), was

administered if school records indicated that the child’s home language was not English.

The child had to demonstrate a certain level of English proficiency to be administered the

cognitive assessment in English. In terms of first-time kindergartners, about 93 percent were

assessed in English in the fall of kindergarten. The 7 percent of children excluded from the

English assessment represents 19 percent of the Asian children and 29 percent of the

Hispanic children. The cognitive knowledge and skills estimates in this report are based on

those first-time kindergartners who were assessed in English in both the fall and the spring of

kindergarten, therefore the 7 percent of children who were excluded from the English

assessment in the fall of kindergarten were not included. Less than .5 percent of children in

the fall and the spring of kindergarten were excluded from the assessment based on a

disability.

Scale score. Item Response Theory (IRT) was employed to calculate scores that could be

compared regardless of which second stage form a student took. The items in the routing test,

plus a core set of items shared among the different second stage forms, made it possible to

establish a common scale. IRT uses the pattern of right, wrong, and omitted responses to the

items actually administered in a test, and the difficulty, discriminating ability, and “guess-
33

ability” of each item, to place each student on a continuous ability scale. It is then possible

to estimate the score the student would have achieved if all of the items in all of the test

forms had been administered. The reliability of the estimates of reading and mathematics,

fall and spring scores, are as follows (IRT-based theta): reading = .9, mathematics = .9.

Proficiency Level Probability Scores. Proficiency scores provide a means of distinguishing

status or gain in specific skills within a content area from the achievement measured by the

IRT scale scores. Clusters of four test questions having similar content and difficulty were

included at several points along the score scale of the reading and mathematics tests. A

student was assumed to have mastered a particular level of proficiency, if at least three of the

four items in the cluster were answered correctly, and to have failed at this level, if two or

more items were wrong. Clusters of items provide a more reliable test of proficiency than do

single items, because of the possibility of guessing. It is very unlikely that a student who has

not mastered a particular skill would be able to guess enough answers correctly to pass a four

item cluster. These scores are computed using performance in each subject. The nature of the

two-stage test is that not all children receive all items. To calculate proficiency estimates for

all children, an IRT model was employed. For the purpose of IRT calibration, the item

clusters were treated as single items. The hierarchical nature of the skill sets justified the use

of the IRT model in this way. Gains in probability of mastery at each proficiency level allow

researchers to study not only the amount of gain in total scale score points but also where

along the scale different children are making their largest gains in achievement during a

particular time interval.

In reading, the proficiency levels are named as follows: (1) letter recognition, (2) beginning

sounds, (3) ending sounds, (4) sight words, and (5) words in context. Letter recognition is as

it sounds—the ability of children to recognize their letters. Beginning sounds and ending

sounds refer to children’s ability to understand the letter-sound relationship at the beginning

and at the ending of words. Sight words refer to children’s ability to recognize whole words

by sight and read them aloud. And, words in context refer to children’s ability to read simple

short passages of text with a missing word, and insert the correct missing word.
34

In mathematics, the proficiency levels are named as follows (their names reflect the most

complex mathematical construct contained in the proficiency): (1) number and shape, (2)

relative size, (3) ordinality and sequence, (4) add/ subtract, and (5) multiply/divide. Number

and shape refers to children’s ability to recognize single-digit numbers and basic shapes.

Relative size refers to children’s ability to count beyond 10, recognize the sequence in basic

patterns, and compare the relative size of objects. Ordinality and sequence means that

children can recognize two-digit numbers, identify the next number in a sequence, and

identify the ordinal position of an object. Addition and subtraction means children can

perform simple addition and subtraction problems. Multiplication and division refers to

children’s ability to perform simple multiplication and division operations. The addition,

subtraction, multiplication and division items are presented in the form of word problems

with picture support and in numerical statements.

Children’s Social Knowledge and Skills

All kindergarten teachers with sampled children in their classrooms were asked to fill out

three self-administered questionnaires. The first two pertained to their own educational

backgrounds, teaching practices, experiences, and the classroom settings where they taught.

For each of the sampled children they taught, the teachers also completed a child-specific

questionnaire that collected information on the child’s social knowledge and skills. Teachers

reported on the frequency with which children demonstrated particular behaviors (e.g.,

accept peer ideas, fight with others, persist at tasks). Teachers rated the frequency of

children’s behaviors as never, sometimes, often, or very often. To present the behaviors in

terms of their basic frequency (e.g., frequent versus infrequent), the categories were

collapsed into never/sometimes and often/very often.

Family and Child Characteristics

Parents/guardians were asked to provide key information about their children on subjects

such as family demographics (e.g., age, relation to child, race/ethnicity), family structure

(household members and composition), parent involvement, home educational activities,

child care experience, child health, parental education and employment status, and child’s

social skills and behaviors. Most of the data were collected through a computer-assisted
35

telephone interviewing (CATI), though some of the interviews were collected through a

computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI), when respondents did not have a telephone

or were reluctant to be interviewed by telephone.

Derived Variables

A number of variables used in this report were derived by combining information from one

or more questions in the ECLS-K parent questionnaire or from other study sources. The

derivation of key variables is described in this section.

Children’s age at entry to kindergarten. This variable was constructed using two variables:

month and year of birth. These variables were combined to form five categories: children

born prior to September 1992 (age 6 when they entered kindergarten), born between

September–December 1992 (turning age 6 when they entered kindergarten), January–April

1993 (age 5 when they entered kindergarten), May–August 1993 (age 5 when they entered

kindergarten) and September–December 1993 (age 4 when they entered kindergarten).

Maternal education. This variable was constructed using the questions on the highest grade

the child’s mother or female guardian had completed, and whether the mother or female

guardian had obtained a high school equivalency degree if she did not complete high school.

This information was collapsed into four categories: less than high school, high school or

equivalent, some college including vocational/technical training, and bachelor’s degree or

higher.

Children’s race/ethnicity. The race/ethnicity composite was constructed from two parentreported variables: ethnicity and race. New Office of Management and Budget guidelines

were followed under which a respondent could select more than one race. Thus each

respondent had to identify whether the child was Hispanic, and then select one or more races.

The following are the five composite race/ethnicity categories we present in this report:

white non-Hispanic, black non-Hispanic, Hispanic, Asian and Other (which includes Pacific

Islanders, American Indians, Alaska Natives, and multiracial children). When race/ethnicity
36

differences are presented in this report, white refers to white, non-Hispanic and black refers

to black, non-Hispanic.

Risk factor index. The risk factor index uses information on the following family

characteristics: mother with less than a high school diploma, family utilized AFDC and/or

food stamps, single parent family, and primary language other than English (as identified by

the respondent in the parent interview). The index is a cumulative count of the individual

factors, with each factor counting as 1. The cumulative count was collapsed into: 0, 1, and 2

or more—meaning the presence of none of the risk factors, the presence of one of the risk

factors, or the presence of 2 or more of the risk factors.

School type. The type of school in which children attended kindergarten was collapsed into

two broad categories: public and private. Private schools include those with both religious

affiliations and nonreligious affiliations. Information from the school administrator

questionnaire, along with school sample frame data, was used to create this variable. If there

was no school administrator questionnaire, then school sample frame data were used to

create the composite.

Kindergarten program type. This report refers to two types of kindergarten programs: full

day and part day. This variable was constructed from information provided by teachers on

the time(s) of day that they taught kindergarten (e.g., AM only, PM only, AM and PM, all

day). Children whose teachers reported teaching AM only, PM only, or both AM and PM

classes were classified as part day, and children whose teachers reported teaching all-day

kindergarten classes were classified as full day. In cases where the information provided by

the teachers was inconsistent (e.g., teachers who reported that they taught AM only classes

and all-day classes, information from the field management system that was used by field

staff to schedule in-school child assessments) was used to resolve the inconsistency.
37

References
39

Bredekamp, S. & Copple, C. (1997). Developmentally appropriate practice in early

childhood programs. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young

Children.

Dewey, J. (1944). Democracy and education. New York: MacMillan Publishing Company.

Dewey, J. (1976). The school and society. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

Donahue, P. L., Voelkl, K. E., Campbell, J. R., & Mazzeo, J. (1999). NAEP 1998 reading

report card for the nation and states. NCES 1999–500. Washington, DC: National Center for

Education Statistics.

Huttenlocher, J., Levine, S., & Vevea, J. (1998). “Environmental input and cognitive growth:

A study using time-period comparisons.” Child Development, 69 (4), 1012–1029.

Kagan, S. L., Moore, E., and Bredekamp, S. (Eds.) 1995. Reconsidering children's early

learning and development: Toward shared beliefs and vocabulary. Washington, DC:

National Education Goals Panel.

Meisels, S. J. 1996. “Performance in context: Assessing children’s achievement at the outset

of school.” In The five to seven year shift: The age of reason and responsibility, eds. A. J.

Sameroff and M. M. Haith, pp. 410–431. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Reaney, L., West, J., & Denton, K. (2000). Beginning school: U.S. kindergartners

developmental status—variation by entry age and gender. Poster session presented at the

annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

Reese, C. M., Miller, K. E., Mazzeo, J., & Dossey, J. A. (1997). NAEP 1996 mathematics

report card for the nation and the states: Findings from the National Assessment of

Educational Progress. NCES 97–488. Washington, DC: National Center for Education

Statistics.
40

Roopnarine, J. L. & Johnson, J. E. (1993). Approaches to early childhood education. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Sameroff, A. & McDonough, S. C. (1994). “Educational implications of developmental

transitions: Revisiting the 5- to 7-year shift.” Phi Delta Kappan, 76 (3), 188–193.

Seefeldt, C. (1990). Continuing issues in early childhood education. New York: MacMillan

Publishing Company.

Seefeldt, C. & Barbour, N. (1994). Early childhood education: An introduction. New York:

Merrill.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. ECLS-K base year

public-use data file user’s manual. NCES 2001–029. Washington, DC.

West, J., Denton, K., & Germino Hausken, E. (2000). America’s kindergartners: Findings

from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998.

NCES 2000–070. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

West, J., Germino Hausken, E., Chandler, K., & Collins, M. (1992). Experiences in child

care and early childhood programs of first and second graders. NCES 92–005. Washington,

DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

Zill, N. & West, J. (2000). “Entering Kindergarten: A Portrait of American Children When

They Begin School.” Condition of Education 2000, NCES 2000–062. Washington, DC:

National Center for Education Statistics.

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differences in student achievement at kindergarten entrance. Washington, DC: National

Center for Education Statistics.
41

Tables
43

Table 1.—Population percentages of first-time kindergartners: 1998–99

Population

Characteristic percentage

Total 100

Child’s sex

 Male 51

 Female 49

Child’s age at entry

 Age 4: Born Sep.—Dec. 1993 9

 Age 5: Born May—Aug. 1993 32

 Age 5: Born Jan.—Apr. 1993 32

 Age 6: Born Sep.—Dec. 1992 24

 Age 6: Born Jan.—Aug. 1992 4

Mother’s education

 Less than high school 15

 High school diploma or equivalent 31

 Some college1 32

 Bachelor’s degree or higher 22

Child’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 58

 Black, non-Hispanic 15

 Asian 3

 Hispanic 19

 Other 5

Risk index2

 0 risk factors 60

 1 risk factor 25

 2 or more risk factors 15

School type

 Public 85

 Private 15

Program type

 All day 55

 Part day 45

1

Some college includes vocational and technical education.

2

Risk index consists of a non-English primary home language, single-parent family, less than high school maternal education, and

the family having received welfare assistance.

NOTE: Detail may not sum to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study,

Kindergarten Class of 1998–99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.
44

Table 2.—First-time kindergartners’ reading and mathematics mean scale scores, by child, family, and

kindergarten program characteristics: Fall 1998 to spring 1999

Reading Mathematics

Characteristic Fall Spring Change Fall Spring Change

Total 22 32 10 20 28 8

Child’s sex

 Male 21 31 10 20 28 8

 Female 23 33 10 20 28 8

Child’s age at entry

 Age 4: Born Sep.—Dec. 1993 20 29 9 17 24 7

 Age 5: Born May—Aug. 1993 21 31 10 18 26 8

 Age 5: Born Jan.—Apr. 1993 22 33 10 20 28 8

 Age 6: Born Sep.—Dec. 1992 24 34 10 22 30 9

 Age 6: Born Jan.—Aug. 1992 25 34 10 24 32 8

Mother’s education

 Less than high school 17 26 9 15 23 7

 High school diploma or equivalent 20 30 10 18 26 8

 Some college1 22 33 10 20 28 8

 Bachelor’s degree or higher 27 37 10 24 33 9

Child’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 23 33 10 21 30 9

 Black, non-Hispanic 20 29 9 17 24 7

 Asian 26 38 12 23 31 9

 Hispanic 19 30 11 17 25 8

 Other 20 29 9 17 25 8

Risk index2

 0 risk factors 24 34 10 21 30 9

 1 risk factor 20 30 10 18 26 8

 2 or more risk factors 18 27 9 15 23 7

School type

 Public 21 31 10 19 27 8

 Private 26 36 10 23 31 8

Program type

 All day 22 33 10 20 28 9

 Part day 22 31 10 20 28 8

* Less than .5 percent.

1

Some college includes vocational and technical education.

2

Risk index consists of a non-English primary home language, single-parent family, less than high school maternal education, and the family having

received welfare assistance.

NOTE: Due to rounding, spring scores minus fall scores may not equal the change score. Estimates are based on first-time kindergartners who were

assessed in English in both the fall and the spring (approximately 19 percent of Asian children and approximately 30 percent of Hispanic children are

not included in these estimates). In the table heading, Spr = spring and Ch = change from fall to spring.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–

99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.
45

Table 3.—Percentage of first-time kindergartners demonstrating specific reading knowledge and skills, by child,

family, and kindergarten program characteristics: Fall 1998 to spring 1999

Letter

recognition

Beginning

sounds

Ending sounds Sight words Words in

context

Characteristic Fall Spr Ch Fall Spr Ch Fall Spr Ch Fall Spr Ch Fall Spr Ch

Total 65 94 29 29 72 42 17 52 35 2 13 11 1 4 3

Child’s sex

 Male 61 92 31 26 68 42 15 48 34 3 12 9 1 4 3

 Female 69 95 26 32 76 43 18 56 37 2 15 12 1 5 4

Child’s age at entry

 Age 4: Born Sep.—Dec. 1993 57 89 32 21 61 40 11 40 30 1 97132

 Age 5: Born May—Aug. 1993 60 93 33 24 67 43 13 47 34 1 109133

 Age 5: Born Jan.—Apr. 1993 66 94 28 31 73 43 17 54 37 2 13 11143

 Age 6: Born Sep.—Dec. 1992 72 96 24 36 78 42 22 59 37 4 17 13265

 Age 6: Born Jan.—Aug. 1992 75 96 21 39 77 39 25 59 35 4 18 14264

Mother’s education

 Less than high school 38 84 46 9 49 40 4 29 25 (*) 3 3 (*) 1 1

 High school diploma or equivalent 57 92 34 21 66 45 11 45 34 1 9 8 (*) 2 2

 Some college1 68 95 27 30 75 44 17 55 38 2 13 11 1 4 3

 Bachelor’s degree or higher 84 99 14 49 86 37 31 69 38 6 24 18 2 9 7

Child’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 71 96 25 34 77 43 20 57 38 3 15 12 1 5 4

 Black, non-Hispanic 57 90 33 20 59 40 10 39 29 1 8 7 (*) 2 2

 Asian 79 98 20 43 85 42 28 68 40 9 29 20 5 14 9

 Hispanic 50 90 40 20 65 45 11 45 34 1 10 8 (*) 3 2

 Other 51 89 38 21 61 39 12 41 29 2 9 7 1 3 2

Risk index2

 0 risk factors 73 96 23 36 78 42 21 59 38 3 16 13 1 5 4

 1 risk factor 57 91 34 21 65 44 11 44 33 2 9 8 1 3 2

 2 or more risk factors 40 85 45 11 51 40 5 31 25 1 4 4 (*) 1 1

School type

 Public 62 93 31 26 70 43 15 49 34 2 11 9 1 4 3

 Private 82 97 15 45 83 38 28 66 38 5 22 17 2 8 6

Program type

 All day 66 94 28 30 73 43 17 54 37 3 15 12 1 5 4

 Part day 64 93 29 28 70 41 16 50 34 2 11 9 1 4 3

* Less than .5 percent.

1

Some college includes vocational and technical education.

2

Risk index consists of a non-English primary home language, single-parent family, less than high school maternal education, and the family having

received welfare assistance.

NOTE: Due to rounding, spring scores minus fall scores may not equal the change score. Estimates are based on first-time kindergartners who were

assessed in English in both the fall and the spring (approximately 19 percent of Asian children and approximately 30 percent of Hispanic children are

not included in these estimates). In the table heading, Spr = spring and Ch = change from fall to spring.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–

99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.
46

Table 4.—Percentage of first-time kindergartners demonstrating specific mathematics knowledge and skills, by

child, family, and kindergarten program characteristics: Fall 1998 to spring 1999

Number &

shape

Relative size Ordinality,

sequence

Add/subtract Multiply/

divide

Characteristic Fall Spr Ch Fall Spr Ch Fall Spr Ch Fall Spr Ch Fall Spr Ch

Total 93 99 6 57 87 30 21 56 36 4 18 14 (*) 2 2

Child’s sex

 Male 92 99 6 55 86 31 22 56 34 4 19 14 1 3 2

 Female 94 99 5 58 87 30 20 57 37 3 17 14 (*) 2 1

Child’s age at entry

 Age 4: Born Sep.—Dec. 1993 88 98 10 41 78 37 10 39 29 1 9 8 (*) 1 1

 Age 5: Born May—Aug. 1993 91 99 8 49 84 35 15 50 35 2 13 11 (*) 1 1

 Age 5: Born Jan.—Apr. 1993 94 99 5 59 88 29 21 59 37 4 18 15 (*) 2 2

 Age 6: Born Sep.—Dec. 1992 96 100 4 66 91 25 30 67 37 6 25 19143

 Age 6: Born Jan.—Aug. 1992 97 99 2 73 91 18 38 70 32 9 31 21265

Mother’s education

 Less than high school 83 97 14 31 72 41 6 32 26 1 6 6 (*) 1 1

 High school diploma or equivalent 91 99 8 48 83 35 14 49 35 2 13 11 (*) 1 1

 Some college1 95 99 4 59 89 30 21 59 38 3 18 14 (*) 2 2

 Bachelor’s degree or higher 99 100 1 76 95 19 38 75 37 9 31 23 1 5 4

Child’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 96 99 4 64 91 27 26 64 38 5 22 17 (*) 3 3

 Black, non-Hispanic 89 98 9 41 76 35 9 37 28 1 8 7 (*) (*) (*)

 Asian 97 100 3 68 92 24 32 68 36 9 28 19 1 6 5

 Hispanic 90 99 9 43 81 38 12 46 33 2 12 10 (*) 1 1

 Other 88 99 11 45 81 37 13 45 32 2 11 9 (*) 1 1

Risk index2

 0 risk factors 96 99 4 65 91 26 27 64 37 5 22 17 (*) 3 3

 1 risk factor 91 99 8 47 82 35 14 48 34 2 13 11 (*) 1 1

 2 or more risk factors 84 97 14 33 72 39 7 32 25 1 6 5 (*) (*) (*)

School type

 Public 92 99 7 54 85 32 19 54 35 3 16 13 (*) 2 2

 Private 97 100 2 72 93 22 33 70 37 7 27 20 1 4 3

Program type

 All day 93 99 6 56 87 31 21 57 37 4 19 15 (*) 2 2

 Part day 94 99 6 57 86 29 21 55 34 4 17 13 (*) 2 2

* Less than .5 percent.

1

Some college includes vocational and technical education.

2

Risk index consists of a non-English primary home language, single-parent family, less than high school maternal education, and the family having

received welfare assistance.

NOTE: Due to rounding, spring scores minus fall scores may not equal the change score. Estimates are based on first-time kindergartners who were

assessed in English in both the fall and the spring (approximately 19 percent of Asian children and approximately 30 percent of Hispanic children are not

included in these estimates). In the table heading, Spr = spring and Ch = change from fall to spring.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–99,

Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.
47

Table 5.—Percentage of first-time kindergartners demonstrating specific prosocial behaviors, by child, family,

 and kindergarten program characteristics: Fall 1998 to spring 1999

Accept peer ideas Form friendships Comfort others

Characteristic Fall Spring Change Fall Spring Change Fall Spring Change

Total 74 77 4 77 82 5 52 62 10

Child’s sex

 Male 71 75 4 73 79 6 43 52 8

 Female 77 80 3 81 84 4 61 72 11

Child’s age at entry

 Age 4: Born Sep.—Dec. 1993 68 76 7 73 78 4 47 59 11

 Age 5: Born May—Aug. 1993 73 76 3 74 80 6 50 60 9

 Age 5: Born Jan.—Apr. 1993 75 78 3 77 83 6 53 63 11

 Age 6: Born Sep.—Dec. 1992 75 79 4 80 83 3 55 64 8

 Age 6: Born Jan.—Aug. 1992 75 78 3 78 81 3 55 63 8

Mother’s education

 Less than high school 70 75 5 70 75 5 43 54 11

 High school diploma or equivalent 73 77 4 75 80 5 51 61 11

 Some college1 75 78 3 78 83 5 54 63 9

 Bachelor’s degree or higher 76 79 3 81 86 4 58 66 8

Child’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 76 80 4 79 83 4 56 65 9

 Black, non-Hispanic 68 69 1 72 75 3 45 53 8

 Asian 75 82 6 74 86 12 52 63 11

 Hispanic 73 77 5 74 82 8 47 59 12

 Other 71 73 2 70 76 7 49 58 9

Risk index2

 0 risk factors 76 80 3 80 85 4 56 66 10

 1 risk factor 71 75 4 72 78 5 48 57 9

 2 or more risk factors 68 72 4 69 75 6 43 52 10

School type

 Public 73 77 4 76 81 5 51 61 10

 Private 76 78 1 80 85 4 57 66 9

Program type

 All day 72 75 3 77 81 5 53 62 9

 Part day 76 80 4 77 82 5 51 62 11

1

Some college includes vocational and technical education.

2

Risk index consists of a non-English primary home language, single-parent family, less than high school maternal education, and the family having

received welfare assistance.

NOTE: Due to rounding, spring scores minus fall scores may not equal the change score. Estimates based on first-time kindergartners. Estimates based on

teacher report of how frequently children demonstrate behavior; the ratings presented in this table are the percentage of children who demonstrate the

behavior often or very often.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–99,

Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.
48

Table 6.—Percentage of first-time kindergartners demonstrating specific problem behaviors, by child, family,

 and kindergarten program characteristics: Fall 1998 to spring 1999

Argue with others Fight with others Easily gets angry

Characteristic Fall Spring Change Fall Spring Change Fall Spring Change

Total 11 13 2 8 8 (*) 10 9 -1

Child’s sex

 Male 13 15 2 10 10 (*) 12 12 -1

 Female 8 10 1 6 5 -1 7 6 -1

Child’s age at entry

 Age 4: Born Sep.—Dec. 1993 11 13 2 9 7 -1 12 10 -2

 Age 5: Born May—Aug. 1993 11 14 2 9 8 -1 11 10 (*)

 Age 5: Born Jan.—Apr. 1993 10 11 1 8 7 -1 10 8 -1

 Age 6: Born Sep.—Dec. 1992 10 12 2 7 8 1 9 8 (*)

 Age 6: Born Jan.—Aug. 1992 11 12 2 8 8 (*) 11 9 -2

Mother’s education

 Less than high school 12 14 2 11 9 -2 11 10 -2

 High school diploma or equivalent 12 14 2 8 9 (*) 10 10 (*)

 Some college1 10 13 3 7 7 (*) 10 9 (*)

 Bachelor’s degree or higher 9 9 (*) 6 6 -1 9 7 -2

Child’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 10 11 1 7 6 -1 9 8 -1

 Black, non-Hispanic 17 22 5 12 14 2 13 16 3

 Asian 6 5 -1 5 4 -1 8 4 -4

 Hispanic 9 10 1 9 7 -2 11 8 -3

 Other 13 13 (*) 10 9 -1 11 11 -1

Risk index2

 0 risk factors 10 10 1 6 6 (*) 9 8 -1

 1 risk factor 12 16 4 10 10 (*) 11 11 (*)

 2 or more risk factors 13 16 3 11 11 (*) 12 12 -1

School type

 Public 11 13 2 8 8 -1 10 9 -1

 Private 10 11 1 7 7 (*) 9 9 (*)

Program type

 All day 13 15 2 10 9 -1 11 11 (*)

 Part day 8 9 (*) 7 6 -1 9 7 -2

* Less than .5 percent.

1

Some college includes vocational and technical education.

2

Risk index consists of a non-English primary home language, single-parent family, less than high school maternal education, and the family having

received welfare assistance.

NOTE: Due to rounding, spring scores minus fall scores may not equal the change score. Estimates based on first-time kindergartners. Estimates based on

teacher report of how frequently children demonstrate behavior; the ratings presented in this table are the percentage of children who demonstrate the

behavior often or very often.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–99,

Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.
49

Table 7.—Percentage of first-time kindergartners demonstrating specific approaches to learning behaviors, by

 child, family, and kindergarten program characteristics: Fall 1998 to spring 1999

Persists at tasks Seems eager to learn Pays attention

Characteristic Fall Spring Change Fall Spring Change Fall Spring Change

Total 71 75 4 75 79 3 66 70 4

Child’s sex

 Male 65 69 4 72 75 3 58 62 4

 Female 77 82 4 79 83 3 74 78 4

Child’s age at entry

 Age 4: Born Sep.—Dec. 1993 62 67 5 67 73 6 56 62 6

 Age 5: Born May—Aug. 1993 65 70 4 71 75 4 61 65 4

 Age 5: Born Jan.—Apr. 1993 73 77 4 78 80 3 68 72 4

 Age 6: Born Sep.—Dec. 1992 78 81 4 81 83 3 73 75 2

 Age 6: Born Jan.—Aug. 1992 81 79 -2 81 83 3 72 73 1

Mother’s education

 Less than high school 60 64 4 63 68 5 54 59 6

 High school diploma or equivalent 69 72 3 73 76 4 64 66 2

 Some college1 73 77 4 78 81 3 68 71 3

 Bachelor’s degree or higher 79 84 5 84 87 2 75 79 4

Child’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 75 78 4 79 82 3 70 73 3

 Black, non-Hispanic 61 65 4 66 69 3 56 59 3

 Asian 81 89 8 82 88 6 70 80 10

 Hispanic 67 72 5 72 76 4 62 68 6

 Other 68 72 4 72 76 4 61 64 3

Risk index2

 0 risk factors 76 80 4 81 83 3 72 75 3

 1 risk factor 68 71 4 70 75 4 61 65 4

 2 or more risk factors 58 63 4 64 67 3 53 58 5

School type

 Public 70 74 4 74 78 4 65 69 3

 Private 77 80 3 81 83 2 70 75 5

Program type

 All day 69 72 3 75 78 3 64 67 3

 Part day 73 78 5 76 80 4 68 73 4

1

Some college includes vocational and technical education.

2

Risk index consists of a non-English primary home language, single-parent family, less than high school maternal education, and the family having

received welfare assistance.

NOTE: Due to rounding, spring scores minus fall scores may not equal the change score. Estimates based on first-time kindergartners. Estimates based on

teacher report of how frequently children demonstrate behavior; the ratings presented in this table are the percentage of children who demonstrate the

behavior often or very often.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–99,

Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.
51

Appendices
53

Table 2a.—Standard errors for first-time kindergartners’ reading and mathematics mean by child, family, and

kindergarten program characteristics: Fall 1998 to spring 1999

Reading Mathematics

Characteristic Fall Spring Change Fall Spring Change

Total 0.16 0.22 0.13 0.14 0.19 0.09

Child’s sex

 Male 0.17 0.22 0.15 0.17 0.21 0.10

 Female 0.18 0.26 0.13 0.15 0.20 0.11

Child’s age at entry

 Age 4: Born Sep.—Dec. 1993 0.27 0.36 0.21 0.22 0.29 0.16

 Age 5: Born May—Aug. 1993 0.18 0.28 0.18 0.15 0.22 0.13

 Age 5: Born Jan.—Apr. 1993 0.19 0.25 0.13 0.15 0.20 0.11

 Age 6: Born Sep.—Dec. 1992 0.24 0.26 0.18 0.23 0.27 0.13

 Age 6: Born Jan.—Aug. 1992 0.41 0.53 0.35 0.36 0.44 0.32

Mother’s education

 Less than high school 0.18 0.28 0.22 0.18 0.28 0.18

 High school diploma or equivalent 0.17 0.24 0.17 0.14 0.22 0.12

 Some college1 0.19 0.25 0.14 0.15 0.17 0.11

 Bachelor’s degree or higher 0.22 0.28 0.17 0.20 0.23 0.13

Child’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 0.20 0.24 0.15 0.17 0.20 0.11

 Black, non-Hispanic 0.28 0.39 0.22 0.21 0.29 0.17

 Asian 0.63 0.63 0.34 0.49 0.53 0.32

 Hispanic 0.29 0.43 0.31 0.22 0.32 0.22

 Other 0.88 1.00 0.23 0.74 0.72 0.19

Risk index2

 0 risk factors 0.19 0.22 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.1

 1 risk factor 0.21 0.28 0.15 0.17 0.25 0.13

 2 or more risk factors 0.21 0.29 0.23 0.19 0.27 0.15

School type

 Public 0.15 0.23 0.15 0.14 0.21 0.11

 Private 0.42 0.48 0.23 0.32 0.34 0.15

Program type

 All day 0.25 0.36 0.19 0.22 0.30 0.13

 Part day 0.23 0.27 0.14 0.22 0.27 0.11

1

Some college includes vocational and technical education.

2

Risk index consists of a non-English primary home language, single-parent family, less than high school maternal education, and the family having

received welfare assistance.

NOTE: In the table heading, Spr = spring and Ch = change from fall to spring.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–

99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.
54

Table 3a.—Standard errors for percentage of first-time kindergartners demonstrating specific reading knowledge and

 skills, by child, family, and kindergarten program characteristics: Fall 1998 to spring 1999

Letter

recognition

Beginning

sounds

Ending sounds Sight words Words in

context

Characteristics Fall Spr Ch Fall Spr Ch Fall Spr Ch Fall Spr Ch Fall Spr Ch

Total 0.73 0.35 0.56 0.74 0.82 0.62 0.51 0.86 0.61 0.13 0.45 0.41 0.07 0.19 0.16

Child’s sex

 Male 0.83 0.44 0.69 0.75 0.87 0.69 0.50 0.85 0.66 0.16 0.44 0.37 0.09 0.21 0.18

 Female 0.85 0.38 0.67 0.89 0.93 0.71 0.64 0.98 0.66 0.15 0.60 0.54 0.08 0.24 0.21

Child’s age at entry

 Age 4: Born Sep.—Dec. 1993 1.60 1.00 1.28 1.06 1.38 1.06 0.72 1.28 0.96 0.29 0.80 0.72 0.17 0.39 0.36

 Age 5: Born May—Aug. 1993 0.97 0.44 0.82 0.78 1.07 0.92 0.52 1.08 0.87 0.17 0.58 0.50 0.09 0.28 0.23

 Age 5: Born Jan.—Apr. 1993 0.92 0.48 0.74 0.91 0.95 0.71 0.63 0.97 0.67 0.23 0.54 0.47 0.13 0.27 0.21

 Age 6: Born Sep.—Dec. 1992 1.04 0.42 0.99 1.11 0.86 0.98 0.84 0.97 0.81 0.29 0.69 0.58 0.20 0.39 0.29

 Age 6: Born Jan.—Aug. 1992 1.95 0.88 1.83 1.77 1.42 1.71 1.34 1.70 1.41 0.71 1.53 1.29 0.55 0.97 0.69

Mother’s education

 Less than high school 1.39 0.62 1.17 1.38 0.35 1.26 1.09 0.09 1.05 0.34 0.03 0.33 0.10 0.85 0.08

 High school diploma or equivalent 0.98 0.57 0.83 0.80 1.03 0.92 0.52 0.96 0.80 0.14 0.44 0.40 0.08 0.20 0.17

 Some college1 0.93 0.41 0.78 0.90 0.92 0.82 0.63 0.95 0.70 0.23 0.62 0.54 0.12 0.29 0.24

 Bachelor’s degree or higher 0.77 0.20 0.72 0.99 0.66 0.75 0.80 0.90 0.69 0.33 0.86 0.72 0.19 0.48 0.39

Child’s race/ethnicity

 White, non-Hispanic 0.90 0.34 0.74 0.94 0.85 0.77 0.66 0.93 0.68 0.17 0.55 0.49 0.09 0.24 0.21

 Black, non-Hispanic 1.40 0.85 1.06 1.24 1.59 1.03 0.83 1.45 0.99 0.26 0.75 0.66 0.12 0.30 0.24

 Asian 1.84 0.48 1.72 2.28 1.45 1.76 1.83 1.76 1.48 1.32 1.83 1.45 0.85 1.28 0.85

 Hispanic 1.66 0.91 1.43 1.24 1.64 1.38 0.76 1.68 1.37 0.23 0.80 0.77 0.14 0.32 0.26

 Other 5.02 2.09 3.24 3.07 4.29 1.71 1.99 3.69 2.00 0.64 1.48 1.02 0.34 0.73 0.48

Risk index2

 0 risk factors 0.77 0.23 0.67 0.91 0.72 0.74 0.65 0.83 0.63 0.18 0.56 0.50 0.09 0.25 0.22

 1 risk factor 1.14 0.61 0.89 0.86 1.14 0.80 0.56 1.09 0.75 0.19 0.49 0.40 0.11 0.23 0.18

 2 or more risk factors 1.60 1.17 1.34 0.74 1.32 1.18 0.44 1.08 1.01 0.19 0.45 0.41 0.11 0.18 0.11

School type

 Public 0.74 0.40 0.57 0.72 0.91 0.70 0.49 0.93 0.69 0.12 0.45 0.41 0.07 0.17 0.15

 Private 1.29 0.37 1.08 1.84 1.11 1.21 1.44 1.41 0.82 0.57 1.46 1.11 0.28 0.78 0.64

Program type

 All day 1.07 0.54 0.78 1.15 1.28 0.91 0.81 1.32 0.86 0.20 0.80 0.69 0.11 0.33 0.28

 Part day 1.19 0.49 0.87 1.03 1.06 0.64 0.67 1.12 0.69 0.17 0.47 0.38 0.08 0.20 0.17

1

Some college includes vocational and technical education.

2

Risk index consists of a non-English primary home language, single-parent family, less than high school maternal education, and the family having

received welfare assistance.

NOTE: In the table heading, Spr = spring and Ch = change from fall to spring.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–

99, Fall 1998 and Spring 1999.