# Patent

## Title
Manganese oxide composite electrodes for lithium batteries

## Abstract

An activated electrode for a non-aqueous electrochemical cell is disclosed with a precursor thereof a lithium metal oxide with the formula x{zLi2MnO3.(1−z)LiM′O2}.(1−x)LiMn2−yMyO4 for 0<x<1; 0≦y≦0.5; and 0<z<1, comprised of layered zLi2MnO3.(1−z)LiM′O2 and spinel LiMn2−yMyO4 components, physically mixed or blended with one another or separated from one another in a compartmentalized electrode, in which M is one or more metal ions, and in which M′ is selected from one or more first-row transition metal ions, The electrode is activated by removing lithium and lithia, from the precursor. A cell and battery are also disclosed incorporating the disclosed positive electrode.

## Background
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
This application is a divisional of application Ser. No. 11/204,512 filed Aug. 16, 2005, which is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 11/057,790 filed Feb. 14, 2005, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,303,840, which claims the benefit of Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/607,125 filed Sep. 3, 2004, and is a continuation of PCT/US2004/038377, filed Nov. 17, 2004; each of the foregoing applications being incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.


CONTRACTUAL ORIGIN OF THE INVENTION
The United States Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38 between the United States Government and The University of Chicago and/or pursuant to Contract No. DE-AC02-06CH11357 between the United States Government and UChicago Argonne, LLC representing Argonne National Laboratory.


FIELD OF THE INVENTION
This invention relates to lithium-metal-oxide electrodes for non-aqueous lithium cells and batteries. Lithium cells and batteries are used widely to power numerous devices, such as those used in electronic-, medical-, transportation-, aerospace- and defense systems.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
This invention relates to improved metal oxide electrodes for non-aqueous lithium cells and batteries. More specifically, the invention relates to activated electrodes having as a precursor thereof, a lithium metal oxide containing manganese with the formula Li2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yMyO4 for 0.5<x<1.0 and 0≦y≦1 in which the Li2MnO3 and LiMn2−yMyO4 components have layered and spinel-type structures, respectively, such that the spinel component constitutes less than 50 mole % of the precursor electrode, preferably less than 20 mole %, corresponding to 0.8<x<1.0, and more preferably less than 10 mole % corresponding to 0.9<x<1.0, and in which M is one or more metal cations, said activated electrode being activated by removing lithia (Li2O), or lithium and lithia, from said precursor. The M cations are selected from one or more monovalent, divalent, trivalent or tetravalent cations, preferably from Li+, Mg2+, Ni2+, Ni3+, CO2+, CO3+, Al3+, Ti4+ and Zr4+ ions. Partial substitution of the manganese ions, or lithium and manganese ions, by M cations of the layered Li2MnO3 component may occur during synthesis that will modify the stoichiometry of this component while maintaining charge neutrality in the composite electrode. The precursor electrodes can be activated either chemically or electrochemically by removing lithia and lithium from the layered Li2MnO3 and spinel LiMn2−yMyO4 components, or by removing lithia alone if the components are, for example, Li2MnO3 (alternatively, Li2O.MnO2) and Li1.33Mn1.67O4(y=0.33, alternatively, Li2O.2.5MnO2). The invention is extended to include activated electrodes in which the layered Li2MnO3 component is replaced by a layered xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiM′O2 (0<x<1) component having a composite structure, in which the M′ ions of the layered LiM′O2 subcomponent are selected from one or more first-row transition metal ions, optionally replaced by 10% or less of Li, Mg and/or Al ions. A particular novel feature of the invention is that the spinel component can be used as an end-of-charge indicator and/or an end-of-discharge indicator for the lithium cells.
The principles of this invention extend to include other activated electrodes in which either the layered Li2MnO3 or the spinel LiMn2−yMyO4 component of the electrode precursor is partially replaced by a Li2O.zMnO2 component containing lithia as a subcomponent, which does not have a layered- or spinel-type structure such that the spinel component constitutes less than 50 mole % of the composite electrode. In a particular embodiment, the Li2O.zMnO2 component is 0.15Li2O.MnO2 (alternatively, Li2O.6.67MnO2; z=6.67) that can have a lithiated alpha-type MnO2 structure or a lithiated gamma-type MnO2 structure, the precursor electrodes being activated either chemically or electrochemically by removing lithia, or lithium and lithia, from their structures.
The electrodes of this invention can have structures in which the individual Li2MnO3, LiMn2−yMyO4, xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiM′O2 and Li2O.zMnO2 components are either structurally integrated with one another at the atomic level to form ‘composite’ electrode structures, or they can be comprised of physical mixtures or blends of the individual components or, alternatively, the individual components can be separated from one another in a compartmentalized electrode. The invention includes methods to synthesize the electrode precursors and methods to activate the precursors.
The electrodes of this invention can be used either in primary lithium cells and batteries or rechargeable lithium cells and batteries.



BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
The invention consists of certain novel features and a combination of parts hereinafter fully described, illustrated in the accompanying drawings, it being understood that various changes in the details may be made without departing from the spirit, or sacrificing any of the advantages of the present invention.
FIG. 1 depicts a schematic representation of a Li2MnO3—MnO2—LiMn2O4 phase diagram.
FIG. 2 depicts X-ray diffraction patterns of xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yLiyO4 precursor electrodes for x=0.7 and y=0.33, synthesized (a) at 400° C.; (b) at 600° C.; (c) 750° C. and (d) an acid-leached precursor electrode product derived from (a).
FIG. 3 depicts high-resolution transmission electron microscope images of a xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yLiyO4 precursor electrodes for x=0.7, y=0.33, synthesized at 400° C.
FIG. 4 depicts X-ray diffraction patterns of precursor electrodes (a) xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yNiyO4 synthesized at 400° C. for x=0.5 and y=0.5; and (b) xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yCOyO4 synthesized at 400° C. for x=0.7 and y=0.2.
FIG. 5 depicts (a) the initial charge/discharge profile of a lithium cell, operated at room temperature, in which the cathode precursor is xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yLiyO4 for x=0.7; y=0.33 and (b) the capacity vs. cycle number plot of cycles 1-10 of this cell.
FIG. 6 depicts the initial charge/discharge profile of a lithium cell, operated at room temperature, in which the cathode precursor is xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2O4 for x=0.6.
FIG. 7 depicts the initial charge/discharge profile of a lithium cell, operated at room temperature, in which the cathode precursor is xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yNiyO4 for x=0.5 and y=0.5.
FIG. 8 depicts the initial charge/discharge profile of a lithium cell, operated at room temperature, in which the cathode precursor is xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yCOyO4 for x=0.7 and y=0.2.
FIG. 9 depicts (a) the initial charge profile of a lithium cell, operated at room temperature, in which the cathode precursor is xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yLiyO4 for x=0.7; y=0.33 and (b) the initial charge profile of a similar lithium cell in which the xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yLiyO4 cathode precursor had been activated with acid.
FIG. 10 depicts the X-ray diffraction pattern of a layered-spinel precursor electrode in which the Li:Mn:Ni ratio is 4:3:1, synthesized at 900° C. in air.
FIG. 11 depicts (a) the charge/discharge profile of the 14th cycle of a lithium cell, operated at room temperature, in which the cathode precursor is a layered-spinel precursor, the X-ray diffraction pattern of which is shown in FIG. 10; and (b) the capacity vs. cycle number plot of cycles 10-20 of the cell.
FIG. 12 depicts a schematic representation of an electrochemical cell.
FIG. 13 depicts a schematic representation of a battery consisting of a plurality of cells connected electrically in series and in parallel.



DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
State-of-the-art lithium-ion cells contain a LiCoO2 positive electrode, a carbon negative electrode, typically graphite, and a non-aqueous electrolyte. A significant effort is being made by the lithium battery community to replace LiCoO2 as the electrode material of choice because 1) it is relatively expensive, 2) it has a limited practical capacity ( ̃140 mAh/g), and 3) in the charged state, delithiated Li1−xCoO2 electrodes are inherently unstable and unsafe in the lithium cell environment. Although considerable progress has been made in improving the electrochemical properties of the electrode by partially replacing cobalt by nickel, LiCO1−xNixO2 electrodes (and other compositional modifications thereof) have not yet satisfactorily overcome the limitations mentioned above. On the basis of electrochemical potential, cost, capacity, safety and toxicity of metal oxide systems, manganese appears to be the most attractive first-row transition metal element to replace cobalt in the positive electrode of lithium-ion cells. Moreover, a wide range of manganese-oxide- and lithium-manganese-oxide structures exist, for example, one-dimensional tunnel structures such as alpha-MnO2, beta-MnO2 and gamma-MnO2, two-dimensional layered (e.g., birnessite-type) structures and three-dimensional framework (e.g., spinel-type) structures. In many cases, lithium can be inserted into, and extracted from, the manganese oxide host framework without destroying the structural integrity of the host. Layered LiMnO2 and substituted layered LiMn1−yMyO2 electrode materials in which M is one or more metal ions such as Co, Ni, and Li have been reported in the literature, for example, by Bruce et al.; in these instances, the precursor compounds from which the electrode materials are derived (by Li+ ion-exchange) are layered NaMnO2 or substituted NaMn1−yMyO2 compounds, for example, as described in the Journal of Materials Chemistry, Volume 13, page 2367 (2003), the LiMnO2 and substituted layered LiMn1−yMyO2 electrode materials always containing some residual Na+ ions, unlike the electrodes of this invention. Lithiated-manganese-oxide structures can also be fabricated and stabilized by introducing a lithia (Li2O) component into several MnO2 compounds, which can be represented generally as Li2O.zMnO2 compounds. Examples of such compounds are a lithia-stabilized hollandite-type MnO2 tunnel structure (Li2O.6.67MnO2, alternatively, 0.15Li2O.MnO2), a lithia-stabilized gamma-type MnO2 tunnel structure (Li2O.6.67MnO2, alternatively, 0.15Li2O.MnO2), a lithia-stabilized layered-type structure (Li2O.MnO2, alternatively, Li2MnO3), and a lithia-stabilized spinel-type structure (Li2O.2.5MnO2, alternatively, Li4Mn5O12). The versatility of manganese-based systems therefore makes them particularly attractive for exploitation as electrodes in primary and rechargeable lithium cells and batteries, as highlighted in the Journal of Power Sources, Volumes 43-44, page 289 (1993) and in Progress in Solid State Chemistry, Volume 25, page 1 (1997).
This invention relates, in general, to improved metal oxide electrodes containing manganese for non-aqueous lithium cells and batteries. More specifically, the invention relates to activated electrodes having as a precursor thereof a lithium metal oxide containing manganese with the formula xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yMyO4 for 0.5<x<1.0 and 0≦y<1 in which the Li2MnO3 and LiMn2−yMyO4 components have layered and spinel-type structures, respectively, such that the spinel component constitutes less than 50 mole % of the precursor electrode, preferably less than 20 mole %, corresponding to 0.8<x<1.0, and more preferably less than 10 mole % corresponding to 0.9<x<1.0, and in which M is one or more metal cations, said activated electrode being activated by removing lithia, or lithium and lithia, from said precursor, the M cations being selected from one or more monovalent, divalent, trivalent or tetravalent cations, preferably from Li+, Mg2+, Ni2+, Ni3+, Co2+, Co3+, Al3+, Ti4+ and Zr4+ ions. Partial substitution of the manganese ions, or lithium and manganese ions, by M cations of the layered Li2MnO3 component may occur during synthesis that will modify the stoichiometry of this component while maintaining charge neutrality in the composite electrode. The precursor electrodes can be activated either chemically or electrochemically by removing lithia and lithium from the layered Li2MnO3 and spinel LiMn2−yMyO4 components, or by removing lithia alone if the components are, for example, Li2MnO3 (alternatively, Li2O.MnO2) and Li1.33Mn1.67O4 (y=0.33, alternatively, Li2O.2.5MnO2). When precursor electrodes such as xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yMyO4 are activated electrochemically by both lithium and lithia removal, then the removal of lithium typically occurs before lithia removal with a concomitant oxidation of the Mn and/or M ions in the LiMn2−yMyO4 spinel component of the electrode structure.
The invention is extended to include activated electrodes in which the layered Li2MnO3 component is replaced by a layered xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiM′O2 (0<x<1) component having a composite structure, in which the M′ ions of the layered LiM′O2 subcomponent are selected from one or more first-row transition metal ions, optionally replaced by 10% or less of Li, Mg and/or Al ions. A particular novel feature of the invention is that the spinel component can be used as an end-of-charge indicator and/or an end-of-discharge indicator for the lithium cells.
The principles of this invention extend to include other activated electrodes in which either the layered Li2MnO3 or the spinel LiMn2−yMyO4 component of the xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yMyO4 electrode precursor is partially replaced by a Li2O.zMnO2 component containing lithia as a subcomponent, which does not have a layered- or spinel-type structure such that the spinel component constitutes less than 50 mole % of the precursor electrode.
In a particular embodiment, the Li2O.zMnO2 component is 0.15Li2O.MnO2 (alternatively, Li2O.6.67MnO2; z=6.67) that can have a lithiated alpha-type MnO2 structure or a lithiated gamma-type MnO2 structure, the precursor electrodes being activated either chemically or electrochemically by removing lithia, or lithium and lithia, from their structures. The individual components of the precursor electrodes of this invention can therefore have one-dimensional tunnel structures, two-dimensional layered structures or three-dimensional framework structures.
The electrodes of this invention can have structures in which the individual Li2MnO3, LiMn2−yMyO4, xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiM′O2 and Li2O.zMnO2 components are either structurally integrated with one another at the atomic level, or they can be comprised of physical mixtures or blends of the individual components or, alternatively, the individual components can be separated from one another in a compartmentalized electrode. The invention includes methods to synthesize the electrode precursors and methods to activate the precursors. The electrode precursors can be synthesized or fabricated by high-temperature solid state reactions and or by physically mixing or blending the individual components of the electrode. Electrochemical activation of the electrode precursors occurs directly in a lithium cell, typically at a potential greater than 4.4 or 4.6 V vs. metallic lithium, whereas chemical activation of the precursors occurs, for example, by reaction of the composite precursor electrode structure with acid, such as sulfuric, hydrochloric or nitric acid, prior to cell assembly.
The electrodes of this invention can be used either in primary lithium cells and batteries or rechargeable lithium cells and batteries.
The principles of this invention are described first by reference to Li2MnO3 (Li2O.MnO2) that has a layered, rock salt-type structure in which the lithium and manganese ions occupy all the octahedral sites. As such, Li2MnO3 cannot be used as an insertion electrode in lithium cells because the interstitial space, comprised of tetrahedra that share faces with neighboring octahedra, is energetically unfavorable for accommodating additional lithium. Moreover, lithium extraction is not possible because the manganese ions are tetravalent and cannot be easily oxidized at practical potentials. However, it has been demonstrated by Rossouw et al. in the Materials Research Bulletin, Volume 26, page 463 (1991), that Li2MnO3 can be electrochemically activated by removing Li2O from the Li2MnO3 structure by chemical treatment to yield a Li2−xMnO3−x/2 product; this process is accompanied by some H+—Li+ ion-exchange. Li2MnO3 can also be activated electrochemically by Li2O removal in a lithium cell, as reported by Kalyani et al. in the Journal of Power Sources, Volume 80, page 103 (1999), and by Robertson et al. in Chemistry of Materials, Volume 15, page 1984 (2003) but these activated electrodes perform poorly in lithium cells. However, although Li2−xMnO3−x/2 electrodes, if used alone, tend to lose capacity when lithium cells are cycled, they can be highly effective in improving electrochemical properties when used as a component in a composite electrode, for example, in a two-component electrode system, xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMO2 (M=Mn, Ni and Co) in which the Li2MnO3 and LiMO2 components both have layered-type structures, as outlined in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,677,082 and 6,680,143. The approach to designing composite electrodes in which there is a strong structural relationship between two layered Li2MnO3 and LiMO2 components, typically for x≦0.5, is particularly effective when M is selected from both Mn and Ni ions, optionally with one or more other M ions, such as Co ions. For example, in 0.3Li2MnO3.0.7LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2 electrodes, when synthesized at high temperature, typically 900-1000° C., it has been demonstrated by Kim et al. in Chemistry of Materials, Volume 16, page 1996 (2004) that the Li2MnO3 and LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2 components are integrated at the atomic level to yield highly complex structures that have been referred to as ‘composite’ structures for simplicity and convenience.
Composite 0.3Li2MnO3.0.7LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2 electrodes can be electrochemically activated in lithium cells. During an initial charge, the electrochemical reaction is believed to occur predominantly by the following process, as described more fully by Kim et al. in the above-mentioned reference. Lithium ions are initially extracted from the LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2 component with a concomitant oxidation of Ni2+ to Ni4+; the manganese ions remain tetravalent during this process. Thereafter, lithium is extracted from the Li2MnO3 component, typically at a potential greater than 4.4 or 4.6 V vs. metallic lithium (Li0), with a concomitant loss of oxygen from the structure; the net result is a loss of Li2O from the Li2MnO3 component. On complete extraction of lithium from 0.3Li2MnO3.0.7LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2, the fully charged electrode has the composition 0.3MnO2.0.7Mn0.5Ni0.5O2, or alternatively, Mn0.65Ni0.35O2. In principle, therefore, this approach makes it possible to fabricate layered metal dioxides, and to tailor the concentration of a particular metal atom type in the structure, notably manganese.
It has now been discovered that the concept of integrating two layered structures such as Li2MnO3 and LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2 to form a composite electrode structure, in which the two components are connected by a structurally compatible close-packed oxygen array, can be extended to other more complex systems such as composite layered-spinel xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yMyO4 combinations that are comprised of different structure types. Composite layered-spinel structures are already known; they are produced when layered LiMnO2 electrodes transform to spinel during electrochemical cycling as reported by Shao-Horn et al. in the Journal of the Electrochemical Society, Volume 146, page 2404, 1999. However, a significant difference and advantage of using two-component xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yMyO4 precursor electrodes over a one-component LiMnO2 electrode, or more complex systems in which the layered Li2MnO3 component is replaced by a layered xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiM′O2 component having a “composite” structure, as defined hereinbefore, is that it is possible to tailor the composition of the layered-spinel precursor electrode and the concentration of spectator Mn4+ ions during an initial charge reaction to design an electrode that may offer a higher capacity and rate capability, and superior cycling stability compared to individual LiMnO2— or state-of-the-art LiCoO2 electrodes. Moreover, it is known that layered xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMO2 (M=Mn, Ni and Co) electrodes can offer exceptionally high electrode capacities, typically >200 mAh/g, whereas spinel electrodes, such as those derived from the Li1+yMn2−yO4 (0<y<0.33) system can offer a high rate capability. The combination of having both layered and spinel components, either structurally integrated or physically mixed or blended in a single electrode, or separated in electrode compartments within a single electrode therefore offers the possibility of designing new electrodes that offer both high capacity and rate over state-of-the art electrodes.
By way of example, a compositional phase diagram for a layered-spinel composite electrode system, Li2MnO3—MnO2—LiMn2O4, is provided in FIG. 1. Taking 0.5Li2MnO3.0.5LiMn2O4 (x=0.5), which lies on the Li2MnO3—LiMn2O4 tie-line in FIG. 1 as an example of the parent electrode, lithium extraction from the LiMn2O4 component during the initial charge changes the composition of the electrode along the dashed line (route 1) in FIG. 1 until the 0.5Li2MnO3.0.5MnO2 composition is reached on the Li2MnO3—MnO2 tie-line; this process occurs at approximately 4 V vs. Li0. Thereafter, Li2O is removed at a higher potential, typically above 4.4 V vs. metallic lithium, which drives the composition of the electrode toward the MnO2 apex of the tie-triangle. Discharge of the fully-delithiated electrode along route 1 drives the composition to LiMn2O4 at which the average manganese oxidation state is 3.5. If the amount of lithia that is removed from the 0.5Li2MnO3.0.5MnO2 electrode is restricted to leave 20% Li2O in the charged electrode, then the electrode composition changes according to route 2 in FIG. 1. Under such circumstances, the fully charged electrode has the composition 0.2Li2MnO3.0.8MnO2 or, alternatively, 0.2Li2MnO3.0.4Mn2O4. Following route 2, the composition of this electrode is 0.2Li2MnO3.0.4LiMn2O4 when discharged to the Li2MnO3—LiMn2O4 (layered-spinel) tie-lie at which composition, the average manganese oxidation state in the electrode is 3.6. Composite xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2O4 electrode structures, like their layered-layered analogues, therefore provide a mechanism for controlling the changes in Mn-ion oxidation state during charge and discharge, which is critical to the electrochemical stability of both layered and spinel Li—Mn—O electrode structures in non-aqueous lithium cells. This approach of tailoring the composition and cation arrangement in layered-spinel electrodes and the manganese oxidation state in discharged electrodes can be extended more broadly to the xLi2MnO3.(1−x)Li1+yMn2−yO4 system in which the composition and Li2O content of the spinel component can be tailored as a function of y according to its position on LiMn2O4—Li4Mn5O12 tie-line of the Li—Mn—O phase diagram.
The Li1+yMn2−yO4 spinel components of composite electrode precursors, such as Li[Mn1.8Li0.2]O4, contain both Mn3+ and Mn4+ ions. Note, for example, that Li[Mn1.8Li0.2]O4, in which y=0.2, can be reformulated as a sub-component composite electrode 0.67LiMn2O4.0.33Li4Mn5O12 or as 0.67LiMn2O4.0.67Li2O.1.67MnO2 to highlight the Li2O component in the structure. By analogy with the reaction process described above for 0.5Li2MnO3.0.5LiMn2O4 electrodes, the composition of a 0.67LiMn2O4.0.33Li4Mn5O12 [Li[Mn1.8Li0.2]O4] electrode would change first by removing lithium from the LiMn2O4 sub-component with a concomitant oxidation of Mn3+ to Mn4+ and, thereafter, by removing Li2O from the Li4Mn5O12 sub-component at higher potentials. Furthermore, it is possible to use an electrode precursor with a composition that falls on the tie-line between Li4Mn5O12 (Li:Mn=0.8:1) and Li2MnO3 (Li:Mn=2:1) in the Li—Mn—O phase diagram. Such precursors, represented by xLi2MnO3.(1−x)Li4Mn5O12, have both layered- and spinel-type character. For example, a composite electrode in which the Li:Mn ratio is 1.2:1 would have the formula 5/7Li2MnO3. 2/7Li4Mn5O12, or alternatively, in approximate decimal notation, as 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12. It can be anticipated that charging these electrode precursors to high potential would yield, on complete extraction of lithium, a composite MnO2-type structure with both layered and spinel-type character, and the applicants believe that a complex intergrown MnO2 structure will contribute to providing enhanced structural stability over individual layered- and spinel-MnO2 electrode structures in much the same way that gamma-MnO2 electrodes contain an intergrown structure comprised of ramsdellite-MnO2 domains and stabilizing pyrolusite-MnO2 domains.
The principles of this invention can be extended to more complex precursor electrodes that contain more than one type of transition metal ion, notably those containing Ni and/or Co, such as electrodes derived from composite layered-spinel systems, e.g., xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yNiyO4, xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yCOyO4 and xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−y−zNiyCozO4. For 0<x<1 and 0≦y<1, these substituted electrodes have a manganese content that is higher than the substituted metal content. For example, the percentage of manganese in a layered-spinel composite electrode, 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4, is 88% of the total transition metal content. It should be noted, however, that the formula 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4 is written as a simple two-component system for convenience; in practice, it is highly likely that the layered Li2MnO3 component may contain some Ni in the Mn and/or Li layers, which would modify the composition of the layered and spinel components to maintain the stoichiometry of, and charge balance within, the electrode structure. Even more complex electrode precursors exist if, for example, the Li2MnO3 component is replaced by a layered xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiM′O2 component, such as 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2, described hereinbefore, which has its own characteristic composite structure.
A particular advantage of using a composite electrode with a LiMn2−yNiyO4 spinel component such as LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4 is that this component delivers its capacity at high potentials vs. metallic lithium, typically between 5 and 2.5 V vs. lithium. The composition of xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yNiyO4, xLi2MnO31−x)LiMn2−yCOyO4 and xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−y−zNiyCozO4 precursor electrodes is selected preferably such that after electrochemical activation in lithium cells, the average manganese oxidation state is close to, or preferably higher than, 3.5+ at the discharged composition to minimize or eliminate damaging effects in the electrode, such as a crystallographic Jahn-Teller distortion that occurs typically in lithium-manganese-oxide spinel electrodes when the average manganese oxidation state falls below 3.5+, or electrode dissolution that can occur, particularly at high potentials, by the disproportionation of Mn3+ ions into Mn2+ and Mn4+ ions. A particular advantage of having a spinel component in the composite electrode is that it is possible to use this component as an end-of-charge indicator and/or an end-of-discharge indicator by controlling the fraction of the spinel component in the electrode. For example, a LixMn1.5Ni0.5O4 spinel electrode (0<x<2) discharges its capacity over two distinct voltage ranges at approximately 4.7 and 2.9 V (open-circuit values), for the ranges 0<x<1 and 1<x<2, respectively; these voltages can, therefore, be conveniently used to provide an end-of-charge indicator and an end-of-discharge indicator notably for cells that contain a layered component in the precursor electrode such as Li2MnO3 or xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiM′O2 (0<x<1) the latter type having in itself a composite structure, in which the M′ ions of the layered LiM′O2 subcomponent are selected from one or more first-row transition metal ions, optionally replaced by 10% or less of Li, Mg and/or Al ions, these layered components discharging most of their capacity between 4.5 V and 3.0 V vs. metallic lithium.
The applicants believe that, in most cases, it will not be easy to remove all the lithium from the composite structure of the precursor electrodes of this invention during the initial charge and to form a fully delithiated (activated) product and that some residual lithium in the structure may help to stabilize the charged electrode. This invention therefore covers compositions of partially charged precursor electrodes as well as fully-charged (i.e., fully-delithiated or fully activated) precursor electrodes. Moreover, the applicants believe that the loss of oxygen that accompanies the initial charge process may play a critical role in forming, by reaction with the electrolyte, a protective layer at the surface of the charged electrode.
The Li2MnO3, LiMn2−yMyO4, xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiM′O2 and Li2O.zMnO2 components in the precursor electrodes of this invention, when synthesized, may not be ideally stoichiometric. For example, the manganese ions in a spinel component such as Li4Mn5O12 (alternatively, Li2O.2.5MnO2) may be partially reduced to provide mixed-valent Mn4+/3+ character in the initial electrode, the degree of reduction being related to the temperature used during synthesis. For example, electrochemical data have shown that when a 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12 precursor electrode is synthesized (i.e., with a Li:Mn ratio=1.2:1 in the starting materials) at 400° C., the manganese ions are predominantly tetravalent whereas, when synthesized at 750° C., the electrochemical profiles show that the precursor electrode is partially reduced, having a formula close to 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O11 or, alternatively, close to 0.6Li2MnO3.0.4LiMn2O4.
The invention includes experimental methods for fabricating the precursor electrodes such as conventional sol-gel techniques, high-temperature solid state reactions or, alternatively, physically mixing or blending individual components together, for example, mixing or blending a Li2MnO3 component with a layered-type structure with a 0.15Li2O.MnO2 (Li0.3MnO2.15) component with a hollandite-type structure to yield a xLi2MnO3.(1−x)Li0.3MnO2.15 electrode, or mixing or blending a Li4Mn5O12 spinel component with a 0.15Li2O.MnO2 (Li0.3MnO2.15) component to yield a xLi4Mn5O12.(1−x)Li0.3MnO2.15 electrode. The invention also includes experimental methods for activating the precursor electrodes by removing lithia (Li2O), or lithium and lithia therefrom, either electrochemically in lithium cells at potentials typically greater than 4.4 or 4.6 V vs. Li0, or chemically, for example, by reaction with acid, such as sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid or nitric acid. The ability to remove Li2O from Li2MnO3 or other Li2O.zMnO2 components by acid treatment has implications for using this method to reduce the first-cycle irreversible capacity loss of the electrodes of this invention, notably xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yMyO4 electrodes. Complete removal of Li2O from the Li2MnO3 component leaves MnO2. It stands to reason, therefore, that for every two Li+ ions that are removed from each Li2MnO3 unit, only one Li+ ion can be reinserted to yield the discharged rock salt composition, LiMnO2. Acid treatment may also remove Li2O from the LiMn2−yMyO4 component according to a mechanism reported by Hunter for single-phase LiMn2O4 (y=0) in the Journal of Solid State Chemistry, Volume 39, page 142 (1981). The H+-ion and/or water content that results in acid-treated xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yMyO4 electrodes can be reduced by annealing the electrodes at  ̃300° C. prior to cell assembly. In principle, therefore, acid-treatment of xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yMyO4 electrodes can be used as a method to tailor the amount of lithium in the positive electrode (cathode) that is required to fully charge the negative electrode (anode) of a lithium-ion cell, such as graphite, and simultaneously to balance the first-cycle irreversible capacity loss that occurs at both anode and cathode.
The principles of this invention are extended to include activated electrodes derived from precursor electrodes that are comprised of a combination of individual layered and spinel components, either physically mixed or blended with one another in intimate form, or separated from one another in a compartmentalized electrode. Such combinations of components may be used to optimize the capacity and rate capability of the overall electrode over electrodes with ‘composite’ structures, as defined herein, by gaining maximum benefit, for example, from a layered electrode component that offers a high capacity and a spinel component that offers a high rate capability. In this instance, the layered component can be comprised either of Li2MnO3 alone, or it can be comprised of a composite xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiM′O2 component for 0<x<1 in which M′ is typically one or more first-row transition metal ions, selected preferably from Mn, Co and Ni, optionally in the presence of a non-transition metal ions such as Li, Mg or Al ions.
The following examples describe the principles of the invention as contemplated by the inventors, but they are not to be construed as limiting examples.
Example 1
Lithium-manganese-oxide precursor electrode powders, having a Li:Mn ratio in accordance with the two-component composite system, xLi2MnO3.(1−x)Li4Mn5O12 were synthesized for x= 5/7(written hereafter as 0.7) by reacting LiOH.H2O and Mn(OH)y (y ̃2) in a 1.2:1.0 molar ratio. After intimate grinding, the mixtures of LiOH.H2O and Mn(OH)y were pressed into pellets and fired at various temperatures between 400, 600 and 750° C. in air for 5 h. The products were cooled to room temperature in the furnace. The X-ray diffraction patterns of the 0.3Li2MnO3.0.7Li4Mn5O12 products prepared at 400° C., 600° C. and 750° C. are shown in FIGS. 2a, 2b and 2c, respectively. The X-ray diffraction data in FIGS. 2b and 2c show that the layered and spinel components are more readily distinguished from one another in the composite structure, as indicated particularly by the broad peak at approximately 22° 2θ and the better resolved doublet peak at approximately 65° 2θ (arrowed in FIGS. 2b and 2c). Heating the product from 400 to 750° C. releases oxygen which drives the composition of the spinel component from Li4Mn5O12 toward LiMn2O4, as monitored by an increase in the lattice parameter of the spinel component that changes from 8.134 Å in the product synthesized at 400° C. to 8.219 Å in the product synthesized at 750° C.; accordingly, the concentration of the Li2MnO3 component increases to maintain the required Li:Mn ratio in the composite electrode. These data indicate that the sample synthesized at 400° C. has a composition close to 0.3Li2MnO3.0.7Li4Mn5O12, whereas the oxygen-deficient product synthesized at 750° C. has a composition that approximates 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O11 or alternatively, 0.6Li2MnO3.0.4LiMn2O4.
HRTEM images of the 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12 products, synthesized at 400° C., show a coexistence of layered- and spinel-type regions, confirming the composite character of their structures (FIGS. 3a and 3b).
Example 2
The 0.3Li2MnO3.0.7Li4Mn5O12 electrode precursor synthesized at 400° C. in Example 1 was activated by treatment with a 0.1 M HNO3 aqueous solution for 20 hours at room temperature. The ml/g ratio of acid to solids was 60. During this treatment, the pH of the reaction solution changed from pH=1.0 to a pH of approximately 4.0 indicating that some lithium and/or lithia (Li2O) had been extracted from the 0.3Li2MnO3.0.7Li4Mn5O12 structure, possibly together with some H+-ion exchange for Li+ within the structure. After washing the product with distilled water until the filtrate was approximately neutral, the resultant acid-leached product was dried in an oven at 120° C. in air for  ̃16 hours. The X-ray diffraction pattern of the chemically-activated electrode product is shown in FIG. 2d. For the electrochemical evaluation, the product was heated at 300° C. in air for 6 hours. During this process, the product lost approximately 3.4% of its mass, which was attributed to the removal of water, and/or the loss of oxygen (with a concomitant reduction of manganese) from the surface and bulk of the electrode structure.
Example 3
Electrode precursors with formulae xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yNiyO4 were prepared from M(OH)y (M=Mn, Ni; y ̃2) and LiOH.H2O reagents using the required amounts of Mn, Ni, and Li for a given value of x. The M(OH)y reagent was prepared by co-precipitation of the required amounts of the nitrate salts, M(NO3)2. After intimate grinding, the mixtures of M(OH)y and LiOH.H2O were pressed into pellets and fired at various temperatures between 400 and 600° C. in air for 5 h. The products were cooled to room temperature in the furnace. The X-ray diffraction pattern of a xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yNiyO4 product, prepared at 400° C. (for x=0.5 and y=0.5) is shown in FIG. 4a. 
Example 4
Electrode precursors with formulae xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yCoyO4 were prepared from M(OH)y (M=Mn, Co; y ̃2) and LiOH.H2O reagents using the required amounts of Mn, Co, and Li for a given value of x. The M(OH)y reagent was prepared by co-precipitation of the required amounts of the nitrate salts, M(NO3)2. After intimate grinding, the mixtures of M(OH)y and LiOH.H2O were pressed into pellets and fired at various temperatures between 400 and 600° C. in air for 5 h. The products were cooled to room temperature in the furnace. The X-ray diffraction pattern of a xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yCOyO4 product prepared at 400° C. for x=0.7 and y=0.2 is shown in FIG. 4b. 
Example 5
Electrode precursors were activated and evaluated in coin cells (size 2032) 20 mm diameter and 3.2 mm high against a counter lithium electrode. The cells had the configuration: Li/1M LiPF6 in ethylene carbonate (EC), diethyl carbonate (DEC) (1:1)/cathode precursor. Laminated electrodes were made containing approximately 7 to 10 mg of the cathode precursor powder, i.e., approximately 82% by weight of the laminate electrode, intimately mixed with approximately 10% by weight of a polyvinylidene difluoride (Kynar PVDF polymer binder) and approximately 8% by weight of carbon (graphite, such as Timcal SFG-6, or acetylene black, such as Chevron XC-72) in 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP). The slurries were coated with a doctor blade onto an aluminum foil substrate current collector. The laminated electrodes were dried under a vacuum at 70° C. Electrode discs, approximately 1.4 cm in diameter were punched from the laminates. Metallic lithium foil was used as the counter electrode. The cells were discharged and charged at constant current (typically 0.1 to 0.25 mA/cm2) between voltage limits that varied typically between an upper limit of 4.95 V and a lower limit of 2.0 V.
FIG. 5a shows the initial charge/discharge voltage profile between 5 and 2 V of a lithium cell containing a 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12 (x=0.7) precursor electrode prepared at 400° C. The small amount of capacity that is withdrawn between 3 and 4 V during the initial charge indicates that the Li4Mn5O12 component in the electrode is not ideally stoichiometric and that it contains a small concentration of Mn3+ ions. Thereafter, two voltage plateaus distinguish the removal of Li2O from the layered and spinel components. The first plateau between 4.5 and 4.7 V is attributed to the extraction of Li2O from the Li2MnO3 component because this potential is consistent with removal of Li2O from the Li2MnO3 component of xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn0.5Ni0.5O2 electrodes as reported by Kim et al. in Chemistry of Materials, Volume 16, page 1996 (2004); the process at higher potential (4.7-5.0 V) is consistent with reports of lithium extraction from Li4Mn5O12 at  ̃5 V by Dahn et al. in Solid State Ionics, Volume 73, page 81 (1994) and by Manthiram et al. in Electrochemical and Solid State Letters, Volume 6, page A249 (2003). The capacity withdrawn from the 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12 precursor electrode during the initial cycle (252 mAh/g, FIG. 5a) corresponds to the removal of 83% of the Li2O content in 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12 (alternatively, 1.3Li2O.2.2MnO2). Under such circumstances, the composition of the charged electrode is 0.22Li2O.2.2MnO2 and the composition of the fully discharged electrode, 0.22Li2O.2.2LiMnO2. The theoretical capacity that can be delivered by this electrode is 256 mAh/g (based on the mass of the parent 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12 compound) in good agreement with the experimental value (270 mAh/g) obtained when the cell was discharged to 2.0 V (FIG. 5a). The high capacity delivered by the 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12 activated electrode during the first discharge to the end of the second plateau at approximately 2.7 V (232 mAh/g) therefore demonstrates, unequivocally, that Li2O is removed from the electrodes during the initial charge to activate the Li4Mn5O12 and Li2MnO3 components. The shape of the discharge curve in FIG. 5a is characteristic of a composite electrode with both spinel and layered-type structural features, consistent with the HRTEM images of the electrode shown in FIGS. 3a and 3b; the initial two processes that occur between 5 and 3 V have distinct spinel- and layered-type character, respectively, whereas the voltage plateau at  ̃3 V is characteristic of the two-phase reaction (spinel-to-rock salt transition) of a lithium-manganese-oxide spinel electrode. FIG. 5b is a capacity vs. cycle number plot of a Li/0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12 cell that shows that an exceptionally high capacity (>250 mAh/g) can be obtained from the composite electrode of this invention during the early cycles. The initial discharge capacity (270 mAh/g) is particularly attractive for primary lithium cells and batteries.
The principle of using layered-spinel composite electrodes is further demonstrated in FIGS. 6 to 8 by the initial charge/discharge voltage profiles of cells with other electrode compositions. FIG. 6 shows the initial charge/discharge voltage profile of a lithium cell (4.95-2.0 V) containing the precursor electrode of Example 1, synthesized at 750° C., with the approximate formula 0.6Li2MnO3.0.4LiMn2O4. The initial charge of this cell occurs at a significantly lower potential (4.0-4.2 V) than that for the Li/0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12 cell in FIG. 5, consistent with lithium extraction from a spinel component resembling LiMn2O4, rather than Li2O extraction from a Li4Mn5O12 component that typically occurs between 4.5 and 4.95 V. Furthermore, the discharge profile shows strong spinel-type character, consistent with a reduction in concentration of the layered Li2MnO3 component in the composite structure as a result of the high synthesis temperature (750° C.). The inferior capacity delivered by the 0.6Li2MnO3.0.4LiMn2O4 electrode (FIG. 6) compared to the 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12 electrode (FIG. 5a) emphasizes the need to control and optimize the synthesis temperature and the relative amounts of layered- and spinel components in the precursor electrode structures.
FIG. 7 shows the initial charge/discharge voltage profile (4.95-2.0 V) of a Li/0.5Li2MnO3.0.5LiMn1.5Ni0.5O12 cell (x=0.5; y=0.5). FIG. 8 shows the corresponding charge/discharge voltage profile of a Li/0.7Li2MnO3.0.3LiMn1.8Co0.2O12 cell (x=0.7; y=0.2). The voltage profiles of both cells show both spinel- and layered character, consistent with the principles of this invention. It is evident that the initial charge/discharge cycle of these cells is coulombically inefficient, which is attributed predominantly due to Li2O loss from the Li2MnO3 component of the precursor electrode during the charging (activation) process. The advantages of having a Li2O component in the electrode structure are (i) the lithium from the Li2O component can be used offset the irreversible first-cycle capacity loss that typically occurs at the negative electrodes (anodes) of lithium-ion cells such as carbon (e.g., graphite), metal or intermetallic electrodes, and (ii) that oxygen, which is lost through the removal of Li2O from the positive electrode, may contribute to the formation of a protective, passivating layer to counter electrolyte oxidation at high cell voltages.
FIG. 9 shows a comparison of the initial charge voltage profile of cells when charged to 5 V containing a) a 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12 (x=0.7) precursor electrode prepared at 400° C. and b) an acid treated 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12 electrode. The first plateau between 4.5 and 4.7 V that was attributed to the extraction of Li2O from the Li2MnO3 component in profile a), as also shown in FIG. 5a, is substantially altered and reduced in length in profile b). Furthermore, the initial capacity obtained from the acid-treated 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12 precursor electrode (192 mAh/g) is considerably less than that obtained from the parent 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12 precursor electrode (252 mAh/g), consistent with the chemical extraction of Li2O from the 0.7Li2MnO3.0.3Li4Mn5O12 and the chemical activation of the electrode in accordance with the principles of this invention.
Example 6
Electrode precursors with a Li:Mn:Ni ratio of 4:3:1, that would correspond to the formula 0.5{Li2MnO3.Li[Ni0.5Mn0.5]O2}.0.5Li[Ni0.5Mn1.5]O4 if all the manganese ions and all the nickel ions in the layered {Li2MnO3.Li[Ni0.5Mn0.5]O2}-spinel {Li[Ni0.5Mn1.5]O4} product were tetravalent and divalent, respectively, were prepared from stoichiometric amounts of lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) and Ni0.25Mn0.75CO3. The Ni0.25Mn0.75CO3 reagent was prepared by co-precipitation of the required hydrated metal sulfate salts, MnSO4.H2O and NiSO4.6H2O, with NaHCO3 in water. After intimate mixing, the Li2CO3 and Ni0.25Mn0.75CO3 powders were fired at 900° C. in a muffle furnace in air for 12 hours. The product was cooled to room temperature in the furnace. The X-ray diffraction pattern of the two-component, layered-spinel product is shown in FIG. 10.
Electrode precursors were activated and evaluated in coin cells as described above for Example 5. Cells were activated by charging to 5 V and thereafter cycled between 2 V and 5 V. Several break-in cycles were required to fully activate the electrode. The typical charge/discharge voltage profile for this cell is shown (after 14 cycles) in FIG. 11a. It is immediately clear from this profile that the LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4 spinel component conveniently provides clear indications of the approaching end-of-charge and end-of-discharge of the cell with voltage plateaus at approximately 4.8 V and 2.7 V, respectively. Moreover, the voltage profile also indicates that the LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4 spinel component provides only approximately 12 mAh/g at 4.8 V and 2.7 V, which suggests that the remaining capacity is derived predominantly from a layered component between 4.5 and 2.8 V, thereby indicating that the composition of the electrode product deviates significantly from the ideal 0.5 {Li2MnO3.Li[Ni0.5Mn0.5]O2}.0.5Li[Ni0.5Mn1.5]O4 formula, which contains 50 mole % of a Li[Ni0.5Mn1.5]O4 spinel component. This finding is consistent with a composite layered-spinel electrode, the composition of which falls within a more generalized formula x{Li2MnO3.Li[Ni0.5−yMn0.5+y]O2}.(1−x)Li[Ni0.5Mn1.5]O4 in which x is considerably greater than 0.5; from the spinel capacity at 4.8 and 2.7 V, the value of x in the x{Li2MnO3.Li[Ni0.5−yMn0.5+y]O2}.(1−x)Li[Ni0.5Mn1.5]O4 electrode is estimated to be approximately 0.9 (i.e., the spinel component constitutes approximately 10 mole percent of the electrode), which necessitates an increase in the Mn:Ni ratio and the presence of some trivalent Mn3+ ions in the layered Li2MnO3.Li[Ni0.5−yMn0.5+y]O2 component to satisfy the required Li:Mn:Ni ratio of 4:3:1 in the full electrode. Deviations in the stoichiometry of the Li[Ni0.5Mn1.5]O4 spinel component in the composite electrode structure can also be anticipated. These deviations in stoichiometry from the ideal formula 0.5 {Li2MnO3.Li[Ni0.5Mn0.5]O2}.0.5Li[Ni0.5Mn1.5]O4 highlight the critical role that synthesis conditions, for example, reaction temperature, reaction time and reaction atmosphere, play in controlling the relative amounts of the layered- and spinel components in the precursor electrode.
For instance, when synthesizing composite layered-spinel structures that contain a high concentration of Mn, for example, when using the Mn:Ni ratio of 3:1 in Example 6, increasing reaction temperature will have the tendency to reduce tetravalent Mn to trivalent Mn. It is believed that this reduction process will lower the concentration of the cation substituents, such as Co, can be ascertained.
High rechargeable capacities, in excess of 200 mAh/g, are achievable from the composite layered-spinel electrodes of Example 6, as dspinel component and increase the concentration of the layered component, as described for Example 6. It is also believed that increasing the reaction time or changing the reaction atmosphere to an inert or reducing gas will tend to increase the Mn3+ content.
End-of-charge and end-of-discharge indicator voltages can be controlled by varying the type of cation in the spinel component. For instance, for an unsubstituted LiMn2O4 spinel, the end-of-charge indicator voltage is approximately 4.0-4.1 V, whereas for Ni-substituted spinels, the end-of-charge indicator voltage is approximately 4.7-4.8 V; the extent by which the indicator voltage of the spinel component is modified by other demonstrated in the capacity vs. cycle number plot for cycles 10-20 in FIG. 11b. 
Whereas the examples of composite precursor electrodes with layered and spinel components as represented by the general formula xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yMyO4, in which M=Li, Co and/or Ni, 0<x<1, and 0≦y<1, and their activation by electrochemical or chemical methods, demonstrate the principle of this invention, it can be readily understood that the invention can be extended to include other M substituent ions and other xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiM′O2 or Li2O.zMnO2 components, as described herein, without detracting from the novelty of the invention and to allow further tailoring of the electrode composition to optimize the capacity, power and electrochemical cycling stability of primary and rechargeable lithium cells and batteries.
This invention, therefore, relates to lithium-metal-oxide precursor electrodes for non-aqueous electrochemical lithium cells and batteries, a schematic illustration of the lithium cell shown in FIG. 12, the cell being represented by the numeral 10 having a negative electrode 12 separated from a positive electrode 16 by an electrolyte 14, all contained in an insulating housing 18 with suitable terminals (not shown) being provided in electronic contact with the negative electrode 12 and the positive electrode 16. Binders and other materials normally associated with both the electrolyte and the negative and positive electrodes are well known in the art and are not described herein, but are included as is understood by those of ordinary skill in this art. FIG. 13 shows a schematic illustration of one example of a battery in which two strings of electrochemical lithium cells, described above, are arranged in parallel, each string comprising three cells arranged in series.
While there has been disclosed what is considered to be the preferred embodiments of the present invention, it is understood that various changes in the details may be made without departing from the spirit, or sacrificing any of the advantages of the present invention and that additional improvements in the capacity and stability of the electrodes can be expected to be made in the future by improving and optimizing (1) the composition of the precursor lithium-metal-oxide electrode structures and (2) the processing techniques whereby the electrodes are activated either chemically by acid treatment prior to the construction of electrochemical lithium cells, or electrochemically, or a combination thereof.

## Claims

1. An activated electrode for a non-aqueous electrochemical cell, having as a precursor thereof a lithium metal oxide with the formula xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yMyO4 for 0.5<x<1.0 such that the spinel component constitutes less than 50 mole % of the precursor electrode and 0≦y<1 in which the Li2MnO3 and LiMn2−yMyO4 components have layered and spinel-type structures, respectively, and in which M is one or more metal cations, said activated electrode being activated by removing lithia, or lithium and lithia, from said precursor, wherein the Li2MnO3 component of the electrode precursor is replaced by a layered xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiM′O2 component in which M′ is selected from one or more first-row transition metal ions and 0<x<1.

2. An activated electrode according to claim 1, wherein the spinel component is an end-of-charge indicator and/or an end-of-discharge indicator.

3. An activated electrode according to claim 1, in which the spinel component constitutes less than 20 mole % of the precursor electrode.

4. An activated electrode according to claim 3, in which the spinel component constitutes less than 10 mole % of the precursor electrode.

5. An activated electrode according to claim 1, in which M is one or more monovalent, divalent, trivalent or tetravalent cations.

6. An activated electrode according to claim 1, in which M′ is selected from Mn, Co and Ni ions.

7. An activated electrode according to claim 1, in which M′ is replaced by 10% or less of Li, Mg and/or Al ions.

8. An activated electrode according to claim 1, in which the individual components of the electrode are either physically mixed with one another, or separated from one another in a compartmentalized electrode.

9. An activated electrode for a non-aqueous electrochemical cell, having as a precursor thereof a lithium metal oxide with the formula xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiMn2−yMyO4 for 0.5<x<1.0 and 0≦y<1 in which the Li2MnO3 and LiMn2−yMyO4 components have layered and spinel-type structures, respectively, and in which M is one or more metal cations, said activated electrode being activated by removing lithia, or lithium and lithia, from said precursor, wherein either the Li2MnO3 or LiMn2−yMyO4 component of the electrode precursor is replaced by a Li2O.zMnO2 component that does not have a layered- or a spinel-type structure such that the spinel component constitutes less than 50 mole % of the precursor electrode.

10. An activated electrode according to claim 9 wherein the spinel component is used as an end-of-charge indicator and/or an end-of-discharge indicator.

11. An activated electrode according to claim 9, in which the components are partially reduced to provide mixed Mn4+/3+ valence in the precursor electrode.

12. An activated electrode according to claim 9, in which the electrode precursor is activated electrochemically.

13. An activated electrode according to claim 9, in which the electrode precursor is activated chemically with acid.

14. An electrochemical cell comprising an activated electrode of claim 1, and further including a negative electrode, and an electrolyte, wherein said Li2MnO3 component of the positive electrode precursor is replaced by a layered xLi2MnO3.(1−x)LiM′O2 component in which M′ is selected from one or more first-row transition metal ions and 0<x<1, thereby forming an electrochemical cell.

15. An electrochemical cell comprising an activated electrode of claim 9, and further including a negative electrode, and an electrolyte, wherein either the Li2MnO3 or LiMn2−yMyO4 component of the positive electrode precursor is replaced by a Li2O.zMnO2 component that does not have a layered- or a spinel-type structure, thereby forming an electrochemical cell.

16. A plurality of electrochemical cells of claim 14 arranged in parallel and/or in series to form a battery.

17. A plurality of electrochemical cells of claim 15 arranged in parallel and/or in series to form a battery.