This guide is designed to prepare you to deploy to culturally 

complex environments and achieve mission objectives. The 

fundamental information contained within will help you 

understand the cultural dimension of your assigned location 

and gain skills necessary for success (Photo: Romanian 

woman displays flowers she 

is selling in Bucharest, 

courtesy of CultureGrams, 

ProQuest).

The guide consists of 2 parts: 

Part 1 “Culture General”

section provides the 

foundational knowledge you 

need to operate effectively in any global environment with a 

focus on Eastern Europe. 

Part 2 “Culture Specific” describes unique cultural features of 

Romanian society. It applies culture-general concepts to help

increase your knowledge of your assigned deployment 

location. This section is designed to complement other predeployment training

(Photo: Romanian and US 

Air Force pilots exchange 

patches).

For further information, 

visit the Air Force Culture 

and Language Center 

(AFCLC) website at

http://culture.af.mil/ or contact the AFCLC Region Team at 

AFCLC.Region@us.af.mil.

Disclaimer: All text is the property of the AFCLC and may not 

be modified by a change in title, content, or labeling. It may be 

reproduced in its current format with the express permission of 

the AFCLC. All photography is provided as a courtesy of the 

US government, Wikimedia, and other sources.

About this Guide

ECFG Romania
What is Culture?

Fundamental to all aspects of human existence, culture shapes

the way humans view life and functions as a tool we use to

adapt to our social and physical environments. A culture is the

sum of all of the beliefs, values, behaviors, and symbols that

have meaning for a society. All human beings have culture,

and individuals within a culture share a general set of beliefs 

and values. 

Members of a culture also usually assign the same meanings 

to the symbols in that culture. A symbol is when one thing – an 

image, word, object, idea, or story – represents another thing. 

For example, the American flag is a physical and visual symbol 

of a core American value – freedom. At the same time, the 

story of George Washington admitting to having chopped down 

a cherry tree is also symbolic because it represents the 

premium Americans 

place on personal 

honesty and leadership 

integrity (Photo: A 

Ukrainian fighter jet 

conducts a low-altitude 

fly over in Mykolaiv, 

Ukraine). 

Force Multiplier

The military services 

have learned through experience the importance of 

understanding other cultures. Unlike the 20th-century bipolar 

world order that dominated US strategy for nearly half a 

century, today the US military is operating in what we classify 

as asymmetric or irregular conflict zones, where the notion of 

cross-cultural interactions is on the leading edge of our 

engagement strategies. 

We have come to view the people themselves, rather than the 

political system or physical environment, as the decisive 

feature in conflict areas. Our primary objective hinges on 

PART 1 – CULTURE GENERAL

GENERAL

CULTURE
influencing constructive change through peaceful means where 

possible. We achieve this endeavor by encouraging local 

nationals to focus on developing stable political, social, and 

economic institutions that reflect their cultural beliefs and 

traditions.

Therefore, understanding the basic concepts of culture serves 

as a force multiplier. Achieving an awareness and respect of a 

society’s values and beliefs enables deploying forces to build

relationships with people from other cultures, positively 

influence their actions, and ultimately achieve mission success. 

Cultural Domains

Culture is not just represented by the beliefs we carry internally, 

but also by our behaviors and by the systems members of a 

culture create to organize their lives. These systems, such as 

political or educational institutions, help us to live in a manner 

that is appropriate to our culture and encourages us to 

perpetuate that culture 

into the future. 

We can organize 

behaviors and systems 

into categories – what 

the Air Force refers to as 

“cultural domains” – in

order to better understand 

the primary values and 

characteristics of a 

society. A cross-culturally 

competent military member can use these domains – which 

include kinship, language and communication, and social and 

political systems and others (see chart on next page) – as 

tools for understanding and adapting to any culture. For 

example, by understanding the way a culture defines family 

and kinship, a US military member operating overseas can 

more effectively interact with members of that culture (Photo: 

Winter in Slovenia).

Social Behaviors across Cultures 

While humankind shares basic behaviors, various groups enact 

or even group those behaviors differently across cultural 

boundaries. For example, all societies obtain food for survival, 

GENERAL

CULTURE
although agrarian societies generally produce their own food 

for limited consumption using very basic techniques.

Conversely, industrialized nations have more complex market 

economies, producing foodstuffs for universal consumption.

Likewise, all cultures value history and tradition, although they 

represent these concepts through a variety of unique forms of 

symbolism. While the dominant world religions share the belief 

in one God, their worship practices vary with their traditional 

historical development. Similarly, in many kin-based cultures 

where familial bonds are foundational to social identity, it is 

customary for family or friends to serve as godparents, while for 

other societies this practice is nearly non-existent.

Worldview

One of our most basic human behaviors is the tendency to 

classify others as similar or different based on our cultural 

standards. As depicted in the chart below, we can apply the 12 

cultural domains to help us compare similarities and differences 

across cultures. We evaluate others’ behavior to determine if 

they are “people like me” or “people not like me.” Usually, we 

assume that those in the “like me” category share our 

perspectives and values. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
This collective perspective forms our worldview—how we see 

the world and understand our place in it. Your worldview 

functions as a lens through which you see and understand the 

world. It helps you to interpret your experiences and the values 

and behaviors of other people that you encounter. Consider 

your worldview as a way of framing behavior, providing an 

accountability standard for actions and a logical explanation of 

why we individually or collectively act in a certain manner. 

Cultural Belief System

An important component of a worldview is our belief system. A 

community’s belief system assigns meaning, sets its universal 

standards of what is good and bad, defines right and wrong 

behavior, and assigns a 

value of meaningful or 

meaningless. Our beliefs 

form the fundamental 

values we hold to be true

– regardless of whether 

there is evidence to 

support these ideas. 

Beliefs are a central

aspect of human culture. 

They are shared views about world order and how the universe 

was physically and socially constructed (Photo: A river boat in 

Prague, the capital of Czech Republic). 

While all people have beliefs, their specific components tend to 

vary depending upon respective world views. What people 

classify as good or bad, 

right or wrong depends 

on our deeply-held beliefs 

we started developing 

early in life that have 

helped shape our 

characters. Likewise, 

these values are 

ingrained in our 

personalities and shape 

our behavior patterns and our self-identities. Because cultural 

beliefs are intensely held, they are difficult, though not 

impossible, to change (Photo: Ukrainian soldiers). 

CULTURE

GENERAL
Core Beliefs

Core beliefs shape and influence certain behaviors and also 

serve to rationalize those behaviors. Therefore, knowledge of 

individual or group beliefs can be useful in comprehending or 

making sense of their activities. We will use the iceberg model 

for classifying culture to illustrate two

levels of meaning, as depicted. 

Beliefs and values, portrayed by the 

deeper and greater level of the 

submerged iceberg, are seldom 

visible, but are indicated / hinted at / 

referenced by our behaviors and 

symbols (top level). It is important to 

recognize, though, that the parts of 

culture that are not visible (under the 

waterline) are informing and shaping 

what is being made visible (above 

the waterline). 

In many cases, different worldviews 

may present behaviors that are contrary to our own beliefs, 

particularly in many regions where US forces deploy. Your 

ability to suspend judgment in order to understand another 

perspective is essential to establishing relationships with your 

host-nation counterparts. 

The ability to withhold 

your opinion and strive to 

understand a culture from 

a member of that culture’s 

perspective is known as 

cultural relativism. It often 

involves taking an 

alternate perspective 

when interpreting others’ 

behaviors and is critical to your ability to achieve mission 

success (Photo: Romanian military personnel converse in front 

of a plane in the Bucharest airport).

As you travel through Eastern Europe, you will encounter 

cultural patterns of meaning that are common across the 

region. What follows is a general description of 12 cultural 

domains which are used to frame those commonalities. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
1. History and Myth 

History and myth are related concepts. History is a record of 

the past that is based on verifiable facts and events. Myth can 

act as a type of historical record, although it is usually a story 

which members of a culture use to explain community origins 

or important events that 

are not verifiable or which 

occurred prior to written 

language (Photo: 1909 

Russian painting of Slavic 

peoples). 

Eastern Europe comprises 

10 countries on the eastern

side of the European 

continent: Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, 

Moldova, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine. 

Archaeological finds suggest people inhabited the region as 

early as 40,000 BC. From approximately 10,000-3,000 BC, 

hunter-gatherers formed semi-permanent settlements, 

sustained by agriculture and cattle herding. Slavic tribes settled 

in the plains of present-day Ukraine as early as 2000 BC, 

eventually moving west and south along the fertile basin of the 

Danube River. Notably, although short-lived, the Roman 

Empire’s incorporation of much of the region’s South in the 

early centuries AD significantly influenced culture in presentday Romania, Bulgaria, and Slovenia. 

Over the following centuries, various migratory peoples from 

elsewhere in Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia 

continued to settle in the region, expelling, conquering, or 

mixing with the Slavs and other inhabitants. By the 10th 

century, loosely aligned settlements coalesced into large, 

powerful kingdoms, including the Bohemian Empire centered in 

present-day Czech Republic and the Kingdoms of Hungary, 

Poland, and Bulgaria. In the 14th century, much of the region 

fell to the Ottoman Empire, based in present-day Turkey, with 

many of the region’s residents experiencing several centuries 

of Turkish raids. 

CULTURAL DOMAINS

GENERAL

CULTURE
While present-day Bulgaria and Romania remained under 

Ottoman rule for over 500 years, in the 16th century, many

regions became subject to the rule of the Austrian House of 

Habsburg – one of Europe’s most influential royal dynasties 

that later joined Hungary to form the powerful AustroHungarian Empire. Meanwhile, Poland formed an independent 

state, eventually uniting with neighboring Lithuania to control 

large parts of the region, including Ukraine and Belarus. 

Unable to repel persistent attacks from neighbors, the PolishLithuanian Empire disintegrated in the late 18th century, with 

Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus falling under Russian control for 

the next nearly 120 years. During this time, Russia violently 

quelled nationalist movements, suppressed regional 

languages, and deported 

thousands of native

inhabitants while 

encouraging Russian 

immigration into the region. 

All 10 Eastern European 

states experienced 

substantial conflict during 

World War I (WWI). 

Immediately following the war, most states enjoyed brief 

periods of independence. By contrast, the newly formed Union 

of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) absorbed Belarus, 

Moldova, and Ukraine, all of which suffered severely under 

communist repression. Notably, after its defeat in WWI, the 

Austro-Hungarian Empire splintered. Hungary consequently 

lost nearly 2/3 of its territory and 3/5 of its people to 

neighboring nations (Photo: Russian army in 1920s Kiev). 

With the onset of World War II (WWII), all 10 states again 

became battlegrounds. While some immediately sided with the 

Axis powers, others were unable to withstand German 

aggression. All 10 states suffered heavy casualties throughout 

the war. During its occupation of the region, Nazi Germany 

murdered, deported, or confined most of the region’s sizeable 

Jewish population and other “undesirables.” 

At war’s end, the USSR either absorbed or heavily influenced 

the political, social, and economic systems of each Eastern 

GENERAL

CULTURE
European state. Adopting communist tenets, each state 

nationalized private companies, appropriated private property, 

and rapidly expanded industrial development. Communist 

leaders also encouraged Russification in the region, violently 

repressing national languages, religions, and cultures. 

In the late 1980s, democratic movements swept across the 

Soviet bloc, and within a few years, all 10 states had declared 

independence from the USSR. Further, they removed 

communist leaders, transformed their governments, and 

adopted market capitalism. Since then, all states but Belarus

largely pivoted away from Russian influence to pursue political, 

military, and economic integration with the West. 

2. Political and Social Relations 

Political relations are the ways in which members of a 

community organize leadership, power, and authority. Social 

relations are all the ways 

in which individuals are 

linked to others in their 

community. All 10 

Eastern European states 

are parliamentary 

republics led by an 

elected Prime Minister, 

President, and legislature. In most states, Presidential powers 

are largely ceremonial with executive power vested in the 

Prime Minister, who leads the government together with the 

support of a Cabinet of Ministers. In most states, political 

parties typically form coalitions in order to attain and maintain 

power (Photo: Hungarian Parliament). 

With most having suffered crippling dictatorial rule for much of 

the late 20th century, each Eastern European state emerged in 

the 1990s with new political, social, and economic structures. 

While some states have since created relatively stable, well-run 

democracies, others face challenges to the democratic 

process. Corruption is a prevalent problem in the region. In 

some cases, governments’ inability to adequately curb 

widespread corruption results in frequent public protests, 

causes distrust of public officials, and creates an overall 

skepticism of the democratic process. Moreover, weakened by 

GENERALCULTURE
overly broad and at times differing ideological profiles, ruling 

political coalitions and parties tend to dissolve frequently, 

resulting in a political landscape marked by infighting and 

successive changes of government. 

Most states are members of strong regional alliances, such as

the European Union (EU) and NATO. Although somewhat

fraught with political instability, most states remain committed 

to improving democratic processes, serving as advocates of a 

democratic and pro-Western agenda in the region. By contrast, 

Belarus is politically aligned with Russia, while Ukraine and 

Bulgaria have historically attempted to balance relations 

between the West and Russia, at times resulting in internal 

tension between 

ideologically opposing 

political groups (Photo:

Kiev, Ukraine).

With the exception of 

Belarus, the states rely 

on NATO, the EU, the 

US, and other 

international support to defend against external, state-level 

threats. Russia’s recent aggression in the region, notably its

2014 annexation of Crimea and ongoing support of separatist 

rebels in eastern Ukraine, has significantly heightened regional 

tensions and consequently dominates the states’ security 

environment. 

The region exhibits differing levels of ethnic diversity. Poland, 

for example, is largely homogenous, with ethnic Poles 

comprising 97% of the population. By contrast, the native 

populations of Ukraine and Czech Republic are significantly 

lower, 78% and 64%, respectively. Notably, the Roma and 

other ethnic minorities suffer significant social division, 

discrimination, and stigmatization across Eastern Europe. 

3. Religion and Spirituality 

Religion is a cultural belief system that provides meaning to 

members of a community. Religious and spiritual beliefs help 

preserve the social order by defining proper behavior. They 

also create social unity by defining shared identity, offer 

GENERAL

CULTURE
individuals peace of mind, and explain the causes of events in 

a society. 

Early residents of Eastern Europe practiced a variety of 

indigenous religions, venerating multiple deities and spirits who 

inhabited the natural world. Romans introduced Christianity as 

early as the 1st century. By the 10th century, many Eastern 

European kingdoms had adopted Christianity as a state 

religion. In the early 11th century, theological differences 

between western and eastern branches of the Christian 

movement forced a permanent divide between the Roman 

Catholic Church centered in Rome and the Eastern Orthodox 

tradition of the Byzantine Empire. Over subsequent centuries, 

both branches of Christianity flourished in the region. Later, as 

the Protestant Reformation swept across Europe, some states 

saw the Catholic Church reorganize under Lutheran authority. 

Across the region, 

Christianity became closely

linked to national identity. 

In Poland, for example, the 

Catholic Church became 

entrenched in daily life, 

influencing education, social 

services, and remaining 

politically influential even 

today. Throughout the centuries, Judaism also enjoyed growth 

in the region, with among others, Polish and Czech Jewish

communities growing significantly until their annihilation during 

WWII (Photo: Bulgarian Orthodox imagery hangs in a church). 

During their years of occupation and influence, the Soviets 

suppressed all religious institutions and activities in the states, 

while simultaneously cultivating atheism and encouraging the 

devout to abandon long-held religious beliefs. To do so, the 

states’ communist governments carefully regulated religious 

affairs and deported clergy, while destroying or converting most 

churches and synagogues for other uses. Consequently,

membership in religious organizations decreased significantly

over the years. Nevertheless, most states saw a resurgence in 

religiosity once religious freedom was restored following the fall 

of communism. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Today, some of the region’s inhabitants are Orthodox Christian, 

while others – including the majority of Poles (90%), Slovaks 

(62%), Slovenes (58%), and Hungarians (52%) – are Roman 

Catholic. Notably, while most Eastern Europeans retain deep 

religious convictions, others remain religiously unaffiliated. For 

example, only about 50% of Belarusians claim a religious 

affiliation – the lowest rate in the region -- while large numbers 

of Slovenes, Slovaks, and Czechs are atheist. In parts of the 

region, small Jewish and Muslim communities are experiencing 

some growth. One notable exception is Bulgaria, where a 

relatively large Muslim community (8% of the population) traces 

back to the early 14th century. 

4. Family and Kinship 

The domain of family and kinship refers to groups of people 

related through blood ties, marriage, or through strong 

emotional bonds that influence them to treat each other like 

family members 

(often called “fictive 

kin”). 

Family life and 

relationships are 

highly valued within 

Eastern European 

societies. Residents 

maintain strong 

connections with 

both immediate and 

extended family members, supporting them emotionally and 

financially and providing physical care for elderly or ailing kin if 

needed. While most households comprise 2 parents and their 

children (nuclear family), with many families choosing to have 

just 1 or 2 children. Nevertheless, extended kin on both sides 

of the family often live nearby and are significantly influential in 

family matters (Photo: A Romanian girl). 

Rapid urbanization has changed family life in recent years, as 

urban inhabitants marry later or cohabit (live in long-term, 

unmarried partnership) and have fewer children. Consequently, 

while the traditional family structure remains common in rural 

areas, it is more diverse in urban centers. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
While historically marriage was an arranged union, today 

Eastern Europeans typically choose their own partners. 

Couples may spend several years dating, live together, and 

have children before choosing to marry. In some states, 

divorce is increasingly prevalent among younger generations, 

with rates comparable to the US. Still in others, the practice is 

relatively uncommon and carries social stigma. 

5. Sex and Gender 

Sex refers to the biological/reproductive differences between 

males and females, while gender is a more flexible concept 

that refers to a culture’s categorizing of masculine and feminine 

behaviors, symbols, and social roles. 

The Eastern European states’ historically patriarchal culture 

privileged men as leaders and providers. While some of the 

region’s inhabitants continue to adhere to traditional values – 

men as breadwinners and heads of household and women as 

mothers and wives – gender roles and responsibilities began to 

transform during the Soviet era and continue to change today, 

particularly among 

younger generations 

(Photo: Polish woman 

holds a copy of 

Poland’s Constitution). 

Although women hold 

equal rights under the 

law, political, social, 

and economic 

inequalities between 

the genders remain. For example, women often face 

discrimination in the hiring and promotion process, routinely 

receive lower wages than their male counterparts, and suffer 

from sexual harassment in the workplace. 

Despite these barriers, the number of women serving in the 

political sector across the region has increased over the past 

few decades. Eastern European women hold a significant 

proportion of national and sub-national government positions, 

with most states maintaining similar or higher female 

participation rates in their national legislatures as the US. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Notably, the region’s women suffer high rates of gender-based 

violence (GBV), particularly domestic abuse and rape. Often 

considered private matters, many incidences of GBV go 

unreported. If cases are reported, the prosecution of 

perpetrators is rare. Although homosexuality is legal throughout 

the region, homosexuals still suffer discrimination, 

stigmatization, and violence in some areas. 

6. Language and Communication 

Language is a system for sharing information symbolically, 

whereby words are used to represent ideas. Communication is 

defined as the cultural practice of sharing meaning in 

interaction, both verbally and non-verbally. Most of the region’s 

languages derive from the 

Slavic branch of the IndoEuropean language family, 

while Moldovan and 

Romanian belong to the 

same family’s Eastern 

Romance branch. A 

member of the Uralic 

family, Hungarian is the 

region’s only language not 

part of the Indo-European family. Notably, the Bulgarian, 

Belarusian, and Ukrainian languages are written in the Cyrillic 

alphabet. By contrast, all other state languages employ the 

Latin script (Photo: Rural Ukrainian shop). 

Some states managed to largely avoid harsh Russification 

policies during the Soviet era. Others suffered years of 

linguistic repression when Russian became the predominant 

language in education, the media, and government 

proceedings. Today, with the exception of Belarus, Russian is 

no longer the region’s main language. Instead, native 

languages have largely supplanted Russian, though some 

residents continue to use Russian in business and everyday 

life. The states are also home to native speakers of other

languages, notably Romani (the language of the Roma), 

Turkish, German, and other regional languages. English has 

become increasingly popular over the last several decades and 

is spoken widely in business and by young, urban residents. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
Generally, the region’s residents demonstrate respect, privacy, 

and candor in their communication practices. In some states, 

communications reflect notable emotion and engagement. By 

contrast, others typically refrain from displaying strong 

emotions in public, feel comfortable in silence, and prefer quiet 

speech. Across the region, residents usually share personal 

information only with family or close friends and are reserved 

when interacting with strangers. 

7. Learning and Knowledge 

All cultures require that the older generation transmit important 

information to the younger generation. This information can be 

strictly factual (for example, how to fulfill subsistence and 

health requirements) and culturally traditional (the beliefs, 

behaviors, and symbols that have meaning to the community). 

This knowledge transfer may occur through structured, 

formalized systems such 

as schools or through 

informal learning by 

watching adults or peers

(Photo: Central School in 

1910 Ukraine).

Prior to the 14th century, 

most formal education in 

the region occurred in 

religious institutions where clergymen taught religion and basic 

literacy. Notably, while Hungary, Poland, and the Czech 

Republic had established universities as early as the 14th 

century, secular centers of higher academic learning were slow 

to develop elsewhere in the region. Nevertheless, by the late 

1800s, extensive public school networks administered both 

religious and secular curricula to millions of students across the 

region. 

Most Eastern European governments established free and 

compulsory public education systems in the early 20th century. 

The subsequent Soviet occupation and influence brought 

significant changes to schools and curricula. During that period, 

the education system promoted Soviet ideology and communist 

tenets and emphasized Russian culture and language. It also 

GENERAL

CULTURE
prioritized vocational instruction, while simultaneously 

suppressing Eastern European languages and culture. 

Today, most Eastern European students receive free and 

compulsory schooling at the primary and secondary levels. 

School enrollment rates are high, and nearly 100% of Eastern 

European residents are literate. Challenges to the education 

systems include low teacher salaries, rural school closures, 

and disparities in educational attainment between majority 

groups and linguistic and ethnic minorities. 

8. Time and Space 

In every society, people occupy space and time in ways that 

are not directly linked to physical survival. As in most Western 

cultures, Eastern Europeans tend to be preoccupied more with 

time management than relationship-building. They too value 

punctuality, a sense of responsibility, and candid professional 

interactions. Within their personal lives, however, most Eastern 

Europeans invest significant time into establishing and 

maintaining relationships (Photo: A Polish paratrooper interacts 

with a US National 

Guard soldier). 

They also like to build 

relations before 

conducting business, 

which tends to move 

more slowly in Eastern 

Europe than in the US. 

Throughout the region, 

residents usually begin discussions with light conversation. 

Most communication is explicit and direct, with frequent eye 

contact. Eastern Europeans generally require less personal 

space when conversing than is common in the US. One 

exception is in Slovenia, where residents maintain about the 

same personal distance as in the US. 

Eastern European states observe a number of public holidays

such as Christmas, Easter, and their respective independence 

day. Further, all Eastern European states commemorate both 

the end of World War II and the Soviet era, as well as unique 

seasonal or harvest holidays.

GENERAL

CULTURE
9. Aesthetics and Recreation 

Every culture has its own forms of creative expression that are 

guided by aesthetic principles of imagination, beauty, skill and 

style. Most Eastern European forms of artistic expression – 

including art, architecture, dance, music, and theater – reflect 

the region’s rural peasant past, history of foreign presence, and 

modern global trends.

Traditional music and dance in Eastern Europe typically 

promote themes such as nature, the seasons, rural life, and 

love. Folk songs, festivals, and dance are particularly popular 

in rural areas, often utilizing traditional instruments. Most 

common dances are performed in pairs, circles, or lines. Under 

Russian and Soviet influence, classical ballet became a 

common form of dance across the region. Classical music and 

opera remain popular, as well as rock, jazz, and international 

pop music. Government financing for the arts largely declined 

after the Soviet era, yet artistic freedom has increased 

significantly (Photo: 

Slovak dancers perform 

in a circle). 

Rural landscapes and 

geometric designs are 

common themes in visual 

arts. Eastern Europeans

also practice various 

traditional handicrafts 

and folk art that reflect 

the region’s rich peasant history, along with Christian or ancient 

pagan motifs. Common handicrafts include pottery, 

embroidery, and baskets. Soccer is the most widely followed 

sport in the region, followed by basketball, volleyball, and 

gymnastics. During the winter, residents also enjoy ice hockey, 

skiing, and ice skating.

10. Sustenance and Health 

Societies have different methods of transforming natural 

resources into food. These methods can shape residence 

patterns, family structures, and economics. Theories of disease 

and healing practices exist in all cultures and serve as adaptive 

responses to disease and illness.

GENERAL

CULTURE
Eastern European dishes tend to be simple, hearty, and mildly 

seasoned. Most meals consist of a staple, such as potatoes, 

oats, or barley served with a meat, fresh salad, and various 

breads. While beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage, 

some residents enjoy unique 

herbal liquors or vodka. Notably, 

the region also has a rich 

history of wine production, 

dating back to the 1st century 

BC (Photo: Hungarian pork 

goulash and dumplings). 

Health in Eastern Europe has 

improved significantly in recent

decades, evidenced by 

decreased infant and maternal 

mortality rates and longer life expectancies. Most residents 

have access to free, state-funded healthcare in modern 

facilities. 

Nevertheless, the region’s healthcare systems face several 

challenges. The quality of care varies significantly between 

private/public and urban/rural facilities. Generally, public

facilities concentrate in cities and are ill-equipped, 

overcrowded, understaffed, and plagued by corruption. 

Meanwhile, private facilities offer first-rate care mostly to the 

wealthy. Finally, a shrinking yet aging population threatens to 

burden already overloaded national healthcare services in 

many states.

Non-communicable “lifestyle” diseases such as cardiovascular, 

cancer, respiratory, liver, and diabetes account for the majority 

of deaths across Eastern Europe. In addition, the region’s 

residents suffer from high rates of suicide and alcohol 

poisoning. Mostly a result of Soviet-era industrial policies, 

pollution is a widespread hazard throughout Eastern Europe, 

causing further health-related issues.

11. Economics and Resources 

This domain refers to beliefs regarding appropriate ways for a 

society to produce, distribute, and consume goods and 

services. Prior to the 19th century, the Eastern European 

states maintained largely agrarian economies, with residents 

GENER

CULTURE

AL
engaging in subsistence agriculture or laboring as serfs on 

large elite landholdings (Photo: Belarusian currency). 

During the 1800s, several states began to industrialize, while 

Bulgaria, Moldova, Romania, and Slovenia remained primarily 

agrarian. Industrialization intensified throughout the region in 

the Soviet era, when all states followed a centrally-controlled 

and planned 

economic system, 

establishing large 

collective farms and 

developing various 

heavy industries. 

Following the end of 

communism, the 

states immediately 

sought to decentralize their economies and adopt liberal, free 

market systems. While the transition initially caused their 

economies to contract, by the early 2000s, all 10 nations 

experienced growth. For most states, accession into the EU 

further spurred economic expansion. In 2008, the global 

financial crisis slowed investment in the region, reducing 

demand for exports and causing severe economic contractions 

in every state except Poland and Belarus. 

Some of the states reacted quickly to the crisis with strict 

internal reforms which allowed their economies to rebound 

within a few years. Others were slow to respond and suffered a 

protracted recession. Notably, the crisis in Ukraine has hurt 

that country’s recent economic growth, while Belarus continues 

to experience economic stagnation. 

The economic outlook in the region is varied. Some states such 

as Romania, Czech Republic, and Slovenia appear poised to 

maintain stable growth rates. The non-EU member states of

Ukraine, Belarus, and Moldova are impacted the most by 

geopolitical events in Russia. All 10 states are vulnerable to 

economic fluctuations due to their export-oriented economies. 

Some common economic challenges include persistent 

corruption, aging populations, and emigration of skilled 

workers. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
The EU is by far the region’s largest trading partner, except for 

Belarus, which heavily relies on trade with Russia. As EU 

members, most Eastern European states benefit from a secure 

business environment and free movement of goods and 

services. 

12. Technology and Material 

Societies use technology to transform their physical world, and 

culture heavily influences the development and use of 

technology. All 10 Eastern European states have invested in 

extensive road networks and efficient public transportation 

systems, particularly in urban areas. While Slovenia maintains 

the region’s best roads, Ukraine and Romania have some of 

the world’s worst. Rural infrastructure is typically less 

developed, and 

corruption often 

impedes progress on 

road and rail projects. 

Generally in better 

condition than roads, 

railways connect major 

cities throughout the 

region, though some services are slow and inefficient. The 

Black Sea and major rivers, notably the Danube, host important 

ports. Although modern information technology is available in 

all states, Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Bulgaria, and Romania 

have some of Europe’s least developed networks. Internet use 

also varies widely, with well over 80% of Slovaks using the 

Internet at home compared to just under 50% of Ukrainians

(Photo: US soldiers speak with a Polish resident).

While Poland relies on fossil fuels for 87% of its energy needs, 

nuclear fuels account for 61% of Hungary’s energy usage. 

Most Eastern European states depend on imported natural gas 

and oil from Russia and the Middle East. Governments

throughout the region have announced their intention to

increase the use of renewable resources such as hydroelectric 

plants, wind, and other renewables. 

Now that we have introduced general concepts that

characterize Eastern European society at large, we will focus 

on specific features of Romanian society. 

GENERAL

CULTURE
HISTORY &

MYTH

Overview 

Subjected to centuries of 

foreign occupation and 

control, Romania has had 

an eventful and often tragic 

history. Each of Romania’s 

3 main regions – Moldavia, 

Wallachia, and Transylvania 

– has its own unique 

stories. While Wallachia 

and Moldavia achieved independence in the mid-19th century, 

Transylvania remained a disputed territory until after World War 

II (WWII). Romania’s experience in WWII and the subsequent 

45-year communist era left profound scars, still felt today. 

Since 1989, Romania has transformed into a democracy, 

adopted market capitalism, and joined the North Atlantic Treaty 

Organization (NATO) and European Union (EU) (Photo: 

Transylvania’s Hunedoara Castle). 

Early History

Human remains discovered in Romania’s Peştera cu Oase

(Cave with Bones) date to around 40,000 years ago, making 

them some of the oldest ever found in Europe. Between 

10,000-3,000 BC, regional inhabitants formed semi-permanent 

settlements where they existed as hunters, gatherers, and 

farmers. Of note, these people were among the world’s first to 

extract salt from water, which they used to preserve food. 

Some scientists believe that another Romanian archaeological 

find, small clay amulets dating to around 5,300 BC known as 

the Tărtăria tablets, represent the world’s earliest form of 

writing. Beginning around 2,500 BC, members of nomadic 

Indo-European tribes from Central Asia began to move into the 

region, and after mixing with the native inhabitants, were 

known as the Thracians. 

PART 2 – CULTURE SPECIFIC

1. HISTORY AND MYTH
HISTORY &

MYTH

Beginning in the 7th century BC, Greeks set up trading

colonies along present-day Romania’s Black Sea coast. The

5th-century BC Greek historian Herodotus called the region’s 

inhabitants the Getae. Meanwhile, members of the Roman 

Empire in central Italy referred to the inhabitants of present-day 

Romania as the Dacians. Historians today combine the names 

of these ancient people as the Geto-Dacians. 

During the 2nd century BC, the Romans began to pursue 

expansion eastwards. Partly to counter this growing threat, 

Geto-Dacian King Burebista united several tribes in a large

kingdom in 82 BC. This empire stretched from present-day 

Czech Republic to Bulgaria and from the Black Sea to the 

Adriatic coast. For decades, the Geto-Dacians and Romans 

skirmished in their bid for territorial control. While Burebista’s

kingdom disintegrated upon his death in 44 BC, the individual 

Geto-Dacian tribes remained an influential force in the region. 

Roman Control

The Geto-Dacian tribes reunited as a powerful state under King 

Decebalus in 87 AD, enjoying several years of prosperity and 

vigorously challenging the

Roman Empire’s regional 

ambitions. Eventually, 

Decebalus’ forces were 

unable to withstand the 

invaders, falling to Roman 

Emperor Trajan in 106. 

The territory became

Dacia, a province of the 

Roman Empire (Photo: 

Partial reconstruction of a 

fortress and sanctuary complex at Sarmizegetusa, the Dacian 

capital under King Decebalus).

During their almost 170-year occupation, the Romans worked 

to integrate Dacia into the empire while encouraging Roman 

settlement of the region. Further, the Romans introduced the 

Latin language and early versions of Christianity (see p. 2 of 

Religion and Spirituality), while utilizing the region as a source 

of precious metals, grains, and other agricultural products. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Romans faced constant pressure from invaders along 

Dacia’s long borders, including the Goths, Huns, Slavs, and 

Tatars (or Mongols), collectively referred to as the “Barbarians.” 

By 275, Roman Emperor Aurelian had withdrawn his troops 

from Dacia due to these ongoing threats. While many upper 

class Romans departed, most Roman rural-dwellers remained, 

gradually mixing with the region’s native inhabitants and 

permanently changing the region’s language (see p. 1 of 

Language and Communication). Historians call these people 

the Daco-Romanians.

Centuries of Foreign Incursions

Over the next 800 years, various migratory peoples from 

Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia continued to invade 

and overrun present-day Romanian territory. Initially, the 

Roman Empire remained influential, allowing conquering Huns

to rule Dacia as a confederate state of the Roman Empire in 

exchange for 

annual payments 

(Photo: Romanians 

in Cricău re-enact a 

medieval battle).

The Avars and the 

Slavs: In 567, 

Eurasian Avaric and 

Slavic tribes

invaded, blocking

Dacia from the Roman world and occupying much of the 

Balkan Peninsula. While the Daco-Romanians largely 

assimilated the less numerous Avars and Slavs, Slavic culture 

and language had some influence on local life (see p. 1-2 of 

Language and Communication). 

The Bulgarians: By the 9th century, neighboring Bulgarians 

had defeated the Avars and Slavs. Through their ties to the 

Byzantine Empire centered in Constantinople (present-day 

Istanbul), the Bulgarians facilitated the spread of Christianity in 

the region (see p. 2 of Religion and Spirituality). By the 10th

century, the region began to divide into small voievodates

(dukedoms) that eventually merged to form the 3 principalities

of Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia.
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Hungarians Gain Transylvania

The Hungarians entered Dacia in the 10th century, 

overwhelming many Slavic and Daco-Romanian voievodates. 

In the 11th century, the Magyars, a Hungarian ethnic group,

incorporated the territory of Transylvania into the Kingdom of 

Hungary, ushering in almost 900 years of Hungarian 

dominance. 

To bolster their control of Transylvania in the 12th and 13th

centuries, Hungarian rulers invited foreigners to settle the 

region. These settlers included Hungarian Szeklers (primarily 

Roman Catholic or later Calvinist), who became large 

landowners, and German Saxons (later primarily Lutheran), 

who settled in market towns. These newcomers prospered, 

becoming society’s elite. By contrast, the Romanian-speaking

Eastern Orthodox native inhabitants were primarily peasants 

with few privileges. By the 14th century, the Saxons had

established flourishing towns in Transylvania, often heavily 

fortified to withstand continuing 

incursions by Tatars from Central 

Asia. Meanwhile, the Romanians

faced increased discrimination that 

was at least partly based on their 

Orthodox faith (see p. 2 of Religion 

and Spirituality).

Medieval Wallachia and Moldavia

Wallachia and Moldavia also 

experienced foreign domination in the 

medieval period but enjoyed some 

periods of self-rule. In the 12th 

century, Tatars violently conquered 

much of those 2 principalities. While the details are unknown, 

historians believe that members of the Roma ethnic group (see 

p. 14 of Political and Social Relations) likely entered the region 

during this time, many of whom were later enslaved. Moreover, 

large landowners known as boyars bound Romanian and 

Roma peasants in a brutal system of serfdom that persisted for 

centuries. Both Wallachia and Moldavia enjoyed brief periods 

of independence in the 14th century when powerful Romanian

rulers repelled invading Hungarians and Tatars (Photo: 

Medieval fresco featuring Wallachian Prince Basarab I).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Ottoman Influence

In the late 13th century, an Islamic Turkic dynasty in the 

territory of present-day Turkey founded the Ottoman Empire. 

By the mid-14th century, the Ottoman Turks were expanding 

rapidly to the north and would influence much of the territory of 

modern-day Romania until the late 19th century. 

While Wallachian ruler Mircea cel Bătrân (Mircea the Elder) 

temporarily halted the Ottomans’ advance in 1394, the 

Ottomans continued their expansion efforts. Considering 

themselves Christian bulwarks against Islamic expansion, 

Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia delivered a fierce 

resistance in the mid-15th century. Important Romanian heroes 

still today, Wallachia’s Vlad Ţepeş and Moldavia’s Ştefan cel 

Mare (Stephen the Great) (see p. 3 of Religion and Spirituality) 

managed to keep the Ottomans at bay for a time, winning brief 

periods of independence.

Wallachia and Moldavia: Wallachia and Moldavia were 

ultimately unable to withstand the Turks’ superior power. 

Battlefield losses to the Ottomans in the late 15th century

ended the 2 regions’ sovereignty for most of the next 4 

centuries. Unlike many other conquered lands, Wallachia and 

The Real Dracula

Vlad III Draculă (meaning Vlad III, son of the Dragon)

was born in Wallachia around 1431. As a child, Vlad 

was imprisoned by the Ottomans who sought to 

ensure his father’s loyalty. As Prince of Wallachia, 

Vlad pursued revenge against the Turks, becoming

infamous for his ruthless battlefield tactics. Besides

decapitating, boiling, and burying his enemies alive, 

Vlad impaled victims on wooden stakes, avoiding all 

vital organs to ensure excruciating pain. This last 

activity earned him the nickname Vlad Ţepeş (Vlad 

the Impaler). Accounts of Vlad’s cruelty as well as

Romanian folktales about vampires inspired Irish 

author Bram Stoker in 1897 to write Dracula, the 

infamous story of a bloodthirsty vampire. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Moldavia never became Ottoman provinces. Instead, the 

Ottomans allowed the 2 regions to retain some autonomy while 

paying annual tributes to the Empire. 

Transylvania: Meanwhile, Transylvania experienced 

significant peasant uprisings in the 15th and early 16th 

centuries that exacerbated political divisions within the ruling 

Kingdom of Hungary. Taking advantage of the Kingdom’s

fragility, the Ottomans attacked. Following a decisive 1526 

battle, the Kingdom of Hungary was partitioned between the 

Ottomans and the House of Habsburg (one of Central Europe’s 

most influential royal dynasties based in Vienna, Austria). 

Transylvania became a semi-autonomous state (still dominated 

by Hungarian and German elites) that paid tribute to the 

Ottomans. Throughout the 16th century, Transylvania 

flourished as a trading center between the Ottoman Empire

and the House of Habsburg. 

Brief Unification under Michael the Brave

Resistance to the Ottomans continued. After defeating the 

Turks in 1595, Prince Mihai Viteazul 

(Michael the Brave) of Wallachia 

overthrew the Transylvanian ruler in 

1599. A year later, he seized the 

Moldavian throne, uniting the 3 

principalities for the first time. The 

union was short, ending in 1601 

with Mihai’s assassination by 

Transylvanians unhappy with his 

rule. Subsequently, Moldavia and 

Wallachia returned to Ottoman 

domination. By contrast, 

Transylvania enjoyed 

independence from both the Habsburgs and Ottomans for a 

few decades (Illustration: 1601 portrait of Michael the Brave).

Challenges to Ottoman Control

Beginning in the early 17th century, the Ottomans faced 

challenges to their control of Moldavia and Wallachia that 

would continue until the 2 principalities eventually won their 

independence in the 19th century. First, the Hapsburgs in 

Vienna sought to expand their holdings, seizing territory in 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Wallachia in 1718 and then in Moldavia in 1775. Then from the 

east, Russia under Empress Catherine the Great delivered a 

series of defeats to the Ottomans in the late 18th century. Their 

battleground grew to include Moldavia and Wallachia in the 

early 19th century, when the Russians occupied Bucharest (the 

Wallachian capital) and then successfully repelled a massive 

Ottoman offensive. In 1812, Russia annexed Bessarabia, a 

region of Moldavia that it would hold for the next 100 years. 

Conflict between the Russians and Ottomans flared again in 

the 1820s. Following heavy fighting, the Ottomans sued for 

peace in 1829, then signed a treaty that formally allowed 

Russia to occupy Moldavia and Wallachia. Russia ruled both 

these principalities directly from 1829-34, then allowed 

assemblies to elect local rulers to rule them as Russian 

protectorates. Many Romanian boyars resented the Russian 

presence and began to demand political reform and an end to 

all foreign domination. 

The Habsburgs Acquire Transylvania

Meanwhile, foreign powers continued to struggle for control of 

semi-autonomous Transylvania. In an effort to gain territory in 

central Europe, the Ottomans unsuccessfully besieged the 

Habsburg capital of Vienna in 1683. The conflict lingered, 

finally ending with a 1699 treaty which gave Habsburgcontrolled Hungary direct control of Transylvania.

The Phanariot Regime

Ottoman domination of Wallachia and Moldavia 

reached its peak with the Phanariot regime. To bolster 

their control, the Ottomans required local rulers to 

accept Phanariots (Greeks from the Ottoman Empire) 

as advisers. Following uprisings in the early 18th

century, the Ottomans appointed Phanariots to govern 

directly. While Phanariot rule caused much suffering 

among the Romanian population, the actions of 

individual rulers had some positive effects, such as the 

abolishment of serfdom. The Ottomans ended

Phanariot rule in 1822.
HISTORY &

MYTH

In the mid-18th century, Romanian intellectuals in Transylvania

formed the Transylvania School, an organization that

articulated a Romanian sense of identity and nationhood for the 

first time. While the movement was ultimately unsuccessful in 

bringing about any real change in Transylvania, its platform 

served as the basis for 19th-century Romanian national 

movements. Meanwhile, continuing dire conditions for 

Transylvania’s Romanian peasants caused riots in the late 18th 

century. While the Romanians’ living standards began to 

improve after the Habsburgs abolished serfdom, they remained 

subservient to Habsburg, Hungarian, and German elites.

The 1848 Revolutions and their Aftermath

Inspired by European Enlightenment philosophy that 

emphasized the dignity of the individual and the ideals of the 

French Revolution, Romanians in all 3 principalities sought to 

improve their situations in the 19th century. Schools offered 

Romanians new educational opportunities, such as higher 

education in the Romanian language for the first time in 1813 

(see p. 1 of Learning and Knowledge). In 1828, the first 

newspaper in the Romanian 

language was published. 

Revolutionary waves sweeping

through Europe in 1848 also 

reached Romania, prompting

popular democratic uprisings in all 

3 principalities. While the ruling 

Romanian prince in Moldavia 

quickly suppressed the movement, 

more radical revolutionaries

emerged in Wallachia. Known as 

the “forty-eighters,” these radicals 

managed to establish a provisional 

government, though the Russians quickly suppressed it

(Illustration: A rally in Bucharest with protestors carrying a flag 

stating “Justice – Fraternity”). 

Meanwhile, Russia and the Ottoman Empire continued their 

struggle for regional domination during the Crimean War of 

1853-55. In a setback for Russia, the 1859 Congress of Paris 

confirmed Ottoman rights to Wallachia and Moldavia.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Wallachia and Moldavia Unite as Romania

The principalities rejected Ottoman domination, preferring to 

strive for independence. In a show of national unity, they held 

elections in 1859 and named Moldavian Minister of War 

Alexandru Ioan Cuza their Prince and single ruler. By 1861, 

most European governments had recognized Cuza as the 

legitimate leader of the new United Principalities of Moldavia 

and Wallachia, renamed Romania a year later.

As ruler, Prince Cuza introduced a modern legal system and 

ambitious economic, military, social, educational, and land 

reforms. Exhibiting increasing authoritarianism, Cuza also 

adopted a new constitution giving him extensive powers. In 

1866, a coalition of boyars and new political parties unhappy 

with his reforms forced Cuza to abdicate. 

Hungarian Control of Transylvania Reaffirmed

Meanwhile, Habsburg control of Transylvania continued. When 

the 1848 wave of revolutionary ideas reached the Kingdom of 

Hungary (also controlled by the Habsburgs), it found immediate 

support. Among other 

demands, Hungarian 

reformers sought to fully 

absorb Transylvania into an 

independent Hungarian 

state. Within Transylvania, 

support for these goals split 

along ethnic lines: while the 

Hungarian Magyars desired

unification with Hungary, 

Romanians objected, even forming guerilla units to fight the 

Hungarians (Illustration: 19th-century Transylvanian peasants).

Following a series of defeats by the Hungarian revolutionaries, 

the Habsburgs requested help from Russia. The combined 

Russian-Habsburg counteroffensive proceeded to crush the 

Hungarians and suppress the revolution. To appease the 

ongoing calls of Hungarian separatists, the Habsburgs reestablished the Kingdom of Hungary’s sovereignty within a dual 

Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1867. In the process, Transylvania 

became a full province of the Kingdom of Hungary. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

While Transylvania saw significant economic development in 

subsequent decades, its Romanian residents suffered. With its

policy of Magyarization, the Hungarian rulers aimed to 

assimilate all non-Magyar residents of the Kingdom. 

Accordingly, the government made Hungarian the official 

language of Transylvania while banning the use of Romanian

and restricting Romanians’ access to education. In response, 

Transylvania’s Romanians formed 

cultural associations and political parties 

to defend Romanian identity and rights.

The Kingdom of Romania

Just as Hungary was reinforcing its hold 

on Transylvania, Romanians in Wallachia 

and Moldavia looked beyond Romania’s 

borders for leadership. Upon Cuza’s 

abdication in 1866, they invited German 

Prince Karl von Hohenzollern to rule the 

country. Upon taking the oath of office, 

Karl became Prince Carol I of Romania (pictured on a 1906 

stamp).

Over the next few years, Romania experienced significant 

growth as a nation, adopting a constitution outlining a 

parliamentary system as political parties formed. When conflict 

between Russia and the Ottoman Empire flared again in 1877, 

the Kingdom of Romania joined the Russians, hoping to finally 

end the Ottomans’ claims to Romanian territory. Following the 

Ottomans’ defeat, the Treaty of Berlin formally ceded the 

Moldavian territory of Bessarabia to Russia while granting 

Romania certain Ottoman territories on the Black Sea, 

including Dobrogea (see p. 6 of Religion and Spirituality). In 

1881, Prince Carol I was crowned King of Romania as the 

international community recognized Romania’s formal 

declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire.

In a bid to bolster Romania’s regional power in 1883, King 

Carol I joined the Triple Alliance, a secret mutual support 

agreement among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. 

Despite the formal alliance, Romania experienced tensions

with its allies, primarily due to Hungary’s ongoing repression of 

Romanians in Hungary-controlled Transylvania. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

During this period, the Kingdom of Romania experienced a

blossoming of literature, art, and education. Although the 

regional economy began to grow through the export of raw 

materials and industrialization, most Romanians remained poor 

peasants. Discontent flared in 1907 when peasants across the 

region revolted. The army violently suppressed the movement, 

resulting in the deaths of thousands. While the Kingdom 

contemplated land reforms and universal suffrage in 1913, the 

onset of the “Great War” halted these developments.

World War I (WWI)

In 1914, WWI broke out between the Central Powers

(Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman 

Empire) and the Allies (the US, Britain, France, and Russia, 

among others). Because of his association with the Triple 

Alliance and his personal sympathies for Germany, Carol I 

urged Romania to enter the war in support of the Central 

Powers. The Romanian government rejected this suggestion, 

largely due to ongoing tensions with Hungary as well as strong 

public support for France. Consequently, the Kingdom of 

Romania declared its neutrality. 

Following King Carol I’s death in 1914, his nephew Ferdinand 

took the throne. Romania bowed to public preferences and 

entered the war aligned with the Allies in 1916. A key condition 

for this decision was assurance that the Kingdom would be 

awarded Transylvania and other territories in the event of an 

Allied victory. 

Following Romania’s 

strong initial offensive, 

the Central Powers 

counterattacked and 

invaded on multiple 

fronts, soon occupying

2/3 of the country. The 

situation became dire in 

1917 when the distraction of the Russian Revolution forced 

Russia to withdraw its support to Romania. To prevent any 

further loss of territory, Romania was forced to sign a 

humiliating treaty with the Central Powers (Photo: Romanians 

march in support of the Russian Revolution in 1918).
HISTORY &

MYTH

Nevertheless, the war continued. When the Allies launched an 

offensive into the Kingdom, Romania resumed military 

operations in their support. When the Allies won the war, 

Romania nullified the previous treaty with the Central Powers 

and participated in new treaty negotiations as a victor. 

Greater Romania

The 1920 Treaty of Trianon formally ending WWI aimed to 

punish Austria-Hungary for its aggressive role in the war. 

Consequently, Romania was awarded Transylvania – home to 

about 2.8 million Romanians, 1.6 million Hungarians, and 

250,000 Germans – and additional Austrian territory. Further, 

Romania gained the Moldavian region of Bessarabia from 

Russia. The addition of these territories more than doubled 

Romania’s size and population while dramatically altering its

ethnic composition.

Now known as “Greater Romania,” the country appeared 

poised to evolve into a stable constitutional monarchy. But 

despite democratic progress, such as a 1923 constitution 

guaranteeing equal rights, tensions persisted. With about 28%

of the population consisting of minorities, the majority 

Romanians largely mistrusted the minorities’ efforts to maintain 

their ethnic and cultural distinctiveness. Further, Romania’s 

Jewish inhabitants, some 4.2% of the population in 1930, were

subject to pervasive anti-Semitism and 

discrimination.

Initially, Greater Romania’s economy 

strengthened. Industry developed 

rapidly, particularly in the oil, coal, and 

steel sectors. Although the government

enacted long-awaited land reforms, 

agriculture largely remained inefficient 

with peasants toiling on small plots 

with outdated techniques and tools. 

Political Instability: Following King 

Ferdinand’s death, his son Carol II 

(pictured) renounced the throne in 

1928 in order to pursue a relationship with his common-law 

wife in France. Consequently, Carol II’s 6-year-old son Mihai 

(Michael) inherited the throne. Due to his age, a 3-member 
HISTORY &

MYTH

regency was appointed to reign in his place. Free and fair 

elections that year brought Transylvanian Iuliu Maniu of the

National Peasant Party to office as Prime Minister (PM). 

Carol II’s absence from the throne was brief. Following the 

1929 New York stock market crash and subsequent economic 

instability, Maniu overthrew the elected government and asked 

Carol II to retake the throne. Political stability proved uncertain. 

Between 1930-38, Carol II replaced the PM 11 times. Further, 

the collapse of agricultural prices and widespread 

unemployment further undermined confidence in democratic 

governance, while facilitating the growth of extremist 

nationalistic and anti-Semitic political movements. 

The largest of these far-right political movements was the 

fascist Iron Guard, which in the 1937 elections won almost 16% 

of the vote. Carol II tried to contain the political situation, spying 

on opponents and becoming increasingly authoritarian. In 

1938, he dissolved Parliament, banned all political parties, and

declared a royal dictatorship. Meanwhile, political instability 

continued, with Carol II directly appointing 6 different PMs in 2 

years. Moreover, violence between the authorities and fascists 

increased, resulting in the murders of 4 PMs (Photo: An Iron 

Guard legion in Bucharest 

around 1940).

As part of its war 

preparations in early 1939, 

Nazi Germany demanded a 

monopoly on Romanian 

exports, in return 

guaranteeing Romania’s 

borders would remain 

intact. Romania’s economy grew rapidly, but it still feared 

losing the territory gained after WWI, especially to Russia, now

known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). 

World War II (WWII)

When Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler invaded Poland in 

September 1939, officially beginning WWII, Romania remained 

neutral. In June 1940, the USSR invaded Romanian territory, 

reclaiming Bessarabia and other lands. A few months later, 

Hitler reneged on the earlier agreement, forcing Romania to
HISTORY &

MYTH

transfer parts of Transylvania and other territories to Hungary 

and Bulgaria, reducing Greater Romania’s territory by 1/3.

Facing widespread popular discontent with these territorial 

losses, King Carol II asked General Ion Antonescu to assume 

control of the country. Antonescu then forced Carol II to 

abdicate and pass the throne to his son, 19-year-old Mihai. As 

King, Mihai accepted Antonescu’s efforts to establish a military

government. While not a member of the Iron Guard himself, 

Antonescu used it to rally support for his so-called “National 

Legionary State,” a fascist dictatorship. As one of his first 

steps, Antonescu formally aligned Romania with Nazi 

Germany’s Axis alliance, which also included Italy, Bulgaria, 

Hungary, and Japan.

Under Antonescu (pictured), Romania implemented harsh antiJewish laws and policies as anti-Semitic violence increased. 

Because the Iron Guard’s activities severely disrupted 

Romanian social and economic life, tensions between the 

Guard and the government developed. In early 1941, the Iron 

Guard attacked governmental forces. During 3 days of 

violence, the Iron Guard carried out a 

massacre in Bucharest that resulted 

in the brutal murder of dozens of 

Jewish citizens. Antonescu’s army 

finally managed to defeat and 

dismantle the Iron Guard. Despite the 

Iron Guard’s collapse, the 

persecution of Romania’s Jews 

continued.

As an ally to Nazi Germany, 

Romania under Antonescu entered 

WWII in 1941 with the goal of 

regaining territory from the USSR. Combined Romanian and 

German forces invaded the USSR, swiftly regaining Bessarabia 

and other territories. Against the wishes of King Mihai and 

other Romanian leaders, Antonescu ordered Romanian troops 

to continue supporting the German campaign as it moved 

further into the USSR. As a reward, Hitler granted Romania 

control of captured territories in present-day Ukraine and 

Transnistria, now part of the present-day Republic of Moldova.
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Holocaust in Romania: On their way to invade the 

USSR, German and Romanian troops massacred around 

10,000 Jews in Iaşi, Moldavia’s regional capital. As they moved 

into and occupied Bessarabia and other Soviet territories, 

Romanian and German forces committed further atrocities. 

They murdered thousands of Jews outright while deporting

many others to concentration camps and ghettos in 

Transnistria. These activities resulted in the deaths of some 

150,000-250,000 Romanian and Ukrainian Jews. Romanian 

troops also committed the single worst massacre of the 

Holocaust in Odessa, Ukraine, killing some 100,000 Jews. 

Meanwhile, Hungarian occupiers in Transylvania deported 

some 150,000 Romanian Jews to the Nazi death camp in 

Auschwitz, Poland.

While Jews in Romania faced severe persecution during the 

war years, the Romanian government did not systematically 

deport them to Nazi camps. Instead, it deported only those 

Jews identified as political 

prisoners. Nevertheless, 

these activities resulted in 

some 20,000 deaths. By 

the war’s end, Romania’s 

Jewish population had 

shrunk from about 

800,000 to less than 

315,000. Further, German 

and Romanian forces had 

killed some 36,000 Roma, also deemed “undesirable” by the 

Nazi regime (Photo: Romanian Jews at a labor camp near 

Brăila in 1944).

Defeat at Stalingrad: Romanian and German troops continued 

their campaign into the USSR through 1942, reaching the 

southern Russian city of Stalingrad (Volgograd today) in late 

summer. Through the fall and winter, a fierce battle raged that 

included nearly 2.2 million troops. After experiencing heavy 

casualties, the Germans and Romanians were forced to retreat 

in February 1943. Over the next months, the Soviets pushed 

steadily westward and were soon threatening Romania’s 

borders. Although opposition to the war mounted, Antonescu

continued to support the German efforts into 1944.
HISTORY &

MYTH

Romania Switches Sides: As it became clear that Germany 

would lose the war, King Mihai and Antonescu’s political 

opponents scrambled to avoid Soviet invasion. Consequently, 

Mihai and Maniu tried to negotiate their surrender to the Allies. 

Unable to attain Antonescu’s support, they carried out a coup, 

removing Antonescu from power and arresting him in August 

1944. Romania then signed an armistice with the Allies that 

placed Romanian forces under Soviet army control. The 

armistice also returned Transylvania to Romania while allowing 

the USSR to retake Bessarabia and other territories that 

Romania had gained in 

1941, thus drawing 

Romania’s current borders. 

Romania subsequently 

severed ties with the Axis 

Powers as German troops 

withdrew (Photo: King Mihai 

reviews troops in 1944).

Within days, the Soviet 

army entered Romania and 

occupied Bucharest. Besides paying reparations to the USSR, 

Romania contributed forces to support Soviet advances further 

west. At war’s end in May 1945, Romania was devastated. 

Besides war casualties estimated at 625,000 and the deaths 

brought by the Holocaust, Romania lost significant territory and 

infrastructure. The 1945 Yalta Agreement among the Allies 

confirmed Romania’s place within the Soviet sphere of 

influence. In 1946, a Romanian military firing squad executed 

Antonescu following a brief trial overseen by the Soviets.

Transition to Communist Rule

When the Soviets entered Romania in 1944, local communists 

began to organize after years of repression during the 1920s 

and 1930s. As Secretary General of the Romanian Communist 

Party (RCP), Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, collaborated with the 

Soviets to pressure King Mihai to appoint a pro-communist PM 

to head the government. The Soviets used all means to extend 

their control, notably tapping the security apparatus to 

suppress opposition. By 1946, the communist government 

controlled all cultural activities, the press, and the military as

Gheorghiu-Dej became Minister of the National Economy. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

The Romanian People’s Republic

In 1947, the communists continued to dismantle all political

opposition, arresting and imprisoning democratic leaders like 

Maniu. The Soviets ensured communism’s place in Romania 

by forcing King Mihai to abdicate in December 1947 and 

proclaiming the Romanian People’s Republic. 

Gheorghiu-Dej Takes Control: In 1948, the RCP became the

Romanian Worker’s Party (RWP), the sole legal political party. 

As Secretary General of the RWP and leader of the 

government, Gheorghiu-Dej worked 

in subsequent years to convert

Romania into a totalitarian communist 

state modeled after Stalin’s brutal 

regime in the USSR. In 1949, the 

RWP abolished private land 

ownership and began a campaign to 

collectivize all farmland. The 

government sent over 180,000 

opponents to labor camps or to exile 

in Siberia, USSR. Tens of thousands 

of laborers died building the DanubeBlack Sea Canal, a Soviet-led project 

that was eventually abandoned (Photo: A USSR stamp 

depicting Gheorghiu-Dej).

Stalin’s death in 1953 initiated a change in Romania’s 

relationship with the USSR. Gheorghiu-Dej rejected certain

reformist trends in the USSR such as the USSR’s preference

that Romania scale back its industrialization efforts to become 

a supplier of agricultural products and raw materials to the 

USSR. Instead, Gheorghiu-Dej continued to adhere to MarxistLeninist policies such as rapid industrialization based on 

centralized planning (see p. 1 of Economics and Resources).

Despite tensions between the 2 countries, Romania joined the 

Soviet-led collective defense treaty known as the Warsaw Pact 

in 1955. Further, it allowed Soviet troops to traverse Romania 

to suppress a Hungarian uprising in 1956. To show 

appreciation for Romania’s compliance, the USSR withdrew all 

remaining troops from Romania in 1958. 
HISTORY &

MYTH

By 1964, Romania had achieved a level of political and social 

autonomy from the USSR, although it continued to accept 

technical and economic assistance. When Gheorghiu-Dej died 

in 1965, his protégé, Nicolae Ceaușescu, became Secretary 

General of RWP, again named the RCP, while a group of party 

leaders assumed control of the country. By 1969, Ceaușescu

had consolidated power and assumed sole control of Romania, 

establishing a dictatorship that would last for the next 20 years.

The Ceaușescu Dictatorship

Like Gheorghiu-Dej, Ceaușescu sought to decrease the 

country’s association with and dependence on the USSR while 

continuing Stalinist policies of repression and heavy 

industrialization. Ceaușescu also developed a foreign policy 

independent of the USSR while establishing political, 

economic, and diplomatic relations with the West. For example, 

Romania was the only Warsaw Pact country that refused to 

support the USSR’s suppression of popular uprisings in 

Prague, Czechoslovakia in 1968. It also defied the USSR’s 

boycott of the 1980 

Olympic Games in Los 

Angeles (Photo: US 

President Nixon and 

Ceaușescu in Bucharest 

in 1969).

Ceaușescu successfully 

manipulated anti-Soviet 

sentiment to win popular support and increase his grip on 

power. Despite some cautious economic liberalization in the 

early 1970s, the regime became increasingly oppressive in the 

late 1970s and 1980s. Ceaușescu intensified the repression of 

dissidents, making Romania a police state controlled by brutal 

secretive security forces known as the Securitate. No 

communication was secure: the Securitate relied on a network 

of informers to cultivate an atmosphere of constant suspicion 

and fear. 

By the late 1970s, the economy began to falter, causing added 

hardships. In 1982, Ceaușescu introduced food and energy 

rationing to reduce Romania’s growing foreign debt, causing 

severe shortages and widespread misery. In the late 1980s, 
HISTORY &

MYTH

Ceaușescu stepped up his plans for “systematization,” a 

scheme to bulldoze thousands of villages and move their 

residents to new, centralized communities. While ordinary 

people suffered, Ceaușescu built lavish palaces across the 

country and razed 1/6 of downtown Bucharest to construct the 

Palace of the Republic (pictured under construction in 1986), 

the world’s second largest administrative building after the 

Pentagon. 

An Opening

Beginning in 1985, Soviet 

leader Mikhail Gorbachev 

introduced a series of 

reforms that eventually 

resulted in the dissolution 

of the USSR. These 

reforms – most notably 

glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) – 

introduced market forces into the struggling Soviet economy 

and increased individuals’ freedom of expression. Although the

reforms were largely unsuccessful at propping up the Soviet 

economy and state, they helped ignite democratic movements 

in Eastern Europe. 

Ceauşescu’s Fall: In November 1989, the Berlin Wall fell, 

marking the collapse of the Soviet bloc state of East Germany

and the beginning of the end of communism across Eastern 

Europe. In mid-December, small demonstrations began in the 

western city of Timișoara when government officials tried to 

oust a Protestant pastor from office (see p. 5 of Religion and 

Spirituality). On December 20, the rallies swelled as thousands

gathered to protest food shortages and the actions of the

Ceaușescu regime generally. When security forces fired on the 

protestors, killing hundreds, outrage spread across Romania.

Some 100,000 people gathered in Bucharest a day later. As

police and security forces again opened fire on the unarmed 

protesters, some military forces refused to do so. 

Consequently, Ceaușescu ordered the defense minister shot, 

causing more military units to join the protestors. As protestors 

and the army battled security forces on December 22, 

Ceaușescu fled Bucharest. The military subsequently captured 
HISTORY &

MYTH

him and his wife some 100 mi outside of the city. On December 

25, a military tribunal tried the couple for economic destruction 

and genocide. They were convicted and executed on live 

television that same day. In all, about 1,000 Romanians died in 

the revolutionary violence of 1989.

Post-communist Romania

Upon the fall of the Ceaușescu regime, Communist Party 

members immediately regrouped as the National Salvation 

Front (NSF). In 1990, NSF leader Ion Iliescu (pictured with 

former US President George W. Bush) was elected President 

in Romania’s first democratic election in over 50 years. While 

the election was generally 

free and fair, unrest 

continued, which Iliescu 

quelled with force.

In 1991, Romania 

adopted a new 

constitution granting 

equal rights to all citizens 

while protecting liberties 

such as free speech, religion, and private ownership. The 

constitution also formally established Romania as a republic 

with a semi-presidential system of government, whereby the 

President shares power with a PM. Iliescu was reelected in 

1992, following violent suppression of opposition parties.

Despite Iliescu’s grip on power, by 1993 Romania had 159 

registered political parties. Although a new liberal democratic 

government took power in 1996, the late 1990s were marked 

by political infighting, corruption, and an unstable economy. 

The government introduced economic reforms and began 

accession talks with the EU in 1999, yet slow growth, rising 

unemployment, high inflation, and rampant corruption meant 

the many Romanians’ standard of living declined. 

Nevertheless, political parties continued to alternate in power, 

helping to cement Romania’s budding democracy.

Contemporary Romania

In 2004, Traian Băsescu was elected President on an anticorruption platform. He presided over an era of rapid economic 

growth and relative stability as Romania joined NATO in 2004 
HISTORY &

MYTH

and the EU in 2007. Nonetheless, the global financial crisis of 

2008-09 caused an economic contraction, prompting the 

government to cut pensions and public sector wages. While 

growth slowly returned in 2011, many Romanians were 

increasingly discontent with their economic, political, and social 

situations. Public protests escalated, eventually prompting the 

resignation of the ruling coalition and allowing a new, leftist 

government led by PM Victor Ponta to assume control in 2012.

Upon taking office, Ponta (pictured) attempted to impeach 

Băsescu, now in his 2nd presidential term. Although popular 

support for Băsescu ultimately thwarted Ponta’s efforts, Ponta 

went on to lead one of the most corrupt governments in recent 

history. In 2014, Ponta attempted to extend his political control 

by running for President. Following an election controversy in 

which the government blocked 3-4 million expatriates from 

voting, opposition candidate Klaus Iohannis won. A Protestant 

of German background from 

Transylvania, Iohannis is Romania’s 

first ethnic minority President.

After years of allegations, Ponta was 

charged with corruption in mid-2015. 

While he initially refused to quit his 

PM post, a fire at a Bucharest 

nightclub killed dozens, prompting

massive anti-corruption protests and 

forcing Ponta to resign. President 

Iohannis subsequently named

Dacian Cioloș, an independent, as interim PM.

In the 2016 elections, Ponta’s leftist former party once again 

assumed control of the Parliament, briefly bringing Sorin 

Grindeanu to power as PM until his ouster and replacement by

fellow party member Mihai Tudose in June 2017 (see p. 7 of 

Political and Social Relations). While the economy remains 

stable, the country still grapples with persistent corruption. In

2015, former President Iliescu was charged with crimes against 

humanity for his role in suppressing the 1990 protests. Other 

recent corruption indictments, such as one against Băsescu for 

money laundering in 2016, show some progress in Romania’s 

transition to a more transparent and liberal democracy.
HISTORY &

MYTH

A Romanian Origin Myth

In contrast to history, which is supposed to be an objective 

record of the past based on verifiable facts, myths embody a 

culture’s values and often explain the origins of humans and 

the natural world. Myths are important because they provide a 

sense of unique heritage and identity. They have played an

especially important role in maintaining Romanian identity 

through centuries of foreign domination. 

A well-known Romanian origin story tells of an endless ocean 

called Apa Sâmbetei where a god named Fîrtat roamed alone. 

Upset and uncertain how to end his solitude, Fîrtat threw his 

staff into the water where it sprouted a tree with a black serpent

wrapped in its roots. When Fîrtat asked the serpent its identity, 

the snake opened its mouth to reveal a god named Nefîrtat 

inside, who said, “I am your brother!” to which Fîrtat replied, “I 

have no brother, but we can be friends.” 

Representing good and evil, Fîrtat and Nefîrtat proceeded to 

create the world. When Nefîrtat complained of having nothing 

to rest on, Fîrtat instructed him to dive into the sea to retrieve 

some mud, which then formed into 

an island. When Fîrtat fell asleep, 

the serpent told Nefîrtat to kill his 

friend by pushing him into the water. 

But every time Nefîrtat pushed 

Fîrtat, new land appeared to save 

him. 

When Fîrtat awoke, the 2 friends 

molded the earth into mountains 

and lakes. Fîrtat and Nefîrtat then 

created the sky, which they rested 

on the tree’s highest branches and 

decorated with jewels. Soon, the 

weight of the jewels began to sink 

the land, so the friends erected 4 pillars on top of 4 fish to prop 

up the sky. In the light of the jewels, the tree bore fruit, which 

Fîrtat and Nefîrtat sculpted into humans and animals. Peace 

reigned for some time until Nefîrtat’s creatures became 

monsters as evil seeped into the world (Illustration: Late 19thcentury depiction of the myth).
Official Name

Romania

România

Political Borders

Ukraine: 373 mi

Moldova: 424 mi

Coastline: 140 mi

Bulgaria: 376 mi

Serbia: 329 mi

Hungary: 263 mi

Capital

Bucharest

Demographics

With a population of about 21.6 million, Romania is the 7th

most populous European Union (EU) member. Significantly, 

Romania’s population is aging, with about 29% of Romanians 

aged 55 or older. The population is also declining at an annual 

rate of 0.3% as families choose to have fewer children (see p. 

4 of Sex and Gender) and many Romanians leave for 

education and employment opportunities abroad. About 55% of 

the population lives in urban

areas, primarily in the capital 

city of Bucharest. 

Flag

The Romanian flag consists 

of 3 equal vertical blue, 

yellow, and red stripes, the

colors of Wallachia in 1848. 

The current flag was adopted in 1989 and modeled after the 

French flag. The blue and red bands symbolize Moldavia while 

the yellow and red represent Wallachia, the 2 principalities that

united to form Romania in 1861 (see p. 9 of History and Myth). 

In another interpretation of the flag’s significance, the blue

band represents bravery and valor, the yellow generosity, and

the red truth, loyalty, and justice.

2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Geography

Situated on the northern edge of the Balkan Peninsula in 

southeastern Europe, Romania borders Ukraine to the north 

and east, Moldova and the Black Sea to the east, Bulgaria to 

the south, and Serbia and Hungary to the west. Romania’s total 

land area is about 89,000 sq mi, making it slightly smaller than 

Oregon and about the same size as Italy. 

The Eastern Carpathian Mountains (pictured) dominate 

Romania’s North, forming an arc that circles and separates the 

central Transylvanian Basin from the Moldavian Plateau in the 

East and the extended

Wallachian Plain in the 

South. Also known as 

the Transylvanian 

Alps, the Southern

Carpathians extend 

west into Serbia from 

the center of the 

country. Romania’s 

highest point is 

Moldoveanu, which 

rises to about 8,346 ft in the Southern Carpathians. Rolling, 

sub-Carpathian hills eventually give way to low, fertile plains 

along Romania’s southern and eastern edges. The Danube, 

the EU’s longest river, follows Romania’s western and southern 

borders, forming a large delta in the East before emptying into 

the Black Sea. Forests cover about 30% of the country. 

Climate

Romania experiences a mixed temperate and continental 

climate with 4 distinct seasons. Summers tend to be brief but 

warm, while winters are long, cold, and wet. Spring and fall are 

the shortest seasons. Temperatures in the summer month of 

July average 77°F. By contrast, in the winter month of January, 

temperatures average 27°F. Generally, coastal and southern 

regions experience warmer temperatures, while Romania’s 

northern and mountainous areas tend to be cooler. Snowfall 

typically occurs December-March and can be severe. Showers 

and thunderstorms are common during summer months. 

Spring tends to be the driest season.

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Natural Hazards

Romania is vulnerable to several types of natural hazards, 

including earthquakes, floods, and landslides. Located at the 

junction of 3 tectonic plates, Romania is particularly prone to 

earthquakes, which tend to be most severe in the South and 

Southwest. In 1977, Romania experienced one of its most 

devastating earthquakes, killing more than 1,500 and injuring

over 11,000 people. It also caused widespread damage to 

Bucharest and the surrounding region. Since then, 7 more

earthquakes (including one in 2016) have caused further loss 

of life and damage to infrastructure. 

Recently, deforestation and the clearing of land from illegal 

logging (see “Environmental Issues” below) has left some 

regions vulnerable to occasional but disastrous flooding and 

landslides. The country also intermittently experiences 

droughts, which are intensified by careless farming practices 

and are most prevalent in the South.

Environmental Issues

Many of Romania’s environmental issues stem from unsafe 

and damaging industrialization activities performed by the 

communist government throughout the second half of the 20th 

century (see p. 1 of Economics and Resources). Detrimental 

activities, including the improper disposal of industrial waste, 

mismanagement of agricultural runoff, and the dumping of 

untreated sewage into groundwater reservoirs, caused 

significant water and air pollution. Recently, the government 

has attempted to resolve

these problems by

cleaning up coastal and 

inland waters, developing 

safer industrial processes, 

and regulating industrial 

and agricultural waste. 

Despite some progress, 

these efforts are deficient. 

Consequently, many cities, 

rivers, and lakes remain 

heavily polluted, particularly in the South and along the Danube 

River delta (Photo: A canal in Bucharest). 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Urban waste proliferates while the government struggles to 

maintain recycling programs that meet EU standards. Illegal

logging, timber production, and land clearing results in 

deforestation, degrading and eroding the soil. In Bucharest, 

vehicle emissions contribute to poor air quality, helping make it 

the 2nd most polluted capital in Europe behind Sofia, Bulgaria.

Government

Romania is a democratic republic with a semi-presidential 

system of government. The country divides into 41 counties 

(județ) – each administered by federally appointed prefects, 

elected mayors, and

community councils – and 

1 municipality (municipiu) 

consisting of the capital 

Bucharest. Adopted in 

1991 and amended in 

2003, Romania’s

constitution separates 

power among the 

executive, legislative, and 

judicial branches while outlining the fundamental rights and 

freedoms of Romanian citizens (Photo: Former Romanian 

President Băsescu visits the USS Donald Cook). 

Executive Branch

As head-of-state and commander-in-chief of Romania’s Armed 

Forces, the President is directly elected by popular vote to

serve up to 2 consecutive 5-year terms. By contrast, the Prime 

Minister (PM) is head-of-government and is appointed by the 

President with the consent of Parliament. A 22-member 

Council of Ministers supports the PM. Historically, the PM is the 

leader or prominent member of the political party or coalition 

that holds the most seats in the Parliament. 

Executive power is vested in both the President and the PM

who share executive duties, such as overseeing the country’s 

day-to-day affairs, exercising domestic and foreign policy, 

appointing positions in government, and making declarations of 

war and states of emergency. The current President, Klaus 

Iohannis, took office in 2014, and Romania’s PM, Mihai 

Tudose, in 2017 (see p. 21 of History and Myth).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Legislative Branch

Romania’s legislature is a 2-chamber Parliament (Parlament) 

(pictured), composed of a 176-seat Senate and a 412-seat 

Chamber of Deputies. Of the 588 total members of Parliament, 

452 are elected in single constituencies by a nationwide

absolute majority 

vote. The remaining 

136 members are 

elected in single 

seat constituencies 

by a proportional 

representation vote. 

All Parliament 

members serve 4-

year terms. The 

Parliament controls 

all federal 

legislative powers, such as amending the constitution, 

approving declarations of war, and passing the national budget.

Judicial Branch

The judiciary includes a High Court of Cassation and Justice, a 

Supreme Constitutional Court, Courts of Appeal, a system of 

lower courts which oversee minor cases, and military and 

arbitration courts. As the topmost court, the High Court of 

Cassation and Justice oversees civil, penal, commercial, and 

business cases and consists of 111 judges appointed by the 

President to serve renewable 6-year terms. The Supreme 

Constitutional Court consists of 9 members, each serving one 

9-year term. The President appoints 3 justices, while the 

remaining 6 are elected by the Parliament. Of note, allegations 

of corruption plague the judiciary, with justices often criticized 

for dishonesty and vulnerability to bribery. 

Political Climate

Romania’s political landscape is characterized by a multi-party 

system in which coalitions of parties compete for power. 

Generally, those parties and coalitions, which hold the majority 

of seats in the Parliament, also occupy the bulk of government 

leadership positions and retain considerable political control. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
The majority (54%) of Romania’s current Parliament is 

comprised of members of the center-left Government Coalition 

for Development and Democracy (GCDD), a coalition which 

took power following the 2016 elections. The GCDD includes

the leftist Social-Democratic Party (PSD), plagued by rampant 

charges of corruption in 

recent years, and the 

Alliance of Liberals and 

Democrats (ALDE). 

Although massive unrest 

forced the PSD’s former 

leader PM Victor Ponta to 

resign in 2015 (see p. 21 of 

History and Myth), the PSD 

still won the largest number 

(48%) of parliamentary seats in the 2016 elections. As a result, 

the PSD is currently the largest single party in the Parliament. 

The center-right National Liberal Party (PNL) and anticorruption Save Romania Union (USR) act as the ruling 

GCDD’s main opposition (Photo: Former US Secretary of State 

Kerry greets former Romanian Foreign Minister Aurescu). 

Of note, while Romania’s current PM Tudose is a member of 

the contentious PSD, President Iohannis, who shares 

executive powers with the PM, is an independent with a 

reputation for honesty and reliability. Representing the centerright, Iohannis advocates political and social reform, probusiness policies, the modification of judicial and voting 

processes, and stringent anti-corruption measures.

Although peaceful and fair general elections have recently 

strengthened political and social stability, the Romanian 

government still faces significant challenges to maintaining the 

democratic process. Corruption permeates all levels of 

government and engenders widespread distrust of public 

officials. Since the creation of the National Anticorruption 

Directorate (DNA), an agency charged with purging high-level 

corruption and led by Laura Codruța Kövesi, thousands of 

officials have been indicted, including dozens of mayors, 5 

members of Parliament, 20 judiciary members, and a former 

PM. Significantly, over 90% of those indicted have been 

convicted. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Despite these efforts and President Iohannis’ pledge to fight 

corruption, allegations of unfair or unlawful practices continue 

to plague government officials, even some from the ruling 

GCDD coalition. For example, within days of taking office in 

January 2017, former PM Grindeanu, a PSD member, 

proposed a contentious mass pardon of thousands of 

prisoners, prompting many Romanians, including President 

Iohannis, to protest in the largest demonstrations since the fall 

of communism in 1989. Parliament consequently ousted 

Grindeanu after less 

than 6 months into his 

tenure as PM, replacing 

him with Tudose. 

Ongoing corruption 

scandals, combined 

with their experience 

during Romania’s 

communist era (see p. 

16-20 of History and 

Myth), make many Romanians both skeptical of and somewhat 

apathetic to the political process. As a result, Romania 

experiences a relatively low level of community political 

participation. For example, voter turnout has declined in recent 

years, reaching only about 40% in the last 2 parliamentary 

elections (Photo: Former US Secretary of the Navy Mabus 

greets Romanian military personnel in Bucharest). 

Defense

The Romanian Armed Forces (RAF) are a unified military force 

consisting of primarily ground forces with smaller maritime and 

air branches, supplemented by a sizeable paramilitary force. 

With a joint strength of 71,400 active duty troops, 45,000

reserve personnel, and 79,900 paramilitary troops, the RAF are 

charged with defending against external and domestic threats, 

supporting disaster relief efforts, and protecting infrastructure. 

Romanians may voluntarily enlist in military service at age 18.

The RAF receives considerable military support from the North 

Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) – a political and military 

alliance among 28 nations (including the US) that promotes its 

members’ security through collective defense. The RAF is 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
currently in the process of modernizing, notably to a Westernequipped Air Force, though much of its equipment is still from 

the Soviet era.

Army: The Romanian Army is a well-trained force of 42,600

active-duty troops, comprising 3 command divisions, a special 

forces brigade, 12 maneuver brigades and battalions (including 

reconnaissance, mechanized, light, and mountain), 19 combat 

support brigades, battalions, and regiments, and 4 combat 

service support 

battalions. 

Navy: Consisting of 6,900

active-duty personnel, the 

Romanian Navy is the 

smallest of the branches. 

It is equipped with 3

principal surface 

combatants, 21 patrol and 

coastal combatants, 11 mine warfare and countermeasures 

vessels, 12 logistics and support vessels, and includes a naval 

infantry battalion (Photo: MV-22B Ospreys deliver US Marines 

to the Babadag Training Area in Romania during a 

multinational military exercise in 2015). 

Air Force: The Romanian Air Force consists of 8,400 activeduty personnel, with 3 fighter and ground attack squadrons, 2

transport squadrons, 2 

training squadrons, 5 

transport helicopter 

squadrons, an air defense 

brigade, and a combat 

service support regiment

(Photo: Romanian Air Force 

Col Oatu, US Air Force Lt

Gen Roberson, and former

Romanian Minister of 

Defense Dușa salute during the Romanian national anthem at 

Campia Turzii in Central Romania). 

Paramilitary: The Romanian Paramilitary forces consist of 

57,000 Gendarmerie members and 22,900 Border Guard 

servicemen. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
POLITICAL &

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Foreign Relations 

Since the end of the communist era in 1989 (see p. 20 of 

History and Myth), Romania has sought to improve its 

international standing by rewriting undemocratic laws, 

attempting to battle crime and corruption, and building relations 

with Western European neighbors. Although Romania joined

NATO in 2004 and the EU in 2007, rampant corruption, political 

instability, and economic woes hamper Romania’s full political, 

economic, and social integration with the West. 

International Cooperation: As a NATO member, Romania 

has regularly contributed to multinational operations and

participated in various multinational military exercises. Looking 

to support shared NATO security interests, Romania has 

engaged in military activities in Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, and 

Kosovo. Significantly, in 

2015 Romania created 

a NATO Force 

Integration Unit to 

facilitate the rapid 

deployment of NATO 

troops in the region and 

in 2016 stood up a 

NATO command and 

control center in 

Bucharest (Photo: Members of the Romanian Land Forces and 

the US Army National Guard conduct exercises during a 

multinational exercise in Babadag near the Black Sea). 

In addition to its active participation in NATO, Romania also 

contributes to both the EU’s and United Nations’ (an 

intergovernmental organization established in 1945 to promote 

international cooperation) security, humanitarian assistance, 

and peacekeeping missions. Finally, Romania is a member of 

numerous international organizations. These include the EuroAtlantic Partnership Council, Organization for Security and 

Cooperation in Europe, International Monetary Fund, World 

Bank, and World Trade Organization.

Relations with the EU: The EU is a political and economic 

partnership among 28 nations located in Europe. Although 

Romania’s record of organized crime, corruption, and social 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
inequities initially delayed EU membership, Romania joined the 

EU in 2007 on the condition that it would address these issues. 

Since then, the EU has reproached Romania for not 

adequately curbing its rampant corruption, on multiple 

occasions threatening economic sanctions and blocking 

Romania from joining the Schengen passport-free zone in 

2011. Romania’s recent

political controversies (see 

p. 21 of History and Myth) 

have further strained 

relations with the EU

(Photo: Officers on the USS 

Truxtun salute a Romanian 

frigate). 

Despite these tensions, EU 

membership remains popular among Romanian citizens who

remain hopeful that full integration with the EU will positively

influence Romania’s social, economic, and political 

landscapes. Of note, in 2019 Romania is scheduled to hold the 

rotating Presidency of the Council of the EU, an institution that 

determines and steers the EU’s general political direction and 

priorities.

Relations with Hungary: The relationship between Romania 

and Hungary was historically contentious due to Hungary’s 

oppression of Romanians in Transylvania (see p. 10 of History 

and Myth). Then in 1996, the 2 nations signed a treaty formally 

establishing diplomatic relations and guaranteeing the rights 

and equal treatment of ethnic Hungarians living in Romania. 

The treaty successfully alleviated fears that the Hungarian 

government would incite social unrest among Romania’s 

sizeable and historically segregated Hungarian population (see 

“Social Relations” below). Consequently, tensions between the 

2 countries subsided. As Europe’s migration crisis recently

escalated (see “Security Issues” below), Hungary has 

considered erecting a fence along its Romanian border, 

creating new friction between the 2 nations. 

Relations with the US: While relations between the US and 

Romania were occasionally strained during the communist era 

(see p. 16-20 of History and Myth), both nations have worked 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
diligently to develop and deepen ties over the last 3 decades. 

In 2011, the US and Romania formally entered into a strategic 

partnership to fortify political and military relations, foster trade

and investment opportunities, cooperate on energy security, 

and address transnational crime. As a result, Romania has

become an important regional advocate for the US, promoting 

stability, democracy, and pro-Western policies in the Black Sea 

region.

Today, the US provides Romania substantial defense 

assistance (see p. 5 of Economics and Resources) to bolster 

Romanian military capabilty and improve its interoperablity with 

US and NATO forces. In addition to financial assistance, the 

US provides military training and equipment and maintains 6 

joint military facilities in Romania which house hundreds of US 

military personnel and provide the US with vital strategic 

access to the Black Sea region. 

The US and Romania have also signed several bilateral trade 

and investment agreements which protect intellectual property 

and allow goods, services, and capital to move more freely 

between the 2 nations (Photo: Former Secretary of State 

Clinton and former 

Romanian Foreign 

Minister Diaconescu

meet in Washington, DC). 

Security Issues

After enjoying close to 3

decades of regional peace 

and stability, Romania has 

been preoccupied by an 

increasingly aggressive 

Russia over the last several years. In addition, a recent influx of 

migrants from Africa and the Middle East presents some 

security challenges. 

Illegal migration: Thousands of refugees and migrants fleeing 

political unrest in Syria, Iraq, and Afghanistan illegally pass 

through Romania before moving onto northern and western

Europe. In response, Romania has tightened its border 

security. While Romania has remained comparatively less 

affected by the migrant crisis than other European nations, it is 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
forecast to receive over 6,000 refugees as part of a mandatory 

EU relocation plan in 2017. 

Relations with Russia: Russia’s 2014 annexation of Crimea

and subsequent ongoing unrest in eastern Ukraine have 

sparked tensions between Russia and Romania. Sharing a 

border with Ukraine, Romania views Russia’s expanding 

presence there as both an immediate national security risk and 

destabilizing to the entire region. Of particular concern are 

Russia’s continued support of Ukrainian separatist forces and 

its bolstering of Russian military capacity along the Black Sea. 

Relations substantially deteriorated in mid-2016, when the US

installed and activated a missile defense system in southern 

Romania. This system is part of a larger NATO-operated 

defensive shield that stretches across Europe. Accordingly, 

Romania asserts that it serves to counter threats to NATO 

originating in the Middle East. 

Threatened by the move, Russia claims that NATO intends to 

use the system to neutralize Russia’s offensive capability in the 

event of war and its growing presence along the Black Sea.

Following the system’s 

activation, Russia has 

threatened to retaliate

against Romania, 

keeping tensions high. 

Amid this friction, there 

also exists some 

apprehension that the 

Russian government 

aims to weaken 

Romania’s social and political alignment with the US and 

Western Europe by encouraging social unrest within the 

Romanian population. Experts assert that Russia is waging an 

information warfare campaign that erodes public faith in the 

EU, Romania’s democratic institutions, and the government’s 

recent anti-corruption and reform initiatives (Photo: US Deputy 

Defense Secretary Work speaks with former Romanian PM 

Ciolos during the 2016 inauguration ceremony of the missile 

defense system in Deveselu, southern Romania). 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Ethnic Groups

Historically a crossroads for different ethnic groups, Romania 

today is a relatively homogenous country. Although Soviet 

troops occupied Romania from 1944-58, few Russians 

permanently settled in Romania like they did in many Soviet 

republics and Soviet bloc countries. According to the 2011 

census, almost 90% of the population is ethnically Romanian.

Hungarian Magyars and Szeklers have occupied Transylvania 

for centuries (see p. 4 of History and Myth). Today, Hungarians 

make up Romania’s largest minority group, comprising almost

7% of the total population or 1.2 million people. Within 

Transylvania, Hungarians account for around 20% of the 

population. Because Hungarians make up over 80% of the 

residents in Transylvania’s central Harghita and Covasna 

counties, this area is often called “Székely Land.” While some

Hungarian communities are insulated from other groups, most 

Hungarians are integrated into Romanian society (Pictured: 

Map of Romania 

depicting the Székely 

Land in orange).

The 2011 census 

reports 622,000 Roma 

or “Gypsy” residents, 

equivalent to 3% of the 

population, though the 

actual number is likely 

over 1 million. An ethnic 

group of northern Indian origins, the Roma probably first 

arrived in the region during the 12th century. Many Roma were 

subsequently forced into slavery. Today, the Roma live across

Romania but often concentrate in small, secluded communities 

on urban peripheries. Most Roma live highly segregated from

Romanian society (see “Social Relations” below).

Once common in Transylvania, Germans now comprise less 

than 0.5% of Romania’s population. Other small minority 

groups include Ukrainians, Serbs, Croats, Russians, Greeks, 

Jews (see p. 15 of History and Myth), and primarily Muslim 

Turks and Tatars (see p. 6 of Religion and Spirituality), among 

others. 

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Social Relations

Romanians generally identify with 1 of 4 ethnographic regions 

(Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, and Dobrogea) or with 

sub-regions such as Muntenia or Crişana. While cultural 

differences were more pronounced in the past, some variance 

in language, dress, and the arts remains (see p. 2 of Language 

and Communication and p. 1 of Aesthetics and Recreation).

Romanian society divides along rural-urban, male-female, richpoor, and generational lines. Urban dwellers, males, and the 

wealthy typically enjoy greater access to educational and 

economic opportunities and hold the most prestige. Women are 

more likely victims of domestic violence and face discrimination 

in the workplace (see p. 1-2 of Sex and Gender). Further, 

generational divisions exist between more conservative and 

skeptical older Romanians who experienced the communist era 

and younger people who did not.

Tensions sometimes arise among Romania’s Hungarian 

minority. In particular, the issue of Székely Land autonomy and 

Hungarian political representation are contentious, occasionally 

causing demonstrations. Further, Romania has been slow to 

implement EU-recommended policies permitting the use of 

Hungarian in the courts and schools (see p. 3 of Language and 

Communication and p. 4 of Learning and Knowledge).

Romania’s Roma population suffers systemic societal 

harassment that affects their access to adequate education, 

housing, healthcare, and employment opportunities. These 

shortfalls result in high poverty and low educational attainment

rates. Under EU 

pressure, the Romanian 

government has set

goals to improve Roma 

health and welfare and

promote Roma language 

and culture. Because of

uneven implementation, 

poverty and 

unemployment remain serious problems (see p. 2 of 

Economics and Resources) (Photo: A Roma man transports 

garbage by horse-drawn cart).

POLITICAL & 

SOCIAL 

RELATIONS
Overview 

With over 90% of its 

inhabitants identifying as 

Christian, Romania is 

one of Europe’s most 

religious countries. 

According to the 2011 

census, over 86% of the 

population claim 

membership in the 

Romanian Orthodox 

Church, some 5% are Roman Catholics, around 4% 

Protestants, and fewer than 1% identify as Greek Catholics 

(Photo: Romanian Orthodox bishops at a memorial service).

Romania’s constitution protects freedom of religion, while 

guaranteeing state support to 18 recognized religious 

denominations. Besides the traditions mentioned above, 

recognized denominations include other Orthodox churches, 

Judaism, and Islam. By law, these 18 groups retain some rights 

and privileges not granted to other religious groups. These

include the right to hold religious classes in public schools, 

establish private schools, and receive government funds to 

build places of worship, pay clergy, broadcast religious 

programming, and minister to military personnel. 

Romania’s Early Spiritual Landscape

Present-day Romania’s early inhabitants, the Geto-Dacians 

(see p. 2 of History and Myth), had a rich spiritual life. A 5thcentury BC Greek historian known as Herodotus recorded that

Geto-Dacians worshipped a divine being called Zalmoxis and 

believed in the immortality of the soul. Other sources suggest

Zalmoxis was not a god but a priest and follower of Greek 

philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras. Archaeological 

research has revealed that the capital of 1st-century GetoDacian King Decebalus included several temples and a large 

sanctuary (see p. 2 of History and Myth), though scholars know 

few details about the intended use of such structures.

3. RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
The Arrival and Spread of Christianity 

Although the Roman Empire relinquished control of the area of 

present-day Romania around 275 AD, its culture and language 

continued to influence the region for centuries (see p. 2-3 of 

History and Myth). Consequently, Christianity came to the area

through the Romans who introduced early forms of the new 

religion in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. In the 4th century, the 

Roman Empire adopted Christianity as its official religion, 

facilitating its spread. It found further support when Christian 

Bulgarians conquered the region in the 9th century. 

Between the 8th-9th centuries, a dispute over the use of icons 

in worship rocked the Christian world. In subsequent years, 

philosophical and theological differences between western and 

eastern branches of the Christian movement resulted in greater 

estrangement. In the Schism of 1054, the leaders of the 2 

branches, the Pope in Rome and the Patriarch in 

Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), excommunicated each 

other. The end result was a permanent division between the 

Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox tradition (Photo: 

Interior of the Orthodox 

Sihăstria monastery).

In subsequent centuries, 

Wallachia and Moldavia 

became religiously and 

culturally aligned with the 

Eastern Orthodox 

tradition of the Eastern 

Roman or Byzantine 

Empire. Gradually, Romanians in Transylvania also became 

adherents of this branch of Christianity. 

Religion in the 3 Principalities

In contrast to Wallachia and Moldavia, Transylvania became 

more religiously diverse beginning in the 12th century. To 

bolster their control of the region, Hungarian rulers invited 

Roman Catholic Hungarians and Protestant Germans to settle 

the region (see p. 4 of History and Myth). Beginning in the 14th

century, the predominantly Orthodox Romanian population 

experienced discrimination under Hungarian rulers that 

persisted for centuries.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
During the medieval period, the rulers of Moldavia and 

Wallachia saw themselves as Christian buffers against the 

expansion efforts of the Muslim Ottoman Turks (see p. 5 of 

History and Myth). Besides fighting 

the Ottomans in the mid-15th

century, Moldavian leader Ştefan cel 

Mare (Stephen the Great) also built 

monasteries and churches that still 

stand today (Photo: Built by Ştefan 

cel Mare in 1547, the Voroneţ 

monastery has elaborate murals on 

its exterior surfaces). 

While the Muslim Ottomans 

dominated the 2 principalities until 

the 19th century, they never tried to 

impose their religion on the region. 

As a result, the Orthodox Church 

flourished. Of note, a sizeable influx of Jews occurred between 

the 15th-17th centuries, although they were denied citizenship 

for centuries.

In the 18th century, Hungarian rulers sought to integrate multiethnic and multi-religious Transylvania into the Roman Catholic 

Habsburg Empire (see p. 8 of History and Myth). 

Consequently, the rulers successfully persuaded some

Orthodox clergy to accept the authority of the Roman Catholic 

Pope. In doing so, these clergy were forced to leave the 

Orthodox Church and in the process founded a new church, 

the Greek Catholic Church (GCC). While never spreading far 

beyond Transylvania, the GCC was influential in articulating a 

sense of Romanian national identity for the first time.

Religion in Romania before World War II

In the 19th century, Wallachians and Moldavians borrowed the 

GCC’s ideas concerning Romanian national identity. Seeking 

to replace the historic regional identities and unify all 

Romanians, they interwove nationality and religion in a new 

way, connecting Romanian identity to Romanian Orthodoxy. 

When Moldavia and Wallachia united as the new country of 

Romania in the mid-19th century, the constitution gave the 

Romanian Orthodox Church (ROC) a privileged status. In this 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
way, the ROC and the Romanian state became closely 

enmeshed. While Romania did grant Jews citizenship rights in 

the late 19th century, the Romanian Orthodox majority largely 

mistrusted them. Anti-Semitism grew, especially in the years 

between the World Wars (see p. 12-14 of History and Myth). 

World War II (WWII)

While Romania’s participation in 

WWII as an ally to Nazi 

Germany had devastating 

consequences to its entire 

population, its Jewish residents 

suffered most (see p. 15 of 

History and Myth). Emigration, 

deportation, death from 

starvation and disease, and 

murder reduced the Jewish 

community’s population by 

almost 500,000. At war’s end in 

1945, just 315,000 Jews 

remained in Romania, their 

property confiscated and many places of worship destroyed 

(Photo: Bucharest’s Choral Temple synagogue and Holocaust 

memorial).

Religion during the Communist Period

When the communists assumed control at the end of WWII, 

they brought significant changes to Romania’s spiritual 

landscape. The communist worldview included atheism, or the 

disbelief in deities and the rejection of religion. Consequently,

the Romanian communist state persecuted or outlawed many

religious organizations. While the ROC was allowed to continue

functioning, its activities were strictly supervised by the 

communist government. 

In the immediate post-war years, the communists tried in 

various ways to increase their control of all religious activities. 

In 1948, the communist government tried to dissolve the GCC 

by confiscating many of its churches and turning them over to 

the ROC. In 1950, the government ordered the Baptists, the 

Seventh-day Adventists, and the Pentecostals to unite as the

Federation of Protestant Cults. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Realizing that the ROC could be useful to the regime in 

pursuing its communist goals, the government focused most of 

its control efforts on the ROC. First, the government purged the 

clergy of the independent-minded, then closely controlled 

access to the ROC’s theological schools and seminaries. The 

authorities also heavily censored ROC publications and denied 

it a role in educational and charitable activities. 

The state closed monasteries, jailing thousands of monks and 

nuns. To retain their positions, some priests became informers 

(see p. 18 of History and Myth) or worked as police spies, even 

disclosing the contents of confessions. Through it all, the 

government controlled the ROC hierarchy, appointing a series 

of patriarchs (leaders) who at the least turned a blind eye to 

discrimination and religious persecution and at worst were 

staunch defenders of communism.

The government increased its anti-religion activities again in 

the 1970s and 1980s under dictator Ceaușescu (see p. 18-19

in History and Myth). In contrast to earlier decades, Romanians 

began to publicly object to these infringements on religious 

freedom. In response, the government demolished or relocated

more churches and monasteries while jailing dissidents. 

Protests against government efforts to remove Protestant

pastor László Tőkés from 

his post helped trigger the 

1989 fall of the communist 

regime (see p. 19-20 of 

History and Myth) (Photo: 

The Black Church in 

Braşov, Transylvania).

ROC collaboration with 

the communist regime 

persisted until

Ceaușescu’s downfall (see p. 19-20 of History and Myth). The 

ROC patriarch even sent a telegram to the dictator offering 

support following anti-communist demonstrations in December 

1989. While cooperation with the communists allowed the ROC 

to survive throughout the communist era, it did not emerge

unscathed, with many observers rejecting the ROC as morally 

compromised.

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Religion Today

Romanians are in general a spiritual people. In a recent survey, 

over 97% of Romanians claimed to believe in God while over 

95% agreed that religion was important to them. Despite these 

high rates of spirituality, respondents reported significantly 

lower rates of attendance at religious services. Some 38% 

reported attendance only on major holidays, while 25% 

reported weekly attendance. Church attendance also varies by 

geography and age. In rural areas where the church still plays 

an important social role, attendance is typically high, especially 

among older inhabitants. 

ROC: Since the collapse of communism and establishment of 

religious freedom in 1990, the ROC has enjoyed a resurgence

of interest yet must confront new challenges. Monasteries and 

convents have resumed operations and now support over 

8,000 monks and nuns. Some 14 new theology faculties and 

seminaries have opened. Further, the ROC has resumed its 

missionary activities as well as its outreach to other religious 

traditions. In 1999, Romania welcomed Pope John Paul II, the 

first time the head of the Roman Catholic Church visited a 

predominantly Orthodox country. Meanwhile, the ROC must 

adapt to the presence of other 

denominations, some of which are 

trying to convert ROC members to 

prevailing secularism within the 

EU.

Islam: According to the 2011 

census, almost 65,000 Romanians 

or 0.4% of the population are 

Muslim, mostly adherents of the 

Hanafi sect (considered the oldest 

and most liberal) of the Sunni 

branch. Most Romanian Muslims 

live in Dobrogea, a territory 

bordering the Black Sea that Romania acquired from the 

Ottoman Empire in the late 19th century (see p. 10 of History 

and Myth). While most Muslim Romanians are ethnically Tatar 

or Turk, a few are Albanian, Roma, or recent immigrants from 

Asia or the Middle East (Photo: Constanţa’s Grand Mosque, 

built in the early 20th century by King Carol I).

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Judaism: At the end of WWII, Romania’s Jewish population 

decreased dramatically. By the 1960s, some 200,000 

Romanian Jews had settled in Israel with another 80,000 

moving to other countries. During the Ceaușescu era (see p. 

19-20 of History and Myth), the communist government allowed 

Jews to migrate to Israel in exchange for cash payments. The 

Jewish population continued to shrink throughout the 

communist era, falling to about 70,000 by 1977. Today, 

Romania’s Jewish population ranges between 9,000-15,000.

In the early 2000s, several Romanian politicians, notably 

President Iliescu (see p. 20 of History and Myth), denied the 

Holocaust had taken place in Romania. Following international 

outcry, a government commission conducted investigations. 

Among other findings, they revealed that some 40,000 claims 

for Jewish property forcefully taken before and during the war 

were still unanswered. In response, Parliament passed a law in 

2016 prioritizing Jewish property restitution claims.

Religion and the State

While the historically strong connection between the Romanian 

state and ROC continues today, the government has made 

progress toward freedom of religion, though not without some 

controversy. Although the government reinstated the GCC’s 

legal status, it has been 

slow to restore properties 

taken from that church

during the communist era. 

Further, anti-Semitic and 

anti-Islamic speech and 

incidents regularly occur.

For many, the election of 

Protestant Klaus Iohannis 

as President in 2014 

signaled a break in ROC-government collaboration. 

Nevertheless, the government still provides significant financial 

support to the ROC. The government’s role in funding 

construction of a new ROC cathedral in Bucharest has been 

especially controversial. Slated to open in 2018, the new 

Cathedral for the Salvation of the Romanian People (pictured 

on a 2015 stamp) will be the world’s tallest Orthodox church. 

RELIGION & 

SPIRITUALITY
Overview

Romanians typically have a strong sense of family and 

community. Due to economic hardships at home, some

Romanians choose to work abroad, sending large portions of 

their earnings to family members still in Romania.

Residence

Rural residences are usually larger than their urban 

counterparts but may lack modern conveniences, such as

indoor plumbing. As of 2015, 45% of Romanians live in rural 

areas.

Rural: Romanians traditionally lived on farms averaging 12 

acres or less. Early in the communist era, the government 

abolished private land ownership (see p. 17 of History and 

Myth) in an attempt to transform villages into collective farms 

called “agro-technical centers.” Despite some changes, these

efforts did not permanently transform rural housing traditions, 

and many Romanians still occupy rural farmhouses. 

A rural Romanian farmhouse normally contains 2-3 bedrooms. 

Grounds usually include a garden, orchard, and outbuildings. 

The home interior is often decorated with handmade carpets, 

paintings, and religious icons. Some houses contain 2 cooking 

areas – a winter 

kitchen in the 

farmhouse and a 

summer kitchen

elsewhere on the 

property. 

Urban: Slightly more 

than half of

Romanians live in 

urban areas. Although

some families live in older, historic houses, most urban

residents live in multi-story apartment buildings constructed

during the communist era (see p. 19 of History and Myth) 

(Photo: Apartment block in Orăştie).

4. FAMILY AND KINSHIP

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Apartments typically have 2-3 rooms, 1 often pairing as both

the living room and a bedroom. With the privatization of the

housing market following the end of communist rule, apartment 

prices in cities skyrocketed. Urban residents today still struggle 

to find affordable housing while homelessness, all but 

nonexistent during the communist era, is a growing issue. Due 

to these challenging urban conditions, many Romanians prefer

to live in newly-constructed apartment buildings in suburban 

areas.

Family Structure

Romanians typically prefer to live with or near their extended 

family. This tradition often continues in rural areas, where 3 

generations may live on the same property. While some urban 

households are limited to nuclear families (2 parents and their 

children), many families also include grown children or 3 

generations, often due to a lack of space or high housing costs. 

Traditionally, the father was the head of the household and 

primary breadwinner, though this custom has not reflected 

reality for decades. Instead, many women also work outside 

the home while maintaining responsibility for household chores 

and childrearing (see p. 1 of Sex and Gender) (Photo: Children 

dance in traditional

costumes).

Children

Since some parents work 

away from home, either in 

other Romanian 

communities or outside the 

country, their children 

sometimes live with 

relatives. Children typically live with their parents or relatives

until their education ends, or until they become financially 

independent. While children in rural areas often hold

responsibility for household tasks, urban children usually focus 

exclusively on their schoolwork. Adult children frequently 

support their parents financially, also providing care when they

are no longer self-sufficient. Romania’s government continues 

to encourage childbearing (see “Romania’s Orphans” below 

and p. 4 of Sex and Gender) to reverse the country’s negative 

population growth (see p. 1 of Political and Social Relations).

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Childhood Ceremonies

Birth

Following a child’s birth, Romanian parents appoint godparents

who typically provide significant moral and financial support to 

the child throughout his life. Around 40 days following the birth, 

a christening ceremony is held to name the baby. Traditionally, 

the godparents named babies after other family members or 

Orthodox Christian saints. Today, many new parents prefer to 

name their babies themselves, often choosing modern names. 

Baptism

The godparents also play an important role in a child’s 

Orthodox baptism, demonstrating their responsibilities as the 

child’s spiritual guides. The godparents typically carry the baby 

to church and hold him during the ceremony. The festivities 

following the ceremony may include hundreds of guests and

often last for hours.

First Birthday

A child’s first birthday is typically a festive event in which the

godparents follow a ritual called ruperea turtei or taierea 

motului. They cut a lock a hair from the back of the child’s 

Romania’s Orphans

In an effort to increase the birth rate and expand the 

workforce during the communist era, the government 

outlawed abortion and contraceptives. These policies, 

referred to as “pro-natalist policies,” resulted in many 

thousands of children ending up in underfunded 

institutions plagued with neglect and abuse. After the 

fall of the communist regime, the appalling conditions 

of Romanian orphanages provoked global outrage and 

sympathy as the new democratic government vowed 

to overhaul its services for orphans and the disabled. 

Today, many institutions have improved significantly, 

though some are still marked by overcrowding, 

substandard medical treatment, and the absence of 

appropriate psychological therapy.

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
head and then place a small piece of bread above the head 

and break it into the shape of the cross. While the specifics of 

the ritual differ slightly 

across the country, it 

generally symbolizes 

luck and prosperity

(Photo: US Marines 

play tug o' war with 

Romanian children).

Coming-of-Age

To celebrate a child’s 

18th birthday and 

passage to legal adulthood, many families host a special party

called a majorat. Festivities often continue until dawn.

Dating and Marriage

Boys and girls typically interact from a young age and may 

begin casual dating around age 14. Popular activities for young 

couples include taking walks, dancing, and going to movies or 

parties. Increasingly, Romanians rely on the Internet to meet 

potential partners. 

The legal age of marriage in Romania is 18 years, though 

some girls marry as young as 16. Most Romanians marry in 

their 20s. While unmarried cohabitation is increasingly 

common, this practice arouses mild stigma in urban areas and 

strong disapproval in rural areas. Of note, some Roma 

communities (see p. 14 of Political and Social Relations) 

practice arranged child marriage. A 2015 study estimates 25-

30% of Roma women married as minors. 

Weddings: Weddings in both rural and urban areas tend to 

include both civil services and religious ceremonies, though 

rural versions usually involve more traditional practices. In both 

areas, the civil service takes place at the local mayor's office. 

During the service, an official informs the couple of their rights 

and obligations followed by the bride and groom signing the 

required documents. 

During the religious ceremony, usually Romanian Orthodox, 

Greek Catholic, or Roman Catholic (see p. 6 of Religion and 

Spirituality), a priest sanctifies the union while the bride and 

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
groom speak their vows then exchange rings while wearing 

special wedding crowns. Ceremonies are generally followed by 

large, long-term parties that include feasting, dancing, and 

special traditions. For example, friends may pretend to kidnap 

the bride in exchange for a ransom, usually money or alcohol.

As in childhood events, godparents play a major role during 

courtship and marriage. For example, the godmother usually 

helps the bride dress before the wedding ceremony. In a 

traditional ritual, the godmother breaks bread above the bride’s 

head then gives it to the bride’s unmarried friends to eat. This 

act demonstrates that the bride’s meals will always bring luck 

to those who enjoy them.

Divorce is relatively uncommon and carries some social 

stigma. In 2013, Romania’s divorce rate of 1.4 per 1000 

inhabitants was significantly lower than the US rate of 3.6 per 

1000 people. Urban regions are generally more tolerant of the 

practice than rural regions, 

though divorced women 

generally face more negative 

consequences than divorced 

men. 

Death

Orthodox Romanians typically 

engage in 3 days of mourning 

rituals following a death. First, 

the deceased is dressed in 

clothes, sometimes having

special significance. For 

example, if the deceased was 

young and unmarried, clothing 

might include wedding attire.

Mourners typically gather in the deceased’s house, where the 

coffin is displayed. On the 3rd day, a priest reads prayers at the 

home then accompanies the coffin to a church for a funeral 

service. Afterwards, mourners accompany the coffin to a 

cemetery for burial. The family may hire professional mourners 

called bocitoare to wail during the procession to the cemetery

(Photo: A cemetery in Săpânta features colorful, painted grave 

markers).

KINSHIP

FAMILY &
Overview

Romanian society was traditionally patriarchal, whereby men 

held most power and authority. While Romanian women and 

men have equal rights before the law, women continue to face 

some barriers to full socioeconomic and political inclusion.

Gender Roles and Work

Domestic Work: Romanian women traditionally held primary 

responsibility for all household chores, childcare, and the care 

of elderly parents. Even during the communist era, the state did 

not provide childcare for youth under the age of 3, assuming 

mothers would be their caretakers. Despite an attitudinal shift 

regarding gender roles in recent years, women in the workforce 

generally remain solely responsible for most household duties. 

Labor Force: As of 2014, about 49% of Romanian women 

work outside the home, lower than the US rate of 57%. That 

same year, more Romanian 

women than men pursued

higher education (see p. 6 of 

Learning and Knowledge). 

Nevertheless, women work

mainly in jobs requiring low 

education levels. While 

relatively concentrated in

service occupations, women 

also participate in large 

numbers in agriculture and 

manufacturing. Of note, they

typically receive lower wages 

than men having comparable 

work experience and 

education. As of 2010, women 

earned 12.5% less than their 

male counterparts. Further,

women’s employment rate is 15% lower than men’s

(Illustration: Stamp featuring Romanian actress Olga 

Tudorache). 

5. SEX AND GENDER

SEX &

GENDER
Gender and the Law

Romania’s constitution guarantees equal treatment before the 

law, and legislation includes provisions related to gender 

equality. Laws support affirmative action while penalizing

harassment and discrimination and mandating equal 

opportunities across gender in diverse areas. While some 

political parties 

have gender 

quotas, the 

Parliament as a 

whole does not

(Photo: US Army 

captain checks the 

blood pressure of a 

Romanian woman). 

Women and men 

enjoy equal rights 

in marriage, divorce, and their authority over their children. In 

addition, the constitution recognizes a female head of 

household and provides equal inheritance rights to wives and 

daughters. It also guarantees equal land access and property 

rights and grants equal access to credit and loans. 

Nevertheless, gender laws are not always enforced, resulting in 

some women facing pervasive discrimination and sexual 

harassment in the workplace. The Romanian government 

provides certain resources, such as the National Council 

Combating Discrimination, to help affected women. However, 

few women make use of them, either due to fear of retaliation 

or ignorance. Similarly, the governmental Department of Equal 

Opportunities between Women and Men is underfunded and 

lacks the authority to act as an effective watchdog agency.

Gender and Politics

Women’s political participation has improved since the end of 

communist rule, though progress has been irregular. While the 

2004 government had 5 female Cabinet ministers, the next

Cabinet was entirely male. Further, women occupying Cabinet 

positions over the last 2 decades have worked primarily in 

health and education. 

SEX &

GENDER
Today, about 14% of lower house representatives and 8% of 

senators are female. This participation rate is slightly higher 

than neighboring Hungary’s and significantly lower than most

other EU countries. It is 

also lower than in the 

US, where some 20% 

of Congress members 

are female. Women’s 

participation rates are 

even lower in local 

government, where just 

1 in 42 County Council 

Presidents was female

in 2011 (Photo: US 

Marine speaks with Mircea cel Bătrân Naval Academy students 

in Constanţa).

Gender Based Violence (GBV)

In a 2004 survey, nearly 3 in 10 Romanian women reported 

abuse by a partner. While domestic violence was criminalized 

in 2000 and Romania ratified an international convention 

against GBV in 2016, society generally tolerates GBV. Further, 

many Romanians consider it a private matter: some 29% of

surveyed Romanians indicated that government should play no 

role in stopping GBV. Consequently, women in need of support

have few options. For example, Bucharest houses just 2 

battered women’s shelters, neither receiving any government 

funding. Victims are often unaware of their rights to protection 

or are reluctant to seek help. Even if GBV cases are reported, 

indictment and prosecution of perpetrators is rare. For 

example, between May 2012-January 2013, only 23% of cases 

of women seeking protection were even tried.

Trafficking: Romania is a source, transit point, and destination 

for sex and labor trafficking. The Roma (see p. 14 of Political 

and Social Relations) are particularly vulnerable to trafficking. 

Although trafficking is illegal, prostitution was decriminalized in 

2014 and is fairly commonplace. The government has made 

significant efforts to eliminate trafficking, though their efforts do 

not meet minimal international standards. While many victims 

are rescued, a lack of subsequent support services means 

nearly 2 of 3 are vulnerable to re-trafficking. 

SEX &

GENDER
Sex and Procreation

During the communist era, public displays of affection and 

discussions of sexuality were largely socially unacceptable. 

Despite some religious conservatism (see p. 6 of Religion and 

Spirituality), this attitude has changed somewhat since then. 

Passionate public displays of affection, including kissing and 

holding hands, are now common. 

Because the state outlawed contraception and abortion during 

the communist era, (see p. 3 of Family and Kinship), 

Romania’s birthrate was significantly higher than today, 

reaching a high of 3.6 children per woman in 1967. With the fall 

of communism, the contraception ban was lifted and the 

birthrate fell dramatically. Today, the rate is just 1.4 births per 

woman, well below the rate required to maintain the population 

and among the world’s lowest rates. To reverse this trend, the

government has created positive incentives, including a 

generous parental leave policy providing up to 2 years paid 

leave to the primary caregiver, regardless of gender. Of note, 

nearly 1 of 3 babies is born to an unwed mother. Along with 

contraceptives, Romania 

legalized abortion in 

1990. Today, about 46% 

of reported pregnancies 

end in abortion. 

Homosexuality

Romania decriminalized 

homosexual activity in 

2002 and recognized 

homosexuals as a 

protected class in 2006. Nevertheless, Romania does not 

recognize same-sex marriages or civil unions. Opponents 

regularly propose a constitutional amendment restricting 

marriage to heterosexual couples. Further, no major political 

parties support same-sex marriage, while many political 

leaders disparage the LGBT community. In a 2015 study, 2 of 3

Romanians agreed that homosexuals and bisexuals should not

have the same rights as heterosexuals. LGBT Romanians 

commonly experience harassment but rarely report it (Photo: 

US Embassy personnel attend a Diversity March in Bucharest). 

SEX &

GENDER
Language Overview

Romania’s official language is Romanian. Almost 95% of the 

population has some knowledge of the language, while over 

90% speaks it as a first language. 

The Romanian language originated when the region’s native 

Dacian language mixed with the Roman Empire’s Latin 

beginning in the 2nd

century AD (see p. 2 of 

History and Myth). 

Subsequent invasions 

and cultural 

exchanges introduced 

Slavic, Balkan, and 

other vocabularies to 

the developing 

language. By about 

1000 AD, the precursor to modern Romanian had developed. 

The oldest example of written Romanian is a 1521 letter

(Photo: Romanian hiking trail signs).

Despite foreign rule, rural peasants continued to speak

Romanian over the decades. Nevertheless, some members of 

the elite adopted other languages over the years, including

German, Greek, Hungarian, and Russian. At the end of the 

19th century, Transylvania’s Hungarian rulers severely 

restricted the use of Romanian (see p. 10 of History and Myth). 

Romanian became the nation’s official language following 

World War I (see p. 12 of History and Myth). Attempts to 

increase the role of the Russian language during Romania’s 

years under Soviet influence (see p. 16-20 of History and Myth) 

had little widespread effect. Today, fewer than 2% of 

Romanians speak Russian. 

Of note, written Romanian employed the Cyrillic script 

(commonly used for Slavic languages like Russian) for 

centuries until newly-independent Romania adopted the Latin 

alphabet with spellings based on Italian in 1859. 

6. LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Romanian

Romanian belongs to the Eastern Romance branch of the IndoEuropean language family. While Romanian is most similar to 

Italian and French, it also retains Latin elements not present in 

other Romance languages. Further, Romanian shares over 

10% of its vocabulary with Slavic languages, such as 

Bulgarian, Serbian, and Russian. Romanian also contains 

words from other regional languages, including Greek, 

Hungarian, and Turkish, as well as some loanwords from 

English and German. 

In spoken Romanian, 

stress may occur on any 

syllable of a word, with 

each letter pronounced 

individually and

corresponding to a 

particular sound. Some 

sounds, like those of the 

letters â and î, have no 

English equivalents. Modern written Romanian utilizes a 31-

letter alphabet that relies on diacritics to indicate a letter’s

pronunciation. For example, the Romanian “s” is identical to the 

English “s,” but “ş” sounds like “sh” (Photo: Romanian soldiers 

and US Army ROTC cadets study a terrain map). 

Standard Romanian is based on the Southern Daco-Romanian 

dialect (also known as the Muntenian dialect), which originated 

in Wallachia. Moldavia is the home of Eastern Daco-Romanian, 

while Western Daco-Romanian originated in Transylvania. 

Although these dialects vary slightly, Romanians typically can 

understand each region’s variety. 

Other Languages

Over 30% of residents speak languages other than Romanian. 

Popular 2nd and 3rd languages include English, French, 

Italian, and German. Some 10% of residents speak a language 

other than Romanian as their 1st language. Around 218,000 

(mostly Roma) people speak Romani (see p. 4 of Learning and 

Knowledge), though these numbers are likely higher (see p. 14

of Political and Social Relations). Other languages include 

Ukrainian, Turkish, and Crimean Tatar.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Hungarian: Almost 1.5 million residents (about 7% of the 

population) speak Hungarian, also known as Magyar, as a 1st

language. Romanian law mandates certain language rights for 

any minority group comprising 20% or more of a given locality. 

Although Hungarian is the dominant language in a few counties 

in eastern Transylvania, the government has been slow to 

enforce applicable laws 

and policies, creating 

tensions that persist 

today (see p. 15 of 

Political and Social 

Relations). 

English: English has 

become popular in 

Romania in the 

decades since the end 

of communism. English-language instruction begins in primary 

school and continues into secondary school, where nearly all 

students study the language (see p. 5 of Learning and 

Knowledge). English is more prevalent in urban than rural 

areas (Photo: Alabama National Guardsmen discuss tactics 

with a Romanian soldier). 

Communication Overview

Communicating effectively in Romania requires not only 

knowledge of Romanian but also the ability to interact 

effectively using language. This broad notion of competence 

includes paralanguage (rate of speech, volume, intonation), 

nonverbal communication (personal space, touch, gestures), 

and interaction management (conversation initiation, turntaking, and termination). When used properly, these forms of 

communication help to ensure that statements are interpreted 

as the speaker intends.

Communication Style

Romanian communication patterns reflect values like candor, 

community, and hospitality. Somewhat reserved when meeting 

new people, Romanians are typically direct and animated when 

conversing with colleagues, friends, and family. Generally, 

Romanians tend to be tolerant of interruptions and people

speaking simultaneously. 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Hierarchy is important in Romanian communications. Formality, 

respect, and deference to authority figures are key components

to successful communication, particularly during initial 

meetings. Romanians generally value conformity, respecting

the needs of their community over their personal preferences, a 

trait encouraged and instilled during the communist era. 

Communication patterns vary depending on age and location. 

After decades of intrusions into their personal lives and the 

prevalent threat of informants during the communist era (see p. 

18 of History and Myth), some Romanians are suspicious of 

others’ intentions. Romanians typically prefer direct 

conversation while holding little regard for privacy, though 

young Romanians may be more open than older generations. 

Romanians sometimes attempt to defuse the tension of an 

initial conversation 

through humor. 

Greetings 

Romanian greetings 

reflect social customs

regarding gender and the 

nature of the relationship. 

Youth and men often 

greet elders and women 

with the phrase Sărut-mâna (I kiss your hand), sometimes 

accompanied by the action. Less formal verbal greetings 

include bună ziua (good day) and salut (hello). Handshakes 

are more common among men than women. Friends of both

genders often kiss cheeks, although hugs are usually reserved 

for close friends and family (Photo: Romanian Army Gen Ciuca 

greets US Deputy Defense Secretary Work).

Forms of Address

Romanians use different forms of address to demonstrate 

respect and the nature of the relationship. For example, they

typically address new acquaintances with Domnul (Mr.),

Doamna (Mrs.), or other appropriate titles followed by their last 

names. Some people even combine titles, such as Domnul 

doctor (Mr. Doctor). Friends may address each other with the 

appropriate title and first name, while only family and close 

friends tend to call each other by first name alone. Of note, 

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Romanians also use a complex pronoun structure and 

corresponding verb forms to convey respect or level of 

formality with their conversation partners when speaking in 

Romanian.

Conversational Topics 

Common initial conversation topics include family, work, sports, 

and hobbies. Romanians also enjoy community gossip and 

local politics. Because they are usually direct, Romanians may 

raise topics that foreign nationals consider sensitive, such as

religion, government, or salary levels. The country’s history of 

occupation, the communist era, and relations with ethnic 

minorities such as the Roma are potentially offensive topics 

(see p. 14 of Political and Social Relations). Although vulgarity 

is common in some circles, foreign nationals should avoid 

using it. Romanians also typically appreciate any attempt by 

foreign nationals to speak Romanian.

Gestures

Romanians may use gestures and facial expressions to 

augment or replace spoken words. They tend to use similar 

gestures as Americans, such as nodding to show agreement 

and the “thumbs up” 

gesture to indicate 

agreement or a 

positive occurrence.

Romanians may 

consider pointing 

with the index finger 

impolite, preferring 

to indicate direction 

with the entire hand

(Photo: US Army 

National Guard members conduct a joint mission with 

Romanian Land Forces personnel in 2015).

Language Training Resources

Please view the Air Force Culture and Language Center 

website at http://culture.af.mil for language training resources.

Click on the Resources tab on the upper toolbar then 

Language Resources.

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Useful Words and Phrases

English Romanian

Hello / Good day Bună ziua / Salut

Good morning Bună dimineaţa

Good evening Bună seara

My name is ____

Numele meu este ____ / Ma 

cheama _____

What is your name?

Cum vă numiţi? / Cum vă

cheama?

How are you? Ce mai faceţi? / Cum vă simţiţi?

I'm fine, thanks Bine, mulţumesc

Please Vă rog

Thank you Mulţumesc

You're welcome Cu plăcere

Yes / No Da / Nu

Goodbye La revedere

Good night Noapte bună

See you later Până atunci

Excuse me Scuzaţi-mă

I am American Sunt american

Do you speak English? Vorbiţi englezeşte?

I don't understand Nu înţeleg

I’m sorry Îmi pare rău

I don't know Nu știu

I'm lost Mam rătăcit

Help! Ajutor!

Cheers! Noroc! / Sanatate!

What? Ce?

Where? Unde?

Who? Care?

How? Cum?

When? Cănd?

COMMUNICATION

LANGUAGE &
Literacy

• Total population over age 15 who can read and write: 98.8% 

• Male: 99.1% 

• Female: 98.5% (2015 estimate)

Early Education

Before the introduction of formal education, the region’s early 

residents informally transmitted values, skills, and knowledge 

to younger generations. Though short-lived, the Roman 

Empire’s incorporation of the region in the 2nd century AD (see 

p. 2 of History and Myth) resulted in changes that would shape 

modern Romania’s culture and language (see p. 2-3 of History 

and Myth). Nevertheless, formal education was slow to develop 

in the subsequent centuries. This situation began to change

during the 14th century, when Orthodox Christian monasteries

(see p. 4 of History and Myth and p. 2 of Religion and 

Spirituality) developed as hubs of intellectual life, becoming the 

first sources of education

for the region’s elites. 

In 1495, the first secular 

school opened in Brașov. 

Focusing on grammar, 

philosophy, beekeeping, 

and dance, among other 

subjects, the school 

charged an entrance fee of a bucket of wheat, a wagon of 

wood, and 3-4 calves. In the 16th-17th centuries, local rulers 

expanded higher educational offerings, founding Wallachia’s

Royal Academy of Bucharest and Moldavia’s Academia 

Vasiliană, later the University of Iași. Of note, all formal 

education during these centuries occurred in languages other 

than Romanian. With the 16th-century introduction of the 

printing press, the supply of reading materials increased, 

fostering intellectual growth and the development of written 

Romanian (see p. 1 of Language and Communication). By the 

early 19th century, higher education in Romanian became

available (see p. 8 of History and Myth) (Photo: The University 

of Bucharest in 1857).

7. LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Transformations in Education

After Moldavia and Wallachia united as Romania in the mid19th century (see p. 9 of History and Myth), Prince Cuza

introduced a centralized educational system to provide free and

compulsory public primary education in the Romanian

language. Nevertheless, implementation of the plan was 

uneven, and peasants 

largely remained 

illiterate. In subsequent 

decades, the Kingdom 

of Romania (see p. 10

of History and Myth), 

introduced further

reforms, including

professional training for 

teachers. As Romanian 

national consciousness increased, universities opened that 

provided instruction in Romanian. Scholars collected oral

folklore as Romanian literature experienced robust 

development (see p. 6 of Aesthetics and Recreation) (Photo:

Romania’s National Library).

Meanwhile, Transylvania experienced a different educational 

environment. Under the late 19th-century policy of 

Magyarization (see p. 10 of History and Myth), Transylvania’s

Hungarian rulers closed hundreds of Romanian schools, while 

mandating education in Hungarian. 

After gaining Transylvania and other territories following World 

War I, Romania became a multi-ethnic, multilingual state (see 

p. 12 of History and Myth). Consequently, it reformed education 

policies to allow Hungarian, German, and Jewish minorities to 

establish their own private schools. Further, it allowed some 

instruction in minority languages in public schools, though the 

primary instructional language remained Romanian. 

Education under Communism

When the communists took over the Romanian government 

following the end of World War II (see p. 16 of History and 

Myth), they proceeded to establish full control over all aspects 

of life, including the educational system. In 1948, the

government closed all private schools, while extending stateKNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
sponsored education to the entire country. It also installed a 

socialist educational system that promoted communist tenets of 

atheism, collectivism, and Marxist-Leninist philosophy. Fixated

on achieving industrialization (see p. 17 of History and Myth), 

the government developed curricula focused on developing a 

skilled workforce, emphasizing basic literacy and technical 

subjects. To deepen students’ national pride, dictator 

Ceaușescu (see p. 18 of History and Myth) even required 

students to perform farm work.

These efforts had both positive and negative consequences. 

Literacy rates improved considerably over the subsequent 

decades. Further, the government subsidized students 

pursuing higher education at secondary schools, trade schools, 

and universities. Nevertheless, students often had little 

freedom to choose 

their educational 

paths. In the 

1980s, for 

example, over 70% 

of students studied 

either engineering 

or agriculture. 

Further, while the 

state formally 

allowed education 

in other languages, 

discriminatory policies actually reduced instruction in prominent 

minority languages like Hungarian (Photo: High school building 

in Braşov dating to the communist era).

Modern Education System

Following the end of communism, Romania’s 1991 constitution 

confirmed the right of all Romanians to free public education. 

Today, some 97% of Romanian schoolchildren attend public 

schools. After 2 decades of educational reforms, Romanian 

high school students’ scores on international exams are still 

lower than the EU average but comparable to those of 

neighboring Bulgaria. Romania spent 8.1% of its budget on 

education in 2013, significantly lower than the EU average of 

10.3%.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
The Education of Roma

Romania’s Roma population (see p. 14 of Political 

and Social Relations) exhibits significantly lower 

educational achievement than Romanians of other 

ethnicities. According to a 2011 study, over 20% of 

Roma aged 7-15 do not attend school, while the 

majority of Roma never graduate from lower 

secondary school. The Roma’s educational 

underperformance is linked to their severe poverty, 

societal discrimination, and lack of access to 

educational opportunities. Further, the Romanian 

government does not permit use of many Roma’s 

native Romani language for instruction, even though 

there are over 200,000 speakers in the country (see 

p. 2 of Language and Communication).

Besides Romanian, the government recognizes 7 “mother 

tongues” as languages of instruction. These include Hungarian, 

German, Croatian, Turkish, Ukrainian, Slovak, and Serbian. 

While all minority groups with over 1,000 members have the 

right to receive at least some instruction in their native 

language, this policy is not always enforced (see “The 

Education of Roma” below). Recently, Hungarian activists 

protested the uneven enforcement of language laws, including 

the Romanian government’s refusal to open a Hungarianlanguage university.

Romania’s public education system faces several additional 

challenges. First, Romania’s chronic political instability (see p. 

5-7 of Political and Social Relations) impedes educational 

continuity – there have been 19 different ministers of education 

in the 26 years since the communists’ downfall. Further, 

significant disparities in educational opportunities and quality 

between rural and urban areas remain unresolved. Finally, 

teachers’ salaries are extremely low, just 1/10 the US average, 

discouraging qualified Romanians from entering the profession.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Pre-Primary: Preschool for children aged 3-6 is optional, 

although since 2012, children aged 6-7 are required to 

complete a preparatory kindergarten year before entering 1st

grade. While some facilities may include a library and offer art, 

music, and dance, many kindergartens suffer from 

underfunding (Photo: 

US Marine interacts with 

Romanian students at a 

school in Constanţa).

Basic: Consisting of 8 

grades starting at age 7, 

basic schooling is 

compulsory and 

comprises primary 

school (grades 1-4) and 

lower secondary school (grades 5-8). The curriculum generally 

includes Romanian language and literature, history, geography, 

math, science, religion, physical education, art, music, and

foreign languages. As a rule, basic schooling is highly 

standardized with little differentiation based on aptitude. In 8th 

grade, students must pass a series of national exams to 

graduate. A student’s performance on these examinations 

helps determine his further education opportunities. 

Secondary: While secondary school (grades 9-12) is optional, 

most Romanians enroll. Students may choose among a variety 

of institutions, including prestigious national “colleges,” military 

schools, and those that focus on particular subjects, such as 

economics, technical disciplines, or industrial training programs

(Photo: The US Naval 

Force Brass Ensemble 

visits a school in 

Deveselu).

Secondary students may 

choose among 3 

educational tracks. The 

theoretical track focuses 

on the humanities and 

sciences in preparation 

for university studies. By contrast, the technical track prepares 

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
students for work in technical, services, or natural resources

and environment protection careers. Finally, the vocational 

track prepares students for a skilled trade or profession, such 

as careers in sports, arts, theology, and the military. 

Post-Secondary: To pursue post-secondary academic and 

vocational education, students must graduate from secondary

school and pass certain exams. Between 1991-2008, the 

number of higher education institutions more than doubled to 

106 and the number of students more than quadrupled. As of 

2015, almost 26% of Romanians aged 30-34 held postsecondary degrees. While the country is on track to exceed its 

2020 national target, this rate remains significantly below the 

EU average of almost 

39% for this age group. 

While women 

predominate in 

education, health, and 

humanities subjects, they 

also comprise the 

majority of students 

studying science, math, 

and computing subjects. 

As of 2013, women comprised 54% of post-secondary 

students. Prominent universities include the University of 

Bucharest and Alexandru Ioan Cuza University in Iași (pictured 

in an aerial view). 

Religious Education

Romanian law allows all 18 officially recognized religious 

groups (see p. 1 of Religion and Spirituality) to use state 

subsidies to create their own educational institutions. Further, 

all 18 may hold religion classes in public schools. For over 2 

decades following the fall of communism, public school 

students were enrolled by default into Romanian Orthodox 

Christian religion classes. After a Romanian court declared this 

policy unconstitutional, Romania’s Parliament changed the law 

in 2015 so that parents must now formally request religion 

classes of any type for their children. Still, many observers 

allege that the Orthodox Church and school administrators 

continue to force students to enroll in Orthodox classes.

KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING &
Overview

Romanians believe that trust and respect are fundamental to 

building strong personal and professional relationships. They 

are typically generous and 

hospitable hosts.

Time and Work

Romania’s work week runs 

from Monday-Friday with 

most business occurring

between 9:00am-6:00pm. 

While hours vary by store 

size and location, most

shops are open weekdays from 9:00am-8:00pm and Saturdays 

from 9:00am-1:00pm. Many stores close or have reduced 

hours on Sundays, although major shopping centers are 

typically open every day, often for longer hours (Photo: A 

restaurant on a side street in Braşov).

Most banks are open Monday-Friday from 9:00am-5:00pm with 

reduced hours on Saturdays. Post offices typically open 

Monday-Friday from 7:00am-8:00pm and from 8:00am12:00pm on Saturdays. Some banks, post offices, and shops 

stay open later in urban centers than in rural areas. While most 

businesses close on public holidays, some large stores and 

supermarkets in urban 

areas remain open.

Working Conditions: The 

standard workweek is 40 

hours with up to 8 hours 

paid overtime, although 

some sectors such as 

agriculture often require

longer hours. While Romanian labor laws provide 

comprehensive regulations to protect workers, enforcement is

sporadic and violations frequently occur. In addition to paid 

public holidays, Romanians receive 21 days of annual paid

leave (Photo: A woman rakes hay).

8. TIME AND SPACE

SPACE

TIME &
Time Zone: Romania observes Eastern European Time (EET), 

which is 2 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) and 7 

hours ahead of Eastern Standard Time (EST). Romania follows 

daylight savings from the end of March-October, which makes 

Romania 3 hours ahead of GMT during that period.

Date Notation: Like the US, Romania uses the Western 

(Gregorian) calendar. Unlike Americans, Romanians write the 

day first, followed by the month and year.

Time and Business

Business tends to move slower in Romania than in the US. 

Most Romanians prefer to build trust and develop personal 

relations before doing business, which requires extra time and 

communication. While Romanians appreciate punctuality in 

business, arriving late to a meeting is typically acceptable given 

prior notification. Most business discussions occur during 

scheduled office meetings, although informal meetings in other 

locations or during meals are also common.

When meeting for the first time, Romanian businessmen greet 

and shake hands (see p. 4 of Language and Communication). 

Potential business partners typically exchange gifts such as 

wine, alcohol, or chocolates to help establish rapport. Building

National Holidays

• January 1-2: New Year’s Celebration Days

• January 24: Unification Day

• April / May: Orthodox Easter Sunday and 

Monday (dates vary each year)

• May 1: Labor Day

• May / June: Orthodox Pentecost Sunday and 

Monday (dates vary each year)

• August 15: Assumption Day

• November 30: St. Andrew’s Day

• December 1: Great Union Day / National Day

• December 25: Christmas Day

• December 26: Boxing Day

SPACE

TIME &
interpersonal relations is essential, so Romanians often begin 

and end business meetings with light conversation on topics 

such as health, family, and pastimes (see p. 5 of Language and 

Communication). To ensure trust and confidence among 

colleagues, Romanians 

may rely on personal 

favors or hire family 

members and friends

(Photo: US Army Gen

Dempsey shakes hands 

with Romanian Air Force 

Lt Gen Ştefan Dănilă). 

Romanians value 

competence and flexibility in their business relations, while 

maintaining formality, respect, and deference to authority. 

Some Romanians use vague language to avoid causing 

distress, loss of face, or public humiliation. Similarly, 

Romanians rarely make business decisions during initial 

meetings or without management’s approval. Managers 

generally deliver feedback and criticism in private in order to 

avoid conflict and embarrassment.

The presence of foreign firms and European Union regulations 

have helped align the Romanian workplace with international 

business standards. The Romanian workplace is typically 

hierarchical. Senior officials or upper management tend to run 

meetings and make most decisions with support from 

subordinate staff. Consequently, deference to age, title, and 

position remains vital in office relations. For example, only 

superiors typically use 

informal Romanian 

language forms when 

speaking to others (see 

p. 4 of Language and 

Communication). While 

not the norm, some 

businesses have begun 

to follow informal, 

consultative, and democratic decision-making styles (Photo:

US Defense Department officials attend a meeting with their 

Romanian counterparts). 

SPACE

TIME &
Personal Space

As in other societies, the use of personal space depends on 

the nature of the relationship. When conversing with strangers 

and acquaintances, Romanians typically maintain a closer

distance than Americans and very little space when conversing 

with close friends and family.

Touch

Romanians tend to engage in more conversational touching 

than Americans, especially among close friends and family. 

Same-sex friends of both genders frequently touch and 

embrace to demonstrate the close nature of their platonic 

relationships. 

Eye Contact

Direct eye contact is important during any greeting (see p. 4 of 

Language and Communication) or business meeting to convey 

interest, respect, and transparency. While constant eye contact 

is not always necessary, Romanians typically prefer to maintain 

at least periodic eye contact during conversations. 

Photographs

Banks, churches, museums, secured areas, and similar places 

may prohibit photography. Foreign nationals should always 

acquire a Romanian’s 

permission before taking his 

photo.

Driving

Some Romanians have 

aggressive driving habits, 

passing vehicles on blind 

corners at high speeds or 

ignoring traffic signals. 

Horse carts and stray dogs

are common road hazards even on major highways. At 9.5 per 

100,000 people in 2015, Romania’s rate of traffic-related 

deaths was the same as neighboring Bulgaria and the highest 

in the EU, yet still lower than the US rate of 10.6. Although

traffic enforcement has improved in recent years, it still suffers 

from corruption. For example, officials sometimes accept bribes 

instead of issuing fines. Like Americans, Romanians drive on 

the right side of the road (Photo: Morning traffic in Bucharest).

SPACE

TIME &
Overview

Traditional dress, recreation, music, and arts in Romania reflect 

rural traditions, modern global trends, and a desire to diverge

from the nation’s repressive communist past. 

Dress and Appearance

Traditional: Romanians sometimes wear traditional dress for 

special events such as festivals, and national holidays, though 

residents of rural areas may wear it more frequently. While 

styles and fabrics vary across regions, garments are made 

traditionally from flax, wool, cotton, or rough silk, and typically 

incorporate colorful embroidered patterns. Men’s coats, vests, 

jackets, and other items are traditionally made from sheepskin 

or leather. 

Women’s wear typically includes a white, wide-sleeved blouse 

decorated with bright red, black, or gold embroidery. The 

blouse is worn tucked into a long skirt, usually topped by an

apron and tied at the 

waist with a sash. Skirts 

and aprons often feature 

woven or embroidered 

bold, geometric patterns. 

On special occasions, 

women sometimes add

scarves and long silk 

veils. Married women 

typically wear a distinct, 

colorful headdress that reflects regional styles or a naframa, 

an intricately embroidered silk or cotton handkerchief (Photo: 

Romanian family in traditional garments). 

Men’s traditional wear usually includes a white blouse secured 

at the waist with a leather belt or wool sash. The blouse is 

typically accompanied by white or black narrow breeches. 

Depending on local tradition and time of year, men complete 

their traditional look with a hat made of black felt, straw, or 

lambskin along with rawhide opinchi (galoshes) or felt boots 

bound by string. 

9. AESTHETICS AND RECREATION

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Modern: Romanians attach substantial importance to their 

appearance. Although specific styles vary by age and 

geographic location, Romanians typically wear clothing that 

reflects the latest European fashion trends. Denim jeans, 

pants, t-shirts, and sport jackets are popular among younger 

Romanians. In business settings, Romanians prefer more 

formal attire, with both men and women favoring tailored suits.

Generally, older Romanians tend to dress more conservatively 

than younger generations. 

In rural areas, clothing tends to be less fashionable, with 

comfort and utility taking precedence over style. Older rural 

women commonly wrap their heads with brightly colored 

scarves. Of note, Roma women (see p. 14 of Political and 

Social Relations) often wear colorful, long skirts or traditional 

Indian-style garments and men don Turkish- or Syrian-style 

suits and pointed shoes. 

Recreation and Leisure

Romanians prefer to spend their leisure time with close friends 

and family. When going out, Romanians often socialize as a 

group of couples. Popular activities include meeting at bars and 

cafes, going to the theater or ballet, watching movies at the 

cinema, attending concerts and sports events, and dancing at 

clubs. Shopping and billiards are popular among the young. 

While groups of men may 

gather at bars or in 

casinos, women often 

socialize at home or 

outdoor cafes. 

During the summer, 

Romanians enjoy outdoor 

barbecues, taking long 

walks, and meeting 

friends in parks and

gardens (pictured). During the cold winter months, they

typically socialize indoors or play winter sports (see “Sports 

and Games” below). Favored destinations for holidays and 

vacations include the seaside or the Carpathian Mountains, 

where visitors enjoy snow sports, hiking, and mountain

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
climbing. Other Romanians prefer to spend their holidays

abroad.

Festivals: Romania holds a number of public festivals to mark

important religious, historical, and cultural events. To celebrate 

Great Union Day, which commemorates the post-World War I

union of Transylvania with Romania (see p. 12 of History and 

Myth), the capital city of Bucharest hosts a large military 

parade. During the Christian Easter holiday, communities 

observe traditional rituals and customs, such as fasting, 

attending an all-night church service, and painting, breaking, 

and eating boiled eggs (see “Arts and Handicrafts” below). 

Other festivals celebrate seasonal events, some rooted in 

ancient, pre-Christian traditions (see p. 1 of Religion and 

Spirituality). For example, 

Romanians popularly celebrate

the beginning of spring with

Mărţişor. During this festival,

they traditionally give their friends 

and loved ones a colored string 

with a hanging tassel as a sign of 

affection. To bring strength and 

good health, Romanians then 

wear the string throughout the 

month of March. On the summer 

solstice, Romanians celebrate 

Sanzienele, whereby women

gather flowers, roots, and leaves 

to chase away evil spirits and 

encourage love, luck, and wealth (Photo: Vendors sell Mărţişor

strings). 

Folk song, dance, and music festivals are popular across the 

country year-round. For example, the annual Songs of the Olt 

festival celebrates Romania’s rich history of folk music. By 

contrast, the George Enescu International Festival, held every 

3 years in Bucharest, focuses on classical music. Other notable 

festivals include the Cheese Polenta and Blues Festival, 

International Jazz Day, the Cheese and Plum Brandy Festival, 

and the Parade of Traditional Costumes, among others. 

Romanians typically celebrate festivals and holidays by 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
socializing with close friends and relatives, hosting large feasts, 

and enjoying music and dance.

Sports and Games

Sports: During colder months, Romanians enjoy various winter 

sports such as skiing, ice skating, and ice hockey. Swimming, 

cycling and hiking are popular during the summer. Romanians 

also enjoy playing basketball, rugby, and volleyball, although

football (soccer) is the most popular team sport. In addition to a 

national soccer team, most large cities have stadiums for

professional league teams. While the national team has 

enjoyed periodic international success, corruption scandals

among players, 

coaches, and owners 

cripple the sport. 

Romanian athletes have 

performed well in the 

Olympics, medaling in 

gymnastics, tennis, and 

rowing. Prominent athletes include Nadia Comaneci, who 

famously earned a perfect score for her gymnastics routine in 

the 1976 Olympics, and rising tennis star Simona Halep 

(Photo: US Marines and Romanian soldiers play soccer before 

a local crowd in Vatra Dornei).

Traditional Games: Romanians enjoy traditional games, 

especially during holidays. Resembling baseball, the traditional 

game of oina is played with a leather ball and bat. A popular 

children’s game is “the fox and the rabbits,” a type of tag where 

children hop closer toward a designated child as he attempts to 

catch them. Checkers and chess are popular among all ages. 

Music

Traditional: It is customary to perform traditional music at 

weddings, funerals, festivals, and other special occasions. 

Orally passed through generations, styles vary by region. Often 

compared to the American blues, the doina is a semiimprovised style with soulful and sometimes melancholy lyrics. 

Other folk styles include energetic dance music, ballads, and 

pastoral music. Transylvania is especially rich in folk music, 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
influenced by a unique blend of Hungarian and Romanian 

traditions. The Roma are notable folk musicians. 

Simple reed and stringed devices, horns, and flutes, are 

common traditional instruments. Popular types include the

tambal, a stringed 

instrument played with 

small mallets; the cobza, 

a short-necked lute; 

buchium, a long wooden 

instrument similar to an 

alpenhorn; and the nai, a 

panpipe. Similar to a viola 

but with only 3 strings and 

a flat bridge, the kontra is 

specific to the 

Transylvania region (Photo: A Romanian man plays the violin). 

During the communist era (see p. 16-20 of History and Myth), 

the government organized performances called “Cantarea 

Romaniei” (“Song of Romania”) to highlight the nation’s rural 

peasantry and glorify the ruling regime. Held in regional centers 

and televised nationally every week, these performances

showcased thousands of Romanians clad in traditional 

costumes performing folk songs reflecting patriotic values. 

During this era, the government limited Western-style music – 

particularly rock, pop, and jazz – instead promoting classical 

music. Most cities had at least 1 government-subsidized 

philharmonic orchestra or opera house which provided

affordable concerts to the public.

Modern: Remaining popular today, Romania’s orchestras and 

opera houses host a range of musicians performing in a variety 

of styles. For example, well-known composer George Enescu

is famous for integrating folk music into classical compositions. 

Other prominent musicians include Gheorghe Zamfir, a 

legendary folk artist, violinist Alex Bălănescu, and gypsy 

ensemble Taraf de Haidouks. In addition to local artists, 

Romanians enjoy international pop, rock, and jazz music. 

Dance

Traditional Romanian folk dances vary by region yet exhibit

certain common characteristics. Groups of dancers typically 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
perform in lines or circles, sometimes while singing or 

exclaiming loud shouts known as strigături. Dances are 

usually performed methodically and in a fixed order, from 

slowest to fastest. 

The hora is a popular dance in which participants gather in a 

circle holding each other’s shoulders and perform a series of 

repetitive steps. Also common, the ceată de feciori (men’s 

group dances) consist of an odd number of men dancing in 

unison in a variety of styles. Generally, performers do not link 

hands or arms and may combine stomping, clicking of the 

heels, leaping, and other steps into the routine. Some male 

dances incorporate sticks or swords. 

Over time, dance traditions from other European countries 

influenced and altered Romanian folk dances. Modern and 

artistic dance began to develop in the early 20th century, and 

during the communist era, classical 

ballet became an important form of 

dance. 

Literature

Prior to the 19th century, most 

folklore and folk poetry was orally 

transmitted through ballads. 

Accompanied by music, ballads 

typically related stories of love, 

hardship, and the bond between 

man and nature. Modern Romanian 

literature began to develop in the 

mid-19th century following

Romania’s adoption of the Latin 

alphabet (see p. 1 of Language and Communication) and a late 

19th-century flourishing of literature, art, and education (see p. 

11 of History and Myth). These new literary works often 

incorporated themes, language, and imagery from traditional 

Romanian ballads and folklore. For example, poet Mihai 

Eminescu (pictured) created a school of poetry that influenced 

many later Romanian authors. Eminescu used simple

language, bold metaphors and distinctive rhyme and verse 

forms to explore a range of themes such as nature, love, hate, 

and contemporary society. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Under the communist regime (see p. 16-20 of History and 

Myth), some artists were subject to censorship, while others

emigrated to Western Europe or the US to escape oppression. 

Poet, novelist, and essayist Andrei Codrescu and writer and 

film director Petru Popescu continued to have active careers 

after defecting to the US in the 1960s and 1970s. Innovative

playwright Eugène Ionesco was born in Romania though he 

spent most of his life in France. 

Following the 1989 transition from communism (see p. 20 of 

History and Myth), some Romanian artists and intellectuals 

began to focus on documentary literature, history, and 

journalism. Today, non-fiction accounts of life during and after 

the communist era are popular works. Because few works of

Romanian literature have

been translated, they

remain largely 

inaccessible to readers 

outside the country. 

Arts and Handicrafts

Like other creative works, 

Romania’s arts and crafts

often reflect Romania’s 

folklore, its peasant 

history, and rural life. Traditional handicrafts include intricate 

woodcarvings, elaborate folk costumes, woven carpets, pottery

(pictured above), and Orthodox Christian icon paintings. Folk 

art sometimes incorporates geometric or abstract designs and

stylized images of 

animals and plants. 

Egg painting (oua 

incondeiate) is 

particularly popular

during Easter time (see 

p. 2 of Time and Space). 

Painted eggs (pictured

left) feature geometric, 

abstract, or animal 

designs as well as Christian symbols. Specific styles, symbols, 

and colors vary by region. 

AESTHETICS &

RECREATION
Sustenance Overview

Romanians are very hospitable 

and enjoy entertaining family and 

friends at home. Meals are 

typically informal occasions

consisting of simple, hearty dishes 

prepared from fresh, local 

ingredients (Photo: Cookies and 

biscuits in a Bucharest market). 

Dining Customs

Romanians typically eat 3 daily 

meals and snack throughout the 

day. While lunch is traditionally the 

largest meal, dinner can also be 

substantial. In most families, women prepare the meal, set the 

table, and wash the dishes. During outdoor barbecues, men 

typically cook the meat while women prepare salads and side 

dishes.

Visits to the home are usually arranged in advance, and guests 

are expected to arrive on time. For short visits, hosts typically 

offer drinks and light snacks. When invited to a home for a 

meal, guests may bring flowers or a small gift for the hostess.

Upon entering the home, guests usually remove their shoes 

and replace them with slippers provided by the hosts. 

To begin a meal, diners say “poftă bună” (“enjoy the meal”) to 

one another. Hosts usually first serve their guests, who may 

begin eating immediately without waiting for others to be

served. After guests finish their portions, they usually must 

decline several offers of additional servings if they do not want 

more food. Of note, Romanians consider it rude to prop elbows 

on the dining table.

Alcoholic beverages are present during most meals. 

Romanians tend to toast frequently, particularly on special 

occasions. Common toasts include “noroc” (“good luck”) and 

“sanatate” (“to your health”). 

10. SUSTENANCE AND HEALTH

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Diet

Romanian cuisine varies by region 

and reflects the nation’s unique 

geography and history of foreign 

presence (see p. 1 of History and 

Myth). For example, Hungarian 

cuisine heavily influences 

Transylvanian dishes, which often 

incorporate Hungarian paprika and 

other bold spices. By contrast, 

Romanian fare in Moldavia and 

Wallachia resembles Greek and Turkish cuisine. For example, 

dishes incorporating eggplant and peppers are common, while 

desserts are often dense confections of honey and nuts. 

Romanians across the country enjoy several varieties of bread, 

usually accompanying every meal. Pork is the most popular 

protein, followed closely by beef, lamb, chicken, and fish. 

Meats are often served alongside staples like potatoes, 

cornmeal, and rice (Photo: Smoked sausages and cheese).

In addition to meat, Romanians consume a variety of native

vegetables including beans, cabbage, beets, onions, 

cucumbers, carrots, and eggplant. Grapes, apples, cherries, 

pomegranates, and oranges are popular fruits. Many dishes 

incorporate pickled and soured vegetables and dairy products 

such as milk, cheese, sour 

cream, and cottage cheese.

Generally, dishes are mildly 

seasoned and served with 

thick, fatty sauces. 

Popular Dishes and Meals

Breakfast usually consists 

of eggs, cheese, and bread

served with coffee, tea, or 

juice. In rural areas, mamaliga (thick, ground cornmeal served 

cold) is a popular breakfast item. Lunch often begins with 

ciorba, a thick soup of meat, noodles, and vegetables, 

followed by meat served with a starch and vegetables. Dinner 

tends to be smaller and might include rice, pasta, or potatoes 

served alongside meat, chicken, or fish with salad (Photo: 

Romanian men gather in a café). 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Popular entrées include mititei (sausages made from minced 

and spiced beef, pork, or lamb); tocana (a stew of chicken or 

lamb, potatoes, carrots, peppers, and beans, flavored with 

garlic and onion); a type of ciorba made from fermented wheat 

bran or, more recently, from grapes, sorrel, and lemon juice; 

and sarmale (leaves of pickled cabbage or grapevine rolled 

with minced meat, spices, and rice). Piftie (pork feet jelly) and 

caltabosi (sausages made from a pig’s liver, lungs, and heart)

are popular holiday dishes. 

For dessert, Romanians enjoy various pastries such as thin 

pancakes filled with fresh fruit or chocolate, baclava (a thick 

honey pastry made with crushed nuts), 

and chimney cake, a traditional, tubeshaped sweet bread cooked over coals 

and sprinkled with nuts and sugar.

Beverages 

Alcohol is inexpensive and widely 

available. Popular alcoholic beverages 

include tzuica (a plum brandy)

(pictured), customarily consumed 

before meals and during holidays. 

Palinca, a more potent plum brandy of 

Hungarian origin, is popular in 

Transylvania. Romania also has a rich 

history of wine production dating to the 

1st century BC. Today, both wine and beer are popular across 

the country. Romanians also enjoy coffee, typically served 

black with sugar.

Eating Out

Restaurants and bars are 

popular socializing 

locations among younger 

Romanians, couples, and 

groups of men. Serving 

primarily national and 

European cuisine, 

restaurants range from upscale establishments to small casual 

eateries offering inexpensive and hearty meals (Photo: A 

Bucharest café). 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Romanian men may gather in birt-uri (small, casual bars) 

which serve alcohol and light refreshments. Food vendors in 

urban areas sell fresh fruits, seasonal vegetables, and light 

snacks of mititei served with mustard, green peppers, French

fries, and sour pickles. Establishments do not automatically 

add a surcharge to the bill. In upscale restaurants, waiters 

expect a 10% tip for good service, while in more causal 

settings, it is acceptable to simply round up the bill.

Health Overview

Romanians’ overall health has improved considerably since the 

fall of communism. Between 1990-2015, life expectancy at birth 

increased from 70 to 75 years, while maternal mortality 

dropped significantly from 124 to 31 deaths per 100,000 live 

births. In addition, 

Romania is one of 

the EU’s leanest

nations: fewer than 

10% of adults are 

obese, a much 

lower rate than in 

the US (33%) and 

the EU average

(22%). Notably, in 

2016 Romania, 

banned smoking in public areas as a means of improving 

Communist Era Hardships

During the communist era (see p. 16-20 of History and 

Myth), the government imposed rations on basic food 

items, often resulting in massive nation-wide food 

shortages. Common staples like bread, cheese, and 

eggs were scarce, while fresh vegetables were often 

entirely unavailable. Further, meat and other “luxury” 

items were obtainable only through the black market or 

high-ranking government officials with connections to 

suppliers. For most Romanians during this time, a 

common meal consisted of a thin soup made with rice 

and flavored with chicken or pork bone. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
overall public health (Photo: US Army medics visit a children’s 

hospital in Bucharest).

Nevertheless, Romanians’ life expectancy remains below the 

EU average of 81 years. Although infant mortality (the 

proportion of infants who die before age 1) declined from 31 to 

10 deaths per 1,000 live births between 1990-2015, it remains 

significantly above the EU average of 4. Most Romanians in 

urban areas have access to free, modern healthcare facilities, 

although quality of care diminishes signficantly in rural areas. 

Finally, heavy pollution resulting from unchecked and harmful 

industrial processes severely impacts residents’ health in some 

cities (see “Europe’s Most Polluted City” below). 

Traditional Medicine

Traditional medicine consists of the knowledge, practices, and

skills derived from a native population’s beliefs, experiences, 

and theories. Traditional Romanian medicine centers on the 

use of home remedies, often concocted by female healers. 

Most towns have a plafar (natural pharmacy) selling medicinal 

plants, herbal 

remedies, honey, 

beeswax, and other 

bee-derived products.

In addition to herbal 

treatments, some 

Romanians practice 

apitherapy, which 

uses products derived 

from bees to heal a 

variety of afflictions. 

For example, bee venom is used to treat multiple sclerosis and 

pollen for indigestion. Other patients prefer homeopathy, a form 

of alternative medicine developed in 18th century Germany. 

Administered orally, treatments consist of diluted plant, mineral, 

and animal substances to trigger the body’s natural system of 

healing. Some Romanians use other traditional remedies to 

neutralize curses or other magical afflictions, which they view

as the potential causes of ill health. For example, Romanians 

may use wormwood (pictured), monkshood, and garlic to ward 

off harmful spirits. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Modern Healthcare System

The Ministry of Health oversees and regulates Romania’s 

healthcare system, providing free universal healthcare for all 

residents through the compulsory National Health Insurance 

Fund (NHIF). The NHIF covers most medical services and 

procedures, from preventive care, specialist treatments, and 

dentistry to emergency care, prescription medicine, maternal 

care, and rehabilitation (Photo: Employees at a factory in 

Bucharest practice safety 

procedures).

In 2010, Romania had 425 

hospitals. While rural 

medical facilities provide 

basic and emergency care, 

municipal and district ones

provide a full range of

services such as

specialized disciplines like oncology and neurosurgery. Private 

clinics offer exceptional care to the wealthy. Some urban 

physicians make house calls, while rural doctors typically 

administer care throughout an entire region. 

Healthcare Challenges: Romania’s healthcare system suffers 

from insufficient funding. Many urban hospitals are dilapidated 

and overcrowded, while rural facilities are ill-equipped and 

understaffed. In addition, corruption permeates the industry. 

Bribery is commonplace, both by doctors hoping to secure jobs 

and by patients wishing to receive preferential treatment. 

Although most medical 

procedures are free under 

the NHIF, Romanians

must pay out-of-pocket for 

some services like lab 

tests and X-rays.

According to a 2012 

report, 10% of Romanians 

delayed or abstained from 

primary care visits to 

avoid costs not covered by the NHIF (Photo: US Army combat 

medics visit medical staff in Bucharest). 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH
Low wages force some Romanian physicians to seek 

employment elsewhere in Europe. Between 2011-2013, the 

number of doctors working in Romanian hospitals declined by

1/3. As of 2014, Romania had just 54 physicians trained in 

geriatrics and 70 cardiovascular specialists nationwide. 

Besides the challenges posed by this shortage of medical 

personnel, Romania’s healthcare services must also adapt to 

an aging population: experts predict that over 30% of 

Romanian citizens will be aged 65 or older by 2030. 

Health Challenges

As in other countries with aging populations, noncommunicable diseases such as cardiovascular illnesses, 

malignant tumors, stroke, and liver disease account for over 

90% of deaths. Respiratory diseases associated with smoking 

and air pollution are also common. In addition, Romania has

the highest number of drug-resistant tuberculosis cases in the 

EU. Significantly, Roma (see p. 15 of Political and Social 

Relations) experience higher rates of chronic disease and have 

an average life expectancy 6 years less than the national 

average. Further, more than 40% of Roma report they regularly 

forgo medical treatment due to cost. Preventable “external 

causes” such as accidents, suicides, and drug use result in 

about 4% of all deaths. 

SUSTENANCE

& HEALTH

 Europe’s Most Polluted City

Once known as Europe’s most polluted city, the

Romanian city of Copsa Mica was home to 2 factories 

that for over 60 years contaminated city air, water, and 

soil. Toxic industrial discharge left buildings, 

vegetation, and animals blackened with soot, while

poisoning the water and soil with zinc, lead, and other 

chemicals. Despite clean-up efforts, some residents 

today continue to suffer from lead poisoning, asthma, 

bronchitis, stunted growth, birth defects, and other 

medical issues. Astoundingly, the average life 

expectancy of Copsa Mica residents remains 9 years 

less than the Romanian average.
Overview

For centuries, most Romanians subsisted as peasants in an 

agrarian and trade-based economy primarily controlled by 

Germans, Hungarians, Turks, or other non-Romanian residents 

(see p. 4 of History and Myth). Other Romanians toiled as 

herders or traders. Despite decades of significant investment in 

the manufacturing and oil industries during the late 19th

century, independent Romania remained primarily agrarian 

through the end of World War II.

From 1948-89, Romania followed economic policies prioritizing

heavy industrialization and farm collectivization modeled on the 

centrally planned Soviet system (see p. 17 of History and 

Myth). As a result, industry grew from contributing 35% of GDP 

in 1938 to over 68% in 1986. The economy expanded and 

living conditions initially improved in the 1960s and early 

1970s. Nevertheless, the communist regime’s corruption, 

inefficient policies, and underinvestment resulted in gradual 

economic decline. By the mid-1980s, shortages of food and 

household items became

widespread, resulting in 

rationing (Photo: An old 

beer factory in Turda).

Following the 1989 collapse 

of communism (see p. 19-

20 of History and Myth), 

Romania’s transition to a 

liberal free-market economy 

was difficult. Using the West 

as an economic model, 

Romania sought to reform 

its economy by privatizing land and state-owned companies, 

curbing price controls, and opening the Bucharest Stock 

Exchange to entice foreign direct investment (FDI). Despite 

these efforts, the economy shrank during much of the 1990s

due to financial instability, skyrocketing inflation, rampant 

unemployment, and low FDI. 

11. ECONOMICS AND RESOURCES

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
By around 2000, the economy began to recover: inflation and 

unemployment steadily declined, more enterprises were 

privatized, and FDI increased. Despite some structural issues 

and persistent corruption, Romania began to modernize its 

industrial sector. It also

strengthened its financial 

and services sectors and 

introduced a new currency

(pictured) in 2005. Having 

established some 

economic stability, 

Romania joined the 

European Union (EU) in 

2007, facilitating further economic expansion. With average 

annual real growth of nearly 8% from 2002-08, Romania’s 

economy quadrupled in size.

The global financial crisis of 2008-09 hit Romania hard. 

Budget, banking, and inflation concerns forced Romania to 

accept over $25 billion in multilateral financial assistance, 

stipulating certain fiscal austerity measures and public sector 

reforms. From 2009-10, the Romanian economy shrank by 

over 7% as unemployment rose above 8%. Nevertheless, 

successful reform implementation and new investments 

enabled Romania to slowly return to growth in 2011.

Romania’s current economic outlook is largely positive. By 

2015, the economy was growing at a healthy 4%, and experts 

project annual growth through 2020 to be among the EU’s 

highest. Romania currently has low inflation, rising wages, and

unemployment below 7%. As investments and domestic 

demand have increased, Romania’s financial and economic 

stability make it better prepared to handle economic shocks. 

Although Romania has successfully transitioned to a modern

free-market economy, it has the EU’s 2nd lowest per capita 

income. Other challenges include persistent corruption, net 

emigration, rising debt, poor infrastructure, and the socioeconomic exclusion of the Roma population (see p. 15 of 

Political and Social Relations). For example, the unemployment 

rate among Roma is over 48%. Further, around 54% of Roma

suffer “absolute” poverty, meaning they lack 1 or more basic 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
human needs, such as food, safe drinking water, sanitation 

facilities, shelter, and education, compared to about 13% 

among non-Roma. 

Services

Accounting for about 54% of GDP and 43% of employment, the 

services sector is the largest and fastest-growing segment of 

Romania’s economy. Significant sub-sectors include wholesale 

and retail trade, transportation and storage, banking and 

financial services, public administration, and tourism.

Tourism: Despite steady growth in recent years, Romania’s 

tourism market remains one of Europe’s smallest. In 2015,

Romania hosted just over 2 million tourists. Key attractions 

include the Bran Castle (pictured, the mythical home of 

Dracula—see p. 5 of History and Myth); Bucharest’s historical 

center; health spas near 

Transylvanian salt lakes 

and the Black Sea; and 

winter sports areas in the

Carpathian Mountains. 

Most tourists come from 

Hungary, Bulgaria, Italy, 

Germany, and Poland.

Industry

As the 2nd largest component of the economy, the industrial 

sector accounts for about 41% of GDP and 29% of the labor 

force. The most significant sub-sectors include manufacturing, 

oil and gas production, construction, and mining. 

Manufacturing: Accounting for nearly 21% of GDP, Romania’s 

manufacturing sector consists of metalworking, electronics, 

auto assembly, light machinery, textiles, and chemical 

processing.

Oil and Gas: Romania is one of Central and Eastern Europe’s

largest oil and gas producers, with a significant capacity for oil 

refining. In 1857, Romania became one of the 1st countries to 

establish an oil industry. Today, majority Austrian-owned OMV 

Petrom is Romania’s largest corporation and southeastern 

Europe’s largest oil and gas producer. In 2014, the oil and gas 

industry employed about 25,000 people, while refined 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
petroleum exports were worth over $3.3 billion. 

Construction: Construction accounts for nearly 9% of GDP 

and provides over 600,000 jobs. The $20 billion industry has 

been a catalyst to economic recovery, with projections of 

continuing annual growth of almost 4.5% through 2020.

Mining: Roșia Montană in Transylvania is Europe’s largest 

gold mine, potentially worth about $20 billion. Since 2013, 

protests citing environmental concerns have prevented a 

Canadian firm from developing the mine. Romania also has 

large deposits of coal, iron, copper, and salt.

Agriculture

The agricultural sector, including farming, livestock, fishing, and 

forestry, is the smallest component of the Romanian economy, 

accounting for about 5% of GDP and 28% of the labor force.

Farming and Livestock: About 33% of Romania’s land area is

dedicated to cultivation. Primarily due to a rejection of 

communist-era collectivization (see p. 17 of History and Myth), 

the average farm size is 

among Europe’s smallest. 

Few Romanian farmers 

have adopted modern

technologies or techniques, 

resulting in low productivity. 

Major crops include grains, 

corn, potatoes, legumes, 

sugar beets, vegetables, 

and grapes. Romania’s thriving wine industry is now Europe’s

6th largest. Sheep (pictured), pigs, cows, and poultry are the 

most common livestock. 

Fishing: In 2014, the relatively small Romanian fishing industry 

consisted of around 160 small seafaring vessels harvesting

about 2,000 tons of sprat, turbot, shark, and whelk. Romania’s 

commercial aquaculture and inland fishing sectors employed 

over 5,000 people who harvested and processed nearly 13,000 

tons of carp, shad, perch, goldfish, and bream.

Forestry: With over 30% of its territory covered by woodlands, 

Romania has a highly-developed forestry industry. Furniture, 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
timber, paper, and other wood products account for around 3% 

of GDP. While about 50% of Romanian forests are under state 

protection, commercial yields include oak, beech, and fir trees. 

Currency

The New Romanian Leu (lei), Romania’s currency since 2005, 

is issued in 7 banknote values (1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 200, 500). A 

leu subdivides into ban (cents), issued in 4 coin values (1, 5, 

10, 50). With exchange rate fluctuations, $1 has been worth 

between lei3.50-lei4.15 in recent years. Some businesses 

accept credit cards, although some smaller vendors only 

accept cash in small denominations.

Foreign Trade

Romania’s exports, which totaled $55 billion in 2015, primarily 

consisted of machinery and equipment, manufactured goods, 

agricultural products, foodstuffs, metal products, chemicals, 

minerals and fuels, and raw materials. Primary export partners 

were Germany (20%), Italy (13%), France (7%), Hungary (5%), 

and the UK (4%). In the same year, Romania imported $63 

billion in similar products from Germany (20%), Italy (11%), 

Hungary (8%), France (6%), 

and Poland (5%). 

European Union (EU)

EU membership (see p. 10-11

of Political and Social 

Relations) provides a large 

common market, a secure 

business environment, and 

easier access to FDI. In 2016, about 75% of Romanian trade 

was with EU countries. Disadvantages to EU membership 

include restrictions on the flow of some goods and services and 

easier emigration of Romanians to other EU countries, thereby 

reducing Romania’s labor force (Photo: US Ambassador 

Klemm and President Iohannis greet). 

Foreign Aid

The EU has granted Romania about €6 billion per year for

regional development and structural assistance. In early 2016, 

the US pledged $3.4 billion in military support for Eastern 

Europe in response to recent Russian military aggression (see 

p. 13 of Political and Social Relations). 

ECONOMICS & 

RESOURCES
Overview

Romania’s pervasive corruption and limited investment have 

resulted in some of Europe’s most underdeveloped physical 

infrastructure. Romanians generally enjoy free speech and 

media, unrestricted Internet access, and a rapidly developing 

telecommunications 

network.

Transportation

While the percentage of 

Romanian families using a 

privately-owned vehicle 

(POV) has risen steeply in 

recent years, car 

ownership is well below the European Union (EU) average. 

Many Romanians travel by bus, taxi, train, maxitaxi (minibus),

oxcart (pictured), bicycle, or foot. Bucharest has an extensive 

transport system, primarily trams and a 4-line underground 

metro. Most cities have efficient public transit systems that run 

daily from 5:00am-11:00pm. Travel between cities is fastest by 

POV or plane, as trains and buses typically make many stops. 

Despite its potential to become a trade and transport hub, 

Romania ranks worst in the EU for transport infrastructure. While 

Romania and the EU have invested heavily in dozens of large

infrastructure projects, progress is often slow with several

projects still incomplete. The EU and Romania plan to invest an 

additional €11.8 billion from 2014-20 to improve existing 

infrastructure, develop sustainable urban transport, and 

increase energy efficiency.

Roadways: In 2014, Romania had over 53,000 mi of roads, with 

about 59% paved. With many roads deteriorating or under 

construction, Romania has some of the world’s worst road

conditions, ranking 121st out of 144 countries for road quality in 

2015. The A2 “Sun Motorway” is the only highway that connects 

major cities (Bucharest and Constanţa). Underinvestment and 

corruption have significantly delayed the construction of other

planned highways. 

12. TECHNOLOGY AND MATERIAL

TECHNOLOGY

& MATERIAL
Railways: Romania has over 7,000 mi of railways that connect 

its cities and towns with the rest of Europe. While Romania’s

extensive rail network serves many small towns, some 54% of

routes transport 90% of traffic. The state carrier Căile Ferate 

Române (Romanian Railways) transports most passengers and 

freight. Due to a severe lack of maintenance and investment, 

much of the network is in disrepair, causing trains to travel 

slowly. Between 1990-2012, passenger and freight volume 

decreased by 85% and 71% respectively. 

Ports and Waterways: Romania has nearly 1,100 mi of inland 

waterways, primarily along the Danube River. Tulcea, Galaţi, 

Brăila, and Giurgiu are principal river ports, while Constanţa is 

Romania’s largest Black Sea port.

Airways: Romania has 43 airports, 26 with paved runways. The 

largest, Bucharest’s Henri Coandă International Airport (widely 

known as Otopeni), served over 9.2 million passengers in 2015. 

While TAROM is Romania’s national flag carrier, low-cost carrier 

Blue Air now has a larger fleet and market share. These and 

other global carriers, especially Hungary’s Wizz Air, connect 

Romania to a wide range of international destinations. 

Energy 

Romania has a rich and 

diversified mix of energy

resources. Significantly, 

renewable energy

accounted for over 24% 

of its total energy 

consumption in 2014.

Hydroelectric plants generate around 30% of electricity 

production, while nuclear energy accounts for about 19%. Other 

renewable sources, such as wind, supply over 10% of electricity, 

and large coal and lignite reserves account for the remaining 

40% (Photo: The Iron Gate Hydroelectric Power Station on the 

Danube River).

Romania’s large oil and natural gas reserves accounted for 40% 

and 85% of its total oil and gas consumption in 2015. 

Nevertheless, at current consumption rates, Romania’s oil and 

gas reserves will be depleted by 2040. To fulfill its residual 

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energy requirements, Romania imports additional oil, gas, and 

coal primarily from Russia and the Middle East. 

Media

Romania’s constitution protects freedom of speech and media

although it prohibits insults to the country. While censorship is 

rare, political interference or interruption of service sometimes 

occurs because just a few firms control most media outlets. 

Print Media: The Romanian press includes hundreds of local 

and national periodicals that comprise southeastern Europe’s

most vibrant media market. Publications in Romanian, English, 

Hungarian, and German are most common. România liberă, 

Evenimentul zilei, and Libertatea are the most popular national 

newspapers. While Krónika has the highest circulation of any 

Hungarian-language paper, Nine O’Clock is a popular Englishlanguage daily.

Radio and TV: The public Romanian Television (TVR) network 

broadcasts popular radio and TV programs. TV is Romanians’ 

preferred media form. Households are able to subscribe to 

cable, satellite, or Internet services that provide international 

content in Romanian, English, and other languages.

Telecommunications

While Romania has an increasingly extensive and modern

telecommunications network, it is 

largely underdeveloped by EU 

standards. In 2015, Romania had 

about 20 landline and 107 mobile 

phone subscriptions per 100 people. 

Internet: Romania has the EU’s 

lowest-quality Internet services. 

Romania’s fixed broadband network 

reaches around 89% of households, 

compared to the EU average of 97%. 

Only about 52% of Romanians are 

regular Internet users and nearly 32% 

have never used the Internet, 

compared to EU averages of 76% and 

16% respectively. The government offers few online public 

services (Photo: Electric wires in Cluj-Napoca).

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