Discover Your World with NOAA

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NAT OI NAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRAT OI N

From the edge of space to the bottom of the ocean...

Tate Nation

An Activity Book
The Discover Your World with NOAA Activity Book was compiled and developed 

for NOAA’s Celebration of 200 years of Science, Service, and Stewardship 

under the direction of the

NOAA Celebration Education Working Group

Nadia Sbeih – NOAA Ocean Service (Co-chair)

Molly Harrison – NOAA Fisheries (Co-chair)

Karrie Carnes – NOAA Ocean Service

Kim Cohen - NOAA Ocean Service

Margaret Fowke – NOAA Weather

Ron Gird – NOAA Weather

Sami Grimes – NOAA Research

Jennifer Hammond – NOAA Marine and Aviation Operations

Jorgeann Hiebert – NOAA Research

Nina Jackson – NOAA Satellites

Jamie Krauk – NOAA Research

Elizabeth McMahon - NOAA Marine and Aviation Operations

Amy Painter – NOAA Research

Krista Trono – NOAA Ocean Service

Written and Edited by Mel Goodwin, The Harmony Project, Charleston, SC

Design and Layout by Sandy Goodwin, Coastal Images Graphic Design, Mount Pleasant, SC

Cover Painting by Tate Nation, Mount Pleasant, SC, ©2007 

Illustrations by Paul Rossmann, Charleston, SC

The assistance and expertise of the following reviewers is acknowledged with thanks:

Holly Bamford, Alissa Barron, George Cathcart, Ashley Chappel, Teresa Christopher, Cindy Craig, Carmella Davis Watkins, Tim Eichler, Liz Fairey, Megan Forbes, 

Liza Johnson, Deborah Jones, Barbara Hess, Shawna Karlson, Paula Keener-Chavis, Scott Kiser, Marina Kline, Jeanne Kouhestani, George Leigh, 

Julia Loy, Bruce Moravchik, Carey Morishiqe, Craig Nelson, Gregg Parent, Aria Remondi, Ann Reiser, Barry Reichenbaugh, 

Brent Rudman, Barbara Schroeder, George Sharman, John Simensky, Peg Steffan, and Katarina Trojnar

For more information on NOAA’s history and timeline, check out the celebration Web site, 

http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/

For more information on NOAA’s educational offerings, please visit our Web site, 

www.noaa.gov
Discover Your World with NOAA

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NAT OI NAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRAT OI N

An Activity Book

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

Science | Service | Stewardship Introduction

iii

Table of Contents

Introduction

Discover Your World with NOAA................... 1

NOAA’s Building Blocks..................................... 2

Explore the Earth

Introduction....................................................... 8

Boat Building Challenge .................................. 9

Make Your Own Astrolabe ...........................12

Make Your Own Compass............................16

Tied Up in Knots............................................18

Who’s Blue Peter?..........................................22

The Water Writers ........................................25

Nautical Chart Challenge .............................28

Build an Underwater Robot ........................34

Earth Origami..................................................37

Make Your Own Volcano!..............................40

Do You Have Twisted Vision?........................43

Be A Shipwreck Detective............................47

Weird, Red and Slightly Gross!....................51

Understand the Earth

Introduction....................................................... 55

Follow That Hurricane! ...................................56

Build Your Own Weather Station..................61

Build a Weather Vane ...................................64

Build a Barometer ........................................66

Build a Screened Thermometer ................67

Build a Hygrometer......................................67

Build a Rain Guage .......................................69

Be a Citizen Weather Reporter....................70

Tornado in a Bottle..........................................73

Be a Tree Ring Detective ................................78

Your Own El Niño ...........................................81

Please Pass the Salt..........................................83

Satellite Communications...............................86

Wooly Magma ................................................... 89

Survey Mark Hunting.......................................93

Protect the Earth

Introduction....................................................... 97

Ocean Diversity Challenge ............................98

Motion from the Ocean................................108

The Ocean Drugstore...................................114

Who Trashed the Ocean?.............................117

It All Runs Downhill.......................................120

Toxic! Or Is It? ................................................122

Invasive Species Super Sleuth ......................124

Your Alien Dodecahedron............................125

Endangered Species Origami .......................132

Is Our Climate Changing? ............................137

Where Will the Polar Bears Go?................139

Following the Ocean Unicorn .....................145

Make an Edible Coral Reef...........................150

Now THAT’s Complex! ................................155

Fixing Our Earth.............................................158

SCIENCE Service STEWARDSHIP

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

Science | Service | Stewardship Introduction



All in a day’s work for the people of 

NOAA as they put science, technology, 

and engineering to work for you. 

Every day, NOAA helps people with 

local weather forecasts, tornado 

warnings, oil spill cleanup, high 

quality seafood, navigation tools, 

and many other services. NOAA is also 

a leader in ocean exploration and 

environmental sciences, finding out 

more about the Earth and how to use 

and protect our planet’s resources.

NOAA’s motto is “Science, Service, 

Stewardship.” Putting that motto 

into action leads the people of 

NOAA from the edge of space to the 

bottom of the ocean. These activities 

are designed to help you learn more 

about our world, and how NOAA 

helps you to explore, understand, 

and protect our Earth. 

Have fun!

Courtesy NESDIS

Discover Your World with NOAA

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration



Flying into the eye of a hurricane

Rescuing killer whales, sea lions, and dolphins 

Watching the Earth from 22,000 miles above the ground 

Diving into submarine canyons that could swallow Mt. Everest

Restoring marshes, wetlands, reefs, and other marine habitats

Saving lives threatened by tsunamis, tornadoes, 

and killer storms

Courtesy NWS

Courtesy OMAO

Courtesy NOS Courtesy OAR

From the edge of space to the bottom of the ocean...

From the edge of space to the bottom of the ocean...

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

NAT OI NAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRAT OI N

Courtesy Todd Marsee, Michigan Sea Grant

Courtesy Robert Schwemmer, Channel Is. National Marine Sanctuary
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA



New Hurricane Hunter Aircraft

El Nino Makes a Comeback...

Trapped Whale Rescued

Lionfish Invade U.S. Waters

Satellites Relay Distress Calls

Astronauts Test Moon Exploration 

Concepts on Seafloor

Expedition Explores Underwater Wreck 

of Historic Naval Airship

NOAA’s

Building BLocks

Do you know what NOAA does? 

Play this game and find out!

Deadly Heat Wave 

Reaches East Coast Courtesy NWS

Courtesy NOAA

Courtesy Paula Whitfield, NOAA

Courtesy NESDIS

Courtesy NWS

Courtesy NMFS

Courtesy NWS

Courtesy NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

Science | Service | Stewardship Introduction



What You Will Need

r Jenga® or Uno Stacko® game

r Two sets of “NOAA’s Building Blocks Game 

Cards” – Make two copies of the “NOAA’s 

Building Blocks Game Cards” page and cut 

the cards out. The cards will last longer 

if you photocopy them onto heavy paper 

called “card stock” or “cover stock.” It will 

be easier to tell the difference between 

“Problems” and “Solutions” if you use one 

color of paper for “Problems” and another 

color for “Solutions.”

How to Play the Game

1. Follow the instructions that come with the 

game. If you are playing with one or more 

other people, divide into two teams. Each 

team gets 24 blocks, and stacks these into 

eight layers of three blocks per layer. Each 

layer should be at right angles to the layer 

below. Shuffle the Game Cards, and place a 

set of the Cards in front of each team.

2. One team at a time draws a card from 

the top of the Game Card pile. There are 

“Problem” cards and “Solution” cards. 

For every “Problem” there is a “Solution” 

somewhere in the pile of Game Cards. 

If you draw a “Solution” card, read the card 

aloud and then:

(a) Keep the card until you need it to 

solve a “Problem;” OR

(b) Remove one block from the top of your 

team’s stack, and place the card in a 

discard pile separate from the Game 

Card pile.

If you draw a “Problem” card, read the card 

aloud and then:

(a) Remove one block from any layer of the 

stack except the top layer, and stack it 

on top of the stack; OR

(b) Solve the Problem by reading a 

“Solution” card that your team has 

drawn and saved previously.

When you have finished (a) or (b), place 

the card in a discard pile separate from the 

Game Card pile.

Players may use only ONE hand when 

removing and stacking blocks! Blocks that 

are stacked on top of the pile should be at 

right angles to the layer below. If more than 

one person is on each team, team members 

should take turns drawing cards and moving 

blocks. If you run out of Game Cards, shuffle 

the cards in the discard pile and use these as 

a new stack of Game Cards.

3. Continue playing until one team’s stack 

falls, or one team has removed all of their 

blocks from the stack. If your team is 

first to remove all of the blocks from your 

stack—you win! If your stack is the first to 

fall—you lose!

NOAA’s 

Building BLocks

What You Will Do

Play a game using blocks from 

Jenga® or Uno Stacko®. You can 

play this game by yourself, or 

with as many as eight players


Problem 1

You are driving from St. Louis, 

MO to Boise, ID, and need to 

know what the weather is likely 

to be along the way.

Problem 2

You are travelling through 

the midwest and want to 

see whether severe weather 

is expected during the next 

three days.

Problem 3

You just heard on the radio 

that an earthquake has been 

reported off the coast of Peru 

with a magnitude of 6.6 on 

the Richter scale. Is this likely 

to cause a tsunami on the U.S. 

Pacific coast?

Problem 5

More than 90 percent of the 

goods imported into the United 

States arrive via the oceans. 

How can ship captains obtain 

information to help them avoid 

dangerous sea conditions?

Problem 6

Over 77 million Americans 

enjoy recreational boating. 

How can these boaters keep 

track of weather that may 

affect them?

Problem 7

You just felt the earth shake! 

How can you find out if this 

is a minor tremor or a serious 

emergency?

Problem 4

 Every day, hundreds of 

private and commercial 

aircraft are in the air over 

the United States. How can 

pilots check on weather 

conditions that may affect 

the safety of their flights?

Problem 9

Intense bursts of electromagnetic radiation from the sun called 

“solar flares” can disrupt cell 

phones and GPS systems. Is there 

any way to predict when solar 

flares may happen?

Problem 10

Lightning is the second most 

frequent cause of weatherrelated deaths in the United 

States (floods are number 

one). How can you find out 

about lightning safety?

Problem 11

You are planning a boat trip 

through the Florida Keys. 

Where can you find out about 

nautical charts and other 

boating information for this 

area?

Problem 8

A railroad tank car is 

leaking chlorine gas. What 

system is in place to provide 

emergency information to 

the public?

Problem 13

You live near a marina, and 

are concerned about what 

should be done in case of an oil 

spill. Where can you get this 

information?

Problem 14 

You live near a salt marsh 

that used to be used as a local 

dump for construction debris. 

Now you and your friends 

would like to clean it up and 

restore it as a wildlife habitat? 

Who knows how to do this?

Problem 15

A ship captain entering Chesapeake Bay needs up-to-the-minute information on currents, 

tides, and water levels to be 

sure he can navigate beneath 

several bridges. Where can he 

get this information?

Problem 12

You are planning a SCUBA 

diving trip to photograph 

coral reefs with some 

friends, and want to be sure 

everyone knows how to plan 

dives and what to do in case 

of emergencies. Who has 

this information?

Photocopy this page 

and cut out the cards 

along the lines.
Problem 16

You are looking for a poster 

that shows all of Earth’s 

mountains and valleys, 

including those in the ocean. 

Where could you look?

Problem 17

You are doing a report on 

coral reefs, and need some 

great pictures of reef animals. 

Where can you find them?

Problem 18

Our nation’s coasts are being 

developed at a rapid rate. 

What can be done to protect 

special coastal areas that contain unusual marine life and 

important historical resources 

like shipwrecks?

Problem 20

In the days following Hurricane 

Katrina,rescuers desperately 

needed before-and-after aerial 

images that covered coastal areas 

affected by the storm. Who has 

these kinds of images?

Problem 21

Man Overboard! A sailor has 

fallen overboard, but no one 

noticed when the accident happened. The Coast Guard has been 

called, but how can they find him 

in hundreds of square miles of 

ocean?

Problem 22

You have just found an injured whale that seems to be 

stuck in shallow water. Who 

can you call?

Problem 19

The deep ocean contains new 

species that may provide solutions to problems such as 

energy and human disease. 

Yet, most oceans are still 

unexplored. What organization is dedicated to ocean 

exploration?

Problem 24

Many marine turtles are 

threatened by accidental capture and drowning in fishing 

gear, boat collisions, and damage to coastal beaches where 

they nest. What can be done to 

protect sea turtles?

Problem 25

Living marine resources provide 

food, employment, and recreation, 

but are threatened by overuse, 

coastal development, pollution, and 

natural disasters. How can we protect living marine resources and 

still enjoy benefits they provide?

Problem 26

You have heard that temperature changes in the Pacific 

Ocean called El Nino can have 

serious effects on your local 

weather. Where can you find 

out whether these changes are 

happening right now, or are 

expected later this year?

Problem 23

More people want to eat 

seafood, but overfishing is 

a serious problem and over 

70% of our seafood is imported. How can we increase 

our domestic seafood supply 

and still protect our seafood 

resources?

Problem 28

How can you find out how global 

climate change is likely to affect 

marine ecosystems such as coral 

reefs?

Problem 29

Hurricane Hunters fly into the 

middle of storms to provide 

information for forecasts that 

save thousands of lives. Who has 

the planes and pilots to do this 

dangerous work?

Problem 30

Your science teacher is 

fascinated by marine biology and ocean research, and 

wants to get first-hand experience with scientific research 

at sea. How can she do that?

Problem 27

You have heard that Earth’s 

climate is changing. How can 

you find out whether temperatures in the U.S. have been 

above or below normal during 

the last few years?

Photocopy this page 

and cut out the cards 

along the lines.
Solution 2

The National Weather Service 

Storm Prediction Center shows 

active storm systems over 

the 48 states, and provides 

detailed discussions of severe 

weather events at 

http://www.spc.noaa.gov/

Solution 3

NOAA’s Pacific Tsunami Warning 

Center and West Coast / Alaska 

Tsunami Warning Center provide 

tsunami warnings and information at

Solution 4

NOAA’s National Weather 

Service’s Aviation Digital Data 

Service provides forecasts, 

analyses, and observations of 

weather conditions that may 

affect safe aviation. 

Solution 6

The National Weather 

Service’s Marine and Coastal 

Weather Services Branch 

provides information on 

conditions on coastal waters, 

Great Lakes, and open oceans. 

Solution 8

 NOAA Weather Radio broadcasts weather forecasts, as 

well as emergency information 

about natural hazards, environmental hazards, and public 

safety (such as AMBER alerts). 

Solution 9

The National Weather Service 

Space Environment Center 

forecasts space weather caused 

by activity on the sun, such as 

solar flares.

http://www.sec.noaa.gov

Solution 10

NOAA’s Lightning Safety Web 

page has handouts, safety tips, 

medical facts, survivor stories, 

photos, and much more at 

Solution 11

NOAA’s Office of Coast Survey 

provides nautical charts and 

other navigational products 

needed to safely operate marine 

vessels.

Solution 12

The NOAA Dive Manual is an 

encyclopedia of diving which 

includes information about 

dive planning, operations, and 

emergencies.

http://www.dive.noaa.gov

Solution 13

NOAA’s Office of Response 

and Restoration provides 

information and solutions 

for environmental hazards 

from oil, chemicals, and 

marine debris.

Solution 14

 NOAA’s Office of Response 

and Restoration offers case 

studies, planning tools, 

and technical assistance to 

projects that restore and 

monitor coastal and estuary 

habitats.

Solution 15

NOAA’s Tides and Currents 

Web site provides real-time 

and historical information on tides, water levels, 

currents, and weather in 

ports and major waterways 

throughout the U.S.

Solution 5

The National Weather 

Service’s Marine and Coastal 

Weather Services Branch provides information on coastal 

waters, Great Lakes, and open 

oceans. 

Solution 7

NOAA Weather Radio broadcasts weather forecasts, 

and emergency information about natural hazards, 

environmental hazards, 

and public safety (such as 

AMBER alerts). 

Solution 1

NOAA’s National Weather 

Service provides immediate 

access to all forecasts for the 

entire United States at 

http://www.nws.noaa.gov/

http://nws.noaa.gov/om/marine/ http://nws.noaa.gov/om/marine/

http://www.nws.noaa.gov/nwr/

http://www.prh.noaa.gov/ptwc/

http://adds.aviationweather.gov/

http://www.nws.noaa.gov/nwr/

http://www.lightningsafety.noaa.gov http://chartmaker.ncd.noaa.gov/

http://response.restoration.noaa.gov http://response.restoration.noaa.gov http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov

Photocopy this page 

and cut out the cards 

along the lines.
Solution 16

NOAA’s National Geophysical 

Data Center provides maps, 

posters, data, and images of 

many different features on 

Earth’s surface. 

Solution 17

NOAA’s Photo Library has 

thousands of images of marine 

species, shorelines, weather and 

space; from coral reefs to the 

South Pole, from great whales 

to microscopic bacteria.

Solution 18

 NOAA’s National Marine 

Sanctuary Program includes 

14 coastal areas where natural 

and cultural resources are 

protected while still allowing 

people to use and enjoy them.

Solution 19

NOAA’s Office of Ocean 

Exploration coordinates 

expeditions to explore Earth’s 

“final frontier.” Expeditions 

take place around the world, 

but are concentrated in U.S. 

waters. 

Solution 20

NOAA’s National Geodetic 

Survey has provided high-resolution aerial photography of 

the 95,000-mile U.S. shoreline 

since the 1930’s. 

Solution 21

NOAA operates the Search & 

Rescue Satellite Aided Tracking 

System to locate people in distress 

almost anywhere in the world at 

anytime and in most conditions.

http://sarsat.noaa.gov/

Solution 22

NOAA’s National Marine 

Fisheries Service coordinates 

volunteer marine mammal 

stranding networks in all 

coastal states that include 

whale rescue teams. 

Solution 23

NOAA Fisheries’ Aquaculture 

Program develops ways to farm 

marine animals to provide more 

seafood, boost commercial and 

recreational fishing and restore 

some endangered species.

Solution 24

NOAA’s National Marine 

Fisheries Service and the 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service have developed ways 

to protect and restore sea 

turtle populations.

Solution 25

NOAA Fisheries’ Office of 

Sustainable Fisheries works 

to maintain healthy fishery 

stocks, eliminate overfishing, 

rebuild overfished stocks, and 

increase benefits from living 

marine resources.

Solution 26

NOAA’s National Weather Service 

Climate Prediction Center forecasts short-term events such as 

El Nino, and provides information 

about possible risks of extreme 

weather events.

Solution 27

NOAA’s Climate Program 

Office provides current and 

historical information on 

whether temperatures in 

the U.S. are above or below 

normal.

Solution 28

NOAA’s Climate and Ecosystems Program is dedicated to 

understanding and predicting the effects of climate 

variability and change on 

marine ecosystems.

Solution 29

NOAA’s Office of Marine and 

Aviation Operations has a fleet 

of aircraft that operate in 

extreme conditions, and have 

the only pilots in the world 

qualified to fly into hurricanes 

at low altitudes.

Solution 30

NOAA’s Teacher at Sea Program provides opportunities 

for teachers to do scientific 

research aboard its ships and 

share that experience with 

students and colleagues. 

http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/ http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/

http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov

http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/topics/

navops/mapping/

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/aquaculture

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/recovery/ http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/sfa/sfweb/ http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/ http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/ 

research/cag3/cag3.html

http://www.climate.noaa.gov/

http://www.omao.noaa.gov/

http://www.sanctuaries.nos.noaa.gov/

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/health/

http://teacheratsea.noaa.gov/

Photocopy this page 

and cut out the cards 

along the lines.
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA



E

xploration is an important part of 

NOAA’s focus on Earth’s ecosystems. Ocean exploration in the United 

States began in 1807 when Thomas 

Jefferson authorized the Survey of 

the Coast. But today, after 200 years, 

about 95% of Earth’s oceans are 

still unexplored—mainly because we 

haven’t known how to handle the 

extreme cold and pressure of the deep 

ocean until very recently. Through 

NOAA’s Ocean Explorer program, modern pioneers are investigating parts 

of Earth’s underwater world that have 

been virtually unknown and unseen. 

Such exploration may reveal clues to 

the origin of life on Earth, cures for 

human diseases, answers on how to 

achieve sustainable use of resources, 

links to our maritime history, and 

information to protect endangered 

species.

An exciting new project, the Global 

Earth Observation System (GOES), is 

about to tell us a lot more about the 

Earth and how it works. The basic idea 

is to combine information from thousands of sources that are already making observations about Earth to make 

people around the globe healthier, 

safer, and better equipped to manage 

basic daily needs. NOAA has partnered 

with more than 60 countries and the 

European Commission to make this 

idea a reality.

Learn more about NOAA’s Exploration 

projects with these activities:

• Build an Underwater Robot

• Make Your Own Volcano

• Weird, Red, and Slightly Gross

• Do You Have Twisted Vision?

• Be A Shipwreck Detective! 

and more!

Explore the Earth

Taking the pulse of the planet... king the pulse of the planet... Courtesy NOAA

Courtesy OAR/NURP

Courtesy NOAA Courtesy NOAA

Courtesy NOAA

Courtesy NOAA

Courtesy NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

Boat Building Challenge

Who were the first boat-builders?

No one really knows.

The oldest known boats are dugout canoes constructed in China and 

South Korea around 6,000 B.C. But it’s possible that the almost-human species Homo erectus used some type of boat 800,000 years 

ago!

Since H. erectus are known to have made tools from bamboo, they 

may also have made rafts from the same material. But regardless of 

the materials and who used them, the basic principles that allowed 

the first boats to float are the same principles that operate on the 

most modern supertanker.

Egyptian tomb painting from 1450 B.C. showing officer with sounding pole. Officer is telling crew to 

come ahead slow. Engineers with cat-o’-nine-tails assure proper response from the “engines.” 

Courtesy NOAA.

What You Will Do

Design a boat hull that is able to 

float a specified weight. 

Then, design a way to propel your vessel 

using wind power

What You Will Need

r Sheets of aluminum foil, 12 inches x 12 inches; one sheet for each 

hull

r 50 pennies for each hull

r Plastic or metal tub full of water, at least 24 inches diameter

r Foam plates

r Wooden skewers

r Poster board

r Hole punch

r Battery operated fan

r Masking tape

r Modeling clay
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

10

• Cut a sail out of poster board, and use 

the punch to make holes for the mast 

(wooden skewer).

• Use masking tape and/or modeling clay to 

help hold the mast onto the hull.

• To waterproof your boat, place it on top of 

a piece of aluminum foil, then fold the 

foil up and over the sides of the boat as 

shown below. 

How to Do It

1. Fold a sheet of aluminum foil into a shape 

that will float in the tub of water and support the weight of ten pennies. Not sure 

how to do this? Read “What’s Happening” 

for some clues.

2. Use another sheet of aluminum foil, pieces 

of foam plate, wooden skewers, and poster 

board to make a boat that will use sail 

power to carry ten pennies across the tub 

of water. The drawing below shows one way 

to cut and fold a piece of poster board to 

make a three-dimensional boat.

• Use masking tape at the corners of the 

bow (front of the boat) and stern (rear 

of the boat).

• Make a keel by pinching the aluminum foil 

to form a ridge that runs from front to 

back along the middle of the bottom of 

the boat. (See illustration below left.)

3. Now let’s go for a sail! Place ten pennies in 

the boat, float the boat in a container of 

water, and use the fan as a source of wind 

to sail your vessel around the container.

Note: The pennies perform an essential 

function for sailing vessels: they provide 

weight in the hull, called “ballast,” that 

keeps the boat from turning over when the 

wind presses against the sails.

Want to Do More?

Have a contest to see who can build a hull that 

will carry the most “cargo” (the greatest number of pennies), starting with the same materials. You can modify the contest to see whose 

can build the fastest sailing boat. You may want 

to experiment to find out whether it is better 

to use one large sail or several small sails to 

increase sailing speed, and whether triangular 

shaped sails or square sails give the best performance.

What’s Happening?

Water tends to maintain a level surface. When 

you put an object into water, gravity pulls the 

object down and displaces some of the water, 

Aluminum foil
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 11

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

which means some of the water is pushed 

aside. Now the surface of the water is no longer 

level. Gravity pulls the displaced water down, 

and causes an upward force on the object. 

This upward force is equal to the weight of the 

water that the object displaces, and is called 

buoyancy. Buoyancy depends upon the volume 

of liquid displaced as well as the density of the 

liquid. Density is the mass of a certain volume 

of liquid, usually stated as grams per milliliter. 

This is why it is easier to float in the ocean 

than in fresh water. Seawater is more dense 

than fresh water, so your buoyancy is greater in

the ocean.

The amount of fluid that an object displaces 

depends upon the volume of the object:

more volume means more fluid displaced, which 

means more buoyancy. Increasing the volume of 

an object also increases its surface area, which 

in turn increases the effect of friction as the 

object moves through the fluid. Boat designers 

have to consider buoyancy as well as friction 

when deciding on the shape of a boat’s hull. 

A boat designed for speed must have enough 

displacement to stay afloat, but surface area 

has to be minimized to decrease the effects of 

friction. On the other hand, an object designed 

to carry a heavy weight, such as a cargo ship, 

must be designed with greater displacement,

as well as greater power to overcome the effects of increased friction.

Boat hulls are designed to displace a volume of 

water that weighs more than the boat and its 

cargo. If the force of displaced water pushing 

on the hull is greater than the force of gravity 

pulling the boat down, then the boat floats! But 

if you could take a sea-worthy boat hull, break 

it down, and bundle the pieces together, the 

bundle will sink. Why? Because there is no longer sufficient water displacement to counteract 

the force of gravity on the pieces of the hull.

Visit http://www.sedl.org/scimath/compass/

v02n03/boat.html and

http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/nttidb/lessons/jx/buoyjx.html for more boat building 

challenge ideas.

The idea of buoyancy was summed up by a Greek 

mathematician named Archimedes: any object, 

wholly or partly immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up 

by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced 

by the object. Today, this definition is called the 

Archimedes Principle.

Archimedes is considered one of the three greatest mathematicians of all time. The other two are 

Newton and Gauss. Archimedes was born in 287 B.C., 

in Syracuse, Greece. He was a master at mathematics and spent most of his time thinking about new 

problems to solve.

Many of these problems came from Hiero, the king 

of Syracuse. Archimedes came up with his famous 

principle while trying to solve this problem.

The king ordered a gold crown and gave the goldsmith the exact amount of metal to make it. When 

Hiero received it, the crown had the correct weight 

but the king suspected that some silver had been 

substituted for the gold. He did not know how to 

prove it, so he asked Archimedes for help. 

One day while thinking this over, Archimedes went 

for a bath and water overflowed the tub. He recognized that there was a relationship between the 

amount of water that overflowed the tub and the 

amount of his body that was submerged. This observation gave him the means to solve the problem. He 

was so excited that he ran naked through the streets 

of Syracuse shouting “I have found it!”. The goldsmith was brought to justice and Archimedes never 

took another bath...(just kidding!).

The Archimedes Principle

Portrait of Archimedes, by Domenico Fetti, about 1620
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

12

Make Your Own Astrolabe

The mariner’s astrolabe is an ancient 

navigation instrument for measuring celestial 

altitude (celestial altitude is the “height” 

of a star, planet or other celestial object 

above the horizon). Celestial altitude is 

important to mariners, because it provides 

a way to estimate geographic latitude, 

which is a location’s distance from the 

equator. Astrolabes were the most popular 

astronomical instrument for several centuries, 

but they eventually were replaced by 

quadrants, which today have been replaced by 

sextants.

What You Will Do

Make your own astrolabe, and 

use it to estimate 

the height of a tree, building, 

or other vertical object

What You Will Need

r Stiff cardboard, file folder, or wood, approximately 8 inches square

r Tools for cutting the cardboard or wood

r Glue

r Drill with a 3/16 inch drill bit

r #8 Round head bolt (long enough to go 

through both pieces of the astrolabe), #8 

nut, and three #8 washers

r Rope, string, or twine, about 12 inches long 

(the diameter of the rope isn’t very important; about 1/8 inch is ideal)

Warnings

1. Drills and cutting tools are sharp! Get help 

from an adult and be careful! 

2. Power saw blades and drill bits can shatter 

or throw scraps at high speed, possibly 

causing serious injury. Be sure to wear 

eye protection and follow other recommended safety precautions before using 

any power tools!

A mariner using a descendant of the astrolabe called 

an “octant.” Courtesy NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 13

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How to Do It

Optional: Before you start, you may want to search the internet for images of astrolabes (there are thousands!).

1. Glue the “Astrolabe Template” onto a piece of wood or stiff cardboard. 

With help from an adult, cut out the two pieces of the astrolabe as 

closely to the lines as possible. It isn’t essential to cut out the four 

pie-shaped pieces in the middle of the astrolabe, but it will be more 

authentic if you do (mariner’s astrolabes had these pieces cut out to 

reduce wind resistance when the instrument was being used on ships). 

2. Drill a 3/16 inch diameter hole through the center of the astrolabe 

and sight vane. Assemble the two pieces with a #8 bolt, nut, and 

three washers (one washer under the head of the bolt, one between 

two astrolabe pieces, and one under the nut).

90 10

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80 90

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10 90

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Astrolabe Template

Sight Vane
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

14

3. Tie a loop of rope, string, or twine through 

the hole at the top of the astrolabe.

4. To use your astrolabe, hold the instrument 

by the rope so that it hangs vertically. Line 

up the two ends of the sighting vane with 

the top of the object whose height you are 

measuring. Read the altitude of the object 

in degrees from the upper left or lower right 

scale on the astrolabe.

[NOTE: Notice that a horizontal object measures 90° on the upper left and lower right 

scales. This measurement is called “zenith 

distance” and is used on a mariner’s astrolabe to simplify latitude calculations.]

5. To find the height of a vertical object using 

your astrolabe: 

a. Set the sight vane to 45° on the upper 

left or lower right scale.

b. Hold the astrolabe so that it hangs 

vertically, and walk to a position at 

which the top of the object you want to 

measure is lined up with the two ends 

of the sight vane. Measure the height of 

the astrolabe above the ground.

c. Measure or pace the distance to the base 

of the object. Add this distance to 

the height of the astrolabe above the 

ground. The sum is equal to the height 

of the object.

Knowing the length of your pace can be 

useful for many things. Back in the day, a 

pace meant the distance traveled when you 

took TWO steps. For most people, this works 

out to be about 5.25 feet. So 1,000 paces 

is about equal to one mile. Find the length 

of your pace by walking 20 steps and measuring the distance covered. This distance 

divided by 10 is the length of your pace.

Want to Do More?

1. Check out http://astrolabes.org/ for examples 

of astrolabes made by individuals. You may 

also want to watch the NOVA program, Lost 

at Sea: The Search for Longitude (available 

from public libraries and from http://www.

pbs.org/wgbh/nova/novastore.html).

2. Sometimes you won’t be able to get far 

enough away from an object to line up the 

ends of the sight vane when it is set to 

45°. You can still use the astrolabe to find 

height, but will have to use a little trigonometry (don’t worry, it isn’t really very 

hard). Here are the basic things you need 

to know:

a. A “right triangle” has two sides that meet 

at an angle of 90°. 

b. The side of the triangle opposite the 90° 

angle is called the hypotenuse. 

45°

45°
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 15

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c. The tangent of one of the other angles is 

defined as the length of the side opposite the angle divided by the side closest 

to the angle (NOT the hypotenuse).

So, in the drawing below, the tangent of angle 

a is equal to side A divided by side B. A shorthand way to write the last sentence is:

tan a = A ÷ B

Now, we can find the height of the flagpole in 

the drawing to the right.

The height of the flagpole is side A plus “H” 

which is the height of your eyeball above the 

ground. 

The tangent of angle a is equal to side A divided by side B. Written in the shorthand way:

tan a = A ÷ B

Suppose angle a is equal to 60° and side B is 

50 feet. Then,

tan 60° = A ÷ 50 feet

You can find tangents on many calculators, and 

in tables from trigonometry books and on the 

internet. The tangent of 60° is 1.73. So,

1.73 = A ÷ 50 feet

So, A is equal to 1.73 multiplied by 50, which is 

86.5 feet

The height of the flagpole is side A plus “H” 

which is the height of your eyeball above the 

ground. If H is equal to 4.5 feet, the height of 

the flagpole is: 

86.5 ft + 4.5 ft = 91 feet

a

A

B

hypotenuse

right angle

A

a

B

Using Trigonometry and Your Astrolabe to Find the Height of an Object

H
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

16

“When neither sun nor stars appeared for many a day, they 

gave up hope. This was a terrible handicap to them because 

these ancient navigators had no compass nor any other 

instrument. The only way they could guide the ship was by 

the sun and stars. When they could not see them for many 

days they lost all knowledge of their whereabouts. They were 

drifting helplessly before a howling gale in the midst of a 

turbulent sea with no idea where they were headed.”

~ from God and Shipwrecks by Ray C. Stedman

http://www.raystedman.org/acts/0450.html

One of the most important improvements to ocean navigation was 

the invention of the compass. There is some disagreement about who 

should get credit for this invention. It’s pretty clear that the Chinese 

knew about magnetism as early as 2637 BC, but the first written 

description of a compass for navigation didn’t appear in Europe until 

1190. Why did it take so long? After you do this activity, you may 

have at least one good answer!

North Pacific storm waves as seen from the M/V NOBLE STAR, Courtesy NOAA

What You Will Do Make a simple compass to find magnetic north or 

south, depending on where you live

Make Your Own Compass

What You Will Need

r Sewing needle about one to two inches long

r Small bar magnet or refrigerator magnet

r A small piece of cork (corks from wine bottles work well, but not the 

plastic stoppers)

r A small glass or cup of water to float the cork and needle 

r Pair of pliers
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 17

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Warnings

1. Needles are sharp. Be careful!

2. Magnets can damage cards with a magnetic 

stripe (credit cards, library cards, school 

IDs, etc), floppy disks, and some electronic 

devices. Keep magnets away from these 

things.

How to Do It

1. Rub a magnet over the needle a few times, 

always in the same direction. This action 

magnetizes the needle. 

2. Cut off a small circle from one end of the 

cork, about 1/4-inch thick. Lay the circle 

on a flat surface. 

3. Using a pair of pliers, carefully poke the 

needle into one edge of the circle and force 

the needle through the cork so that the end 

comes out the other side. Push the needle 

far enough through the cork so that about 

the same amount of needle is sticking out 

each side of the cork. Be careful not to 

stick yourself! 

4. Fill the glass or cup about half full of water, 

and put the cork and needle assembly on 

the surface of the water. 

5. Place your “compass” on a flat surface and 

watch what happens. The needle should 

point towards the nearest magnetic pole 

—north or south, depending upon where 

you live.

6. Try placing a magnet near your compass and 

watch what happens. How close does the 

magnet have to be to cause any effects? 

Try this again with a nail or other steel 

object. You can see why its’s important to 

keep metal objects away from compasses on 

ships!

7. Imagine you are on the deck of a ship 

tossing back and forth on the open ocean. 

How well do you think your compass would 

work? When the cork floats on the water 

it creates a sort of low-friction bearing. 

This kind of bearing is essential to allow 

the needle to rotate in response to Earth’s 

magnetic field. But a cup of water probably 

wouldn’t last long on the deck of a rolling 

ship! The need for a sturdy low-friction 

bearing was one of the reasons that it took 

a long time for mariners to use compasses 

at sea, even though the basic principles 

had been known for centuries.

What’s Happening

Magnetic fields are areas that contain a force 

created by moving electrical charges. Earth 

produces a magnetic field. This field is very 

weak, but it is sufficient to align magnetized 

objects—such as your needle—that are free to 

rotate. By floating the needle on the cork, you 

allow it to rotate freely so the needle becomes 

lined up with Earth’s magnetic field, and points 

toward the north or south pole of the planet.

Needle

Magnet

“Compass”

Cup or glass half-filled with water
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

18

Tied Up In Knots

“Topmen, aloft!” sang out the commodore in a piercing 

voice that rose above the screaming wind and roar of 

the sea. “Take in the topgallants and royals!”

We all raced aloft; but no sooner had these sails 

been furled and we returned to the deck than the 

commodore was at us again.

“Reef topsails!” he shouted even louder than before. 

“Away aloft—take in one reef!”

Mick and I scrambled up, almost out of breath, into 

the mizzen-top; which we hardly reached before we 

heard the commodore give the next order necessary to 

enable us to take in the reef—

“Weather topsaill braces, round in! Lower the 

topsails!”

~ from Young Tom Bowling by J.C. Hutcheson, 1896. 

Do you know how to tie a reef knot? A sailor’s life and the safety of 

the entire crew and ship can depend on the quality of knots he ties. 

Sailors take pride in being able to match the right knot to a specific 

job, and even modern sailors need to master this skill. 

“In the rigging”. In The South Pole, by Roald Amundsen, 1872-1928. 

Archival Photograph by Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS. Courtesy NOAA

What You Will Do

Learn to tie some basic knots that have been 

used by mariners for centuries and are often 

useful in everyday life
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 19

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

What You Will Need

r One or more pieces of rope, about 3 feet 

long; nylon, polypropylene, manila, or cotton ropes, 1/4-inch to 1/2-inch in diameter 

work well

r Pictures or video showing how to tie knots

How to do It

There are three different types of “knot.” 

• A Bend is used to join two ropes (often 

of different diameters), or to fasten a 

rope to an eye, ring, or other structure. 

Examples: sheet or becket bend; anchor 

bend

• A Hitch is designed to stay in place under 

strain, but remain easily adjustable when 

the strain is removed. Examples; clove 

hitch, half hitch, rolling hitch

• A Knot is used to fasten ropes together, 

or to fasten a rope to an object, or 

to enlarge the end of a rope (as in a 

stopper knot.) A stopper knot is usually 

tied at the end of a rope to prevent the 

line from slipping through an eye, ring, 

or pulley. A good knot must be able to 

be easily untied. Examples; bowline, reef 

(square) knot, overhand knot, figure 

eight knot

Five Useful Knots

Bowline

Uses: Forms a loop at the end of a rope that 

will not slip (close up) when the rope is under tension. This knot is easy to untie, even 

after it has been under high strain.

How to Tie It: Be sure the free end of the 

rope lies inside the loop when the knot is 

completed.

Figure Eight

Uses: A “stopper” used to prevent the end 

of the rope from slipping through a pulley. 

Also used in mountain climbing to secure a 

rappelling line to a climbing harness.

How to Tie It:
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

20

Clove Hitch

Uses: Used to secure a line to a round object 

such as a post or rail. 

How to Tie It:

Reef Knot (Square Knot)

Uses: Used for lashings and other situations 

where a line must be tied around an object, 

but should NEVER be used as a bend to tie 

two ropes together. “Reefing” a sail means to 

make the sail smaller by partially folding or 

“furling” the sail. A Reef Knot is used to tie 

the sail in a partially folded position.

How to Tie It: If you grab one of the free 

ends and jerk it across the knot, the knot 

will “capsize” and slip apart easily.

Sheet Bend

Uses: One of the best bends for joining two 

ropes together, especially if the ropes do not 

have the same diameter.

How to Tie It: The rope with the larger diameter should be used for the loop. 
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 21

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

Turn Your Knot Tying Skill into a Game:

Organize a knot tying race. Give each contestant five pieces of rope, and 

see who will be first to correctly tie all five knots. If one knot is wrong, 

the contestant loses. If this seems harsh, remember that a single badly 

tied knot can be disaster for mariners at sea.

Want to Know More?

There are lots of books on knot tying and ropecraft. Two very good ones 

are:

Knotcraft: The Practical and Entertaining Art of Knot Tying by Allan and 

Paulette Macfarlan; Dover Craft Books, 1983

The Arts of the Sailor – Knotting, Splicing and Ropework by Hervey Garret 

Smith; Dover Publications, reprint edition

You can find animated knot tying instructions in the Tollesbury Sailing 

Club’s knot gallery at 

http://www.tollesburysc.co.uk/Knots/Knots_gallery.htm

Another Web site with instructions for tying many different knots is: 

http://www.2020site.org/knots/

 The dredging and sounding arrangements on board the CHALLENGER.

 In The Voyage of the CHALLENGER - The Atlantic Vol I, by Sir C. Wyville Thomson, 1878. 

 Archival Photography by Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS. Courtesy NOAA
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

22

“The Gallant Frigate Amphitrite, she lay in Plymouth sound;

Blue Peter on the foremast peak for we were outward bound.

We were waiting there for orders to send us far from home;

When the orders came for Rio, and then around Cape Horn.”

~ from The Gallant Frigate Amphitrite, a traditional sea shanty

(This tune is available in MIDI format at 

http://www.traditionalmusic.co.uk/song-midis/Rounding_the_Horn.htm)

Who’s Blue Peter? Who—or what—do you think Blue Peter is?

Traditionally, Blue Peter is the nickname given to the nautical signal 

flag that represents the letter “P.” When communicating with signal 

flags, each letter of the alphabet has a specific meaning. The letter 

“P” means “All persons should report on board as the vessel is about 

to proceed to sea.” So when a ship is flying Blue Peter, everyone 

knows that its voyage is about to begin.

International code flags are still used to communicate between ships 

and between ship and shore. The colors used on nautical signal flags 

are chosen because red, blue, yellow, black, and white are colors that 

can be most easily distinguished at sea. Signals may use one or more 

flags to communicate a particular message. One-flag signals are used 

for very urgent or very common signals.

Two-flag signals are used to provide more specific information, particularly in emergency situations or when maneuvering a vessel. Three-, 

four-, five-, six-, and even seven-flag signals are used to convey other 

types of information. Sometimes, when a “standard” signal won’t 

work, flags may be used to spell out individual words.

The CHALLENGER at St. Paul’s Rocks. In The Voyage of the CHALLENGER - The Atlantic Vol I, by 

Sir C. Wyville Thomson, 1878. Archival Photography by Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS. Courtesy NOAA

What You Will Do

Make a set of nautical signal flags, 

and use the flags to send messages
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 23

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

What You Will Need

r White poster board or white cloth

r Colored markers

r Two pieces of string or light rope (1/8-inch 

diameter or less), long enough to loop over 

a tree limb or other object that will allow 

you to hoist your flags

r One or two copies of “Table of Single Letter 

Signals”

r Scissors to cut poster board or cloth

r Ruler and compass (or round obect such as a 

bowl or can)

r Notepads and pencils

How to Do It

1. Cut out 26 rectangular pieces of poster board 

or cloth, about 8 inches x 10 inches. Cut 

one triangular pennant, shaped like this:

4. Make holes in the left side of your flags to 

attach the string or rope.

5. Loop the strings or ropes over tree limbs or 

other objects that will allow you to raise 

and lower your flags.

6. If you have four or more people, you can 

have a competition. Each team should have 

a signalling crew and a receiving crew at 

least 20 feet away. Each crew should have 

a string or rope (called a “halyard”) looped 

over a tree limb or other object that will 

allow the crew to hoist their signals. The 

signalling crew should have a complete set 

of alphabet flags, and the receiving crew 

should have an answering pennant.

Each team should make a list of ten messages using the “Table of Single Letter 

Signals,” then give their list to the other 

team’s signalling crew. The receiving crews 

are not allowed to look at the lists!

7. On the “Go” signal, each signalling crew 

raises the flag corresponding to the first 

message on their list. As soon as the receiving crew understands the message, they 

should write the message on a notepad and 

raise their answering pennant. Then the receiving crew lowers their flag, and replaces 

it with the flag for the next message.

When the receiving crew understands a signal, they hoist their answering pennant as 

far up as the halyards will go. At this point, 

the pennant is said to be “close up.” Then, 

when the signalling crew lowers their signal, the receiving crew lowers their pennant 

about halfway down. Now the pennant is 

said to be “at the dip,” and is held in this 

position until the next signal is understood.

The first team to correctly send all ten messages wins!

Want to Do More?

1. You can download the entire International 

Code of Signals (157 pgs, 2.6 MB) from the 

National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency 

Web site. Open http://www.nga.mil/portal/

site/maritime/, and click on “Publications” 

on the left side of the page. Then select 

“International Code of Signals” from the 

pull-down menu at the top of the “Navigational Publications” page.

2. See http://sartori.com/nhc/flags for a Web 

page that automatically translates text into 

flag signals.

5”

12.5”

1 3/8”

2. Use your ruler and compass (or round object) to draw the shapes needed for each 

flag shown in the “Nautical Signal Flags” 

illustration.

3. Use markers to color your flags as shown in 

the illustration.
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

24

A 	 I have a diver down; keep well clear at slow speed.

B 	 I am taking in, or discharging, or carrying dangerous

goods.

C 	 Yes

D 	 Keep clear of me; I am maneuvering with difficulty.

E 	 I am altering my course to starboard.

F 	 I am disabled; communicate with me.

G 	 I require a pilot. When made by fishing vessels, this signal

means “I am hauling nets”.

H 	 I have a pilot on board.

I 	 I am altering my course to port.

J 	 I am on fire and have dangerous cargo on board: keep

well clear of me, or I am leaking dangerous cargo.

K 	 I wish to communicate with you.

L 	 You should stop your vessel instantly.

M 	 My vessel is stopped and making no way through the

water.

N 	 No

O 	 Man overboard.

P 	 All persons should report on board as the vessel is about

to proceed to sea.

Q 	 My vessel is “healthy” and I request permission to proceed

into port.

S 	 I am operating astern propulsion.

T 	 Keep clear of me; I am engaged in pair trawling.

U 	 You are running into danger.

V 	 I require assistance.

W 	 I require medical assistance.

X 	 Stop carrying out your intentions and watch for my

signals.

Y 	 I am dragging my anchor.

Z 	 I require a tug.

Single Letter Signals

A

Alfa

B

Bravo

C

Charlie

D

Delta

E

Echo

F

Foxtrot

G

Golf

H

Hotel

I

India

J

Juliet

K

Kilo

L

Lima

M

Mike

N

November

O

Oscar

P

Papa

Q

Quebec

R

Romeo

S

Sierra

T

Tango

U

Uniform

V

Victor

W

Whiskey

X

X-ray

Y

Yankee

Z

Zulu

Answer
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 25

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

“At about 9 p.m., I felt the vessel graze the bottom... 

I grabbed my cap, and rushed up the steps leading to 

the spar deck...and immediately afterward heard the most 

dreadful and agonizing sounds as the ship hurled herself 

on the reef...The call of the boatswain:‘All hands prepare 

to abandon ship,’ I heard above all of this din. I could 

hardly walk the decks; the pounding and jumping of the 

ship swaying me from side to side.”

~ from Capt. R. O. Crisp on the loss of the revenue cutter Tahoma after hitting an uncharted 

reef on the south side of the Aleutian Islands, Alaska on September 20, 1914

(http://www.uscg.mil/history/WEBCUTTERS/Tahoma_1909.html)

If Alaska had been a U.S. state in 1914, the reef that wrecked the Tahoma 

might have been on Captain Crisp’s navigation charts. This is because more 

than a hundred years earlier, in 1807, President Thomas Jefferson established the Survey of the Coast to chart the U.S. coastline to make the coasts 

of our nation safe for navigation. A top priority of the Coast Survey was 

(and is) to create charts that show the shape of the coasts, currents, and 

the depth of coastal waters. Gathering information needed for these charts is 

called “hydrography,” and people who do this work are known as “hydrographers” (“hydro” means water, and “grapher” is one who writes).

Today, hydrographers working for NOAA’s Office of 

Coast Survey continue the work begun by the Survey 

of the Coast. These scientific nomads travel around 

the coasts collecting information needed for upto-date charts that guide ships in and out of U.S. 

ports. The most basic job of hydrographers is taking 

measurements of water depth (called “soundings”). 

Sounding party off USCS Brig FAUNTLEROY. 1857-Earliest picture of Coast Survey sounding 

operations. Watercolor by James Madison Alden, nephew of Lieutenant Commanding James Alden.

What You Will Do

Make a sounding box and 

discover the profile 

of a model seafloor

The Water Writers

Courtesy NOAA

Modern hydrographers use sidescan and multibeam sonar and satellite-based 

global positioning systems (GPS) to produce very detailed pictures of the sea 

floor. For many years though, hydrographers used lead lines to make depth 

measurements. A lead line is a rope or line with a 10-pound lead weight 

attached to the end. The hydrographer lowers the line into the water until 

the weight reaches the bottom. Markings on the line show how much line 

has been let out, which is equal to the depth of the water. Depth soundings 

made with lead lines are accurate, but they take a lot of time and only 

give information about single points of the sea bottom—so many lead line 

measurements are needed to accurately survey a 

given area. 

Here’s a way to get a feel for hydrographic surveying with a lead line—and you don’t even have to 

get your feet wet!
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

26

What You Will Need

This activity is most challenging if you have 

one or more friends who also make a sounding 

box and set up a model seafloor inside the box. 

Then you can trade sounding boxes and compete to see who can discover everything on an 

unknown seafloor.

For each sounding box you will need:

r A shoebox or other cardboard box that is 

about 2 inches to 4 inches high

r A replaceable air conditioner filter large 

enough to cover the box

r A wooden skewer about 4 inches longer than 

the height of the sounding box

r A ruler

r A felt tip marker

r A copy of the “Sounding Box Plotting Sheet”

r A pencil 

r Small objects such as Lego® blocks, toy 

vehicles, rocks, modeling clay, etc. 

r Masking tape 

r Rubber cement

How to Do It

1. Use masking tape or rubber cement to fasten 

small objects to the inside bottom of the 

cardboard box. 

2. Mark the sides of the air conditioner filter 

at 1/2-inch intervals as shown in the “Air 

Conditioner Filter Grid” drawing. 

Label the horizontal lines with numbers, 

and vertical lines with letters as shown.

3. Mark your wooden skewer every 1/4-inch 

with a felt-tip marker. If you have colored 

markers, you can use a different color to 

mark one-inch and two-inch intervals as 

shown on the “Sounding Skewer Marking” 

diagram. This makes it easier to tell how 

deep the skewer is when you take “soundings.”

4. Fasten the air conditioner filter to the cardboard box with masking tape so no one can 

see inside the box.

5. Now it’s time to be a hydrographer! Use a 

ruler and the grid on the air conditioner 

filter to locate specific spots for “soundings.” Take “soundings” by gently pushing 

the skewer through the air conditioner filter 

until the skewer hits bottom. Read the 

“depth” on the skewer, and record this measurement in the place on the “Sounding Box 

Plotting Sheet” that matches the sampling 

location on the air conditioner filter grid. 

For example, the red star on the “Sounding 

Box Plotting Sheet” matches the location 

of the red star on the “Air Conditioner Filter 

Grid” drawing. If your sounding box is less 

than 10 inches x 10 inches, you won’t use 

all of the grid squares. If it is larger than 

10 inches x 10 inches, add more horizontal 

and vertical lines to the Plotting Sheet.

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National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 27

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6. Continue making soundings until you think 

you have a clear picture of the model 

seafloor. Outline the features of the model 

seafloor on the Plotting Sheet, then remove 

the filter from the top of the box and see 

how well your Plotting Sheet compares with 

the actual “seafloor.”

Want to Do More?

Check out these books at the library:

The Coast Mappers by Taylor Morrison

Mapping the Seas by Walter Oleksy

Mapping the World by Sylvia A. Johnson 

The Story of Maps and Navigation (Signs of 

the Times) by Anita Ganeri 

Small Worlds: Maps and Map Making by Karen 

Romano Young 

You may also want to visit these Web sites:

http://chartmaker.ncd.noaa.gov/ – NOAA’s Office 

of Coast Survey homepage

http://www.secretsatsea.org/main.html – An 

interactive game that includes many aspects 

of the ocean, including mapping

http://nos.noaa.gov/topics/navops/hydrosurvey/

welcome.html – NOAA’s hydrographic survey 

page

http://historicals.ncd.noaa.gov/historicals/

histmap.asp – Take a look at historical maps 

and charts

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http://noaa.gov

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Nautical Chart Challenge

For as long as anyone in his family could remember, 

Francis Beaufort wanted to make scientific observations 

from the deck of a ship. In 1789 at the age of fourteen, 

he set sail as a sort of officer-in-training aboard the 

Vansittart, an East India Company tradesman bound for 

China and the Indies. A central goal of the Vansittart’s 

journey was to survey the Gaspar Strait, where sister 

ships of the East India Company had been lost on 

dangerous and poorly charted shoals.

The Vansittart found the shoals...by running hard 

aground, and taking on water so rapidly that the crew was 

forced to abandon ship on a tiny reef in the Java Sea. 

The waters were filled with pirates, so the crew threw 

thirteen treasure chests overboard, hoping to return 

later to reclaim them. But when they eventually made 

their way back aboard two British ships, Malay pirates 

had burned and pillaged the Vansittart and the crew 

managed to recover only three of the treasure chests.

~ based on Defining the Wind: The Beaufort Scale, and How a

19th-Century Admiral Turned Science Into Poetry by Scott Huler, 2004

The sinking of the Vansittart provided dramatic evidence of the value 

of an accurate nautical chart, and Francis Beaufort later became 

one of history’s premier hydrographers. Today, NOAA’s Office of Coast 

Survey produces accurate 

nautical charts and 

many other navigational 

aids that help mariners 

navigate safely in and out 

of U.S. ports and along 

the U.S. coastline as far 

as 200 nautical miles from 

shore. How important is 

ocean navigation? You 

may be surprised to know 

that even in the “space 

age,” over 98% of the 

nation’s cargo is carried by 

waterborne transportation.

Here’s a chance to try your 

hand at coastal navigation 

using a modern nautical chart. Watch out for 

shoals!

What You Will Do

Discover some of the ways a nautical chart 

can help a mariner safely 

navigate in unfamiliar coastal waters

Wreck of U.S. Revenue Cutter TAHOMA which struck an 

uncharted pinnacle rock off Agattu Island, western Aleutians, 

September 20, 1914. Courtesy NOAA Ship Collection
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 29

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What You Will Need

r “Segment of NOAA Nautical Chart 11445, 

Bahia Honda Key to Sugarloaf Key”

How to Do It

1. Before beginning your cruise, you need to 

know a few things about nautical charts. 

Most charts contain A LOT of information, 

including lights, buoys, wrecks, information 

about the sea bottom, shoreline features, 

water depth, and much more. These features 

are often very close together, so charts use 

many symbols and abbreviations. A complete list of these symbols is available in a 

booklet known as “Chart No. 1,” which can 

be downloaded from http://nauticalcharts.

noaa.gov/mcd/chart1/chart1hr.htm (the file 

containing the entire publication is 85 Mb, 

but smaller files containing specific kinds of 

information are also available). Here are a 

few basics:

• The compass rose is a tool provided on all 

nautical charts to simplify the process 

of measuring directions. On the sample 

chart, the compass rose is near the upper center of the chart. The most commonly used reference point for direction 

on nautical charts is Earth’s geographic 

north pole (“true north”). 

• Depths on nautical charts are shown as 

many small numbers scattered over water 

areas. Depths indicated by these numbers are expressed in feet, fathoms (one 

fathom is equal to six feet), or meters. 

Contour lines (called “depth curves”) 

connect points of equal depth, typically 

6, 12, 18, 30, 60 and multiples of 60 

feet. It’s important to remember that 

depths shown on charts are average 

depths, so the actual depth at a given 

location may be less than that shown on 

the chart.

• The general rule for coastal navigation is 

“red, right, returning.” This means that 

red markers, lights, or buoys should be 

on the right side of a vessel when coming into port. There are many exceptions 

to this general rule, though, so it is 

essential to have a chart that shows the 

arrangement of markers for a specific 

part of the coast.

• In shallow water, markers are often flat 

“signs” fastened to wood or metal 

stakes. Red markers are usually triangular, and green markers are square. These 

markers are shown on a chart by red 

triangles and green squares, and usually 

have a number that also is shown on the 

chart.

• Buoys are shown on nautical charts by 

diamond-shaped symbols and a small 

open circle that indicates the location of 

the buoy. 

• Red buoys are printed in magenta and 

often have the letter “R” nearby.

• Green buoys are printed in green with the 

letter “G” nearby. 

• A number in quotation marks is the number painted on the buoy’s structure. 

• Lighted buoys are indicated by a magenta 

disk printed over the small circle that 

marks the buoy’s position. 

• The shape of unlighted buoys is normally 

shown by a letter. “C’ indicates a “can” 

buoy whose top has a cylindrical shape

• “N” indicates a “nun” buoy whose top is 

shaped like a cone with the pointed end 

cut off (this is called a “truncated” cone).

• Lights on nautical charts are all shown by 

a magenta symbol that looks like an exclamation point and a black dot indicating the light’s position. Notes alongside 

these symbols describe the color of the 

light and how it flashes. Some commonly 

used abbreviations are:

• Q: A light flashing at a rate of not less 

than 60 flashes per minute

• R: A red light.

• G: A green light

• If no color is indicated for a light, it is 

understood to be a white light.
http://noaa.gov

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• Numbers next to the symbol for a light 

show the height of the light. 

• If numbers are inside quotation marks, this 

number is painted onto the light structure. 

• Numbers followed by the letter “M” show 

the approximate range of visibility of the 

light in miles. 

For example:

Q R 16ft “6” 9M

indicates a red light, 16 ft high, flashing 

at a rate of not less than 60 flashes per 

minute (“quick flashing”), with the number “6” painted on the structure, with a 

visibility of about 9 miles

2. Now it’s time to take the Chart Challenge! 

We will use part of NOAA Nautical Chart 

11445, which includes the Florida Keys from 

Bahia Honda Key to Sugarloaf Key. Suppose 

you are the captain of a 24-foot fishing 

boat, and are taking some friends around 

the Keys. As the captain of a vessel, it is 

very important to know how much water is 

under your boat (underkeel clearance). This 

can vary depending on how much cargo 

you are carrying (or in this case, how many 

friends are aboard). Let’s say that your 

boat draws 2 feet, which is another way of 

saying that the bottom (keel) of your boat 

is two feet below the surface. So, you’ll 

need to subtract two feet from the depths 

indicated on the chart to find your underkeel clearance.

a. You and your friends board your boat at 

the dock in Doctors Arm Bay on Big Pine 

Key (to the right of the compass rose). 

What kind of markers show the location 

of this dock?

b. After casting off from the dock, you steer 

southeast into Bogie Channel. What is 

the maximum depth shown on the chart 

for the Channel?

c. As you pass through Spanish Harbor, you 

notice a low bridge ahead. The highest 

point on your boat is 10 feet above the 

water. Can you pass beneath the bridge?

d. You continue heading southeast until your 

depth sounder shows a depth of 10 feet. 

What does the chart show is probably on 

the bottom in this area?

e. Your friends are interested in snorkeling, so you decide to take them to the 

buoyed snorkeling area to the south of 

Newfound Harbor Keys, which is part 

of NOAA’s Florida Keys National Marine 

Sanctuary. Looking at the chart, you 

see that there are several shallow coral 

heads marked “Co” that are not marked 

with buoys. What is the water depth over 

these coral heads?

f. Since the water over the coral heads is 

very shallow, you want to steer a course 

that will avoid them. How could you use 

your depth sounder to help steer clear of 

these dangers?

g. As you travel toward the snorkeling area, 

one of your friends notices the vegetation on the islands to the north. According to the chart, what kind of vegetation 

is this?

h. According to the chart, the snorkeling 

area is marked by buoys labeled “A,” 

“B,” “C,” and “D.” What is the color and 

shape of these buoys?

i. After snorkeling, you decide to visit Ramrod Key. One of your friends says that 

he can see open water between Hopkins 

Island and Cook Island. Would this be a 

good way to go to Ramrod Key?

j. After looking at the chart, you decide to 

go to the southwest of Munson Island to 

enter Newfound Harbor Channel. What 

light could you use to be sure you avoid 

the shallow area to the southwest of 

Munson Island? How tall is this light?

k. After passing Munson Island, you notice 

four markers that showing the location 

of Newfound Harbor Channel. What are 

the color, shape, and numbers of these 

Science | Service | Stewardship
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 31

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

markers, and how would you use them to 

stay in the Channel?

l. As you enter Newfound Harbor, you notice 

three green markers and a red marker 

leading into a marina. What is the water 

depth near these markers?

m. You change your mind, and decide to 

visit Little Torch Key instead. You want 

to go to a marina that is to the east of 

the microwave tower on Little Torch Key. 

Can your vessel pass beneath the bridge 

between Little Torch and Big Pine Key?

n. Just before you pass beneath the bridge, 

one of your friends notices something 

sticking up out of the water. Does the 

chart show anything in this area?

o. After you pass under the bridge, you 

notice a large marina on the west side 

of Big Pine Key. Are there any obstacles 

between your vessel and this marina?

Want to Do More?

For more about nautical charts and how to use 

them, see “Plot Your Course” at http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/classroom/lessons/18_

marinenav_plotcourse.pdf; part of the NOAA’s 

National Ocean Service Discovery Classroom.

St. Brendan striking out into the Atlantic - about 6th Century A.D. St. Brendan checking depths with his sounding pole. 

Courtesy NOAA.
http://noaa.gov

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VAR 5° 45' W (1999)

ANN UAL IN CREASE 9'

Segment of NOAA Nautical Chart 11445, Bahia Honda Key to Sugarloaf Key
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 33

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

a. A red triangle numbered “2” and a green 

square numbered “1”

b. 12 feet

c. Yes, because the vertical clearance beneath 

the bridge is 11 feet

d. rocks (“rky”)

e. one to three feet

f. You could use the depth sounder to follow 

the 12-foot depth contour line, which will 

keep you away from the coral heads. 

g. Mangroves

h. The buoys are yellow “cans” that have a 

cylindrical shape.

i. No, because the chart shows depths of less 

than one foot between these islands.

j. The flashing red light which has the number 

“2” painted on the structure, and is 16 ft 

tall and visible for about three miles.

k. There are two square green markers numbered 

“3” and “5” and two triangular red markers 

numbered “2” and “6”. You would steer your 

vessel so that the red markers are to the 

right of the vessel and the green markers 

are to the left. 

l. one to two feet

m. You can pass beneath the west end of the 

bridge because the vertical clearance is 15 

feet, but the clearance is only nine feet 

under the east end of the bridge.

n. The chart shows three poles on the south 

side of the bridge.

o. The chart shows submerged pilings to the 

west of Big Pine Key.

Don’t Peek...

Answers to the Chart Challenge

Until you have answered ALL of the Chart Challenge questions!
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

34

What You Will Need

r Plastic coat hanger

r 6- or 12-volt DC motor (from a hobby 

shop; part number LXJSS4 from www.

towerhobbies.com is a 6-volt motor; part 

number 273-256 from Radio Shack is a 

9–18-volt motor) 

r Model boat propeller (from a hobby shop, or 

visit www.towerhobbies.com and search on 

“boat propeller”)

r Epoxy glue

r Two pieces of #28 AWG stranded wire 

(telephone wire), each about five feet long

r Electrical tape

r Two film canisters with lids

r Twelve nails, about three inches long or 1/4-

inch diameter bolts to use as weights

r One or two 6-volt batteries (two if you are 

using a 12-volt motor)

r Container of water at least 18 inches deep 

(bathtub, large laundry tub, etc)

r Hot glue gun

r Wire cutters or wire stripper or a sharp knife

r Optional: Hand drill and drill bit of same 

diameter as the motor shaft

Make a simple version 

of an underwater 

remotely operated vehicle

Some underwater robots are controlled by 

built-in computers, and can operate without 

any connection to the surface. These are 

called “Autononomous Underwater Vehicles” 

(AUVs). Many underwater robots are attached 

to a cable that allows a human operator to 

control the robot’s movements from a ship 

on the ocean surface. These robots are called 

“Remotely Operated Vehicles” (ROVs).

What can swim deep inside the 

wreck of the Titanic?

What can sit on the edge of 

an erupting underwater volcano?

What can dive thousands of feet

 below the ocean surface?

What can collect animals no one 

has seen before from 

the deep ocean?

Build an Underwater Robot Build an Underwater Robot

Underwater robots can!

Courtesy OAR/National Undersea Research Program (NURP)

Courtesy OAR/National Undersea Research Program (NURP)

What You Will Do
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 35

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

Warnings

1. Do not connect a wire directly between the 

two terminals of a battery. The wire will 

rapidly become very hot and may start a fire 

or cause serious burns!

2. Do not do this activity in saltwater because 

everything will short out and your motor 

will be ruined.

3. If you use a knife to remove insulation from 

the wires, be careful! Put the wire onto a 

cutting board and roll the knife over the 

wire to cut the insulation, but not the wire. 

Keep your fingers clear of the blade!

How to Do It

1. Press the propeller onto the shaft of the motor. If the propeller is loose on the shaft, 

place a small drop of epoxy glue on the end 

of the shaft before installing the propeller.

If the shaft is too large for the hole in the 

propeller, enlarge the hole slightly with a 

hand drill fitted with a small drill bit. (You 

may need help from an adult for this.)

2. Hold the coat hanger so that the hook is 

pointed down. Tape the motor onto the 

inside of the hook so that the propeller is 

facing up. 

3. Tape the two film canisters, with lids on, to 

the upper part of the coat hanger. 

8. Tape the other end of each wire to a popsicle 

stick or chopstick so that the bare wire end 

is hanging over the end of the stick. 

9. If you are using a 12-volt motor, connect 

two 6-volt batteries in series: Strip about 

one inch of insulation off of both ends of 

a piece of #28 AWG wire about 12 inches 

long. Twist one end of the wire around the 

negative terminal of one battery, and twist 

the other end of the wire around the positive terminal of the other battery. 

4. Tape enough weights to the lower parts of 

the coat hanger (near the hook) so that the 

coat hanger floats just below the surface of 

the water. 

5. Strip about one inch of insulation off of both 

ends of each wire.

6. Twist one end of each wire onto a terminal 

of the motor. If necessary, you can keep the 

wires in place with a dab of hot glue.

7. Twist the wires together to make a single 

cable.

film canisters

motor with propeller - use 

tape to attach to hanger

wires attached to popsicle 

sticks with tape

tape weights here
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

36

10. Test Dive Your ROV: Touch the bare end of 

one wire to one battery terminal, and the 

bare end of the other wire to the other 

battery terminal. If the propeller spins but 

does not sink, try reversing the wires on the 

battery terminals. If your ROV still doesn’t 

sink, you may need to add some more 

weight.

Ocean explorers use ROVs for many purposes, 

including monitoring underwater habitats, 

observing fishes and other organisms, exploring 

deepsea environments, investigating shipwrecks, and studying areas too dangerous for 

humans such as active underwater volcanoes. 

Underwater robots are essential tools of modern 

ocean explorers. 

ROVs may be large or quite small, depending 

upon the jobs they are expected to do, but they 

all have some systems in common:

• Framework on which other components are 

mounted;

Want to Do More?

1. Add two more motors to your ROV to make 

it move horizontally. You should be able to 

make your ROV spin or move in a straight 

line, depending upon how you connect the 

motors and the battery.

2. For more underwater robots you can build, 

check out these books by Harry Bohm:

Bohm, H. 1997. Build your own underwater 

robot and other wet projects. Westcoast 

Words. 148 pages.

Bohm, H. and V. Jensen. 1998. Build Your 

Own Programmable Lego Submersible: Project: Sea Angel AUV (Autonomous Underwater 

Vehicle). Westcoast Words. 39 pages.

• Flotation so that the ROV is neutrally buoyant 

(or nearly neutral; this means it doesn’t rise 

or sink when in the water);

• Ballast to keep the robot from rolling over;

• Power to operate motors, video cameras, and 

other equipment;

• Propulsion to move the robot up and down, 

side to side, and backward and forward;

• Control to cause the robot to perform certain 

tasks; and

• Navigation to keep track of the robot.

Some of these systems may not actually be on 

the ROV itself, but instead may be on a ship 

and connected to the ROV with a cable. Most 

ROVs carry video equipment, and many have 

manipulator arms that can collect samples, 

handle tools, etc.

For more information about underwater robots 

and ocean exploration, visit http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/subs/subs.html. 

Scroll down the page for links to all kinds of 

submersibles!

A Little More About Underwater Robots

Courtesy Mountains in the Sea scientific party: NOAA, URI/IAO and IFE

Adapted from an activity by Harry Bohm and the Marine 

Advanced Technology Education Center (MATE). 

www.marinetech.org
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 37

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

Earth Origami

Carl Skalak was on a solo canoe trip in the 

Adirondack Mountains of upstate New York when a 

surprise storm brought three days of high winds and 

heavy rain that eventually turned to snow. When the 

weather cleared, the river was frozen over and he was 

surrounded by high drifts of heavy snow.

“I knew I couldn’t get out on my own, and didn’t 

know if that situation would change for the positive 

anytime soon.”

Skalak activated a Personal Locator Beacon (PLB), 

which sent a distress message to NOAA’s Search 

and Rescue Satellite Aid Tracking System (SARSAT). 

According to Lt. Daniel Karlson, SARSAT operations 

support officer for NOAA, “Mr. Skalak was facing 

a life-threatening situation because of his isolated 

conditions and the brutally frigid weather. In a 

matter of a few hours, he might have become acutely 

hypothermic putting his life at risk.” The SARSAT distress 

signal was relayed to the Air Force Rescue Coordination 

Center at Langley Air Force Base, Va., which in turn notified 

the nearest rescue unit, the U.S. Army Fort Drum Air 

Ambulance Detachment near Watertown, N.Y. A few hours 

after activating his PLB, Mr. Skalak was rescued.

~ from NOAA News Online (Story 2124) at 

http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2003/s2124.htm

NOAA’s National Environmental Satellite, 

Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) 

operates a search and rescue system known 

as COSPAS-SARSAT, in cooperation with the 

U.S. Coast Guard, the U.S. Air Force, and 

the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This system can detect emergency 

signals from Personal Locator Beacons 

anywhere in the world. Carl Skalak’s PLB 

may have saved his life.

NESDIS uses satellites for many other 

purposes in addition to search and rescue, 

and gathers information about Earth’s 

environment that includes the location of 

major fishing areas, hurricanes, tsunamis, 

earthquakes, fires, and volcanoes, as well 

as information about Earth’s habitats, geology, 

and climate. NOAA makes this information available to many people for many different purposes. 

Here’s one example of a special NESDIS product: 

satellite images of Earth, assembled so that the 

combined image can be folded to produce a threedimensional object that is almost round.

What You Will Do

Make a three-dimensional 

model of Earth

Earth Origami

Digital Global Image by Peter W. Slos, NOAA-NGDC
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

38

What You Will Need

r National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) 

“Origami Balloon” image, copied on a color 

printer as large as you can make it. You can 

download a pdf file of this image (2.5 MB) 

from http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/image/origamiearth.pdf

r Scissors

How to Do It

1. Cut the Origami Balloon image into a square.

2. Put the square image face-up on a flat 

surface so that the NOAA logo is right-sideup. Fold the bottom edge to the top edge, 

and make a crease that passes through the 

center of the square. Now unfold and refold 

along the same crease so the image is facing out. This will make it easier to shape 

the model in later steps. Unfold the image 

so it is a square again.

3. Bring one corner to the opposite corner and 

make a diagonal crease that passes through 

the center of the square. Unfold and refold along the same crease in the opposite 

direction. Unfold the image so it is a square 

again.

4. Fold the other corner to the opposite corner, 

and make another diagonal crease so that 

you now have three creases that cross in 

the center of the square. Unfold and refold along the same crease in the opposite 

direction. Unfold the image so it is a square 

again.

5. Put your thumbs on the ends of the horizontal crease formed in Step 2. Push the sides 

of the square together, and flatten into a 

triangle. The longest side of the triangle 

should be closest to you.

6. Notice that there are two pieces at each of 

the side corners of the triangle, one on top 

of the other. Take the upper piece at one of 

the side corners (a), bring it to the top of 

the triangle, and make a crease (b). Repeat with the upper piece of the other side 

corner. 

a

b

fold
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 39

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

7. Turn the model over, and repeat Step 6.

8. Now there are two pieces at each of the side 

corners, one on top of the other. Fold the 

upper piece on one side to the center and 

make a vertical crease (a). Repeat with the 

upper piece of the other side (b). 

9. Turn the model over, and repeat Step 8.

10. Notice that there are two free points at the 

top of the model. If you turn the model 

over, there are two more free points at the 

top. Fold down the left free point at the top 

of the model (a). Open up the pocket on 

the left, and tuck the point into the pocket. 

Repeat with the right free point (b).

11. Turn the model over, and repeat Step 10.

12. Open up the shape and find the open end 

at the bottom of the model.

13. Hold the model lightly by the edges, and 

blow sharply into the hole. The Earth Origami Balloon will inflate!

Want to Do More?

1. See http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/education/education.html for lots of other images, maps, 

and activities.

2. Visit http://www.magazine.noaa.gov/stories/

mag96.htm for more information about 

COSPAS/SARSAT and Personal Locator 

Beacons.

c

d

a

b

a

b

An artist’s conception of a fully integrated environmental monitoring system including satellites, 

balloons, ships, aircraft, buoys, and data reception and 

processing facilities.Courtesy NOAA.

Origami illustrations courtesy Mel Goodwin
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

Make Your Own 

Volcano!

What You Will Need

r Cardboard tube from a roll of paper towels

r Sheets of newspaper

r Clear plastic tape or masking tape

r Corrugated cardboard, about 12 inches 

square

r Aluminum foil or homemade modeling dough 

(see recipe below)

r Modeling dough (store-bought or homemade)

r Baking soda (enough to fill the cardboard 

tube at least half full)

r Vinegar, about eight ounces

r Sharp knife to cut the cardboard tube

r Optional: spray paint; spray glue; sand; food 

coloring

Warnings 

1. Be careful with the knife! Cut on a flat cutting board, and keep your fingers away from 

the blade!

2. Wear protective gloves and eye shields when 

handling chemicals.

2,000 feet below the ocean surface, we saw 

billowing clouds of smoke rising from the 

volcano’s crater. Huge clouds of yellow-tinged 

smoke and yellow balls of molten sulfur 

surrounded our underwater robot...As black 

chunks of volcanic ash began spewing out of 

the pit, we decided to retreat from the site 

because the acidic water, sulfur, and flying 

rocks were endangering our robot.

— from the Ocean Explorer 2004 Ring of Fire 

Expedition; the first time any human actually saw 

an underwater volcano erupt!

What You Will Do

Make a model of a volcano, 

complete with eruption!

40
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

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How to Do It

1. Cut the cardboard tube to a length of about 

eight inches. Plug the bottom of the tube 

with a piece of modeling dough.

2. Tape the cardboard tube to the piece of 

corrugated cardboard with plastic tape or 

masking tape.

3. Crumple sheets of newspaper into balls, and 

tape these onto the corrugated cardboard 

around the cardboard tube. Make several 

different size balls so the surface tapers 

upward from the edge of the cardboard to 

the top of the cardboard tube, giving your 

volcano its shape.

Explore the Earth Activity: MakeYour Own Volcano

corrugated cardboard

cardboard tube

modeling dough

baking soda

newspaper wads

modeling dough plug

spray paint

Cutaway view of the volcano model

4. Cover the balls of newspaper with a sheet 

of aluminum foil or a rolled out sheet of 

homemade modeling dough. Leave a hole in 

the covering for the end of the cardboard 

tube. Fold the edges of the foil under the 

corrugated cardboard sheet

5. Optional: Decorate your model. Spray with 

green and brown spray paint. You may also 

want to spray on glue and dribble sand onto 

the glue before it dries.

6. Fill the cardboard tube at least half full of 

baking soda. If desired, mix several drops of 

red food coloring into the vinegar to give a 

molten lava appearance.

7. Take your model outside before erupting! 

Pour the vinegar into the tube, and 

stand back!

[Note: The volcano model made in 

this activity has the shape of a strato 

volcano. If you want to make a model 

of a shield volcano, cut the cardboard 

tube to a length of about three inches 

instead of eight inches (Step 1). Then 

follow the remaining instructions.]

41

Courtesy Mel Goodwin

 Recipe for 

Homemade Modeling Dough

1 cup flour

1/2 cup salt

1 cup water

1 tablespoon cooking oil

2 teaspoon cream of tartar

(optional) food coloring

Mix all ingredients together and heat slowly, 

stirring constantly, until the mixture is 

thick and doughy. Let the mixture cool until 

it can be handled. Knead the dough ball a 

few times, then wrap in foil to store.
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42

What’s Happening

Volcanoes erupt when rocks melt 

below Earth’s surface. Liquid rock 

is called magma, and tends to rise 

toward the surface. Magma collects 

beneath the surface in magma 

chambers, which often contain 

various gases as well as magma. 

When the magma and gases 

break through the Earth’s crust, 

an eruption happens. If pressure 

builds up inside the magma 

chamber, the eruption may be very 

violent. Very hot magma flows 

easily over the Earth’s surface, and 

produces flattened volcanoes called 

shield volcanoes. If the magma is 

cooler, it is sticky and flows more 

slowly, producing the familiar 

cone-shaped volcanoes called 

strato volcanoes. If the eruption is 

extremely explosive and violent, the 

top of the volcano may be blown 

completely away so that only the inside of the magma chamber remains. 

The collapsed depression is called a caldera.

See the diagram above for a summary of the different types of submarine 

volcanoes.

This activity is adapted from “The Volcano Factory,“ a lesson from the Ocean Explorer 2004 

Ring of Fire Expedition (http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04fire/background/edu/

media/RoF.volcanism.pdf); by Mel Goodwin, The Harmony Project, Charleston, SC

Want to Do More?

1. You can see pictures from the Ocean Explorer Ring of Fire expeditions, 

and find out more about their discoveries at: 

http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03fire/welcome.html, 

http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/04fire/welcome.html, and

http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06fire/welcome.html.

2. Some volcanoes in the United States are also part of the Ring of Fire! 

Find out more at http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/.

Most submarine volcanoes occur where tectonic plates are either moving apart or colliding. This image shows the many types of plate boundaries: convergent, transform, divergent, and continental rift zone. The Explorer Ridge is a divergent plate boundary at an ocean spreading ridge in 

the eastern Pacific, where new oceanic crust is formed. The Mariana Island Arc, on the other end of the conveyor belt in the western Pacific, was 

formed by the melting of the subducting Pacific Plate. (Image courtesy of USGS Web site. Cross section by Jose F. Vigil from This Dynamic Planet.)

42
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 43

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

Now you see them, now you don’t!

Some marine animals are nearly invisible to the human eye, but 

become much easier to see if viewed through a polarizing filter. If 

you have ever put on a pair of polarized sunglasses to reduce glare, 

you have first-hand knowledge about how a polarized filter can make 

things easier to see. 

Many animals, including fish, insects, birds, crabs, and shrimp have 

built-in polarized vision that helps them find food, avoid predators, 

navigate, and communicate with mates. Scientists know very little 

about how animals see in the deep ocean, and it’s quite possible that 

many animals have been able to avoid being seen by deep ocean explorers. Maybe some animals can’t be seen at all with ordinary human 

vision, even if they are right in front of us! 

The Ocean Explorer Deep Scope Expeditions looked into the deep ocean 

with new eyes, including high-tech cameras that can see animals 

under extremely dim light, as well as instruments to observe animals 

that make their own light (bioluminescence) or use various types of 

polarization vision. Here are some simple experiments you can do to 

start exploring with polarized light.

What You Will Do

Experiment with polarizing

 filters, and find out whether you 

have polarization vision

A gallery of images of plankton viewed between two polarizers. In this particular setup, a normal transparent object would still be invisible. However, if the object, or animal, contains any 

birefringent (doubly refractive) substance, it will appear quite bright. Tissues such as muscle 

and tendon can be highly birefringent and are responsible for almost all the bright areas on 

these images. Photo composite: S Johnsen using images from E. Widder.

Do You Have Twisted Vision? Do You Have Twisted Vision?
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44

What You Will Need

r Two pieces of polarizing filter material from 

an old pair of polarizing sunglasses, or you 

can buy polarizing filters from educational 

supply companies or from Calumet Photo 

(1-800-225-8638), catalog number RC3000; 

about $40 for a 19 inch x 20 inch sheet). 

The material will be marked with an arrow that shows the “polarization axis.” If 

you cut the filter into pieces, use a felt tip 

marker to draw an arrow pointing the same 

way on each of the pieces.

r Plastic protractor, drafting triangle, and/or 

clear plastic fork

Warning

NEVER look directly at the sun, 

even through polarized filters!

How to Do It

1. Shine a light through a single piece of polarizing filter material. Some of the light will 

be absorbed by the filter, but it probably 

won’ t matter very much how the filter is 

rotated. Take the filter outside, and look at 

blue sky, away from the sun. Now, if you 

rotate the filter the sky will appear darker 

and then lighter. Most light passes through 

when the filter is lined up with the direction of the polarized light.

2. Put a second piece of polarizing filter material on top of the first filter and shine a 

light through the combined filter. When one 

of the filters is rotated, you will see that 

most light comes through when the polarization axes of the filters are pointing in 

the same direction (parallel). Less and less 

light passes through as the angle between 

the polarization axes increases, to a point 

at which almost no light is transmitted 

when the polarization axes are perpendicular to each other. 

3. Place a plastic protractor, drafting triangle, 

or clear plastic fork between two sheets 

of polarizing filter material and shine a 

light through the stack. When one filter 

is rotated, bands of color will appear and 

move over the surface of the plastic object. Flexing the object may reveal stress 

lines in the material. This is an example of 

birefringence, which is what happens when 

materials bend polarized light in different 

directions. Birefringence occurs in many 

living tissues, and can make food organisms 

much more visible to marine animals with 

polarized vision.

Note: Not all plastic objects show birefringence. If some of your plastic objects don’t 

work, try some others!

4. If human eyes could detect polarized light, 

you wouldn’ t need the second filter in 

these demonstrations. But some humans do 

seem to have very limited polarization vision. To find out if you are one of them, try 

this: Face blue sky, away from the sun, and 

concentrate on the center of your visual 

light source

polarizing filters parallel 

to each other

polarizing filters perpendicular 

to each other

The Effect of Polarizing Filters
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 45

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

particles are all vibrating in the same direction, 

the light is said to be polarized. Most light, 

including light from the sun, from ordinary light 

bulbs, and from candles is not polarized. Unpolarized light can be transformed into polarized 

light in several ways, including passing light 

through a filter that only transmits light waves 

that are vibrating in a single direction. Light 

waves vibrating in other directions are blocked. 

It may be easier to understand this kind of 

polarization by imagining a picket fence with 

a rope passing between the pickets. If we raise 

and lower one end of the rope to make a wave, 

it’ s easy to understand that the wave can only 

pass through the fence if the wave is parallel to 

the pickets, like this: 

A wave in any other direction would run into 

the pickets and be stopped. The same thing 

happens in a polarizing filter, except the molecules of the filter material are lined up instead 

of the pickets in the fence.

The picket fence also helps understand what happens when light is passed through two polarizing 

filters. If the rope passes through two picket 

fences, a wave in the rope will only be transmitted if the pickets in both fences are parallel. If 

one of the fences is rotated, the wave will be 

blocked, like this:

So, if we hold two polarizing filters in front of a 

light source, and then rotate one of the filters, 

we will see the light grow brighter as the molecular “pickets” in the two filters become parallel. 

Light can also be polarized by reflection from 

non-metallic surfaces such as roads, snow, and 

water. The amount of polarization depends upon 

the type of surface and the angle at which the 

light approaches the surface. Glare from these 

surface can be reduced or eliminated by polarizing filters (such as sunglasses) whose molecular 

“pickets” are not parallel to the vibration direction of the reflected light waves. Light can also 

be partially polarized when it is scattered off of 

particles in the atmosphere.

field (the area of sky that you can see). If 

you see a fuzzy yellowish horizontal bar or 

bow-tie shape, you are seeing “Haidinger’s 

brush,” and you have a limited form of 

polarized vision! You can also try to see 

Haidinger’s brush by looking at a bright 

background (such as a well-lit white wall) 

through polarized sunglasses. 

5. Why do you suppose so many invertebrates 

have polarized vision while humans do 

not? Part of the answer is that the human 

eye consists of a single lens that focuses 

an image onto light-sensitive cells in the 

retina that transmit nerve signal to the 

brain. Many invertebrates have compound 

eyes made of hundreds (or thousands) of 

“simpler” eyes called ommatidia. Each 

ommatidium has a lens, crystalline cone, 

and visual cells containing rhodopsin. In 

vertebrates, the visual pigment molecules 

are randomly oriented, but in many invertebrates these molecules are lined up in the 

same direction. This makes it possible for 

these animals to detect polarized light.

What’s Happening

We can imagine light as vibrating particles of 

energy moving in a series of waves, sort of like 

the particles of water that make ocean waves. 

In some light waves, the energy particles are vibrating in many different directions. These light 

waves produce unpolarized light. If the energy 

“rope” wave passing through parallel picket fences

“rope” wave blocked when one fence is rotated
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46

Want to Do More?

One of the most famous examples of polarization vision is the discovery by Karl von Frisch 

that bees detect patterns of polarized light in 

the sky, and communicate directions to each 

other by dancing in a specific pattern. 

• For more information about Karl von Frisch 

and his bees, visit http://polarization.

com/bees/bees.html.

• For more information about Haidinger’ s 

brush and polarization vision in humans, 

visit http://polarization.com/haidinger/

haidinger.html.

• For more information about the Ocean 

Explorer Deep Scope Expeditions, visit:

– http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/

explorations/05deepscope/welcome.

html

–“Secret Communication Channels in the 

Ocean: Polarization Vision” http://

oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/

04deepscope/background/polarization/polarization.html

–“Hiding in Plain Sight: Birefringence” 

http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/

explorations/04deepscope/logs/

aug15/aug15.html

–“Measuring Vision in Crustaceans” 

http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/

explorations/04deepscope/background/vision/vision.html

Two images of the same leptocephalus eel larva. The top image 

is viewed under unpolarized, transmitted light. The bottom image is 

viewed under polarized, transmitted light by a camera with a polarizing filter. The increased visibility 

of the bottom image is due to the 

presence of birefringent muscle 

and connective tissue fibers. Photo 

composite: S Johnsen using images 

from E. Widder.

This Caranchid squid, about four-inches across, uses transparency 

to hide from potential predators. Open-water divers can more 

easily observe these creatures with polarizing filters. Compare the 

polarized and unpolarized images to one another. Images courtesy 

Edie Widder.

This activity is adapted from “Twisted Vision,” a lesson from the Ocean Explorer Operation Deep Scope 2005 Expedition 

(http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/05deepscope/background/edu/media/twisted.pdf); by Mel Goodwin, The Harmony Project, Charleston, SC.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 47

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

Be A Shipwreck Detective!

“Great acts of courage,

senseless tragedy, 

the heroism of a captain, 

the greed of a stingy shipowner, 

the stupidity of a watchman 

all find their ways into the history of shipwrecks.” 

~ from the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary 

Shipwreck Database Web site

Shipwrecks are an important part of our nautical heritage. Some of 

our nation’s most interesting shipwrecks are found in NOAA’s National 

Marine Sanctuaries, including the remains of the Civil War ironclad, 

U.S.S. Monitor. Some shipwrecks are hazardous to other vessels. Nautical charts produced by NOAA’s Office of Coast Survey show the location 

of known shipwrecks and other hazards to navigation.

In September 2003, NOAA’s Ocean Exploration Program visited a newly 

discovered shipwreck in the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary on the coast of Massachusetts. Underwater archaeologists studied 

the wreck to learn more about what happened to cause the ship to 

sink. Now it’s your turn to be a Wreck Detective! Storm, shipwreck, and sea monster. Archival Photograph by Mr. Sean Linehan, NOS, NGS

Examine information about items found in and around the 

Stellwagen Bank shipwreck, and draw conclusions about the p 

ship, who was aboard, and why the ship sank

What You Will Do
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48

How to Do It

1. Your first task is to organize information 

about where the artifacts were found on the 

shipwreck. The “List of Artifacts” gives a 

grid location for each item and how deeply 

artifacts were buried (so “22 inches from 

surface” means the object was buried 22 

inches into the sea bottom). Archaeologists 

often use a grid system to precisely record 

the exact location of artifacts and their 

relationship to each other. You have already 

What You Will Need

r “Grid Reference System for Unidentified 

Shipwreck Q11WRK5” and “List of Artifacts 

Retrieved from Unidentified Shipwreck 

Q11WRK5”

r Imagination

used grids to express location if you have 

ever played Battleship, or even Bingo. 

2. As you look at the description of each artifact, think about how deep the artifact was 

below the surface, and what other artifacts 

were found nearby. Then consider what the 

artifacts may suggest about

• the specific identity of the ship that sank;

• age of the vessel;

• the vessel’s purpose;

• who was aboard; and

• why the vessel sank.

3. Write your conclusions on a piece of paper. 

Then read “The Story of the Steamship Portland” on Page 50.

Want to Do More?

1. Visit http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/

explorations/03portland/welcome.html

the Web site for the Steamship Portland 

expedition.

2. For another shipwreck activity see “Lost 

at Sea: Sunken Slave Ship” activity from 

Newton’s Apple episode 1502. You can 

access this activity from http://www.ktca.

org/newtons/15/sunken.html

3. Read “The Portland Gale” from http://www.

hazegray.org for more information on the 

Portland and the monster storm of 1898.

This activity is adapted from “Wreck Detectives,“ a lesson 

from the Ocean Explorer Steamship Portland Expedition 

(http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03portland/

background/edu/media/portlandwreckdetec.pdf); by Mel 

Goodwin, The Harmony Project, Charleston, SC.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 49

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

Grid Reference Description

E19–E23 

& F19-F23 Heavy metal structure, diamond shaped, 

 partially buried

D10 Gentleman’s gold ring, 22 inches from surface

E14 Heavy mahogany chair, velvet upholstery, 

 40 inches from surface

D10 China plate, 100 inches from surface

G10 China chamber pot, 20 inches from surface

D13 Silver flatware, engraved letter “P,” 

 100 inches from surface

F14 China cup, 100 inches from surface

D10 Brandy flask, 20 inches from surface

F14 Domed skylight, 16 inches from surface

D13 Carved mahogany headboard, 

 28 inches from surface

F13 Ebony piano keyboard, 

 22 inches from surface

C19-C24 Massive paddlewheel, partially buried

G10 Child’s rocking chair, mahogany, 

 24 inches from surface

D13 Lady’s dress shoe, 26 inches from surface

G10 Shaving straight razor, 22 inches from surface

H17 Silver buckle, 28 inches from surface

Grid Reference Description

D13 China chamber pot, 24 inches from surface

E11 Carving knife, 92 inches from surface

D10 Man’s leather dress shoe, 

 24 inches from surface

B13 Carved wooden plank, 

 letters “RTLAND;” left side broken

E11 Silver serving platter, 92 inches from surface

E5 Rusted iron mass, possibly chain

F21 Heavily rusted iron mass, possibly tools, 

 100 inches from surface

E11 Ship’s wheel, 12 inches from surface

D10 Small mahogany chest of drawers, 

 28 inches from surface

E33 Rudder, partially buried

G19-G24 Massive paddlewheel, partially buried

E17 & F17 Smokestacks

NOTE: Extensive debris around main wreck, mostly 

large timbers and pieces of heavy equipment; 

several lifeboat remnants outside main wreck. 

Less obvious structural debris in quadrats 

numbered 25 and higher; these quadrats contain 

mostly silt down to the apparent hull of the vessel 

at approximately 140 inches.

List of Artifacts Retrieved from Unidentified Shipwreck Q11WRK5
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50

On Thanksgiving Saturday, November 26, 1898, the passenger steamship Portland left Boston 

Harbor with more than 190 passengers and crew 

bound for Portland, Maine. The Portland was a 

state-of-the-art, luxury ship with velvet carpets, 

mahogany furniture, and airy staterooms. By 1898, 

paddlewheel steamboats had revolutionized transportation in the United States. Faster and more 

reliable than sailing ships, paddlewheelers could also 

maneuver in waters that were too shallow for sailing 

ships. By the 1870’s, many people routinely boarded 

steamboats to travel between port cities. But the 

paddle-wheelers had a serious flaw: they were built 

long and narrow (the Portland was 281 feet long and 

62 feet wide), and this shape combined with a shallow draft (the Portland’s keel was only 11 feet below 

the water line) made these ships extremely unstable 

in high seas. 

When the Portland steamed out of Boston Harbor, 

she ran straight into a monster storm moving up the 

Atlantic coast with northeasterly winds gusting to 

90 mph, dense snow, and temperatures well below 

freezing. Facing a roaring northeasterly wind, the 

captain could not turn back; to have done so would 

have placed the ship broadside to wind and waves 

that would surely have capsized her. The only choice 

was to continue to head northeast into the waves, 

and hope to ride out the storm. Four hours after her 

departure, a vessel believed to have been the Portland

was seen near Thatcher Island, about 30 miles northeast of Boston. But the Portland was apparently unable to make much more progress against the storm.

At 5:45 a.m. on the morning of November 27, four 

short blasts on a ship’s steam whistle told the keeper 

of the Race Point Life-Saving Station on Cape Cod 

that a vessel was in trouble. Seventeen hours later, 

life jackets, debris, and human bodies washed ashore 

near the the Race Point station, confirming that the 

Portland and everyone aboard had been lost in one of 

New England’s worst maritime disasters. The loss 

of the Portland underscored the inherent instability 

of sidewheel paddleboats. Sidewheelers were gradually replaced by propeller-driven boats, which have a 

lower center of gravity.

For 90 years, the location of the Portland wreck was 

unknown, despite intense and continuing public 

interest. In April 1989, members of the Historical 

Maritime Group of New England found wreckage 

in water more than 300 feet deep that they were 

certain had been the Portland. Because of the depth, 

however, the discoverers were unable to obtain photographs or other evidence that could confirm their 

find. Thirteen years later, on August 29, 2002, the 

U.S. Commerce Department’s National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) confirmed 

that the wreck of the Portland had been found 

within NOAA’s Stellwagen Bank National Marine 

Sanctuary. Using side-scan sonar and a remotely 

operated vehicle (ROV), scientists obtained highquality video and side-scan images in a joint research 

mission of the Stellwagen Bank National Marine 

Sanctuary and the National Undersea Research 

Center at the University of Connecticut.

Massive storms during late October and November 

are not particularly unusual in the New England 

states. At this time of the year, large cold air masses 

from Canada cross the midwestern states on a 

regular basis. At the same time, the Atlantic Ocean 

retains its summer heat and these warm waters 

sometimes spawn hurricanes. When the east-moving cold air masses encounter the warm, humid 

oceanic air, the result is what New Englanders call 

“Nor’easters:” storms that are often severe, and are 

often the cause of maritime disasters. L

The Story of the Steamship Portland Clues from the 

“List of Artifacts Retrieved from 

Unidentified Shipwreck Q11WRK5:”

The large paddlewheels near the middle of the ship 

clearly suggest a sidewheel paddleboat. This was a 

large vessel for a paddlewheeler; over 280 feet. The 

diamond shaped metal structure is probably the remains of a walking beam engine, a common design 

in ships of this type. The fact that this was a large 

paddlewheeler narrows its probable vintage to between 1890 and 1910. Artifacts in quadrats D10, D13, 

and G10 suggest that men, women, and children 

may have been aboard, and these areas may have 

been staterooms. The fact that artifacts in these 

areas were close to the surface suggests that these 

staterooms were on or near the deck of the vessel. 

Eating utensils recovered from more than 80 inches 

below the surface suggest a dining area, located 

on a lower deck. Engraved silver flatware and the 

carved wooden plank are valuable clues, suggesting 

that the name of the vessel may have begun with 

the letter “P” and ended with the letters “rtland.” 

Many of the artifacts suggest wealth and luxury. 

This vessel almost certainly carried some wealthy 

passengers.

Think about the size of the debris field. Ships that 

sink suddenly (such as those sunk in battle) often 

have a rather small debris field. Ships that sink 

with lots of movement, on the other hand (such as 

ships sunk in storms) are likely to have larger debris 

fields. This ship has an extensive debris field, suggesting that a lot of motion, possibly due to a storm, 

was involved in her sinking.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 51

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

“OK, we’re 8,000 feet deep now...

Hey, there’s something on the bottom that 

looks like twisted stone chimneys with some 

kind of hot fluid jetting out from the top...

Wait a minute...there’s all kinds of animals 

down here; giant clams and huge red worms 

sticking out of eight-foot-long tubes...

Believe me, no one has ever seen anything 

like this before...“

These observations, made on February 17, 

1977 aboard the deep-diving submarine Alvin, 

were one of the biggest scientific discoveries 

of the last century: a totally new ecosystem 

thriving at near-freezing temperatures in the 

total darkness of the deep Pacific Ocean, and 

under water pressure more than 275 times 

greater than the pressure at sea level. 

These ecosystems, now called “hydrothermal 

vent communities,” do not depend upon 

green plants and sunlight for their food. 

Instead, they are able to use chemicals in 

the hot fluids pouring out of the twisted 

Photograph of three small (12 inches tall) actively venting spires 

sitting on top of one of the chimneys in the Black Forest vent field. 

The chimneys themselves are about 23 feet tall. The fluids here 

are venting at 240oC (464°F) and are expelling black (mineral-rich) 

smoke into the ocean.

What You Will Do

Make a three-dimensional 

model of a giant tubeworm

Weird, Red, and Slightly Gross!

stone “chimneys.” This process is called 

“chemosynthesis.” Most hydrothermal vent 

animals aren’t able to use these chemicals all 

by themselves. Instead they have partnerships 

with other organisms, usually bacteria. 

The tubeworms, for example, have a large 

organ called a trophosome, that contains 

chemosynthetic bacteria.They do not have 

a mouth, stomach, or intestines. The worms 

have long tentacles that stick out from the 

end of the tube. Inside the tentacles, the 

worms’ blood contains hemoglobin (like 

human blood) that can absorb chemicals 

from the surrounding water. The blood carries 

these chemicals to bacteria living in the 

trophosome. The bacteria produce food that 

provides nutrition to the tubeworm. 

In May, 2002, the NOAA’s Ocean Explorer 

Galapagos Rift Expedition revisited the site 

where hydrothermal vents were first seen. See 

http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/

02galapagos/logs/photolog/photolog.html for 

photos and videos from the expedition.
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

52

What You Will Need

1. Materials that can represent parts of the 

tubeworm (see the drawing below). Here are 

some ideas, but with a little imagination 

you can probably find lots of other things 

to use:

• Cardboard tubes (mailing tubes or paper 

towel rolls) for the trunk and tube

• Pipe cleaners for tentacles

• Modeling clay or papier mâché (newspaper and glue made from flour and 

water) for the vestimentum

• Sponge for the trophosome

• Small corks or pieces of round cereal can 

represent bacteria

2. Other supplies: glue, scissors, poster board, 

colored markers, and/or spray paint

3. Optional: a rotten egg in a tightly-closed jar

How to Do It

Since most of a tubeworm is hidden inside 

the tube, you should build your model as a 

“cut-away” (also called a cross section) so 

that the major structures can be seen. Here 

are the parts of a tubeworm that should be 

included in your model:

• Tentacles – All the tentacles together are 

call the “Plume”; these should be colored 

red, since they contain hemoglobin.

• Vestimentum – This is a muscular structure 

that has several functions:

– It helps to hold the worm in its tube;

– It generates new tube material;

– It contains pores that release sperm or 

eggs during spawning; 

– It contains the tubeworm’s version of a 

heart and a brain.

• Trophosome – This dark green-brown organ 

has a spongy texture, and contains bacteria 

Tubeworm

that use oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide to make food for themselves 

as well as the worm; be sure to include 

something that represents bacteria (there 

are billions of bacteria in the trophosome, 

but you don’t need to include all of them in 

your model!)

A very noticeable feature about tubeworms 

is their smell. One of the chemicals used by 

chemosynthetic bacteria is hydrogen sulfide, 

which is what makes rotten eggs smell the 

way they do. If you want to include this 

feature in your model, you should probably 

put a rotten egg (or other source of 

hydrogen sulfide) in a glass jar with a tightfitting lid so you can control the smell.

Plume

Blood Vessel

Vestimemtum

Heart

Trophosome

Tube

Body Cavity (inside 

the Trunk)

Opisthosome

• Trunk – This is where waste is 

stored, since tubeworms have 

no mouth, stomach, intestines, 

or anus (nasty, maybe, but it 

works for the tubeworm!)

• Tube – This is a hard hollow cylinder, and provides protection 

for the worm like the shells of 

other animals. The tentacles 

can be pulled completely inside the worm to avoid predators. 

• Opisthosome – This organ (like 

the vestimentum) produces 

new tube material and helps 

anchor the worm in its tube. 
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 53

Science | Service | Stewardship Explore the Earth

Want to Do More?

1. Visit http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewArticle.do?id=2400 to find out about black 

smokers (the “chimneys” around hydrothermal vents that emit hot fluids). 

2. Visit http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/vents/home.

html for more information and activities on 

hydrothermal vent communities.

3. Visit http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/vents/

index.html to learn more about the discovery of hydrothermal vents, including recordings of scientists aboard the submarine 

Alvin.

4. Visit http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/

explorations/02fire/logs/magicmountain/

welcome.html for fly-through movies of the 

Magic Mountain hydrothermal vent site on 

Explorer Ridge (in the northeastern Pacific 

Ocean, about 150 miles west of Vancouver 

Island, British Columbia, Canada).

This activity is adapted from “Let’s Make a Tubeworm!”, a 

lesson from the Ocean Explorer 2002 Gulf of Mexico Expedition (http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06mexico/

background/edu/[http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/

explorations/02mexico/background/edu/media/gom_tube_

gr56.pdf); by Mel Goodwin, The Harmony Project, Charleston, 

SC.

Riftia tubeworms, mussels, and scavenging crabs found at the 

hydrothermal vent site East Wall, located at 90 North on the East 

Pacific Rise. Photo courtesy of C. Van Dover, NOAA.

Giant tubeworm, RIftia pachyptila, from the 

hydrothrmal vents at the East Pacific Rise at 

2500m depth. Each individual in the photo 

exceeds one meter in length. Courtesy Monika 

Bright, University of Vienna, Austria. NOAA

WOW!!!!

These tube worms 

are about 

3 feet long!
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

54

Courtesy NOAA

Courtesy NOAA

Courtesy NOAA

Courtesy NOAA

Courtesy NOAA

Courtesy NOAA

Courtesy NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 55

Science | Service | Stewardship Understand the Earth

NOAA programs to understand Earth’s Weather, Oceans, 

and Climate help make our homes and 

communities safer, and are important for 

reliable commerce and transportation. Water transportation is the backbone of the 

U.S. economy. Almost everyone travels in 

aircraft and motor vehicles. But airplanes, 

ships, trucks, and automobiles are all affected by bad weather. Delays due to bad 

weather cost U.S. airlines more than $4 

billion every year. Bad weather is also involved with over 1.5 million motor vehicle 

accidents each year; and these accidents 

caused about 800,000 injuries and 7,000 

deaths. NOAA contributes to safe travel 

and transportation in many ways, including up-to-the-minute weather information 

and warnings from the National Weather 

Service, nautical and navigational charts, 

satellites that gather data on weather and 

ocean conditions around the world, and 

creating accurate maps of Earth’s surface.

Besides understanding Earth’s weather, 

NOAA also works to understand climate. 

Earth’s climate has changed many times, 

and those changes can have a big impact 

on life in America. When some of the first 

people arrived in North America between 

15,000 and 30,000 years ago, two great 

ice sheets covered much of the continent. About 1,000 years ago, a prolonged 

drought forced the Anasazi people of the 

southwestern United States to abandon 

large settlements in Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. A shorter drought 

caused to the “dust bowl” in the midwestern U.S. during the 1930’s. NOAA’s climate 

programs focus on detecting signs of 

climate change, and on helping individuals 

and communities decide how to cope with 

the effects of changing climate.

Have fun Understanding the Earth with 

these activities from NOAA programs:

Satellite Communications

• Follow That Hurricane!

• Build Your Own Weather Station

• Be a Citizen Weather Reporter

• Tornado in a Bottle

• Tree Ring Detective

• Your Own El Niño

• Wooly Magma

and more!

UNDERSTAND the Earth

Courtesy NOAA

Courtesy NOAA

Courtesy NOAA

Courtesy NOAA
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

56

Follow That Hurricane!

Startled man ready to run after a hurricane driven wave smashes into seawall

Historic NWS Collection. Courtesy NOAA.

Follow That Hurricane!

“Devastating damage expected... A most 

powerful hurricane with unprecedented 

strength... Most of the area will be uninhabitable for weeks, perhaps longer... At least 

one half of well constructed homes will have 

roof and wall failure... all wood framed low rising apartment buildings 

will be destroyed... High rise office and apartment buildings will sway 

dangerously, a few to the point of total collapse... airborne debris will 

be widespread... persons, pets, and livestock exposed to the winds 

will face certain death if struck...” 

~ from Urgent Weather Statement issued by Robert Ricks, Meteorologist, 

National Weather Service, New Orleans/Baton Rouge Office, August 28, 2005

This weather statement, warning of Hurricane Katrina’s approach, 

probably saved many lives. Providing weather forecasts and warnings 

is one of the ways the National Weather Service carries out its mission to protect life and property and enhance the national economy. 

The National Hurricane Center (part of the National Weather Service) 

tracks tropical storms and hurricanes, and issues hurricane watches 

and warnings when the storms get close to the U.S. Here’s how you 

can track the approach of tropical storms and hurricanes.

What You Will Do

Track a hurricane on the same 

type of chart used at the 

National Hurricane Center
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 57

Science | Service | Stewardship Understand the Earth

What You Will Need

r Copy of the “Western Atlantic Hurricane 

Tracking Chart.” To download one yourself, 

go to http://www.nhc.noaa.gov, scroll down 

the page to the blank tracking charts and 

click on the Western Atlantic one.

r Pencil and eraser

r A record of hurricane locations from the 

National Hurricane Center, or from historical 

hurricane records; records from four famous 

hurricanes are found on the following pages.

How to Do It

1. The location of a hurricane on a particular 

date and time is described by the latitude 

and longitude of the storm’s center, called 

the “eye.” Latitude measures how far north 

or south a location is from the equator, and 

longitude measures how far east or west 

a location is from a line that goes from 

the North Pole to the South Pole, passing 

through Greenwich, England. On the “Atlantic Basin Hurricane Tracking Chart,” latitude 

is shown by horizontal lines and longitude 

is shown by vertical lines. Latitude and longitude are measured in degrees. Hurricane 

coordinates are given in pairs, with latitude 

written before longitude. So, the location 

of Bermuda would be written as: 32.3°N, 

64.7°W. The “N” means that the location 

is north of the equator, and the “W” means 

that the location is west of Greenwich, 

England.

2. To plot the location of a storm:

(a) Find the latitude of the storm (the first 

coordinate in the pair), and locate the 

horizontal line on the map that matches 

this latitude.

(b) Find the longitude (the second coordinate in the pair, usually followed by a W 

or E), and locate the vertical line on the 

map that matches this longitude.

(c) Find the place on the map where the 

two lines intersect. This is the location 

of the storm eye. Draw the symbol for a 

hurricane or a tropical storm (depending 

upon the kind of storm you are tracking) 

at this spot, and write the date and time 

next to the symbol. (See above right).

3. Try plotting the track of one or more famous 

hurricanes. You are now ready to plot real 

storms during the next hurricane season! 

You can get coordinates from NOAA WeatherRadio-All Hazards, newspapers, or from 

http://www.nhc.noaa.gov.

Is It a Tropical Depression, 

Tropical Storm, or Hurricane?

Tropical Depressions, Tropical Storms, and Hurricanes are all cyclones, which are areas of low 

pressure in the atmosphere that have a spiralling inward pattern of air movement. In the 

Northern Hemisphere, the spiral turns counterclockwise, while cyclones in the Southern 

Hemisphere have spirals that turn clockwise.

A Tropical Depression is a tropical cyclone in 

which the maximum sustained wind speed is 38 

mph or less.

A Tropical Storm is a tropical cyclone in which 

the maximum sustained wind speed ranges from 

39 mph to 73 mph.

Hurricanes are tropical cyclones with maximum 

sustained wind speeds of 74 mph or greater. 

Hurricanes are classified into five categories:

• Category One: Winds 74-95 miles per hour 

• Category Two: Winds 96-110 miles per hour 

• Category Three: Winds 111-130 miles per hour 

• Category Four: Winds 131-155 miles per hour 

• Category Five: Winds greater than 155 miles 

per hour Hurricane Katrina Satelite View. Courtesy NOAA

Hurricane Symbol:

Tropical Storm Symbol:
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

58

Is Your Family Disaster-Ready?

Visit http://www.fema.gov/kids/dizkit.htm for information about how to 

make a Disaster Supply Kit.

Want to Do More?

Check out these Web sites:

• http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/HAW2/english/intro.shtml – Hurricane 

Awareness from the National Hurricane Center

• www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutnames.shtml – The list of World-Wide 

Tropical Cyclone Names

• www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutsshs.shtml – Information about the SaffirSimpson Hurricane Scale

• http://www.weather.gov/os/hurricane/pdfs/Hurricane_unleashing06.

pdf – “Hurricanes, Unleashing Nature’s Fury,” a booklet about 

hurricanes and why they happen

• http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastall.shtml – Historical Hurricane Tracks 

Web site, with information about dozens of hurricanes in the 

Atlantic and East-Central Pacific Ocean Basins 

Track Coordinates of Some Famous Storms

Hurricane Hugo

Location and Windspeed at 0000 GMT

Date Latitude Longitude Wind Speed

 (North) (West) (knots)

9/11/1989 13.2 23.7 30

9/12/1989 12.5 31.0 40

9/13/1989 12.6 38.2 55

9/14/1989 12.9 44.9 70

9/15/1989 13.8 50.5 100

9/16/1989 14.8 56.1 135

9/17/1989 16.1 60.4 120

9/18/1989 17.2 64.1 130

9/19/1989 19.7 66.8 100

9/20/1989 23.5 69.3 90

9/21/1989 27.2 73.4 100

9/22/1989 31.7 78.8 120

9/23/1989 42.2 80.2 35

9/24/1989 52.0 62.0 40

9/25/1989 54.0 57.0 40

Courtesy FEMA

Courtesy NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 59

Science | Science | Service Service | Stewardship | Stewardship Understand the Earth

Hurricane Andrew

Location and Windspeed at 0000 GMT

Date Latitude Longitude Wind Speed

(North) (West) (knots)

17/8/1992 11.2 37.4 30

18/8/1992 13.6 46.2 40

19/8/1992 16.3 53.5 45

20/8/1992 19.8 59.3 40

21/8/1992 23.2 62.4 45

22/8/1992 25.3 65.9 55

23/8/1992 25.6 71.1 110

24/8/1992 25.4 77.5 125

25/8/1992 26.2 85.0 115

26/8/1992 28.5 90.5 125

27/8/1992 31.5 91.1 35

28/8/1992 34.4 86.7 20

Hurricane Floyd

Location and Windspeed at 0000 GMT

Date Latitude Longitude Wind Speed

(North) (West) (knots)

8/9/1999 15.0 46.9 30

9/9/1999 16.7 52.6 45

10/9/1999 18.3 57.2 60

11/9/1999 20.8 60.4 80

12/9/1999 22.7 64.1 85

13/9/1999 23.4 68.7 125

14/9/1999 24.5 74.0 115

15/9/1999 27.1 77.7 115

16/9/1999 32.1 78.7 90

17/9/1999 40.6 73.5 50

18/9/1999 44.8 67.3 40

19/9/1999 48.0 56.3 35

Hurricane Katrina

Location and Windspeed at 0000 GMT

Date Latitude Longitude Wind Speed

(North) (West) (knots)

24/8/2005 23.4 75.7 30

25/8/2005 26.0 77.7 45

26/8/2005 25.9 80.3 70

27/8/2005 24.6 83.3 90

28/8/2005 24.8 85.9 100

29/8/2005 27.2 89.2 140

30/8/2005 32.6 89.1 50

31/8/2005 38.6 85.3 30

Three views of Hurricane Andrew on 23, 24, and 25 August 1992 as the hurricane moves East 

to West. Time lapse satellite image courtesy NASA.
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

60

LEEWARD ISLANDS

WINDWARD ISLANDS

BARBADOS
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 61

Science | Service | Stewardship Understand the Earth

Build Your Own Weather Station Build Your Own Weather Station

“I believe there is a train under here somewhere!”

Standing tall on North Dakota snow. A March blizzard nearly buried utility poles. 

Caption jokingly read “I believe there is a train under here somewhere!” 

Courtesy Dr. Herbert Kroehl, NGDC

Every year, thousands of lives and millions of dollars are saved by severe 

weather warnings from the National Weather Service. From its earliest 

beginnings (on February 9th, 1870), the primary mission of the National Weather Service has been to protect life and property by providing 

information about dangerous weather conditions. Originally, the National Weather Service was called “The Division of Telegrams and Reports 

for the Benefit of Commerce” and was part of the U.S. Army. Later, its 

name was shortened to the Weather Bureau and it became part of the 

Department of Agriculture, then the Department of Commerce. 

The first “weathermen” were “observing-sergeants” of the Army’s Signal Service Corps. Weather forecasting in those early years was based 

almost entirely on the assumption that the weather observed in one 

location on a particular day would move to downwind locations on 

following days. Today, satellites, computers, and a variety of scientific instruments are added to this basic assumption to make accurate 

weather predictions and provide warnings about dangerous weather. 

Here’s how you can make your own weather observation station!

What You Will Do Build six instruments that you can use to make 

scientific measurements of your local weather
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

62

What You Will Need

r Five paper cups - Three ounce size

r Two straight plastic soda straws

r Straight pin

r Paper punch

r Stapler

r Sharp pencil with eraser

r Felt tip marker

r Watch or timer

Warning

Be careful with the straight pin!

How to Do It:

1. Using a paper punch, punch a hole in four 

paper cups about 1/2-inch below the rim of 

the cups.

2. Punch four equally spaced holes in a fifth 

paper cup about 1/4-inch below the rim, 

and a fifth hole in the center of the bottom 

of the cup (you will probably need to use 

the pencil to make the hole in the bottom).

3. Push a soda straw through the hole in one 

of the first four cups. Flatten the end of the 

straw and staple it to the side of the cup 

opposite the hole. Repeat this step with 

the other straw and another of the first four 

cups.

4. Slide one of the cup and straw assemblies 

through two opposite holes in the side of 

the fifth cup. Push another one-hole cup 

onto the straw, and turn this cup so that 

the open ends of the two cups on the straw 

face in opposite directions. Flatten the end 

of the straw, and staple it to the side of the 

second cup. Measure the distance between 

the centers of the two cups. This is the 

diameter of your anemometer.

Build an Anemometer to Measure Wind Speed

3 oz. paper cup

Straw

Pencil

Straight pin
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 63

Science | Service | Stewardship Understand the Earth

5. Repeat Step 4 with the remaining cup and 

straw assembly and the remaining one-hole 

cup. Before stapling the end of the straw to 

the last cup, turn the cups so that the open 

end of each cup faces the closed end of the 

next cup.

6. Adjust the cup and straw assemblies so that 

they are centered inside the fifth cup. Push 

the straight pin through the two straws 

where they intersect.

7. Push the eraser end of the pencil through 

the hole in the bottom of the fifth cup, and 

push the straight pin into the eraser as far 

as it will go. Now your anemometer is ready 

to use.

8. To use the anemometer, hold the pencil 

vertically in a wind, and count the number 

of revolutions per minute (use the felt tip 

marker to make a mark on one cup so that 

you can easily see when the cup has travelled through one complete revolution). To 

convert revolutions per minute (rpm) into 

approximate wind speed:

a. Multiply rpm by the diameter (in inches) of 

your anemometer (measured in Step 4) 

b. Multiply the result by 0.003. This is the 

approximate wind speed in miles per 

hour. 

This calculation does not give exact wind 

speed, because drag, friction, and other 

forces also affect the speed at which your 

anemometer rotates. 

Finished Anemometer
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

64

Build a Weather Vane to Find Wind Direction

What You Will Need

r Broomstick or long wooden dowel, about 

one inch diameter

r Aluminum baking dish, about six inches x 

nine inches

r Wood stick, about 3/4 inch square and 12 

inches long

r Nail, about one inch long

r Metal washer with a hole slightly larger than 

the nail

r Duct tape

r Small saw or serrated knife

r Scissors strong enough to cut the aluminum 

baking dish

r Ruler or tape measure

r Silicone or other glue that will stick to 

aluminum

r Leather gloves

r (Optional) Hand drill, and small drill bit 

slightly larger than the nail

Warning

Be careful of the sharp edges on the pieces of 

cut aluminum! Use gloves to protect your hands 

until the edges are taped.

Mark this spot on the upper surface of the 

stick, and drive a nail through the marked 

spot. Be careful: if the nail is too big, the 

stick will probably split. To avoid this, drill 

a hole slightly larger than the nail through 

the marked spot. You may need an adult to 

help with the drilling.

3. Cut the head and tail pieces of the Weather 

Vane from the aluminum baking dish using 

the pattern as a guide. Be Careful—The 

Edges Are Sharp! Use duct tape to cover 

the sharp edges.

How to Do It

1. Use the saw or serrated knife to cut a notch 

about 1/2-inch deep into each end of the 

wood stick. The notches shuld be parallel 

(see drawing on page 65).

2. Rotate the stick so that the two slots are 

vertical. Use the ruler or tape measure to 

find the exact center of the wood stick. 

tail

head
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 65

Science | Service | Stewardship Understand the Earth

4. Fit the head piece into one of the slots in 

the wood stick and fit the tail piece into 

the other slot. Glue the head and tail pieces 

into place and allow the glue to dry.

5. Attach the Weather Vane to the broomstick 

or dowel, by placing the washer on one 

end of the dowel and hammering the nail 

through the wooden stick into the dowel. 

Be sure the stick still moves freely around 

the nail. 

6. Mount your Weather Vane outside where 

there are no nearby obstructions to block 

the wind. Try to get the dowel as high as 

you can while still keeping it steady and 

secure. 

Winds are named according to the direction 

from which the wind is blowing, so a “north 

wind” is blowing from the north. The head 

of the Weather Vane will point to the direction from which the wind is blowing.

head

tail

nail

dowel

washer

broom or long 

wooden dowel

Finsished Weather Vane
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

66

Build a Barometer for Measuring Atmospheric Pressure

What You Will Need

r 12-inch ruler

r Drinking glass or other container with sides 

tall enough to support the ruler

r Clear plastic drinking straw or piece of clear 

plastic tubing, about 12-inches long 

r Modeling clay or chewing gum

r Clear tape

r (Optional) Food coloring

How to Do It

1. Tape the plastic straw or plastic tubing to the 

ruler so that one end is lined up with the 

“1/2-inch” mark on the ruler.

2. Stand the ruler-tubing assembly upright in 

the glass (or other container), and tape the 

assembly to the top of the container.

3. Fill the container about 3/4-full of water. If 

you want colored water, first mix food coloring with the water in another container.

4. Use the modeling clay or chewing gum (you’ll 

have to chew it until it is soft enough) to 

plug the end of the straw or plastic tubing 

near the top of the ruler.

5. Carefully pour out some of the water so the 

container is about half full. Be sure the 

lower end of the straw or tubing stays beneath the water surface while you do this! 

When you are finished, the water in the 

straw or tube should be 

higher than the water 

in the container. Your 

barometer is now finished. Since barometers 

are sensitive to minor 

changes in weather 

conditions, keep your 

barometer indoors for 

greatest accuracy.

6. Keep a daily record of 

the height of the water 

in the tube, using the 

scale on the ruler. 

The water level in the 

tube will rise and fall 

as atmospheric pressure changes. When 

atmospheric pressure 

increases, air presses 

on the surface of the 

water in the container 

causing the height of 

the water in the tube to rise. When atmospheric pressure decreases, there is less 

pressure on the surface of the water in the 

container so the height of the water in the 

tube falls. Decreasing atmospheric pressure 

usually indicates that a low pressure area is 

approaching, and this often brings clouds 

and rain. Increasing atmospheric pressure 

often indicates fair weather.

Finished Barometer

glass container

ruler

clear straw or 

plastic tubing

tape 

gum or clay

tape 
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 67

Science | Service | Stewardship Understand the Earth

Build a Screened Thermometer to Measure Air Temperature 

What You Will Need

r A wooden or plastic box, large enough to 

hold the thermometer and your hygrometer; 

see Step 1 under “How to Do It”

r Thermometer, about 0°F to 120°F

r White paint and paint brush

r Nails, screws, glue, or tape to attach the 

thermometer to the box

How to Do It

1. The wood or plastic box is supposed to protect your weather instruments from wind, 

rain, and direct sun, but still allow air to 

circulate so the instruments can get accurate readings. A box with a hinged lid that 

can be turned on its side is perfect. Turn 

the box on its side, and cut several slots 

near what is now the bottom of the box. 

Paint the outside of the box with white 

paint, and find a safe, shady outdoor location. The north side of buildings has the 

most shade. Try to find a location that is 

three to four feet above the ground.

2. Attach the thermometer to the back of the 

box with tape, glue, screws, or nails. The 

bulb of the thermometer should be about 

two inches above the bottom of the box.

Build a Hygrometer to Measure Humidity

What You Will Need

r Piece of wood or styrofoam about nine 

inches long and four inches wide

r Flat piece of plastic, thin enough to cut with 

scissors; about three inches long and one 

inch wide (an old credit card or laminated 

luggage tag works well)

r Two small nails

r Three strands of human hair, about eight 

inches long

r Dime

r Glue

r Tape

r Hammer

r Scissors

How to Do It 

1. Cut the plastic into a pointer as shown on 

the pattern below.

2. Poke one of the nails through the pointer 

near the base of the triangle. Wiggle the 

nail around until the pointer moves freely 

and loosely around the nail.

3. Tape the dime onto the pointer near the tip 

of the triangle.

4. Glue the hair strands onto plastic between 

the nail hole and the dime.

5. Use a nail to fasten the pointer to the wood 

or styrofoam base about 3/4 of the way 

down the side. Be sure the pointer can still 

turn freely on the nail.

6. Attach the other nail to the base about one 

inch from the top of the base, in line with 

the spot where the hair is glued to the 

pointer.

7. Pull the free ends of the hair tight so that 

the pointer is horizontal. Wrap the hair Pointer Pattern
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

68

0

5

10

15

-5

-10

-15

0

5

10

15

-5

-10

-15

around the upper nail and glue to hold the 

hair in place.

8. Make a photocopy of the scale and cut it 

out. Glue the scale to the base so that the 

pointer is pointed to the “0” mark. Your 

hygrometer is finished!

9. Human hair will expand and lengthen when 

the air is moist, causing the pointer to 

move down. When the air is dry, the hair 

will contract and shorten, causing the 

pointer to move up. Use the scale to record 

the pointer’s position. Keep your hygrometer in a sheltered location. The box used 

for the screened thermometer is ideal.

Wood or styrofoam

nail

nail dime

plastic pointer

Hair

Finished Hygrometer
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 69

Science | Service | Stewardship Understand the Earth

Build a Rain Gauge to Measure Rainfall

What You Need

r Straight-sided glass or plastic container, 

with a diameter of about two inches or less 

(such as an olive jar)

r Coat hanger or wire bent to make a holding 

rack (see picture)

r Measuring spoons: One teaspoon and 1/4 

teaspoon

r Hammer and nails to secure the rack

r Felt tip marker

How to Do It

1. Rain gauges measure the amount of rainfall 

in cubic inches. So your first task is to 

make a scale for your container that shows 

how many cubic inches of water are in the 

container. One cubic inch of water is about 

3 1/4 teaspoons, so you can draw the scale 

on your container by measuring 3 1/4 

teaspoons of water to your container, then 

drawing a short line at the level of the 

water. If you look closely, the top of the 

water will seem to be slightly curved and 

thickened. Draw your line so that it matches 

the bottom of the curved surface (which is 

called a meniscus). This line corresponds to 

a rainfall of one inch. 

2. Add another 3 1/4 teaspoons of water to the 

container and draw another line. The second 

line corresponds to a rainfall of two inches. 

3. Repeat Step 2 until you have at least five 

marks on the container. This will be enough 

for most rain events; but you may want to 

add another line or two, just in case!

4. Find a location for your rain gauge where 

there is nothing overhead (such as trees 

or a building roof) that could direct water 

into or away from your gauge. The edge of 

a fence away from buildings is often a good 

spot. Another possibility is to attach your 

rain gauge to a 

broomstick driven 

into the ground 

in an open area. 

Be sure to record 

rainfall soon after 

a rain event to 

avoid false readings caused by 

evaporation. 

Empty your gauge after each reading, and 

you are ready for the next event!

This activity is adapted from “Build Your Own Weather Station” by the Educational Technology Programs Team at the 

Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, PA (http://www.fi.edu/

weather/todo/todo.html).

glass container

Finished Rain Guage

coat hanger or wire
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

70

Be A Citizen Weather Reporter

Could you help save lives with your homemade weather instruments? 

Maybe so!

The National Weather Service Cooperative Observer Program is a network of 

more than 11,000 volunteers who report weather observations from farms, 

urban and suburban areas, National Parks, seashores, and mountaintops. 

Data from volunteer weather observers are used to define the climate of the 

United States and to help measure long-term climate changes, as well as 

to provide real-time information to support forecasts, warnings, and other 

public service programs of the National Weather Service.

The Cooperative Observer Program was officially created in 1890, but the 

history of volunteer weather observers is even older. John Campanius Holm 

recorded the earliest known weather weather observations in the United States 

in 1644-45. George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin 

were also serious weather observers. Thomas Jefferson maintained an almost 

unbroken record of weather observations between 1776 and 1816, and George 

Washington took his last observation just a few days before he died.

An essential part of any weather observing station is a system for keeping 

accurate records of observations. Here’s how to set up a Weather Journal, 

and some tips for making weather forecasts from your observations!

A young volunteer in Granger, Utah (around 1930) operates a cooperative 

weather station where he observes temperature, precipitation, sky conditions, etc. Courtesy NWS.

What You Will Do

Set up a Weather Journal and record 

regular measurements from the 

instruments in your Weather Station

“One of the good things is that you come away with the feeling 

that you have helped others and possibly saved some lives.” 

Bruce Sullivan, Maryland Coordinator, Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Observing Network

reported in the Bay Weekly, March 16 - 22, 2006 

http://www.bayweekly.com/year06/issuexiv11/leadxiv11_3.html
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 71

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What You Will Need

Copies of “Weather Journal Data Form”

How to Do It

At least once each day, record the measurements from each of the instruments in your 

weather station. Notice that there are two columns for “Barometric Pressure” and “Humidity.” 

Record the readings from your instruments in 

the “Instrument” columns. The “NWS” column 

is where you can record measurements from 

your local weather office. Comparing the two 

columns gives you a way to convert your instruments readings to approximately the same scale 

used for official weather measurements. 

Over time, you should begin to see patterns in 

your data. When the weather changes (it gets 

windy, starts raining, etc.), check your records 

for a day or two before. Was there a change 

in temperature, humidity, or barometric pressure? Did the wind direction shift? These kinds 

of changes can give clues about what kind of 

weather is coming. See “Tips for Amateur Forecasters” for more information about these clues.

Tips for Amateur Forecasters

from the National Weather Service

Below is a general summary of wind and barometer indications in the United States. The amateur forecaster should 

modify the table as needed, based on his or her own observations. Barometric pressures in this table are in inches of 

mercury at sea level. If you use local weather reports to calibrate your instruments, you don’t have to worry about this 

because official measurements are converted to sea level before they are reported to the public. A general rule of thumb 

is that atmospheric pressure decreases by one inch of mercury for every 1,000 feet of elevation.

If the Wind is Blowing from and the Barometer is the Probable Weather is

Southwest to Northwest 30.10 to 30.20 and steady Fair with slight temperature change for one to two 

days

Southwest to Northwest 30.10 to 30.20 and rising rapidly Fair, followed by rain within two days

Southwest to Northwest 30.20 and above and steady Continued fair, with little temperature change

Southwest to Northwest 30.20 and above and falling slowly Slowly rising temperature and fair for two days

South to Southeast 30.10 to 30.20 and falling slowly Rain within 24 hours

South to Southeast 30.10 to 30.20 and falling rapidly Wind increasing in force, rain within 12 to 24 hours

Southeast to Northeast 30.10 to 30.20 and falling slowly Rain in 12 to 18 hours

Southeast to Northeast 30.10 to 30.20 and falling rapidly Increasing wind, and rain within 12 hours

East to Northeast 30.10 and above and falling slowly In summer: rain may not fall for several days

In winter: rain within 24 hours

East to Northeast 30.10 and above and falling rapidly In summer: rain likely within 12 to 24 hours

In winter: rain or snow, with increasing winds

Southeast to Northeast 30.00 or below and falling slowly Rain will continue one to two days

Southeast to Northeast 30.00 or below and falling rapidly Rain, with high wind, followed by clearing within 36 

hours, and by colder temperatures in winter 

South to Southwest 30.00 or below and rising slowly Clearing within a few hours, and fair for several 

days

South to East 29.80 or below and falling rapidly Severe storm soon, followed by clearing within 24 

hours, and by colder temperatures in winter 

East to North 29.80 or below and falling rapidly Severe northeast gale and heavy precipitation

In winter: heavy snow, followed by a cold wave

Changing to West 29.80 or below and rising rapidly Clearing and colder
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

72

Want to Do More?

Are you interested in becoming a volunteer 

weather observer? SKYWARN is a volunteer 

program established by NOAA’s National 

Weather Service and partner groups to identify and describe severe local storms. Since 

the program started in the 1970s, information 

Weather Journal Data Form

Date	 Time	 Temperature	 	 Barometric Pressure	 	 Humidity	 	 	 Precipitation	 	 	 Wind

Instrument NWS Instrument NWS Type Amount Speed Direction

provided by SKYWARN Spotters has helped the 

National Weather Service to issue more timely 

and accurate warnings for tornadoes, severe 

thunderstorms, and flash floods. In some areas, 

Spotters also are trained on warning signs for 

earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, volcanic 

ashfall, and coastal hazards such as tsunamis, 

water spouts, and rip currents. See http://www.

nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/Citizen_Scientist.

pdf for more information.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 73

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Tornado in a Bottle

“And then I was enveloped by the freight train roar...as 

I got to the stairs all of the front of the building blew 

in...like a bomb went off, just a huge explosion behind 

me...And then screaming wind...While I was crouched 

under the desk the building was breathing. You could 

feel the floor lift about a foot and then you could feel it 

drop...I thought any second this is going to drop and 

we are all going down to the first floor with the building 

on top of us. I was terrified when the building started 

moving, I thought I’m gonna die...” 

Bill Morgan

Journalist and retired Police Information Officer

recalling the tornado that struck Lubbock, Texas on May 11, 1970, 

killing 26 people and injuring hundreds

Tornadoes cause an average of 70 fatalities 

and 1,500 injuries each year. These numbers 

would be much higher without NOAA’s tornado 

warning and research programs. Nationwide 

tornado forecasts and urgent tornado warnings are issued by the National Weather 

Service and broadcast over NOAA’s All Hazards 

Weather Radio network, which is the nation’s 

one-stop source for weather and emergency 

information. NOAA’s National Severe Storms 

Laboratory is a leader in tornado-related 

research, and in developing technologies 

such as Doppler radar to improve forecasts 

and warnings of tornadoes and other severe 

weather.

When you hear the word “tornado” what picture pops into your mind? For most people it 

is the funnel-shaped black cloud, with spiralling winds called a “vortex.” Here’s how you 

can create your own “tornado in a bottle.”

What You Will Do

Create a vortex similar to the 

wind pattern of tornados

Did you know:

• The 1970 Lubbock tornado was classified as F-5, 

which is the highest a tornado can be rated

• In a typical year about 1,000 tornados will strike 

the United States

• The strongest tornadoes have rotating winds in 

excess of 250 mph

• Tornadoes can be up to one mile wide and may 

stay on the ground for more than 50 miles. 

• Tornados can occur at any time of the year and 

have occurred in every state in the country

• More tornados strike the central United States 

than any other place in the world; which is why 

this area is nicknamed “tornado alley”

The Dimmitt Tornado, 

South of Dimmitt, Texas

Courtesy NOAA.
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

74

What You Will Need

r Two empty two-liter plastic soda bottles

r Tornado Tube plastic connector (available 

from science museums, science stores, 

novelty stores, scientific supply companies, 

etc.) - OR

r Metal washer, about one inch diameter 

with a 3/8-inch diameter hole, and plastic 

electrical or duct tape

r Dishwashing detergent

r (Optional) Food coloring

How to Do It

1. Fill one of the two-liter bottles about 2/3 

full of water. Add three drops of dish soap 

and a couple of drops of food coloring to 

help make the vortex more visible.

2. Screw the plastic connector onto the bottle 

containing the water, then attach the empty bottle to the open end of the connector. 

Or, tape two bottles together with a flat 

washer between them. Use plastic electrical 

tape or duct tape.

3. Turn the two-bottle assembly over, and place 

the assembly on a table with the filled 

bottle on top. Watch the water slowly drip 

down into the lower bottle as air simultaneously bubbles up into the top bottle. 

The flow of water may come to a complete 

stop. Now, rapidly rotate the bottles in a 

horizontal circle a few times. Observe the 

formation of a funnel shaped vortex as the 

top bottle drains much more quickly. You 

can make the vortex with a single bottle 

by twirling the bottle and holding it over a 

water basin or the ground to drain, but you 

lose the water and have to refill the bottle 

each time you use it. Now you know how 

to use a liquid tornado to quickly empty a 

large bottle!

What’s Happening

When the water is not rotating, surface tension creates a skin-like layer of water across 

the small hole in the center of the connector 

or washer. If the top bottle is almost full, the 

weight of the water is sufficient to push out a 

bulge in this surface to form a large drop, which 

then drips into the lower bottle. As water drops 

washer

vortex
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 75

Science | Service | Stewardship Understand the Earth

into the lower bottle, the pressure in the lower 

bottle increases until air bubbles are forced into 

the upper bottle. The pressure of the water’s 

weight at the surface of the connector or washer decreases as the water level in the upper 

bottle drops. When the water level and pressure 

decrease enough, the water surface can hold 

back the water and stop the flow completely.

When you rotate the bottles in a horizontal 

circle, the water in the upper bottle starts 

rotating as well. As the water rotates, forces 

called centripetal forces pull the water toward 

the center of the bottle. At the same time, 

gravity pulls the water toward the drain hole. As 

the water drains into the lower bottle, a vortex 

forms. As water particles at the outside of the 

bottle move toward the hole, the speed of the 

particles increases and the centripetal forces increase. The slope of the water shows where centripetal forces are increasing. So at the bottom 

of the vortex, the slope of the water is steeper 

because the centripetal forces are increasing 

as the water moves with higher speeds and in 

smaller circles. The water drains smoothly and 

rapidly because the hole in the vortex allows 

air from the lower bottle to flow easily into the 

upper bottle. 

There are many examples of vortices in nature, 

including whirlpools, hurricanes, the Great Red 

Spot on Jupiter, sunspots, and spiral galaxies 

(such as our own galaxy, the Milky Way). Keep 

in mind that while the spiralling motion makes 

many vortices look similar, they occur for many 

different reasons. The vortex in your “bottle 

tornado” is caused by horizontal spin (provided 

by you) and gravity. But a real tornado in the 

atmosphere is caused by a combination of wind 

shear, changes in atmospheric pressure, and 

centrifugal force.

By the way, tornadoes in the atmosphere happen on a relatively small scale (compared to the 

size of the whole atmosphere). This means that 

tornadoes may rotate clockwise or counterclockwise, regardless of where they are on Earth; just 

Oldest known photo 

of a tornado. 

August 28, 1884, 

Howard, South Dakota. 

Courtesy NOAA.

like your bottle tornado can be made to rotate 

in either direction.

Want to Do More?

Find out more about tornadoes at NOAA’s Tornadoes Web page, http://www.noaa.gov/tornadoes.

html. You may also want to visit the Tornado 

Project’s Web site, http://www.tornadoproject.

com/.

Portions of this activity are adapted from an Exploratorium 

Science Snack (http://www.exploratorium.edu/snacks/).

Tune In to NOAA Weather Radio

NOAA Weather Radio (NWR) broadcasts local 

weather forecasts 24 hours a day from local 

offices of the National Weather Service. NWR 

is an All-Hazards program that broadcasts 

warnings and information about emergencies 

that include:

• natural events such as tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes;

• technological accidents such as chemical 

spills, oil spills, nuclear accidents; industrial emergencies, shipping accidents, or 

train derailments;

• AMBER alerts; and

• terrorist attacks 

NWR broadcasts cannot be heard on a simple 

AM/FM radio receiver, but the Weather Band 

is built into many automobile radios, walkietalkies, marine radios, and other receivers. 

Prices for Weather Radio receivers start at 

about $20. Some receivers have a built in 

alarm that is turned on by a special tone sent 

from NWR during an emergency to signal that 

information is being broadcast about a lifethreatening situation.

For more information about NOAA Weather 

Radio, visit http://www.weather.gov/nwr/
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

76

from a Rip Current Safety Poster by NOAA’s National Weather Service, 

NOAA’s National Sea Grant College Program, and 

the United States Lifesaving Association

(http://www.ripcurrents.noaa.gov/signs/rip_signs-r.pdf)

Rip Currents

“I grew up swimming in the ocean and am very comfortable 

in it. One of my favorite pastimes in the ocean is diving under 

breakers and floating over swells. [Once], I dove under a 

wave... but when I surfaced and looked back over my shoulder, I was way out from the shore. I knew immediately what 

had happened. I tried swimming parallel to the shore, but was 

still in a very strong current and began to tire quickly.

Then a wave broke over my head, and I felt the panic rising. I 

know that panic is one’s worst enemy in the water, so I floated 

and treaded water for a few minutes to catch my breath and relax. ...When I looked out to sea to keep an eye on the swells,...I 

realized that just a little further out, there were surfers.

[So]instead of trying to make it back to shore on my own, I 

turned and swam out to where they were. I told them what had 

happened and asked if one of them would allow me to accompany him into shore using his board as a boogie board for both 

of us. Of course, one of them agreed.

It took both of us to get far enough away from the current so 

we could paddle back into shore. I feel very fortunate that I 

recognized what had happened, knew not to panic, and was 

able to find a solution.”

by Kathryn T. Graham

from the National Weather Service Rip Current Safety Web page

http://www.ripcurrents.noaa.gov/real_life.shtml

• A channel of churning, choppy water

• A difference in water color

• A line of foam, seaweed or debris moving 

out to sea

• A break in the incoming wave pattern

Remember the three basic safety rules for ocean 

swimming:

• Know how to swim

• Never swim alone

• If in doubt, don’t go out

If you are ever caught in a rip current:

• Don’t fight the current

• Stay calm

• Swim parallel to the shore to escape the 

current, then swim toward the beach

• If you can’t escape, float or tread water

• If you need help, call or wave your arms 

for assistance

What You Will Do

Demonstrate why swimmers caught in 

rip currents have to swim parallel to the 

shore to escape

Rip currents are powerful, 

channeled currents of 

water flowing away from 

shore. They can occur at 

any beach with breaking 

waves, including many 

Great Lakes. These 

currents are killers. The 

United States Lifesaving 

Association estimates 

that every year, rip 

currents on our nation’s 

beaches kill more than 

100 people.

Here are some clues that 

a rip current may be 

present:
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 77

Science | Service | Stewardship Understand the Earth

What You Will Need

r Two or more strips of ribbon, rope or string, 

each at least ten feet long; if you have a 

choice, a blue color is good for representing 

ocean waves

r At least five people, including yourself

How to Do It

1. Have pairs of participants hold opposite ends 

of the rope or ribbon. You will need at least 

two pairs of participants to do the demonstration.

2. Designate one side of a room or outdoor 

space as the “shore” and the opposite side 

as “deep water.”

3. Have pairs of participants stand so that 

the rope or ribbon is stretched out, and is 

parallel to the shore. These participants and 

their ropes or ribbons represent waves.

4. Place a “trapped swimmer” participant 

between two of the “waves.”

5. Have the “waves” walk toward the “deeper 

water,” staying parallel to shore as they 

move. The movement of the “waves” represents the flow of a rip current. The “trapped 

swimmer” can only escape being carried 

into “deeper water” by swimming parallel to 

the waves until she or he is out of the rip 

current. 

Want to Do More?

NOAA sponsors the “Break The Grip Of The Rip®” 

Public Awareness Campaign, and has designated 

the first full week of June every year as Rip 

Current Awareness Week. Find out more about 

rip currents on NOAA’s rip current Web site at 

www.ripcurrents.noaa.gov, which includes a 

rip current brochure, rip current beach signs, 

photographs, and links to other resources.

In coastal areas, many of NOAA’s National 

Weather Service Forecast Offices issue a Rip 

Current Outlook as a part of their Surf Zone 

Forecast. NOAA identifies days with forecasts for 

particularly dangerous rip currents with “High 

Risk of rip currents.”

Visit: http://www.ripcurrents.noaa.gov/forecasts.

shtml to learn more.

Close up of Rip Current

Courtesy of Lifeguard Captain Nick Steers, 

County of Los Angeles Fire Department

Beach View of Rip Current Along Jetty

Courtesy of Dr. Tom Herrington, Stevens Institute of Technology

Rip Current on Grand Avenue Beach

Courtesy of Chris Brewster, USLA
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

78

Be a Tree Ring Detective

The storm took place at sundown, it lasted through the night,

When we looked out next morning, we saw a terrible sight. 

We saw outside our window where wheat fields they had grown

Was now a rippling ocean of dust the wind had blown.

It covered up our fences, it covered up our barns,

It covered up our tractors in this wild and dusty storm. 

We loaded our jalopies and piled our families in, 

We rattled down that highway to never come back again.

~ from “The Great Dust Storm” by Woody Guthrie

Earth’s climate is always changing, and these changes can have large 

impacts on humans. An increase in the number of droughts, floods, or 

hurricanes, for example, will cost U.S. citizens billions of dollars and 

threaten the lives of many people. Information on past climate changes can 

give valuable clues on how to plan and prepare for future climate change. 

Unfortunately, records of human weather measurements only go back about 

150 years. To really understand Earth’s climate change history, we need 

information that goes back hundreds and thousands of years. 

One way to get this kind of information is to study tree rings (the analysis 

of tree rings is known as dendrochronology). As trees grow, their trunks 

increase in length and thickness. Most trees only grow during part of the 

year (the growing season). This starting and stopping of the growth process 

produces visible bands or “rings” of wood around the trunk of the tree. Each 

ring corresponds to one year of growth. The oldest rings are near the center 

of the tree, while the youngest rings are at the outside of the trunk next to 

the bark. The ring just inside the bark is the current year’s growth. There 

are two kinds of wood in each ring: “earlywood” appears light in color and 

its cells have thin walls; “latewood” appears dark in color and its cells have 

thick walls. The width of the rings changes according to the environmental 

conditions that existed during the growing season, so ring width can tell 

scientists a lot about how climate changed during the years when the tree 

was growing. If the rings are wide, then conditions were probably favorable 

for tree growth. Narrow rings, on the other hand, may indicate drought, 

disease, or other conditions not favorable to growth.

Could you be a good Tree Ring Detective? Try solving this puzzle to find out!

What You Will Do

Cross-date tree-ring samples to find out which sample is oldest, 

and then find the age of the oldest sample

Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas.. April 18, 1935

Courtesy NOAA.

Be a Tree Ring Detective
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 79

Science | Service | Stewardship Understand the Earth

What You Will Need

r Copy of “Tree Ring Sample Sheet”

r Blank piece of paper

r Scissors

r Clear tape

Warning

Be careful with scissors!

How to Do It

Most tree-ring samples are collected with a tool 

called an “increment borer.” This is a hollow 

shaft of steel, about 3/16 inch diameter, with 

a sharp threaded bit at the tip. A handle fits 

into the opposite end and is used to turn the 

borer into the tree. When the borer is pulled 

out of the tree, it removes a core of wood that 

shows the rings. Most trees are able to seal the 

small bore hole with sap, so coring does not 

cause any serious damage to most trees that are 

sampled. 

You might think that you could find the age of 

a tree simply by counting the rings, but it isn’t 

that simple. The problem is that samples taken 

from trees growing in the same area (and even 

from the same tree) usually are not identical. 

There may be “extra” rings in some parts of the 

tree, or missing rings in other parts. To deal 

with this problem, dendrochronologists use a 

procedure called crossdating. This procedure 

involves comparing and matching the tree ring 

patterns from several trees that have grown in 

the same area, and using statistical methods 

to find the exact year in which the rings were 

formed. This procedure also allows scientists 

to compare rings from trees that have grown 

at different times, so the age of very old wood 

samples can be accurately determined.

On Page 80, there are two sets of tree ring samples that can be matched for crossdating. Most 

tree-ring studies involve many more samples 

and some additional analytical steps (check out 

the resources listed under “Want to Do More?”).

1. Cut out each of the tree ring samples.

2. Turn the blank piece of paper so that the longest side is horizontal, and tape the tree ring 

sample from the living tree onto the blank 

piece of paper near the upper right corner. 

3. Find another tree ring sample that matches 

part of the tree ring pattern from the living 

tree. Line up the matching rings and tape 

the sample beneath the sample from the 

living tree.

4. Repeat Step 3 until you have matched all 

four samples.

5. Count how many rings are in the combined 

samples, starting with the left-hand ring of 

the oldest sample and ending with the ring 

next to the bark of the living tree sample. Be 

sure to count overlapping rings only once.

6. How old is the living tree? How old is the 

oldest tree? Which tree seems to have 

grown under the most stressful conditions? 

When you think you know the answers, 

check the answer box. 

Want to Do More?

NOAA’s Paleoclimatology Web site (http://www.

ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/paleo.html) has lots 

of information on how past climates are 

studied with tree-rings and other methods 

(called “proxies”) such as ice cores, corals, 

and sediments. The site also has lots of 

information about how climate has changed 

during Earth’s history, and how we can plan 

for future climate change.

http://www.plantbio.ohiou.edu/epb/instruct/

ecology/dendro.htm – This is a do-it-yourself introduction to dendrochronology 

presented by Brian C. McCarthy and Darrin 

S. Rubino of Ohio University.

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/vikings/treering.

html – A Web site from NOVA about how 

dendrochronology was used to study ships 

of the ancient Vikings.
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

80

Answer Box

DO NOT PEEK!

until you have done

your detective work.... 

Living Tree

bark

Dead Tree A

bark

Dead Tree B bark

Dead Tree C

bark

Sample Set 1

Living Tree

bark

Dead Tree A

bark

Dead Tree B bark

Dead Tree C

bark

Sample Set 2

Tree Ring Sample Sheet

ANSWERS

Sample Set 1 – 

The correct sequence for this set is Living Tree - Dead Tree 

C - Dead Tree A - Dead Tree B. The oldest tree (Dead Tree 

B) is 44 years old. Tree A seems to have grown under more 

stressful conditions than the other trees, since most of 

its rings are close together, indicating slow growth during 

those years.

Sample Set 2 – 

The correct sequence for this set is Living Tree - Dead Tree 

B - Dead Tree A - Dead Tree C. The oldest tree (Dead Tree 

C) is 41 years old. The Living Tree seems to have grown 

under more stressful conditions than the other trees, since 

more of its rings are close together than in the other 

samples, indicating slow growth during those years.

Dust buried farms and equipment, killed livestock, and caused human death and misery in the Great Plains during the height of the 

Dust Bowl years. 1935. Courtesy Historic NWS Collection
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 81

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“Fifteen years ago, storms battered the West Coast of the 

United States...There were droughts in Australia, Indonesia, and 

India...Worldwide, 2,000 people died...Economic losses amounted 

to billions of dollars...In Indonesia and Borneo, dry conditions 

fed raging forest fires that consumed hundreds of thousands of 

acres. Smoke blanketed the area...”

~ from the PBS news program, “Bracing for El Niño” 

October 7, 1997

Your Own El Nino What caused these disasters? Just some warm water in the Pacific Ocean!

Every two to seven years, trade-winds in the Pacific Ocean slow down or 

reverse their direction (no one is sure why). Normally, the Pacific trade 

winds blow vigorously towards the west. This causes warm surface water 

to pile up in the western Pacific, so that the sea surface is actually about 

1/2 meter higher at Indonesia than at Ecuador. These winds also cause sea 

surface temperatures to be about eight degrees Celcius higher in the west, 

with cool temperatures off South America, due to an upwelling of cold water 

from deeper levels. This cold water also brings up nutrients that support the 

growth of marine plants, which provide food for major fisheries. 

But when the trade winds slow down, everything changes. Water 

temperatures become warmer in the eastern Pacific and colder in the west. 

Nutrient upwelling slows, and fish populations become much smaller along 

the Pacific coast of South America. Rainfall follows the warmer water, 

causing flooding in Peru and drought in Indonesia and Australia. Changes in 

the circulation of Earth’s atmosphere bring unusual weather to other regions 

that are far away from the tropical Pacific. Fishermen in South America 

noticed that these changes usually happen around Christmas time, and 

named the event “El Niño,” which means “the (Christ) Child.”

El Niño isn’t all bad; some of the changes it causes in atmospheric 

circulation can reduce the chances of severe hurricanes in the North 

Atlantic. But many other changes are highly destructive and dangerous, so 

advance warning of El Niño’s approach is extremely important for emergency 

preparation. NOAA satellites are constantly collecting information on sea 

surface temperatures around the globe. NOAA also operates a network of 

buoys that measure temperature, currents, and winds in the tropical Pacific 

Ocean. Every day, these buoys transmit data that are immediately available 

to researchers and forecasters around the world.

Here’s a way for you to create a miniature El Niño in your own kitchen!

What You Will Do

Create a working model that shows the 

El Niño effect, trade winds, and upwelling

Virginia National Guard helicopter rescuing an individual from the James River. Note: rescued man 

halfway up to helicopter. Helicopter crewman standing on debris in river. Courtesy NWS Collection
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

82

What You Will Need

r Clear plastic rectangular container, about 

18 inches long, four inches high, and four 

inches deep (such as a food storage container)

r Water

r Mineral oil, about one cup

r Food coloring

r Hair dryer

r Funnel

r Red oil-based paint, about one ounce (two 

tablespoons)

Warnings

Have an adult help with the hair dryer, and 

be careful with any electrical appliance 

around water! Follow warnings on the paint 

container label concerning ventilation and 

handling.

How to Do It

1. Fill the plastic container with water to 

within one inch of the top.

2. Add food coloring to the water. Blue is 

good, since we’re dealing with the ocean. 

Allow some of the food coloring to settle 

to the bottom so you can demonstrate 

upwelling.

3. Pour the mineral oil into a dish and mix in 

one to two tablespoons of the red paint. 

4. Hold the funnel so that the narrow end is 

against the side of the container, just above 

the surface of the water. Gently pour mineral oil through the funnel onto the surface 

of the water.

5. The liquids in the plastic container represent 

the warm layer of surface water (the mineral oil) and the cold deep water (colored 

water) in the Pacific Ocean. Turn on the 

hair dryer and point it into one end of the 

container. This end represents the eastern 

side of the Pacific Ocean. Notice that the 

“warm” water piles up in the western end 

of the container. This is the normal condition for the Pacific Ocean near the equator. 

If your food coloring contained sediment 

particles, you may see these moving upward 

toward the water surface at the eastern end 

of the container—just like upwelling in the 

eastern Pacific!

6. Turn off the hairdryer, and watch what happens when the trade winds stop.

Want to Do More?

You can find out more about El Niño at:

• NOAA’s Climate Prediction Center Web site 

http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/

analysis_monitoring/ensocycle/enso_cycle.html

This activity was adapted from “Make Your Own El 

Niño in the Classroom,” http://topex-www.jpl.nasa.

gov/education/make-your-own-el-nino.pdf, by Kelly 

Perry (Jet Propulsion Laboratory), Johan Berlin 

(Raytheon Corporation), James Kendall (Jet Propulsion Laboratory), and Ruby Krishnamurti (Florida 

State University) presented on NASA’s Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory Education Web page (http://topex-www.

jpl.nasa.gov/education/class-activities.html).

Plastic container

• NOAA’s El Niño Web page http://

www.elnino.noaa.gov/

• The El Niño story page http://www.

pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/el-ninostory.html

• NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

Web site http://topex-www.jpl.

nasa.gov/science/el-nino.html
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 83

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Please Pass the Salt

“Antarctica is the coldest, driest, windiest continent on the planet. Temperatures can plummet to 

-58°F, which is 90°F below freezing...Antarctica is 

so cold that most of the ice there never melts; 

the continent is permanently covered in ice. Yet, 

Weddell seals can live there...because some water 

remains unfrozen, and they can dive and re-surface 

through these holes in the ice. How do these holes 

stay open?...The answer is, it’s a joint effort between the seals and the properties of the water.”

~ from the Web site of Dr. Terrie M. Williams, Professor,

Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Santa Cruz

http://bio.research.ucsc.edu/people/williams/teachers/intro.htm

What is the most obvious property of seawater? It’s salty! But if 

you mix salt from your kitchen into a glass of water, it doesn’t taste 

exactly like seawater. That’s because seawater contains many other 

chemicals in addition to sodium chloride (which is ordinary kitchen 

salt), such as magnesium sulfate, magnesium chloride, and calcium 

carbonate. Scientists call the content of all dissolved salts in seawater “salinity,” and measure it in parts per thousand (abbreviated ppt 

or ‰), which is equivalent to grams per kilogram. Freshwater has a 

salinity of 0‰; normal seawater has a salinity of about 35‰. 

Salinity makes seawater very different from freshwater. Most animals 

have a specific range of salinities that they can tolerate, and cannot 

survive if the salinity is above or below their tolerance range. Changes 

in salinity can affect the circulation of the oceans, and may even 

affect climate. Because salinity influences our environment in many 

ways, NOAA keeps track of salinity in many places along the U.S. 

coasts and around the world. Here are some experiments you can do 

to discover some of the most important properties of seawater.

A Weddell Seal at a breathing hole. Courtesy NOAA Corps Collection

Photographer: Giuseppe Zibordi. Credit: Michael Van Woert, NOAA NESDIS, OAR

What You Will Do

Experiment to find some of the ways that salt 

changes the physical properties of water

Please Pass the Salt
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What You Will Need:

r Salt

r Water

r Freezer

r Tablespoon measure

r Cup measure

r Spoon for stirring

r Five clear plastic cups, six ounces or larger

r One fresh egg

r Food coloring

How to Do It:

1. For your first experiment, dissolve three tablespoons of salt in one cup of water. Pour the 

salt solution into one of the plastic cups until the cup is about 3/4 full. Pour the same 

amount of fresh water into another cup. 

Place both cups in a freezer. Check the cups 

every half hour for two hours. Which solution 

freezes first? What has happened to the salt 

solution after 24 hours?

2. For the second experiment, dissolve three 

tablespoons of salt in one cup of water, and 

pour the salt solution into one of the plastic cups until the cup is about half full. Fill 

another cup about half full of fresh water, 

and add a few drops of food coloring. Now, 

carefully pour the colored fresh water into 

the cup of salt water, holding the edges of 

the cups together so that the fresh water 

flows down the inside of the cup containing 

the salt water. Do the two solutions mix, or 

does one float on top of the other? Which 

solution has the greater density?

3. Finally, pour fresh water into a plastic cup 

until the cup is about 3/4 full. Carefully 

crack a fresh egg, and gently drop the 

contents of the egg into the cup. If your 

egg is fresh, the yolk will be a firm but flexible sphere that sinks to the bottom of the 

cup. If your egg is not-so-fresh, the yolk 

will break or ooze into the water and your 

experiment is over! Assuming the egg yolk 

is still intact, add two tablespoons of salt 

to the water, and gently stir with a spoon. 

Over the next few minutes, the salt will 

slowly dissolve. What has happened to the 

egg after ten minutes?

Now, do you have an idea why holes the 

Antarctic ice stay open and don’t immediately freeze over?

What’s Going On Here?

Pure water freezes at 32°F (0°C), but adding 

salt lowers the freezing point of pure water. 

This is why salt is sometimes used to keep ice 

from forming on sidewalks. When water freezes, 

it forms crystal-like structures. When salt water 

freezes, only the water forms these structures; 

the salt is left out in unfrozen water. So as 

An iceberg in Gerlache Strait, West Antarctica

Photographer: Rear Admiral Harley D. Nygren, NOAA Corps (ret.) Courtesy NOAA.
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salt water freezes, the water that is not frozen 

becomes saltier.

After 24 hours in your freezer, the cup containing fresh water should be frozen solid (if 

it isn’t, your freezer isn’t working!). The salt 

solution probably contains some ice, but it is 

not frozen solid. It may appear slushy, and you 

should have no trouble sticking your finger 

through whatever ice is in the cup.

Salt water is more dense than freshwater, so 

freshwater floats on top of salt water. The 

greater density of salt water also means that 

objects float more easily in salt water than in 

freshwater. Remember Archimedes’ Principle, 

which says that an object in a fluid is buoyed 

up by a force equal to the WEIGHT of the fluid 

displaced by the object (see Page 11). One cup 

of salt water weighs more than one cup of fresh 

water, so its buoyant force is greater. So your 

egg (if it was fresh) sank in freshwater, but was 

bouyed up by the salt water.

Want to Do More?

1. Check out NOAA’s National Ocean Service 

Discovery Kits at http://www.oceanservice.

noaa.gov/education/kits/estuaries/media/

supp_estuar10c_salinity.html and http://

www.oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/

estuaries/estuaries05_circulation.html to 

find out more about salinity and how it affects coastal ecosystems.

2. Sea nettles are stinging jellyfish that are a 

major menace to summer recreational activities in the Chesapeake Bay. Visit http://

coastwatch.noaa.gov/seanettles/sn_salinitymodel.html to see how NOAA uses salinity 

to give a daily “nowcast” (like a forecast 

except it’s what’s happening NOW) that 

tells swimmers how likely it is that they will 

encounter sea nettles in the Bay.

3. Other NOAA programs that provide information on salinity include:

• The Regional Ocean Forecast System 

(http://polar.ncep.noaa.gov/cofs), which 

provides real-time salinity measurements as well as 24-hr and 48 hr salinity 

forecasts 

• The National Oceanographic Data Center 

(http://www.nodc.noaa.gov/General/salinity.html) with records of global ocean 

salinity data 

• The National Estuary Research Reserve System (http://nerrs.noaa.gov/Monitoring/

WaterSalinity.html) that uses automatic 

instruments to collect data on salinity 

and other physical features 

NOAA wildlife biologists Mike Goebel and Birgitte McDonald get a Southern elephant seal ready for 

measurement and tagging, as part of the U.S. Antarctic Marine Living Resources research program that 

provides scientific information needed to conserve and manage marine living resources in the oceans 

around Antarctica. Courtesy NOAA/Scott Seganti
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86

Satellite Communications

Graphic of 2nd generation GOES satellite in orbit. Courtesy NOAA. What...

• has helped rescue more than 20,000 people since 1982;

• shows the location of fires, snow cover, thunderstorms, and erupting 

volcanoes everywhere on Earth;

 • lets you watch the lights go on all over North America as the sun 

sets?

Satellites, of course! But what keeps satellites in place? And how do 

they help send information all over the world? Here are two simple 

demonstrations that answer these questions.

What You Will Do

Demonstrate two of the basic principles 

that make satellites useful
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 87

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What You Will Need

r Empty three pound coffee can

r Poster board, at least 22-inches square

r String, about 12 inches long

r Pencil

r Scissors

r Marble

r Masking tape

r Flashlight

r Mirror

r Sheet of light-colored paper

r Two rooms connected by a doorway

r A partner

Warnings

Be careful with sharp scissors!

How to Do It

To show how satellites stay in orbit:

1. Tie one end of the string around the pencil. 

Hold the other end near the center of the 

poster board, and draw a circle about 22 

inches in diameter.

2. Cut the circle out of the poster board, then 

cut a wedge (pie shape) that is 1/8 of the 

circle.

3. Overlap the two edges of the circle where 

the wedge was removed to form a cone, and 

tape the edges together so that the cone 

holds its shape.

4. Put the pointed end of the cone in the coffee can, and tape the cone to the sides of 

the can.

5. Roll the marble around the inside top of the 

cone as fast as possible, and observe the 

movement.

When you push the marble forward and 

release it, the cone applies a continuous 

resistance to the marble’s movement and 

causes it to move in a circle. As the speed 

of the marble decreases, the gravity pulls 

the marble down to the bottom of the cone. 

If you could keep the marble moving at a 

constant speed, it would resist the pull from 

gravity and continue circling in the same 

place. When a satellite is launched, it moves 

away from Earth. Gravity causes a continuous pull on the satellite that keeps it from 

continuing to move out into space. Instead, 

the forward motion of the satellite keeps it 

moving in a circle around the Earth. 

To show how satellites help send messages 

between two points on Earth:

1. Have your partner stand in one room facing 

the doorway and holding a piece of paper. 

Your demonstration will work best if your 

partner is about six feet away from the wall 

that has the doorway.

2. Set up a mirror near the doorway in the 

other room so that the mirror is angled 

toward the doorway.
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88

3. Shine a flashlight toward the mirror. The 

light will reflect into the other room so that 

your partner can catch it on the piece of 

paper.

The light is like messages containing information about Earth’s oceans, atmosphere, ecosystems, the location of people needing rescue, 

etc. These messages can be sent to satellites 

that relay the information to other locations on 

Earth that are thousands of miles away. 

Before satellites were available, messages were 

sent by bouncing radio signals off of Earth’s 

atmosphere. But because the atmosphere is 

constantly changing, radio signals don’t always 

bounce to the place that the sender wants them 

to go. Satellites are above Earth’s atmosphere, and 

are a much more reliable 

way to communicate.

There are two types of satellites. Geosynchronous satellites are about 22,240 miles above 

the equator, an travel at a speed (about 6,800 

miles per hour) that matches the Earth’s rotation. This allows them to hover continuously 

over one position on the surface. Because they 

stay above a fixed spot on the surface, they 

provide a constant lookout for the atmospheric 

conditions that trigger severe weather events 

such as tornadoes, flash floods, hail storms, and 

hurricanes. Polar orbiting satellites circle the 

Earth 14 times a day, at an altitude of about 

500 miles. These satellites pass almost directly 

over the North and South Poles, and view all 

regions of the Earth in a single day.

Want to Do More?

1. Visit http://npoesslib.ipo.noaa.gov/

IPOarchive/ED/k-12/IPO/unit01/

satellitesAndOrbits.swf for a Shockwave 

Flash presentation on artificial satellites.

2. See http://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/About/onepagers/onepagers.html for some one-page 

posters about NOAA’s Satellite and Information Service.

3. See http://www.bu.edu/satellite/classroom/

model.html for directions for making a 

model of an artificial satellite.

4. See http://www.sarsat.noaa.gov/ for information about how satellites are used for 

search and rescue.

Graphic of the Synchronous Meteorological Satellite, a geosynchronous satellite that was the forerunner of the GOES (Geostationary 

Operational Environmental Satellite) satellites. Courtesy NOAA.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 89

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Wooly Magma

Descend into the crater of Yocul of Sneffels, which the 

shade of Scartaris caresses, before the kalends of July, 

audacious traveler, and you will reach the center of the 

earth. I did it.

“All scientific teaching, theoretical and practical, 

shows it to be impossible,” I said.

“I care nothing for theories,” retorted my uncle.

“But is it not well-known that heat increases one 

degree for every seventy feet you descend into the earth? 

Which gives a fine idea of the central heat. All the matters 

which compose the globe are in a state of incandescence; 

even gold, platinum, and the hardest rocks are in a state 

of fusion. What would become of us?”

“Don’t be alarmed at the heat, my boy.”

“How so?”

“Neither you nor anybody else know anything 

about the real state of the earth’s interior. All modern 

experiments tend to explode the older theories.”

~ from A Journey to the Center Of the Earth, by Jules Verne

http://jv.gilead.org.il/vt/c_earth/

Most of what Jules Verne wrote about the 

center of the Earth in 1864 is now considered 

to be wrong. While it is still true that no one 

has actually seen the Earth’s interior, today’s 

“scientific teaching, theoretical and practical” 

agrees more with young Harry than with his 

adventurous uncle. The center of the Earth is 

now believed to have an average temperature 

of 7,000°F, with maximum temperatures as 

high as 13,000°F. Here’s a way to show what 

scientists think we might find if we could 

really take a journey to the center of the 

Earth.

What You Will Do

Make a colorful model of Earth’s structure

Wooly Magma

Overflow from Mauna Ulu Crater. View east at overflow from 

trench into main Mauna Ulu crater on March 19, 1972. Note 

partially cooled skin on lake. Photo credit: R.T. Holcomb, Hawaiian 

Volcano Observatory, U.S. Geological Survey
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90

What You Will Need

r Two containers that will each hold about 

eight quarts (pots or bowls are fine)

r Paper towels 

r Hand towel 

r Dishwashing liquid

r Sharp scissors 

r Serrated knife and a cutting board 

r Rubber ball, about 1-1/4 inches diameter

r Wool roving in six colors; about 2/3 ounce 

of each color (red, gold, pink, green, white, 

and blue are suggested, but any colors will 

work)

r Hot and cold tap water

r Ice (about seven pounds)

Warnings

1. Be careful with scissors and hot water!

2. Get help from an adult to use the serrated 

knife!

How to Do It

To make your model, you will use a process 

called “felting.” You can read more about felting and how it works under “What’s Happening” 

at the end of this section.

1. Here is a drawing that shows the layers of 

Earth’s structure that will be included in 

your model. Since no one has actually seen 

Earth’s interior, we don’t know what the 

true colors are. So for your model, choose 

some colors that you like, and that are 

different enough so that the layers can be 

easily seen.

2. Begin constructing your model with the rubber ball, which represents the INNER CORE. 

Wrap a piece of red wool roving around the 

ball. The red roving represents the OUTER 

CORE. Be sure to wrap the wool roving 

tightly, and try to switch directions as often 

as possible. Pull the fiber as thin as you 

can. When you’ve reached the end, pull the 

fibers out to be as light and transparent as 

cotton candy; smooth those ends over the 

ball by stretching and patting them into 

place so they neatly stick to the ball. This 

will make the felting process easier because 

the fibers can be interlocked better that 

way.

3. Fill one of the containers about 2/3 full 

with hot tap water (the water should be as 

hot as your hands can stand). Fill the 

other container about 1/2 full with 

ice, then add cold tap water until the 

container is about 2/3 full.

4. Now for the felting! Dunk your 

woolen ball into either the hot or ice 

cold water. Hold the ball under the 

water and squeeze it hard to make 

sure water penetrates all the way to 

the inner core ball. Lift the woolen 

ball out of the water and squeeze 

again. Put a couple of drops of dishwashing liquid on the woolen ball, 

and roll the ball in your hands lightly, 

quickly and evenly. After the fibers have 

joined, begin to slightly increase presssure.

The harder and faster you roll, the faster 

the felting process takes place.

5. After about a minute, dunk the ball into the 

other water container (so if you dunked 

it in cold water first, dunk it in hot water 

now.) The change of temperature shocks the 

wool fibers and makes them cling together.

6. Repeat the rolling process, adding more 

dishwashing liquid only if you need to. Too 

much soap will make the ball slippery and 

hard to press against. If the ball gets too 

soapy, rinse or blot off the excess dishwashInner Core

Outer Core

Mantle

Transition Zone

Asthenosphere

Lithosphere

Structure of the Earth

Crust
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 91

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ing liquid with a paper towel. After about 5 

minutes, you should have a hard, tight ball. 

Now you are ready to add the next layer. 

7. Wrap the gold-colored roving around the 

ball to represent the lower Mantle layer. 

Remember to wrap the wool tightly, roll it 

in different directions, pull the end fibers 

out to be very thin, and smooth those ends 

over the ball.

8. Repeat Steps 4, 5, and 6. 

Are you feeling tired? Felting is hard work 

– if you’re not feeling your muscles, you’re 

not working hard enough! 

9. Wrap pink roving around the ball to represent 

the Transition Zone, remembering to wrap 

the wool tightly, roll it in different directions, pull the end fibers out to be very 

thin, and smooth the ends over the ball.

10. Repeat Steps 4, 5, and 6. 

11. Next, add a layer of green roving to represent the Asthenosphere. You guessed it 

—Repeat Steps 4, 5, and 6. 

12. Only two layers to go! Wrap the white 

roving around your ball to represent the 

Lithosphere, and repeat Steps 4, 5, and 6. 

13. At last! It’s time to add the final layer to 

represent the Crust. This could be blue, 

since most of Earth’s surface is covered with 

water, or multi-colored to represents both 

continental and oceanic crusts. Wrap the 

last piece of roving and repeat Steps 4, 5, 

and 6.

14. When you have finished your model, the 

felted wool ball should feel as firm as a 

tennis ball. Now, ask your adult partner to 

cut around the globe with a serrated knife 

to open the model up. WARNING—Be sure 

to ask your partner not to cut all the way 

through! Leave a hinge area about 1/2 

inch wide, or the whole thing will fall 

apart! Carefiully pull your model open and 

remove the ball. Trim any loose ends with 

scissors to make it uniform and smooth. 

Put the ball back in and ADMIRE your Wooly 

Magma—it’s yours and it’s unique! No two 

are alike.

What’s Happening

More about Felting

What is felt? Do you know what it is made of? 

Have you ever seen someone throw a pair of 

woolen socks or a wool sweater in the washing 

machine and then the dryer? What happens to 

it? It shrinks! Almost anything made of 100% 

natural fiber can be felted. During felting, the 

tiny fibers that make up the wool interlock; 

tightening and closing the small holes that are 

also part of its make up. The felting process 

is basically a compacting of the material that 

makes the fibers very dense. 

Three things are needed to felt wet/moist wool: 

ALKALINITY, HEAT, and AGITATION. In short 

AHA! Any two of them together will lead to a 

natural fiber or fabric felting. If you have a dog, 

cat, rabbit, or other pet with long fine hair, 

you’ve probably noticed mats or clumps behind 

its ears or on the body wherever the hair is exposed to AGITATION and moisture. That’s felt! If 

you’ve shampooed those spots on your animal, 

you’ll notice how hard and dense those clumps 

of fur become. That’s because you’ve added the 

ALKALINITY and intensified the felting process. 

To make your model, you use your muscles and 

a lot of “elbow grease” for the AGITATION. The 

HEAT part comes in when you shock your wool 

by dunking it into ice cold water and then in 

hot water. Dishwashing liquid provides the 

needed ALKALINITY for the process. 

Why would people want to make felt on purpose? It can be beautiful and decorative, but 

more important, it is much warmer than a 

loosely woven garment. It can become nearly 

impenetrable; almost waterproof, and was 

especially important for the people who lived 

in the day when there were no synthetic fibers 

like nylon, polyester, or acrylic that our winter 

garments are made of now. 

More About Earth’s Layers

Earth’s CORE is made out of iron and nickel and 

is about 1,550 miles in diameter. The temperature of the INNER CORE is on average about 
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92

7,000 degrees Fahrenheit, but it can go 

up to 13,000 degrees Fahrenheit. To give 

you an idea of how hot that is, you can 

bake a loaf of bread in your oven at 350 

degrees and rock begins to melt at 1,600 

degrees. Under the immense pressures in 

the INNER CORE, the metals do not flow 

as a liquid despite the high temperatures, 

but behave and vibrate like a solid.

The OUTER CORE is a sphere of iron and 

nickel, under less pressure than the inner 

core and nearly as hot. Here the metals 

are in a liquid state; between 4,000 and 

9,000 degrees Fahrenheit. The Outer Core 

is 1,400 miles thick, located about 1,800 

miles beneath the crust. Scientists believe that the circulation of an electric current 

in the Outer Core causes the Earth’s magnetic 

field. 

The MANTLE is Earth’s largest layer, and is approximately two thirds of Earth’s total mass. It 

is divided into several parts. The LOWER MANTLE 

(our gold layer) is very dense and hot (4,000 

degrees Fahrenheit).

The TRANSITION ZONE divides the lower mantle 

from its upper portion. The Transition Zone 

starts at a depth of 250 miles and is roughly 

190 miles thick. The temperatures here are 

much cooler than the lower mantle, around 

1,600 degrees Fahrenheit.

The ASTHENOSPHERE is in the upper region 

of the mantle, and is the part that flows like 

asphalt. It both moves the plates of the Earth 

and permits their motion. This ability of a solid 

to flow is called “plasticity”.

The LITHOSPHERE is a slab about 45 miles thick 

in which the continents are embedded. It gives 

us mountains and trenches (collisions), seafloor 

spreading and new oceans (separation), and 

long earthquake faults, like the San Andreas 

Fault (sliding side-by-side). This zone is 

composed of rigid, brittle rock.

The EARTH’S CRUST is the thinnest layer of the 

Earth at only 3-5 miles thick under the oceans 

and about 25 miles thick under the continents. 

It is composed of two basic rock types: 

granite and basalt. The CONTINENTAL 

CRUST is mostly granite while the OCEANIC CRUST consists of a volcanic lava rock 

called basalt. Temperatures vary from air 

temperature to 1,600 degrees Fahrenheit. 

It is here that volcanoes are started and 

where we find rich soil, jewels, and rocks. 

We live on the Earth’s Crust.

Please note that the layers we use in 

this project are not in scale to the 

Earth’s real layers. They are too similar 

in size. Also, the colors have nothing to 

do with how the Earth looks underneath. 

No one really knows what the layers look 

like. We’ve used color just for fun and to 

make a contrast so we can pick out each layer 

more easily.

Want to Do More?

For more information about Earth and its structure, visit:

http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/inside.html

http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/

Interior_Structure/overview.html&edu=elem

http://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageearth/animations/hellscrust/main.html

This activity was created by Annie Reiser, Global Systems Division Visitor Information Specialist at NOAA’s Earth System 

Research Laboratory

Two automobiles are all that remain after this section of Royal Gardens subdivision 

was overrun by lava (October 7, 1987). During October the footpath from a road into 

the housing area was covered, cutting residents off from the few homes that remained. 

Photo credit: J.D. Griggs, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, U.S. Geological Survey
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 93

Science | Service | Stewardship Understand the Earth

Survey Mark Hunting

National Geodetic Survey Satellite 

Triangualtion Program, illustrating the idea 

of modeling the Earth. 

Courtesy NOAA Geodesy

Imagine bridges not meeting in the middle...

Airplanes landing next to runways instead of on them...

Ships frequently running aground...

This is just a glimpse of life without geodesy. 

What’s geodesy? It’s the science of measuring the size and shape of the 

Earth and accurately locating points on the Earth’s surface (and is pronounced “gee - ODD - ess - ee”). 

READ ON, and find out how geodesy can be a lot of fun!

Another way to think about geodesy is to imagine a world globe with a lot of 

pins stuck in it. Geodesy is about giving each of those pins its own “address” 

written as latitude and longitude. Why is this important? Because each of 

those pins can serve as a starting point for describing the location of any 

other point on Earth; just like when you want to tell someone how to get 

to your house, you give them a starting point that they know, like a road or 

a building. In the United States, these reference points are developed and 

maintained by NOAA’s National Geodetic Survey (NGS). 

Hang on, we’re almost to the fun stuff!

So where are all those pins stuck in the globe? They are everywhere—more 

than 1,200,000 in the United States!

Of course, they really aren’t pins. Instead, NGS uses permanent marks called 

“survey marks” (you may hear survey marks called “benchmarks,” but benchmarks are only one type of survey mark). Often, survey marks are marked 

with a metal disk like the photo below, set in concrete or bedrock:

Survey marks can also be stainless steel rods driven 

into the ground, drill holes in bedrock, bottles, 

pots, or landmarks visible from a long distance, 

such as a water tower, a radio mast, or a church 

steeple.

What You Will Do

Get information on the location and description 

of survey marks in your geographic area, and find 

out how to share your survey marking discoveries 

with the rest of the world! Courtesy NOAA Geodesy Collection
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94

Now for the fun:

Although the majority of benchmarks are located 

in plain sight, they are usually ignored by the 

general public. Many benchmarks haven’t actually 

been visited in a long time, and no one knows 

whether or not they still exist. So if you find one 

of these benchmarks, so you may actually be 

rediscovering long-neglected objects of American 

history!

Searching for survey marks is called “mark recovery” and is a lot like a treasure hunt (you may 

hear this activity called “benchmarking” but the 

correct term is “mark recovery”). Hunting for 

survey marks can lead to interesting places like 

high mountain peaks, deep woods, old buildings, 

bridges, and sometimes, ghost towns! You can 

enjoy the excitement of being the first to find and 

document a long-lost survey mark; write a log for 

your discoveries on the worldwide web; and if you 

find a survey mark that hasn’t been recovered in 

a long time, you can submit a recovery note, with 

your name, to the NGS website. Hunting for survey 

marks can be even more fun if you have a global 

positioning system (GPS) receiver. With GPS, you 

can go very close to the exact latitude and longitude of survey marks installed in your area. This 

is a kind of treasure hunt called “geocaching” 

(pronounced “GEE - oh - cashing”). 

Here’s how can you find out about survey marks in 

your area, and try your survey mark hunting skills!

What You Will Need

r Computer with internet access

r (Optional) Digital camera for photographing 

your discoveries

r (Optional) GPS receiver (this is useful for 

getting close to a specific survey mark, but 

the actual “find” is usually done by using 

very detailed location descriptions from the 

survey mark’s datasheet)

Warnings

1. Mark recovery should ONLY be done with an 

adult partner!

2. Many survey marks are on private property, 

and may be in dangerous areas. Be sure to 

obey local laws!

How to Do It

1. The first step is to find out what survey marks 

are located in your area. The easiest way to 

do this is to use the search engine on the 

geocaching Web site: http://www.geocaching.com/mark. This site also has lots of information and “frequently asked questions” 

about mark recovery. Enter the zip code for 

the area you want to search in the box on 

the upper right side of the page, then click 

on the “GO” button. Soon you should see 

a page listing benchmarks in the vicinity 

of this zip code. You can click on the PID 

number (second column from the left) for a 

description of a survey mark’s location, history, and logs from other hunters.

You can also get information for many survey marks from the NGS Web site. To recover 

the entire datasheets for survey marks, use 

the NGS Datasheet Retrieval Page at http://

www.ngs.noaa.gov/. 

a. Click on “Datasheets” at the top of the 

page. This will open the “NGS Datasheet Page.” 

b. Click on the “DATASHEETS” button on 

the left side of the page to open the 

“NGS DATASHEET RETRIEVAL PAGE.” 

c. Click on “PID”, then enter the PID 

number (from the geocaching.com Web 

site) for the survey marks, then click 

the “Submit” button. This will open a 

window titled “Station List Results for: 

---”

d. Click on the PID number in the white 

window, then click the “Get Datasheets” button. This opens the complete datasheet for the survey mark 

you selected.

e. At the bottom of the Datasheet is a 

section titled “Station Description,” 

which gives very precise instructions 

for finding the survey mark, starting 

from easy-to-find landmarks (such as 

a public building or the intersection 

of major roads). This description also 

includes information about things that 

may make it easier to find the survey 

mark, such as:

“30 FEET SOUTH OF THE CENTER LINE 

OF THE ROAD, 23.98 FEET WEST OF 
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 95

Science | Service | Stewardship Understand the Earth

BENCH MARK 33 A (USGS), AND ABOUT 

2 FEET LOWER THAN THE ROAD.”

or

“8 FEET SOUTHEAST OF A GATE IN 

AN EAST-AND-WEST FENCE, AND IN 

THE TOP OF A LAVA ROCK. A UNITED 

STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY STANDARD 

COPPER NAIL AND WASHER, STAMPED 

5240.4.”

2. Now see whether you can locate some 

benchmarks. Read the location descriptions 

carefully, and try to start in areas that are 

familiar. BE SURE TO DO THIS ONLY WITH AN 

ADULT PARTNER!

When you find a benchmark, you can take 

pictures, but that’s all! Never disturb or 

move a benchmark, even if it appears 

to have been damaged. Remember that 

benchmarks are important, they are public 

property, and are protected by law. 

You can also log your find on the geocaching Web site. See http://www.geocaching.

com/mark for instructions.

If the location for survey marks is described as something like a radio tower, 

church steeple or smokestack, the top of 

these structures is usually the survey point 

(there is not normally a separate disk or 

other mark). Do not climb these structures! 

Just log your find, and take the structure’s 

Members of a 1922 geodetic survey expedition. Until recent advances in satellite technology, namely the creation of the Global Positioning System (GPS), geodetic surveying 

was an arduous task best suited to individuals with strong constitutions, and a sense of 

adventure. Courtesy NOAA NOS Geodesy.

picture (from the ground!) if you have a 

digital camera. 

Want to Do More?

You can find out more about geodesy at NOAA’s 

National Ocean Service Web site:

http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/geodesy/welcome.html

The official geocaching Web site http://www.

geocaching.com has lots more about mark 

recovery and geocaching.
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96

Courtesy Todd Marsee, Michigan Sea Grant

Courtesy Doug Helton, NOAA

Courtesy Laurel Jennings, NOAA

Courtesy Doug Helton, NOAA Courtesy Laurel Jennings, NOAA

Courtesy Jean Kenyon, NOAA Courtesy Victor Lundquist, NMFS-AFSC
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 97

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In addition to exploring and understanding 

the Earth, NOAA programs are also concerned with protecting Earth’s Ecosystems. 

Here’s a little challenge: How many benefits 

can you think of that depend on oceans 

and coasts? Next, how many things can you 

think of that might damage oceans and 

coasts? Your list of benefits should include 

food, habitat for thousands of plants and 

animals, marine transportation, fishing, 

tourism and recreation, and places for communities (more than half of the U.S. population lives and works within 50 miles of 

the coast). Your list of threats may include 

pollution (many kinds), habitat destruction for development (many types), overuse 

(such as over-fishing), storms, and climate 

change.

NOAA’s mission is to find ways to enjoy 

the benefits of oceans and coasts and at 

the same time protect and restore these 

resources for future generations. NOAA programs include protected areas, endangered 

species, fisheries, pollution control, and 

projects to restore damaged resources. Volunteers are an important part of many of 

these projects. In fact, the key to protecting Earth’s Ecosystems is public understanding and action. YOU CAN HELP PROTECT 

THE EARTH BY TEACHING OTHER PEOPLE 

ABOUT EARTH’S ECOSYSTEMS!

The more you know, the more you can do! 

The activities in this section will give you 

some tools for teaching other people about 

what everyone can do to help protect the 

ecosystems that sustain life on Earth.

Courtesy NOAA

PROTECT the Earth Courtesy Caroline Rogers, USGS Courtesy Todd Marsee, Michigan Sea Grant

Courtesy Tony Perry, NOAA 

Courtesy Kathy Crane, NOAA 
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98

The Ocean is vital to life on 

earth. From the life-giving 

rain that nourishes crops, to 

life-saving medicines; from 

the fish that come from the 

ocean floor, to the goods that 

are transported on the sea’s 

surface— in some way the 

ocean plays a role in your life 

every day.

This is a poster by artist Steve 

Shachter, prepared for NOAA 

during the International Year 

of the Ocean (1998). Look at the variety of living organisms! 

About 275,000 marine species are known to science. But more than 

95% of Earth’s oceans have not been explored, so there are almost 

certainly many species that are still undiscovered. Some scientists think 

there may be as many as ten million undiscovered species living in the 

ocean. Other scientists think the number may be much higher. Almost 

all of the major animal groups are found in the ocean, and many are 

not found anywhere else. So 

the sea holds most of Earth’s 

biological heritage, which scientists call biodiversity.

Why is biodiversity important? 

Because we know that marine 

organisms already provide 

food, fertilizer, drugs, jewellery, clothing and many other 

products. With so many species 

undiscovered, the potential for 

new products is huge.

Here’s a way to get acquainted with a few of the species whose home 

is the sea. But remember: there are millions more! 

Ocean Diversity Challenge Ocean Diversity Challenge

What You Will Do

Try to find all 73 ocean organisms 

in the Year of the Ocean poster!

Courtesy Steve Shachter, NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

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99

Protect the Earth

What You Will Need

r Copy of the Year of the Ocean poster; you 

can download a pdf file of the poster from 

http://www.yoto98.noaa.gov/foryou.htm, or 

use the smaller version in this book

r Copy of “Species List for 1998 Year of the 

Ocean Poster”

r Copy of “Key to Species on the 1998 Year of 

the Ocean Poster”

How to Do It

1. Look at the species list and try to find these 

plants and animals on the poster. The list 

is organized according to the type of ocean 

habitat in which the organisms are found. 

This gives you a clue of where to look on 

the poster. When you have found as many 

as you can, check the “Key to Species on 

the 1998 Year of the Ocean Poster.”

2. If you found more than half of the species 

on the list, you did really well for a beginner. If you found more than 3/4 of the species, you are no longer a beginner!

3. If you like competition, try these ideas with 

one or two partners:

• Take turns reading a description of an 

organism; your opponent has ten 

seconds to point to the species on the 

poster, or say the number that matches 

the description

• If you have a third person, have one person read the description while the other 

two compete to see who can be first to 

point to the species on the poster, or say 

the number that matches the description

• Take turns pointing to one of the organisms; the person not pointing has ten 

seconds to correctly name the species 

(it’s a good idea to have a third person 

hold the list to check your answers!)

Want to Do More?

Check out other Year of the Ocean activities at 

http://www.yoto98.noaa.gov/.

 

Species List for 

1998 Year of the Ocean Poster

Tropical or Reef Habitat

1 Reef lobster - Enoplometopus occidentalis

- Living in crevices and caves, these nocturnal marine crustaceans that live on the sea 

bottom scavenge for dead animals but also 

eat live fish, seaweed, small mollusks and 

other bottom-dwelling invertebrates.

2 Star coral - Montastrea cavernosa - One of 

many marine invertebrates in the class Anthozoa, it is has stinging cells and internal 

or external skeletons of a stonelike, horny, 

or leathery consistency. The term “coral” is 

also applied to the skeletons alone, particularly the stonelike ones. See 6, 7, 8, 9, 28, 

and 67.

3 Tube sponge - Phylum Porifera - A tube 

sponge may be 3 to 6.5 feet tall. Size 

within a species may vary with age, environmental conditions, and food supply. See 

26, 27, and 38.

4 Gorgonian - Gorgonia species- A “soft coral” 

composed of polyps that grow together to 

form a flat structure instead of a rocky reef, 

it has a central internal skeleton, composed 

of a flexible, horny substance supporting 

the colony. See 21.

5 Butterflyfish - Family Chaetodontidae - Most 

often found on reefs and in warm waters, 

the precise number of species in this family 

is unknown, but exceeds 150. Their bright 

colors are usually patterned to provide protection from predators—frequently the tail 

appears to be the head. See also 12 and 17.

6 Long-tentacled anemone - Heteractis magnifica - A member of the invertebrate order 

Actiniaria, made up of sedentary marine 

animals resembling flowers but closely 

related to jellyfish. Anemones occur in all 

oceans from the intertidal zone to depths 

of more than 33,000 feet. See 2, 7, 8, 9, 28 

and 67.

7 Brain coral - Diploria strigosa - This species 

of coral forms boulders that are ridged and 

shaped like the surface of the brain. See 2, 

6, 8, 9, 28, and 67 .
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8 Boulder coral - Porites species - Another of 

the many forms taken by corals. Corals are 

closely related to anemones. See 2, 6, 7, 9, 

28, and 67.

9 Plate coral - Agaricia tenuifolia - Stony corals 

form reefs that can extend only a few feet 

or thousands of miles. See 2, 6, 7, 8, 28, 

and 67.

10 Sea grass - One of the relatively few nonalgal plants living in salt water, sea grasses 

are most common in very shallow waters 

near shore. They provide food and shelter 

for the larvae and juveniles of many species 

of fishes and invertebrates.

11 Spotted moray - Gymnothorax moringua

- Morays generally live in tropical and subtropical waters. Most have large flattened 

bodies and often anchor their rear half 

in coral and rocks, extending the head in 

the current, ready to grab prey that comes 

close. They are dangerous when provoked, 

with ferocious teeth producing deep wounds 

that usually become infected.

12 Butterflyfish - Family Chaetodontidae - Butterflyfish are most often found in reefs and 

in warm waters. See 5 and 17.

13 Rock beauty - Holacanthus tricolor - This 

angelfish of warm Atlantic and Caribbean 

waters reaches a length of 12 inches. As is 

common in tropical reef fishes, juveniles 

have a different color pattern from adults. 

In most angelfish, the lips are a different color from the body, appearing to be 

painted on.

14 Blue spotted ray - Taeniura lymma - Sharks, 

skates, and rays are closely related; skates 

and rays can be thought of as flattened 

sharks with very large pectoral fins. Stingrays are noted for the long, sharp spines 

at the base of the tail. Each spine has a 

venom sac at its base, and stings are extremely painful. Wounds are frequently the 

result of a swimmer stepping on a ray.

15 Spotted wobbegong - Orectolobus ornatus

- Carpet sharks are bottom dwellers with 

the lower lobe of the tail absent. This Australian species blends into the sea bottom, 

where it ambushes bottom-dwelling prey 

at night. It has a fringe of fleshy barbels 

around its broad snout.

16 Common octopus - Octopus vulgaris - Distributed from the North Atlantic as far 

south as Guiana, this species reaches a 

length of three feet and a weight of ten 

pounds. The Giant Pacific Octopus span 

can extend 30 feet across and it can reach 

a maximum weight of nearly 600 pounds. 

Stories of octopus attacks on divers are 

false; octopus are generally shy and avoid 

confrontations with humans if possible.

17 Butterflyfish - Family Chaetodontidae 

- These are “picker” feeders: they use their 

long snout with the mouth at the end to 

pick small organisms and food particles 

from crevices and holes. See also 5 and 12.

18 Nassau grouper - Epinephelus striatus - A 

member of the sea bass family, this species 

lives in warm waters along rocky shores and 

coral reefs in the western North Atlantic. A 

valuable commercial species, it is in such 

demand that populations have been seriously damaged by overfishing.

19 Marine iguana - Amblyrhynchus cristatus

- The only sea-going lizard in the world, 

the marine iguana is found throughout the 

Galapagos Islands in densities of 4,500 per 

mile of coastline. Marine iguanas eat marine 

algae, crustaceans, and grasshoppers. Most 

feed on exposed reefs close to shore. Larger 

males, however, are famous for their offshore 

swimming and diving abilities. They can dive 

to depths of forty feet, and usually stay down 

for five to ten minutes, although the longest 

observed dive was about sixty minutes.

20 Potato grouper - Epinephelus tukula - An 

Indo-Pacific member of a warm-water family 

that includes some of the largest of all reef 

fishes. Groupers are disruptively colored so 

they can blend with the coral reef or rocky 

bottom. Some are able to change color to 

match their surroundings.
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Protect the Earth

21 Purple sea fan - Gorgonia ventalina - The 

living tissues form a layer over the entire 

surface, often in bright colors. See 4.

22 Common clownfish - Amphiprion ocellaris

- Living among anemone tentacles, and producing a skin secretion inhibiting anemone 

tentacles from stinging, clownfishes can 

shelter amid the tentacles safe from harm, 

taking advantage of the anemone’s own formidable defenses. They can also steal food 

from the anemone, which provides an easy 

living for them.

23 Cortez garden eel - Taenioconger digueti - 

These eels from the Gulf of California live in 

colonies at a depth of 12 to 132 feet; each 

individual has a burrow well-separated from 

the others. Because they feed by extending the upper half of the body up into the 

water to catch small animals that drift or 

swim by, they look like a garden that was 

planted. 

Temperate Waters

24 Giant Kelp - Macrocystis spp.- Giant kelp are 

very large seaweeds found in colder seas 

and belonging to the order Laminariales 

(about 30 genera) of brown algae. Giant 

kelp is rich in minerals and produces algin, 

a complex carbohydrate useful in various industrial processes, including ice cream and 

tire manufacture.

25 Leopard shark - Triakis semifasciata - Living in the northeastern Pacific Ocean near 

the bottom, females may reach a length 

of about 7 feet, but males only grow to 5 

feet. The markings are distinctive: black 

crossbars and blotches on a pale brown or 

gray background. This shark is frequently on 

display in public aquaria.

26 Velvety red sponge - Ophlitaspongia pennata - There are more than 5,000 species of 

sponges in the Phylum Porifera, occurring 

in many forms including tubes, balls, vases, 

incrustations, and shapeless masses. See 3, 

27, and 68.

27 Vase sponge - Phylum Porifera - A vase 

sponge may be 3 to 6.5 feet tall. They live 

in colonies or as solitary animals attached 

to the sea bottom or to other solid objects. 

See 3, 26, and 68.

28 Northern red anemone - Tealia crassicornis - Occurring in the northeastern Pacific Ocean; they can be thought of as an 

upside-down attached jellyfish. They are 

largest, most numerous, and most colorful 

in warmer seas. See 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 67.

29 Ochre sea star - Pisaster ochraceus - Sea 

stars are in the Phylum Echinodermata, 

which is generally characterized by fiverayed symmetry, a hard, spiny covering, 

and tube feet. Others include sea lilies, sea 

urchins, sea cucumbers, basket stars and 

brittle stars, and the recently discovered 

sea daisies. Ochre sea stars are very common in the intertidal and shallow waters of 

the northeastern Pacific Ocean. See 37 and 

53.

30 Serpent star - Ophiuroidea - An echinoderm, serpent stars can climb and some are 

capable of coiling their arms vertically. They 

are predominantly carnivores and feed by 

capturing food and bringing it to the mouth 

by arm looping or by moving the mouth to 

the food. See 50.

31 Garibaldi - Hypsypops rubicundus - The official California state fish, Garibaldi occur 

in shallow warm waters. Adults are easily 

recognized by their uniformly reddish gold 

color, and reach a maximum length of about 

12 inches. Young are reddish with iridescent 

blue spots.

32 Striped jack - Caranx dentex - Fast swimmers, striped jack eat smaller fishes, squids, 

and shrimps. Most species have rows of 

large heavy scales along the side near the 

tail fin, with small scales elsewhere, reducing drag and increasing swimming efficiency.

33 California sheepshead - Semicossyphus 

pulcher - This fish can reach a length of 3 

feet and weight of 36 pounds, though most 
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102

are much smaller. They range from Monterey 

Bay to the Gulf of California and are found 

most abundantly in kelp beds or along rocky 

shores.

34 Red sea urchin - Strongylocentrotus franciscanus - Urchins are echinoderms having 

a globular body, movable spines, radially 

arranged internal organs, and tube feet 

extending from pores arranged in bands 

extending from top to bottom over the skeleton. The mouth is on the underside of the 

body and teeth are extruded to scrape algae 

and other food from rocks. Sea urchins live 

on the ocean floor, usually on hard surfaces, and use the tube feet or spines to 

move about. This species lives in cool North 

Pacific waters near shore.

35 Sea lion - Zalophus californianus - Sea lions 

differ from seals in having external ears, 

a coat of short, coarse hair that lacks a 

distinct undercoat, and can rotate their 

hind flippers forward to use all four limbs in 

moving about on land. Sea lions eat mostly 

fish, squid, and octopus. Breeding in large 

herds, the males establish harems of 3 to 

20 females. See 48 and 49.

36 Port Jackson shark - Heterodontus portusjacksoni - This is a relatively small Australian shark with teeth in both the upper and 

lower jaws; small and pointed in the front, 

but large and flat-surfaced in the back, allowing it to eat both soft and hardshelled 

prey such as snails, oysters, sea urchins, 

and crustaceans.

37 Troschel’s seastar - Evasterias troscheli - 

Seastars are in the class Asteroidea, having 

rays or arms surrounding an indistinct disk. 

The 1,800 living species of starfishes occur 

in all oceans, although the North Pacific 

has the greatest variety. This species lives 

in rocky, shallow subtidal areas. See 29 and 

53. 

Open Ocean

38 Ocean sunfish - Mola mola - Molas grow 

very large, reaching to 10 feet in depth and 

weighing as much as 600 pounds. They eat 

jellyfish. The young swim with the body in a 

vertical position like other fishes, but adults 

spend most of their time on their sides, 

floating as though they were dead.

39 Atlantic manta - Manta birostris - The few 

species of mantas range in size from ocean 

giants of over 20 feet to species of only a 

few feet across the pectoral fins. The two 

flexible head protrusions, called cephalic 

fins, help direct small pelagic food organisms into the wide mouth. The Atlantic 

manta can have a wing span at least 22 

feet and weigh well over 3,000 pounds.

40 Billfish - Family Xiphiidae - Billfishes live 

in the open ocean and can swim almost 70 

miles per hour. Their most important identifying feature is the long upper jaw forming 

a bill, or spear, which may be used to stun 

prey as they speed through schools of fish.

41 Great white shark - Carcharodon carcharias

- The white shark, or man-eater, roams all 

warm and temperate seas, but appears most 

abundantly in waters off Australia. They 

average 12 feet long, but can reach over 30 

feet. They are so large and powerful that it 

is very difficult to study them. Great whites 

are credited with many attacks on humans, 

probably mistaking them for seals or sea 

lions. However, as a top predator, they are 

an essential part of marine ecosystems and 

should be protected.

42 Sperm whale - Physeter macrocephalus

- Sperm whales occur in all seas, are the 

largest of the toothed whales, and can 

dive to depths below 6,600 feet. They have 

the largest brains that have ever existed 

on earth, but it is ratio of brain to body 

weight that is important in intelligence, not 

just brain weight. They eat squid and fish; 

battles with giant squid often result in clear 

sucker marks on the skin of the whale. See 

70.

43 Yellowfin tuna - Thunnus albacares - Tunas 

are fast swimmers; this species can reach 

speeds over 40 miles per hour. They average 15 to 25 pounds weight, but can reach 
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300. The long pectoral fins, pelvic fins, and 

finlets are bright yellow, but the brightness 

fades soon after death.

44 Arrow worm - Sagitta macrocephala - These 

planktonic (drifting) animals are welladapted pelagic predators, even though 

they are an inch long or shorter. They are 

streamlined, have transparent bodies, and 

possess heavy grasping spines or hooks near 

the mouth.

45 Blue shark - Prionace glauca - Named for 

their deep metallic blue color and living in 

the open ocean in subtropical and cooltemperate seas., blue sharks have very large 

pectoral fins that help provide lift to keep 

them from sinking. Often seen at the surface swimming slowly with the first dorsal 

fin and the tip of the tail out of water, their 

food is mostly fish.

Polar Waters

46 Lion’s mane jellyfish - Cyanea capillata

- The largest jelly known, this species grows 

up to 8 feet wide and 1000 feet long, and 

has up to 12,000 stinging tentacles. When 

an animal comes in contact with these 

tentacles, it is stung and injected with a 

neurotoxin (nerve poison).

47 Icefish - Family Channichthyidae - Members of this Antarctic family have a kind of 

antifreeze that allows them to survive in 

the coldest water, even that below freezing. 

They have no hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying blood pigment) but because they live 

at low temperatures, their blood carries 

enough dissolved oxygen for life.

48 Weddell seal - Leptonychotes weddelli

- Seals survive extremely cold temperatures 

by having a thick layer of blubber which 

insulates them. True seals lack external ears 

and must drag their hind flippers. This Antarctic seal weighing 900 to 1,000 pounds, 

searches around sea ice for prey, usually fish 

and squid. Its main predator is the killer 

whale. See 35 and 49.

49 Ringed seal - Phoca hispida - Ringed seals 

usually live in ice-covered waters. They 

live on both seasonal and permanent ice, 

where they give birth in late winter or early 

spring. They can be found in all seas of the 

Arctic ocean and in some northern Finnish 

and Russian lakes. The world population is 

estimated at 5 million, with 1 to 1.5 million 

in Alaskan waters. See 35 and 48.

50 Serpent star - Class Ophiuroidea - Serpent 

stars occur in warm, cold, deep, and shallow waters. Like most echinoderms, they 

cannot tolerate marked changes in salinity, 

temperature, or light intensity. They use 

their spines and tube feet in locomotion, 

may move forward with any part of the 

body and reverse direction without turning 

around. See 30.

51 Antarctic cod - Family Nototheniidae - The 

Antarctic cods are a large, diverse family, 

dominating the Antarctic fish fauna. Most 

are bottom dwellers feeding on invertebrates and occasionally algae; some live 

associated with sea ice, but others live in 

midwater. They are a very important food 

for most penguins, seals and whales.

52 Arctic sea spider - Class Pycnogonida 

- Related to spiders but not one, the Arctic 

sea spider lives in very cold waters. They 

walk on the ocean bottom on slender legs, 

or crawl among plants and animals; some 

may tread water. They have a very small 

body; the internal organs extend out into 

the legs.

53 Bat Star - Patiria miniata - Starfish can 

digest food outside of the body by extruding their stomach around prey. They move 

by walking with their tube feet. See 29 and 

37.

54 Long tentacle comb jelly - Phylum 

Ctenophora - Transparent, gelatinous 

planktonic animals, ctenophores have cells 

which, instead of stinging, have a sticky 

tentacle to which food particles adhere to 

be drawn into the mouth.
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55 Antarctic octopus - Class Cephalopoda - The 

cephalopods are a small group of highly 

advanced, exclusively salt water molluscs, 

to which octopus, squid, cuttlefish, and 

chambered nautilus belong. Extinct forms 

outnumber the living, the class having 

attained great diversity in late Paleozoic 

and Mesozoic times. The best-known 

cephalopod features are the possession of 

arms and tentacles, eight (octopus) or ten 

(squid) in most forms, and the use of ink 

for protection.

56 Gurney’s sea pen - Ptilosarcus gurneyi - Sea 

pens are colonial coelenterates that stick 

up from the mud like a feather, feeding by 

filtering water through the branches. When 

threatened, they pull themselves down into 

the mud and they may also display startling 

flashes of brilliant orange bioluminescence.

Deep Sea

57 Sablefish - Anoplopoma fimbria - Living in 

cold North Pacific waters at moderate to 

great depths near the bottom, sablefish are a 

valuable commercially-fished species, caught 

by trawling, trapping, or bottom-fishing with 

baited longlines. They reach a length of three 

feet and average 20 pounds in weight.

58 Gulper eel - Saccopharynx harrisoni - This 

truly deep-sea fish has a huge mouth and 

sharp teeth. It can swallow animals at least 

as large as itself. Despite its capacity for 

food, it is very fragile, with small, weak 

bones. It reaches a length of at least four 

feet and has a whip-like tail with a light at 

the tip. It is collected very rarely.

59 Deep sea squid - Heteroteuthis dispar

- This three-inch long deep sea squid is 

one of just a few animals (in addition to 

some shrimp and fish) that can expel a 

bioluminescent ink to confuse predators.

60 Vampire squid - Vampyroteuthis infernalis

- Neither a squid nor an octopus, this deepwater species has ten arms like a squid. 

Instead of having two long prey-catching 

arms, two of its arms are sensory filaments 

that withdraw into pockets. Vampire squid 

have large globular eyes an inch across and, 

unlike octopods, many luminescent organs 

on the body.

61 Oarfish - Regalecus glesne - Possibly the 

world’s longest fish, the oarfish has pelvic 

fins reduced to one ray but extremely long 

and often expanded to a paddle tip, thus its 

common name. It is huge, reaching a length 

of at least 35 feet. The body is silver, with 

a bright red dorsal fin and very small tail fin.

62 Viperfish - Chauliodus sloani - A remarkable 

fish, Chauliodus has teeth so long that 

it must open its mouth to make the jaws 

vertical before it can swallow prey; when 

the mouth is closed, the teeth overlap the 

jaws. It can eat large prey by lowering 

the internal skeleton of the gills, allowing 

prey to pass into the throat without 

interference. Apparently it impales prey on 

the teeth by swimming at them, and the 

first vertebra (right behind the head) acts 

as a shock absorber! It has unusual scales 

that are large, thin, and hexagonal.

63 Deepsea dragonfish - Grammatostomias 

flagellibarba - A ferocious deep-sea 

predator, this fish is only six inches long; 

it has a large head and mouth armed with 

many sharp teeth. Dragonfishes have a 

long barbel, attached to the chin, with a 

luminous lure at the end that attracts prey.

64 Rift clam - Calyptogena magnifica - This 

deep-water clam lives around hydrothermal 

vents, feeding on sulphur bacteria. Its 

shell is white and the animal inside is a 

deep red. This fast-growing, large clam 

measures almost a foot in length. It lives in 

a methane-rich environment that would be 

poisonous to most animals.

65 Deep sea tube worms - Riftia pachyptila

- These four to six foot “worms” have no 

mouth and no gut, and live around deepsea hydrothermal vents. Blood-red feathery 

plumes (tentacle groups), where digestion 

occurs, emerge from white tubes. 
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

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105

Protect the Earth

66 Vent crab - Cyanograea praedator - Vent 

crabs are one of the characteristic animals 

associated with hydrothermal vents. They 

are completely white, and occur in high 

abundance in small areas.

67 Tube anemone - Class Anthozoa (Phylum 

Cnidaria) - Tube anemones are similar in 

basic features to other anemones but unlike 

them, each lives in a slime tube. They are 

widely distributed in tropical and subtropical waters where the ocean bottom is sand, 

mud, or silt. See 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 28.

68 Tube sponges - (Phylum Porifera) Sponges 

have a porous skeleton of interlocking spicules (bony, needle-like structures), glasslike 

rods, or horny fibers; they live in colonies 

or as solitary animals attached to the sea 

bottom or to other solid objects. Food is 

obtained by filtering water as it moves 

through the body of the sponge; organ 

systems are poorly developed and a nervous 

system is absent. Sponges can regenerate 

by restoration of damaged or lost parts or 

by complete regeneration of an adult from 

fragments or even single cells. See 3, 26, 

and 27.

69 Giant deep sea angler - Ceratias holboelli - 

Called an angler because its front dorsal fin 

ray is modified into a luminescent lure at 

the tip, this fish reaches about three feet in 

length. Males attach themselves to a female 

fish and grow to be a permanent part of 

her, losing their mouths, digestive systems, 

and gills.

70 Giant squid - Architeuthis princeps - Cephalopods are the largest invertebrates. One 

giant squid was reported to have been 

almost 60 feet long, including the 20-foot 

tentacles. Architeuthis swims in the same 

way as other squids, whether by jet propulsion or by using the fins. This squid may 

inhabit depths of 300 to 600 meters, and is 

a favored prey of sperm whales. See 42.

71 Ratfish - Chimaera phantasma - Ratfishes 

appear to be a link between cartilaginous 

and bony fishes, but in reality they are not. 

Most chimaeras have bodies that taper toward the rear to a slender tail. The snout is 

rounded and conical with big eyes located 

on the sides of the head, and there is only 

a single gill opening. Ratfishes have teeth 

fused into large, sharp incisors at the front, 

giving them the appearance of rodents.

72 Japanese spider crab - Macrocheira kaempferi - Probably the biggest living arthropod; 

this crab lives in the North Pacific near Japan at depths of 150 to 1,000 feet. Reaching over 12 feet from leg tip to leg tip, and 

weighing as much as 40 pounds, its body is 

only about 15 inches in diameter.

73 Deep sea jelly - Periphylla sp. - The deep 

bell-shaped body lined by dark pigment 

probably masks light from the bioluminescent animals it eats. Jellyfish move by 

rhythmic muscular contractions of the bell, 

providing a slow jet propulsion. Hanging 

downward from the center is a stalk-like 

structure with the mouth at its tip, opening into the main body cavity. Unlike some 

other jellyfish, Periphylla has very short 

tentacles.
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

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1998 Year of the Ocean Poster by Steve Shachter
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 107

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Key to the 1998 Year of the Ocean Poster
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

108

How many different kinds of fish are in the ocean? Scientists estimate 

that there are about 20,000 fish species. But most of the ocean is 

unexplored, so there may be many more! 

Fish are a major source of food for many people living on Earth. In 

the U.S. alone, more than 9.6 billion pounds of fish were landed by 

commercial fishermen in 2004. Fishing is also a hobby for millions of 

people, and recreational fishing is an important part of coastal tourism. Fish are a major part of complex marine ecosystems, and play an 

important role in maintaining balance in these systems. For example, 

excessive fishing around coral reefs often leads to an overgrowth of 

seaweeds that can damage reef-building corals.

Here’s a way to enjoy some of the bright colors and interesting shapes 

of ocean fishes.

Motion from the Ocean

What You Will Need

r One or more copies of fish “Patterns for Fish Mobiles”

r Crayons, colored markers, or colored pencils

r Thin cardboard (such as from a cereal box) or poster board

r Plastic lid or round piece of cardboard, at least 4 inches diameter

r Yarn, string, ribbon, or fishing line, at least 10 feet

r Scissors

r A nail, or woodworking awl

Warnings

r Be careful with the nail or awl and scissors; they are sharp!

What You Will Do

Make a mobile of ocean animals
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 109

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How to Do It

1. Using page 113 as a reference, color both 

sides of each fish pattern and cut them out 

(it’s easier to color them before you cut 

them out).

2. Glue one side of each colored fish to a piece 

of thin cardboard or posterboard, then cut 

it out again.

3. Glue the matching side of each fish to the 

other side of the images mounted on cardboard.

4. Punch a small hole near the top of each fish.

5. Tie different lengths of yarn, string, ribbon, 

or fishing line to each fish.

6. Punch holes in a plastic lid or round piece of 

cardboard. Try to space the holes as evenly 

as possible so the mobile will stay level 

when it is hung up. Don’t worry if there 

is a slight tilt – it just adds interest! The 

“Mobile Support Marking Template” can help 

you punch evenly spaced holes for mobiles 

with 4, 8, or 12 images.

7. Tie the lines from each fish to the lid or 

cardboard.

8. Hang your mobile so it is free to rotate, and 

enjoy!

Want to Do More?

• Visit the NOAA’s Ark Photo Gallery URL for 

many more pictures of fishes and other 

ocean animals.

• See NOAA’s New England Fishery Science Center Fish FAQ Web page, http://www.nefsc.

noaa.gov/faq/ to find out more about fish.

• Visit NOAA’s “Encyclopedia of the National 

Marine Sanctuaries” Web page, http://

www8.nos.noaa.gov/onms/park/ for photos, 

streaming video and biological information 

about more than 100 marine species found 

in the National Marine Sanctuaries

Portions of this activity were adapted from “Fish Mobile,” 

http://pbskids.org/readingrainbow/seaya/fish_mobile.html

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Mobile Support Marking Template
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

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Patterns for Fish Mobile

Four-eyed Butterflyfish

Blackbar Soldierfish 

Queen Parrotfish
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 111

Science | Service | Stewardship Protect the Earth

French Angel

Peacock Flounder

Smooth Trunkfish
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

112

Queen Triggerfish

Rock Beauty

Spotted Drum

Bluehead Wrasse
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 113

Science | Service | Stewardship Protect the Earth

Four-eyed Butterflyfish

Blackbar Soldierfish

French Angelfish

Peacock Flounder

Bluehead Wrasse

Images for Fish Mobile

Smooth Trunkfish

Courtesy Mel and Sandy Goodwin Courtesy Mel and Sandy Goodwin Courtesy Mel and Sandy Goodwin Courtesy Mel and Sandy Goodwin

Queen Triggerfish

Queen Parrotfish

Spotted Drum

Rock Beauty

Courtesy Mel and Sandy Goodwin

Courtesy Mel and Sandy Goodwin Courtesy Mel and Sandy Goodwin

Courtesy Mel and Sandy Goodwin

Courtesy Mel and Sandy Goodwin

Courtesy NOAA CCMA Biogeography Team
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

114

Does this look like a drugstore?

Some of our most widely-used drugs come from nature:

• Aspirin was first extracted from the willow tree

• Morphine is extracted from the opium poppy

• Penicillin was discovered in common bread mold

Historically, almost all of our drugs from natural sources came from 

plants and animals that live on land. But recent searches for new 

drugs have discovered that marine invertebrates (animals without 

backbones) produce more antibiotic, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory substances than any group of organisms on land. Strangely, many 

of these substances come from animals that spend most of their lives 

just sitting around. If you looked at these animals in an aquarium, 

you would probably get bored pretty quickly because they don’t move, 

and just look like blobs or skinny plants. And because they don’t look 

very interesting, you might assume that they are not important. 

What You Will Do

Make a poster to explain that we should protect animals that seem unimportant because they may 

provide new drugs for treating diseases such as heart disease, arthritis, and cancer

The Ocean Drugstore

But guess again! These unimpressive animals may hold the key to 

curing some of the most serious diseases that affect humans! Here’s a 

way that you can help teach other people not to jump to conclusions 

about the importance of ocean animals.

NOAA’s Ocean Explorer Program has supported several expeditions to 

search for new drugs from the sea. The 2003 Medicines from the Deep 

Sea Expedition was the first scientific exploration of marine organisms from deep-water habitats in the Gulf of Mexico. Samples collected 

during the Expedition are being studied by scientists at Harbor Branch 

Oceanographic Institution for chemicals that may lead to new ways to 

treat cancer, infectious diseases, disorders of the immune and central 

nervous systems, and cardiovascular disease.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 115

Science | Service | Stewardship Protect the Earth

What You Will Need

r Copies of images from “Some Animals That 

Produce Raw Materials for New Drugs”

r Crayons, colored markers, or colored pencils

r Poster board

r Scissors (Be careful with sharp scissors!)

How to Do It

1. Use images and information from the worksheet to create a poster that explains why 

it is important to protect seemingly uninteresting ocean animals using the fact that 

these animals may be sources of important 

new drugs for treating human diseases.

2. Show your poster at school, to your parents, 

and to other groups. The more people know 

about the importance of ocean life, the 

more they will support actions to protect 

ocean resources.

Want to Do More?

Visit http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/

explorations/03bio/welcome.html for more about 

the Ocean Explorer Medicines from the Deep Sea 

Expedition.

This activity was adapted from Chemists with no Backbones 

(4 pages, 356k) by Mel Goodwin, The Harmony Project, 

Charleston, SC; from the Ocean Explorer 2003 Medicines 

from the Deep Sea Expedition [http://oceanexplorer.noaa.

gov/explorations/03bio/background/edu/media/Meds_

ChemNoBackbones.pdf]

Why Do Simple Animals Produce Powerful Drugs?

Many of ocean animals that produce powerful 

substances are sessile, which means that they 

do not move. This may give a clue about why 

they produce these substances: Basically, these 

animals are “sitting ducks,” so they may use 

powerful chemicals to repel predators. Another 

possibility is that since many of these species 

are filter feeders, they are exposed to all sorts 

of parasites and disease-causing bacteria in 

the water; so the powerful chemicals may 

be a defense against parasites or antibiotics 

against disease-causing organisms. Competition 

for space may explain why some of these 

animals produce anti-cancer substances: If two 

species are competing for the same piece of 

bottom space, it would be helpful to produce 

a substance that would attack rapidly dividing 

cells of the competing organism. Since cancer 

cells often divide more rapidly than normal 

cells, the same substance might have anticancer properties.

Competition for resources is intense in habitats such as reefs. Many of the sessile invertebrates produce 

natural products to help them be more competetive. Photo courtesy John Reed, NOAA.
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

116

This is a colony of tunicates. 

Tunicates are animals whose 

body is basically a sack with 

two openings called siphons 

through which water enters 

and exits. Small particles 

filtered out of the water 

are used for food. They are 

called tunicates because 

their body wall resembles 

a coat or “tunic.” Some 

tunicates produce a chemical 

called Ecteinascidin, which 

is being tested in humans 

for treatment of breast and 

ovarian cancers and other 

solid tumors.

Sponges are the most primitive invertebrate animals that 

are composed of more than 

one cell. They do not have 

tissues or organs, but some 

of their cells are specialized 

to perform specific functions. Sponges of the genus 

Forcepia produce substances 

called Lasonolides, which may 

provide new treatments for 

cancer. Other sponges belonging to the genera Topsentia, 

Hexadella, and Spongosorites

produce a chemical named 

Topsentin, which is an antiinflammatory that may be 

helpful in treating diseases 

like arthritis. Deep-sea sponges of the genus Discodermia

produce a tumor-fighting substance called Discodermalide.

Bryozoans are small, mosslike animals that do not 

move. They feed on very 

small floating animals called 

zooplankton. Some bryozoans 

produce a chemical called 

Bryostatin that may be useful 

in treating certain types of 

cancer such as leukemia and 

melanoma.

Some Animals That Produce Raw Materials for New Drugs

Photo courtesy NOAA. Photo courtesy NOAA. Photo courtesy NOAA. Courtesy Photo Collection of Dr. James P. McVey, 

NOAA Sea Grant Program

Photo courtesy NOAA. 

Gorgonians are a type of soft 

coral, also called “sea whips.” 

Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae 

is a sea whip that produces 

substances called Pseudopterosins (soo-doh-TER-ohsins) that reduce swelling and 

skin irritation and accelerate 

wound healing.

Cone snails (also called cone 

shells) are carnivorous marine 

snails found in coral reefs. In 

this picture, the cone snail 

Conus marmoreus is eating 

a cowrie (another kind of 

snail). Cone snails produce 

a venom that helps capture 

food. The venom of some 

species is powerful enough 

to kill a human being. The 

cone snail Conus magnus also 

produces a chemical named 

w-conotoxin MVIIA , which is 

a powerful pain-killer.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 117

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Who Trashed the Ocean?

Hundreds of miles from shore and 2,200 meters below the 

ocean surface, I pressed my face close to the viewport 

to catch my last glimpse of the seafloor... As the bottom 

faded away, I saw beer cans, large loops of wire fishing 

line, and a bright blue diving bag scattered about the 

bottom. These incongruous human traces served as a reminder to me of just how far human influence extends...

~ from NOAA Ocean Explorer Expedition to the Deep Slope

Log for May 15, 2006

by Stephanie Lessard-Pilon

Graduate Student, Penn State University

http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06mexico/logs/may15/may15.html

Marine debris is man-made trash that enters the coastal or marine environment. 

Earth’s oceans are constantly polluted with a wide variety of trash ranging 

from soda cans and plastic bags to derelict fishing gear and abandoned vessels. Every year, marine debris injures and kills marine animals that become 

tangled in plastic debris or eat pieces of plastic trash. Humans are threatened 

too, because divers, ships, and boats can also become tangled in debris. Garbage that litters beaches and waterfronts not only looks awful; it also costs 

thousands of dollars to clean up.

The NOAA Marine Debris Program is part of a national effort to protect our 

coastal resources from damage caused by marine debris. One of the main 

goals of the Program is to reduce the amount of marine debris in the environment. Another goal is to find out where marine debris comes from. One 

of the most important goals of the Program is to educate people about the 

consequences of marine debris and why we need to stop trashing the ocean.

And this is where you come in! 

What You Will Do

Make a poster to inform people 

about why marine debris is bad 

and why we need to stop it.

Evidence of human activity extends even hundreds of miles from shore and 7,260 feet 

below the ocean surface. Image courtesy of Expedition to the Deep Slope.

Who Trashed the Ocean?
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

118

What You Will Need

r Crayons, colored markers, or colored pencils

r Poster board

r Scissors (Be careful with sharp scissors!)

r (Optional) Copies of images from “Some 

Examples of Marine Debris Posters”

How to Do It

1. Use the examples and your own ideas to create a poster that explains the consequences 

of marine debris, and what we can do to 

eliminate it.

2. Show your poster at school, to your parents, 

and to other groups. The more people know 

about marine debris and what it does, 

the more they will take personal action to 

prevent it.

Want to Do More?

1. Visit the NOAA Marine Debris Program Web 

site at http://marinedebris.noaa.gov/ for 

more about marine debris, as well as information and photographs of clean-up and 

prevention projects.

2. See http://www.yoto98.noaa.gov/books/debris/debris1.htm for more marine debris 

poster ideas.

Marine Refuse Disposal Project

logo © Herb Goblirsch; caption: Bill Murray

Public Involvement and Education Project, financed by proceeds from the Washington State Centennial Clean Water 

Fund and administered by the Puget Sound Water Quality 

Authority; and Washington Sea Grant, Marine Advisory 

Services
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 119

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Washington State Department of Ecology
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

120

It All Runs Downhill

What do you think of when you hear the word “pollution?” Black smoke 

belching out of factories? Horrible fluids pouring out of huge pipes?

Thirty years ago, these were classic symbols of pollution. But a lot of 

progress has been made in reducing pollution from sources such as industrial 

facilities and sewage treatment plants. Today, the big water pollution 

problem comes from rainwater and melting snow. Rain and snow are usually 

pretty clean when they fall from the sky. But as water flows over and 

through the ground it picks up chemicals, oil, animal wastes, and many 

other contaminants that change clean water into polluted runoff.

This kind of contamination comes from many sources, such as

• fertilizers and pest control chemicals from farms and home landscapes; 

• oil, grease, and toxic fluids from roads, parking areas, and motor vehicles;

• acid drainage from abandoned mines; and 

• wastes from livestock, pets, and leaking septic tanks.

Because the contaminants cannot be traced to a single source, this kind of 

pollution is called “nonpoint source pollution” or polluted runoff. More than 

half of the watersheds in the U.S. are affected by nonpoint source pollution. 

A “watershed” is an area of land that catches precipitation and channels 

this water into a marsh, stream, river, lake, or underground reservoir 

(groundwater). Your can think of a watershed as a giant funnel. Water that 

falls on any land within the watershed will all be funneled to the same water 

body. Watersheds can be small, feeding to a single stream or pond. Several 

small watersheds may be part of a larger watershed that funnels into a 

larger stream or river, and eventually into the ocean.

The only way to stop nonpoint source pollution is through education about 

the problem and what people can do to prevent watershed contamination. 

Here’s a way that you can help!

What You Will Do

Make a model of a watershed, and show how 

rainfall carries pollution into the ocean 

and other water bodies.

Iron contamination in the Idaho Blackbird Creek, Lemhi County, Idaho. Courtesy NOAA

It All Runs Downhill
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 121

Science | Service | Stewardship Protect the Earth

What You Will Need

r Rectangular container, about ten inches x 

twelve inches x two inches; a metal baking 

pan or plastic storage container is perfect

r Two sheets newspaper

r Plastic wrap or a white garbage bag

r Spray bottle

r Water

r Blue food coloring, about four drops

r Baby powder, cocoa powder, colored drink 

powder, and/or cake sprinkles; about two 

tablespoons

How to Do It

1. Crumple two sheets of newspaper, and place 

them side by side in one end of the container, like this:

2. Stretch the plastic wrap or garbage bag over 

the wads of newspaper and down over the 

sides of the container. Press the plastic 

down into the container in the end without 

the newspaper so that it forms a shallow 

depression. Be sure the plastic extends all 

the way over both sides of the container. 

The wads of newspaper represent hills or 

high places in your model watershed, and 

the shallow depression represents lakes, rivers, or the ocean.

3. Sprinkle a little baby powder, drink powder, 

cocoa, or cake sprinkles on the hills of 

your model to represent pollution. You can 

use different materials to represent different types of pollution. For example, baby 

powder could represent fertilizer; cocoa 

powder might represent motor oil or vehicle 

exhaust; colored drink powder could represent chemical runoff; and chocolate cake 

sprinkles could represent animal waste.

4. Predict where the pollution will flow and how 

many watersheds you think you have. Now, 

rapidly spray water onto the hills to show 

how rainfall carries pollution into the ocean 

and other water bodies. Were your predictions accurate?

5. You can use your model to teach other 

people about nonpoint source pollution. 

Be sure to talk about things that everyone 

can do to help solve this problem! Here are 

some ideas:

• Keep trash, pet waste, chemicals, etc. out 

of storm drains, since these often drain 

directly to lakes, streams, rivers, or 

wetlands

• Find out about alternatives to lawn and 

garden chemicals such as mild detergents, planting native species, and 

alternating rows of herbs with rows of 

vegetables to attract pest predators such 

damsel bugs, ladybugs, and stingless 

wasps

• Learn how to properly dispose of used oil 

and hazardous household chemicals

• Dispose of pet wastes in the garbage or 

toilet

You can find more ideas at http://www.epa.

gov/owow/nps/whatis.html and http://www.

epa.gov/owow/nps/dosdont.html

Want to Do More?

1. See NOAA’s National Ocean Service Nonpoint 

Source Pollution Discovery Kit: http://

oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/pollution/ to find out more about nonpoint 

source pollution with

2. See NOAA’s National Ocean Service Discovery Classroom at http://oceanservice.noaa.

gov/education/classroom/lessons/09_coastmanag_point.pdf for instructions on how to 

make a realistic model of a watershed.

3. Visit http://www.epa.gov/win/address.html

for information on your own watershed (or 

any watershed in the U.S.).

Newspaper

Plastic wrap
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

122

Toxic! Or Is It?

One of the big questions about any type of pollution is, “Will it hurt plants, 

animals, or humans?”

How can we find out? We don’t want to risk harming lots of living organisms 

to see whether a substance is toxic, especially if the organisms are humans! 

Scientists investigating pollution often use a technique called “bioassay” to 

test for toxicity. A bioassay is a measurement of the effects of a substance 

on living organisms. Tests for toxic substances use certain species called 

“indicator species,” which may be juvenile fishes, plant seeds, microscopic 

animals, or even bacteria! Several individuals of an indicator species are are 

exposed to the substance being tested for a certain period of time, and then 

compared to another group of the same species that was not exposed to the 

substance (the second group is called the “control group”). If the organisms 

in the test group show effects such as slow growth, reduced movement, or 

death and these effects are not seen in the control group, this is considered 

to be an indication that the substance being tested is toxic.

Bioassays usually do not indicate which specific substances cause toxicity, or 

the amounts of toxic substances present. But they do provide a good indication of the total toxicity of samples that may contain more than one toxic 

substance, and they are a quick and inexpensive way to test for toxicity in 

many samples.

Here is a simple bioassay that you can use to test for toxicity in runoff water 

that you suspect may be contaminated.

What You Will Do Use a radish seed bioassay to test for toxicity

Beach pollution at Bay St. Louis, MS after Hurricane Katrina. Courtesy NOAA.

What You Will Need

r 12 or more ziplock plastic bags

r One paper towel for each plastic bag

r Ten radish seeds for each plastic bag

r Permanent marker for labeling sample jars and plastic bags

r Household bleach, about 1/4-cup

r Distilled water, about one quart

r Ruler graduated in millimeters (mm)

r Tweezers or forceps

r Glass containers for collecting samples; baby food jars or similar size 

are perfect

r Clean glass jar for mixing bleach solution, about one pint

r Measuring cup that is not used for food

r Protective gloves and safety glasses, one set for each person 

participating in this activity
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 123

Science | Service | Stewardship Protect the Earth

Warnings

 Do this activity with an adult partner!

 Always check with an adult before collecting 

samples that may be contaminated with 

harmful substances. 

 Wear protective gloves and safety glasses when 

handling sample solutions!

 Do not use glasses, dishes, or any container 

that is used for food!

 Wash your hands after handling sample solutions, paper towels, and seeds!

How to Do It

1. Collect water samples to be tested. You may 

want to test water from puddles, streams, or 

ponds. Do this ONLY with an adult partner! 

Wear protective gloves and safety glasses! 

Collect each sample in a clean glass jar, and 

label the jar with a number.

2. Put on protective gloves and safety glasses, 

then mix one ounce of household bleach 

with nine ounces of distilled water in a 

clean glass jar.

3. Put the radish seeds in a clean glass container, and add about two ounces of the 

bleach solution from Step 2. The bleach 

solution kills fungi, which could interfere 

with seed germination.

4. Bioassays are carried out in zip-lock plastic 

bags containing a paper towel saturated 

with the test solution. Saturated means 

that the towel is damp all over, but isn’t 

dripping. Three separate tests (called 

“replicates”) will be done for each solution. 

Prepare three plastic bags for each sample 

to be tested, plus three more bags for the 

control solution (distilled water). Label 

each bag with the sample number, plus a 

letter to identify the three replicates (so 

for sample number 1, there would be three 

bags labeled “1-A,” “1-B,” and “1-C”). Put a 

folded paper towel in each bag.

5. Pour enough sample solution into each bag 

to saturate the filter paper. Use the same 

amount of sample in all tests. Saturate the 

paper towels in the control bags with the 

same amount of distilled water.

6. Using tweezers or forceps, place ten seeds on 

the paper, evenly spaced, in each bag. Seal 

the top of the bag.

7. Put the bags on a tray or shallow box where 

they can remain for five days. The bags 

should be at room temperature, but do not 

place them in direct sunlight! Each day, 

record the number of seeds that germinated 

(split open) in each bag, and measure (to 

the nearest mm) the length of the root that 

has emerged from each germinated seed. 

8. At the end of five days, calculate the average number of seeds that germinated in 

the three bags for each sample and for the 

controls. Also, calculate the average length 

of the roots among the germinated seeds in 

the three bags. If fewer seeds germinated 

in bags containing test samples, or if the 

roots grew more slowly than in the control 

bags, this is an indication that the samples 

may contain toxic substances.

Want to Do More?

1. For more information about simple bioassays, 

see

“A Simple Bioassay Using Lettuce Seeds,” 

by Joe Rathbun, in The Volunteer Monitor

volume 8, number 1 (available online at 

http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/volunteer/newsletter/volmon08no1.pdf); and 

“Students Test for Toxics,” by Mark Mitchell, 

in The Volunteer Monitor volume 5, number 

1 (available online at http://www.epa.gov/

owow/monitoring/volunteer/newsletter/volmon05no1.pdf).

2. Visit http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/eduinfo.

html for more information about polluted 

runoff.

This activity was adapted from The Seeds Tell the 

Story (21 pages, pdf, 660 Kb) by Mel Goodwin, 

The Harmony Project, Charleston, SC; part of 

NOAA’s National Ocean Service Nonpoint Source 

Pollution Discovery Kit [http://oceanservice.

noaa.gov/education/kits/pollution/lessons/pollution_seeds.pdf].
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

124

In the late 1860’s, it seemed like a good idea: Let’s 

start a silk industry in the United States! Silk is a 

valuable cloth, in demand all over the world. And 

insects do most of the work! All we need to do is 

import some Gypsy moths from France, then sit back 

and wait for the money to start rolling in!

So, the moths were imported. Unfortunately, they 

escaped. Today, Gypsy moths are a major threat to 

U.S. forests. 

Gypsy moths are one example of invasive species, 

and there are many more. About 50,000 alien species are already in the U.S. What’s the difference 

between “alien” and “invasive?” An alien species 

is not native to a particular ecosystem. If an alien 

species causes economic and/or environmental 

harm or threatens human health, then it is called invasive.

What’s the big deal? Invasive species can seriously threaten native species and 

entire ecosystems. Plus, the costs of environmental damage, economic losses, 

and efforts to control invasive species average $138 billion per year—more than 

the cost of all other natural disasters combined. 

What can be done? NOAA’s National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science are 

developing a group of experts that can help recognize alien species, hopefully 

before they become invasive. NOAA’s National Sea Grant Office and state fish 

and wildlife agencies are partnering with the pet industry in the HabitattitudeTM 

Campaign, which is about educating consumers about possible environmental 

consequences of aquarium and water garden hobbies, and how to be a responsible hobbyist. In addition, NOAA’s Community-Based Restoration Program works 

with community groups to remove invasive plants as part of projects to repair 

damaged coastal habitats.

Here’s how to learn a lot about aquatic invaders and have fun at the same time!

Invasive Species Super Sleuth

Lionfish are venomous fish from Indian and western Pacific oceans 

that have invaded East Coast waters Courtesy NOAA.

What You Will Need

Computer with CD-ROM drive or internet access

How to Do It

There are two ways to play Nab the Aquatic 

Invader! You may have received the game on a 

CD that came with this book. If you have the 

CD, load it into your computer and follow the 

directions. The other way to play is to use the 

online version of the game on the Sea Grant 

Nonindigenous Species Site (SGNIS) at http://

sgnis.org/kids/.

Want to Do More?

1. Tell your teacher about the CD or the Sea Grant Nonindigenous Species 

Site. Maybe your whole class will get to play the game!

2. Check out the “Kids’ Secret Headquarters” page (http://www.sgnis.org/

kids/kidsheadquarters.html) for more aquatic invader activities.

3. You can find a LOT more information about invasive species on the Sea 

Grant Nonindigenous Species Site main page, http://www.sgnis.org/.

What You Will Do

Play a game called “Nab the Aquatic Invader!” 

You will be a private investigator working with other detectives 

to catch suspected invaders including 

Louie “Sucker Mouth” Sea Lamprey, Zeke “The Prowler” Zebra Mussel, 

Purple “Lucky” Loosestrife, and Rocco “Ravenous” Ruffe.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 125

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If you have played the “Invasive Species Super Sleuth” game, you already 

know what invasive species are and why they are a big problem (so you can 

skip the rest of this paragraph!). Just in case you haven’t played the game 

yet, invasive species are plants, animals, or other living organisms that are 

not native to a particular ecosystem and cause economic harm, environmental damage, or pose a threat to human health. Invasive species can seriously damage native species and entire ecosystems, and cost an about $138 

billion per year (which is more than the cost of all other natural disasters 

combined). NOAA’s National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science are developing a group of experts that can help recognize alien species, hopefully before 

they become invasive. NOAA’s National Sea Grant Office and state fish and 

wildlife agencies are partnering with the pet industry in the HabitattitudeTM 

Campaign, which is about educating consumers about possible environmental consequences of aquarium and water garden hobbies, and how to be 

a responsible hobbyist. In addition, NOAA’s Community-Based Restoration 

Program works with community groups to remove invasive plants as part of 

projects to repair damaged coastal habitats.

You can help! Here are some pictures and more information about twelve 

invasive alien animals. You can use these images to make a twelve-sided 

object that will show these examples of invasive species. This twelve-sided 

object is called a dodecahedron (pronounced “doe - dek - ah - HEE - dron”). 

You can use your “Alien Dodecahedron” to help other people understand 

more about the invasive species problem. Once they start looking at the 

dodecahedron and the images on its twelve sides, you can tell them some of 

the facts about invasive species. Remember: Education and understanding 

are key to solving most environmental problems—including invasive species! 

What You Will Do

Make a dodecahedron that shows pictures of 

twelve invasive animals

Your Alien Dodecahedron

Courtesy USGS

Courtesy Leo G. Nico, USGS

Courtesy Justin Secrist, Washington DFW

Courtesy California Interagency Ecological Program
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

126

What You Will Need

r Color copy of images on the “Alien Dodecahedron Worksheet”

r Copy of “How to Fold a Dodecahedron”

worksheet

r Scissors

r Glue for paper

Warning

Be careful with scissors; they are sharp!

How to Do It

1. Carefully cut out the pattern on the “How to 

Fold a Dodecahedron” worksheet. Be sure 

NOT to cut the dashed lines!

2. Fold all of the dashed lines away from you 

(backward), then unfold and flatten the 

pattern.

3. Cut out the twelve images on the color copy 

of the “Alien Dodecahedron Worksheet.”

4. Glue the images onto the dodecahedron pattern. 

5. Fold the dodecahedron pattern along the 

dashed lines so that it makes a twelve-sided 

shape. Glue the tabs to keep the shape from 

unfolding. 

6. Now you have an Alien Dodecahedron! 

Look over the facts about each species on the 

worksheet. You will see that some alien invaders were deliberately brought to the United 

States for various reasons. Others arrived by 

accident, sometimes as part of “ballast water.” 

Ballast water is water that is pumped into large 

ships when they are not carrying cargo, so that 

they are more stable when sailing on the ocean. 

This means that water from one part of the 

Earth can be carried thousands of miles away 

before it is pumped out again. If small animals 

or larvae happen to be in the water when it 

is pumped into a ship, they get a free ride to 

another part of the world! 

You will also see that one of the biggest problems with invasive species is that they compete 

with native species. Native species are the 

organisms that are normally found in a certain 

ecosystem. Often, native species do not have 

good defenses against invaders. Species like the 

zebra mussel cause other problems when they 

attach themselves inside pipes that carry water 

in and out of factories or power plants. Some 

invaders are dangerous to humans, such as the 

lionfish that has spines that contain a powerful 

venom.

Show your Dodecahedron to other people and 

tell them about the invasive species problem. 

You can also play a game with your Dodecahedron: Players take turns, and the player who is 

“It” gently tosses the Dodecahedron onto a flat 

surface, then looks at the picture that is face 

down. Time the player to see how long it takes 

to correctly name the species and what damage 

it causes (or whatever other facts you want to 

include in the game). If the face-down image 

has already been named by another player, the 

player who is “It” tosses the Dodecahedron 

again until a new image is face-down.

Want to Do More?

See http://www.research.noaa.gov/oceans/

t_invasivespecies.html to find out more about 

invasive species and what is being done about 

them.

The National Invasive Species Information 

Center Web site, http://www.invasivespeciesinfo.

gov/index.shtml has a lot of information about 

invasive species, including links to images.

Lionfish, Courtesy Paula Whitfield, NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 127

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How to Fold a 

Dodecahedron 

Worksheet
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

128

Courtesy NOAA Restoration Center, Jim Turek

What Is It? 

A fish called an Alewife (also called mulhaden, 

grey herring, golden shad); its scientific name 

is Alosa pseudoharengus

Where Did It Come From? 

Atlantic Ocean

How Did It Get Here? 

Deliberately introduced to Lake Erie

What Does It Do? 

Competes with native species

Courtesy Leo G. Nico, USGS, Gainesville, FL

What Is It? 

A fish called an Asian swamp eel or rice eel; its 

scientific name is Monopterus albus

Where Did It Come From? 

Asia

How Did It Get Here? 

Brought to the U.S. for aquariums and fish markets, accidentally released

What Does It Do? 

Competes with native species

Courtesy of California Interagency Ecological Program

What Is It? 

A crab called the Chinese mitten crab; its scientific name is Eriocheir sinensis

Where Did It Come From? 

China

How Did It Get Here? 

In ballast water of ships; possibly deliberately 

released

What Does It Do? 

Competes with native species

Alien Dodecahedron Worksheet

Alewife Asian Swamp Eel Chinese Mitten Crab
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 129

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Courtesy Paula Whitfield, NOAA Center for Coastal Fisheries and 

Habitat Research, Beaufort, NC

What Is It? 

A fish called the lionfish; its scientific name is 

Pterois volitans

Where Did It Come From? 

Pacific Ocean

How Did It Get Here? 

Brought to the U.S. for aquariums; accidentally 

or deliberately released

What Does It Do? 

Eats native species and has venomous spines 

that are poisonous to humans

Courtesy U.S. Geological Survey, Florida Integrated Science Center]

What Is It? 

A fish called the Northern snakehead; its scientific name is Channa argus

Where Did It Come From? 

Asia

How Did It Get Here? 

Brought to the U.S. for fish markets; accidentally or deliberately released

What Does It Do? 

Feeds aggressively on amphibians, fish, birds, 

and small mammals; can survive in waters that 

contain very little oxygen and can travel across 

land

Courtesy Justin Secrist, Washington Department of Fish and 

Wildlife

What Is It? 

A mammal called a Nutria (also called a coypu, 

coypu rat, nutria rat, or swamp beaver); its 

scientific name is Myocastor coypus

Where Did It Come From? 

South America

How Did It Get Here? 

Brought to the U.S. for fur production

What Does It Do? 

Damages vegetation and destroys wetland 

habitats

Lionfish Northern Snakehead Nutria
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

130

Courtesy D. Jude, University of Michigan

What Is It? 

A fish called the Round Goby; its scientific 

name is Neogobius melanostomus

Where Did It Come From? 

Eurasia

How Did It Get Here? 

In ballast water of ships

What Does It Do? 

Feeds on native species

Mouth of a sea lamprey

Courtesy USGS, Great Lakes Science Center

What Is It? 

A fish called a Sea Lamprey; its scientific name 

is Petromyzon marinus

Where Did It Come From? 

Atlantic Ocean

How Did It Get Here? 

Entered the Great Lakes through man-made 

canals

What Does It Do? 

Feeds on native species

Courtesy Dann Blackwood, U.S. Geological Survey

What Is It? 

An invertebrate called a Sea Squirt (also called 

an ascidian, colonial tunicate, or compound sea 

squirt]; its scientific name is Didemnum lahillei

Where Did It Come From? 

Europe

How Did It Get Here? 

In ballast water and attached to the hulls of 

ships

What Does It Do? 

Forms dense mats that smother native species

Round Goby Sea Lamprey Sea Squirt
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 131

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Courtesy of Ohio Sea Grant College Program

What Is It? 

A mussel called the Zebra Mussel; its scientific 

name is Dreissena polymorpha

Where Did It Come From? 

Eurasia

How Did It Get Here? 

In ballast water of ships

What Does It Do? 

Competes with native species, and clogs pipes 

of factories located on rivers and lakes

Courtesy of Julia Harding, Virginia Institute of Marine Science

What Is It? 

A snail called the Veined Rapa Whelk; its scientific name is Rapana venosa

Where Did It Come From? 

Pacific Ocean

How Did It Get Here? 

In ballast water of ships

What Does It Do? 

Eats commercially important bivalves, such as 

clams and oysters

Courtesy of California Interagency Ecological Program

What Is It? 

A crab named the European Green Crab; its 

scientific name is Carcinus maenas

Where Did It Come From? 

Europe

How Did It Get Here?

 In ballast water of ships

What Does It Do?

 Eats commercially important bivalves, such as 

soft shell clams and scallops

Zebra Mussel Veined Rapa Whelk European Green Crab
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

132

“When the last individual of a race of living things 

breathes no more, 

another heaven and another earth 

must pass before such a one can be again.”

~ William Beebe

Earth loses hundreds of species every year, and many of these losses 

are the result of human activity. Some of these species may have held 

the key to curing cancer, or feeding everyone on the planet, or improving our lives in ways we can’t even imagine. But we’ll never know, 

because they are gone.

In 1973, the U.S. Congress passed the Endangered Species Act to 

protect species that are in danger of extinction, as well as the ecosystems that supports these species. NOAA and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service are responsible for making the Endangered Species Act work. 

But they can’t do this job alone. Protecting endangered species needs 

everyone’s help, and the first step is getting people to think about the 

problem.

What You Will Do 

Make origami models of whales and turtles 

Here’s an activity that can help introduce the topic of endangered species, particularly whales and sea turtles.

What You Will Need

r 8 1/2 x 11 inches sheets of colored paper (one for each animal)

r Scissors

Warning

Be careful with sharp scissors.

Humpback whales in the singing position. Courtesy Dr. Louis M. Herman, NOAA

Endangered SpeciesOrigami
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 133

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1. Begin by making a square 

piece of paper. Fold one 

corner of a piece of paper 

over to the adjacent side.

2. Like this. Finish making the 

square by cutting off the 

small rectangle.

3. Fold side to side and unfold. 

This is the “valley fold” or 

“river.”

4. Turn over and fold right and 

left points down to form a 

“roof.”

5. Like this. Then turn over.

How to Make an Origami Sea Turtle

6. Bring the folded edges to 

meet the valley fold (the 

river). Crease flat.

7. Unfold the top side points.

8. Like this.

9. Fold the top point down as 

shown.

10. Fold the point upward to 

create a head.

11. Lift the bottom edge to 

meet the vertical center 

line.

12. Like this. Press flat and 

fold outward as shown.

13. Repeat steps 11 and 12 

with the other foot.

14. Turn over. You’ve made a 

turtle!

Origami illustrations courtesy Matt McIntosh, NOAA
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

134

1. Begin by making a square 

piece of paper. Fold one 

corner of a piece of paper 

over to the adjacent side.

2. Like this. Finish making the 

square by cutting off the 

small rectangle.

3. Put a square of paper on 

the table so it looks like a 

diamond. Fold side to side 

and unfold.

4. Fold the lower left and right 

sides to meet the center 

crease.

5. It looks like an ice-cream 

cone. Now fold the top 

point down, as shown.

6. Fold the right side over to 

meet the left side.

7. Put your finger on the bottom point as you turn the 

whale sideways.

8. Fold the end point up to 

make a tail.

9. Like this.

10. Make a short cut through 

the end of the fold in the 

tail. Fold the edges of the 

tail outwards. 

11. Like this.

12. Draw eyes, fins and any 

other patterns you like.

Origami illustrations courtesy Matt McIntosh, NOAA

How to Make an Origami Blue Whale
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 135

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p Sea turtles have been on the planet 

since the early Mesozoic era almost 180 

million years ago! They survived the great 

dinosaur extinction during the Cretaceous 

era, and flourished until recent times.

p There are six species of sea turtles commonly found in the United States in the 

Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and Pacific: 

4 Leatherback

4 Loggerhead

4 Kemp’s Ridley

4 Hawksbill 

4 Green

	 4 Olive Ridley 

p Sea turtles eat a variety of organisms, including algae, seagrasses, sponges, crustaceans, jellyfish and mollusks. 

p Sea turtles have a unique life history. They 

are highly migratory, often swim long 

distances, live long lives, take a long time 

to reach maturity, and crawl ashore to dig 

nests and lay eggs.

p Leatherback, loggerhead, and Kemp’s ridley 

turtles are only found in the U.S. Atlantic 

and Gulf of Mexico.

p In the Atlantic, Green and hawksbill turtles 

are found more commonly south of Virginia. 

p What’s the problem? Sea turtles are 

threatened by:

4 Accidental capture by commercial fisheries

4 Loss of habitat and nesting areas due to 

coastal development

4 Being hit by ships 

4 Overfishing of important food items such 

as mollusks, and crabs

4 Killing turtles and their eggs for food

p NOAA and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

are working together to conserve and help 

marine turtles recover, along with other 

federal agencies, state partners, coastal 

communities, private individuals, and other 

nations.

p Some things being done to conserve sea 

turtles:

4 Requiring certain types of fishing vessels 

to use fishing gear that prevents 

accidental capture of sea turtles

4 Protecting prime nesting habitat along 

key coastal areas

4 Requiring dredges to use equipment that 

protects turtles, and restricting dredge 

activities in certain areas where sea 

turtles are abundant

4 Requiring plans to reduce the chances 

of sea turtles being trapped in coastal 

power plants 

4 Supporting regulations to control artificial lights near turtle nesting beaches 

(artificial lights can disorient sea turtle 

hatchlings)

4 Working with other countries to conserve 

sea turtles throughout their range

p How are sea turtles doing? None of the 

five species found in the Atlantic and Gulf 

of Mexico have met recovery plan goals. 

The Kemp’s ridley has shown a long-term, 

strongly increasing trend in the number of 

nesting females (which is the most common 

way to measure population status). Sadly, 

thousands of dead sea turtles continue to 

wash ashore along the U.S Atlantic and Gulf 

coastline each year.

For more about sea turtle biology, status and 

the threats that face them: Visit NOAA’s National Marine Fisheries Service Web site: http://

www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr and the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service Web site: http://northflorida.

fws.gov/SeaTurtles/seaturtleinfo.htm. 

Sea Turtle Facts

Green Turtle Hawksbill Turtle

Caroline Rogers, USGS

Caroline Rogers, USGS
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

136

p Whales are 

the largest 

animals that 

ever lived on 

the Earth. They are even larger than the 

dinosaurs of prehistoric times. 

p All whales belong to a group known as 

cetaceans (seh TAY shuhnz). There are two 

types of whales—toothed (odontocete) and 

baleen (mysticete). Baleen is a special filter 

that whales use to sieve tiny food particles 

from the water.

p Today, there are 78 species of whales swimming in the oceans around the world; 67 

species are toothed and 11 are baleen.

p Whales are large, intelligent, marine mammals. They breathe air through a blowhole 

into lungs, are warm-blooded, and give birth 

to their young as opposed to laying eggs. 

p Many ceteaceans, especially baleen whales, 

migrate over very long distances each year. 

They travel, sometimes in groups (pods), 

from coldwater feeding grounds to warmwater breeding grounds. Gray whales make 

the longest seasonal migration of any of the 

whales—about 12,500 miles each year!

p The biggest whale is the blue whale, which 

grows to be about 94 feet (29 m) long 

—the height of a 9-story building. These 

enormous animals eat about 4 tons of krill 

(microscopic floating animals) each day, 

obtained by filter-feeding through baleen. 

p The smallest whale is the dwarf sperm 

whale, which as an adult is only 8.5 feet 

(2.6 m) long. 

p Adult blue whales have no predators except 

man. Almost all species of baleen whales 

were exploited by the commercial whaling 

industry from the 1700s to the mid-1900s. 

Several species of both toothed and baleen 

whales were hunted close to extinction. 

Most populations have not yet recovered 

from intense hunting and still face threats 

to their survival from human activities.

p Many baleen whales are in danger of being hit by ships, particularly the critically 

endangered Northern right whale. 

p Being tangled in various types of fishing 

gear is a serious threat to several species of 

cetaceans.

p NOAA works 

to protect and 

conserve whales 

because all 

whales are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection 

Act, and some are also protected under the 

Endangered Species Act. 

p NOAA’s efforts to protect and conserve 

whales include legislation, National Marine 

Sanctuaries and other marine protected areas. NOAA also works with the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service on issues concerning whales 

and other ceteaceans. 

Want to Do More?

• For more information, visit: 

http://www.noaa.gov/whales/ and http://

www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/ – NOAA’s whale related programs

http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/ – NOAA’s 

National Marine Sanctuaries

http://mpa.gov/ – NOAA’s marine protected 

areas 

http://www.fws.gov/ – U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service

Whale Facts

Humpback whale breaching Killer whale shyhopping

Courtesy NOAA Courtesy NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 137

Science | Service | Stewardship Protect the Earth

Is Our Climate Changing?

What’s the difference between weather and climate? 

Weather is what is happening in the atmosphere right now. Climate 

is what the weather is likely to be in a particular place over a long 

period of time. If you want to know the temperature in your community today, you’re talking about weather. If you want to know what 

the temperature is likely to be a year from now, you’re talking about 

climate. In other words, climate is what we expect, weather is what 

we get.

Climate usually involves the average weather conditions in a particular place or geographic region (for example, the northeastern United 

States) over a period of 30 – 50 years. So if your parents say that 

winters were colder when they were growing up, they are saying that 

the weather they experienced then was different from the weather 

they expect today, and this is what we call a change in climate. 

Some Facts About Earth’s climate

• Since the middle of the 1800’s, Earth’s average temperature has warmed 

about 1°F. 

• 1°F doesn’t sound like much, but it’s important to realize that Earth’s 

average temperature is warmer now than it has been at any time 

since at least 1400 AD. We say “at least” because 1400 AD is as far 

back as scientists have good estimates of temperatures. There is other 

evidence that suggests Earth’s temperature is warmer now than it has 

been in many thousands of years, maybe nearly 100,000 years. 

• On Earth today, mountain glaciers are melting, springtime snow cover is 

reduced, the temperature of the ground has been increasing, and sea 

levels have risen by several inches in the last 100 years. 

We hear and read a lot about climate change. What does this mean? Is it really happening?

Courtesy NOAA Courtesy Victor Lunquist, NMFS-AFSC
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

138

Why is This Happening?

There are several possible explanations:

• The Sun may be getting brighter; 

• Maybe it’s just part of natural cycles in Earth’s 

climate; or

• Human activities that release carbon dioxide, 

methane and other gases into Earth’s atmosphere are increasing the natural “greenhouse 

effect” that keeps Earth’s surface warm. 

Scientists investigating these possibilities 

have found that

• If the Sun were getting brighter, this would 

warm Earth’s surface as well as the lower 

and upper atmosphere. But the upper atmosphere is cooling and the Sun hasn’t gotten 

a lot brighter.

• Natural cycles would warm some regions and 

cool others, back and forth at different 

times. But the warming has been going on 

for a long time, and the pattern of warming 

doesn’t change very much.

• The amount of climate change that would 

be expected from human activities closely 

match the changes that have actually happened.

So Earth is Getting Warmer – So What?

• Sickness and deaths due to heat stress will 

increase during summer months;

• Tropical diseases will be able to spread farther 

north and south of the equator; 

• Heating bills will go down, but air conditioning costs will increase;

• Earlier springtime warming will help farming 

in some regions, but hotter and drier summers will likely reduce agricultural production in other places;

• Changes in storm systems and snowfall will 

affect water supplies;

• Rising sea levels will require levees to protect cities, coastlines will move inland, and 

some islands will have to be abandoned;

• Changing temperatures and rainfall patterns 

will disrupt forest and grassland ecosystems;

• Melting polar ice caps may eliminate the 

habitat of arctic species and lead to the 

extinction of animals such as polar bears.

So, the world will not end, but it will be different from the world we know today.

What Can We Do About Climate Change?

Coal, oil, and natural gas provide more than 

80% of the world’s energy and produce many 

of the gases that contribute to climate change. 

Right now, there is no way to completely 

replace these fuels, but there is still a lot that 

can be done. Three important steps are:

• Use energy more efficiently;

• Choose products that reduce energy use; and

• Participate in recycling.

In addition, we need to use products that 

require less energy to produce, and find ways to 

use other sources of energy like wind and solar 

power. 

For More Information

www.climate.noaa.gov/ — Web site for NOAA’s 

Climate Program Office

www.climate.noaa.gov/education/ – Education 

Resources from NOAA’s Climate Program 

Office 

www.ngdc.noaa.gov/paleo/ctl/index.html — Web 

site for the Climate TimeLine with information on the causes and effects of climate 

change, and how they are related to our 

everyday lives and to human history; from 

NOAA’s National Climatic Data Center, Paleoclimatology Branch

www.climatescience.gov — Web site for the U.S. 

Climate Change Science Program 

www.usgcrp.gov — Web site for the U.S. Global 

Change Research Program

This overview is based on “Is the Climate Changing? Indeed 

It Is,” by Michael MacCracken, Director of the Office of the 

U.S. Global Change Research Program, and Tom Karl, Senior 

Scientist , National Climatic Data Center, NOAA; http://

www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/documents/mmbralmanac.html

Courtesy Michael Cameron, NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 139

Science | Service | Stewardship Protect the Earth

What You Will Do

Make a poster to explain how climate change is 

affecting polar bears, how it may affect humans, 

and what we can do about it. 

Courtesy Kaathy Crane, NOAA Arctic Research Office

The Arctic is one of the least explored places on earth, and is 

changing fast. One of the most dramatic changes involves sea ice. 

Satellites have been recording Arctic perennial sea ice (sea ice that 

remains during the entire year) since 1979, and these records show 

that the amount of sea ice has been getting smaller and smaller. This 

image shows the perennial sea ice concentration for the year 1979:

and this image shows the perennial sea ice concentration in 2003:

Since 2003, sea ice concentration has continued to decline. The lowest 

concentration of perennial sea ice ever measured was recorded in 2005. 

Where 

Will the

Polar 

Bears 

Go?

“Climate change may have its most 

pronounced effects in the Arctic.” 

US Arctic Research Commission, 

quoted by Nick Bond, Jim Overland and Nancy Soreide, 

NOAA/Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, in 

“Why is the Arctic important?” (http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/essay_bond.html)

Where 

Will the

Polar 

Bears 

Go?

Data collected by the Defense 

Meteorological Satellite Program 

Special Sensor Microwave Imager. 

Courtesy NASA

Data collected by the Defense 

Meteorological Satellite Program 

Special Sensor Microwave Imager. 

Courtesy NASA

1979

2003
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

140

These changes spell big trouble for 

animals that depend on sea ice for 

their survival. Polar bears, for example, 

live on sea ice all year. They rear their 

young on the ice, and hunt along the 

edges where seals make holes in the ice 

to breathe. An adult polar bear usually 

eats one seal every four or five days. 

When the sea ice melts during the summer, polar bears have to swim between 

floating chunks of ice (called “floes”) 

to continue their hunt. Until recently, 

the floes were usually less than 15 

miles apart. But as more and more of 

the perennial ice melts, the floes have become much farther apart, and the bears have 

had to swim over much longer distances. In 

September, 2005, wildlife biologists spotted 

polar bears swimming as much as 60 miles 

from shore. These long distance swims are 

much more dangerous for the bears. After one 

severe storm, the biologists found four dead 

bears floating in the water, and reported that 

they probably drowned as a result of rough 

seas caused by high winds.

Polar bears face other problems, too. Ocean 

currents can carry chemical pollution thousands 

of miles, and some of it reaches the Arctic. 

Chemicals called PCBs, for example, have been 

found in polar bears. These chemicals cause 

problems with polar bears’ immune systems, so 

the bears are more likely to get sick. 

Polar bears have been hunted by Inuits and 

other indigenous Arctic people (which means 

people who have lived in the Arctic for hundreds of years) for centuries. Today, most 

nations only allow indigenous people to hunt 

polar bears, but Canada also allows “sportsmen” to hunt polar bears for trophies. Legal 

hunting kills about 700 polar bears each year.

Another problem is that warmer temperatures 

are likely to bring more people into the Arctic 

region, including commercial shipping as well 

as drilling and mining for minerals, oil, and 

gas. No one is exactly sure about how this 

kind of increased human activity will 

affect polar bears.

NOAA’s Arctic Research Office works in 

the Arctic, Bering Sea, North Pacific 

and North Atlantic regions to find out 

how warmer temperatures will affect 

the climate and cultures of the Arctic, 

as well as how such changes will affect the climate and cultures of other 

regions. NOAA will also be part of the 

fourth International Polar Year (2007 

– 2008) during which many nations 

coordinate Polar expeditions, observations and research.

Why should we worry about polar bears? 

Some people just like the idea of having them 

alive on Earth, even if they never see one. 

But there are other reasons, too: The fact is, 

polar bears and every other living thing are all 

part of Earth’s living system. If that system 

changes so that it is no longer friendly to 

polar bears, then it may not be friendly to 

many other species, including humans. So we 

need to look at the polar bears’ problems as a 

warning for ourselves. 

Here’s a way to use information about polar 

bears to help other people understand more 

about global climate change.

Courtesy Kelly Elliott, NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 141

Science | Service | Stewardship Protect the Earth

What You Will Need

r Color copies of images from “Images for 

Polar Bear Posters”

r Information from the introduction for this 

activity and “Is Our Climate Changing?” 

(page 137)

r Crayons, colored markers, or colored pencils

r Poster board

r Scissors

Warning

Be careful with sharp scissors!

How to Do It

1. Use the images and information to create a 

poster that explains what is happening to 

polar bears’ habitat, how this is related to 

climate change, why this is important to 

us, and what we can do about it. You may 

also want to include ideas and information 

from “Following the Ocean Unicorn” activity 

(page 145) since it also deals with climate 

change and Arctic animals.

2. Show your poster at school, to your parents, 

and to other groups. The more people know 

about climate change and how it affects life 

on Earth, the more they will take action to 

protect Earth’s ecosystems.

Want to Do More?

http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/ – NOAA’s Arctic 

Theme Page with information and data 

about the Arctic for scientists, students, 

teachers and the general public.

http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/ipy.html – For more 

information about the Fourth International 

Polar Year

http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/gallery_polarbear.

html – Polar bear photograph gallery on 

NOAA’s Arctic Theme Page

http://www.polarbearsinternational.org/allabout-polar-bears/ – “All About Polar Bears” 

on the Polar Bears International Web site

Courtesy Kelley Elliott, NOAA
http://noaa.gov

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Images for Polar Bear Posters 1979

2003

Courtesy Kelley Elliott, NOAA

Courtesy Kathy Crane, NOAA

Courtesy NASA

Courtesy NASA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 143

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Courtesy Kelley Elliott, NOAA

Courtesy Kelley Elliott, NOAA Courtesy Kathy Crane, NOAA

Courtesy Kathy Crane, NOAA
http://noaa.gov

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Courtesy Joel Garlich-Miller, USFWS Courtesy Fernando Jorge, USCG

Courtesy Joel Garlich-Miller, USFWS Courtesy Joel Garlich-Miller, USFWS
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 145

Science | Service | Stewardship Protect the Earth

Following the 

Ocean Unicorn

Is this a unicorn? Not really—it’s actually a drawing of a narwhal, 

a whale that spends its entire life in the Arctic. Most male narwhals 

have a tooth in their upper jaw that forms a long tusk. For several 

centuries, northern traders sold narwhal tusks throughout Europe, 

claiming they were unicorn horns. One of the largest groups of narwhals spends most of the winter in Baffin Bay, between Canada and 

the western coast of Greenland. This is an unusual area, because while 

most of the Arctic is getting warmer, air and sea surface temperatures 

near western Greenland are getting cooler, and sea ice concentrations 

in Baffin Bay have increased significantly since 1953. But at the same 

time, temperatures in deep water below 1,200 feet in Baffin Bay are 

slowly getting warmer. 

What You Will Do

Make a poster about narwhals, how they are being affected by climate change, 

how climate change may affect humans, and what we can do about it.

This is important, because the deep water in Baffin Bay is part of a 

worldwide system of deep currents that connect Earth’s largest oceans. 

Temperature is one of the things that makes this system work, and 

some scientists are worried that changing temperatures in the Arctic 

could cause the system to slow down or even stop working entirely. 

Even though it’s getting warmer, the Arctic is still a difficult place to 

do scientific work, and it has been almost impossible for scientists to 

gather very much information on deep ocean temperatures.

Believe it or not, narwhals may help solve this problem! Narwhals in 

Baffin Bay often dive more than 4,500 feet deep to find food. And 

they do this during the winter when it is impossible for scientists to 

do deep ocean research in the Arctic region. NOAA’s Ocean Explorer 

2006 Arctic Winter Ecosystem Exploration attached instrument packFrom An account of the Arctic regions with a history and description of the northern whalefishery by W. Scoresby. 1820. Courtesy NOAA..
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

146

ages called “satellite tags” to narwhals to 

record temperature and depth during deep 

dives for food. A transmitter in each tag sends 

the information to a satellite, and the satellite sends the information back to Earth to 

give scientists the first-ever data on deepwater winter temperatures in Baffin Bay. 

Unfortunately, narwhal populations may be 

declining. There are several possible reasons 

for this:

• Hunting by indigenous Arctic peoples 

(which means people who have lived in 

the Arctic for hundreds of years);

• Increased harvest of fish by humans, reducing the amount of food available for 

narwhals; and/or

• Climate change. 

If you have looked at “Where Will the Polar 

Bears Go?” you know that climate change is 

causing problems for polar bears, too. But 

the problem for polar bears is that there isn’t 

enough sea ice. Baffin Bay is one of the few 

places in the Arctic where sea 

ice is increasing; and this causes 

problems for narwhals because 

it reduces the amount of open 

water needed by the whales, and 

increases the danger that they 

may become trapped in the ice.

Does this seem that what’s bad for the narwhals might be good for the polar bears? 

Not really, because not enough ice where ice 

should be is just as bad as too much ice where 

ice should not be. Remember, too, that even 

though the average temperature in the Arctic is going up, there can still be places that 

are colder than the average; but these colder 

temperatures are balanced by temperatures in 

other places that are higher than the average.

Just as narwhals are helping scientists study 

the deep ocean, they can also help you tell 

other people about global climate change.

What You Will Need

r Copies of “Images for Narwhal Posters”

r Information from the introduction for this 

activity, the “Narwhal Fact Sheet” and “Is 

Our Climate Changing?” (page 137)

r Crayons, colored markers, or colored pencils

r Poster board

r Scissors

Warning

Be careful with sharp scissors!

How to Do It

1. Use the images and information to create a 

poster that explains about narwhals and 

how they are being affected by climate 

change. You may also want to include 

information about why climate change is 

important to us, what we can do about it, 

and possibly some ideas and information 

from the “Where Will the Polar Bears Go?” 

(page 139) activity, since it also deals with 

climate change and Arctic animals.

2. Show your poster at school, to your parents, 

and to other groups. The more people know 

about climate change and how it affects life 

on Earth, the more they will take action to 

protect Earth’s ecosystems.

Want to Do More?

Visit http://www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/

explorations/06arctic/welcome.html for more 

information about narwhals and NOAA’s 

Ocean Explorer 2006 Arctic Winter Ecosystem 

Exploration. 

This activity was adapted from “The Ocean 

Unicorn” (10 pages, 292 kb) by Mel Goodwin, The Harmony Project, Charleston, SC; 

from the Ocean Explorer 2006 Arctic Winter 

Ecosystem Exploration [http://www.oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/06arctic/

background/edu/media/unicorn.pdf]

Courtesy Kristin Laidre
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 147

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• Narwhals belong to the genus Monodon and 

the species monoceros.

• Narwhals belong to the class Mammalia and 

the order Cetacea.

• Male and female narwhals have two teeth, in 

the upper jaw. In most female narwhals, the 

teeth never erupt through the gum. In most 

males, the left tooth forms a long tusk. In 

rare cases, males may develop two tusks, and 

females may also develop one or two tusks.

• The most widely accepted explanation for the 

function of the narwhal’s tusk is that it is 

possibly involved with mating behavior or 

as a weapon in battles over possession of 

females.

Narwhal Fact Sheet

• Narwhals spend their entire lives in the Arctic.

• Narwhals eat fish (including polar cod, 

Greenland halibut, flounder, salmon, 

and herring), cephalopods (squids and 

octopuses), and shrimp.

• Narwhals can dive to depths of 4,500 feet or 

more.

• Narwhals need to come to the surface of the 

ocean periodically, because they are mammals and must surface to breathe air.

• Normally, a female narwhal produces one calf 

at a time.

• Narwhals seem to prefer deep water near 

loose pack ice. In the summer, they occupy 

deep bays and fjords in the Canadian High 

Arctic and Greenland. As winter approaches, 

narwhals migrate into the pack ice of Baffin 

Bay, the northern Davis Strait, and adjacent 

waters.

• Narwhals can live for 50 years or more.

• Narwhals have been traditionally hunted by 

indigenous Arctic peoples who value them 

as a staple food (the skin is rich in vitamin 

C), as well as for their tusks (though 

international efforts to control the global 

ivory trade may have reduced tusk sales in 

recent years). Narwhal sinews (tissues that 

attach muscles to bones) may also be used 

as thread.

Several male narwhals in 

West Greenland. Courtesy 

Mads Peter Heide-Jorgensen
http://noaa.gov

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Images for Narwhal Posters

Melville Bay is the site of many active glaciers. The area is filled with large icebergs that 

dwarf the Sila, the boat used for narwhal tagging/tracking. Courtesy Kristin Laidre.

Narwhals. Courtesy Kristin Laidre

Male narwhals. Courtesy Mads Peter Heide-Jorgensen

Narwhals. Courtesy Kristin Laidre
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 149

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Instrument packages called “satellite tags” are 

attached to narwhals by plastic coated wires 

affixed to two nylon pins (1/4 inch diameter) 

inserted through the dorsal ridge on the 

whales’ back (the whales shed the tags after 

several months; 14 months is the longest 

time a tag has stayed on a whale). An alternative method of attaching the tags involves 

placing the tags into small cylinders that are 

implanted in the layer of blubber along the 

whales’ back using hand-held thrown poles 

similar to harpoons. Tags attached using the 

latter methods are only expected to provide 

data for four to five weeks.

Satellite-based locations for three narwhals 

tagged in Melville Bay in September 2006. Whales 

are still in their coastal summering grounds but 

will migrate offshore by mid-November. Courtesy Kristin Laidre

Narwhal wintering areas (pink) in Baffin Bay and 

Davis Strait. Courtesy Kristin Laidre Male narwhal (ID 3964) captured and satellite tagged. 

You can see where he went in the map to the left. 

Courtesy Kristin Laidre

Does Tagging Hurt Narwhals? 

Researchers say “No, we have quite good 

evidence that tagging does not hurt them—

both in the short and long term.” Satellite tags 

are only attached into blubber where there 

are few nerve endings, and the whales do not 

react at all when he tags are attached. As soon 

as the whales are released, they immediately 

resume normal behavior. In addition, whales 

that have been recaptured several years after 

tagging show no evidence of being harmed by 

the tagging process.
http://noaa.gov

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Make an Edible 

Coral Reef

You have probably seen pictures of coral reefs before—lots of colors, 

fishes, and weird looking shapes! Coral reefs are not only beautiful 

to look at; they are also home to thousands of other species. In fact, 

scientists estimate that there may be another one to eight million 

undiscovered species living in and around reefs! Coral reefs support 

more species per square foot than any other marine environment. This 

abundance of living organisms is key to finding new medicines for the 

21st century. Many drugs are now being developed from coral reef animals and plants as possible cures for cancer, arthritis, human bacterial 

infections, viruses, and other diseases.

Coral reefs are important for other reasons as well. Coral reefs are 

a breeding ground for many fish and other species, and millions of 

people and thousands of communities all over the world depend on 

coral reefs for food. In the United States, coral reef ecosystems support hundreds of commercial and recreational fisheries worth more 

What You Will Do

Make an edible model of a coral reef!

than 200 million dollars. Local economies receive billions of dollars 

from visitors to reefs through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, 

hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near reef ecosystems. 

Coral reefs protect shorelines against waves, storms and floods, and 

help prevent loss of life, property damage and erosion. 

Despite their importance, many of Earth’s coral reefs are in trouble. 

Severe storms, water pollution, overfishing, disease, global climate 

change, and ships running aground are some of the things that have 

destroyed or badly damaged many reefs. Because of these threats, 

coral reefs and all of the creatures that call them home may be in 

danger of disappearing if something isn’t done to protect them. NOAA 

Spanish hogfish at reef.

Coutesy Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary

Make an Edible 

Coral Reef
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 151

Science | Service | Stewardship Protect the Earth

is one of many organizations participating 

in the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force, which was 

established in 1998 to protect and conserve 

coral reefs. Satellites are being used to map 

shallow U.S. coral reefs, as well as to watch 

for high sea surface temperatures that can 

damage corals and to detect harmful algae 

that can smother reefs. NOAA’s National 

Undersea Research Program does research 

projects to learn more about coral reefs, and 

restores damaged reefs in marine reserves and 

among deep sea coral banks.

Coral reefs need your help, too! More people 

need to understand why coral reefs are important and what needs to be done to protect 

them. Here’s a tasty way to start a conversation about coral reefs.

What You Will Need:

r One half sheet cake; if you want to bake 

your own cake you will need a box of cake 

mix and other ingredients listed on the box 

r Icing in various colors

r Food coloring

r Marshmallows, licorice whips, small cookies, 

candy sprinkles, or other edible materials 

for modeling coral reef animals and habitat 

features

Warnings:

1. Get an adult to help with baking.

2. Don’t eat too much!

3. Wash your hands before handling food! If 

more than one person is involved with this 

activity, you may also want to wear disposable gloves.

How to Do It:

1. If you aren’t familiar with coral reefs, read 

the sidebar “What is a Coral Reef?” You may 

also want to look at books about coral reefs 

or check out the Web sites listed under 

“Want to Do More?” 

A healthy coral reef ecosystem contains 

thousands of species, so you can’t really 

include everything in your model. Instead, 

plan a model that is colorful and interesting, using the images on these pages for 

ideas. Remember, the main idea is to create 

a model that will help start a conversation 

about coral reefs (and is also good to eat!).

Before you actually make your model, make 

a list of what plants or animals you want to 

include, and what materials will be used to 

show them on the model. Mounds of icing 

can be used for boulder-shaped corals. When 

icing mounds have hardened they can be 

sculpted to form caves and overhangs. Small 

cookies could represent plate-shaped corals. 

Coconut colored with green food coloring 

could be used for seagrass. Sponges could 

be modeled with small pieces of sponge cake 

(of course). Licorice whips could represent 

branching corals. Gummy fish or fish crackers on toothpicks can represent fish. Raisins 

or chocolate chips might be sea urchins. Of 

course, there are many more possibilities, 

and you probably already have a pretty good 

idea of things you could use in your model. 

2. If you plan to bake you own cake, mix the batter according to instructions on the box, and 

bake the cake in an oversized flat pan like a 

broiler pan or turkey roasting pan. Your cake 

will probably take less time to bake than the 

time stated on the cake mix box, because your 

cake will be thinner than usual.

3. The flat cake is the base of your model reef. 

Add the features you planned in step 1 to 

complete the model. This is a lot of fun to 

do with two or three other people, but be 

sure you wash your hands and wear disposable gloves so you can safely eat the model 

later.

A purple soft coral. Courtesy Florida 

Keys National Marine Sanctuary
http://noaa.gov

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4. Show your model to your friends, parents, 

school, or other groups, and talk about 

why coral reefs are important, why they 

are in trouble, and what we can do to help 

save them. If you are using your model at 

school, your teacher may be able to arrange 

for you to make a presentation about coral 

reefs to another group of students, perhaps 

a younger class. When you have finished 

your presentation, you can say, “Now it is 

time for us to have a direct interaction with 

this model reef.” Which means everyone can 

eat the cake!

Want to Do More?

http://www.coris.noaa.gov/about/ – Information 

about coral reefs from NOAA’s Coral Reef 

Information System

http://www.coralreef.noaa.gov/outreach/thingsyoucando.html – Things You Can Do to 

Protect Coral Reefs from NOAA’s Coral Reef 

Conservation Program 

http://www.coralreef.noaa.gov/news/welcome.

html – NOAA’s Coral Reef Newsletter

http://www.coralreef.noaa.gov/outreach/

welcome.html – Coral Reef Conservation 

Program, Education and Outreach

http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/

corals/welcome.html – Coral Reef Discovery 

Kit from NOAA’s National Ocean Service

http://www.latimes.com/news/local/oceans/laoceans-series,0,7842752.special – A fivepart series from the Los Angeles Times 

about what is happening to Earth’s oceans

Grey snappers at the reef. 

Courtesy Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Barrel sponges.

Courtesy Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary

Butter hamlet fish with soft corals.

Courtesy Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary

Elkhorn coral and a white spotted filefish.

Courtesy Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 153

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Corals are animals that do not have backbones, 

and are related to jellyfish. The large boulders that we see in pictures of coral reefs are 

colonies of many individual coral animals called 

polyps (“PAH-lips”). Polyps are made of an 

outer cell layer called epidermis (“ep-ih-DERMiss”) and an inner cell layer called gastrodermis 

(“gas-tro-DERM-iss”), with a jelly-like substance 

called mesoglea (“mez-oh-GLEE-uh”) in between. Each polyp makes its own cup-shaped 

skeleton called a calyx (“KAY-lix)” from limestone (calcium carbonate). The base of the 

calyx is called the basal plate, and the outer 

walls of the calyx are called the theca (“THEEkuh”). Vertical partitions called septa extend 

part-way into the cup from the inner surface 

of the theca. The outer surface of the theca is 

covered by the soft tissues of the coral. Polyps 

have a mouth surrounded by a ring of arms 

called tentacles. The tentacles have stinging 

cells called nematocysts (“nee-MAT-oh-sists”) 

that polyps use to capture food. Most corals are 

carnivorous, and feed on small floating animals 

or even fish. Many corals also feed by collecting 

very small bits of floating material on strings 

of mucous, which they pull into their mouths. 

Food is digested by digestive filaments in the 

stomach. Waste is expelled through the mouth. 

Most reef-building corals have very small polyps, about one to three millimeters in diameter; 

but all of the polyps in a whole colony can 

make a limestone rock that weighs several tons! 

Individual polyps in a coral colony are connected by a thin band of living tissue called a 

coenosarc (“SEE-no-sark”).

As the polyps grow and multiply, the coral 

colony may become shaped like boulders, 

branches or flattened plates. Some corals form 

tall columns, others resemble mushrooms, and 

some simply grow as a thin layer on top of 

rocks or the skeletons of dead corals.

When corals reproduce, they release free-swimming larvae that can be carried many miles away 

by ocean currents. A new reef begins when these 

larvae attach to underwater rocks or other hard 

surfaces along the edges of islands or continents. 

As the corals grow and expand, other animals 

and plants join the reef system. Sponges and soft 

corals (sea fans and sea rods) are particularly visible on many reefs. Various types of seaweed and 

algae are also important. Some of algae produce 

limestone structures that add to the overall reef 

structure. Fishes and many other types of animals 

take advantage of shelter provided by the reef, 

and feed on algae and bacteria that grow on 

surfaces within the reef.

Most reef-building corals also contain algae 

that live inside the soft tissue of the polyp. 

These algae are called zooxanthellae (pronounced “zoh-zan-THELL-ee”), and like other 

algae are able to use energy from the sun to 

make food. So the corals and algae have a relationship that is called “mutualistic.” This means 

that the coral and algae both benefit from the 

relationship: The coral gives the algae a protected environment and chemicals the algae 

need to make food. In return, the algae provide 

the coral with food, oxygen and help remove 

wastes from the coral. This relationship allows 

corals to grow in waters that do not have much 

food available. 

Besides providing corals with food, zooxanthellae are also responsible for the bright colors of 

many corals. When corals are stressed, particularly by high temperature, the polyps lose their 

zooxanthellae and the coral colony becomes 

completely white. This is often called “coral 

bleaching.” Coral polyps can live for a short 

period of time without zooxanthellae, but if 

bleaching lasts too long the coral may die.

A colony of star coral. Courtesy Commander William Harrigan, 

NOAA Corps (ret.), Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary

What is a Coral Reef?
http://noaa.gov

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Coral reefs face numerous hazards and threats. 

Scientists estimate that 20 percent of all coral 

reefs are pratically destroyed and are not likely 

to recover. Twenty-four percent are in critical 

condition and may die soon, and another 26 

percent are threatened. Most scientists believe 

this damage is caused by a combination of 

natural stresses and human activities. 

(from Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2004)

Some of the biggest problems are:

Excessive Fishing – Many coral reefs have very 

few fishes because they have been captured 

for food or aquariums. In healthy reef ecosystems, fishes graze on algae. Without the 

fishes, algae can grow rapidly and smother 

coral polyps. Some algae produce poisons 

that make the problem even worse.

Destruction of Habitats – Some fishing methods completely destroy living reefs. Fishing 

with large nets that are dragged across the 

bottom (bottom trawling) is extremely destructive. In some countries, fishermen use 

dynamite to stun fish, which also kills coral 

animals and damages the reef structure.

Pollution – Chemical poisons from sewers, farm 

runoff, and many other sources kill corals 

and many other ocean species. Fishermen 

in some areas use cyanide which kills coral 

polyps as well as fishes. 

Invasive Species – Plants and animals that do 

not naturally live on reefs can damage the 

reef ecosystem. Some invasive seaweeds 

can grow rapidly enough to smother reefbuilding corals.

Ocean Warming – Reef-building corals in shallow water need warm temperatures and 

most are found in the tropics. But if the 

temperatures rise a few degrees above 

normal, corals can overheat. “Coral bleaching” is often the result of overheating, and 

is happening more often as many areas on 

Earth become warmer. If the temperature 

drops again, corals may recover. But in 

many cases, the corals die. 

“The Rise of Slime” – Many reefs are becoming 

overgrown with marine algae and films of 

bacteria. Part of the problem is pollution. 

In the Gulf of Mexico, for example, fertilizer pollution causes excessive growth of 

algae that is responsible for a “dead zone” 

the size of New Jersey. Removal of fish that 

normally feed on algae and bacterial films is 

another cause. Habitat destruction, overfishing, and pollution also kill natural filters 

like oysters and sponges that normally help 

clean the water.

The big problem is that many people do not 

understand what is happening to Earth’s ocean, 

and what the ocean will be like in the future. 

So one of the most important things we can do 

is inform others, and learn more about what 

needs to be done. Check out the Web sites 

under “Want to Do More?” and http://www.coralreef.noaa.gov/outreach/thingsyoucando.html.

Why are Coral Reefs in Trouble?

Reef scene. Courtesy Thomas Gibson. Florida Keys National 

Marine Sanctuary
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 155

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A habitat is a place where an animal or plant lives and grows. How 

many habitats do you see in this picture? There are thousands! This 

is because the branched and wrinkled shape of the sponges and corals 

produce many different spaces of many sizes that can provide shelter 

to other organisms. The variety of habitats found on coral reefs is one 

of the reasons that a square foot of coral reef supports more species 

than any other marine environment. 

Here’s a way to show how coral reefs create a wide variety of habitats 

by repeatedly dividing a space into smaller and smaller pieces.

What You Will Need:

r Colored pencils or fine-point markers

r Ruler

r Copy of “Triangle Graph Paper”

What You Will Do

Make a Sierpinski triangle that shows how 

repeatedly dividing a fixed space 

produces an infinite series of 

increasingly smaller spaces. Sponge, coral, and soft coral.

Courtesy Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary

Now THAT’s Complex!
http://noaa.gov

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156

How to Do It:

1. Begin by drawing an equilateral triangle measuring 16 cm on each side. This triangle is 

drawn in red on the “Triangle Graph Paper.”

2. Find the midpoint of each side (8 cm), and 

join these midpoints as shown in Step 1. 

3. Shade the triangle in the middle as shown in 

Step 2. 

4. Find the midpoints of each side of the three 

outer triangles (4 cm), and join these as 

shown in Step 3. 

5. Shade each of the middle triangles as shown 

in Step 4. 

6. Continue this process three more times, until 

the midpoints measure 0.5 cm, shading 

the middle triangles each time, until the 

drawing appears similar to Step 5. You have 

made many different-size “habitats,” simply 

by dividing the space over and over again. 

Theoretically, you could continue this process indefinitely to make an infinite number 

of habitats!

Want to Do More?

The Sierpinski Triangle is an example of fractals, 

which are geometric figures that have special 

properties and are often found in nature. For 

more information about fractals, visit http://

math.rice.edu/~lanius/frac/.

This activity was adapted from “Architects of Seamount 

Ecosystems” (6 pages, 300k) by Mel Goodwin, The Harmony 

Project, Charleston, SC; from the Ocean Explorer 2004 Gulf 

of Alaska Seamount Expedition http://www.oceanexplorer.

noaa.gov/explorations/04alaska/background/edu/media/

GOA04.Form.pdf

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Step 5
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 157

Science | Service | Stewardship Protect the Earth

Triangle Graph Paper
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

158

Fixing Our Earth

After four centuries as a major center of ocean commerce and 

naval power, the Elizabeth River is the most polluted waterway on 

the Chesapeake Bay for some cancer-causing chemicals.

Courtesy Captain Albert E. Theberge, NOAA Corps (ret.)

Adobe Creek in Sonoma County, California was once alive with 

salmon and steelhead trout; but after years of pollution and neglect, 

state officials declared it “dead.” Courtesy NOAA Restoration 

Center

Seagrasses provide food and habitat for different species of fish, 

lobster, wading birds, manatees and sea turtles. In Tampa Bay, more 

than 70 percent of seagrass meadows have been destroyed by pollution, coastal development, dredging, and boat propellers. Courtesy 

NOAA Restoration Center

There are hundreds of stories about damage 

to coral reefs, rivers, fisheries and other 

resources caused by storms, oil spills, 

chemical pollution, and many other events. 

So, is there anything we can do?

Yes! We can help restore habitats and save 

many species!

NOAA has worked with more than 2,500 

groups throughout the U.S. to protect and 

restore marshes, wetland forests, oyster reefs, 

seagrass beds, beaches, and tidal streams 

that have been damaged by natural events 

and human activities. Restoration projects 

include:

What You Will Do

Get involved in a project to restore damaged natural resources

• Removing invasive species

• Repairing damaged habitats

• Cleaning up pollution

• Restoring natural ecosystem processes such 

as water flow

• Re-introducing native organisms

• Monitoring activities to evaluate long-term 

success
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 159

Science | Service | Stewardship Protect the Earth

Local middle and high school students grew more 

than 100,000 bushels of seed oysters that were used 

to successfully restore oyster reefs in the Elizabeth 

River, Portsmouth, VA. Courtesy NOAA Restoration 

Center

Students in the Tampa Bay area grow marsh grasses 

and seagrasses, and assist with monitoring and planting to restore damaged habitats. Courtesy Tampa 

BayWatch

Students at Casa Grande High School built the only student run fish hatchery in the lower 48 states, removed 

trash from Adobe Creek, planted trees, so that Steelhead 

and Chinook salmon are once again spawning in the 

steam. Courtesy NOAA Restoration Center

What You Will Need

r Good ideas

r Desire to make things better

r Willingness to get involved

Warning

Work on this project with an adult partner! Be 

sure you have permission and expert advice 

before starting any restoration activities.

Here’s how you can start helping 

to fix our Earth!

Kids play a big part inmany restoration projects!
http://noaa.gov

Discover Your World With NOAA

160

Some Organizations Involved with 

Habitat Restoration Projects

American Littoral Society

American Rivers

American Sportfishing Association

Chesapeake Bay Foundation

Coalition to Restore Coastal Louisiana

Connecticut River Watershed Council

Conservation Law Foundation

Ducks Unlimited

EarthCorps

Gulf of Maine Council on the Marine 

Environment

Gulf of Mexico Foundation

Institute for Fisheries Resources

Institute For Sustainable Forestry

National Fish and Wildlife Foundation

North Carolina Coastal Federation

Ocean Trust/National Fisheries Institute

Save the Bay (Narragansett Bay)

The Nature Conservancy

Tampa Bay Watch

Trout Unlimited

How to Do It

1. Visit the Web sites listed on “NOAA’s 

Restoration Programs.” Read some of the 

case studies to get ideas about different 

kinds of restoration projects. Also, check 

out the “Volunteers” page at NOAA’s 

Restoration Portal http://www.habitat.

noaa.gov/restorationtechniques/public/

volunteers_about.cfm

2. Look over “Some Organizations Involved 

with Habitat Restoration Projects.” Check 

your local telephone directory to see if 

any of these organizations have an office 

nearby. If so, give them a call and ask 

about restoration projects in your area. If 

not, contact NOAA’s Fisheries Restoration 

Center (see the contact list at http://www.

nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat/restoration/contact.

html), and NOAA’s Office of Response and 

Restoration (orr.webmaster@noaa.gov) for 

ideas.

3. Talk to your parents, friends, teachers, 

and other groups about getting involved 

in a restoration project. Many successful 

restoration projects begin with one person 

who wants to make things better. Maybe 

you can be that person!

NOAA’s Restoration Programs

The Damage Assessment and Restoration 

Program focuses on events such as oil spills, 

release of toxic chemicals, or ships that run 

aground. http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat/

restoration/projects_programs/darp/index.html

The Community-Based Restoration Program 

works with local partners to restore fishery 

habitats and encourage conservation of living 

marine resources. http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/

habitat/restoration/projects_programs/crp/index.

html

The Office of Response and Restoration investigates natural resource damage, plans restoration projects, and helps local groups design 

monitoring plans to measure the success of 

restoration projects. http://www.response.restoration.noaa.gov/

Through the National Coastal Zone Management 

Program, NOAA partners with state coastal zone 

management programs to develop habitat restoration plans and carry out a variety of restoration projects. http://coastalmanagement.noaa.

gov/issues/habitat_activities.html

The National Estuarine Research Reserve System works with local and state partners as well 

as other NOAA offices and federal agencies 

carry out habitat restoration projects based on 

scientific observations and historical analysis of 

ecosystems. http://nerrs.noaa.gov/Restoration/

welcome.html

The Coral Reef Conservation Program provides 

funding and technical assistance to NOAA offices and partner groups to support restoration, 

monitoring, and research on the effectiveness 

of coral reef restoration methods. http://www.

coralreef.noaa.gov/
“Knowledge of the oceans is more than a matter of curiosity. 

Our very survival may hinge upon it.” 

President John F. Kennedy, Jr., March 1961 message to Congress.

Courtesy Michelle Gamby, NOAA
U.S. Secretary of Commerce

Carlos M. Gutierrez

Undersecretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmospheric Administration - NOAA

Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr.,

Vice Admiral, U.S. Navy (Retired)

www.noaa.gov

Discover.Your.World@noaa.gov

U.S. Government - 2007