College Educated 

Workers, 1 9 6 8 - 8 0

BULLETIN 1676

U. S. D E P A R T M E N T O F L A B O R

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College Educated 

Workers, 1 9 6 8 - 8 0

A S t u d y o f S u p p ly 

a n d D e m a n d

BULLETIN 1676

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

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Contents

Page

Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 1

Highlights..................................................................................................................................... 1

Chapter I. Supply and demand for workers having bachelor’s and 

advanced degrees........................................................................................................................ 3

Chapter II. Analysis of supply-demand in selected occupations generally

requiring a bachelor’s or advanced degree for entry ................................................................. 5

Engineers.................................................................................................................................. 5

Chemists.................................................................................................................................. 6

Physicists.................................................................................................................................. 7

Life scientists........................................................................................................................... 7

Geologists and geophysicists ................................................................................................... 8

Mathematicians......................................................................................................................... 9

Physicians................................................................................................................................ 10

Dentists.................................................................................................................................... 11

Dietitians.................................................................................................................................. 11

Pharmacists............................................................................................................................. 12

Optometrists ........................................................................................................................... 13

Elementary and secondary school teachers................................................ 13

College and university teachers ..................... 14

Lawyers .................................................................................................................................. 15

Architects................... 16

Counselors................................................................................................................................ 17

Social scientists........................................................... ............................................................ 18

Chapter III. Junior college trained manpower............................... 20

Chapter IV. Analysis of supply and demand in selected occupations generally

requiring junior college training for entry.................................................................................. 22

Engineering and science technicians ................... .’ ................................................................. 22

Forestry aids ........................................................................................................................... 23

Dental assistants.................................................................. 23

Dental hygienists...................................................................................................................... 23

Radiologic technologists................................................................. 24

Library technicians ........................................................................ 24

Police officers........................................................................................................................... 25

Tables:

1. Occupational employment, 1968 and projected requirements, 1980

for college graduates ............................................................................................................. 1

2. Degree credit enrollments in higher education, 1958-68 ..................................................... 21

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COLLEGE EDUCATED WORKERS, 1 9 6 8 -8 0

A Study of Supply and Demand*

In tr o d u c tio n . This bulletin analyzes the expected supply and demand for college graduates through the 

1970’s. It presents a review of the manpower situation 

for all college graduates as well as for selected individual 

occupational fields. Also presented are separate discussions of two subjects of special interest—(1) the outlook 

for college educated women and (2) the effect of the 

rapid expansion of junior colleges on the supply of 

college trained manpower. This information was requested by the House Subcommittee on Higher Education for use as a background document for evaluating 

proposed legislation.

Supply and demand in this bulletin are not discussed 

in the usual economic sense in which wages play a major 

role in equating supply with demand. The long training 

period required to enter professional and technical 

occupations prohibits the immediate adjustments normally associated with the terms supply and demand.

Supply represents estimates of the numbers of workers 

who may enter a particular occupation if past trends of 

entry to the occupation were to continue. Demand 

represents estimates of the number of workers who will

*The bulletin was prepared in the Bureau of Labor Statistics,

Division of Manpower and Occupational Outlook by, Neal H.

Rosenthal with the assistance of Michael Crowley, Michael Pilot,

and Joyce Kling.

be required to produce the amount of goods and services 

implied in the Bureau’s basic model of the economy for 

1980. Included are estimates of manpower needs resulting from growth and replacements due to deaths, 

retirements, and other separations from the labor force, 

and from transfers to other occupations.

H ighlights. The supply and demand for college graduates as a whole is expected to be in relative balance 

during the 1970’s. Nevertheless, imbalances may occur 

in many individual occupations if past study and work 

patterns continue.

Among individual fields, perhaps the most dramatic 

change is in elementary and secondary school teaching in 

which a more than adequate supply is expected.

For several specific occupations that were analyzed, 

projected growth and prospective supply-demand relationships if study and work patterns were to continue 

are shown in table 1.

Projections presented in this report, thus, are not 

attempts to forecast actual supply-demand conditions in 

the future. Rather, they indicate what conditions can be 

expected if current supply,, patterns continue. This 

analysis provides Congress and others concerned with 

educational planning information on prospective occupational imbalances so that informed decisions can be 

made to advert prospective supply-demand imbalances

Table 1. Occupational employment, 1968 and projected requirements, 1980, for college graduates

O ccupation

Estimated

1968

em ploym ent

Projected

1980

requirements

Percent

change

Supply 

estimated 

to be

C h em ists ............................................... 130,000 200,000 55.7 Significantly

C ou n selors............................................ 71,000 107,000 49.8 below requireDietitians ............................................ 30,000 42,100 40.3 ments

Dentists ............................................... 100,000 130,000 31.7

P h y sic ia n s ........................................... 295,000 450,000 53.1

Physicists ............................................ 45,000 75,000 63.9

Engineers ............................................ 1,100,000 1,500,000 40.2 Slightly short o f

Geologists and geophysicists .... 30,000 36,000 20.6 requirements

Optom etrists ..................................... 17,000 21,000 23.5

A r c h ite c t s ............................................ 34,000 50,000 47.1 In balance with

L a w y e r s ............................................... 270,000 335,000 22.7 requirements

P h a rm a cists ........................................ 121,000 130,000 7.0 Slightly above 

requirements

M athem atician s.................................. 70,000 110,000 60.5

Life s c ie n tis ts .....................................

Teachers, elementary

168,000 238,000 40.8 Significantly 

above requireand seco n d a ry .................................. 2,170,000 2,340,000 7.8 ments

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among fields. Projected imbalances in the form of 

surpluses, however, do not necessarily mean unemployment; rather they mean that workers trained specifically 

for an occupation would have to shift to other occupations. Historically, low unemployment rates for college 

graduates suggest that these workers have shifted their 

career patterns in response to changes in demand 

resulting from factors such as cyclical movements in the 

economy or changes in national priorities. They likely 

will continue to do so in the future. However, in this 

situation, our country’s trained manpower is not put to 

its fullest use. Prospective supply-demand conditions can 

provide information by which individuals and training 

programs of colleges and other institutions can be 

adjusted to bring supply and demand into better 

balance. Manpower balances would result in the maximum utilization of trained manpower and the maximum 

of goods and services.

The demand for college trained manpower presented 

in this bulletin reflects the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ 

basic model of the economy in 1980. As such, they are 

influenced by the economic, political, and technological 

assumptions underlying the Bureau’s model. Specifically, 

the projections assume that:

The institutional framework of the economy will not

change radically through the 1970’s.

There will be full employment in 1980, with an

unemployment rate of 3 to 4 percent.

The international climate will be improved. The United

States will no longer be fighting a war, but the still

guarded relationship between major powers will permit no

major arms reduction. Defense spending, however, will be

reduced from the peak levels of the Viet Nam conflict.

Armed Forces strength will return to approximately the

pre-Viet Nam level.

Economic, social, technical, and scientific trends will

continue, including the values placed on work, education,

income, and leisure.

Fiscal and monetary policies and an active manpower

program will achieve a satisfactory balance between low

unemployment rates and relative price stability without

reducing the long-term economic growth rate.

All levels of government will unite to meet a wide

variety of domestic requirements, but Congress will

channel more funds to State and local governments.

Estimates of future supply also are greatly influenced 

by their underlying assumptions. For example, wage 

differentials, social status of occupations, the availability 

of training, the nature and extent of student financial 

support, the length of training, and immigration laws all 

affect the supply of workers in a particular occupation. 

Specific assumptions underlying the supply projections 

presented in this bulletin are:

Occupational status will have the same effect in causing

workers to enter specific occupations as in the past.

Trends in the proportion of the college age population

who attend college will continue.

Trends in the study patterns of college students will

continue.

Entry patterns of college graduates, by field of study, to

specific fields of work will continue.

Entry to fields of work by those other than new college

graduates including immigrants, upgraded workers, and

those reentering the labor force will continue.

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Chapter I. Supply and Demand for Workers Having Bachelor’ s and

Advanced Degrees

Supply

U.S. colleges and universities are expected to turn out 

record numbers of graduates each academic year through 

the 1970’s. The number of bachelor’s degrees awarded 

between 1968 and 1980 will increase 48 percent and the 

number of master’s and doctorates degrees will increase 

even more rapidly, 95 percent and 117 percent, respectively. In numerical terms, about 13.3 million degrees 

are expected to be awarded between 1968 and 1980,

10.2 million bachelor’s degrees, 2.7 million master’s 

degrees, and 400,000 doctor’s.

Not all recipients of degrees over the 1968-80 period 

can be considered part of the effective new supply of 

college educated workers in the year they receive their 

degree. Most master’s and doctor’s degree recipients, for 

example, are employed before receiving their advanced 

degree, and therefore, are already counted in the existing 

supply of college educated workers. Other new degree 

recipients, especially at the bachelor’s level, delay entry 

into the civilian labor force. Some continue their 

education, others enter the Armed Forces, and some 

women graduates become housewives.

Based on past employment patterns, about 9.3 of the

13.3 million new degree recipients will enter the civilian 

labor force between 1968 and 1980. Bachelor’s degree 

recipients will constitute 8.4 million; master’s degree 

recipients 900,000; and those with doctor’s, 18,000. 

Most persons who will receive degrees during this period 

and enter the Armed Forces will have returned to 

civilian life by 1980. Hence, the effect of Viet Nam on 

the supply of college graduates is assumed to be limited.

Besides new graduates, the supply of college-educated 

workers between 1968 and 1980 will be augmented by 

persons who graduated before 1968 but were not in the 

labor force in 1968. Most will be housewives either 

reentering or entering the labor force for the first time. 

Immigrants are still another source of college trained 

workers, particularly in medicine. These sources are 

expected to provide 1.2 million additional workers with 

4 years or more of college training. This number, added 

to the available new degree recipients, brings the total 

from 1968 to 1980 to about 10.5 million.

Requirements

From 1968 to 1980, the need for workers with college

degrees will stem from two sources: Growth in demand 

and replacements for workers who die, retire, or leave 

the labor force for other reasons.

Reflecting the continuing influence of many variables, 

growth will be the major factor underlying manpower 

needs for college graduates. For example, a growing 

population will demand more health services resulting 

in increased requirements for college trained workers. 

Requirements for scientific and technically trained workers will reflect the complexity of industrial production, 

expanded housing requirements, and essential improvements in urban renewal and public transportation. In 

addition, environmental pollution problems will create 

new demands for scientists and engineers.

A college degree is necessary in many jobs once 

performed by workers with less education. The proportion of jobs requiring college degrees in professional, 

technical, and kindred occupations is expected to 

increase from about three-fifths to about two-thirds 

between 1968 and 1980;1 in management, this proportion is expected to grow from one-fifth to nearly 

one-third.

Over the 1968-80 period, these three factors—growth, 

replacement, and rising entry requirements—indicate a 

need for about 10.4 million graduates, 6.1 million for 

growth, and 4.3 million for replacement.

The methods used to project occupational requirements in this bulletin make them an integral part of the 

Bureau’s projections of Gross National Project and its 

component distribution, industry output, and industry 

employment levels. Very briefly, the occupational projections are developed by applying projected occupational composition patterns of industry to the projected 

industry employment levels as well as by analyzing in 

depth occupations as they relate to specific economic 

indicators. For example, enrollments of pupils are used 

to develop projections of teacher requirements. Detailed 

discussions of these methods are presented in T o m o r ­

r o w ’s M a n p o w e r N e e d s , Volume 4, BLS Bulletin 1606, 

February, 1969; O ccu p a tio n a l E m p l o y m e n t P a ttern s f o r

*In many individual occupations within this major occupational group, only a small proportion have a college degree,

e.g., draftsmen, engineering and scientist technicians, radio operators, and entertainers.

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1 9 6 0 a n d 1 9 7 5 , BLS Bulletin 1599, December, 1968; 

P r o je c tio n s 1 9 7 0 , BLS Bulletin 1536; and briefly in 

“The United States Economy in 1980” M o n t h l y L a b o r

R e v ie w , April 1970.

Supply-demand outlook

Statistically, a rough balance between the supply and 

demand for college educated personnel is indicated over 

the 1970’s. Thus, after a long period, a turning point 

may have been reached in recruiting adequate numbers 

of highly trained workers. However, this picture does 

not assure that all imbalances will be eliminated. Many 

occupations have had shortages for years. An increased 

supply of graduates offers the hope that the number of 

students who enter each occupation will more closely 

match job openings. Later, this bulletin lists several 

occupations which may have imbalances unless corrective measures are taken.

The incidence of more college-trained workers in these 

occupations could have an adverse effect on less educated workers. Those without a degree, for example, 

could have difficulty advancing in occupations such as 

engineering and accounting, achieving high-level management positions, and obtaining work while completing 

their education.

Effect on women

Changing demand-supply conditions in individual occupations may affect women in view of their increasing 

labor force participation and their narrow range of 

occupations. For example, the anticipated adequate 

supply of teachers in elementary and secondary schools 

suggests that unless more women enter other highdemand professions, the outlook for college educated

women may be less favorable than in the past.

In 1968, about 3.9 million women were employed in 

the professions. This was a 43-percent increase over 

1960, compared with a 35-percent increase for men. The 

growth of professional women workers reflected expanded employment in teaching, nursing, library science, 

social and welfare work, and other careers staffed largely 

by women.

Efforts to improve women’s representation in other 

professions including medicine, dentistry, law, engineering, the natural sciences, architecture, and college 

teaching have had only limited success. For example, the

21,000 women physicians in 1968 were only about 7 

percent of the nearly 300,000 in the country. Only 

about 3 percent of the Nation’s lawyers, or the same 

proportion as 15 years ago, are women. Engineering and 

science have attracted relatively few women although 

their participation in the natural sciences is increasing.

Women have made some progress in employment in 

the social sciences, psychology, health technology, 

physical and occupational therapy, recreation, personnel, accounting, mathematics, and statistics.

Over the 1968—80 period, the number of women 

graduates is expected to increase two-thirds or twice the 

rate for men. Traditional “ women’s” fields will not be 

able to absorb this increase because about 2 out of every 

5 women in professional and related jobs are elementary 

or secondary school teachers. Through proper counseling, women can be made aware of this expected sharp 

decline in the proportion of new graduates who will be 

needed in teaching. Some may enter social work, 

chemistry, engineering, or other shortage areas to help 

achieve a supply-demand balance and improve their own 

employment prospects. Unless women enlarge the range 

of occupations, strong competition for jobs may develop.

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Chapter II. Analysis of Supply-Demand in Selected Occupations Generally 

Requiring A Bachelor’s or Advanced Degree for Entry

Different supply-demand conditions are in the offing 

among individual occupations for the 1970’s, despite the 

expected rough balance for college graduates as a whole. 

The following statements present prospective supplydemand conditions for several selected occupations if 

current trends in patterns of study and entry to the 

profession continue. These statements, therefore, are not 

intended to forecast a shortage, surplus, or balance of 

supply relative to demand, but to indicate prospective 

imbalances if current trends continue.

The projections of degrees awarded used in this report

are those developed by the U.S. Office of Education. The

Office of Education’s projections assumes that enrollment

patterns and the propensity of students to study particular fields will continue trends experienced over the past

10 years.

Engineers

E m p l o y m e n t. Nearly 1.1 million engineers were employed in the United States in 1968. More than 

half—about 580,000 in 1968—were employed in manufacturing industries. Within manufacturing, large numbers were employed in the electrical equipment, aircraft 

and parts, machinery, ordnance, chemicals, instruments, 

and fabricated metals product industries. About 300,000 

engineers were employed in private nonmanufacturing 

industries in 1968, primarily in construction, public 

utilities, engineering and architectural services, and 

business and management firms.

Federal, State, and local government agencies employed almost 150,000 engineers in 1968. Of these, 

almost 60 percent were employed by the Federal 

Government, primarily the Department of Defense. 

Engineers in State and local government were employed 

primarily by highway and public works departments. 

Educational institutions employed about 39,000 engineers in 1968, in research as well as in teaching 

positions. Relatively few (6,000) were employed by 

nonprofit organizations.

Engineers are employed in every State. Within the 

private industry sector, however, approximately twothirds are employed in only 10 States—California, New 

York, Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Texas, New 

Jersey, Massachusetts, and Indiana. Engineers specializing in certain branches of the profession are concentrated in particular industries that have unique patterns 

of regional concentration. Aerospace engineers, for 

example, are employed mainly in the aircraft and parts 

industry which is concentrated in the Pacific region.

P r o je c te d N e e d s . Over the 1968-80 period, employment 

requirements for engineers are expected to increase from 

about 1.1 million to more than 1.5 million. This 

40-percent increase represents a 2.9-percent annual rate 

of growth,2 compared with an average of 3.7 percent a 

year from 1960 to 1968.

Among the factors underlying the anticipated increase 

in demand for engineers are population growth and the 

resulting expansion of industry to meet the demand for 

additional goods and services. More engineering time is 

required to develop new products, industrial processes, 

and increased automation. R & D expenditures are 

expected to rise rapidly through the 1970’s although 

more slowly than in the past. Increased research will 

expand existing fields of work and initiate new areas. 

One of the major fields to expand is pollution control.

More specific factors are expected to increase requirements in certain branches of engineering. Continued 

rapid growth is expected for industrial engineers, for 

example, because of the growing importance of scientific 

management and safety engineering to reduce costs and 

increase productivity. Increased requirements for civil 

engineers reflect the growing demands for housing, 

industrial buildings, and highways; and work relative to 

urban living, such as improved water and sewage 

systems.

In addition to manpower needs of 430,000 for growth, 

nearly 210,000 engineers will be needed to replace those 

who die, retire, or leave the labor force. Another

245.000 engineers will be required to replace those who 

transfer to other occupations. Growth and replacement 

needs are expected to total about 885,000, an average of

74.000 a year from 1968 to 1980.

S u p p ly -d em a n d . New graduates are the primary source 

of new engineers. However, significant numbers come 

from transfers from other occupations, including upgraded technicians, reentrants into the labor force,

2 A compound rate has been used throughout this report to

describe annual rates of growth.

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including those from the Armed Forces, immigrants, and 

new graduates who did not major in engineering.

If past patterns of entry from nonengineering graduates continue, an average of 36,000 annually can be 

expected between 1968 and 1980. Under this assumption, only an average of about 38,000 new engineering 

graduates would have to enter the profession annually to 

meet requirements.

Followup studies indicate that only about 85 percent of all new engineering graduates enter the profession. Based on this entry rate, an average of approximately 45,000 engineering graduates would be needed 

annually to obtain 38,000 entrants.

In 1968, about 37,000 bachelor’s degrees were granted 

in engineering. To meet requirements, the number of 

bachelor’s degrees granted annually in engineering over 

the 1968-80 period will have to average about 21 

percent above 1968 levels. From 1968 to 1980 the U.S. 

Office of Education estimates the average annual number of bachelor’s degrees in engineering will be about 14 

percent above 1968 levels. Thus, based on past patterns 

of study and entry to the profession, the supply of 

engineers would fall slightly short or at best barely meet 

the need.

W o m e n . In 1968 women engineers, constituting less than 

1 percent of all workers in the profession, numbered 

approximately 8,000. Although employed in virtually all 

branches of engineering, most women are employed as 

either industrial or electrical engineers.

About 210 women, almost 50 percent more than the 

number in 1960, received bachelor’s degrees in engineering in 1968. This growth, however, has not kept pace 

with the increase in all bachelor’s degrees awarded to 

women.

Chemists

E m p l o y m e n t. Chemistry is the largest field of employment in the physical sciences. Approximately 130,000 

chemists were employed in the United States iri 1968. 

More than 70 percent—over 90,000 in 1968—were 

employed by private industry. The major industrial 

employer of chemists, the chemicals manufacturing 

industry, employed over 45 percent of those in private 

industry. Relatively large numbers of chemists also were 

employed in industries manufacturing food, instruments, 

rubber, petroleum, paper, electrical equipment, textiles 

and apparel, and primary metals products. Independent 

laboratories, consulting firms, and distributors of chemicals, pharmaceutical, food, and petroleum products also 

employed significant numbers.

In 1968, nearly 24,000 chemists did research and 

teaching in colleges and universities. Government 

agencies—Federal, State, and local—employed about

12,000. About three-fourths of these worked in Federal Government agencies, chiefly the Departments of

Defense; Health, Education, and Welfare; Agriculture; 

and Interior. Only about 3,000 chemists worked for 

State and local governments, primarily in agencies 

concerned with health or agriculture. A small number, 

about 2,000 in 1968, worked for nonprofit research 

organizations.

Chemists are employed in all States, in small as well as 

large cities. Nearly one-fifth of all chemists, however, 

were located in four metropolitan areas—New York, 

Chicago, Philadelphia, and Newark. About half worked 

in the six States of New York, New Jersey, California, 

Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois.

P r o je c te d N e e d s . Over the 1968-80 period, employment 

requirements for chemists are expected to increase 56 

percent from approximately 130,000 to slightly over

200,000. This 3.8-percent annual rate of growth is faster 

than the 3.5-percent from 1960 to 1968.

Chemists will be required in increasing numbers for R 

& D, the activity of nearly half of all chemists 

Expenditures for R & D will probably continue to rise, 

although more slowly than in the past. Resulting from 

research are jobs for chemists in types of work such 

as in the manufacture of products including plastics, 

manmade fibers, drugs, fertilizers, and high energy and 

nuclear fuels for missiles and rockets. Combating air and 

water pollution should also be a rapidly growing field for 

chemists.

The number of college and university chemistry 

teachers is projected to at least double by 1980 because 

of the large increase in enrollments expected through the 

1970’s. The greatest demand will be for those having Ph.

D. degrees; many positions especially in 2-year colleges 

will be filled by chemists who have only the master’s 

degree.

In addition to manpower needs of over 70,000 

resulting from increased requirements, nearly 80,000 

chemists will be required to replace those who die, 

retire, or transfer. Between 1968 and 1980, openings 

resulting from both growth and replacements are thus 

expected to total more than 150,000, an average of 

almost 13,000 a year.

S u p p ly -d em a n d . Annual requirements for chemists may 

be met by persons who shift to chemistry from other 

occupations; from persons not in the labor force, 

including housewives and those in the Armed Forces; 

from immigrants; from new college graduates who did 

not major in chemistry; as well as new college graduates 

majoring in chemistry. If the past patterns of entry to 

chemistry—new graduates and others—continue, then 

approximately 17,000 bachelor’s degree graduates in 

chemistry would be needed annually to meet projected 

requirements.

In 1968, about 10,800 bachelor’s degrees were granted 

in chemistry. To meet requirements, the number of 

bachelor’s degrees granted annually in chemistry will 

have to average almost 65 percent above 1968 levels.

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From 1968 to 1980 the U.S. Office of Education

estimates the average annual number of bachelor’s

degrees in chemistry will be about 5 percent above 1968

levels. Thus, based on past patterns of study and entry

to the profession, the supply of chemists is expected to

fall short of demand.

Women. Women chemists representing less than 10

percent of all workers in the profession, numbered

approximately 10,000 in 1968. Chemistry is the largest

field of employment for women in the physical sciences.

In 1968, about 1,900 women or 22 percent more than

the 1,580 awarded in 1960, received bachelor’s degrees

in chemistry. This increase has not kept pace with the

growth in all bachelor’s degrees awarded women over the

1960-68 period, nor with the total number of degrees

awarded in chemistry over the same period.

Physicists

Em ploym ent. More than 45,000 physicists were employed in the United States in 1968. Almost 18,000

were employed by private industry; half of these worked

in the electrical equipment, ordnance, chemicals, and

aircraft and parts industries. Commercial laboratories

and independent research firms employed more than a

fourth of those in private industry.

In 1968, about 20,000 did research or taught in

colleges and universities. Federal Government agencies

employed 6,500, nearly three-fourths in the Department

of Defense. Significant numbers of physicists also were

employed by the National Bureau of Standards and the

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. More

than 1,500 physicists worked for nonprofit organizations.

Physicists are concentrated in those areas having

industrial concentrations and large colleges and universities. Nearly one-fourth were employed in four metropolitan areas-Washington, D.C., Boston, New York, and

Los Angeles-Long Beach. About one-half of the total

were employed in only six States—California, New York,

Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio.

Projected needs. Over the 1968-80 period, employment

requirements for physicists are expected to increase

about 64 percent, from more than 45,000 to slightly

over 75,000. This 4.2 percent annual rate of increase is

substantially slower than the 5.9 percent between 1960

and 1968.

Physicists will be required in substantial numbers to

perform complex research and development. They have

made substantial contributions to scientific progress in

recent years in such areas as nuclear energy, electronics,

communications, and aerospace and are expected to

continue to do so. Expenditures for R & D will continue

to rise, although more slowly than in the past. Also, there

probably will be a strong demand for physicists to teach.

In addition to manpower needs of almost 30,000 resulting from increased requirements, about 26,000 will

be required to replace those who die, retire, or transfer

to other fields of work. Thus, manpower needs will

total more than 55,000, an average of 4,600 a year.

Supply-demand. New graduates of physics curriculums

are the major source of supply of new physicists. However, many entrants also are derived from graduates who

did not major in physics; from immigrants; from persons

reentering the labor force, including housewives and

those in the Armed Forces; and from persons employed

in other occupations.

If past patterns continue in the number of entrants

from other than new graduates with degrees in physics,

only about 3,600 physics graduates would have to enter

the field each year on the average over the 1968-80

period. For 3,600 new physics graduates to enter the

profession annually, however, many more will have to

obtain bachelor’s degrees. Followup studies indicate that

less than one-half of all persons who receive bachelor’s

degrees in physics eventually enter the occupation.

Based on past patterns of entry, therefore, approximately 8,000 physics graduates would be needed annually to meet projected requirements.

In 1968, about 5,000 bachelor’s degrees were granted

in physics. To meet requirements, the average number of

bachelor’s degrees granted annually in physics will have

to be about 60 percent above 1968 levels. From 1968 to

1980, the U.S. Office of Education estimates the average

annual number of bachelor’s degrees in physics will be

less than 3 percent above 1968 levels. Thus, based on

past patterns of study and entry to the profession, the

supply of physicists is expected to fall short of demand.

W o m en . In 1968 approximately 1,500 women

physicists—about 3.5 percent of total—were employed in

research or teaching.

In 1968, about 290 women received bachelor’s degrees

in physics representing about 6 percent of the total. This

represents an increase of almost 75 percent over the 168

physics degrees awarded to women in 1960, compared

with an increase of only 19 percent in the total number

of bachelor’s degrees awarded in physics. Over the same

period, however, the total number of bachelor’s degrees

awarded to women more than doubled.

Life scientists

Em ploym ent. In 1968, approximately 168,000 persons were employed as life scientists in the United

States. Of these, about 48,000 were agricultural scientists, more than 66,000 were biological scientists, and

about 54,000 were medical scientists.

In 1968, 56 percent of all life scientists were employed

by colleges and universities. Medical schools and associated hospitals employed particularly large numbers of

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those. State agricultural colleges and agricultural experiment stations employed sizeable numbers of agronomists, horticulturists, and other agricultural related

specialists.

Federal Government agencies employed nearly 26,000

life scientists in 1968, primarily in the Department of

Agriculture. The estimated 19,000 life scientists employed by State and local government agencies in 1968

were mostly fish and wildlife specialists, microbiologists,

and entomologists working in the areas of conservation,

plant breeding, and in the detection and control of

diseases.

Nearly 25,000 life scientists worked in private industry

in 1968. Among the major industrial employers were

manufacturers of pharmaceuticals, industrial chemicals,

and food products. Almost 5,000 were employed by

nonprofit foundations and privately financed research

organizations.

Although life scientists are employed in all States,

nearly two-fifths were located in only five States—

California, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Maryland. About 1 of every 10 life scientists were located in

only two metropolitan areas—Washington, D.C. and New

York, N.Y.

Projected needs. Employment requirements for life scientists are expected to increase 41 percent from about

168,000 to almost 238,000 over the 1968-80 period.

This annual growth rate of 2.9 percent is slower than in

the 1960-68 period when employment increased 7.0

percent a year. Much of the past growth can be traced to

increased requirements in colleges and universities.

Causes for increasing employment have been twofold—

the rise in enrollments and the extensive growth in

research.

One major factor which will contribute to the increase

in employment of life scientists is the anticipated growth

in medical research sponsored by the Federal Government and voluntary health agencies, including those

supporting research on heart disease, cancer, and birth

defects. Increased research in relatively new areas such as

space biology, environmental health, and biological

oceanography also will require more life scientists.

Increased expenditures for R & D by private industry

also will increase the demand. Furthermore, more

stringent health standards of the Federal regulatory

agencies are likely to demand additional life scientists in

private industry for research and testing before new

drugs and chemicals are made available to the public.

Larger college and university enrollments expected

during the 1970’s will also increase requirements for life

scientists, primarily for those holding the Ph. D.

In addition to manpower needs of almost 70,000

resulting from growth of the profession, nearly 50,000

life scientists will be needed to replace those who die,

retire, or leave the labor force and another 63,000 life

scientists for those who transfer to other occupations.

Manpower needs for both growth and replacement are

thus expected to total over 180,000 an annual average of

15,000 over the 1968-80 period.

Supply-demand. New college graduates with majors in

the life sciences are the major source of supply of new

life scientists. However, a substantial portion of the

supply of life scientists comes from new graduates who

did not major in the life sciences, from transfers from

other occupations, from immigrants, and from persons

not in the labor force, including those in the Armed

Forces.

If past patterns of entry to the life sciences of workers

other than new graduates having degrees in life science

were to continue, and if the proportion of new graduates

entering the field continue as indicated by followup

studies, approximately 15,000 life science graduates

would be needed annually to meet projected requirements.

In 1968, about 42,000 bachelor’s degrees were granted

in the life sciences. To meet requirements, the number

of bachelor’s degrees granted annually in the life sciences

could be as much as two-thirds below 1968 levels.

Projections developed by the U.S. Office of Education

show the average annual number of bachelor’s degrees in

the life sciences increasing by about 34 percent above

1968 levels over the 1968-80 period. Thus, a more than

adequate supply of life scientists should result if

students continue to elect these fields in the same

proportion as in the past. Many graduates who would

like to be life scientists will probably have to work in

other fields.

Women. Women represented about 10 percent of the

estimated 168,000 life scientists employed in 1968.

Although employed as agricultural, biological, and medical scientists, most women worked as either biological or

medical scientists.

In 1968, more than 9,500 or 20 percent of all

bachelor’s degrees in the life sciences were granted to

women. This is an increase of about 125 percent over

the 4,200 life science degrees awarded to women in

1960 compared with the 75 percent increase in the

total number of bachelor’s degrees in the life sciences.

Geologists and geophysicists

Em ploym ent. Approximately 30,000 geologists and

geophysicists were employed in the United States in

1968. Almost three-fifths of the total were employed by

private industry, primarily by mining and independent

consulting firms.

Approximately 2,800 geologists and geophysicists

were employed by Federal Government agencies in

1968, chiefly by the Department of the Interior in the

U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Mines, and the

Bureau of Reclamation. State agencies employed slightly

over 1,000. Some worked on surveys conducted in

cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey.

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In 1968, colleges and universities employed about

8,000 geologists and geophysicists both in teaching and

research. A few members of these professions worked

for nonprofit research institutions and museums.

Geologists and geophysicists generally work in areas

having rich mineral deposits. In 1968, nearly half were

located in only five States—Texas, California, Louisiana,

Colorado, and Oklahoma. Some employed by American

firms are assigned to work in foreign countries.

Projected Needs. Over the 1968-80 period, employment

requirements for geologists and geophysicists are expected

to increase from approximately 30,000 to almost 36,000.

This increase of 20 percent represents a substantially

slower annual rate of growth, 1.6 percent, than in the

1960-68 period when employment increased by an average of 6.1 percent a year.

An increasing population and continued emphasis on

industrial growth will require petroleum, minerals, and

fresh water resulting in increased requirements for

geologists and geophysicists. These workers will be

needed to devise techniques for exploring deeper within

the earth’s crust, both on land and under the sea, and to

work with engineers to develop more efficient methods

of recovering natural resources.

Space-age activities such as the exploration of the

outer atmosphere and the analyses of surface conditions

on the moon and other planets also will require

additional geologists and geophysicists.

In addition to manpower needs of slightly over 6,000

resulting from increased requirements, about 16,000

geologists and geophysicists will be required to replace

those who die, retire, or transfer to other fields. From

1968 to 1980, manpower needs for both growth and

replacement are thus expected to total over 22,000, an

average of 1,800 a year.

Supply-demand. After allowances are made for entrants

from new college graduates who did not major in

geology and geophysics; from immigrants; from persons

not in the labor force including housewives and those in

the Armed Forces, and from persons employed in other

occupations, fewer than 1,000 new geologists and

geophysicists graduates would have to enter the profession annually to meet requirements. For this number to

enter the profession annually, however, many more will

have to obtain bachelor’s degrees. Fewer than one-half

of all persons who receive degrees in geology and

geophysics enter the profession, based on past patterns

of entry. Approximately 2,100 geology and geophysics

graduates would, therefore, be needed annually to meet

projected requirements.

In 1968, about 2,100 bachelor’s degrees were granted

in the earth sciences. To meet requirements, the average

number of bachelor’s degrees granted annually would

have to remain at 1968 levels. From 1968 to 1980, the

U.S. Office of Education estimates the average annual

number of bachelor’s degrees in the earth sciences will

decline more than 7 percent from 1968 levels. Thus,

based on past patterns of study and entry to these

professions, the supply of geologists and geophysicists is

expected to fall slightly short of demand.

Women. Only about 3 percent of the approximately

30,000 geologists and geophysicists employed in 1968

were women. They worked for educational institutions

or government agencies; very few were employed in

private industry.

In 1968, women received 225 or 11 percent of the

bachelor’s degrees awarded in the earth sciences. This

represents an increase of about 190 percent over the 80

earth science degrees awarded to women in 1960. Over

the same period, the total number of bachelor’s degrees

awarded in the earth sciences declined 17.5 percent.

Mathematicians

Em ploym ent. Almost 70,000 men and women were

employed as mathematicians in 1968. More than halfover 36,000—worked in private industry, primarily in

independent research and development firms, and in the

ordnance, machinery, aircraft, electrical equipment, and

chemicals industries. Insurance companies employed a

significant number as actuaries.

In 1968, nearly 25,000 mathematicians worked for

colleges and universities; 4,800 for the Federal Government, mostly in the Department of Defense; and small

numbers for State and local governments and nonprofit

organizations.

Mathematicians are employed in all States. However,

they are concentrated in those States having large

industrial concerns and sizeable college and university

enrollments. Over half of the total were found in only

seven States—California, New York, Massachusetts,

Pennsylvania, Illinois, Maryland, and New Jersey. Nearly

one-fourth were located in just three metropolitan

areas—New York, N.Y.; Washington, D.C.; and Los

Angeles-Long Beach, Calif.

Projected Needs. Over the 1968-80 period, employment

requirements for mathematicians are expected to increase 60 percent from almost 70,000 to about 110,000.

This 4.0-percent annual rate of growth is substantially

slower than the 1960-68 period when employment

increased an average of 9.4 percent a year.

A strong demand for mathematics in teaching and

research positions is expected in colleges and universities. The number of mathematics majors and students

majoring in other fields but taking mathematics courses

are expected to increase sharply. Over 50 percent of the

growth requirements in the profession will result from

the anticipated expansion in colleges and universities.

Mathematicians also will be required in substantial

numbers to solve complex R & D problems in engineering, natural and social science, military sciences, operations research, and business management. Such work

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requires a high degree of mathematical competence,

familiarity with electronic computers, and a broad

knowledge of one of these fields of application.

In addition to manpower needs of almost 42,000

resulting from increased requirements, nearly 60,000

mathematicians will be required to replace those who

die, retire, or transfer to other fields of work. Over the

1968-80 period, openings resulting from growth and

replacement are expected to total more than 100,000,

an average of about 8,400 a year.

S u pply-dem and. Annual requirements for mathematicians may be met by persons who shift to occupations in mathematics from other occupations; from

persons not in the labor force, including housewives and

those in the Armed Forces; from immigrants; from new

college graduates who did not major in mathematics; as

well as from the- major source, new college graduates

receiving degrees in mathematics. Based on past patterns

of entry, approximately 22,000 new bachelor’s degree

graduates in mathematics would be needed annually to

meet projected requirements.

In 1968, approximately 24,000 bachelor’s degrees

were granted in mathematics. To meet requirements,

therefore, the number of bachelor’s degrees granted

annually in mathematics could decline slightly below

1968 levels. From 1968 to 1980, the U.S. Office of

Education, estimates average annual number of bachelor’s degrees in mathematics will increase over 65

percent above 1968 levels. Thus, a more than adequate

supply of mathematicians should result if students

continue to elect this field as in the past. Many

mathematics graduates who would perhaps prefer careers

in mathematics will probably have to work elsewhere.

The education and training necessary for a degree in

mathematics is also an excellent foundation for a

number of other occupations. An increasing proportion

of mathematics graduates likely will seek and find jobs

in statistics, systems analysis, engineering, and physics

throughout the 1970’s.

Women. About 10 percent of the approximately

70,000 persons employed as mathematicians in 1968

were women. In 1968, over 8,700 degrees, more than

one-third of the bachelor’s degrees awarded in the field,

were awarded to women. This number, which was more

than 180 percent higher than the 3,100 awarded in

1960, has more than kept pace with the growth in all

bachelor’s degrees awarded women over the 1960-68

period and the 110-percent increase in the total number

of bachelor’s degrees awarded in mathematics.

Physicians

Em ploym ent. Nearly 295,000 physicians were professionally active in early 1968. About 190,000, more than

three-fifths of the total, were engaged in private practice.

Approximately 45,000 were interns or residents in

hospitals. Nearly three-fifths of the 37,000 who held

full-time staff positions in hospitals, were in Government

hospitals. Others were employed in private industry,

State and local health departments, medical schools,

research foundations, and professional organizations.

About one-third of the physicians engaged in private

practice are general practitioners. The other two-thirds

specialized in 1 of 33 fields recognized by the medical

profession.

In 1968, more than 40 percent of all physicians were

in five States: New York, California, Pennsylvania,

Illinois, and Ohio. In general the Northeastern States

have the highest ratio of physicians to population, and

the Southern States, the lowest. General practitioners

are much more widely distributed geographically than

specialists, who tend to be concentrated in large cities.

Projected needs. Manpower needs for physicians are

expected to rise more than one-half from nearly

295,000 to 450,000 between 1968 and 1980. This 3.6

percent is faster than the 2.9 percent in the 1960-68

period. However, the number of new graduates of

medical schools limited employment growth in the past

whereas the 1980 requirements were estimated without

consideration of possible future supply limitations.

In addition to growth needs of 155,000, nearly 90,000

physicians will be needed to replace those who are

expected to die, retire, or stop practicing because of

other reasons between 1968 and 1980.

Important factors underlying the expected very rapid

growth in requirements for physicians between 1968 and

1980 are the increasing population, particularly in the

youngest and oldest age groups, those needing the most

health care; the rising health consciousness of the public;

and the trend toward higher standards of medical care.

Demand for physicians also will increase as a result of

expanding prepayment programs for hospitalization and

medical care; continued Federal Government provisions

of medical care for members of the Armed Forces, their

families, veterans; and the continuing growth in public

health, rehabilitation, industrial medicine, and mental

health. In addition, more physicians will be needed for

research and for new and expanding medical schools.

Projections of manpower needs for physicians are

estimates for workers in 1980 that were developed under

economic assumptions rather than needs based on

specific goals of medical care. For example, physician

requirements are based on anticipated increases for

services resulting from such factors as population

growth, rising expenditures for health care, and research

rather than some predetermined standards of health

care.

Supply-demand. New medical graduates and immigrants

are the primary sources of supply for physicians in the

United States. To meet the projected need for 245,000

new physicians between 1968 and 1980—155,000 for

growth and 90,000 for replacement—these sources

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would have to average about 20,000 new physicians

annually over the 12-year period, 1968-80. If medical

schools continue at their current capacity and the annual

number of immigrant physicians does not change significantly from the level of recent years, however, only

about 10,000 persons would become physicians each

year between 1968 and 1980.3 On this basis, the average

annual output of our medical schools would have to be

increased about 10,000 if the implied deficit is to be

met. Some expansion is being provided for under the

Health Professions Educational Assistance Act of 1963

but not enough to meet requirements projected in this

report.

Women. The proportion of women in medicine is

small—about 7 percent of all practicing physicians in

1968, nearly 21,000. About 8 percent of all firstprofessional degrees conferred in medicine in 1967-68

were received by women, up from 6 percent 8 years

earlier. The number of such degrees received by women

totaled 626 in 1967-68, according to Office of Education data, an increase of three-fifths over the 387

awarded in 1959-60. In contrast, the total number of

degrees conferred in medicine increased 13 percent from

7,032 to 7,944 over the period.

Dentists

Em ploym ent. In 1968, about 100,000 dentists, 3 percent more than the 93,000 employed in 1960, were at

work in the United States. Nine out of 10 dentists were

in private practice. About 6,800 of the remainder served

as commissioned officers in the Armed Forces; about

1,300 had other types of Federal Government

positions—chiefly in the hospitals and clinics of the

Veterans Administration and the Public Health Service;

fewer than 2,000 held full-time positions in schools,

hospitals, or State and local health agencies.

Dentists tend to be concentrated in large cities and

populous States. In early 1968, about one-third of all

dentists were located in New York, California, Pennsylvania, and Illinois.

Projected needs. Manpower needs for dentists are expected to rise almost one-third from 100,000 employed

in 1968 to 130,000 required in 1980. This annual rate of

growth, 2.2 percent a year is faster than the 1960-68

period when employment increased 0.9 percent a year.

However, as with physicians, the number of new

graduates of dental schools has limited past employment

growth. The 1980 requirements projections were developed exclusive of possible future supply limitations.

In addition to growth needs of 30,000, about 27,000

dentists will be needed to replace those who die, retire,

3The number of foreign trained physicians licensed to practice medicine in the United States averaged about 1,000 per year

between 1964 and 1968.

or stop working for other reasons over the 1968-80

period.

Factors contributing to the expected rapid growth in

demand for dental services are expanding population;

the growing awareness of the importance of regular

dental care; and the development of pre-payment arrangements so that people may obtain dental service

more easily. Expanded dental research will require more

trained personnel; dental public health programs will

need qualified administrators; and dental colleges will

need additional faculty members.

Technological developments, such as new equipment

and drugs, and extensive use of auxiliary workers should

permit individual dentists to care for more patients.

Improved dental hygiene and fluoridation of community

water supplies will prevent some tooth and gum disorders but probably will stimulate rather than restrict

the demand for services by preserving teeth that might

otherwise be extracted.

Projections of manpower needs for dentists are estimates for workers in 1980 developed under economic

assumptions rather than needs based on specific standards of dental care.

Supply-demand. The supply of new dentists in the

United States is drawn primarily from graduates of

dental schools. To meet projected needs for 57,000 new

dentists between 1968 and 1980—30,000 for growth and

27,000 for replacement—an average of 4,900 new

dentists would have to graduate each year over the

12-year period. In 1968, only 3,400 dentists graduated

from these schools. Thus, the annual number of dental

graduates will have to be increased 1,500 above current

levels between 1968 and 1980 to meet projected

requirements. As a result of financial assistance under

the Health Professions Educational Assistance Act of

1963, dental school facilities are expected to increase,

but not enough to meet projected requirements.

Women. In 1968, approximately 2,000 women, about 2

percent of the profession, were dentists.

Only 47 or 1.4 percent of the total 3,422 first

professional degrees conferred in dentistry in 1967-68

were received by women, according to Office of Education data.

Dietitians

Em ploym ent. In 1968, about 30,000 dietitians, an

increase of one-fifth over the 25,000 employed in 1960,

were employed. About two-thirds of all dietitians,

including about 1,100 who were employed by the

Veterans Administration and the U.S. Public Health

Service, worked in hospitals and related institutions. A

sizeable number were employed by colleges, universities,

and school systems as teachers or as dietitians in

food-service programs. Most of the remainder worked

for public health agencies, restaurants or cafeterias, and

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large companies that operate food-service programs for

their employees. Some dietitians were commissioned

officers in the Armed Forces.

Projected needs. Employment requirements are expected to increase 40 percent from about 30,000 to

more than 42,000 between 1968 and 1980. This 2.8-

percent annual rate growth is faster than the 1960-68

period when employment increased 2.3 percent a year.

Contributing to the very rapid increase in requirements

for dietitians is the increase in the patient load of

hospitals, nursing homes, and other extended care

facilities primarily resulting from population growth and

the increasing ability of the population to pay for

institutional care. In addition, more dietitians will be

needed to direct food services for the growing number of

schools, day care centers, industrial plants, and to work

in research and public health programs.

In addition to the more than 12,000 to staff new

positions, nearly 20,000 dietitians will be needed to

replace those who die, retire, or leave the labor force for

family or other reasons over the 1968-80 period.

Supply-demand. New graduates of bachelor’s degree

programs in home economics and experienced dietitians

reentering the occupation, primarily housewives returning to work when their family responsibilities no longer

require their full-time attention, are the primary source

of entrants to this profession. A few enter after receiving

bachelor’s degrees in other fields.4

After allowances for entrants from other fields of

study and reentry of women assuming they follow the

reentry patterns of women teachers, home economics

programs will have to provide an annual average of about

1,800 entrants over the 1968-80 period. Although

7,350s persons received degrees in home economics in

1968, only about one-fifth or about 1,500 were estimated to have become dietitians based on data available

on the working patterns of new degree recipients. Thus,

to obtain 1,800 entrants from these programs, the

average annual number of graduates must expand by

one-fifth above 1968 levels over the 1968-80 period.

Projections developed by the U.S. Office of Education

show the average annual number of bachelor’s degrees in

home economics, including home economics education,

declining by 13.5 percent over the 1968-80 period.

Thus, based on past patterns of study and entry to the

occupation, the supply of dietitians is expected to fall

short of demand.

Women. More than 90 percent of all dietitians in 1968

were women. The number of men employed has been

growing slowly but steadily. Men are likely to find

4After completion of 4 years of college, the profession encourages completion of a 12 or 18 month internship program or

3 years of preplanned experience.

5 Number of degrees in home economics excluding home economics education since dietitians seldom become teachers.

increasing employment opportunities, especially as administrative dietitians in college and university food

services, hospitals, and commercial eating places.

Ninety-eight percent of the degrees conferred in home

economics in 1968 were women. By 1980, men are

expected to increase their share of bachelor’s degrees in

home economics to about 6 percent.

Pharmacists

Em ploym ent. More than 121,000 pharmacists, 6 percent more than file 114,000 employed in 1960, were

working in the United States in 1968. Almost 50 percent

of the 103,000 working in retail pharmacies were owners

or part owners of drugstores. Most of the remainder

were employed by hospitals, pharmaceutical manufacturers, and wholesalers. Others worked in the clinics of

the Veterans Administration and the U.S. Public Health

Service, taught in colleges of pharmacy, worked for

State and local government agencies, or served in the

Armed Forces.

Projected Needs. Between 1968 and 1980, employment

requirements for pharmacists are expected to increase

from more than 121,000 to 130,000 or 7 percent. This

represents a slightly lower annual rate of growth, 0.6

percent, than in the 1960-68 period when employment

increased by an average of 0.7 percent a year.

Compared with the 9,000 pharmacists needed for the

growth of the occupation, about 45,000 pharmacists will

be needed to replace workers who die, retire, or leave

the labor force for other reasons between 1968 and

1980.

Some pharmacists will be needed for newly established

pharmacies, particularly in residential areas and suburban shopping centers. Also, some drugstores may hire

additional pharmacists because of a trend toward shorter

working hours. However, continuing expansion in the

preparation of pharmaceuticals by manufacturing establishments will partially offset the need for additional

pharmacists as well as the trend towards larger drugstores, and the greater use of pharmacist assistants.

Supply-demand. The new supply of pharmacists in the

United States is drawn primarily from new graduates of

colleges of pharmacy to meet the projected need of

54,000—9,000 for growth and 45,000 for replacement.

These schools would have to average 4,400 new pharmacists annually over the 12 years. In 1968, about 4,000

students graduated from colleges of pharmacy. Thus, to

meet projected requirements the average number of

graduates between 1968 and 1980 must be increased

about 400 or 10 percent.

Over the 1968-80 period, the U.S. Office of Education estimates the average annual number of bachelor’s

degrees in pharmacy will increase about 25 percent over

the 1968 level. Thus, the supply of pharmacists is

expected to slightly exceed projected requirements.

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Women. Women represented about 8 percent of all

pharmacists in 1968, about 9,700. They are employed in

all branches of the profession.

Women received 610, or 15 percent of the total 3,987

bachelor’s and first-professional degrees conferred in

pharmacy in 1967-68, an increase of 56 percent over the

390 awarded in 1959-60. Women averaged about 13

percent of the 3,500 degrees conferred annually in

pharmacy over the period.

Optometrists

Em ploym ent. Approximately 17,000 optometrists, virtually the same number as in the early 1950’s, were in

practice in the United States in 1968. More than

nine-tenths were self-employed. Several hundred served

in the Armed Forces and some taught in colleges of

optometry. The remainder worked for established practitioners, health clinics, hospitals, optical instrument

manufacturers, or government agencies.

About 4 out of 10 optometrists are located in five

States—California, Illinois, New York, Pennsylvania, and

Ohio. Many small towns and rural areas, especially in the

South, have no optometrists.

Projected needs. Between 1968 and 1980, employment

requirements are expected to increase from 17,000 to

21,000, or nearly one-fourth. The demand for the

services of optometrists is expected to rise moderately

primarily as a result of some basic factors that will

contribute to increased demand for other health

workers—population growth and the increasing ability of

individuals to pay for health care. In addition, the

general public is becoming more conscious of the need

for regular examinations since greater demands are being

made on the eyes and because of the necessity of good

vision for efficiency at work and in school.

The increasing use of assistants and technicians in

optometrists’ offices, however, will tend to slow the

growth of employment requirements for optometrists.

Also, some of the expanded demand for eye care is

expected to be met by ophthamologists, medical doctors

who are eye specialists.

In addition to the growth needs of 4,000, 5,800

optometrists will be needed to replace those who die or

retire over the 1968-80 period.

Supply-demand. New graduates of schools of optometry

are the primary source of supply for new optometrists in

the United States. To meet the projected need for 9,800

optometrists between 1968 and 1980—4,000 for growth

and 5,800 for replacement—schools would have to

provide an annual average of more than 800 graduates

over this period. In 1968, optometry schools provided

only about 450 graduates. Thus, to meet projected 1980

requirements, the average annual number of graduates of

optometry schools must be increased about 350 over

current levels. Part of the increase is expected to be met

by expanding training facilities resulting from assistance

received under the Health Professions Educational Assistance Act of 1963. However, based on planned

expansion to 1980, the supply of optometrists is

expected to fall short of requirements as projected in

this report.

Women. An estimated 2 percent (350) of all optometrists in 1968 were women. Women received 11 or only

2.4 percent of the 452 bachelor’s and first-professional

degrees conferred in optometry in 1967-68 according to

Office of Education data. Over the 1959-60 to 1967-68

period, women have averaged less than 2 percent of all

such graduates.

Elementary and secondary schoolteachers

Em ploym ent. Nearly 2.2 million elementary and

secondary schoolteachers, over one-third more than in

1960, were employed during academic year 1968-69.

The largest part was kindergarten and elementary

teachers numbering more than 1.2 million in the

1968-69 school year, or about one-fourth more than the

990.000 working in 1960. About 940,000, an increase

of more than one-half over the 610,000 in 1960, were

employed in the Nation’s public and private secondary

schools in 1968-69.

Projected needs. The increase in the school-age population has slowed and caused a decline in the number of

additional teachers required annually. During the 1970’s,

school enrollment will level off even more. Reflecting

the recent decline in births, elementary schools are

expected to decline in enrollment up to 1976. After

that, elementary enrollments will probably begin to

climb slowly, but in 1980 they are expected still to be

slightly below the 1968 level. Secondary school enrollments will rise about one-fifth over the 1968-76 period,

but only about two-fifths as fast as during the preceding

8 years.

Employment requirements for teachers are expected

to rise about 8 percent between 1968 and 1980—from

2.17 million to about 2.34 million despite an anticipated

continuation of the decline in pupil-teacher ratios. This

compares with an increase of more than one-third during

the 1960-68 period when employment of classroom

teachers in elementary and secondary schools increased

from 1.60 million to 2.17 million.

Many more new teachers will be needed to replace

those who retire, die, or leave the profession for other

reasons than will be needed to handle increased enrollments. This will be true even if pupil-teacher ratios are

reduced further, in line with recent trends. Fewer than

200.000 teachers will be needed to staff new positions

between 1968 and 1980, compared with 2.1 million to

replace those who retire, die, or leave the profession for

other reasons. In addition, about 90,000 teachers will be

needed to replace persons not meeting certification

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requirements. Altogether, requirements for new teachers

from these sources are expected to total about 2.4

million over the 1968-80 period—roughly 1.2 million for

elementary and 1.2 million for secondary school positions.

Supply-demand. To meet the projected need of 2.4

million elementary and secondary teachers between

1968 and 1980, the number of persons entering the

profession must average about 200,000 a year. The

supply is expected to exceed demand if recent entry

patterns continue.

Reentrants, late entrants, and new degree recipients

are primary sources of teacher supply. Between 1968

and 1980, almost 11 million bachelor’s degrees, or 5.3

million more than the number awarded the previous 12

years, are expected to be awarded. More than 20 percent

of all recipients of bachelor’s degrees in 1968 met high

school teaching requirements; nearly 15 percent met

elementary school requirements. However, for many

reasons, including higher salaries, better working conditions, and preferred locations, not all who have certificates enter teaching. In 1968, about 80 percent who met

requirements taught at elementary schools and about 66

percent of those who met requirements taught at high

schools. If these trends continue, about 2.7 million new

graduates will enter teaching between 1968 and 1980.

All other entrants, the great majority of whom are

reentrants, also constitute large numbers of entrants to

teaching; in recent years, they have made up about

two-fifths of all entrants. If the number of reentries each

year through 1980 should continue to be governed by

the number of teachers who separated 8 years previously

(since the average length of separation is 8 years), more

than 1.4 million reentering teachers would be added to

supply during this period. Altogether, based on past

patterns of entry, the number of persons seeking to

enter elementary and secondary teaching would reach

about 4.2 million over the 1968-80 period, or an annual

average of 350,000 a year—more than three-fourths

above requirement needs.

Even with this anticipated improved supply, however,

teaching opportunities for both men and women will be

very favorable in urban ghettos, rural districts, and other

areas offering unfavorable working and living conditions.

Also, for subjects such as mathematics and the physical

sciences for which the demand in private industry and

government is also great. In addition, increased demands

are expected for teachers of the mentally retarded or

physically handicapped. Further specialized training may

qualify many secondary school teachers for positions in

vocational and technical schools and in junior colleges,

where demand is expected to be especially great in

future years.

In addition, the demand-supply situation is likely to be

affected by a number of adjustments. For example, as

manpower constraints are eased, more communities may

introduce or expand kindergartens, nursery schools, and

curricula for the physically and mentally handicapped,

underprivileged, and the gifted. In addition, as the

relative supply improves, educational planners may

improve the quality of education by hiring additional

teachers to reduce class size. The resulting requirements

could be significant. Nevertheless, many potential

teachers will have to change their occupation choice and

pursue other careers.

Women. Women constitute about 85 percent of all

kindergarten and elementary schoolteachers and hold

almost 50 percent of the teaching positions in the

secondary (junior and senior high) schools. Men, however, predominate in supervisory and administrative

positions in both public and private schools. In 1968,

women made up more than 40 percent of all bachelor’s

and first professional degrees. They are expected to

constitute about the same proportion of all such degrees

over the 1968-80 period.

Since 70 percent of all college graduates who enter

teaching are women, the changing labor-market in

teaching could affect women’s opportunities in professional employment.6 Thus, under present circumstances,

many young women who would enter teaching may have

to seek other employment.

College and university teachers

Em ploym ent. The college teaching faculty in the 1968-

69 academic year comprises several major groups. The

largest, instructional staff for resident degree-credit

courses, totaled 503,000 and included 286,000 full-time

and 142,000 part-time teachers at the instructor level or

above plus 75,000 graduate students who were employed as assistant instructors, teaching fellows, and

teaching assistants. The faculty also included about

101.000 teachers of resident nondegree courses; correspondence, radio, or television instruction; extension

work; and short courses.

In 1968, about nine-tenths of all full- and part-time

teachers were employed by universities and 4-year

colleges; most of the remainder were in 2-year institutions.

In the fall of 1968, resident and extension enrollments

exceeded 1.1 million in California and 700,000 in New

York. Seven other States had enrollments of from

200.000 to 350,000: Illinois, Texas, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Ohio, Massachusetts, and Florida.

Projected needs. Between 1968 and 1980, employment

requirements for full-time teachers for degree-credit

courses in institutions of higher education are expected

to increase 40 percent from 286,000 to 395,000. This

2.7-percent annual rate of growth was slower than was

the 6.8-percent experienced during the 1960-68 period.

6 School teaching constituted two-fifths of all professional and

related jobs held by women in 1968.

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Enrollments in higher education are the key factors

underlying the need for college teaching faculty. During

the 12 years from 1968-80, degree-credit enrollments

are expected to increase more than 50 percent from 6.9

million to 10.7 million. This represents only 40 percent

of the annual rate of growth that occurred in the

1960-68 period. The main factor restricting growth of

faculty will be the slow increase in enrollments. In

addition, average student-teacher ratios are likely to rise,

as public junior and community colleges continue their

rapid growth and as technological innovations, such as

language laboratories and instructional television, are

utilized more widely.

Between 1968 and 1980, about 95,000 college

teachers will be needed to replace workers who retire or

die and 110,000 will be needed for growth—a total of

205,000.

Supply-demand. To meet this demand for new teachers,

colleges and universities will draw on record numbers of

new graduates having advanced degrees. Projections

developed by the U.S. Office of Education indicate a rise

of more than 125 percent in Ph. D.’s between 1968 and

1980 and a doubling in master’s degrees.

Between 1968 and 1980, earned doctoral degrees are

expected to total more than 515,000, three times as

many as during the previous 12 years. Despite alternative

opportunities in industry and government, an increasing

proportion of doctoral recipients have continued in

college teaching in recent years. If trends continue, the

number of new doctoral recipients entering full-time

teaching would total about 275,000 between 1968 and

1980, compared with total projected needs of 205,000

and would, therefore, be adequate to meet manpower

needs.

More doctoral recipients relative to requirements for

college teachers makes it possible and necessary to focus

on providing adequate teacher manpower in all disciplines, and on improving the quality of education at

4-year colleges that fall significantly below the national

average in the proportion of faculty holding a Ph. D.

degree (about 40 percent in 1968). Among these are

included many predominantly Negro colleges and universities.

Because of the rapidly rising number of Ph. D.’s in

college teaching, the demand for teachers without Ph. D.

degrees is expected to drop sharply in degree-credit

programs. However, such teachers should find many

opportunities in the expanding nondegree programs and

in special fields including extension, mail, and television

teaching. Furthermore, junior and community colleges

may value teaching and work experience more highly

than the research-oriented doctorate.

Women. Only about one-fourth of all college and

university teachers are women. Women hold fewer than

one-tenth of the college teaching positions in engineering

and physical sciences, agriculture, and law. However,

most teachers in nursing, home economics, and library

sciences are women.

Lawyers

Em ploym ent. In 1968, the great majority of approximately 270,000 lawyers worked full time. More than 75

percent were in private practice. Over 50 percent of

these were in practice by themselves; and about 47

percent were in partnerships or worked for other lawyers

or law firms.

The greatest number of salaried attorneys worked for

Government agencies. Over 16,000 attorneys were employed by the Federal Government, chiefly in the

Departments of Justice, Defense, Treasury, and the

Veterans Administration. About 7,500 attorneys were

employed by State Government, and 7,600 held positions with city or county governments. Large manufacturing firms, banks, insurance companies, real estate

firms, and public utilities also employ lawyers. Most of

the remainder teach in law schools.

Although lawyers practice in nearly every city and

town in all areas of the country, most are employed in

cities and States having the greatest population. Over

two-fifths of all lawyers are located in only five

States—New York, California, Illinois, Texas, and Ohio.

Many people who have legal training are not employed

as lawyers, but are in occupations where they can use

their knowledge of the law. For example, insurance

adjusters, probation officers, and claim examiners.

Projected needs. Over the 1968-80 period, requirements

for lawyers are expected to increase from approximately

270,000 to 335,000 or 23 percent. This 1.7 percent

annual increase is faster than 1.5 percent experienced

over the 1960 to 1968 period.

Increased requirements for lawyers reflect the continuing expansion of business activity and an increasing

population. In addition, low- and middle-income groups

will use more legal services. For example, expansion of

legal services for low-income groups has come about

through the Community Action Programs authorized

under the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964. The

growing complexity of business and government activities are expected to create a steadily expanding demand

for lawyers in corporation, patent, administrative, labor

and international law.

In addition to manpower needs of 65,000 resulting

from increased requirements, about 108,000 lawyers will

be required to replace those who die, retire, or otherwise

leave the labor force. Manpower needs for both growth

and replacement thus are expected to total more than

173,000, an average of 14,500 a year from 1968-80.

Supply-demand. A person must be admitted to the bar

to practice law. To take the examinations generally

required by the States for bar admission, an applicant

usually must graduate from an approved law school.

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Some States will accept study in a law office instead of,

or in combination with, study in a law school. A few

States will accept study of the law wholly in a law

office; only two States will accept study of the law by

correspondence. For supply-demand analysis, however,

sources other than law school graduates can be ignored.

In any given year the number of persons passing bar

examinations is greater than the number of law school

graduates since some graduates delay and others repeat

taking bar examinations. However, not all those who

pass a bar examination practice law. Based on past

relationships between law school graduates, numbers

taking and passing bar examinations, and numbers

actually entering the occupation, an average of about

20,000 law school graduates would be needed annually

over the 1968-80 period to meet projected requirements.

In 1968, almost 17,000 persons received bachelor’s or

first professional degrees in law. To meet requirements,

the average number of law degrees granted annually will

have to increase about 20 percent above 1968 levels.

Projections developed by the U.S. Office of Education

estimate the average number of degrees awarded in law

will increase slightly over 20 percent. Thus, the supply

of law school graduates should about balance the

demand for lawyers based on past patterns of study and

entry to the profession.

Women. Approximately 8,000 women or about 3 percent of the profession were working as lawyers in 1968.

More than 50 percent were employed in salaried

positions by government agencies or as law associates for

another lawyer or law firm. Only a few were selfemployed.

In 1968, approximately 675 women received law

degrees. This represents an increase of more than 190

percent over the 230 law degrees granted women in

1960. Over the same period, the total number of law

degrees awarded increased approximately 83 percent.

Architects

Em ploym ent. An estimated 34,000 registered (licensed)

architects were employed in the United States in 1968.

In addition, many other unlicensed architectural graduates were working in positions requiring a knowledge of

architecture.

Approximately two-fifths of all architects are selfemployed, either practicing individually or as partners.

Many work for architectural service firms; some are

employed by engineering, building, and real estate firms,

as well as for other businesses with large construction

programs.

Architects also are employed by government agencies,

often in fields such as city planning and urban redevelopment. Approximately 1,500 of these were employed by

the Federal Government. About 2,500 architects primarily in teaching positions were employed by colleges and

universities.

Though employed in all parts of the country, architects are concentrated in those States with large metropolitan areas. Nearly half of all architects are employed

in only six States—California, New York, Illinois, Texas,

Pennsylvania, and Ohio.

Projected needs. Over the 1968-80 period, employment

requirements for architects are expected to increase

from 34,000 to 50,000 or 47 percent. This 3.3-percent

annual rate of growth is slower than the 1960-68 period,

when employment increased an average of 3.4 percent a

year.

A major factor contributing to the anticipated increase

in requirements for architects is the expected growth in

nonresidential construction—the major area of work for

architects. Moreover, the increasing size and complexity

of modern nonresidential buildings, as well as homeowner’s growing awareness of the value of architects’

services, are likely to bring about a greater demand for

architects.

Urban redevelopment and city and community planning are expected to increase requirements for architects. Expanding college enrollments will create an

additional need.

In addition to manpower needs of 16,000 resulting

from increased requirements, about 12,000 architects

will be required to replace those who die, retire, or leave

the labor force for other reasons. Over the 1968-80

period, manpower needs for both growth and replacement are thus expected to total about 28,000, an

average of 2,300 a year.

Supply-demand. All States and the District of Columbia

require a license to practice architecture. Although

licensing requirements are set by the individual States,

graduation from an accredited professional school is

usually required. Most States accept 10 to 12 years’

practical experience as a substitute for formal training.

Thus, almost the entire number of annual average

openings for architects will have to be met from new

college graduates receiving degrees in architecture. Not

all who receive degrees in architecture, however, become

registered architects.

Based on past relationships between graduates and

registration, approximately 4,200 architectural graduates

would be needed annually to meet projected requirements. In 1968, almost 3,300 bachelor’s or first professional degrees were granted in architecture. To meet

requirements, therefore, the average number of bachelor’s degrees granted annually in architecture over the

1968-80 period will have to be almost 30 percent above

1968 levels. Projections developed by the U.S. Office of

Education estimate that the average number of bachelor’s degrees will increase by about a third. Thus, the

supply of new architectural school graduates should

be in rough balance with the demand for registered

(licensed) architects based on past patterns of study

and entry to the profession.

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Women. About 4 percent of all registered architects are

women. In contrast to all architects, few women are

self-employed; most work for architectural service firms

and government agencies.

In 1968, 140 women received degrees in architecture.

This is an increase of about 145 percent over the 57

architectural degrees awarded women in 1960. Over the

same period, the total number of bachelor’s degrees

awarded in architecture increased about 80 percent.

Counselors

Em ploym ent. More than 70,000 persons were employed

in three areas of counseling in 1968: School, rehabilitation, and employment.7

School counselors represent the largest group. Approximately 54,000 persons did counseling in public secondary schools during the 1968-69 school year. More than

29.000 were full-time counselors. Counseling services in

the elementary schools are being steadily expanded;

about 5,500 persons worked as counselors at this level in

1968-69.

The majority of counselors are in large schools. An

increasing number of school districts, however, are

assigning several schools to a counselor.

Rehabilitation counselors employment totaled about

12.000 in 1968. About three-fourths were full-time

counselors.

About three-fourths of all rehabilitation counselors

were employed in State and local agencies financed

cooperatively with Federal and State funds. The remainder were employed by hospitals, labor unions,

insurance companies, special schools, rehabilitation centers, sheltered workshops, and other public and private

agencies conducting rehabilitation programs and providing job placement for the disabled.

E m ploym ent counselors in State offices in early 1968

totaled about 5,300. They were located in every large

city and in many smaller towns. More than four-fifths

were employed full-time. The next largest number—

probably about 2,000—worked for various private or

community agencies offering vocational counseling, primarily in the larger cities. In addition, some worked in

prisons, training schools for delinquent youths, and

mental hospitals. The Federal Government employed a

limited number chiefly in the Bureau of Indian Affairs

and the Veterans Administration. Some people trained

in employment or vocational counseling do research or

graduate teaching.

Projected needs. Manpower requirements for schools,

rehabilitation, and employment counselors are expected

to rise about 50 percent from more than 70,000 in 1968

7Some people who are identified with other professions including the counseling psychologist and social worker also provide

counseling services. Other workers who do some counseling but

whose primary work is in teaching, health, law, religion, or other

fields, are not included in this discussion.

to more than 105,000 in 1980.

Manpower requirements for school counselors, the

largest group, are expected to rise 40 percent from

54.000 to 75,000 between 1968 and 1980. This represents a slower annual rate of growth, 3.2 percent, than

the 1961-62 to 1968-69 period, when employment

increased an average of 5.8 percent a year.

Continued strengthening of counseling services and

some increase in secondary school enrollments underlie

the expected rapid growth in requirements for school

counselors. Contributing to demand also is the importance of guidance services to help students with personal

and social problems remain in school. Employment

growth of counselors also will be stimulated by the great

numbers of high school students planning to go to

college or entering the labor force for the first time.

Many will seek advice about rising educational requirements for entry jobs, job changes resulting from automation and other technological advances, and places where

employment can be found.

In addition to growth needs of about 21,000, about

23.000 school counselors will be needed to replace

workers who die or leave the field because of family

responsibilities, or retire.

From 1968 to 1980, employment requirements for

rehabilitation counselors are expected to increase almost

75 percent, from 12,000 to 21,000. This 4.7-percent

annual rate of growth is only a quarter of the 19.7-

percent annual growth rate that occurred from 1961 to

1968.8

Factors contributing to the expected very rapid

increase in requirements for rehabilitation counselors are

population growth and the increased numbers of handicapped persons; extension of services to the severely

disabled; increasing support for social welfare; and the

growing awareness that expenditures for rehabilitation

often are returned as savings on the appropriations for

custodial care of health and social welfare programs.

In addition to growth needs of 9,000 rehabilitation

counselors, about 4,000 will be needed to replace those

who die, retire, or leave the labor force for family

responsibilities or other reasons over the 1968-80

period.

Manpower needs for employment counselors, the

smallest of the three counseling groups, are expected to

more than double between 1968 and 1980 from 5,300

to 10,800. This represents about the same annual rate of

growth, 6.1 percent, that occurred over the 1964-68

period.

Among the factors contributing to the expected very

rapid growth in requirements for counselors in State

employment service offices are three major Federal laws:

the Vocational Education Act of 1963, which provides

for vocational guidance and counseling for people who

are out of school and seeking employment; the

8 In recent years the rapid increase in employment growth was

stimulated by legislation which expanded and improved rehabilitation services and facilities.

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Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962, as

amended, which provides for counseling in connection

with the occupational training or retraining of large numbers of unemployed workers; and the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, as amended, which provides for

counseling to implement such programs as Job Corps,

Neighborhood Youth Corps, Work Training, Work Experience, and Urban and Rural Community Action. State

employment service offices also will employ additional

counselors to work with returning veterans, older persons,

American Indians, and inmates of correctional institutions. Moreover, the population growth and particularly

the large number of young workers entering the labor

force each year will be reflected in larger numbers

seeking vocational counseling.

In addition to the 5,500 needed for the growth of the

occupation about 3,100 employment counselors will be

needed to replace workers who retire, die, or leave the

profession for other reasons over the 1968-80 period.

Thus, growth and replacement needs for school,

rehabilitation, and employment counselors are expected

to average about 5,500 a year, or total about 65,000

over the 1968-80 period.

However, persons graduating with master’s degrees in

counseling and guidance, probably will constitute the

major portion of new supply of qualified counselors.

Supply also will be augmented as experienced counselors

reenter the labor force (primarily housewives returning

to work when their family responsibilities no longer

require their full-time attention). Master’s degree recipients from rehabilitation counselor training programs,

both in education and psychology, and from counseling

psychology programs also will contribute to supply.

Not all who receive master’s degrees represent new

entrants to the profession. For example, many persons

work in counseling positions while taking additional

training at college and universities leading to a master’s

degree. If past trends of entry to the profession

continue; and if patterns of reentry of women in

counseling follow the reentry patterns of women

teachers (specific data are not available for counselors),

about 12,000 graduates with master’s degrees in counseling and guidance and related fields would be needed

annually to meet projected requirements.

In 1967-68, about 8,400 persons received master’s

degrees in counseling and guidance; another 700 were

graduated from M.A. programs in counseling psychology

and from education or psychology programs in rehabilitation counselor training. Thus, the average annual

output from these programs will have to increase at least

by one-third over the 1968-80 period to meet manpower needs.

Separate projections of earned degrees in these specific

programs were not developed by the U.S. Office of

Education. The average annual total number of master’s

degrees, however, are expected to increase only about 20

percent over the 1968 level. Thus, unless counseling

makes up a greater proportion of total education degrees

or unless more persons receiving master’s degrees in

social work and psychology enter the occupation, supply

is expected to continue to fall short of demand.

W om en. About one-half of all persons employed in high

school and employment counseling are women.

Women constituted almost one-half of all master’s

degree recipients in 1967-68 from programs in counseling and guidance, counseling psychology, and education

or psychology programs in rehabilitation counselor

training. This number was about one-eighth more than

their proportion in 1960-61. Over the 1968-80 period,

women are expected to increase slightly their proportion

of master’s degrees awarded in education and psychology.

Social scientists

Em ploym ent. More than 70,000 people were employed

professionally in the basic social sciences in 1968.

Overlapping among the basic social sciences are related

fields such as business administration, foreign service

work, and high school teaching. Determining the exact

size of each profession is difficult.

Economists are the largest social science group. In

1968, over two-fifths of all professionally employed

social scientists—about 31,000—were economists. This

number was more than double the 14,000 historians, the

second largest group. Political scientists numbered

11,400; sociologists, 10,000; geographers, 3,900; and

anthropologists, 3,000.

The majority of social scientists—about 60 percent in

1968—are employed by colleges and universities. Nonprofit organizations and private industry employed

almost 30 percent of all social scientists. The remainder

worked for government agencies.

Places of employment differ for the various groups of

social scientists. About 50 percent of all economists, for

example, are employed by business and industry; only

about 25 percent work in colleges and universities, and

about 20 percent are employed by government

agencies—chiefly Federal. In contrast, over 80 percent of

all anthropologists are employed by educational institutions, and less than 5 percent, by Federal Government

agencies.

Social scientists can be found in every State. They

generally are concentrated, however, in those areas with

numerous or large colleges and universities and large

concentrations of government employment. The largest

group of economists, for example, is in the New York

and Washington, D.C. metropolitan areas.

Projected needs. Employment requirements for social

scientists are expected to increase from over 70,000 to

more than 105,000 over the 1968-80 period. Requirements for anthropologists are expected to increase from

3,000 to 4,100; economists from 31,000 to 48,000;

geographers from 3,900 to 5,200; historians from

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14,000 to 19,000; political scientists from 11,400 to 

17,000; and sociologists from 10,000 to 14,000.

This increase of over 45 percent in requirements for all 

social scientists over the 1968-80 period represents an 

annual growth rate of 3.2 percent compared with 4.8 

percent in the 1960-68 period. Much of the past growth 

of social scientists, reflecting substantial increases in 

college enrollments from 1960 to 1968, can be traced to 

increased requirements by colleges and universities.

The anticipated rise in college teaching will continue 

to be a major factor contributing to increased employment for social scientists. Government programs concerned with manpower training, unemployment, and the 

elimination of poverty will increase requirements for 

social scientists to handle research and administrative 

functions associated with these programs.

In addition to manpower needs of about 33,000 

resulting from anticipated growth in social science 

professions, almost 25,000 will be needed to replace 

those who die, retire, or leave the labor force for other 

reasons. Over the 1968-80 period, manpower needs for 

both growth and replacement are expected to total 

about 58,000, an average of 4,800 a year.

O u tlo o k . Supply and demand data are lacking for social 

scientists. However, the small amount available suggests 

that social scientists having doctor’s degrees will find 

employment opportunities favorable through the 1970’s 

in both teaching and nonteaching. For those having less 

training, employment will differ among the fields. 

College graduates with only the bachelor’s or master’s 

degree in history, for example, probably will encounter 

considerable competition as professional historians. On 

the other hand, opportunities for geographers and 

economists, for example, holding bachelor’s and master’s

degrees will be more favorable, especially in Federal 

Government agencies.

Since many social scientists are employed by colleges 

and universities—where the Ph. D. generally is required— 

the key factor in the supply of social scientists is the 

number of Ph. D.’s awarded in appropriate fields. A 

more detailed discussion of the supply-demand for 

college teachers is contained elsewhere in the report. 

(See section on College and University Teachers).

W o m e n . About 10 percent of the more than 70,000 

social scientists employed in 1968 were women. Among 

the social science fields, however, the representation of 

women varied considerably. For example, women constitute 20 percent of all anthropologists, about 5 percent 

of all economists, about 10 percent of all geographers, 

and about 15 percent of all sociologists. As with all 

social scientists, women in this field primarily are 

employed by colleges and universities, and government 

agencies.

Proportionally, more women than men are lost to the 

social sciences in the progression up the academic 

hierarchy. For example, women received 35 percent of 

the bachelor’s degrees in the social sciences, 23 percent 

of the master’s degrees, and less than 12 percent of the 

doctorate’s in 1968. Increased employment for women 

as social scientists centers around two factors. First, 

women must be guided into those social science fields 

offering the largest number of opportunities. Although 

women received 35 percent of all bachelor’s degrees in 

the social sciences, they constituted only 10 percent of 

those awarded in economics. Second, more women who 

received bachelor’s degrees in the social sciences must be 

encouraged to continue study toward the doctor’s 

degrees.

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Chapter III. Junior College Trained Manpower

The development of an extensive network of community and junior colleges in the United States has been 

beneficial in many ways. Foremost, community colleges 

have trained the disadvantaged. Since they make college 

opportunities available in the community and students 

unable to meet requirements at 4-year institutions may 

be admitted, many from low-income families can attend. 

Also, junior college curriculums are flexible and can 

develop training for occupations in a relatively short 

time after a shortage of workers is found in the 

community.

Many junior colleges offer 2 programs: the transfer or 

liberal arts program, which provides courses for the first 

2 years of a liberal arts college curriculum, and the 

career preparation program which prepares a student for 

a specific career upon graduation. Since students graduating from the transfer program are included in the 

supply-demand analysis of bachelor’s degree holders, the 

discussion here deals with graduates of career preparation programs.

Career training available

Junior college career-oriented programs fall into three 

broad categories. The first includes training that has 

been traditionally offered at junior colleges, but which 

has been recently expanded to meet changing needs. For 

example, many junior colleges have offered engineering 

drafting; now they have expanded the curriculum to 

provide the advanced technological aspects of engineering technology. The same is true of the health field 

where increasing emphasis has been placed on areas such 

as technical laboratory training. Courses available include science and engineering technologies. New programs are developing in marine technology and environmental control technology; public services with new 

emphasis being placed in many schools on transportation 

planning and aide occupations; the business and commercial fields which emphasize food service and distribution; the allied health and medical fields; and many 

others.

The second category includes occupations where postsecondary training had not been necessary but is 

becoming increasingly desirable, if not required. A good 

example of this category is the course offered in law 

enforcement designed to train policemen.

The third category includes the newly developing aide 

occupations in public services. Much of the programing

in this area has been in conjunction with the New 

Careers program. New Careers aims to recruit the 

disadvantaged—many without high school diplomas—and 

to offer both classroom and on-the-job training for 

teacher aides, welfare aides, and other paraprofessional 

jobs in public services, and to make possible further 

advancement in these jobs.

Community colleges function in two aspects of the 

program. First, some give special courses needed by the 

trainees. For example, a group of trainee welfare aides 

may require a psychology course. The junior college 

provides instruction and space. The course may be the 

same general course as taught to freshmen but less 

concentrated. It may be set up specifically for the 

trainees. Credit often can be applied later toward an 

associate degree. If the trainee has not completed high 

school, some junior colleges hold credits until high 

school is completed.

A second aspect of the junior college participation 

appears later. New Careers emphasizes further education. 

Trainees wishing to advance beyond their initial training 

may work toward an associate or a bachelor’s degree.

Courses to ease the shortage of professional manpower 

have also been developed outside the New Careers 

program. Should demand continue, a result that may be 

contingent upon and the availability of Federal funds, 

the junior college could be an effective training ground 

for such personnel.

Career education programs vary in length and in 

awards granted. Most programs are 2 years and lead to 

the associate degree. A certificate or diploma may be 

awarded if fewer “general education” courses than 

required by State law are offered. Some courses range 

from a few months to a year and offer diplomas or 

certificates rather than formal degrees. Other courses— 

especially in the health field—may extend to 3 years if 

hospital experience is included.

Development of career education

Between 1958 and 1968, enrollment in community 

and junior colleges increased about 200 percent, more 

than twice as fast as degree enrollments in 4-year 

institutions as table 2 shows. In the 1968-69 academic 

year, nearly 1,000 junior colleges were in operation in 

the United States compared with 678 in 1961. About 50 

new institutions have opened each year since the 1960’s.

Originally, most students entering junior colleges

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Table 2. Degree credit enrollments in higher education, 

1958-68

[In thousands]

Enrollment 1958 1968 Percent

change

Total enrollments .... 3,236 6,758 108.8

Junior colleges ........................... 386 1,164 201.6

Other higher e d u ca tio n .............. 2,851 5,595 96.2

SOURCE: U.S. O ffice o f Education, Projections o f Educational Statistics, 19 77-7 8, table 10, p. 18.

transferred to 4-year institutions to work toward the 

baccalaureate degree. However, during the past 15 years, 

junior colleges increasingly have emphasized career 

education. In 1964, about 66 percent of junior college 

students were in transfer programs. In 1968, the ratio of 

transfers to career students was approximately 60 to 40, 

and the percentage appears to be shifting even further.

Available data hamper the measurement of careeroriented programs. Data on choice of programs are 

collected when students enter but do not reflect shifts in 

curriculums nor degrees granted. They show only the 

student’s intention upon entry. Many who enter as 

transfer students and are unsuccessful in liberal arts shift 

into career education where they often succeed. These 

students prefer technically oriented programs geared to 

immediate employment rather than the more theoretical 

courses required for a bachelor’s degree. Counseling can 

be extremely important to help a student make his 

original choice and to remain in school.

Students also shift from career oriented programs into 

transfer programs. A good example is the nursing 

student who transfers and works for a BS in nursing 

after studying the first year for an associate degree.

Receiving credit towards a bachelor’s degree for work 

earned in occupational programs may be difficult. 

However, many universities will accept credit earned by 

the junior college graduate while he was in a career 

oriented program. In the future as student mobility 

increases, “ recognition” for course work is expected 

regardless of the initial program.

Graduates

The following tabulation shows the number of associated degrees awarded by junior colleges from 1965 to

1968.

T o t a l A w a r d s i n A w a r d s i n

A c a d e m i c a s s o c i a t e d 2 - 4 y e a r 1 - 2 y e a r

y e a r d e g r e e s o c c u p a t i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n a l

a w a r d e d p r o g r a m s p r o g r a m s

1 9 6 5 - 66 .............. 93,687 45 ,378 10,377

1 9 6 6 - 67 ............... 119,151 73,520 14,561

1 9 6 7 - 68 ............... 137,821 60,735 15,914

Many community colleges classify programs, previously considered terminal, as bachelor transfer programs, especially when 4-year training is becoming 

increasingly available. This tendency explains most of

the apparent drop in occupational awards from 1966-67 

to 1967-68. For example in collecting 1967-68 data, 

the Office of Education specified that students in 

preengineering be excluded for recipients of awards for 

occupational competence since they are expected to 

complete their education at the baccalaureate level.

The American Association of Junior Colleges (AAJC) 

reports that some 78,000 students earned degrees in 

occupational programs and another 20,000 received 

certificates for completion of programs for less than 2 

years. The AAJC estimates that in 1969 enrollments 

increased 20 percent, partially as a result of the opening 

of new colleges. The AAJC figure is larger than that of 

the Office of Education primarily because the Office of 

Education data excluded several hundred junior colleges 

that appear in the AAJC directory.

Occupational programs in junior colleges cannot be 

measured by the number of graduates alone. Certain 

factors make such a measure unreliable. For example, 

some students begin their study in an area in which 

demand in the community is strong. When on-the-job 

training is offered elsewhere, they may drop out before 

completing their education. Another possible measure of 

growth in career presentation programs is the addition of 

new courses. An indication of this is the increased 

number of courses offered by the Vocational Education Act of 1963. Training under this act was increased from 402 community colleges in 1967, 474 in 

1968, and 509 in 1969.

In 1968, the largest number of graduates completed 

business studies. The next largest groups, in order of 

size, were mechanical and engineering technology, drafting, construction, metallurgy, auto mechanics, electronics, instrumentation, and similar programs. Many 

others also graduated from medical, dental, library, and 

law enforcement programs.

Training and jobs

Information on job placement of junior college graduates is scarce. However, since junior colleges are usually 

local and draw both student and financial support from 

a very small area, their programs are designed to fit the 

community. Therefore, career programs tend to be 

formulated around manpower requirements of the local 

area. As a result students generally have little difficulty 

in job placement.

One nationwide study of 2-year technology graduates 

indicated success both in finding jobs and in furthering 

students’ education. The known status of over 10,000 

from a total group of 12,046 indicates the following:

63 percent were employed

23 percent were continuing full-time study

6 percent were entering military services

6 percent were considering job offers

1 percent had other specific plans

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Chapter IV. Analysis of Supply-Demand in Selected Occupations Generally 

Requiring Junior College Training for Entry

The following statements on specific occupations are 

presented to indicate the employment situation in some 

occupational areas where junior colleges provide training. The list is by no means comprehensive, and the data 

are not inclusive. These statements do, however, serve as 

an example of the wide range of courses of study 

available and the contribution of junior college graduates 

to the supply of workers needed to fill manpower 

requirements over the next decade.

Engineering and science technicians

E m p l o y m e n t. Approximately 970,000 engineering and 

science technicians were employed in 1968. About

740,000, or more than 7 out of 10, were employed in 

private industry, primarily in the electrical equipment, 

machinery, chemical, and aerospace industries. In the 

nonmanufacturing sector, the largest employers of these 

technicians were the communications industry and 

engineering and architectural firms.

In 1968, the Federal Government employed over

90,000 engineering and science technicians. The majority worked for the Department of Defense; most of the 

remainder in the Federal Government were employed by 

the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, and the 

Interior.

About 60,000 engineering and science technicians 

worked for State governments; more than 25,000 were 

employed by local governments. Most of the remainder 

were in colleges and universities, primarily in university 

operated research institutes and nonprofit organizations.

G r o w th . Employment requirements for engineering and 

science technicians are expected to reach 1.4 million by 

1980, an increase of almost 45 percent above the 1968 

levels, or an average of 3.1 percent a year.

Among the factors underlying the increase in demand 

for technicians are the anticipated expansion of industry 

and the increasing complexity of modern technologychanges resulting in an increasing need for technicians, 

especially in production planning and technical sales 

work. Furthermore, as the employment of scientists and 

engineers continues to grow, increasing numbers of 

technicians will be needed to assist them. The trend 

toward automation of industrial processes and the 

growth of new areas of work, such as that related to

space exploration or atomic energy, also will add to the 

demand for technical personnel.

In addition to manpower needs of over 425,000 to fill 

new positions, about 170,000 will be needed to replace 

those who die and retire and about 430,000 will be 

needed to replace those who transfer to other occupations. Manpower needs for growth and replacement 

are then expected to total about 1 million for the 

1968-80 period, an average of almost 86,000 a year.

S o u r c e o f n e w en tran ts. The skills necessary to enter 

technician jobs may be gained in a variety of ways. One 

way is through training taken expressly to prepare and 

qualify for entry level technician jobs—“ preemployment 

occupational training.” This training is offered by 

post-secondary schools including junior colleges; employers; and government.

Other workers qualify for technician jobs through 

training designed primarily for some other purpose 

including training and/or experience in Armed Forces 

technical work, and in bachelor’s degree programs in 

engineering or science. Another way to qualify for 

technician work is through “upgrading” —experience in a 

technician related job, often combined with some 

academic training. Upgradings have been the largest 

single source of new entrants to technician jobs in recent 

years. Preemployrnent post-secondary school training, 

however, provides the technicians who generally are in 

greatest demand, according to information gathered by 

BLS representatives in interviews with officials of 

companies employing large numbers of technicians. 

Also, this source of supply has grown most rapidly; 

entrants increased from about 9,000 in 1960 to over

35,000 in 1968.9

The future supply-demand conditions for technicians 

will depend on the expansion of preemployment postsecondary training offered primarily in junior colleges. 

The efforts underlying the rapid expansion of experience 

during the 1960’s must continue through the 1970’s if 

future manpower requirements for technicians are to be 

filled with highly trained workers.

W o m e n . About 11 percent of all science and engineering

9Entrants represent about two-thirds o f graduates because 

many graduates continue in school or enter other occupations.

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technicians in 1968 were women. The proportion of 

women varies considerably by occupation within the 

science and engineering field, the largest percentage— 

about 25 percent—were employed as life science technicians.

Forestry aids

E m p l o y m e n t. An estimated 13,000 persons were employed as forestry aids in 1968. About 5,000 were 

employed by the Federal Government, mainly by the 

Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

Approximately 2,000 were working for State governments. About 6,000 were employed in private industry, 

primarily by lumber, logging, and paper milling companies. Forestry aids also worked in tree nurseries and in 

forestation projects of mining, railroad, and oil companies.

Most forestry aids are employed in the heavily forested 

States of Washington, California, Oregon, Idaho, Utah, 

and Montana.

G r o w th . Employment requirements for forestry aids are 

expected to reach nearly 20,000 by 1980, an increase of 

about 57 percent above the 13,000 employed in 1968.

Growth in demand is expected to accompany the 

rising employment of foresters. In addition, employers 

are expected to increasingly use aids to assume routine 

jobs now done by foresters. Growth in government 

employment will stem from factors such as increasing 

demand for recreational facilities, more scientific management of forest land and water supplies, and the 

increased timber cutting on Federal forest land.

In addition to the 7,000 forestry aids expected to be 

needed to fill openings caused by growth in employment 

over the 1968-80 period, another 3,000 will be needed 

to replace those who die, retire, and leave the occupation for other reasons.

S o u rc e s o f n e w en tran ts. Persons qualify for beginning 

positions as forestry aids either by completing a specialized 1- or 2-year post-secondary school curriculum or 

through work experience.

To meet projected needs for 10,000 forestry aids over 

the next 12 years—7,000 for growth and 3,000 for 

replacement—over 800 persons must enter the field each 

year. In 1968, 564 persons graduated from less-than-4 

year programs in forestry. To fill needs primarily with 

trained workers, the annual number of graduates of 

these forestry aid curriculums should expand at least 50 

percent above the 1968 level.

W o m e n . Although statistics are not available, it is 

estimated that few women are employed in this occupation which requires a great deal of heavy work in all 

weather conditions often in remote areas.

Dental assistants

E m p l o y m e n t. Nearly 100,000 persons were employed

as dental assistants in 1968; about 1 out of 5 were 

employed part time. Most dental assistants worked in 

private dental offices, either for individual dentists or for 

groups of dentists. Many of the remainder were employed in dental schools, hospital dental departments, 

State and local public health departments, or private 

clinics. The Federal Government employed about 2,000 

dental assistants in 1968.

By 1980, employment requirements for dental assistants may reach about 150,000, an increase of 50 

percent above 1968 levels. This represents a more rapid 

growth rate, 4.2 percent, than in the 1960-68 period 

when employment increased by an average of 2.6 

percent a year.

Growing awareness of the importance of regular dental 

care and the increasing ability of persons to pay for care 

are among the factors underlying an anticipated rapid 

growth in the demand for the services of dental 

assistants. Other factors affecting demand are an increased participation in dental prepayment plans, and 

the expansion of public programs such as Medicaid and 

Head Start. The slow increase in the supply of dentists in 

proportion to population growth will result in greater 

use of auxiliary workers.

In addition to manpower needs of 50,000 resulting 

from the rapid growth of the occupation, more than

54,000 assistants will be needed to replace workers who 

will retire, die, and leave the occupation for other 

reasons during the 1968-80 period.

S o u rc e s o f n e w en trants. Most dental assistants employed in 1968 had learned their skill on the job. In 

recent years, however, an increasing number have 

studied in formal post-secondary dental assisting programs.

To meet the projected need for 104,000 dental 

assistants— 50,000 for growth and 54,000 for replacements—an average of 8,500 persons would have to enter 

the occupation each year during the 1960-68 period. In 

1968, fewer than 2,000 persons graduated from postsecondary training programs. Thus, the average number 

of graduates of these programs could be expanded 

fourfold through the 1970’s without ever meeting all 

requirements with academically trained workers.

W o m e n . Almost all dental assistants are women. The 

few men in the occupation are serving in the Armed 

Forces.

Dental hygienists

E m p l o y m e n t . Approximately 16,000 dental hygienists 

were employed in 1968. Many worked part time. The 

majority of all dental hygienists were employed in 

private dental offices; others worked for public health 

agencies, school systems, industrial plants, clinics, hospitals, dental hygiene schools, and as civilian employees of 

the Armed Forces.

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G r o w th . By 1980, employment requirements for dental 

hygienists are expected to reach 33,500, an increase of 

about 109 percent above the 16,000 employed in 1968. 

This represents a faster average annual rate of growth,

9.1 percent than in the 1960 period, when employment 

increased by an average of 2.4 percent a year.

The demand for hygienists is expected to increase as a 

result of the expanding population and the growing 

awareness of the importance of regular dental care. 

Increasing interest in dental care programs for children 

also will expand employment. Increased participation in 

dental prepayment plans and more group practice which 

enable expense sharing by dentists also should result in 

more jobs for dental hygienists.

In addition to the approximately 13,500 dental 

hygienists expected to be needed to fill openings caused 

by growth in employment, another 20,000 will be 

needed to replace those who retire, die, and leave the 

labor force for other reasons between 1968 and 1980. 

From 1968 to 1980, manpower needs for both growth 

and replacement thus are expected to total about 

33,500, an average of 2,800 a year.

S o u rc e s o f n e w en tra n ts. Most new entrants in dental 

hygiene obtain certificates or associate degrees in dental 

hygiene through formal 2-year programs offered in 

post-secondary schools. A much smaller number are 

graduates of 4-year bachelor’s degrees programs. In 

addition, many will reenter the occupation after a period 

outside the labor force, primarily women returning to 

work when family responsibilities do not require their 

full attention.

In 1968, a total of 1,555 dental hygienists graduated 

from less than 4-year programs. After allowance for 

entrants that can be expected from sources other than 

new graduates of 2-year programs, significant expansion 

of these programs would be needed to meet manpower 

needs.

W o m e n . Virtually all dental hygienists are women and 

data on graduates indicate that this will continue.

Radiologic technologists

E m p l o y m e n t. An estimated 75,000 radiologic technologists were employed in 1968. Approximately one-third 

of all radiologic technologists were employed in hospitals; most of the remainder worked in medical laboratories, physicians’ and dentists’ offices or clinics, Federal 

and State health agencies, and public school systems. A 

few were members of mobile X-ray teams, engaged 

mainly in tuberculosis detection.

G r o w th . By 1980, employment requirements for radiologic technologists are expected to reach 120,000, an 

increase of about 60 percent over the 75,000 employed 

in 1968.

The very rapid rate of growth in employment of

radiologic technologists is expected primarily as a result 

of the anticipated expansion in the use of X-ray 

equipment in diagnosing and treating diseases. More 

workers also will be needed to help administer radiotherapy, as new knowledge of the medical benefits of 

radioactive material becomes widespread. X-raying of 

large groups of people will be extended as part of disease 

prevention and control programs.

In addition to the technologists needed for new jobs, 

replacement demands will total about 40,000 between 

1968 and 1980. Manpower needs for both growth and 

replacement are thus expected to total more than

85,000, an average of 7,000 a year.

S o u rc e s o f n e w en tra n ts. Training programs in X-ray 

technology conducted by hospitals or medical schools 

affiliated with hospitals are the primary source of 

entrants to radiologic technology each year. Most of 

these programs are of 2 years’ duration, although some 

3- and 4-year programs are offered. Junior colleges offer 

academic training coordinated with work experience in 

hospitals in 3-year X-ray technician programs. In addition to these entrants, others are trained in the Armed 

Forces and some women reenter after being out of the 

labor force because of family responsibilities. In 1967, 

the latest year for which data are available, 3,827 

graduated from X-ray technology programs. To meet 

anticipated manpower needs of 7,000 openings a year 

over the 1968 period, trends in the number of graduates 

indicate that they can be expected to fall short of these 

requirements.

W o m e n . About two-thirds of all radiologic technologists 

are women, and trends indicate that the ratio is likely to 

remain fairly stable.

Library technicians

E m p l o y m e n t. An estimated 70,000 library technicians 

were employed in 1968. Most technicians were employed in public and school libraries. Smaller numbers 

worked in college and university libraries, and in 

business, medical, and other special libraries. The Federal Government employed about 3,000 library technicians in 1968.

G r o w th . By 1980, employment requirements for library 

technicians are expected to reach 124,000, an increase 

of 77 percent above the 70,000 employed in 1968. The 

increasing demands of a growing population for library 

services and the continuing shortages of professional 

librarians are among the chief factors underlying an 

expected very rapid growth in employment requirements 

for library technicians.

Besides the technicians for new positions, about

24,000 library technicians will be needed over the 

1968-80 period to replace those who die, retire, or leave 

the field for other reasons. Manpower needs are

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therefore, expected to total 78,000, an average of 6,500 

a year, for the 1968-80 period.

S o u r c e s o f n e w en tran ts. Although most library technicians employed in 1968 were trained on the job, the 

number receiving training in formal post-secondary 

programs is continually increasing. In the future, most 

employers may require such training.

In 1968, only 107 persons graduated from less than 4 

year programs in technical library work. Thus, such 

programs could expand enormously over the next 12 

years and still fall short of the annual needs of 6,500 

library technicians.

W o m e n . In 1968, about 70 percent of all library 

technicians were women. However, limited data indicate 

that the proportion of men in the profession is increasing.

Police officers

E m p lo y m e n t. An estimated 285,000 full-time policemen and policewomen were employed in 1968 by local 

government police departments. Policemen are concentrated in large cities although they are employed in 

virtually every city and town in the country. The forces 

upon which they work vary in size from over 31,000 

officers to fewer than 25.

G ro w th . By 1980, employment requirements for police 

officers are expected to reach 360,000, an increase of

more than 27 percent over the 285,000 employed in

1968.

Employment of police officers is expected to grow as 

cities increase the size of their police forces to meet 

needs of a growing population, including traffic control 

as the number of motor vehicles continues to increase.

In addition to the more than 75,000 police officers to 

fill new positions over the 1968-80 period, nearly

100,000 will be needed to replace those who die, retire, 

and leave the occupation for other reasons.

S o u rc e s o f n e w en trants. Most police departments require a high school diploma as a requisite for obtaining a 

job. Some cities require some college training, and some 

hire law enforcement students as police interns. Since 

police departments are emphasizing post-high school 

training in subjects such as sociology, psychology, and 

minority group relations, more police officers probably 

will be recruited from post-secondary training in the 

future.

During the next 12 years, annual openings will average 

close to 15,000. In 1968, 1,840 persons graduated from 

programs of less than 4 year duration. This number will 

have to expand rapidly to keep pace with the demand 

for policemen with special law enforcement training.

W o m e n . About 5 percent of all police officers are 

women. Almost all are employed by large city police 

departments, where their work frequently involves handling cases dealing with juveniles and women.

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