U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Scientific Investigations Report 2009–5041

Method for Estimating Water Withdrawals for

Livestock in the United States, 2005 
Cover: Cover photographs by Joshua Smith, March 2009. 
Method for Estimating Water Withdrawals 

for Livestock in the United States, 2005

By John K. Lovelace

Scientific Investigations Report 2009–5041

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2009

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Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to 

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Suggested citation:

Lovelace, John K., 2009, Method for estimating water withdrawals for livestock in the United States, 2005: U.S. 

Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2009–5041, 7 p. 
iii

Contents

Abstract ..........................................................................................................................................................1

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................1

Purpose and Scope .............................................................................................................................2

Acknowledgments ...............................................................................................................................2

Water Requirements for Livestock ............................................................................................................2

Method for Estimating Water Withdrawals for Livestock ......................................................................3

Water-Use Coefficients .......................................................................................................................3

Livestock-Population Data .................................................................................................................4

Estimating Water Withdrawals ..........................................................................................................4

Summary .........................................................................................................................................................5

Selected References ....................................................................................................................................5

Table

1. Water-use coefficients for livestock ........................................................................................3

Conversion Factors

Multiply By To obtain

gallon (gal) 3.785 liter (L) 

gallon (gal) 0.003785 cubic meter (m3

)

million gallons (Mgal) 3,785 cubic meter (m3

)

gallon per day (gal/d) 0.003785 cubic meter per day (m3

/d)

million gallons per day (Mgal/d) 0.04381 cubic meter per second (m3

/s)

square mile (mi2

) 2.590 square kilometer (km2)
Blank Page
Abstract

Livestock water use includes ground water and surface 

water associated with livestock watering, feedlots, dairy operations, and other on-farm needs. The water may be used for 

drinking, cooling, sanitation, waste disposal, and other needs 

related to the animals. Estimates of water withdrawals for livestock are needed for water planning and management. 

This report documents a method used to estimate withdrawals of fresh ground water and surface water for livestock 

in 2005 for each county and county equivalent in the United 

States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Categories of 

livestock included dairy cattle, beef and other cattle, hogs and 

pigs, laying hens, broilers and other chickens, turkeys, sheep 

and lambs, all goats, and horses (including ponies, mules, burros, and donkeys). Use of the method described in this report 

could result in more consistent water-withdrawal estimates for 

livestock that can be used by water managers and planners to 

determine water needs and trends across the United States.

Water withdrawals for livestock in 2005 were estimated 

by using water-use coefficients, in gallons per head per day for 

each animal type, and livestock-population data. Coefficients 

for various livestock for most States were obtained from U.S. 

Geological Survey water-use program personnel or U.S. Geological Survey water-use publications. When no coefficient 

was available for an animal type in a State, the median value 

of reported coefficients for that animal was used. Livestockpopulation data were provided by the National Agricultural 

Statistics Service. County estimates were further divided into 

ground-water and surface-water withdrawals for each county 

and county equivalent. County totals from 2005 were compared to county totals from 1995 and 2000. Large deviations 

from 1995 or 2000 livestock withdrawal estimates were investigated and generally were due to comparison with reported 

withdrawals, differences in estimation techniques, differences 

in livestock coefficients, or use of livestock-population data 

from different sources.

The results of this study were distributed to U.S. Geological Survey water-use program personnel in each State during 

2007. Water-use program personnel are required to submit 

estimated withdrawals for all categories of use in their States 

to the National Water-Use Information Program for inclusion 

in a national report describing water use in the United States 

during 2005. Water-use program personnel had the option of 

submitting these estimates, a modified version of these estimates, or their own set of estimates or reported data. Estimated 

withdrawals resulting from the method described in this report 

are not presented herein to avoid potential inconsistencies with 

estimated withdrawals for livestock that will be presented in 

the national report, as different methods used by water-use 

personnel may result in different withdrawal estimates. Estimated withdrawals also are not presented to avoid potential 

disclosure of data for individual livestock operations.

Introduction

Livestock water use includes ground water and surface 

water associated with livestock watering, feedlots, dairy operations, and other on-farm needs. The water may be used for 

drinking, cooling, sanitation, waste disposal, and other needs 

related to the animals. Livestock include cattle, swine, poultry, 

sheep, goats, horses, and other animals raised for commercial 

purposes (Hutson and others, 2004, p. 23). Fish and other 

aquatic animals are not included in the livestock water-use 

category.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has estimated water 

withdrawals for livestock in the United States along with 

withdrawals for other categories of use every 5 years since 

1950. In 1950 and 1955, water withdrawals for livestock were 

combined with rural domestic withdrawals and included in the 

rural use category. From 1960 to 1980, the rural use category 

included separate tabulations of withdrawals for livestock 

and withdrawals for rural domestic use (MacKichan and 

Kammerer, 1961; Murray, 1968; Murray and Reeves, 1972, 

1977; Solley and others, 1983). In 1985, livestock became a 

separate category and included withdrawals for livestock and 

fish farms (Solley and others, 1988). In 1990 and 1995, the 

livestock category included separate tabulations of withdrawals for livestock and withdrawals for animal specialties, which 

included among other things, horses and fish farms. In 2000, 

the livestock category included livestock and the animals that 

had formerly been included in the animal specialties category, 

with the exception of fish farms, which were included under 

a new aquaculture category (Solley and others, 1993, 1998; 

Hutson and others, 2004). Estimated withdrawals for livestock 

Method for Estimating Water Withdrawals for Livestock 

in the United States, 2005

By John K. Lovelace
2 Method for Estimating Water Withdrawals for Livestock in the United States, 2005

also are often published in reports of water-use estimates for 

individual States. Livestock withdrawals typically are less than 

one percent of total national water use (Hutson and others, 

2004, p. 23) and are relatively minor in most States when compared to withdrawals for other categories of use, such as public 

supply, irrigation, industry, and power generation.

Estimates of water withdrawals for various categories 

of use are needed for water planning and management. Wateruse data also are needed to evaluate the effects of human 

activity on the quantity and quality of the Nation’s water 

resources. Large livestock operations may maintain water-use 

records and report this usage to a regulatory agency in some 

States; however, much of the livestock water use in the United 

States is not reported. Where water withdrawals for livestock 

are small or unknown, they are usually estimated by using a 

gallons-per-head water-use coefficient and livestock population estimates rather than actual measurements of withdrawals. Livestock population estimates are usually available 

from sources such as State agricultural agencies and the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics 

Service (NASS). Water-use coefficients for livestock are 

often available from County Extension Service agents, local 

livestock experts, and various livestock management publications. Coefficients often vary from State to State depending on 

livestock management practices, water availability, climatic 

conditions, and local knowledge of how these factors affect 

water needs.

Purpose and Scope

This report documents a method used to estimate withdrawals of fresh ground water and surface water for livestock 

in 2005 for each county and county equivalent in the United 

States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands by using 

estimated water-use coefficients and livestock-population data. 

Categories of livestock included dairy cattle, beef and other 

cattle, hogs and pigs, laying hens, broilers and other chickens, turkeys, sheep and lambs, all goats, and horses (including ponies, mules, burros, and donkeys). A table presents the 

range of coefficients used for various livestock. Use of the 

method described in this report could result in more consistent 

water-withdrawal estimates for livestock that can be used by 

water managers and planners to determine water needs and 

trends across the United States.

Estimates of water withdrawals for livestock during 

2005 in each county and county equivalent in the United 

States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands were prepared using the method described herein as an alternative 

to USGS water-use program personnel in each State preparing estimates for their State. County estimates were further divided into ground-water and surface-water withdrawals 

for each county and county equivalent. The estimates were 

distributed to USGS personnel in each State during 2007. 

Water-use program personnel are required to submit estimated 

withdrawals for all categories of use in their State to the 

National Water-Use Information Program for inclusion in a 

national report describing water use in the United States during 2005. Water-use program personnel had the option 

of submitting these estimates, a modified version of these 

estimates, or their own set of estimates or reported data. Estimated withdrawals resulting from the method described 

in this report are not presented herein to avoid potential 

inconsistencies with estimated withdrawals for livestock that 

will be presented in the national report, as different methods 

used by water-use personnel may result in different withdrawal 

estimates. Estimated withdrawals also are not presented to 

avoid potential disclosure of data for individual livestock 

operations.

Acknowledgments

The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance and 

cooperation of U.S. Geological Survey hydrologists in each 

State who provided livestock coefficients and other pertinent 

water-use data for their State. Thanks also to William Alley, 

Deborah Lumia, Susan Hutson, Kristin Linsey, Joan Kenny, 

Molly Maupin, and Nancy Barber of the USGS for their 

guidance and input. A special thanks is given to Robert Hood, 

Nathan Crisp, and Patrick Clinton, National Agricultural 

Statistics Service, for providing access to and assistance with 

livestock population records.

Water Requirements for Livestock

Water is withdrawn and used at livestock operations to 

meet drinking and nondrinking requirements. Drinking-water 

requirements for livestock are attained through water available from the environment (streams, ponds, and other water 

bodies), water in feed, and water supplied by the farmer 

or rancher. Drinking-water requirements are dependent on 

species, size, age, and, for dairy cows especially, whether 

the animals are lactating or nonlactating (National Research 

Council, 1981, p. 41; Lardy and Stoltenow, 1999). Climate 

and moisture content of feed, both of which can vary seasonally, also directly affect drinking water requirements (Irwin, 

1986; Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2003, p. 6-12). 

Typical drinking water requirements for livestock can be found 

in Soil Conservation Service (1975); Esmay (1977); Irwin 

(1986); MidWest Plan Service (1987); Wells (1995); Lardy 

and Stoltenow (1999); Landefeld and Bettinger (2002); Maryland Cooperative Extension Service (2002); Smith (2002); 

Kansas Department of Agriculture (2003); Wilson and others 

(2003); and Alberta Department of Agriculture, Food, and 

Rural Development (2005).

Nondrinking requirements include water for waste 

disposal, sanitation, cooling, and other needs related to 

animal husbandry. Water needs for waste disposal are highly 

variable as there are nearly as many different waste disposal 

systems as there are livestock operations (Soil Conservation 
Method for Estimating Water Withdrawals for Livestock 3

Service, 1975; Van Horn and others, 1993). Waste disposal can 

require very little water if manure is scraped but can require 

large amounts of water if manure is flushed. When manure is 

flushed, however, most of the water used is usually recycled 

from sewage lagoons (Falk, 2004). Waste in livestock sewage 

lagoons must be periodically diluted, often with ground water 

or surface water, to ensure proper waste decomposition and 

to minimize odors (Jones and Sutton, 1999). Dairy operations require water for cleaning cow udders prior to milking, 

sanitation of the equipment and the milking parlor, cooling of 

storage tanks, and other needs (Van Horn and others, 1993; 

Falk, 2004). Automatic udder washers reportedly use large 

amounts of water, but manual washing uses much less (Soil 

Conservation Service, 1975, p. 11; Wilson and others, 2003, 

p. 50). Typical nondrinking water requirements for livestock 

can be found in Soil Conservation Service (1975, 1992); 

MidWest Plan Service (1987); Van Horn and others (1993); 

Maryland Cooperative Extension Service (2002); Wilson and 

others (2003); and Alberta Department of Agriculture, Food, 

and Rural Development (2005).

Several agricultural researchers have developed formulas 

to estimate water requirements for various livestock based on 

animal attributes, environmental factors, and livestock management practices (Lardy and Stoltenow, 1999; Smith, 2002; 

Falk, 2004; Swistock and Sharpe, 2005). However, estimation 

and verification of water requirements based on such formulas 

were beyond the scope of this study.

Method for Estimating Water 

Withdrawals for Livestock

Water withdrawals for livestock in 2005 were estimated 

by using water-use coefficients, in gallons per head per day 

for each animal type, and livestock-population data. Withdrawals by water source, surface water or ground water, were 

estimated for each county or county equivalent in the United 

States.

Water-Use Coefficients

Water-use coefficients for livestock are average rates 

of water, in gallons per head per day, that are used for a 

type of animal in a livestock operation. These rates are 

based on drinking-water requirements and nondrinking-water 

requirements. Categories of livestock for which water use is 

commonly estimated include dairy cattle, beef and other cattle, 

swine, laying hens, broilers and other chickens, turkeys, sheep, 

goats, and horses. In some States, water use is estimated for 

other livestock categories, such as bison, elk, deer, reindeer, 

emus, ostriches, minks, and rabbits. Estimates of water used 

for these other livestock categories were not included in this 

report, however, because they generally have not been estimated in most States, and their populations (and presumably 

their water use) are relatively small compared to the more 

common livestock categories.

Water-use coefficients for various livestock for most 

States were obtained from USGS scientists or USGS wateruse publications. Water-use coefficients for livestock used 

by the USGS scientists generally have been developed based 

on published livestock water requirements and discussions 

with livestock experts from State agricultural agencies and 

extension services. In a few States, the coefficients are based 

on permitted or reported withdrawal or discharge rates for 

livestock operations.

For this study, in cases where no coefficient was available 

for an animal type in a State, the median value of coefficients 

reported by USGS hydrologists for that animal type was used. 

If a livestock coefficient for a State was much higher or lower 

than the coefficients used by most other States, the origin of 

the coefficient was researched. If no plausible reference was 

available for a very high or very low value, the coefficient 

was increased or decreased as needed to fall within the range 

of coefficients used in most other States. The range of coefficients for each animal type is presented in table 1. In order to 

avoid the potential disclosure of data for individual livestock 

operations, livestock coefficients for individual States are not 

included.

Table 1. Water-use coefficients for livestock.

[Amounts are in gallons per animal per day]

Animal type

Water-use coefficients

Minimum 25th

percentile Median 75thpercentile Maximum

Dairy cows 18 20 35 35 65

Beef and other cattle, including calves 6.6 10 12 12 16

Hogs and pigs 2.0 2.6 3.5 4.5 8.1 

Laying hens .03 .05 .06 .09 .12

Broilers and other chickens .02 .04 .06 .07 .10

Turkeys .05 .08 .10 .12 .22

Sheep and lambs .7 1.5 2.0 2.0 3.3 

Goats 1.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 

Horses (including ponies, mules, burros, and donkeys) 8.5 12 12 12 15
4 Method for Estimating Water Withdrawals for Livestock in the United States, 2005

Livestock-Population Data

For the purposes of this study, a single, complete source 

of livestock-population data for each county or county equivalent was desirable. The NASS conducts a census of agriculture in the United States every 5 years. The census includes 

an inventory of livestock at each operation on a selected day, 

which was December 31, 2002 for the most recent census 

available at the time of this study (National Agricultural 

Statistics Service, 2005). The inventory included populations 

of dairy cattle, beef and other cattle, hogs and pigs, laying 

hens, broilers and other chickens, turkeys, sheep and lambs, 

all goats, and horses (including ponies, mules, burros, and 

donkeys) for all U.S. counties, Alaskan agricultural census 

areas, and Puerto Rican municipios. Livestock populations for 

the U.S. Virgin Islands were obtained from the 2002 NASS 

Census of Agriculture report for that area (National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2005). Because NASS reported combined livestock populations for the U.S. Virgin Islands of St. 

John and St. Thomas, half of the population for each animal 

type was attributed to each island. The livestock populations 

reported for the 2002 inventory were assumed to be representative of the average number of animals in the United States 

during 2005.

Estimating Water Withdrawals

Ground-water, surface-water, and total withdrawals for 

livestock in each county or county equivalent were estimated 

by using livestock-population data and State-specific wateruse coefficients. Total withdrawals for livestock in each county 

were estimated by using the following equation:

Wt = ((Pdc * Cdc) + (Pbc * Cbc) + (Ph * Ch) + 

 (Plh * Clh) + (Pbh * Cbh) + (Pt * Ct) + (1)

 (Ps * Cs) + (Pg * Cg) + (Pe * Ce)) / 1,000,000

where

Wt = total water withdrawals, in million gallons per day;

Pdc = Number of dairy cows;

Cdc = Coefficient for dairy cows, in gallons per day;

Pbc = Number of beef and other cattle;

Cbc = Coefficient for beef and other cattle, in gallons per 

day;

Ph = Number of hogs and pigs;

Ch = Coefficient for hogs and pigs, in gallons per day;

Plh = Number of laying hens;

Clh = Coefficient for laying hens, in gallons per day;

Pbh = Number of broilers and other chickens;

Cbh = Coefficient for broilers and other chickens, in gallons 

per day;

Pt = Number of turkeys;

Ct = Coefficient for turkeys, in gallons per day;

Ps = Number of sheep and lambs;

Cs = Coefficient for sheep and lambs, in gallons per day;

Pg = Number of goats;

Cg = Coefficient for goats, in gallons per day;

Pe = Number of horses, ponies, mules, burros, and 

donkeys; and

Ce = Coefficient for horses, ponies, mules, burros, and 

donkeys, in gallons per day.

Livestock-population data were provided by NASS. 

State-specific water-use coefficients generally were based 

on rates previously used by USGS hydrologists to estimate 

water withdrawals for livestock in each State. For some States, 

water-use coefficients were estimated or modified to more 

closely agree with rates used in other States and rates reported 

in literature. Ranges of water-use coefficients used in this 

study are presented in table 1.

Livestock populations for Alaska were provided by 

NASS agricultural census areas that comprise one or more 

Alaskan boroughs. Livestock withdrawals in each agricultural 

census area were divided into withdrawals by borough based 

on the percentage of agricultural census area that each borough comprises by using the following equation:

Wb = Wca * (Ab/Aca) (2)

where

Wb = withdrawals for livestock in an Alaskan borough, in 

million gallons per day;

Wca = withdrawals for livestock in the Alaskan agricultural 

census area that includes the borough, in million 

gallons per day;

Ab = area of the borough, in square miles; and

Aca = area of the agricultural census area, in square miles.

Total withdrawals for livestock in each county or county 

equivalent were divided into withdrawals from ground-water 

and surface-water sources by using the percentage of groundwater and surface-water withdrawals for livestock in each 

county previously estimated by the USGS for (in order of 

preference) 2000, 1995, or 1990. Estimated ground-water and 

surface-water withdrawals for livestock in each county for 

2000, 1995, and 1990 were accessed April 19, 2006 at 

http://water.usgs.gov/wateruse/.

The equations are as follows:

Wgw = Wt * (Wgwx/Wtx) (3)

Wsw = Wt * (Wswx/Wtx) (4)

where

Wgw = ground-water withdrawals for livestock in a 

county, in million gallons per day;

Wt = total withdrawals for livestock in the county, in 

million gallons per day;

Wgwx = (in order of preference) ground-water withdrawals 

for livestock in the county in 2000, 1995, or 
Selected References 5

1990, in million gallons per day;

Wtx = (in order of preference) total withdrawals for 

livestock in the county 2000, 1995, or 1990, in 

million gallons per day;

Wsw = total surface-water withdrawals for livestock in the 

county, in million gallons per day; and

Wswx = (in order of preference) surface-water withdrawals 

for livestock in the county in 2000, 1995, or 

1990, in million gallons per day.

County totals for 2005 were compared to county totals 

from 1995 and 2000 (U.S. Geological Survey, 1998, 2005). 

Large deviations from 1995 or 2000 livestock withdrawal 

estimates were investigated and generally were due to comparison with reported withdrawals, differences in estimation 

techniques, differences in livestock coefficients, or use of 

livestock-population data from different sources.

Summary

Livestock water use includes ground water and surface 

water associated with livestock watering, feedlots, dairy operations, and other on-farm needs. The water may be used for 

drinking, cooling, sanitation, waste disposal, and other needs 

related to the animals. Livestock include cattle, swine, poultry, 

sheep, goats, horses, and other animals raised for commercial 

purposes. The U.S. Geological Survey has estimated water 

withdrawals for livestock in the United States, along with 

withdrawals for other categories of use, every 5 years since 

1950. Estimates of water withdrawals for various categories of 

use are needed for water planning and management; however, 

much of the livestock water use in the United States is not 

reported. Where water withdrawals for livestock are small or 

unknown, they are usually estimated by using a gallons-perhead water-use coefficient and livestock population estimates 

rather than actual measurements of withdrawals. Coefficients 

often vary from State to State depending on livestock management practices, water availability, climatic conditions, and 

local knowledge of how these factors affect water needs.

This report documents a method used to estimate withdrawals of fresh ground water and surface water for livestock 

in 2005 for each county and county equivalent in the United 

States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Categories of 

livestock included dairy cattle, beef and other cattle, hogs and 

pigs, laying hens, broilers and other chickens, turkeys, sheep 

and lambs, all goats, and horses (including ponies, mules, burros, and donkeys). Use of the method described in this report 

could result in more consistent water-withdrawal estimates for 

livestock that can be used by water managers and planners to 

determine water needs and trends across the United States.

Estimates of water withdrawals for livestock during 

2005 in each county and county equivalent in the United 

States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands were prepared using the method described herein as an alternative to 

USGS water-use program personnel in each State preparing 

estimates for their State. County estimates were further 

divided into ground-water and surface-water withdrawals for 

each county and county equivalent. The estimates were distributed to USGS personnel in each State during 2007. Water-use 

program personnel are required to submit estimated withdrawals for all categories of use in their State to the National 

Water-Use Information Program for inclusion in a national 

report describing water use in the United States during 2005. 

Water-use program personnel had the option of submitting 

these estimates, a modified version of these estimates, or their 

own set of estimates or reported data. Estimated withdrawals 

resulting from the method described in this report are not presented herein to avoid potential inconsistencies with estimated 

withdrawals for livestock that will be presented in the national 

report, as different methods used by water-use personnel may 

result in different withdrawal estimates. Estimated withdrawals also are not presented to avoid potential disclosure of data 

for individual livestock operations.

Water withdrawals for livestock were estimated by using 

water-use coefficients, in gallons per head per day for each 

animal type, and livestock-population data. Water-use coefficients for various livestock for most States were obtained from 

USGS hydrologists or USGS water-use publications. When 

no coefficient was available for an animal type in a State, 

the median value of reported coefficients for that animal was 

used. Livestock-population data were provided by the National 

Agricultural Statistics Service.

County totals for 2005 were compared to county totals 

from 1995 and 2000. Large deviations from 1995 or 2000 

livestock withdrawal estimates were investigated and generally 

were due to comparison with reported withdrawals, differences 

in estimation techniques, differences in livestock coefficients, 

or use of livestock-population data from different sources.

Selected References

Alberta Department of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Development, 2005, Average daily and annual water requirements: 

Government of Alberta, Canada, 2 p., accessed January 19, 

2006, at http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/app19/calc/livestock/

waterreq_dataentry2.jsp

Avery, Charles, 1999, Estimated water withdrawals and use 

in Illinois, 1992: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 

99–97, 49 p.

California State Water Resources Control Board, 1983, 

Appropriation of water in California: California State Water 

Resources Control Board, 23 p., accessed February 10, 

2006, at http://www.waterrights.ca.gov/WRINFO/

(Updated link accessed May 13, 2008, at 

http://weblinks.westlaw.com/Find/Default.wl?DB=

CA%2DADC%2DTOC%3BRVADCCATOC&DocName=

23CAADCS697&FindType=W&AP=&fn=_top&rs=

WEBL8.04&vr=2.0&spa=CCR-1000&trailtype=

26&Cnt=Document)
6 Method for Estimating Water Withdrawals for Livestock in the United States, 2005

Clark, M.L., and Thamke, J.N., 1988, Estimated water use 

in Iowa, 1985: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 

87–704, 28 p.

Esmay, Merle L., 1977, Layout and design of animal feedlot 

structures and equipment, in Taiganides, E. Paul, editor, 

1977, Animal wastes: London, Applied Science Publishers, 

Ltd., 423 p.

Falk, D.E., 2004, Fresh water needs for dairy farms: Boise, 

Idaho, Idaho Association of Soil Conservation Districts, 10 

p., accessed March 27, 2006, at http://www.oneplan.org/

Stock/DairyWater.shtml

Holland, T. W., 1992, Water-use data collection techniques in 

the Southeastern United States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. 

Virgin Islands: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources 

Investigations Report 92–4028, 187 p.

Hutson, S.S., Barber, N.L., Kenny, J.F., Linsey, K.S., Lumia, 

D.S., and Maupin, M.A., 2004, Estimated use of water in 

the United States in 2000: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 

1268, 46 p.

Indiana Department of Natural Resources, 1982, The 1980 

survey of domestic self-supplied and livestock water uses in 

Indiana: Indianapolis, Ind., Indiana Department of Natural 

Resources, Division of Water, 17 p.

Irwin, R.W., 1977, Water requirements of livestock: Ontario 

Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, 4 p., 

accessed March 27, 2006, at http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/

english/facts/86-053.htm

(Updated link accessed May 13, 2008, at 

http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/

07-023.htm) 

Jones, D.D., and Sutton, A.L., 1999, Design and operation 

of livestock waste lagoons: West Lafayette, Ind., Perdue 

University Cooperative Extension Service report ID-120, 

18 p., accessed June 26, 2008, at

http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/ID/ID-120.html

Kansas Department of Agriculture, 2003, Water Appropriations Act—rules and regulations: Kansas Department of 

Agriculture, Division of Water Resources, 170 p., accessed 

January 19, 2006, at www.kansas.gov/kda/dwr/Laws-Rules/

KWAARules.pdf

(Updated link accessed on May 13, 2008, at 

http://www.ksda.gov/includes/statute_regulations/

appropriation/KWAA_Rules_Regs_2006_FullVersion.pdf)

Landefeld, Mark, and Bettinger, Jeff, 2002, Livestock water 

development: Columbus, Ohio, Ohio State University 

Extension Service Fact Sheet ANR-12-02, 3 p., accessed 

January 19, 2006, at http://ohioline.osu.edu/anr-fact/0012.

html

Lardy, Greg, and Stoltenow, Charles, 1999, Livestock and 

water: Fargo, N. Dak., North Dakota State University, 

NDSU Extension Service report AS-954, accessed 

January 19, 2006, at

http://www.ext.nodak.edu/extpubs/ansci/livestoc/as954w.htm

MacKichan, K.A., 1951, Estimated use of water in the United 

States, 1950: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 115, 13 p.

MacKichan, K.A., 1957, Estimated use of water in the United 

States, 1955: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 398, 18 p.

MacKichan, K.A., and Kammerer, J.C., 1961, Estimated use 

of water in the United States, 1960: U.S. Geological Survey 

Circular 456, 26 p.

Maryland Cooperative Extension Service, 2002, Farm notes—

livestock water requirements: University of Maryland, 1 p., 

accessed March 1, 2006, at http://www.agnr.umd.edu/users/

carrolcty/march02farmnotes.htm

MidWest Plan Service, 1987, Structures and environment 

handbook, 11th edition: Ames, Iowa, MidWest Plan 

Service, Iowa State University, 658 p.

Murray, C.R., 1968, Estimated use of water in the United 

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