CERP System-wide Performance Measure Northern Estuaries Oyster Habitat Documentation Sheet

Page 1 of 9 

### Northern Estuaries Performance Measure Oyster Habitat

Last Date Revised: March 21, 2007

Acceptance Status: Accepted


### 1.0 Desired Restoration Condition

In the St. Lucie Estuary and Lake Wo rth Lagoon, the restoratio n expectation is to pr omote the expansion of oyster reef communities and add substrate to increase areal extent of oyster reef, where ecologically appropriate. In the Caloosahatchee Estuary, the restorati on expectation is to impr ove the recruitment and survivorship of the Eastern Oy ster by restoring oyster beds in suitable habi tat, and maintaini ng habitat function of oyster beds for fish, crabs and birds. In the Loxaha tchee Estuary restoration e xpectations are still being developed.

1.1 Predictive Metric and Target A variety of ecological and phys iological responses of oysters will be used to de termine the health of oysters and oyster reefs. Th ese include: density of li ving oysters, condition index, reproductive activity, larval recruitment, disease prevalence and intensity of Perkinsus marinus (and MSX in east coas t estuaries). A Habitat Suitability Index (HSI ) model currently under optimization will be used to determine ex act numbers of live oyster reef acreage increase and suitable locations for reef development (see below) . A 5-10 fold increase in live oyster reef coverage is targeted with an overall goal of increasing % oyster re ef coverage compared to current conditions. On a longer term (3-5 year s), distribution and aeri al coverage of oyster reefs will also be considered.

1.2 Assessment Parameter and Target The Comprehensive Everglades Restora tion Plan (CERP) is be ing implemented as a m eans of reinitiating, to the greatest degree possi ble, natural freshwater flow to coastal wate rs on both coasts of south Florida. The Monitoring and Assessment Pl an (MAP) component of CERP is design ed to provide a di verse approach to documenting and describing the impacts of changed freshwater flow to th e flora and fauna inhabiting inland landscapes and coastal waters. Because of its wide distri bution, historical context, and essential habitat value, the Eastern Oyster is included as a target specie s for monitoring. Changes in oy ster distributio n, health and abundance will be monitored within se veral estuarine ecosystems encompassi ng both the Atlant ic and Gulf of Mexico coasts of south Florida. These ecosystems include the St. Lucie Estuary, Loxahatchee River, Lake Worth Lagoon, Biscayne Bay, Ten Thousand Islands area, and Caloosahatchee River. To provide a background for comparison, outlier oyster populati ons in Tampa Bay, Mosquito Lagoon, and the Sebastian River also will be monitored (Underwood and Chapman, 2003). We anticipate that mapping of oyster re efs to determine actual reef acreage needs to take place every 3-5 years.

The targets for each of the northern estuaries, pred icted with the full project im plementation, are as follows:

 St Lucie Estuary – to provi de approximately 900 acres of suitable oyster habitat.

 Caloosahatchee Estuary – to provid e approximately 400 acres of suitabl e oyster habitat with at least 100 acres of living oyster reefs.

 Loxahatchee River Estuary – The restoration goal for oyster commun ities in the Northwest Fork of the Loxahatchee estuary is to maintain suitable water qua lity conditions for all oys ter life history stagesCERP System-wide Performance Measure Northern Estuaries Oyster Habitat Documentation Sheet

Page 2 of 9 near the River Delta while establishing additional oyst er communities downstream. Numeric target will be determined once the baseline data collection is completed.

 Lake Worth Lagoon – to provide appr oximately 185 acres of suitable habitat through the placement of appropriate material on hard bottom currently impacted by muck deposit s. In addition, a performance measure for salinity leve ls has been developed, incorporati ng seasonality and dur ation limits, which takes into account the salinity requiremen ts of both larval and adult oysters.



### 2.0 Justification

In the Caloosahatchee, Loxa hatchee, Lake Worth Lagoon a nd St. Lucie Estuarie s, oysters have been identified as a “valued ecosystem component”. Oysters are natural components of southern estuaries and were documented to be abundant in th ese systems. The Eastern Oyster, Crassostrea virginica , is the dominant species in these oyster reef communitie s. Oyster bars provide important habitat and food for numerous estuarine species including gastropod mollusks, polychaete worms, decapod crustacea ns, various boring sponges, fish and birds. Over 300 macrofa una species can live in or associated with oyster be ds and over 40 species may live in a single oyster bed (Wel ls 1961). Oysters are also an important commercial and recreational resource. Adult oysters normally occur at sali nities between 10 and 30 parts per thousand (ppt) but they tolerate a salinity range of 2 to 40 ppt (Gunter and Ge yer 1955). Short pu lses of freshwater inflow can greatly benefit oys ter populations by killing predators, such as the sout hern oyster drill and th e whelk, that cannot tolerate low salinity water (Owen 1953), while excessive freshw ater inflows may kill entire popula tions of oysters (Gunter 1953, Schlesselman 1955, MacKenzie 1977).

Eastern oysters are highly valued as food, but their ecological significance rema ins under-appreciated and under-studied (Coen et al. 1999a). I ndividual oysters filter 4-34 lite rs of water per hour, removing phytoplankton, particulate orga nic carbon, sediments, pollu tants, and microorganisms from the water column. This process results in greater ligh t penetration immediately downstream

, thus promoting the growth of submerged aquatic vegetation. Although oys ters assimilate the bul k of the organic matter that they filter, the remainder is deposited on the bottom where it provides food for benthic organisms. Furthermore, the oyster's ability to form large biogenic reefs (Coen et al. 1999b) qualifies it as a keystone species. Oysters and the complex, three-dimensional, reef structure they form, attract numerous species of invertebrates and fishes. These "ecosystem engineers" (Coen et al. 1999b) attract pr edators such as mud crab ( Panopeus herbstii ) (Meyer 1994), black drum ( Pogonias cromis ) (Ingle & Smith 1956), and crown conch ( Melongena corona ) (Woodburn 1965) which feed on the living oysters themselves. Oyster shells serv e as sites for egg laying or nesting in the crown conch ( M. corona ) (personal observation) and Florida blenny ( Chasmodes saburrae ) (Peters 1981), respecti vely. Oyster reef structure pr ovides a refuge from predation for such species as the mud crabs Eurypanopeus depressus and P. herbstii (McDonald 1982). To date, ove r 300 species have been identified as depending, e ither directly or indirectly, on oyster reefs (e.g., Wells 1961, Crabtree & Dean 1982, Abbe & Breitburg 1992, Wenner et al. 1996, Coen et al. 1999a ). Based on the relative degree of dependence, oyster-reef fauna can be clas sified as reef residents, facultative residents, and tr ansients (Coen et al. 1999a). Many of these organisms in turn se rve as forage for important fisher ies species (e.g., spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulosus [Tabb & Manning 1961, McMichae l & Peters 1989]; red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus [Peters & McMichael 1987]; common snook, Centropomus undecimalis [Marshall 1958, Fore & Schmidt 1973, Gilmore et al. 1983]) and birds (e.g., yellow-crowned night-heron, Nycticorax violaceus [Watts 1988]).

For the St. Lucie Estuary, an historic acreage estimat e of approximately 1,400 acre s was calculated from a 1940- 1960 oyster GIS coverage deve loped by Woodward-Clyd e Inc. (1998a). This historic coverage represents an interpretati on of anecdotal information and general oyster locatio n accounts found through a literature review (Woodward-Clyde Inc. 1998b). This cove rage was not intended for es timating acreage, but itCERP System-wide Performance Measure Northern Estuaries Oyster Habitat Documentation Sheet

Page 3 of 9 is the only known source of inform ation for approximating acreage. In 1997, 207 acres of oyster habitat (15% of historic) were identifi ed in the St. Lucie Estuary (Woodward-Clyd e 1998a). Shell mining, altered freshwater inflow, and changes in hydr odynamics are largely responsi ble for this reduction. For example, large freshwater discharges from Lake Okeechobee and the St. Lucie Es tuary watershed occurred in the Spring 1998 and Summer 1999, killing more than 90% of the remaining oys ters. Some recruitment has been observed since then and a comprehensive stu dy under the RECOVER Monito ring and Assessment Plan began in January 2005. This baseline monitoring study will provide informati on on the abunda nce, recruitment, and health of living oyster reefs in the St. Lucie, Loxaha tchee, Lake Worth estuaries and Bisc ayne Bay. Current estimate (2003- 2004) for the Caloosahatchee Ri ver is 18.4 acres of oys ter reefs. Caloosahatchee River and Estuary (including San Carlos Bay that forms the estuary portion of th e Caloosahatchee River) has an accommodation space of 62,644,983 m2 (6264 Ha or 15,479. 36 acres) with oyster reefs comprising of 74,336 m2 (7.43 Ha or 18.37

acres ). This translates to 0.12% coverage of total surface area avai lable in the estuarine po rtion (Volety et al., unpublished results). Perc ent coverage of oyste r reefs along various Gulf of Mexico estu aries (Texas, Coastal Louisiana, Mississippi, Alab ama and Florida) ranges between 0 – 5.78%, w ith areas of intermediate salinities accounting for higher values (Data compiled by the US EPA). The lower pe rcent coverage of oyster reefs in the Caloosahatchee River is a combination of freshwater inflows into the estu ary from Lake Okeechobee and lack of suitable substrate. Most of the be nthic habitat in the river is comprised of silty muds, sand, clay and shell. Similar estimates of present acreage and potential ac commodation space for east co ast estuaries is needed.

Previous studies by URS Greiner Wo odward (1999) for the St. Lucie Es tuary and by the L oxahatchee River District (2003) for the Loxahatchee Estuary, plus a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service funded study being conducted by the Florida Fish and Wi ldlife Conservation commiss ion, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute in Lake Worth Lagoon and Biscayne Bay will provide estimates of living oyster reef acreage in each of those systems.



### 3.0 Scientific Basis

3.1 Relationship to Conceptual Ecological Models The indicator for this performance m easure is an ecological attribute (Oyster Habitat) in the following conceptual ecological models:

Regional Models (RECOVER 2004a) St. Lucie Estuary and Indian River Lagoon Loxahatchee Lake Worth Lagoon Caloosahatchee Estuary

Ecological Model for Hypot hesis Clusters (RECOVER 2005) Oyster Abundance and Health Conceptual Ecological Model (see Figure 1 below)

3.2 Relationship to Adaptive Assessment Hypothesis Clusters Ecological Premise: Prior to upstream water management (and post-inlet construction), the Northern Estuaries exhibited an ecologically appropriate range of salinity co nditions, with fewer salinity extreme events, and supported healthy oyster communities

Northern Estuary Oyster Hypotheses:CERP System-wide Performance Measure Northern Estuaries Oyster Habitat Documentation Sheet

Page 4 of 9 Hypothesis 1 - Undesirable shifts in th e estuarine salinity envelope result in decreased survival, reproduction, spat recruitment, growth and increas ed susceptibility to diseases by Perkinsus marinus and MSX (in the southeast estuaries oysters).

Rationale. Large rainfall events and subs equent watershed run- off, or large volume releases from Lake Okeechobee cause large volumes of freshwater over a shor t period of time to enter the estuary causing a sudden drop in salinity. This sudden drop can lead to significant mortality in the oyster population, and decreased growth, reproduction, and spat recruitment. Extreme droughts can also negatively impact oysters by making them prone to disease and predation.

Hypothesis 2 - Accumulation of muck (high orga nic content depositional matter) on available substrate or nearby areas will make substr ate unsuitable for oyster larval settleme nt and thus recruitment and growth of larval oysters. In additi on, accumulation of muck may also impact the dissolved oxygen content making the area / substrate unsuitable for larval settleme nt and growth.

Rationale. Oyster recruitment is negatively effected by the accumulation of mucky sediments in the estuary. Muck is unsuitable substrate for spat settlement. Areas th at once contained sand and/or shell have been covered by these very soft, unconsolidated se diments. Freshwater infl ow carries sediments w ith silt, clay and high organic content. Freshwater inflow from canals can also result in an increase in the transport of floating aquatics, which then degrade and contribut e to the rate of muck accumulation.

Hypothesis 3 - Increased sediment loads in the water column impa ir respiration and feeding of oysters resulting in decreased growth and condition index of oysters. In addition, sediment accum ulation on oyster shell negatively affects spat recruitment.

Rationale. Oyster populations are affected by increased sediment loads resulting from alterations to the natural hydrology. Adult oysters have effective morphological adaptations for feed ing in much higher levels of suspended solids than are usua lly encountered under normal conditions. Oysters from relatively turbid estuaries appear to be capable of feed ing at total suspended solid co ncentrations as high as 0.4 g/l but significantly reduce their pumping rates at as low as 0.1 g/l. Suspended solids may clog gills and interf ere with filtering and respiration of oysters. Deposi tion of sediment on oyster sh ells also makes them unsu itable for spat settlement.

Hypothesis 4 - Increase in oyster reef coverage will enha nce secondary habitat for other estuarine species resulting in increased di versity and abundance.

Rationale. Oysters are natural components of south Florida estuaries and were documented to be abundant in the system. Although currentl y less abundant, they continue to be im portant. Reduction in oyster coverage was largely due to altered freshwater inflow, shell mining, and changes in hydrodynamics. Th is decrease has resulted in a loss of oyster r eef community and the estuarine species that use this habitat.CERP System-wide Performance Measure Northern Estuaries Oyster Habitat Documentation Sheet

Page 5 of 9 

### Figure 1 – OYSTER CONC EPTUAL ECOLOGICAL MODEL

4.0 Evaluation Application

4.1 Evaluation Protocol

4.2 Normalized Performance Output

4.3 Model Output

4.4 Uncertainty



### 5.0 Monitoring and Assessment Approach

5.1 MAP Module and Section See CERP Monitoring and A ssessment Plan: Part 1 Monitoring and Su pporting Research - Northern Estuaries Module section 3.3.3.6 (RECOVER 2004a)

See The RECOVER Team’s Recommendations for Interim Goals and Interim Targets for the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan – Inte rim Goal 1.1 American Oysters in Northern Estuar ies (RECOVER 2005).

5.2 Assessment Approach

NACERP System-wide Performance Measure Northern Estuaries Oyster Habitat Documentation Sheet

Page 6 of 9 

### 6.0 Future Tool Development Needed to Support Performance Measure

6.1 Evaluation Tools Needed

6.2 Assessment Tools Needed Oyster Model

The proposed model (Volety et al. 2005; Mazzotti et al. 2005) is a modi fication of the origin al model developed by Cake (1983) and modified by Soni at and Brody (1988) for the Texas estuaries. For the HSI model for the Eastern oyster, a larval component index (LCI) and adult component index (ACI) are be ing examined. Monthly mean salinity, temperature, and inflow of freshwater comprise the LCI. The ACI is comprised of salinity, and temperature. The Habitat Suitab ility Index of oysters is calculated as:

HSI May-November = MIN (LarvaeComponentInde x, AdultComponentIndex)

HSI December-April = (AdultComponentIndex)

Average HSI for the year are calcul ated based on the monthly HSI values . The weight can take on different values for different variables; however , the sums of the weights must be eq ual to one. Refinement of the HSI will help identify exact locations or areas that have the greatest potential to develop as reefs, extent of reef coverage assuming certain growth rate s, and above all reasonabl e predictive capability of oyster reef survival should conditions change in the future, e.g. amount of freshwater etc. Areas that show high HSI from this model are being targeted for restorat ion and enhancement of oysters in the Caloosahatchee Estuary. When baseline values of ecologi cal responses (condition i ndex, disease intensity of P. marinus , spat recruitment, time of reproduction) of oysters b ecome available in the future , these aspects will be inco rporated into the model and optimized.

While this model is being developed for the Caloosah atchee Estuary, the model can be exported and used in other estuaries with minor m odifications. The model will be strengthened and/or traine d to better predict oyster responses with the cont inuous input of monitoring data . The model was generated base d on the flow data from the SFWMD and oyster response data fr om the Caloosahatchee Estuary coll ected by Dr. Aswani Volety and his colleagues at Florida Gu lf Coast University.



### 7.0 Notes

This Performance Measure supersedes and addresses NE -12 Northern Estuaries Oyster Habitat (Last Date Revised: Sep 21, 2005).



### 8.0 Working Group Members

Aswani Volety, Florida Gulf Coast University William S. Arnold, FWC Tomma Barnes, SFWMD Patti Sime, SFWMD Gregory Graves, SFWMD Alessandra Medri, Palm Beach CountyCERP System-wide Performance Measure Northern Estuaries Oyster Habitat Documentation Sheet

Page 7 of 9 Liberta Scotto, FWS Gretchen Ehlinger, EPJV



### 9.0 References

Abbe, G. R. and D. L. Breitburg. 1992. The influence of oyster toadfish ( Opsanus tau ) and crabs ( Callinectes sapidus and Xanthidae) on survival of oyster ( Crassostrea virginica ) spat in Chesapeake Bay: does spat protection always work? Aquaculture 107:21-31. Cake, E. W. Jr. 1983. Habita t suitability index models: Gulf of Mexi co American oyster. 37 pp. United States Fish Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-82/10.57. Coen, L. D. and M. W. Luckenbach. 2000. Devel oping success criteria and goa ls for evaluating oyster reef restoration: Ecological function or resource exploitation? Ecological Engineering 15:323- 343. Coen, L. D., D. M. Knott, E. L. We nner, N. H. Hadley and A. H. Ringw ood. 1999a. Intertid al oyster reef studies in South Carolina: Design, sampling and e xperimental focus for ev aluating hab itat value and function. In Luckenbach, M. W., R. Mann and J. A. Wesson (eds.), Oyster Reef Habitat Restoration: A Synopsis and Synthesis of Approaches . Virginia Institute of Marine Science Press, Gloucester Point, VA. Coen, L. D., M. W. Luckenbach and D. L. Breitburg. 1999b. The role of oyster re efs as essential fish habitat: a review of current knowledge and some new perspectives. In Benaka, L.R. (ed.), Fi sh habitat: essential fish habitat and rehabilitation. p p. 438-454. American Fisheries Soci ety, Symposium 22, Bethesda, MD. Crabtree, R. E. and J. M. Dean. 1982. The structur e of two South Carolina estuarine tide pool fish assemblages. Estuaries 5:2-9. Fore, P. L. and T. W. Schmidt. 1973. Biology of juvenile and adult snook, Centropomus undecimalis , in the Ten Thousand Islands. Pp. XVI 1-18. in Ecosystems analysis of the Bi g Cypress Swamp and estuaries. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region IV , Atlanta, Georgia Publ ication Number EPA 904/9- 74-002. Gilmore, R. G., C. J. Donahoe and D. W. Cooke. 1983. Observations on the distribution a nd biology of the common snook, Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch). Florida Scientist 46:313-336. Gunter, G. 1953. The relationship of the Bonnet Ca rre spillway to oyster beds in Mississippi Sound and the Louisiana marsh, with a report on the 1950 ope ning. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Tex 3(1):17- 71. Gunter, G., and R.A. Geyer. 1955. Studies of fou ling organisms in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Tex. 4(1):39-67. Ingle, R. M and F. G. W. Smith. 1956. Oyster culture in Florid a. Rev. ed. Fla. State Board Conserv. Mar. Lab. Educ. Ser. No. 5. 25 p. Loxahatchee River District. 2003. Determination of liv e oyster bars in the Loxahatchee estuary west of the train trestle. Preliminary Report. 2 pp + figures and maps. Mazzotti, F. J., Pearlstine, L. G., Barnes, T., Vo lety, A. K., Irvin, D., and A. M. Weinstein. 2005. Stressor response models for the Eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica . JEM Technical Report 2005-01. Final Report to the U. S. Geological Surv ey. University of Florida, Ft. Lauderdale Research and Education Center, Fort Lauderdale, FL. 14 pages. MacKenzie, C.L. Jr. 1977. Development of an aqu acultural program for rehabili tation of damaged oyster reefs in Mississippi. U.S. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv. Mar. Fish Rev. 39(8):1-3. Marshall, A. N. 1958. A survey of the snook fishery of Florida, with studies of the bi ology of the principal species, Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch). Fla. Board Conserv. Mar. Res. Lab. Tech. Ser. No. 22.CERP System-wide Performance Measure Northern Estuaries Oyster Habitat Documentation Sheet

Page 8 of 9 McDonald, J. 1982. Divergent life history pa tterns in the co-occurring intertidal crabs Panopeus herbstii and Eurypanopeus depressus (Crustacea: Brachyura: Xanthidae). Marine Ecology Progress Series 8:173-180. McMichael, R. H. and K. M. Peters. 1989. Early life history of spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulosus (Pisces: Sciaenidae), in Tampa Ba y, Florida. Estuaries 12:98-110. Meyer, D. L. 1994. Habitat part itioning between the xanthid crabs Panopeus herbstii and Eurypanopeus depressus on intertidal oyster reefs in southeastern North Carolina. Estuaries 17:674-679. Owen, H.M. 1953. The relationship of high temperat ure and low rainfall to oyster production in Louisiana. Bull. Mar. Science, Gulf Caribbean 1:34-43. Peters, K. M. 1981. Reproductiv e biology and developmental osteology of the Florida blenny, Chasmodes saburrae (Perciformes: Blenniidae). Northeast Gulf Sci. 4(2): 79-98. Peters, K. M. and R. H. McMichael. 1987. Early life history of the red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus (Pisces: Sciaenidae), in Tampa Bay, Florida. Estuaries 10(2):92-107. RECOVER. 2004a. Draft Conc eptual Ecological Models. In : RECOVER. CERP Monitoring and Assessment Plan: Part 1 Monitoring and Suppor ting Research, Restorat ion Coordination and Verification Program, c/o United States Army Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville District, Jacksonville, Florida, and South Florida Water Ma nagement District, West Palm Beach, Florida, Appendix A. RECOVER. 2004b. CERP Monito ring and Assessment Plan: Part 1 Monitoring and Supporting Research. Restoration Coordinati on and Verification Program, c/o United States Army Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville District , Jacksonville, Florida, and S outh Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach, Florida. RECOVER. 2005. The RECOVER Team’s Recommendati ons for Interim Goals and Interim Targets for the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan, c/o United States Army Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville District, Jacksonville, Florida, and South Florida Wa ter Management District, West Palm Beach, Florida. Schlesselman, G.W. 1955. The gulf coast oyster industry of the United St ates. Geograph. Rev. 45(4):531-541. Soniat, T. M. and M. S. Brody. 1988. Field validation of a habitat su itability index model for the American oyster. Estuaries 11(2):87-95. URS Greiner Woodward Clyde. 1999. Distribution of oysters and subm erged aquatic vegetation in the St. Lucie estuary. Final Report, Contract C-7779, to the South Florida Water Management District. Tabb, D. C., and R. Manni ng. 1961. A checklist of th e flora and fauna of nort hern Florida and adjacent brackish waters of the Florida mainland collected during the period July, 1957 through September, 1960. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf Carib. 11(4):552-649. Underwood, A.J. and M.G. Chapman. 2003. Power, precaution, Type II error and sampling design in assessment of environmental impacts. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 296: 49-70. Volety, A. K., T. Barnes, F. J. Mazzotti, L. G. Pearlstine, D. Irvine, and A. M. Weinstein. 2005. Development and optimization of Habitat Suitability index mode l for American oyster in SW Florida estuaries. World Aquaculture Conference, Bali, May 9-14, 2005. Watts, B. D. 1988. Foraging implications of food usage patter ns in yellow-crowne d night-herons. Condor 9 0(4):860-865. Wells, H.W. 1961. The fauna of oyster beds with sp ecial reference to the sa linity factor. Ecological Monographs 31:239-266. Wenner, E., H. R. Beatty and L. Coen. 1996. A me thod for quantitatively samp ling nekton on intertidal oyster reefs. Journal of Shellfish Research 15:769-775.CERP System-wide Performance Measure Northern Estuaries Oyster Habitat Documentation Sheet

Page 9 of 9 Woodburn, K.D. 1965. A discussion and selected, annotated refe rences of subjective or controversial marine matters. Fla. Board Conserv. Ma r. Lab. Tech. Ser. No. 46. 50 p. Woodward-Clyde, Inc. 1998a. Distribution of oysters and submerged aquatic vegetation in the St. Lucie Estuary. Prepared for the South Florida Water Ma nagement District, West Palm Beach, Florida. Woodward-Clyde, Inc. 1998b. St. Lucie Estuary historical , SAV, and American oys ter literature review. Final Report. Prepared for the South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach, Florida.