A national laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy

Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy

National Renewable Energy Laboratory 

Innovation for Our Energy Future 

Status of Wave and 

Tidal Power Technologies 

for the United States 

W. Musial 

Technical Report 

NREL/TP-500-43240 

August 2008 

NREL is operated by Midwest Research Institute ● Battelle Contract No. DE-AC36-99-GO10337 
Status of Wave and 

Tidal Power Technologies 

for the United States 

W. Musial 

Prepared under Task No. WER8.2006 

Technical Report 

NREL/TP-500-43240 

August 2008 

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, Colorado 80401-3393 

303-275-3000 • www.nrel.gov 

Operated for the U.S. Department of Energy 

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by Midwest Research Institute • Battelle 

Contract No. DE-AC36-99-GO10337
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Executive Summary 

This paper presents the status of marine applications for renewable energy as of 2008 from a 

U.S. perspective. The technologies examined include wave, tidal, and ocean current energy 

extraction devices that are currently being demonstrated in at least one ocean project. The paper 

also examines the resources for each of these technologies, the limitations to the current 

assessments, and the research and development needs of the marine renewable energy industry 

based on the author’s experience and opinions. It provides an overview of the National 

Renewable Energy Laboratory and its capability to meet some of the industry’s R&D needs as a 

technology integrator and a third party evaluator. The paper concludes that marine energy 

resources are globally significant and should be developed as part of the diverse clean energy 

portfolio that will be necessary to reach expected future carbon reduction targets. No single 

energy source will be able to achieve these reductions independently so many sources must be 

simultaneously developed. 

iii 
iv 

Contents 

Introduction ............................................................................................................................1 

Marine Renewable Energy .....................................................................................................1 

Marine Renewable Energy Resource Estimates ....................................................................1 

Marine Renewable Energy Technology Maturity Path .........................................................3 

Overview of Wave and Tidal Power Technologies ...............................................................4 

Summary of Research and Development Needs ....................................................................6 

Potential Contribution of NREL ............................................................................................7 

Conclusions ............................................................................................................................8 

References ..............................................................................................................................9 

Tables 

Table 1. Wave Resource by Region .......................................................................................2 

Table 2. Tidal Resource by Region........................................................................................2 

Table 3. Resource Comparison of Estimated Energy Extraction Limits (EPRI ref3) ...........3 

Figures 

Figure 1. Point Absorber Schematic ......................................................................................4 

Figure 2. Overtopping Wave Terminator Schematic .............................................................4 

Figure 3. Oscillating Water Column Wave Terminator Schematic. ......................................5 
Introduction 

The world is facing enormous environmental issues as human consumption has begun to stress 

the Earth’s resources and its ability to sustain our existence in the way we are accustomed. The 

urgency to deploy solutions to climate change is compounded by parallel and equally daunting 

issues with the depletion of our conventional energy supplies and the accompanying national 

security issues. New energy sources must be identified and developed as a top priority. 

 

The U.S. Department of Energy’s National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) believes that 

a diverse portfolio of energy solutions is needed to meet our future energy challenge [1]. 

Meeting the challenge will also require modernization of our energy distribution and use 

systems, and the development and implementation of energy efficiency technologies that both 

minimize energy waste and improve energy conversion efficiency. Implementation will take 

strong leadership and dedicated international cooperation. 

Marine Renewable Energy 

A variety of significant untapped renewable energy resources can be found in and around the 

world’s oceans. These resources, which include waves and water currents, are typically located 

near areas with the highest population densities. In the United States, 78% of the electricity is 

used in a state bordering an ocean or a Great Lake [2]. 

Wind driven waves are incident on every coastline and contain large amounts of concentrated 

energy potential. Moving water currents include three separate resource categories: Ocean 

currents, which are the primary ocean water conveyors around the globe on a macro scale; tidal 

currents, which ebb and flow twice a day through hundreds of inlets and estuaries due to the 

coupling of lunar gravitation with Earth’s axial rotation; and river currents, from which 

downstream flow provides kinetic energy potential in many river systems without impoundments 

that are typical of conventional hydroelectric systems. In addition, offshore wind energy is vast 

and abundant along the nation’s coastlines. In more tropical areas, ocean thermal systems can be 

deployed for electric generation, desalination, and central cooling. This paper only focuses on 

wave and water current resources and energy technologies. 

 

Marine Renewable Energy Resource Estimates 

 

Wave Resource: Generally, wave energy increases with latitude and has greater potential on the 

west coast of the United States because global winds tend to move west to east across the Pacific 

Ocean. The total energy contained in the waves is dependent on the linear length of wave crest, 

the wave height and the wave period. Wave energy resource assessments have been performed 

by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and the methods for calculation are well 

documented [3,4,5,6,7,8]. Coastal areas with wave resources below 10-kW/m were not included 

in the estimates. 

1 
Table 1 shows the gross wave energy resource by region. This is an estimate of the energy 

contained in the incident waves if it were converted to electricity. 

Table 1 – Wave Resource by Region 

US Wave Resource Regions (>10kW/m) TWh/yr 

New England and Mid-Atlantic States 100 

Northern California, Oregon and Washington 440 

Alaska (exclusive of waves from the Bering Sea) 1,250 

Hawaii and Midway Islands 330 

Similarly, Table 2 shows the estimated tidal energy resources for two regions; 

 

Table 2 – Tidal Resource by Region 

US Tidal Resource Region (1.0 kW/m2) TWh/yr 

Alaska 109 

Continental US 6 

Alaska and the continental United States [9,10,11]. EPRI summarized these studies in 

reference 3. 

For ocean currents, the gross energy potential has not been determined for the Gulf Stream [12]. 

For river currents there has not been a comprehensive analysis of the potential. The best study, 

conducted by New York University in 1986, examined rivers with discharge rates of 113 m3/s 

and velocities of 1.3 m/s [13]. The NYU report estimated the potential at 12,500 MW average 

power. 

An effort to quantify the gross and extractable energy resource for the various ocean energy 

categories has not yet been tackled on a national or international scale, and there is no well 

established method of reporting the resource quantities and making comparisons to meaningful 

energy supply metrics. Tidal resource estimates, based on the aggregate of the best and most 

characterized sites, are still being evaluated. Many smaller and lower energy sites have not yet 

been considered, but their inclusion may raise the resource estimates significantly. 

Table 3 shows a relative comparison of the potential extractable U.S. ocean renewable resources 

in terms of annual terawatt-hours. For comparison, the potential for deep water and shallow 

water offshore wind are included assuming 60% siting exclusions and 40% capacity factors. 

 

2 
Table 3 – Resource Comparison of Estimated Energy Extraction Limits (EPRI ref3) 

Energy Source TWh/yr 

Deep Water >30-m Offshore Wind 3270 

Shallow Offshore Wind 678 

Wave Energy 252 

Tidal Current 17 

Ocean Current (Florida) 50 

In-stream River Current 110 

There is still considerable uncertainty with these energy extraction estimates as they do not 

account for energy delivery and proximity to the load. For example, a large amount of the 

resource is located in Alaska, but because of its remote location, it may not be feasible to 

transmit the power. Also, extraction limits are dependent on device type, siting restrictions due to 

environmental sensitivities, and alternative use (e.g. fishing). EPRI, which has done the most 

comprehensive studies to date, estimates that the maximum potential is approximately equal to 

installed capacity of conventional hydropower [14]. 

Marine Renewable Energy Technology Maturity Path 

Marine energy is at an early stage of development, and as of this writing, no company has 

established a fully commercialized system. The current state of this industry can be compared to 

the early stages of the wind energy industry in that many concepts have been proposed with a 

wide variety of methods for energy capture and conversion yet with little technology 

convergence. This technological diversity can be attributed to the nascent state of the industry, 

which does not have a basis for evaluating different concepts, the standards for design guidance, 

or the analytical tools for design. Nevertheless, dozens of companies are trying to deploy 

technology around the world. Recent studies show that success appears more likely when a 

multi-step progression of development from small-scale model testing in laboratory tanks to 

open ocean testing is followed [15]. Although a few companies have progressed to single fullscale ocean testing, none of the designs have been adopted by developers and financiers for mass 

production. 

The lessons learned from wind energy’s recent commercial success tell us that, even with 

commercial adoption, the maturity of the industry will require substantial commercial 

deployment and many years of operating experience before any device can be considered mature. 

(The wind energy industry deployed its first 1000-MW in California between 1981 and 1985, 

with over 90,000-MW installed in 2008) To encourage this same level of deployment, aggressive 

economic incentives will likely be needed; the modest production tax incentives that motivate 

wind energy deployment today are not likely to work for less mature marine energy systems. 

Marine energy systems need incentives that will encourage risk and innovation, as well as energy 

production at this early stage. In addition, regulatory agencies will need to modify the 

regulations developed for other industries such as hydroelectric dams and oil platforms, to fit the 

more benign, modular, deployment paradigm of marine renewables. 

3 
Government sponsored incentives in the United States may be necessary to stimulate U.S. 

marine energy deployment and the economic benefits that follow, but may not be sufficient to 

mature the technology on its own. However, the marine resource is distributed worldwide and 

much of the effort thus far has taken place in countries such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, 

Canada, and Portugal. Therefore, it is important that the United States take an international view 

of marine energy technology development, collaborating as much as possible with key marine 

energy nations. The international experience gained will help accelerate technological maturity 

of the industry as a whole. 

 

Overview of Wave and Tidal Power Technologies 

Marine energy devices are generally classified first by their resource type and next by their 

method of energy capture. The wave devices that have been demonstrated so far are subdivided 

into several categories including, point absorbers, 

attenuators, and two kinds of terminators; overtopping and 

oscillating water column. Point absorbers and attenuators 

are installed in the wave field and extract a portion of 

energy from waves that pass through. Terminators stop the 

wave, absorbing most of the wave’s energy. A small 

fraction of the energy is reflected back to sea. Because the 

different types of devices are described in various 

references [16, 17, 4], only brief descriptions are provided 

below. 

A point absorber typically comprises a buoyant float that 

heaves up and down with waves relative to a moored 

component that is stationary in the heave direction (see 

Figure 1). Energy generation is associated with this relative 

motion through a conversion device. Conversion devices 

can be various forms of linear electric generators, or hoses 

and pumps that create high fluid pressure to be converted 

later in a central generating station. 

Figure 1 – Point Absorber Schematic. 

Wave attenuators are very similar in principle, but the energy is captured over a surface area. 

The Pelamis wave device is a good example of 

an attenuator. In the Pelamis, waves induce 

angular deflections between three joints in both 

vertical and lateral directions. Motions are 

resisted by hydraulic systems in each module 

that covert hydraulic flow and pressures to 

electricity. 

Figure 2 – Overtopping Wave Terminator 

Schematic. 

In overtopping terminators, the wave is first 

concentrated by wings and then focused toward 

a central reservoir. The amplified waves surge 

4 
up a ramp and fill a reservoir at a level above sea level. The reservoir drains down through a 

hydro-electric type turbine device where electricity is generated. (see Figure 2). 

Oscillating water column (OWC) terminators use wave motion to trap a volume of air and 

compress it in a closed chamber where it is exhausted at high velocities through a specialized 

ducted air turbine device. The kinetic energy of the moving air is converted to electricity. When 

the wave recedes, the airflow fills the chamber generating a second burst of energy. Conversion 

efficiencies of OWC air turbine device can be quite high because the flow must pass through the 

turbine unlike a free stream wind turbine 

(see Figure 3). 

Figure 3 – Oscillating Water Column Wave 

Terminator Schematic. 

Although there are some devices under 

development for river and ocean currents, 

tidal turbines are the most common water 

current devices. The main difference 

between tidal and river/ocean current 

devices is that river and ocean currents flow 

in a single direction while tidal turbines 

reverse flow direction four times per day for 

ebb and flow cycles. 

Many of the marine technology designs resemble wind turbine technology, but marine 

technologies must account for reversing flow, cavitation, and underwater marine material 

performance. Common rotor designs are either axial flow (similar to modern horizontal-axis 

wind turbines) or cross flow (similar to early vertical-axis wind turbines). Axial flow turbines 

must be physically oriented in the direction of flow while cross flow turbines can operate with 

flow from any direction. There are also several designs that incorporate shrouds around the outer 

diameter of the rotor. Shrouds can help incrementally improve hydrodynamic performance and 

may provide some environmental protection, but their benefits have not yet been proven. In at 

least one design, the shroud serves as part of the stationary part of the generator [18]. Shrouded 

rotors were rejected by the wind energy industry at an early stage because they were not cost 

effective, but because of the smaller size of water current converters and the higher density of 

water, the effectiveness of shrouds will need to be reevaluated. 

Ocean current devices are primarily designed for open ocean currents and can provide 

continuous base-load power because of the nearly constant unidirectional current flow. The most 

notable resource for the United States is the Gulf Stream off the coast of Miami, Florida, which 

is estimated to have an energy extraction potential of 10 GW at full build-out [12]. Aquantis 

LLC estimates they can install 7.5 GW of ocean current devices at this site [19] that could supply 

almost continuous power totaling 39.9 TWh/yr annually, which is equal to 17.7% of Florida’s 

2006 electricity usage [2]. Some environmental concerns exist about cumulative impacts of this 

technology on the circulation of the Gulf Stream and its affect on marine life. Proprietary studies 

performed by Aquantis and Florida Atlantic University show no significant impacts, but it is 

likely that further studies will be needed to satisfy all concerns. 

5 
Summary of Research and Development Needs 

Without substantial research and development, the marine renewable energy industry cannot 

easily reach its commercial goals. An R&D focused plan to help the marine energy industry 

mature is underway in the United Kingdom [20, 21]. Technology developers will have R&D 

priorities that will be dependent on device-specific criteria. Some of this research might be best 

conducted in the private sector, but typically the need to attract commercial capital will prevent 

expensive in-depth R&D studies and most of this information will not become publically 

available. The research needs described below are intended to be opportunities for a public 

sector R&D effort that would have generic value to the industry and would collectively serve to 

accelerate the maturity of marine energy systems in the United States. This list is not exhaustive 

and will need to be modified as new information is obtained. 

Design Basis and Evaluation: There is currently very little basis for the technical evaluation, 

design, or assessment of the various technology types. Although each device type could have 

merit in its own right, the industry does not have accepted and validated design tools and 

simulation models to guide the rapid increase of new technology concepts. Models will be 

needed to predict loads, dynamic behavior, power conversion and energy performance, fatigue, 

turbulence and flow characteristics, and device impact on the surrounding environment. 

Moreover, because there are multiple concepts employing substantially different physical energy 

conversion principals, many different models will be required. While technology developers will 

develop their own physical models and will tend to hold these tools proprietary, third party 

evaluators will need complimentary tools to check the viability of various ideas. All these 

analytical design tools will need to be validated with experimental data from field experiments in 

order to gain confidence that they can predict the intended behavior. Ideally, these tests would 

be conducted with enough transparency that resource, regulatory, and research centers can use 

the data. This will be particularly important for certification of marine energy systems with 

respect to the establishment of public safety criteria. 

 

Regulatory and Environmental: In general, marine energy systems will have to be at a higher 

state of maturity than wind energy systems in the early stages of development in the early 

1980’s, because siting will take place on public waterways and oceans where there will be a 

higher level of scrutiny over design function and performance, and a lower tolerance for failures. 

Any developer today could attest to the costly and timely process that is currently imposed upon 

the deployment of full-scale prototypes. This is largely due to deeply entrenched regulatory 

paradigms from the conventional hydro-electric industry, which were designed to limit or deter 

construction of new dams and impoundments but are now hindering the development of new 

clean energy technologies. Resource and regulatory agencies would cite the high degree of 

uncertainty associated with these technologies and, in particular, the potential cumulative 

impacts. However, imposing high-cost barriers to prototype deployments only discourages 

further deployment and prevents us from assessing the actual risk associated with the 

technologies. 

All would agree that actual field data is needed to evaluate the real environmental impacts and 

develop a balanced regulatory framework. Before an informed and balanced strategy can be 

developed, detailed monitoring of the first installations by third party evaluators must be 

6 
conducted with the goal of assessing the ecological risk associated with each technology-type 

and to help establish mitigation strategies. When new scientific findings become available, 

regulators must be flexible enough to adapt their rules. 

Technology developers do not have additional resources or objectivity to embark on such 

monitoring campaigns, to make the uniform judgments about what should be measured, or to 

make the necessary interpretations of the data. Field data collection should be encouraged and 

supported through strong government leadership. Several countries in Europe have already 

established monitoring protocols for prototype deployments, and through our international 

collaborations, some of the uncertainty can be reduced quickly. 

Experience from wind energy has taught us that seemingly small environmental consequences 

that are ignored during the early stages of development can lead to unfounded long-term negative 

public perceptions that are more difficult to dismiss if they are not addressed proactively. A 

good example is noise. Wind turbines are quiet compared to other common machinery, but 

because some early wind machines were loud, many people still perceive wind turbines to be 

obnoxious noise makers. 

Resource Assessment Needs: We know that the global resources for marine renewable energy 

and new hydropower technologies are significant and can provide regional solutions to mitigate 

green house gases and head off energy shortfalls. For the United States, the resource has been 

partially estimated by EPRI and others, but much work is still needed. First, the resource 

assessment methodology must be consistent with respect to other technologies (e.g. wind) so that 

comparisons can be readily made. A uniform methodology for assessing all resource areas must 

be developed. 

Next, comprehensive resource assessments should be conducted. For wave energy, the current 

resource estimates have a higher degree of confidence than for tidal energy where only the major 

inlets and estuaries with known tidal flux have been assessed with reasonable detail. Tidal and 

ocean current assessments are more difficult and may require more on-site measurements to fully 

characterize each location [3]. 

One of the more challenging steps will be to determine the true extraction potential for the 

resources, taking into consideration technology or device type, proximity to load, and local 

environmental and human use concerns. Currently, extraction-limits are simple educated 

guesses made by experts, but have not been vetted through scientific models and public 

acceptance. 

 

Potential Contribution of NREL 

 

Although marine renewable energy concepts date back several decades, in the last 10 years we 

have seen an explosion of interest in the technology. According to the International Energy 

Agency (IEA), the number of marine renewable technology companies worldwide grew from 35 

in 2003 to 81 in 2006 [22]. NREL has been tracking wave and tidal energy with the U.S. 

Department of Energy since 1999 and has been a member of the IEA Ocean Energy Systems 

7 
Executive Committee (IEA-OES ExCo) since 2004. NREL is currently technical administrator 

and founder of the International Electrotechnical Commission’s (IEC) U.S. Technical Advisory 

Group to develop standards for the wave and tidal energy industry under the newly formed IEC 

TC114 international committee. These efforts have led to strong working relationships with 

regulatory agencies, industry trade groups, and technology companies. NREL’s 30 years of 

leadership and expertise in the development of a wide range of renewable energy technology 

provides a firm basis for continued marine energy technology leadership. 

Some examples of these synergies include: 

• Wave and water current will have modular multiple-device arrays that are similar to wind 

farms and solar arrays. 

• Renewable energy grid integration issues are similar (i.e. remote power generation, 

variable resources, and modular power production). 

• Tidal turbines operate on the same principles as wind turbine rotors. 

• Modeling fluid flow through a wave or water current turbine array will use similar 

methods as wind turbine array models. 

• The design environment for ocean devices (e.g. extreme weather events, fatigue loading) 

will be defined and standardized using similar methods. 

• Regulatory and siting have overlapping issues and responsibilities (e.g. the Federal 

Energy Regulatory Commission and Minerals Management Service have authority over 

offshore wind and marine energy projects) 

• Ocean engineering requirements and logistics for marine energy systems are similar to 

offshore wind. 

• Maintenance infrastructure requirements will be similar to offshore wind. 

• The established GIS wind energy resource database can be expanded for marine 

renewable energy. 

• Future innovations may allow some wind, wave, and solar facilities to be co-located in 

order to share infrastructure such as grid cables and foundations. 

Although NREL is uniquely positioned to provide third party marine technology integration, 

evaluation, and technical leadership, technology success will depend on the innovations and 

efforts of multiple industry technology developers and university research centers where oceanbased testing and demonstration, and deployment can occur with lower risk and greater speed. 

Conclusions 

In the past decade, new technologies have been introduced to harness the energy of the oceans 

waves, currents, and tides. Nearly 100 companies worldwide have joined this effort but most 

companies struggle to deploy their first prototypes and not all can be funded from the public 

sector. A viable strategy to help mature the marine renewable energy industry is needed. One 

approach is to characterize technology status, performance, limits, and cost, and to develop and 

validate design tools and standards to facilitate a fair and equitable means for funding the most 

promising technologies. Performance, cost, and reliability metrics should be established to guide 

the process. New ocean testing facilities should be developed to facilitate rapid prototype 

8 
deployment and testing. Finally, international cooperation can accelerate the development and 

to achieve the critical deployment capacity needed to bridge the gap from prototype to 

commercial maturity. Marine energy resources have global significance and should be developed 

as part of a diverse clean energy portfolio that will be necessary to reach expected future carbon 

reduction targets. No single energy source will be able to achieve these reductions 

independently, and these resources can make a significant contribution. 

 

References 

1. Arvizu, D. “Renewable Energy Technology Opportunities: Responding to Global Energy 

Challenges”, Presentation at Sustainability Forum, February 28, 2007. 

2. Energy Information Agency Web site; http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/states/_seds.html

3. Bedard, R. et al, “Ocean Wave and In-stream “Hydrokinetic” Energy Resources of the 

United States” Hydrovision Proceedings, Sacramento, CA, July 2008. 

4. EPRI Ocean Energy Website, http://oceanenergy.epri.com/waveenergy.html 

5. Hagerman, G. “Southern New England Wave Energy Resource Potential” EPRI, March 

2001,. 

6. Hagerman, G. “Wave Energy Resource and Technology Assessment for Coastal North 

Carolina”, EPRI, 1988,. 

7. Hagerman, G. “Wave Energy Resource and Economic Assessment for the State of 

Hawaii”, EPRI, June 1992. 

8. Kane, M.; Beyenne, A.; Previsic, M.; “California Small Hydropower and Ocean Wave 

Energy Resources” EPRI, May 2005. 

9. EPRI Ocean Energy Website, http://oceanenergy.epri.com/streamenergy.html, EPRI TP001 Resource Estimation Methodology Report. 

10. EPRI Ocean Energy Website, http://oceanenergy.epri.com/streamenergy.html, EPRI TP003 Site Survey Reports. 

11. EPRI Ocean Energy Website, http://oceanenergy.epri.com/streamenergy.html, EPRI TP006 Feasibility Study Reports. 

12. Lissaman & Rackey, “Coriolis Program: A Review of the Status of the Ocean Turbine 

Energy System”, AeroVironment, 1979. 

13. Miller et al. “Allocation of Kinetic Hydro Energy Conversion Systems (KHECS) in USA 

Drainage Basins”, NYU, NYUDAS 86-151, Aug 1986 

14. Bedard, R. “Economic & Social Benefits from Wave Energy Conversion Marine 

Technology”, Electric Power Research Institute, Marine Technology Society Journal, 

Fall, 2007. 

15. “Ocean Energy In Ireland, An Ocean Strategy for Ireland submitted to the Department of 

Communications” Marine and Natural Resources, Sustainable Energy Ireland, October 

2005 

16. Hagerman, G. “Wave Power” Encyclopedia of Energy Technology and the Environment, 

Volume Set 4, John Wiley 7 Sons, Inc, 1995. 

17. Khan J., Bhuyan, G. and Moshref, A. “An Assessment of Variable Characteristics of the 

Pacific Northwest Region’s Wave and Tidal Current Power Resources, and their 

Interaction with Electricity Demand & Implications for Large Scale Development 

Scenarios for the Region - Phase 1” Report No: 17458-21-00 (Rep 3), Prepared for 

9 
10 

Bonneville Power Administration (BPA), British Columbia Hydro (BCH), British 

Columbia Transmission Corporation (BCTC), January 2008. 

18. Website for openhydro http://www.openhydro.com/home.html

19. Personal conversions with Aquantis; Chris Greico. 

20. UKERC Marine (Wave and Tidal Current) Renewable Energy Technology Roadmap, 

University of Edinburgh, Accessed April 28, 2008. 

http://ukerc.rl.ac.uk/Roadmaps/Marine/Tech_roadmap_summary%20HJMWMM.pdf 

21. SUPERGEN Marine Energy Research, Full Report, University of Edinburgh, Oct 2007. 

22. “Review and analysis of ocean energy systems development and supporting policies” A 

report by AEA Energy & Environment on the behalf of Sustainable Energy Ireland for 

the IEA’s Implementing Agreement on Ocean Energy Systems, 28th June 2006. 
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This paper presents the status of marine applications for renewable energy as of 2008 from a U.S. perspective. 

Technologies examined include wave, tidal, and ocean current energy extraction devices. 

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ocean current technologies; wave energy technologies; tidal energy technologies; renewable energy 

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