#### Food and Drug AdministrationU. S. Department of AgricultureMay 11, 1998

***USDA/FDAEducation Initiative: Evaluating the Placement of Food SafetyEducation in American Schools***

***Table of Contents***
**Executive Summary**
**I. Introduction**
**II. Project Overview****A**    Project Activities**B**     Methodology
**III. Findings****A**    Document Reviews**B**    CurriculumMaterials Review**C**    FoodSafety Education Materials**D**    Interviews
**IV. Discussion**
**A**    Is there an advantage within the public school system offocusing food safety education as more of a health issue,a home economics issue, or a science issue? 
**B**    Where would food safety instruction have the best chanceof finding support in the school environment?
**C**    Would the concept of food safety education find greatersupport among classroom teachers or among school supportstaff (i.e., nurses or food service staff)?
**D**    In which grade or grades should food safety educationefforts be focused?
**E**    Should the educational goal be to raise awareness, increase knowledge,change attitudes, or modify behavior--Or is there some other focus?
**F**    At what age/grade level are students most receptive tolearning about safe food handling techniques?
**G**    What approaches are most compatible with current instructionalpractices and will encourage maximum usage of a foodsafety education program?
**H**    What technologies are schools using most, and whatformats do teachers and students prefer?

**V. Conclusions**
**Appendices****Appendix A.**  Teacher Interview Protocols **Appendix B.**List of Documents Reviewed in   Preparation of this Report**Appendix C.**Matrix of Products Reviewed**Appendix D.**Bibliography

**I. INTRODUCTION**
***INTRODUCTION*****--***There is consensus in the public        health community that learning safe food-handling habits        at an early age benefits health in the short and long        term--and yet many children and teens have not        received adequate education on the topic of food safety.        Ensuring that all students receive such education is        critical. USDA/FDA are now about to embark on a        large-scale effort to provide young people with food        safety information in a school environment. In        preparation for this initiative, it is necessary to have        a clear understanding of that environment today and in        the near future. USDA/FDA secured the services of Macro        International Inc. (Macro) to conduct research and        develop a report that would guide planning of future K-12        food safety education initiatives. The following document        describes the project's activities and methodology,        presents Macro's findings, and offers        recommendations on positioning and delivering food safety        education in public schools.*
There is consensus in the public health community thatlearning safe food-handling habits at an early age benefitshealth in the short and long term--and yet many children andteens have not received adequate education on the topic of foodsafety. Ensuring that all students receive such education iscritical. At a time when we can no longer assume zero risk in thefood supply, many children are now preparing meals and snacks forthemselves, and some prepare meals for other members of thefamily as well. In addition, millions of teens are working in thefood service industry where a basic understanding of food safetyis essential to the health of the general public.

Because understanding and practicing proper food safetytechniques can significantly reduce food-borne illness,school-age children have been identified as a high-priority groupto receive food-safety education under the President's FoodSafety Initiative. Providing school-based education is apromising route for delivering this instruction to all children,and yet such an initiative is not without its pitfalls. 

Over the years, the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS)at the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA/FDA) and the Food andDrug Administration (FDA) at the U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services (HHS), have produced a variety of school-orientedprograms and materials aimed at various grade levels. In recentyears, as concern about food safety has increased, severalschool-based projects have been conducted. Examples of theseprojects can be found in Appendix A.

USDA/FDA, working with the Centers of Disease Control andPrevention (CDC), are now about to embark on a large-scale effortto provide young people with food safety information in a schoolenvironment. In preparation for this initiative, it is necessaryto have a clear understanding of that environment today and inthe near future. These questions are critical: Where can foodsafety best be integrated from both grade level and subjectmatter perspectives? What can we hope to accomplish--raiseawareness, increase knowledge, change attitudes, develop skills,and/or alter behavior? Who will be the primary instructors forfood safety instruction--classroom teachers, cafeteria staff,school nurses, or some other group? What media and formats willreceive greatest acceptance among K-12 educators?

With limited funding, there is a need to plan strategicallyand to justify decisions about both development of new projectsand additional promotion of existing programs. USDA/FDA securedthe services of Macro International Inc. (Macro) to conductresearch and develop a report that would guide planning of futureK-12 food safety education initiatives. The following documentdescribes the project's activities and methodology, presentsMacro's findings, and offers recommendations on positioningand delivering food safety education in public schools.

 

**II. PROJECT OVERVIEW**

**A. Project Activities**
***Project Activities***--        *Six major activities were        conducted in completing this project. These activities        included*- Planning                Meeting--Macro staff met with representatives                of USDA/FDA to finalize the overall purpose and                goals of the research initiative.
Food Safety                Instructional Materials Review--Macro                investigated existing curricula, projects, and                standards and materials, extension materials, and                other educational products related to food                safety. 

Review of Relevant                Reports--Macro reviewed dozens of relevant                reports on technology, food safety, school health                services, school food services, and other                information germane to this study. 

Curriculum and                Instructional Materials Review--This review                included an analysis of the curriculum standards                for science, health education, and home                economics, as well as major textbooks for these                subject areas. Macro reviewed additional                high-quality classroom materials (e.g.,                workbooks, games, computer applications, and Web                sites) to identify products on related topics                that were well designed and effective.

Interviews with                Educators and Experts--Macro staff conducted                24 in-depth interviews with master teachers (of                science, health, or home economics at various                grade levels), other school staff (such as nurses                and food service professionals), and experts on                curriculum development and other related topics.            

Interim and Final                Reports--This report is the final task in                this initiative. In it the reader will find a                report and analysis of information gathered via                the tasks above.

 

This report and the specific recommendations within are basedon the results from a number of activities. These activitiesinclude
- Planning Meeting
- Food Safety Instructional Materials Review
- Review of Relevant Reports
- Curriculum and Instructional Materials Review
- Interviews with Educators and Experts
- Interim and Final Reports.

Each of these activities is briefly described below.Discussion and analysis of the findings from each of theseactivities follows as the remainder of this report.

**1. Planning Meeting**

Macro staff met with representatives of USDA/FDA to finalizethe overall purpose and goals of the research initiative. At thatmeeting, timelines for deliverables were established and goalsand expectations for the project were discussed. When all partieswere satisfied with the research plan, Macro commenced work onthe project. 

**2. Food Safety Instructional Materials Review**

Macro investigated existing curricula, projects, and standardsand materials recommended and made available by the USDA/FDA.Additional products and curricula, including extension materials,were located at various libraries in the Washington, DC, area.Still other materials were secured from participants instructured interviews and through serendipitous discovery.Reviewing these materials and information helped Macro determinewhich elements of food safety knowledge are currently beingaddressed in schools and in other educational settings. 

**3. Review of Relevant Reports**

Macro reviewed dozens of relevant reports on technology, foodsafety, school health services, school food services, and otherinformation germane to this study. This review focused primarilyon reports related to various aspects of the school environmentthat relate to the placement of food safety instruction in publicschools. For example, knowledge of the technology available tosupport instruction is essential, so a careful review of thecurrent literature on technology use in schools was conducted.Similarly, an understanding of school health policies andpractices in schools, including the specific responsibilities ofvarious staff (e.g., school nurse, and food service personnel) iscritical to the success of any food safety instructioninitiative. Documents produced by Macro and other professionalresearch firms, Government agencies, and private-sector companieswere reviewed. 

**4. Curriculum and Instructional Materials Review**

Macro conducted a review of curricula and materials toincrease understanding of the content typically covered in thesubject areas and grades being considered. This review includedan analysis of the curriculum standards for science, healtheducation, and home economics, as well as major textbooks forthese subject areas. Macro reviewed additional high-qualityclassroom materials (e.g., workbooks, games, computerapplications, and Web sites) to identify products on relatedtopics that were well designed and effective. We paid particularattention to materials on health-related topics (e.g., sexeducation, drug education, and nutrition).

**5. Interviews With Educators and Experts**

Macro staff conducted 24 in-depth interviews with masterteachers, other school staff, and experts on curriculumdevelopment and other related topics. Interviews were conductedwith school-based staff, including teachers of science, health,or home economics at various grade levels, and other staff suchas nurses and food service professionals. We also conductedfollowup interviews as needed with experts identified through thevarious document reviews to further explore some issues and toensure that the published information was the most accurate andtimely available. These experts included representatives ofprofessional associations such as the American Association ofFamily and Consumer Sciences, National Science TeachersAssociation, American Academy for the Advancement of Science,American School Nurses Association, and the American Associationof State Directors of School Lunch Programs.

**6. Interim and Final Reports**

This report is the final task in this initiative. In it thereader will find a report and analysis of information gatheredvia the tasks above. The report contains: 
- Background summaries of the document reviews and of the        interviews with educators and experts
Descriptions of features of school environments that are        directly related to decisions about placement of food        safety education (e.g., technology infrastructure;        staffing patterns; and content coverage and instructional        approaches in science, health, and home economics) 

Descriptions of the advantages and disadvantages of        identified placement approaches, including the cost        implications for using various kinds of media and        materials

Recommendations for most promising approaches to the        placement of food safety instruction in schools.

 

**B. Methodology**
***Methodology--****Traditional        qualitative research techniques were employed to conduct        literature reviews, and one-on-one telephone interviews,        and to conduct final data analysis. Semistructured        interviews were used to allow for the use of        predetermined open-ended questions. Documents were        suggested and provided by USDA/FDA for review. Additional        materials that were suggested by interview participants,        which were identified during other research tasks or        serendipitously identified, were located at local        libraries and reviewed in situ. Macro developed three        semistructured telephone interview protocols for        interviews with classroom teachers, content experts, and        other school staff. Interviews were all conducted via        telephone and lasted approximately 30 minutes each.        Teachers and other school-based staff were recruited via        a convenience snowball sample. In addition to the teacher        and school-based staff interviews, Macro staff conducted        interviews with education leaders and curriculum        developers. These telephone interviews differed from the        interviews with teachers and other school staff in that        probes for specific information within each individual        expert's domain of expertise were designed.*
 

**1. Qualitative Research Methods**

Traditional qualitative research techniques were employed toconduct literature reviews, and one-on-one telephone interviews,and to conduct final data analysis. Semistructured interviewswere used to allow for the use of predetermined open-endedquestions. These questions ensured that individual'sresponses were unconstrained by the interviewer. This lack ofconstraint was especially important since many responses led tonew avenues of inquiry not previously identified by theinterviewers. 

**2. Document Reviews**

Documents were suggested and provided by USDA/FDA for review.Additional materials that were suggested by interviewparticipants, which were identified during other research tasksor serendipitously identified, were located at local librariesand reviewed in situ. Detailed notes were taken regarding foodsafety issues, content of the materials, overall quality of thematerials, and other factors of consideration. During some laterinterviews, respondents were asked to comment on some items thatmay have been familiar to them.

**3. Interviews**

Protocol Development 

Macro developed three semistructured telephone interviewprotocols for interviews with classroom teachers, contentexperts, and other school staff. In selecting interviewcandidates, we carefully worked to ensure diversity in terms ofsubject matter focus, district size, urbanicity of district,grade levels of students, ethnicity, and gender. Interviews wereall conducted via telephone and lasted approximately 30 minuteseach. The protocols used in the study were designed to elicitinformation around the following topic areas:
- Is there an advantage within the public school system of        focusing food safety education as more of a health issue,        a home economics issue, or a science issue? 
Where would food safety instruction have the best chance        of finding support in the school environment?

Would the concept of food safety education find greater        support among classroom teachers or among school support        staff (i.e., nurses or food service staff)?

In which grade or grades should food safety education        efforts be focused? 

Should the educational goal be to raise awareness,        increase knowledge, change attitudes, or modify        behavior,--or is there some other focus?

At what age/grade level are students most receptive to        learning about safe food handling techniques? 

What approaches are most compatible with current        instructional practices and will encourage maximum usage        of a food safety education program? 

What technologies are schools using most, and what        formats do teachers and students prefer? 

Copies of the three teacher interview protocols can be foundin Appendix A.

Teachers and other school-based staff were recruited via aconvenience snowball sample, starting with teachers who camehighly recommended or whose names repeatedly appeared incurriculum and materials review documents (e.g., as advisors).Following initial interviews with these individuals, respondentswere asked to suggest colleagues --including those colleagues working in other districts and States -- who might be willing to participate in thestudy. This sampling procedure continued until all interviewswere completed. 

In addition to the teacher and school-based staff interviews,Macro staff conducted interviews with education leaders andcurriculum developers. These telephone interviews differed fromthe interviews with teachers and other school staff in thatprobes for specific information within each individualexpert's domain of expertise were designed. For example, inspeaking with representatives of the School Nurses Association,we sought additional information about staffing patterns forschool nurses nationwide, typical responsibilities of schoolnurses, level of involvement in providing instruction tostudents, and any related initiatives of the association, amongother items. Each interview was thoroughly planned in advance,although no formal protocol was developed for these interviews.These interviews lasted approximately 30 to 45 minutes. 

 

**III. FINDINGS**

**A. Document Reviews**
***Document        Reviews--****Reviewing these documents allowed        us to explore the multiple aspects and considerations of        where to place a food safety message and how to best        deliver that message to students. Three primary areas of        concentration in the Nation's current education        system intuitively relate to food safety messages:        science classes, health classes, and family/consumer        sciences (home economics) classes. Food safety messages        could also be presented and promoted by school health        services personnel and food services personnel. There are        numerous studies of a wide variety of specific        applications for technology in educational settings that        show improvements in student performance, student        motivation, teacher satisfaction, and other important        educational outcomes. Applying existing technology to the        delivery of educational messages makes this an exciting        time to develop curricula and educational materials.        Televisions, computers and the Internet are all excellent        ways to reach students with new educational messages.        Other uses of technology such as videoteleconferencing        and electronic chat capabilities are underutilized        technologies.*
 

**1. Review of Relevant Reports**

In conducting this research, Macro examined numerous reportson the current state of school health services, school foodservices, and technology in schools in an effort to determinewhere the food safety message could best be placed and how itcould best be delivered. For example, an understanding of schoolhealth policies and practices in schools, including the specificresponsibilities of various staff (e.g., school nurse, and foodservice personnel) is critical to the success of any food safetyinstruction initiative. Similarly, knowledge of the technologyavailable to support instruction is essential. A list of thedocuments, studies, and reports that Macro reviewed in preparingthis analysis can be found in Appendix B.

Reviewing these documents allowed us to explore the multipleaspects and considerations of where to place a food safetymessage and how to best deliver that message to students. 

Understanding the Possible Positioning of a Food SafetyMessage

Food safety messages already exist in many areas of curriculain our middle/junior, high, and senior high schools nationwide.Three primary areas of concentration in the Nation's currenteducation system intuitively relate to food safety messages:science classes, health classes, and family/consumer sciences(home economics) classes. Food safety messages could also bepresented and promoted by school health services personnel andfood services personnel. Currently there are initiatives in manyschools and school districts to increase coordination andcollaboration among school health services, school food services,and classroom staffs. 

School Health Services

New paradigms are evolving for school health services asschool systems develop comprehensive school health programs toaddress the diverse and complex health problems of today'sstudents. Increasingly, educators recognize that physical andpsychological health have a direct affect on children'sability to learn. Although the full potential of school healthservices has yet to be realized, its place as a criticalcomponent of the educational system is well established.

According the School Health Policies and Programs Study(SHPPS, 1995) conducted by the Centers for Disease Control andPrevention, more than half (57.3 percent) of all middle/junior,high, and senior high schools have at least one registered nurseproviding services to the school. Twelve percent of theNation's schools have at least one health aide serving thebuilding, and 7.7 percent have at least one licensed practicalnurse providing school health services. While the SHPPS reportseems to indicate that there is a large critical mass of healthservice personnel in schools nationwide, it is important torecognize that many school health personnel are part-timeemployees in any given school and possibly make only a singlevisit to each school in a district each week. Their time andenergy is spread very thinly over a variety of responsibilitiesand activities. Many of these health services personnel work inmultiple buildings in their communities or school districts,limiting the time that they can commit to any one school. It isnot uncommon for RN's, LPN's or health aides to travelthroughout their school district spending 1 day or less at eachof the schools in the area. 

School health services personnel are involved in a variety ofactivities and initiatives in their districts, each staff memberoften serving as the only health professional for multipleschools. In addition to being taxed by schedules and distances,school health professionals also wear a variety of hats in theirpositions. For example, the 1995 SHPPS report lists the followingas health services at the school level: student health screening,medication administration, health records and reporting, firstaid, evaluation of sick students, special needs students, andother services. The category of "other services" isfurther broken down into the following activities: alcohol andother drug rehabilitation, condom distribution, familycounseling, group counseling, individual counseling, nutritionand weight management, pregnancy management, pregnancy preventionand family planning, pregnancy testing, primary health care,sexually transmitted disease diagnosis and treatment, suicideprevention, and tobacco cessation.

Clearly school health services staff are taxed in the demandsplaced on them in district and school settings. But even with allof these expectations, school health personnel are asked to domore. In addition to the variety of responsibilities listedabove, the ASHA Guidelines for Comprehensive School HealthPrograms call for school health services to be coordinated withother components of the school health program and with local andState governmental and nongovernmental organizations. Between1993 and 1995, health services staff in 61.4 percent of allmiddle/junior, high, and senior high schools had organizedhealth-related activities or projects with staff from othercomponents of the school health program. Nationwide, 52.4 percent the states and 27.8 percent of districts(1)have had schoolhealth services staff involved in joint activities or projectswith school food service staff during the previous 2 years. Whilecollaboration occurred most often with staff in health education,28.2 percent of these schools had established collaborativeprojects between school food services and school health services.Most of this interaction involved teaching proper nutrition tostudents, although some food safety messages were also reported.The SHPPS report, however, is unclear as to the extent to whichfood safety messages are a part of such collaborations. 

School health services are a critical component of the schoolhealth program. However, currently the roles, responsibilities,and training of health services staff in schools are not as welldefined as the requirements for specific services. For instance,secretaries, teachers and students administer prescriptionmedication in many schools and provide first aid in most schools.Despite the expanding role of school health services, clearconsensus on the role of health professional in the educationsetting does not exist. This should be considered in decidingschool health services role in the delivery of a food safetymessage. While school health services staff is required tocollaborate with the educational initiatives of their schools,they are more likely to be in a position to participate in foodsafety education in a support role. As guest speakers to science,health, and consumer and family science classrooms they can havesignificant impact on students. The placement of educationalmaterials relating to food safety messages in school healthclinics, school sick rooms, and school nurse offices is anotherway they can participate. 

School Food Services

Although schools have been providing meals to students formore than 50 years, Federal requirements for school meals havenot changed significantly until recently. New initiatives byUSDA/FDA reflect the general public's interest in improvingschool meals and in knowing the latest scientific evidence thatschool meals can make a significant contribution to the currentand future health of the Nation's children

Schools are in a unique position to promote healthy dietarybehaviors and to help assure appropriate nutrient intake. As onecomponent of a comprehensive school health the program, theschool food service can reinforce nutrition education and provideopportunities for students to practice healthful food choices.Schools' food service staff play a critical role inpromoting healthy eating through the foods they make availableeach day and the interactions they have with students.

Federal support for school meals and nutrition education has along history. Congress authorized the National School LunchProgram (NSLP) in 1946 and established the School BreakfastProgram (SBP)as a pilot program in 1966. The SBP was authorizedas a permanent program in 1975. In 1977, the Child NutritionAmendment to the School Lunch Act established the NutritionEducation and Training (NET) Program. The NET Program wasdesigned to teach children, through a positive daily lunchroomexperience and appropriate classroom reinforcement, the value ofa nutritionally balanced diet, and to develop curricula andmaterials for training teachers and school food service staff tocarry out this task. In 1994, USDA/FDA initiated the School MealsInitiative for Healthy Children, which was designed to helpchildren select and enjoy meals consistent with the DGAs andwhich was supported by partnerships among the agriculture, foodproduction, media, education , and health communities.

In 1995, SHPPS reported that coordination and collaborationbetween school lunch service personnel and school teaching staffwas occurring. Between 1993 and 1995, most (98 percent) Stateshelped districts and schools coordinate nutrition educationbetween the cafeteria and the classroom, and about half (53.3percent) of the districts assisted schools with the sameactivities. More than two thirds of all States provided ideas fornutrition-related events (88.2 percent), strategies to involvefood service staff in classrooms (74.5 percent), and strategiesto use the cafeteria as a learning laboratory (70.6 percent).About one third (34.3 percent) of all districts provided ideasfor nutrition-related events, and 24.0 percent providedstrategies to involve food service staff in classrooms.

During this same period, food service staffs in 91.8 percentof all States and 41.5 percent of all districts were involved injoint activities or projects with staff from other components ofthe school health program. Among the State-level food servicestaff reporting joint activities, more than half were involvedwith health education staff (75.6 percent). Among thedistrict-level food service staff reporting joint activities,more than half were involved with health education staff (58.3percent). 

Statewide, 84.3 percent of all states offered training in thecoordination of food service programs with nutrition education(37.0 percent district), and 74.5 percent provided accompanyingmaterials (34.5 percent district). Strategies for thiscoordination included the following: provide ideas for specialnutrition-related events, provide strategies to involve foodservice staff in classrooms, provide strategies to use thecafeteria as a learning laboratory, arrange joint in-servicetraining on nutrition education for food service staff andclassroom teachers, and arrange regular meeting on nutritioneducation between food service staff and classroom teachers. In75.6 percent of all states and 58.3 percent of all districts,school food service staff were involved in joint activities orprojects with health education staff. School food service staffcollaborated with health services staff in 48.9 percent of Statesand in 26.7 percent of districts, respectively. Schoolsoccasionally collaborated with one another as well. SHPPSreported that 24.7 percent of the school food servicesparticipated with other schools health education staffs, and 23.3percent participated with other schools' health servicesdepartments. However, only 19.1 percent of all middle/junior,high, and senior high schools reported that students visited thecafeteria to learn about healthy snacks and meals during the pastyear. In 10.2 percent of all schools, family and consumer scienceclasses visited the cafeteria, while health education, science,and physical education classes each visited the cafeteria in lessthan 3 percent of all schools. 

Between 1993 and 1995 food service staff were guest speakersin classrooms in 21.3 percent of all middle/junior, high, andsenior high schools. Similarly, food service staff met withclassroom teachers to coordinate nutrition education in 19.0percent of all schools during this same time period. SHPPS alsoreported that between 1993 and 1995 food service staff in 33.8percent of all middle/junior high and senior high schoolsorganized health-related activities or projects with staff fromother components of the school health program.

During the same time period, food service staff in 33.8percent of all middle/junior, high, and senior high schoolsorganized health-related activities or projects with staff fromother components of the school health program. Integration ofcafeteria staff with classroom nutrition education is minimal.Although coordination and collaboration among school food servicestaff and other school health program component staff isidentified as a key to increasing the quality of food service, amarked decrease in collaboration occurs from the State to thedistrict to the school. Collaboration appears a reality moreoften among State and district administrators than among actualmeal providers. Justification and strategies for increasingcollaboration, particularly between the classroom and cafeteria,with input from local meal providers are needed if collaborationat the school level is to move beyond theory into practice.

While it is unclear the extent to which such coordination andcollaboration between health services, food services, andclassroom staff incorporate specific food safety messages,clearly there is a structure in place to introduce food safetymessages into these collaborations.

Technology In Schools

There are numerous studies of a wide variety of specificapplications for technology in educational settings that showimprovements in student performance, student motivation, teachersatisfaction, and other important educational outcomes. Examplesof technology-rich schools that report significant improvementsin student motivation, academic outcomes, and other outcomes suchas problem solving or collaboration are also common in theliterature. With the rapid changes in technology, the fallingcosts for high-end computers and video equipment, and the adventof Internet use in educational setting, traditional ways ofassessing the effectiveness of educational programs are generallydeficient for assessing the contribution of technology. Theimpact that technologies of all kinds have on the educationalexperience is tremendous. The role that any advanced technologycan play in delivering food safety messages is yet to bedetermined. One known factor in using advanced technology todeliver pedagogical information is that proper, well-designedimplementation of any product or tool is crucial to thesuccessful application of technology in education.

Regardless of the technology being used, any positive outcomesfor students will naturally be limited by the number of studentswho can be reached. This limitation is perhaps most obviouslytrue for computer technology. Advances in the use of theInternet, local-area networks (LANs), wide-area networks (WANs),World Wide Web Internet services, video teleconferencing, andother technologies make information more available than everbefore to students nationwide. These advances in technology alsoallow for wide dissemination of educational messages inrelatively short timeframes. Applying existing technology to thedelivery of educational messages makes this an exciting time todevelop curricula and educational materials. 

There are many justifications for the use of computertechnology in educational environments:
- Tailor learning experiences more sharply to learner needs        and abilities
Provide students with access to resources and expertise        outside the school, both enriching their learning and        extending the time devoted to learning

Support more authentic assessment of a student's        progress

Assist schools in managing and guiding the learning        activities of their students (Glennan and Melmed, 1995). 

Current Use and Effectiveness of Educational Technology

Schools have often been sites of certain kinds of innovations.However, the efforts of schools, their teachers, administrators,and students are often hampered by a cost-effectivenessassessment. The current status of computers and other technologyin schools suggests an increasing recognition of their value forinstruction. Yet, as Glennan and Melmed (1995) observe, "useof technology to significantly affect classroom practice tends tobe limited to small groups of teachers who are excited by thepotential that they feel technology has to motivate theirstudents or to access new resources." These authors pointout that the adoption of computer and video technology is likelyto continue to increase as more real educational benefits areidentified.

Televisions

Nearly all schools in the United States today have televisionsets and videocassette recorders, making use of videotapes in theclassroom a possibility in virtually all schools. According tothe Study of School Uses of Television and Video (Corporation forPublic Broadcasting, 1997), 99.5 percent of classroom teachersnationwide have access to televisions for use with theirstudents. The same report states that 98.5 percent have access tovideotape players. 

Computers

In 1983 there was about one computer for each 125 students inthe Nation's public schools. By 1995, there was a computerfor each nine students. The CPB report states that 93.7 percentof schools nationwide have computers available for classroom use.On the average, schools nationwide have 32 computers for studentuse, 22 of which have CD-ROM capabilities. Nationwide, 74.6percent of teachers report using computers in classroominstruction, and 63.4 percent report using CD-ROMs forinstruction. In 1994, the Nation's schools spent about $3billion on computer- and network-based technology. Additionalfunds were spent for other kinds of equipment, such as videoplayers, facsimile machines, and telephone lines, as well as fortechnology-related training" (Glennan and Melmed, 1995).Research and practice suggest that, appropriately implemented,computer- and network-based technology can contributesignificantly to improved educational outcomes (Glennan andMelmed, 1995).

The increasing use of computers in schools makes a highquality computer-based food safety instructional application anattractive idea. 

Educational software is typically understood as toolapplications or content applications. Tools include wordprocessors or spreadsheet programs. Content applications arestand-alone programs whose objective is to deliver content, notnecessarily increase the functionality of computer hardware.Glennan and Melmed (1995) note that tool applications aretypically developed for commercial audiences while contentapplications are created with the school market in mind. Theimplication is that schools, with a need for high-quality contentapplications, suffer from these market forces. "The marketfor educational materials, as traditionally structured, offerslimited incentives for entrepreneurial development of contentsoftware. The market is fragmented and governed by a variety ofmaterials adoption practices. Even if a high proportion ofschools acquires a product, the volume of sales is small (Glennanand Melmed, 1995). The responsibility for creating high qualitycontent applications falls to programmers motivated by somethingother than profit margins. This situation is particularly truewith the more specialized subject areas characteristic of much ofsecondary education. However, this situation may be changing. Newalliances among publishers and a spectrum of software developersthe rapid growth in the National information infrastructurecoupled with its potential for changing the manner in whichsoftware is distributed, and the emergence of new entrepreneurs,all promise significant changes in the manner in which schoolsacquire and use instructional materials and content software. 

According to Anderson et al. (1997), it is in everyone'sinterest to increase access to computer and telecommunicationstechnology. Anderson notes that computer and related technologiescan improve people's participation in a variety of economic,social, and civic activities. For example, computer users tend tobe better informed about political events. Further, use ofcomputer networks tends to foster different kinds of social ties.This increased social integration has concomitant benefits to thestrength of the society as well as to the well-being of itsindividual members. Finally, participation in computer networksallows for more egalitarian interactions than do other kinds ofsocial organizations, accruing benefits to decision-makingprocesses that seek an ideal democratic model of participation."That is, for online groups, ascribed and achieved statuscharacteristics such as age, race, gender, formal position ortitle, and socioeconomic level are far less likely to determineinteraction patterns, leadership roles, decision makinginfluence, and other outcomes in comparison to groups that meetin person" (Anderson et al., 1997).

While schools are continuing to increase the number and kindof instructional technology, broad differences between districtsand within districts remain. Further, differences within schools,related to differential student access to technologies,complicates simplified statistics related to gross number ofcomputers in schools or average ratios of students to computers.For example, the largest push for computers in the schoolshappened in the late 1980s, meaning much of the school technologyis now over 10 years old. While keyboarding and related skillscan easily and effectively be taught on this technology, theyremain unable to access current computer applications simplybecause the lack of hard drives (Glennan and Melmed 1995).

In order for every student to have 30 minutes of computer timea day, there would need to be one computer for every fivestudents, assuming a 5-hour school day. However, "in thefall of 1994, only 3 percent of the Nation's K-12 studentswere in schools that had at least one computer for every fivestudents, a density that those advocating the benefits oftechnology-intensive schools judge barely adequate" (Glennanand Melmed, 1995). 

Small schools (with 1 to 299 students) are more likely to havea lower number of students per computer than large schools (with750 or more students). Citing Becker (1994), Glennan and Melmed(1995) note that regional difference, community type, and schoolethnic makeup were far less significant a source of technologyaccess difference than size of school. There is "acontinuing penetration of computers in the nation's schoolsbut considerable variation among schools and districts. Thecombination of steady acquisition and accumulation of equipmentby schools in a period of rapid technological change suggeststhat much of the school computer inventory is technologicallyobsolete although it may retain considerable educationalusefulness. Overall, while the rate of penetration for schoolsserving minority and poverty populations is somewhat lower thanaverage, the difference appears not to be extreme" (Glennanand Melmed, 1995). 

Computer technology in academic subjects is typified by toolapplications being used to meet an end, and content applicationsproviding supplemental instruction. Computer technology incomputer education classes is typified by students' beinginstructed in how to use tool applications and few contentapplications' being available. Judged as a proportion ofstudent computer time devoted to different subject areas, themajority (about 54 percent) of computer use at elementary levelsis in academic subjects. A third of computer time is spent incomputer class. At the high school level, this pattern isreversed, where 45 percent of computer time is spent in computerclass is likely spent learning tool applications. In contrast, 31percent of computer time is spent in academic subjects."School is still primarily a place to learn how to use wordprocessing rather than a place to do word processing in order toachieve other academic goals" (Glennan and Melmed, 1995).There is a "strong indication of the relatively infrequentuse of computers in secondary school academic subjects"(Glennan and Melmed, 1995).

Educational researchers agree that students achieve benefitsfrom using technology in learning. For example, Kulik draws thefollowing conclusions from his work:
- Students usually learn more in classes in which they        receive computer-based instruction.
Students learn their lessons in less time with        computer-based instruction.

Students also like their classes more when they receive        computer help in them.

Students develop more positive attitudes toward computers        when they receive help from them in school.

Computers did not, however, have positive effects in everyarea in which they were studied. The average effect ofcomputer-based instruction in 34 studies of attitude towardsubject matter was near zero.

Thus, at the program, project, and classroom level, there issolid evidence that instructional activities making intensive useof technology can lead to significant improvements in studentachievements.

With regard to instructional practice Means and Olson (year?)found that technology supported improved instruction by:
- Adding to students' perceptions that their work is        authentic and important
Increasing the complexity with which students can deal        successfully

Dramatically enhancing student motivation and self-esteem

Making obvious the need for long blocks of        (instructional) time

Instigating greater collaboration, with students helping        peers and sometimes their teachers

Giving teachers additional impetus to take on a coaching        and advisory role.

Internet

Web access has increased dramatically in the past 2 years, andmany schools are planning to gain access for the first time orincrease access (i.e., install computers with Internet access inadditional classrooms). The CPB report states that 48.7 percentof schools nationwide have (LAN) available for students, and over40 percent of schools make Internet connections available totheir students. Teachers report that incorporating computers intoinstruction increases student motivation and enthusiasm, with81.9 percent of teachers nationwide stating that there arenoticeable improvements with their students in these areas. Over71 percent of teachers state that their students prefer usingcomputers in instruction to any other media or classroom tool.

According to the U.S. Departments of Education and Commerce(1994) while 75 percent of public schools have access to somekind of computer network, only 49 percent have access to awide-area network--35 percent of public schools have accessto the Internet, and 14 percent have access to other wide-areanetworks (e.g., CompuServe, America Online, Prodigy). 

**Footnote**
1. All 51 State education agencies (100 percent) completed theState-level questionnaires. Results: 413 (82 percent) of the 502sampled districts completed at least one questionnaire, and 607(79 percent) of the 766 sampled schools completed the interviews.Percentages are based on these response rates.[Return to text]
**B. Curriculum Materials Review**
***Curriculum        Materials Review****--Examining science        curricula indicates that********there are        few obvious guidelines for linking food safety education.        Middle school and junior high school have more directly        related curricula standards for food safety items than        does high school. The focus of health education programs        over the past decade has been on the reduction of a        somewhat narrowly defined set of "risk        behaviors"--tobacco use, use of alcohol and        other drugs, dietary patterns, sedentary lifestyle,        sexual behaviors that result in HIV infection/other        Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and unintended        pregnancy; and behaviors that result in intentional        (e.g., suicide) and unintentional (e.g., auto accidents)        injury. These standards do not contain any topic closely        related to food-borne illnesses. The standards for family        and consumer sciences now under development are        nutrition, food safety, and wellness, so that students        can "evaluate nutritional, food safety, and wellness        practices to promote individual and family well-being        across the life span." Under this overall standard,        there are content standards to evaluate the factors        affecting food safety from production through marketing,        analyze food-borne illness as a health issue for        individuals and families, demonstrate safe consumer        practices for handling food to reduce the incidence of        food-borne illness for individuals and families, analyze        information on product labels that have food safety        implication for individuals and families, evaluate the        impact of science and technology on food composition and        safety, nutrition, and wellness of individuals and        families, and contribute to the public dialogue about        food safety and sanitation.*
In this section we present our analysis of relevant curriculumstandards and instructional materials for science, health, andfamily/consumer science.

**1. Science Education Curriculum Standards**

Standards for science education were developed by the NationalResearch Council with the participation of educators nationwide.They are published in the *National Science Education Standards*(NSES) These standards specify that science will be taught to allstudents and that learning will be an active process in whichstudents construct their own understanding of scientific conceptsand principles. In the process, students are to establishconnections between their current knowledge of science and thescientific knowledge found in many sources. This emphasis onactive science learning involves shifting emphasis away fromteachers presenting information, and making sure students cover awide range of science topics. The standards document states:
The perceived need to include all the topics,        vocabulary, and information in textbooks is in direct        conflict with the central goal of having students learn        scientific knowledge with understanding. Scientific        literacy is the knowledge and understanding of scientific        concepts and processes required for personal decision        making, participation in civic and cultural affairs, and        economic productivity. The content standards set forth        are not intended to be curriculum. However, they do        provide some insight into those concepts and skills that        children are to develop at various grade levels. 
For children in grades K-4, one NSES content standard states

As a result of activities in grades K-4, all students shoulddevelop understanding of: the characteristics of organisms, lifecycles of organisms, and organisms and environment.

More specifically, this process involves acquisition ofconcepts that may be relevant for food safety education:
- Organisms have basic needs. 
Organisms can survive only in environments in which their        needs can be met. 

All organisms cause changes in the environment where they        live. 

Some of these changes are detrimental to the organism or        to other organisms, whereas other changes are beneficial.  

Another NSES standard for the early elementary grades is

As a result of activities in grades K-4, all students shoulddevelop understanding of: personal health, characteristics andchanges in population, types of resources, changes inenvironments, and science and technology in local challenges.

More specifically, this process involves acquisition of thefollowing concepts:
- Individuals have some responsibility for their own        health. Students should engage in personal        care--dental hygiene, cleanliness, and        exercise--that will maintain and improve health.        Understandings include how communicable diseases such as        colds are transmitted and how some of the body's        defense mechanisms prevent or overcome illness.    
Nutrition is essential to health. Students should        understand how the body uses foods and how various foods        contribute to health

There are some challenges in teaching young children aboutmicroorganisms and about health. Related to health, the NSES notethat
Most children use the word        "germs" for all microbes; they do not generally        use the words "virus" or "bacteria,"        and when they do they do not understand the difference        between the two. Children generally attribute all        illnesses to germs without distinction between contagious        and noncontagous diseases...Teachers can expect        students to exhibit little understanding of ideas, such        as different origins of disease, resistance to infection,        and prevention and cure of disease...Also, young        children link eating with growth, health, strength, and        energy. Teaching them that not all food is good for them        presents some challenges. They are able to understand        that some foods are nutritionally better than        others--although they do not typically know the        reasons for these conclusions.
The National Science Education Standards state that studentsin grades five through eight can begin to recognize therelationship between explanation and evidence. Thus, students inthis age group are to be actively involved in scientific inquirythrough a variety of hands-on learning experiences. The singlestandard for life science in these grades is states in the NSES:

As a result of their activities in grades 5-8, all studentsshould develop understanding of: structure and function in livingsystems, reproduction and heredity, regulation and behavior,populations and ecosystems, and diversity and adaptations oforganisms.

Among other things, this understanding involves acquisition ofthe following knowledge:
- All organisms are composed of cells--the fundamental        unit of life. Most organisms are single cells; other        organisms, including humans, are multicellular.
Cells carry on the many functions needed to sustain life.        They grow and divide, thereby producing more cells. This        process requires that they take in nutrients, which they        use to provide energy for the work that cells do and to        make the materials that a cell or an organism needs.

The human organism has systems for digestion,        respiration, reproduction, circulation, excretion,        movement, control, coordination, and protection from        disease. These systems interact with one another.

Disease is a breakdown in structures or functions of an        organism. Some diseases are the result of intrinsic        failures of the system. Others are the result of damage        from infection by other organisms.

Populations of organisms can be categorized by the        function they serve in an ecosystem. Plants and some        microorganisms are producers--they make their own        food. All animals, including humans, are consumers that        obtain food by eating other organisms. Decomposers,        primarily bacteria and fungi, are consumers that use        waste materials and dead organisms for food. Food webs        identify the relationships among producers, consumers,        and decomposers in an ecosystem.

Another NSES standard for science in the middle grades relatesto personal and social perspectives on science.

As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students shoulddevelop understanding of: personal health, populations,resources, and environments; natural hazards, risks and benefits;and science and technology in society.

Relevant in terms of food safety education opportunitiesinclude the following:
- The potential for accidents and the existence of hazards        imposes the need for injury prevention. Safe living        involves the development and use of safety precautions        and the recognition of risk in personal decisions...
Risk assessment considers the type of hazard and        estimates the number of people that might be exposed and        the number likely to suffer consequences. The results are        used by risk managers to determine the options for        reducing or eliminating risks.

Students should understand the risks associated with        natural hazards ..., with chemical hazards ...,        with biological hazards (pollen, viruses, bacteria, and        parasites), with social hazards ..., and with personal        hazards...

The NSES standards mention two important aspects of earlyadolescence that relate to food safety education opportunities.The standards document states that

This period of development lends itself to human biology.Middle-school students can develop the understanding that thebody has organs that function together to maintain life.

The National Science Education Standards further statethat--
By middle school, students begin to        realize that illness can be caused by various factors,        such as microorganisms, genetic predispositions,        malfunctioning of organs and organ-systems, health        habits, and environmental conditions...One very        important issue for teachers in grades 5-8 is overcoming        students' perceptions that most factors related to        health are beyond their control. Developing a scientific        understanding of health is the focus of this standard.        Healthy behaviors and other aspects of health education        are introduced in other parts of school programs.
By high school many students have developed a sound foundationfor scientific inquiry while developing sophistication in theirabilities and understanding of scientific inquiry. The NSESstandards point out that
One challenge to teachers of science and        to curriculum developers is making science investigations        meaningful. Investigations should derive from questions        and issues that have meaning for students. Scientific        topics that have been highlighted by current events        provide one source.
The NSES life science standard for high schools is
As a result of their activities in        grades 9-12, all students should develop understanding        of: the cell, molecular basis of heredity; biological        evolution; interdependence of organisms; matter, energy,        and organization in living systems; and behavior of        organisms.
Under this standard, there are few obvious guidelines forlinking food safety education. The emphasis in high school onlife science is on incorporating more abstractknowledge--such as the structure and function of DNA--andmore comprehensive theories such as evolution. Although there isa fair amount of attention paid to the cell in high schoolbiology, the emphasis is on genetics, the function of variousparts of individual cells, and the operation of ecosystems.

The NSES standard for personal and social perspectives mayoffer more opportunities for food safety education at the highschool level:
As a result of activities in grades        9-12, all students should develop understanding of:        personal and community health; population growth; natural        resources; environmental quality; natural and        human-induced hazards; and science and technology in        local, national, and global challenges. 
Relevant in terms of food safety education opportunities arethe following:
- Hazards and the potential for accidents exist. Regardless        of the environment, the possibility of injury, illness,        disability, or death may be present. Humans have a        variety of mechanisms ...that can reduce and modify        hazards.
The severity of disease symptoms is dependent on many        factors such as human resistance and the virulence of the        disease-producing organism. Many diseases can be        prevented, controlled, or cured. Some diseases, such as        cancer, result from specific body dysfunctions and cannot        be transmitted. 

Human activities can enhance potential for hazards.        Acquisition of resources, urban growth, and waste        disposal can accelerate rates of natural change.

Natural and human-induced hazards present the need for        humans to assess potential danger and risk. Many changes        in the environment designed by humans bring benefits to        society as well as cause risk. Students should understand        the costs and trade-offs of various hazards...

Overall it would seem that a typical high school life scienceteacher would have some difficulty covering food safety issues indepth--at least in terms of the simple messages that arecurrently being disseminated. However, moving away from thecurrent focus on specific behaviors and continuing to treat thetopic as an environmental concern--the risk of which can begreatly reduced through individual responsible behavior--mayhold promise.

In addition, it is worth noting that some specified lifescience classes at the high school level may provide someadditional opportunities, although fewer students take thesecourses. Advanced microbiology courses could potentially includein-depth coverage of the topic as there is currently goodcoverage of the topic in some texts. Also, lower level scienceclasses will be more oriented to applications of science in dailyliving activities such as food preparation.

Instructional Materials for Science

In conducting a review of some science textbooks andteachers' guides, we discovered the following:
- Idea of the food web (i.e., producer-consumer-decomposer)        is covered in virtually every science text and in the        science standards, particularly for the middle grades.
Older science texts tend to have very little coverage of        food borne illness--at best a couple of passing        references to food poisoning. Newer texts--those        published after 1993--tend to have more coverage.

For example, at the middle school level, the 1995 edition        of 
Science Interactions: Course I
 from        Glencoe/McGraw-Hill includes a reasonable treatment of        microorganisms in food (e.g., What makes milk spoil?) in        several pages of the chapter, "Viruses and Simple        Organisms." 

Newer high school biology texts also include coverage of thetopic. At the high school level, McGraw-Hill's 1995 edition *TheNature of Life* includes a two-page spread, "DNA and aDeadly Repast," as the opening to a chapter on DNA. Thisstory focuses on the 1993 *E.**coli* O157 outbreak atJack-in-the-Box restaurants. Similarly, in the 1995 edition of *Biology:The Unity and Diversity of Life* from Wadsworth Publishing,the text accompanying a large picture of *E*.*coli*O157 bacteria tells the story of the Jack-in-the-Box incident.Also, throughout this later edition, there are "Focus onHealth" sections, one of which addresses botulism and themethod by which bacterial toxins kill.

This can be contrasted with the 1992 edition of the text whichcontains a few explicit mentions--for example, related totransmission of disease and types of bacteria--but no focusor vignette on the topic of food-borne illness. 

Recent higher level microbiology texts for high school seem toinclude a more extensive treatment of food borne illness and themicrobes that cause it. For example, the 1995 edition of *Microbiology:An Introduction* from Benjamin/Cummings Publishing devotesapproximately 10 pages to applied food microbiology.

**2. Health EducationStandards**

Curriculum standards in health education have been developedby various groups. Depending upon the orientation of the groupresponsible, the standards may provide more or less guidance interms of content, desired outcomes, instructional methods,assessment, and other areas that influence curriculum. Thescience standards are quite comprehensive and cover everythingfrom content to professional development for science teachers. Incontrast, the health education standards developed by the JointCommittee on National Health Education Standards, provide littleguidance in the way of content--presumably leavingspecification of content up to State and local educationagencies.

The heath education curriculum standards were developed aroundthe notion of "health literacy." A health-literateperson is a critical thinker and problem solver; a responsible,productive citizen; a self-directed learner; and an effectivecommunicator. The health education standards, state that studentswill
- Comprehend concepts related to health promotion and        disease prevention
Demonstrate the ability to access valid health        information about health-promoting products and services  

Demonstrate the ability to practice health-enhancing        behaviors and reduce health risks

Analyze the influence of culture, media, technology, and        other factors on health

Demonstrate the ability to use interpersonal        communication skills to enhance health

Demonstrate the ability to use goal-setting and        decision-making skills to enhance health

Demonstrate the ability to advocate for personal, family,        and community health.

The focus of health education programs over the past        decade has been on the reduction of a somewhat narrowly        defined set of "risk behaviors"--tobacco        use, use of alcohol and other drugs, dietary patterns,        sedentary lifestyle, sexual behaviors that result in HIV        infection/other Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and        unintended pregnancy; and behaviors that result in        intentional (e.g., suicide) and unintentional (e.g., auto        accidents) injury. Nevertheless, there is no reason why        food safety education could not fit into the framework of        the Joint Committee of the National Health Education        Standards.

The health education standards are designed to "helpstudents achieve the health goals in *Healthy People 2000:National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives.*"*Healthy People 2000* presents a national strategy forsignificantly improving the health of the American people in thedecade preceding the year 2000. *Healthy People 2000*recognizes that lifestyle and environmental factors are majordeterminants in disease prevention and health promotion. Itprovides strategies to significantly reduce preventable death anddisability, to enhance quality of life, and to reduce disparitiesin health status between various population groups within oursociety.

The *Healthy People 2000* objectives include Year 2000Objectives for Youth, which have greatly influenced school healtheducation programs--but these do not include any topicclosely related to food-borne illnesses. Even"infection" seems to be limited to STDs and"nutrition" to dieting and not eating too much junkfood. The food safety objectives in Healthy People 2000 are notincluded in sections where educators are likely to search forthem.

As the year 2000 draws near, Healthy People objectives arebeing revised. *Healthy People 2010* may include additionalfood safety objectives or objectives that are presented in such away that they are adopted as a major school health educationconcern. The majority of the school health education content forboth *Health People 2000* and *Healthy People 2010*seems to fall under the goal "Promote HealthyBehaviors," whereas the food and drug safety objectives fallunder the goal "Protect Health." Specifically, food anddrug safety is one of the 22 priority areas of *Healthy People2000*, falling under health protection. The current FoodSafety objectives are
- Reduce food-borne infections 
Reduce salmonella infection outbreaks

Adopt model food codes

Improve food-handling techniques.

A number of consumer-oriented messages have been developed.These include the four Fight BAC!(TM) food safety messagesdeveloped by USDA/FDA.
- Clean: Wash hands and surfaces often
Separate: Don't cross contaminate

Cook: to proper temperature

Chill: Refrigerate promptly

Yet despite the accessibility and practicality of theseprimary messages, a review of health education materials revealsthat the topic of food safety has not made its way into schoolhealth education programs.

Instructional Materials for Health

In conducting a review of some health education textbooks andteachers' guides, we observed the following:
- Healthy People 2000  appears to have had a major        influence on health education materials over the past        decade. As a consequence, these materials focus on the        risk behaviors described above and pay very little        attention to food safety issues.
Even when the topic of infection is addressed, the idea        of food borne illness is rarely covered. The 1991 edition        of the low-level high school text 
Your Health
 from        Benjamin/Cummings Publishing serves as an example. There        is an entire chapter on infectious disease and the immune        system, but the majority of the chapter is devoted to        STDs. Although there is a brief treatment of bacteria and        viruses, along with discussion of some common contagious        diseases (e.g., influenza, measles), there is no mention        of food-borne illness.

Placement in the text, along with depth of treatment,        gives some indication of the priority given to the topic        of food safety. The 1991 edition of 
Core Concepts in        Health (High School Level)
 from Mayfield Publishing        devotes two pages to food safety and includes sections        with titles such as "The Food Supply: Is it        Safe?" and "Tactics and Tips to Protect        Yourself from Food Poisoning." This coverage is        embedded in the chapter "Nutrition: Facts and        Fallacies," rather than in the chapter that focuses        on infectious disease, and the information is about two        thirds of the way through the book--after mental        illness, sex, and drugs. Given the priorities for school        health education, it seems likely that the topic never        gets covered, even by teachers using this text.

Even newer texts pay scant attention to the topic. In        Brown and Benchmark's 1995 edition of 
Decisions        for Health
, each chapter begins with relevant 
Healthy        People 2000
 objectives. However, despite the fact        that there are food safety objectives, neither the        chapter "Nutrition: Healthy Food Choices" nor        the chapter "Communicable Diseases" cover        food-borne illness. Again, the topics covered are common        infections (e.g., colds and influenza) and less common        disease (e.g., plague and hepatitis)--with a very        heavy emphasis on STDs. The 1993 middle school text 
Teen        Health: Decisions for Healthy Living
 from        Glencoe/MacMillan/McGraw-Hill is similar. The coverage        links to 
Healthy People 2000
 objectives, but does        not include coverage of food safety objectives. Although        there are two passing references to food poisoning, it is        never defined, nor is it explained how a person contracts        it or how one can avoid contracting it.

In some cases, the information, particularly in older textsmay be erroneous. This is important because the textbooks insubjects such as health and family/consumer science are notreplaced as often as those for academic subjects. As a result, itis common to have older textbooks in use in these subjects. Oneglaring example of this is in the 1990 edition of *BeingHealthy* from Harcourt-Brace-Jovanovich. On the positive side,this textbook contains more than usual amount of informationabout microbes and infections. But it also contains some verymisleading information such as the statement, "In the past,milk, meat, and other foods often carried harmful microbes. Nowin communities throughout the United States, workers inrestaurants and factories must prepare food in ways that keep itfree from harmful microbes." The implied message is: Wedon't have this problem anymore. Furthermore, it assumesthat preparation regulations are always followed.

Some materials do include information on personal habits thatare helpful in preventing food-borne illness, such ashandwashing. Although food borne illness may never be addressed,learning proper handwashing techniques should lead to reducedincidence of food-borne illness.

**3. Family and ConsumerScience Curriculum Standards**

Family/consumer science is battling for its share of thestudent enrollment and, in response, many programs are revampingto make them more relevant for today's student. Typically,five major areas are covered: foods and nutrition; human growthand development; management and consumerism; housing,furnishings, and equipment; and textiles and clothing. This topicclearly fits best in the foods and nutrition portion. This moduleis typically addressed at middle and high school grade levels (6through12). 

The standards for family and consumer sciences now underdevelopment are nutrition, food safety, and wellness, so thatstudents can "evaluate nutritional, food safety, andwellness practices to promote individual and family well-beingacross the life span." Under this overall standard, thereare content standards to
- Evaluate the factors affecting food safety from        production through marketing
Analyze food-borne illness as a health issue for        individuals and families

Demonstrate safe consumer practices for handling food to        reduce the incidence of food-borne illness for        individuals and families

Analyze information on product labels that have food        safety implication for individuals and families

Evaluate the impact of science and technology on food        composition and safety, nutrition, and wellness of        individuals and families

Contribute to the public dialogue about food safety and        sanitation.

Clearly, these standards--as well as the overallphilosophy of family/consumer science--make this an idealvenue for providing food safety instruction.

Instructional Materials for Family and Consumer Science

In conducting a review of some family/consumer scienceeducation textbooks and teachers' guides, we observed thefollowing:
- Family/consumer science textbooks published in the past        decade provide fairly extensive coverage of food safety        issues. For example, the 1990 edition of the middle        school text  Young Living  from Glencoe Publishing        includes a lesson, "Food Safety and        Sanitation." Approximately four pages in the text        are devoted to the topic. The lesson includes the basic        food safety messages with lots of specific how-to        information, such as how to wash dishes and how to clean        up the kitchen to prevent cross contamination.
The "
Danger Zone
" concept is        incorporated into many texts published over the past 2        decades. The 1988 edition of 
Guide to Good Food
        published by The Goodheart-Willcox Company integrates 
The        Danger Zone
 concept into its eight pages of coverage        on sanitation. Specific topics addressed are        "Food-borne (sic) Illness Microorganisms,"        "Personal Hygiene," "Kitchen        Cleanliness," "Sanitation in Food Preparation        and Storage," and "Cooking for Crowds."        And even older texts, such as the 1980 edition of
Exploring        Foods
 from Prentice-Hall include 
The Danger Zone
        concept. In this case, about 12 pages of the text are        devoted to the topics "Food Spoilage and Food        Poisoning" and "Keeping Food Safe to Eat."    

While food safety is incorporated into earlier texts, theconcepts and messages are somewhat different than in more recentpublications. For example, the 1974 edition of *Focus on Food*from McGraw-Hill Book Company provided information on food-borneillness and the organisms that cause it, but the messages onprevention are not as clear, focused, and precise as those incurrent textbooks.

**4. From National Levelto Classroom**

Curriculum standards are developed at a national level. Mosttextbooks are developed by publishers who--for economicreasons--try to accommodate the largest possible number ofschool districts. While standards and textbooks may be carefullyand thoughtfully laid out, there are four very important levelsat which there can be slight or significant deviation from theideal envisioned at a national level:
- State level curriculum frameworks and mandates
- District level curriculum guidelines
- Building level and departmental decisions
- Individual teacher preferences.

When the national standards movement began in 1983 with theinitiative to set a national mathematics standard, the initiativeseemed straightforward. "Experts in various disciplineswould develop national standards for what students should knowand be able to do at key points in their schooling; a Federalcouncil of distinguished citizens would review and certify thestandards as worthy of emulation; States and school districtswould voluntarily adopt them; teachers would teach to them; andstudents would achieve them."(2)But it is notsimple and the national standards have fallen prey to criticism andconcern at a national level and to resistance at the state and locallevels.  In some cases, this resistance is reinforced by State law, whichin turn has a powerful influence on what is actually taught inthe classroom.

To illustrate the point, Macro obtained a copy of theStandards of Learning for Virginia Public Schools and a copy ofthe current program of studies for a Virginia middle school. Acomparison of one with the other and to the national curriculumstandards for science(3) indicates that the State standards do notinclude the personal and social perspectives on science that isincluded in the national standards. These perspectives areimportant because national standards related to this personal andsocial perspective provided many of the objectives to which foodsafety education can easily be linked in the science classroom.There are still some opportunities, however, within the Virginiastandards to provide food safety instruction. There is a good bitof emphasis across the upper elementary grades and in middleschool life science on the dynamic interrelationships betweenlife forms and, in particular, on food webs(producer-consumer-decomposer). In addition, the Virginia biologystandards include a number of objectives that are likely toprovide some opportunities for instruction related to foodsafety, including those on causative agents of disease, humanhealth issues, and cells and single-cell organisms.

Going to the school and district levels, we discovered thatsome of the middle school life science courses described in acurriculum guide corresponded only loosely to the Statestandards. The organizing feature of sixth-grade science is"The Voyage of the Mimi," a well regarded curriculumpackage that includes a print story/adventure guide, videos,hands-on activities, and extensive use of computer simulations.The seventh-grade life science course comes much closer toalignment with the State and the national standards.

Even with the pressures for accountability on schools today,when a teacher closes the classroom door, the teacher truly is incontrol of that class; the teacher controls the topics coveredand the instructional methods employed--regardless of anymandates from above or resources that are available. For example,one middle school science teacher with whom we spoke had a textthat included some coverage of food safety, as well as someadditional resources that included food safety educationactivities. Yet she had never taught her students anything aboutfood safety and was, in fact, not even aware that the textcovered the topic. She was open, however, to the idea ofincluding some coverage of the topic.

The following sections include a summary of the interviewsconducted by Macro with teachers and other school-basedprofessionals, as well as those individuals representingstandards-setting organizations, and instructional materialsdevelopers.

**Footnotes**
2. Special Report, *Education Week*,                               ,April 12, 1995, Vol. XIV, No. 29.[Return to text]3. The Standards ofLearning for Virginia only cover the academic subjects: Mathematics,science, English, and history/social science.[Return to text]
**** 

**C. Food Safety Education Materials**
***Food Safety        Education Materials--****A significant number        of supplementary curriculum materials have been developed        to support instruction on food safety. Some of these are        intended for public school students of various ages.        Others are considered by their developers to be easily        adaptable for use in K-12 classrooms. Macro reviewed 51        products and spoke with eight individuals who had been        involved in the development of food safety education        materials to ascertain the overall quality and usability        of the materials in public education. Appendix C is a        matrix that provides information about the reviewed        products.*
Since 1990, a significant number of supplementary curriculummaterials have been developed to support instruction on foodsafety. Some of these are intended for public school students ofvarious ages. Others are considered by their developers to beeasily adaptable for use in K-12 classrooms. Macro conducted areview of these materials. We obtained descriptions of 51products.(4)For 22 of these products,  project staff reviewed thematerials to ascertain the overall quality and usability of thematerials in public education. We also spoke with eightindividuals who had been involved in the development of foodsafety education materials. Those interviewed were:

 
Lynn Brown     Pennsylvania        State UniversityPhyllis Dennee     Montana State        UniversityPat        Hammerschmidt Michigan State        UniversityApril Mason Purdue        UniversityMatrid Ndife Ohio State        UniversityLori Pivarnik University of        Rhode IslandBarbara        Selover/Pat Fuchs  National        Cattlemen's Beef AssociationPeggy Sherry Iowa State        University
Appendix C is a matrix that provides information about theproducts on which we obtained information. The matrix includes
- Product name
- Date of publication
- Author/developer name
- Media/format
- Target audience
- Content coverage/organization.

For the products that we were able to examine, we have alsoincluded some--admittedly subjective--comments regardingthe potential value of the product. The analysis that follows isbased on product descriptions, informal product reviews, and ourconversations with developers.

**Footnote**
4. Most descriptions are based primarily on thedescription of the product in the USDA/FDA Food Borne Illness EducationInformation Center database.[Return to text]
**1. Product Overview:**

Developers and Funding

A number of the food safety education materials have beendeveloped by the agricultural extension offices and food sciencedepartments at land-grant universities throughout the UnitedStates. Many of these appear to have been funded through variousgrant programs sponsored by USDA. Examples of extension productsare *Bacterial Contamination of Foods, Chances and Choices withFood, Creating Informed Citizens For Tomorrow*'*s FoodSafety Decisions, Discovering Food Safety: Detective Mike Robe*'*sFantastic Journey, Don*'*t Get Bugged by a Food BorneIllness, Germ Squirm: Kids and Safe Food Handling, Getting a Jumpon Germs: Making Food Safer; Mystery of the Poisoned PantherPicnic; Operation Risk; Producer Through Consumer: Partners to aSafe Food Supply; Project Food Safety: Educational Units for theMiddle Level Science Classroom;*and *Tosha*'*sDay*.

Some materials appear to have been developed by partnershipsinvolving USDA/FDA and various food-oriented associations such asthe Chef and Child Foundation, the Partnership for Food SafetyEducation, and the Food Marketing Institute. Products in thisgroup include*Fight BAC!(TM), Food Risks: Perception vs.Reality, Food Safety at Home, School*, and*When Eating Out,Play it Safe: Goals for Food Safety*; and*Serve It Safe: AManager*'*s Tool Kit*. USDA/FDA independentlyproduced*The Danger Zone,*and*Food Safety is No Mystery*.

The trade organizations for some food groups such as theAmerican Egg Board and the National Cattlemen's BeefAssociation have also developed food safety education materials.Products developed by these groups include *Adventures withMighty Egg, Incredible Journey from Hen to Home, and Safe FoodJourney*.

Finally, there are some private for-profit firms that havedeveloped food safety education materials. In some casesdevelopment seems to have been self-funded. In others, it appearsthat they have received some support either from the FederalGovernment or other sources (e.g., Kellogg Foundation). Thisproduct group includes *Food Safety Can Be Fun, Glitter Bug,Glo-Germ, Introduction to Kitchen Safety: Disasters Waiting toHappen; Wash Those Hands!,* and *Wash Your Hands*.

Media and Formats

Materials are currently available in a wide array of media andformats. Most common is some type of curriculum guide. Theseguides vary a great deal in terms of both depth and breadth ofcoverage. However, they typically include background informationon food safety for educators, lesson plans, teaching materials(e.g., overheads), and students handouts. In some cases, theremay be handouts for parents or tests for students. Other printmaterials used for food safety education include brochures,posters, storybooks, and coloring books.

There are a number of products that include a handwashingactivity. These generally involve use of some compound that growsunder certain kinds of light and that requires thorough washingto remove. This may be a stand-alone product or may beincorporated into a broader curriculum on food safety.

Videotapes are also commonly used to provide food safetyeducation and training. Some--for adult audiences--take afairly straight forward approach. However, most tapes that areintended for school use employ some kind of a problem-solving ormystery approach. Tapes of this kind include: *The Danger Zone,Discovering Food Safety: Mike Robe*'*s FantasticJourney; Food Safety is No Mystery, Mystery of the PoisonedPanther Picnic, Operation Risk,* and *The Rockin*'*Handwashing*'*Report*. There are also someslide/script packages and a few audiotapes--most notably tworap songs, "Path-O-Gens Are on Your Path" and"Handwashing Rap."

There are several computer applications--including atleast one multimedia application--to teach food safety. Theseapplications include *Let*'*s Have a KillerCookout--NOT!, The Food Safety Zone,* and Risk Raiders.The last two are included in a larger curriculum package.

Many products extend the reach of their message through theuse of parent handouts. A few actually include some publicrelations materials such as factsheets, press releases, andpublic service announcements. Products with such materialsinclude *Don*'*t Get Caught Dirty Handed,* fromCDC, and *Fight BAC!(TM),* from the Partnership forFood Safety Education.

The above summary describes the range of media in which foodsafety education materials have been developed. However, it isimportant to state that they are packaged in all kinds ofcombinations. Some materials may include only one or twoitems--for example, a print curriculum guide, videotape, orgame. Others bring together a number of media and formats,usually in an effort to deliver a structured and comprehensivefood safety curriculum. Examples of such multiple media curriculaare *Bacterial Contamination of Foods, Creating InformedCitizens for Tomorrow*'*s Food Safety Decisions, TheDanger Zone; Discovering Food Safety: Mike Robe*'*sFantastic Journey, Food Safety Can Be Fun, Food Safety Express:Food Safety for Preschool Children, Food Safety is No Mystery,Mystery of the Poisoned Panther Picnic, Operation Risk, ProducerThrough Consumer: Partners to a Safe Food Supply,* and *ServeIt Safe: A Manager*'*s Tool Kit*. Some of thesecurricula incorporate or reference materials that have beendeveloped by others. This use is particularly true of curriculumpackages developed by the extension service offices. Thosecurricula that do not include all of the components in thepackage provide a description of the product and information onhow to obtain it. 

Target Audiences

Some materials have been developed for virtually every targetaudience--from Head Start preschoolers to food serviceprofessionals. The materials available have four primary targetaudiences:
- Consumers
- Students--preschool through high school 
- Entry level food service workers 
- Food service professionals.

Many materials specify more than one target audience. Forexample, materials for entry level food service workers are oftenconsidered to have middle or high school students as a secondaryaudience. Examples of this are *Diner Detective, Food Safety isNo Mystery*, *and Wash Your Hands*. 

There is more than one product for every age student. Mostspecify an age or grade range as the intended target audience.Products for preschoolers include *Discovering Food Safety:Mike Robe*'*s Fantastic Journey, Food Safety Express:Food Safety Education for Preschool Children,* and *Tosha*'*sDay*. For early elementary school, available products include*Adventureswith Mighty Egg; Food Safety at Home, School, and When EatingOut;* and *Growing Healthy: Coming to Terms with Germs,Germs from A to Z*. 

There is a wealth of materials for upper elementary school andmiddle school including *Chances and Choices with Food;Creating Informed Citizens for Tomorrow*'*s Food SafetyDecision; Get a Jump on Germs: Making Food Safer; GrowingHealthy: Coming to Terms with Germs, Germ Terminators; IncredibleJourney from Hen to Home; Kitchen Safety Game; Let*'*sHave a Killer Cookout-NOT; Mystery of the Poisoned PantherPicnic; Operation Risk; Play It Safe: Goals for Food Safety;Producer Through Consumer: Partners to a Safe Food Supply;Project Food Safety: Educational Units for The Middle LevelScience Classroom*; and The Rockin' Handwashin'Report. 

Many of the materials useful at the middle school level couldalso be used in high school. The only product that isspecifically for high school use appears to *be Food Risks:Perception vs. Reality*. However, some that are intended to beused as training for entry level food service workers such as*DinerDetective* and *Food Safety is No Mystery* can also beused with high school students, particularly those in vocationalfoods programs.

While products developed to date cover all school grades, theydo not necessarily meet the needs of all students. There arerelatively few products for individuals with special educationalneeds such as low-literacy skills or physical or cognitivedisabilities. There are also few materials for those with limitedEnglish proficiency.

Curriculum Linkages

The materials developed take a variety of approaches,depending upon the age of the children for whom they are intendedand the subject(s) in which the developer envisioned the productbeing used. Those intended for young children tend to have aninterdisciplinary orientation, which is appropriate for preschooland primary classrooms. For example, *Adventures with MightyEgg* integrates math, science, language arts, and artactivities in teaching children all about eggs. 

There are few materials that are for use only in the upperelementary grades--that is grades 3 through 5. Two that arefocused on this level--*Incredible Journey From Hen to Homeand Operation Risk*--tend to be somewhat interdisciplinaryand to focus on problem solving as the primary instructionalactivity. 

Many materials cover some upper elementary grades as well asmiddle grades. Most of the materials intended for this age groupseem to be intended for use in either the family/consumer scienceclassroom or the science classroom--science being the morecommon. There are a few materials that try to accommodate use inmore than one subject. Among these are *Bacterial Contaminationof Foods, Creating Informed Citizens for Tomorrow*'*sFood Safety Decisions*, and *The Danger Zone*.

At least one program at the high school level--*FoodRisks: Perception vs. Reality*--also takes this multiplesubject approach and includes references to general science,biology, and chemistry textbooks, as well as to family/consumerscience and heath texts. Virtually all of the other programs forhigh school students seem to be intended for use in either afamily/consumer science or vocational foods class.

Content Coverage and Organization

The majority of the products focus exclusively on food safetyfrom the standpoint of microbial contamination. A fewincorporated food safety issues such as additives and pesticides.For example *Project Food Safety: Educational Units for theMiddle Level Science Classroom* focuses on microbialcontamination in sixth grade, pesticides in seventh grade, andirradiation in eighth grade. 

Most products--regardless of target audience--take afairly comprehensive view of the subject and deliver theequivalent of the four food safety messages now beingdisseminated in the *Fight BAC!(TM)* campaign. A fewproducts--primarily those for very young children and for usein training entry level food service workers--are focused ondevelopment of a particular habit or skill, usually handwashing.

Some products developed by groups with an interest in aparticular type of food product such as eggs or meat teach aboutall aspects of the food and include discussion of food safety inthe overall unit. Finally, a few products integrate microbialcontamination of food into a broader treatment of kitchen safetywhich includes topics such as using knives, preventing shocks andfires, and handling kitchen emergencies.

Quality and Usability

In beginning this discussion, we pointed out that thematerials have been developed with various target audiences inmind--consumer, students in preschool through grade 12, entrylevel food service workers, and food service professionals.Having reviewed these products, we believe that some materials ineach of the first three categories may be very usable asinstructional materials for K-12 education. 

An impediment to their use up to this point is that they arenot adequately publicized to educators and in some cases may bedifficult to obtain. None of the teachers interviewed was awareof the range of products that have been developed. This is not tosay that every product should be aggressively marketed toeducators as there is a considerable range in the quality of theproducts that have been developed. However, some are quite goodand could be a valuable instructional tool for teachersinterested in teaching students about food safety.

Most schools now have the resources to use all of the productsthat have been developed. VCRs and television sets arecommonplace in virtually every school. Computer availability isincreasing rapidly--including access to those with multimediacapabilities and/or access to the Internet. There is nothing thathas been developed that is "ahead of the curve" interms of technology access. The issue is not whether thetechnology exists, but rather how to we give teachers themotivation to obtain the materials and integrate them into theirinstructional programs.

**2. DeveloperExperiences**

In speaking with developers about food safety education, weprobed for their general views on and experiences with foodsafety education in kindergarten through grade 12. The followingis a summary of those interviews in the words of the developerswith whom we spoke.

Interest in food safety has increased in the past fewyears.
- It's increased both for children and adults. Part of        it is the media picking up everything related to food        safety. They're really overhyping the risks but it        does draw attention to the topic.
It has really grown. The media has done some of that. On        the negative side, some of it has been done as a scare        tactic. The plus is that people have become more        aware--even if their behavior is not changing that        much.

Without a doubt, it is a higher priority. The general        consumer is well aware of food safety issues--even if        they don't practice safe food behaviors.

Awareness has definitely increased--because of the        media attention.

We surveyed teachers via a teacher newsletter and asked        them to check off the topics that would be of most        interest to them as teaching units. The list included        things like additives, biotechnology, pesticides, and        bacterial contamination. Bacterial contamination was the        most often named.

Awareness has gone up. But there is sort of a dichotomy.        It's the highest it's been. So now we know, but        we still don't change our behavior. We know so much        about food safety, but we leave things out on the        counter, don't wash our hands. We know we're        supposed to but we don't. Awareness is raised, but        behavior hasn't changed.

Students are receptive to learning about food safety.
- The students were fascinated. The lessons involved        problem solving, case studies, group work, and labs. The        lessons applied to real life and that really engaged        children.
Children are eager to learn about food. We can tap into        this eagerness to learn.

Adults must introduce the topic but children are very        receptive--especially if you present the topic in        ways that children learn best.

It's never too early tostart teaching children about food safety.
- You can do some work with children as young as        kindergarten. Children can learn sanitary practices,        where food comes from, and how to make it safe.  
The younger the better. Third grade is not too early,        although we need to be attuned to what they are ready to        learn and make sure the instruction is developmentally        appropriate. Even three and four is not too early for        some simple messages like handwashing.

Third to fifth graders are definitely receptive.        It's a good age for (learning about food safety.)  

We believe that third to fifth grade is a good time to        try to reach children with food safety messages.  

We are refining some lessons. We're adding a lesson        on personal hygiene and handwashing for younger children        who are not really involved in food preparation. Subjects        like cross contamination are more relevant for high        school students.

It's important to keep it (food safety)in front of        students at all grade levels.

We need to find a way to reinforce the messages. People        see it (reports of food-borne illness) in the headlines,        but they go back to their usual behaviors. We have to        find a way to make it stick.

Food safety is really a science topic.
- To get it into the mainstream, you need to get it into        science classes. 
It's a science topic--even if it's taught        in health or family/consumer science class.

Food safety can be very valuable in making science        practical and concrete. Children can relate to this.  

It should be in a class that everybody takes. Fewer and        fewer students are taking family/consumer science.        I'd like to see it in the science classroom and make        the microbiology connection. 

Middle school science probably also offers good        opportunities for food safety instruction.

We developed our materials primarily for the science        classroom, but made them friendly for use by        family/consumer science or health teachers. The unit can        be team taught, and when we implemented it, this did        happen. In most middle schools there are some attempts to        do interdisciplinary units and projects.

It may be possible to interest science teachers, but it        will take something snazzy about food safety and        microbiology to get them to adopt.

Although it's an idealsetting to provide food safety education, most students don'ttake family/consumer science.
- Most States do not require family/consumer science at any        grade level.
Fewer and fewer students are taking family/consumer        science. 

Family/consumer science is the best place, but you        can't reach enough students.

Family/consumer science would be a good venue if it were        "alive and well" -- but in my state it's not.        

Health class offers limited opportunities for food safetyeducation.
- A separate health class is mandated in middle school        only. The rest of the time the health instruction is        incorporated into other subjects.
Health teachers focus on risk behaviors. Coverage on        general health issues and nutrition is perfunctory.  

I don't want to see food safety education punted off        to health.

Most materials have incorporated the USDA/FDA food safetymessages.
- Food Safety's the same information.        It's just the spin you put on it.
The messages we deliver are the same year after year.        It's just the presentation that varies.

Materials exist. 
Fight BAC!(TM)
 is out there.        Every State has benefited from USDA/FDA's food        safety initiatives.

We used the basic messages of Partnership for Food Safety        --the 
Fight BAC!(TM)
 messages.

Our materials emphasize the consumer's role in food        safety--even children have responsibility. Time,        temperature, and cleanliness--these are emphasized        throughout.

Materials must fit in with what teachers are already        doing--and that means understanding what their        mandates are.

We need to associate and integrate this content into the        existing curriculum so that it is not an add on.

Materials that don't ask teachers to do more, but        enhance what they were already doing, are more likely to        be accepted.

Teachers are so tied up, that unless you can give them        materials that fulfill some of the existing mandates they        will not be able to fit food safety instruction in.

It may be possible to introduce some new        content--that is particular food safety        messages--as long as they meet the same instructional        objectives. 

One problem in my state has been that the curriculum        guidelines keep changing with political changes. That        makes it difficult to try to develop materials and units        that align well. It may be better to try to go with        national standards.

We need to look at what's out there in commercial        textbooks. We need to make extension materials compatible        with texts and national standards.

Hands-on learning opportunities are very important in foodsafety education. 
- Good products will involve hands-on work--problem        solving, case studies, group work and labs.
It's important to provide hands-on activities like        growing microbes and using glo-germ.

It makes a difference if you present the topic in ways        that children learn best--with exploratory and        hands-on activities.

I had to learn the hard way to break things down into        smaller units. Children this age like hands-on        experience--like glow stuff for teaching handwashing.    

It's a serious subject,but learning about food safety should be fun.
- Some years ago, I produced a food safety video that was        "just the facts." It was a good, professionally        done tape, but it doesn't get used. It's not        something that people want to turn on and watch. Even the        extension educators don't like it, so they        don't use it. 
What guided us was if it could be translated into        something that would interest students. If it's too        dry, it won't get used.

Children like gross stuff--like the scene about the        restaurant kitchen in the video--especially the boys.    

Make it fun!

Teachers need training if we expect them to teach aboutfood safety, but they are a hard audience to reach.
- Almost everyone will need some training. There is so much        misinformation out there--even among family/consumer        science teachers. But it's hard to get teachers to        come for training, so we need to entice them.
You won't get a lot of teachers picking this up        unless you give them some training. Teachers will be more        willing to do a unit on food safety if they've had        inservice training. The problem is finding a way to get        on the inservice schedule or otherwise attract teachers        to do it on their own time. It's hard to get        teachers' attention.

Elementary school teachers are afraid of science, so        it's hard to get any kind of science instruction        implemented at the elementary school level.

Training videos can be very useful in getting teachers to        adopt new materials. You can show the video and say,        "See, you can do this too."

In our most recent training teleconference we produced        some video roll-in segments with Ken McCan, the Food        Safety Man. He is our "expert" on the topic of        food safety. These segments are very useful as roll-in        segments in the teleconference, but they also have had a        whole other life after the broadcast. We get lots of        requests for the tape.

Try to get teachers involved in the development process.
- Getting teachers involved helps ensure that the materials        are user friendly and age appropriate.
It helps if you can get teachers involved in development.        Then, they take ownership. Teachers want to use what        other teachers have been involved in. The problem is that        it is really hard to get them involved because        they're so busy. There are just so many demands on        teachers.

Getting the word out about available food safety educationmaterials is important.
- There are some good materials that extension has put        together, but they're not promoted and marketed the        way textbook publishers market their products. We need to        make them (extension materials) appealing and        user-friendly--and get the word out about them to        teachers.
We didn't build in enough marketing. We probably        should have put more money into marketing and should have        promoted it a lot more. Extension publications is the        sole distributor for it.

We turned the National Cattleman's        Association's poster over to the State beef        councils. The councils have distributed it widely        including in unexpected places like WIC clinics and        grocery stores. Grocery stores provide the poster to        school tour groups when they visit the store. So far,        about 200,000 copies of the poster have been printed and        most have been distributed. 

School nurses and food service personnel will play asupporting role in food safety education.
- School nurses have shown some interest in using the        materials. The problem is that there are not very many of        them in my State.
School food service staff could be a link, a resource for        teachers. For example, teachers might have their classes        visit the cafeteria to demonstrate safe food handling        practices. But there is no expectation that their role is        to teach students. So you can't expect cafeteria        supervisors to assume a leadership role.

There is also a lot of talk about food service        workers' being involved in Team Nutrition, but the        hierarchy in schools may limit the degree to which this        can occur. Posters in the cafeteria and instruction in        the classroom makes sense. In any case, it will depend on        collaboration between the cafeteria supervisor and        classroom teachers. Sometimes it will work and sometimes        it won't depending on the personalities and        priorities of those involved.

There is always a problem getting children to retain        classroom instruction. Cafeteria posters and bulletin        boards would be good as follow-up to help with behavior        change.

New media can help get the message across.
- Videotapes are great. And I love software. If there could        be more software, that would be great.
Children like CD-ROM applications, and team learning        around the use of a CD-ROM might be a good idea.

The software in our curriculum hasn't been used        quite as much as other program components        -- maybe because of equipment        access--but I would like to update it and put it on        CD.

Interactive Web sites would be great. A lot a schools in        my State are hooked in. There's a lack there.

Children and teachers love our Web site generally.        Students especially really like the delivery method. The        response has been phenomenal. We've had 3,300        visitors in just 3 months.

You need to keep a Web site alive. We now have food        safety headlines on our Iowa State University Web site        that change every day. Today we have 15 food safety        articles from around the world. Posting the headlines        every day is a way to keep the site living and breathing.    

Before we did our last product, we did some research and        concluded that to get into schools, the best formats        would be print materials and video kits. We continue to        monitor growth of technology use in schools and we are        looking seriously at education via the Web. Currently        we're planning a Web site for upper elementary and        middle school students.

 

**D. Interviews**
***Interviews--****Interviews        with teachers, school health service, and school food        service personnel revealed that awareness of food safety        issues is high among the individuals interviewed for this        study, with the media being the main source of        information on the subject. Interviewees all agreed that        food safety is an important topic for students to study,        but they also confess that little is covered in existing        curricula so it is not a priority issue at the present        moment. Much of what is currently being taught about food        safety in the schools is covered in family and consumer        science courses, with middle school students focused        mainly on life skills, and the higher grades        concentrating more on vocational training.*
*While educators feel that there        is a lack of high-quality educational materials relating        to food safety, the materials that do exist come in a        variety of formats. Interviewees listed the following as        media types that they currently make use of in teaching        students about food safety: videos, movies, standard        science text books, newspapers, television news reports,        the Internet, Governmental materials and campaigns (e.g.,        Fight BAC!(TM), and The Danger Zone), magazines        (e.g., Science World), "current events,"        posters, radio news broadcasts. Interview participants        discussed the need for activities to be hands on in order        to maintain interest in the topic and to engage the        students in the lesson.*

*Informants mentioned a        wide variety of activities that students really enjoyed.        Most agreed that students liked to participate in        hands-on activities and that they wanted to be challenged        in a variety of ways. All of the interviewees stated that        computers were available in their schools, and all were        interested in how they could make better use of the        technology to deliver food safety and other educational        messages. Most of the interviewees agreed that students        were interested in their own health and that for the most        part students today were interested in taking steps to        take care of themselves. This, they agreed, meant that        food safety was likely to be well received by students.*

*Nearly everyone        interviewed agreed that middle school grades were the        most appropriate place for the food safety messages.        While many interviewees agreed that food safety messages        could be tailored to any age, grades six through eight        were nearly unanimous suggestions as "giving the        best bang for the buck." Most of the teachers and        organizational representatives interviewed thought that        food service and health services staff could have a        limited role in delivering a food safety message to        students. The school health services and food services        staff who participated in the interviews agreed that they        could play an important role, albeit backseat to        teachers, in delivering the food safety message.*

 

Teacher- and Standard-Setting Organization Interviews

How Can Awareness of Food Safety Increase?

Awareness of food safety issues was high among the individualsinterviewed for this study. Most cited the media as their sourceof information on the subject. Newspapers, magazines, television,radio, and the Internet were frequently mentioned as sources ofinformation. Many of the teachers interviewed said that thisheightened awareness was put to use in the classroom. "Ioften will hear something in the news and then discuss it with mystudents that day in class. I try to fit current events intotheir lessons," one family and consumer science teacherstated. Jack in the Box and the Hudson Foods incidences werementioned often as events that created awareness forinterviewees. "We are in Jack in the Box country, so peopletake food safety very seriously here," one food servicedirector stated. Textbooks were also mentioned as sources ofinformation on food safety. One family and consumer scienceorganizational representative explained that he wrote a textbookon food safety in 1982 for McGraw Hill, as part of a series foroccupational home economics. At that time he never imagined thatthere would ever be a need to educate all children on food safetyissues. After contracting *E. coli* O157 last year, hisposition changed. "You know, we all have to becareful," he stated. 

Public health departments were also mentioned as a source ofinformation and a catalyst of increased awareness for food safetymessages. Several health services and food services personnelstated that the health departments in their areas printed posterson nutrition and safety, and that some of these materialsincluded food safety items. Several interviewees explained thatthey themselves had been victims of food-borne illnesses in thepast, several quite recently. Salmonella and *E. coli* weretwo illnesses that were mentioned. These bouts with food-borneillnesses are an unfortunate means of raising awareness of foodsafety issues. 

What Priority Is Given to Food Safety Education?

Interviewees all agreed that food safety is an important topicfor students to study, but they also confess that little iscovered in existing curricula. One family and consumer scienceteacher explained that while not much time is currently devotedto food safety, a week on food safety is allotted in thecurriculum guide used by the district. A science teacher saidthat science curricula are already crowded, mostly because ofschool district and State mandates for learning objectives. Afamily and consumer science teacher stated that of all homeeconomics teachers in the county that she knows, very few (about12 teachers) place a high priority on food safety education. Shesaid it was difficult to determine just how much time was spenton food safety since the topic was not part of a stand alone"subject block." One health teacher stated that,"on the surface, food safety is not the most excitingtopic." She suggested an ongoing social marketing effort topromote the subject matter. School food service personnel agreethat the topic is of the utmost importance, but that littleattention is given to it in schools. 

What Is Being Taught About Food Safety?

Much of what is currently being taught about food safety inthe schools is covered in family and consumer science courses.Education in this area for middle school students focuses mainlyon life skills, while at the higher grades it is morevocationally focused. Typical subjects that are covered includefood-borne illnesses (e.g., salmonella, botulism, and *E. coli*O157);sanitation techniques; keeping hot foods hot, cold foods cold;and *The Danger Zone*. It is common for students to learnabout one type of food (e.g., eggs) per week in a home economicscourse. During that week she talks about eggs; then food safetyfor eggs is covered. One family and consumer science teacherexplained that her courses in food sanitation were required forhigh school vocational foods students. In middle school, studentshave a foods unit for 3 to 4 weeks. These classes cover equipmentuse, ingredient measurement, kitchen safety, and sanitation(including washing, washing counters storing leftovers, thawing,making sure to use soap). 

Several teachers and food service personnel described that theuse of *GloGerm* was an effective way to teach about theimportance of washing hands. One teacher stated that for theelementary schools in her district, representatives of the localuniversity visit classrooms to teach elementary school studentsabout handwashing by using this system which uses ultravioletlight to show students the germs on their hands. Several otherteachers also discussed the benefits of handwashing and personalhygiene. One elementary school science teacher has her studentsuse antibacterial soap and a "germ passing" exercise"to really bring the lesson home." But she noted theimportance of providing time during the school day to reinforcethe handwashing message. By establishing a handwashing time(e.g., before lunch) students (and teachers) can form goodhygiene and safety habits. 

Several teachers and health staff cited personalresponsibility for health and safety as a priority in teachingabout food safety in general for students and for school staff."Food safety is a major issue in the district, but it isprimarily aimed at school staff, not students. We do encouragestudents to come for advice and to bring any food safety problemsto our attention. For example, if the milk is not cold, or thereare some sort of foreign objects in their food, they should bringthat to our attention. We try very hard to practice good kitchensafety, especially with our staff." Many districts post foodsafety messages with their weekly printing of the hot lunch menusfor the week. General safety procedures for working in thekitchen were also mentioned by several teachers as an area wherefood safety is covered.

Several science teachers discussed how they would like to linkfood safety more closely with units on microbiology, in an effortto make microbiology "more real for students." Hestated that in addition to teaching about common food borneillnesses such as *E. coli*, he would like to includeteaching about botulism and salmonella in such a unit. Scienceseems to be a good fit for the food-borne illness message. Whenone science teacher does a unit on bacteria, he currently coversfood-borne illness. He works food safety into other sciencelessons as well. When he teaches a unit on worms, he talks abouttransmission of trichinosis from pork. He has talked about *E.coli* whenever there is a newsworthy outbreak. Part for theselessons involve discussing the variety of ways that the meatcould have gotten contaminated (i.e., routes of transmission) inthese events.

Instructional Materials: What I Have Used and Would Like ToUse

While educators feel that there is a lack of high-qualityeducational materials relating to food safety, the materials thatdo exist come in a variety of formats. Interviewees listed thefollowing as media types that they currently make use of inteaching students about food safety: videos, movies, standardscience text books, newspapers, television news reports, theInternet, Governmental materials and campaigns *(e.g., FightBAC!(TM), and The Danger Zone)*, magazines *(e.g.,Science World)*, "current events," posters, radionews broadcasts. Many interviewees stated that they located andsecured these materials in local libraries, at State educationalextension services, from commercial vendors (via educationalcatalogs or direct from wholesale producers), or by watching andvideotaping local news programs at home on their personalmachines. Several teachers and food service personnel also statedthat they made their own materials when needed. One food serviceworker explained that her staff served as the information sourcefor students' questions regarding food safety. "Wedon't have any materials per se. Usually a student willalert a food service person to a problem. There are some foodsafety posters in the kitchen, but they are primarily geared forstaff. Students can see these posters when they tour the kitchenor go through the hot lunch line. Also, students can interactwith the staff when they are in line. That is when the can askquestions and report problems." Food service staff are oftenused as materials for teachers, serving as experts on food andkitchen safety issues during classroom visits. "Eachsemester I go to the first and second-grade classes to do a talkwith them about hot lunch and proper nutrition.'"Family and consumer science staff often team up with foodservices staff to deliver food safety messages by using theschool's kitchen or cafeteria as a teaching material itself.Tours of the kitchen facilities are very popular with students onfamily and consumer science teachers stated. "I havestudents from the high school home economics classes come to thekitchen," one district food service manager explained. 

Several instructors and other school staff indicated that theycurrently do not use any materials when discussing food safetywith students. When asked to describe what materials they wouldfind useful, however, many suggestions were offered. "Itwould be great if USDA/FDA would put out a small video to coverthe major topics, and maybe include things like handwashing,cross-contamination, and what to look for when buying foodespecially in restaurants," one representative of a familyand consumer science organization stated. Other ideas includedthe development of a CD-ROM on food safety, an Internet Web siteon food safety, and addition of food safety information totraditional textbooks. One health educator stated, "Insteadof trying to initiate a standard curriculum, it might be a goodstrategy to go back to book publishers and get them to includeinformation on food safety. Then it will be taught. It's aslower approach, but could be very successful. Once you get thematerial out there in the textbooks, it stays out there for along time." Although she said she does not go page by pagethrough any textbook, she claimed that if a message was in thetext, she was more likely to cover it. Teachers are interested inusing innovative but proven materials for delivering informationto students. One elementary science teacher said,"We're going to do what is most effective andefficient." If instructional materials are available thathelp teachers be both effective and efficient, they will be used.We do not fool with what has not been proven. We're as oldfashioned as using flashcards and as innovative as using theInternet. We use what works." Many teachers stressed theneed for materials to be interdisciplinary--incorporatingreading, writing, and calculating into lessons. Teachers are alsointerested in materials that tap into students' multiplelearning styles. Hands-on activities, guest speakers, computerapplications, and field trips were all mentioned as possibilitiesfor activities that offered multiple learning styles foreducational messages.

Regardless of the subject area(s) chosen for food safetyeducation, interviewees thought that good materials and links tocurriculum would facilitate teachers' integrating the foodsafety message into existing curricula and activities. Severalteachers stated that if USDA/FDA were interested in introducingfood safety instruction into the schools, the agency would needto provide high-quality materials. Any curriculum proposed shouldbe flexible, allowing a teacher to pick and choose activitiesrather than being obligated to follow a long series of tasks andobjectives. One high school science teacher stated that she wouldlike to pick and choose those elements of a curriculum that has anatural tie-in with the subject matter that she is currentlyteaching. She stated that to date she had not seen many materialsthat would be useful to her in teaching her students about foodsafety. A middle school science teacher noted that his studentslike lessons and activities that were fairly structured at thecore and that include related activities that were primarily openended.

One elementary science teacher described what she thoughtwould be a good product for teaching food safety to youngchildren: "Develop and distribute a colorfully illustratedbook written on the primer level. This book could be read inclass and then taken home. It would belong to the child, andshould include a coloring activity and a sequencing activity(e.g., What's the first thing you do? Thesecond?"). Follow-up activities would check forcomprehension. There could be cut-outs at the back of the bookfor sequencing to check for comprehension. Children could cutpictures out and then put in them in the proper order. This bookcould be used as the story of the day in class, then childrencould take it home to read it to their parents. It could be aperfect addition to a first-grade phonics curriculum ifstructured around certain letter sounds (e.g., use words likemeat, cheese, peach, and clean). The important thing is that thebook include interdisciplinary activities. This book would takeabout 45 minutes of class time to read and to complete therelated activities. It should incorporate math and writing aswell." She noted that teachers often received "standalone" units on specific topics but that they wereconstantly pressured to cover math, reading, and science subjectswith their students. These pressures lead teachers to say,"I'll get to that as soon as I get my academicsdone," effectively putting other educational curricula"on the shelf."

On the whole, educators and school staff that were interviewedmade the following recommendations regarding school-basedmaterials for delivering food safety messages: Put together agood curriculum (core ideas partnered with appropriateresources), make teachers aware of it, and make it available toschool at little or no cost to teachers. One science organizationrepresentative suggested that USDA/FDA find curriculum developersworking in related areas and encourage then to introduce foodsafety ideas as examples in the texts that they were developing.He suggested that some of the best science curriculum developersto approach with this idea include Education Development Centerin Cambridge, Massachusetts; Lawrence Hall of Science,UC--Berkeley; and, Biological Sciences Curriculum Studies,Colorado Springs.

Instructional Activities: What I Have Done and Would LikeTo Do

Interview participants discussed the need for activities to behands on in order to maintain interest in the topic and to engagethe students in the lesson. One elementary science teacherexplained how she keeps students interested. "I have gottenmore and more willing to allow students to inquire in areas ortopics of interest to them. And I integrate science intoeverything. I find that the students who are involved ininquiry-based learning are more eager to read and learn."Other teachers echoed this idea. Another elementary scienceteacher stated, "Kids need hands-on activities so that theycan construct their own knowledge. For example, I have mystudents design and conduct their own experiments." Anotherteacher explained how she keeps students interested in her familyand consumer science classes. "I always make the lessonsspecific and concrete. Otherwise they (students) would be longgone. I make each lesson relate to a particular kind of food(eggs, meat, etc.). With the age of the students that I teach(K-5) you can't just talk about things in the abstract andyou need to keep them busy, keep changing things." Shecontinued, saying that activities for students in this age grouphave to be hands on. You absolutely have to keep them busy andengaged. "No worksheets for these students."

One director of food services thought that the key todeveloping a food safety message would be how such a message wasdovetailed into existing classroom curricula. "Food safetymust be put into existing science, health, or historycurriculums," she stated. When asked about history, shesaid, "This is how people in ancient Egypt handled theirfood." Another food service representative said, "Thereare so many creative ways that we could do it (work food safetymessages into existing classes). But teachers feel that they arealready stretched too thin. They say, ‘How dare you give usanything else to teach?' We often take the initiative to getthese messages to students on menus, with visual aids, and withposters in the lunch rooms. We do it for them (teachers)." 

Interviewees listed many interesting and innovative foodsafety activities that they have conducted with their classes andstudents in the past: 
- Growing germs in the classroom --        "One thing that I did with my students that was        really effective was to use an ultraviolet light to show        them the germs on their hands, even after they washed        their hands. They were amazed to see how many germs were        unaffected by washing, even scrubbing their hands."  
Touring the school's food service facilities.

Showing food safety videos with followup worksheets and        laboratory work.

Inviting and hosting guest speakers to talk about food        safety to students.

Using works of literature such as 
Old Black Fly
 to        learn about food contamination.

Using interesting hands-on activities  --        "One exercise I used was to hand out M&M        candies. Each student started with a handful of M&Ms.        Now, two students had only blue M&Ms while all of the        other students had every color except blue. The exercise        required that everyone go around and talk to everyone        else in the room briefly and exchange an M&M with        each person they talked to. They weren't allowed to        look at which M&M they gave away, but by the end of        the exercise all but one person had at least one blue        M&M in their hand. The purpose was to show how germs        are spread."

Creating a compost pile --        "A big unit I do with my second graders is on        decomposition. The students put food scraps into a        compost pile outside the classroom and they do a        gardening program in the spring and add the compost to        their garden. When they look at decomposition, the        students choose something from lunch one day and wrap it        in a baggy. All the baggies are hung up on a clothesline        in the classroom, so that students can watch the food        decay over a period of weeks. As they observe the        process, they talk about reasons for decay, why some        foods decay more quickly, look at the decaying food under        a microscope, and stuff like that. And I think this        really can bring the concept of food safety home. They        remember how the pumpkin smelled when we opened up the        bag. They have to experience it upclose and personal so        that they change their behavior."

Creating special science and research days -  "I have a thing that I call        ' where the students talk        about current biological research. Part of this is that        students bring in articles on current biology research        topics. Some of these have related to food safety in the        past, particularly the ground beef scares."

Making telephone calls to get answers to questions        -- I had my class call Hudson Foods        as a class on speaker phone. First they called Omaha to        find out what happened to millions of pounds of beef. We        were told at first that no decision made about it. Over a        period of two weeks we had several conversations with        them. They were really nice about it and the children        were really interested in the whole thing."

Aging food in a refrigerator --        "I let a bunch of different foods get old in the        refrigerator. Then I show them to the class and ask,        ‘If you are making a snack (e.g., moldy pear), is it        okay to eat?' I talk to them about canned goods and        ask if a can has a bad dent or if the sides are bulging,        is it okay to eat? What about a can of tomatoes that is        foamy when you open it? I let bread get really moldy        too."

What Children Like

Informants mentioned a wide variety of activities thatstudents really enjoyed. Most agreed that students liked toparticipate in hands-on activities and that they wanted to bechallenged in a variety of ways. One family and consumer scienceteacher explained how she did an activity about a girl who wenton a picnic and got sick. The students acted as detectives to tryto determine what the girl did to get sick. "Kids like thatkind of activity," she stated. One school nurse said hermost successful activity was showing students how germs grow. Shestated that while students liked videos, they did not reallyenjoy completing "hand-outs" that often accompaniedvideo presentations of information. Food services personnelagreed that students enjoyed field trips, even if it was justwithin their school building. "Our home economics classeslove coming to the kitchen. Sometimes we turn it into a learninglaboratory for them. Students are interested in what we do, andhow we do things. They like to have a chance to see how thingsare done, and to see how they are different than the way thingsare done at home." Another food service worker said,"They love coming to the kitchen and having their questionsanswered," but she admitted that it is often difficult totell what students really thought about the activities shepresented to them. "It is hard to say what the studentreaction is. We have no way of measuring it other than what theysay. Usually they don't tell us too much about what theythink."

One family and consumer science teacher stated that herstudents liked stories that incorporated clever animation."Middle school children also like cartoons, and cartoonpeople. Stories told through cartoons are well received. Childrenlike movies, but they're not that big a deal to childrenanymore because they are so inundated with videos thesedays." Most teachers agree that how you present a message isoften more important that the message itself in terms of gettinga child's attention. "The way you present it reallymakes the difference. I have found the ‘Department ofHealth' approach doesn't grab them. A presentation ofjust the facts is too dry. Materials and activities need to befun and grab their attention. I think *The Danger Zone* doesthis."

Technology: Access to It, Use of It, and What I Would Like

All of the interviewees stated that computers were availablein their schools, and all were interested in how they could makebetter use of the technology to deliver food safety and othereducational messages. Most schools have computer laboratories towhich teachers can get access, and several respondents statedthat they have classroom access to the Internet and to networkedcomputers. Those respondents who did not have ready access to theInternet stated that their schools had technology initiativesunderway, and that they soon should have Internet capabilities.Nearly everyone interviewed was interested in having access to afood safety Web page that incorporated food safety messages andactivities for students. One family and consumer science teacherstressed that simply making a computer application would notguarantee that students would be interested. "Just becauseit's on the computer does not mean that students willrespond positively. Students don't like to read from thecomputer screen. On multiple-choice quizzes in applications, theywill just punch in a multiple choice answer without reading thequestion or waiting for feedback for example. It has to beexciting to them." One school nurse warned, "We have alot of technology in our school, but we were one of the firstschools to get computers, and now some of them are getting oldand obsolete." While absolscence is a concern for someschools, in general technology is a key initiative in schoolstoday, and availability of computers --including those with Internet access --is increasing rapidly. One family and consumer science teacherstated that he would like to find an online area where studentscould interact with the web and explore food safety topics ontheir own. "What I would really like to see is a great Website on the topic with lessons, interactive tests, and lessonplans for offline activities." He commented that DINE systemhas a comprehensive nutrition analysis system, along with anexcellent Web site with interactive tests. He said that while hecurrently does not have the software, he hopes to get it nextyear. "DINE is $150 for a site license. That would allow meto have the whole class use it in the lab. That amount of moneyfor a site license is not trivial but not prohibitive. Generallyanything more than $50 begins to be a problem for us, since itrequires more approvals and authorizations."

An elementary science teacher explained that her school is thelast in the county to have the school technology planimplemented. The school's current computers are old, andstudents have not been using them as tools for learning content,but for developing computer skills such as programming andkeyboarding. "Now that the plan is in place, we'regetting new equipment and for the first year the school has atechnology specialist. By the end of this school year everyclassroom will have at least one computer with a CD-ROM drive andInternet access." This teacher is currently in the processof writing a grant to get a digital imaging camera for the unitshe teaches on stream life and forest life. She explained thather students would be able to take pictures of organisms ande-mail them to their Internet pen pals who were studyinglifecycles. A high school science teacher stated that he had noproblem getting access to computers. "I have eight computersin my classroom and access to the Internet right here in theroom. I also can take my class to the computer lab across thehall, which has 30 computers." Not everyone is so fortunate.One teacher stated, "Teacher training is still a big barrierto use. We have a lot of computers, but we have had a lot ofbudget problems in schools; and the first thing to be cut aretechnology coordinators, which makes it difficult for teachers.Also, even though we have a lot of computers, scheduling in thelabs is still a problem."

A high school science teacher explained, "Students likereading the least, videos the next-least, and CD-ROM is theirfavorite. This is a very visual generation. Ideally, a CD-ROM forhigh school students would feature some children in the video,and be catchy, quick, and humorous." 

A family and consumer science teacher stated, "Overall,over the past 3 years, I have observed more computer use in theschools. I think teachers are more comfortable with Internet andCD-ROM computers in the classroom and projection devices so thatthe whole class can see what's on the screen." Onehealth teacher told of how he has thought about delivering asatellite conference for schools on food safety. "TheMississippi Food Service Institute, at the University ofMississippi, has done a lot of school lunch research andtraining. Specifically, they have done videoconferences for FoodService Personnel in schools. But this kind of a conference hasnot reached the students yet." A middle school scienceteacher thought that the local university's community levelchemistry class (a low-to-basic level chemistry course) was beingdelivered on the Internet. "I think the web would be a veryappealing way for students to do research on the topic of foodsafety." 

Are Students Interested in Food Safety?

Most of the interviewees agreed that students were interestedin their own health and that for the most part students todaywere interested in taking steps to take care of themselves. This,they agreed, meant that food safety was likely to be wellreceived by students. Several teachers commented that food safetywas a topic of importance, especially given the growing number oflatchkey children. One school health services director said thatwhile students did show an interest in health issues, the overallstatus of health education in general was poor nationwide."Many academic teachers do not agree that, practicallyspeaking, health and such lessons as food safety are of theutmost importance." One family and consumer science teacherstated, "Students are somewhat curious about food safety. Iuse articles from a collection of clippings I keep to try toheighten awareness and focus discussion with students about theissue. This helps bring it home to them that this is real."

One consumer science teacher stated, "The way you cantell if a subject is interesting to children is if they go homeand tell their parents about it. I have found that food safetyreally is of interest to students. They do go home and talk totheir parents about it. But the way you present it really makesthe difference." Another family and consumer science teachersaid that she noticed that students were interested in the topic."I have seen that my students are very concerned aboutcleanliness and what they are going to put in their mouths-- more than they used to be. It seems to methat children are much more aware of people getting sick fromthings they are going to eat. I hear students say all the time,'You didn't wash your hands. Go wash your hands beforeyou do that.'" She offered the particular example ofstudents' making quesadillas, noting that her students didnot need to be reminded that they should wash their hands beforeworking with food. A middle school science teacher noticed thatstudents had also become more acutely aware of food safety issuesthan they ever had been before. "They get this informationprimarily through the media," he stated. A health teachersaid that his students had "shown a good bit of interest inthe topic of food-borne illness, especially the outbreaks in thefast food industry, like the Jack in the Box case."

Instructional Goals When Teaching About Food Safety

Goals and objectives for teaching about food safety seemed tobe relatively consistent across interviewees. For most teachersand school health service personnel, the main goals were toheighten the awareness of health issues in general and to helpstudents become better managers of their own health. Basicpersonal awareness of how health management will impactstudents' lives is another key goal. One school healthservices director stated, I'm so frustrated with theAmerican Public and how they are not being educated health careconsumers. I think that preventing health care costs, whichanyone can do if they take the time to be informed, should be amajor goal in the schools." 

One food service director said, "Parent's don'talways assume the responsibility to teach their children thebasics about cleanliness and sanitation. We (school food servicestaff) therefore assume that role. Making people aware of thefood supply, how to handle it, and where things can go wrong areall important aspects of what we try to convey." Anotherfood service director explained, "I have a lot of goals withthe students. I want to make them aware of our mission, which isto feed a large number of people a good healthy meal. I like themto see, and I want them to know that we are the largestrestaurant in town. I want them to see the scale of things, howmuch larger things are here than they are at their homes. And Ilike them to see the safety features and the cleanliness of theoperation. We wear large woolen gloves for working with hot traysand pans, and these are much larger than the hot pads you woulduse at home. All of the equipment is very large and the childrenlike that. They like to see the difference between our ovens andthe ovens that their moms use. And we have curtains on therefrigerator doors, for example. It is to keep the temperature inthe safe zone, and to save energy too. Most children would besurprised to see curtains on the refrigerator. I want them justto see the bigness of the production and see how safety is builtinto all the meals that we serve."

In general, goals for teaching food safety involve everythingfrom "providing basic food safety instruction to raisingawareness to changing behavior, the whole continuum."Increasing knowledge, providing models of good behaviors andproper cleanliness were also mentioned. 

"Personal hygiene and cleanliness of food preparationareas are my primary messages," said one family and consumersciences teacher. One elementary science teacher said the goalshad to be clear and simple for her students to understand."I believe that children know that they need to refrigerateand cook their food well, but don't understand the'why' of it. Even my best and brightest studentsdon't really understand bacterial growth and toxins. I tryto make that clear to them in a way that they canunderstand." He says when he teaches about food safety, heis hoping that students will change their food-safety-relatedbehaviors. He tries to give them an opportunity to internalizethe topic and discuss it with other students. "That way theycan see how it is meaningful in their lives, and put that intotheir own bag of tricks for life. Raising awareness is not toohard, but incorporating into daily routine requires continualreinforcement."

Another elementary science teacher thinks a simple goal shouldbe hygiene, including encouraging students to wash their handsafter using the toilet and before eating. "One thing that Ihave observed is that children are glaringly deficient in thearea of handwashing. On a test, as a bonus question, I askedstudents ‘How many of you wash hands after going to thebathroom?' Only 18 percent said they did. I've seenthem in the bathroom. They really don't want to be botheredwith the whole thing." This teacher believes handwashing isof primary importance, citing that the American MedicalAssociation states that handwashing is one of the top 10 thingseveryone can do to prevent infection.

Ages/Grades For Food Safety Instruction

Nearly everyone interviewed agreed that middle school gradeswere the most appropriate place for the food safety messages.While many interviewees agreed that food safety messages could betailored to any age, grades six through eight were nearlyunanimous suggestions as "giving the best bang for thebuck." Several individuals suggested that food safetyeducation should begin in the elementary grades (fourth andunder), then be reinforced once in middle school and once againin high school. The following quotes represent the thinking ofteachers, food service personnel and health service personnel onthe issue of appropriate age and grades for the food safetymessage:
- "Students are never too young, but it would be best to        introduce the message early and then reinforce it        throughout their education. I think it would be best to        start them with something simple in fourth grade, and        then reinforce the message in seventh grade and again        during the sophomore year." (School health services        personnel)
"Third to sixth grades would be best in my opinion.        These messages can really be tailored to any age, but        third to sixth grade is when we start having a lot of        latchkey children, or children who get home from school        and want to fix a snack for themselves or sometimes even        end up cooking dinner for themselves." (School food        services personnel)

"The message is appropriate for all ages at some        levels, but it would be best to emphasize the message        with middle school aged kids. From fourth grade on, and        maybe have it as part of their family and consumer        education classes." (School food services personnel)  

"Middle school age is good, especially in eighth        grade. In high school, they have vocational foods class        so that could be an option. Otherwise students may get        some food safety instruction in health, science, or home        economics, although a lot of schools don't have home        economics classes." (Family and consumer science        teacher)

"I think that middle school would be a good age to        teach students about food safety, and that students would        be receptive to the information at that age."        (Middle school science teacher)

"All food science classes at the high school level        are electives. In middle schools, two courses in family        and consumer science are required. These cover family,        foods, and sewing topics. Middle school, therefore, is        where you would have a captive audience." (Family        and consumer science teacher)

I believe that eighth grade would be a good place to        catch students. Family and consumer science is required        at that level. However, they don't really start        cooking on their own at that age, so instruction would        need to be repeated at the high school level."        (Family and consumer science teacher)

"I believe that it (food safety instruction) might        be appropriate from fourth grade on. It should really        begin in elementary school, be enhanced in middle school,        and continued in high school so that it is        reinforced." (Family and consumer science teacher)  

"From early elementary on, it's important for        children to learn about food safety. I know that many        kids by fourth or fifth grade are frequently making at        least breakfast and snacks for themselves." (Health        education teacher)

Nurses and Cafeteria Staff Involvement in Food SafetyInstruction

Most of the teachers and organizational representativesinterviewed thought that food service and health services staffcould have a limited role in delivering a food safety message tostudents. As one teacher stated, "I don't see muchlikelihood of involving school nurses or cafeteria supervisors inthis. At my school, the nurse is just part time. She works at theschool three hours per day. There is no real interaction betweenstudents and the cafeteria supervisor or staff here either."Other instructors agree. One family and consumer sciences teachersaid, "Food safety fits better into the classroom. I havehad nurses come in and talk about handwashing, and cafeteriastaff come in to talk about food preparation, but I think thatthe classroom is the best setting for instruction." Henoted, however, that posters in the cafeteria or nurses officewould be great --  especially if they areinexpensive or even free to the school. An elementary scienceteacher said, "We have a full time nurse, and it might beappropriate for him to be involved. Also the cafeteria staff arevery kid-oriented and would probably be interested in beinginvolved."

The school health services and food services staff whoparticipated in the interviews agreed that they could play animportant role, albeit backseat to teachers, in delivering thefood safety message. As one nurse expressed, "Our role ismore of reinforcement of messages to the students for theteachers. It can be whatever we make it. Right now it is not ourfocus. It really should depend on the comprehensive healthcurriculum for the district. There could be a joint delivery ofcurricula with teachers, or school nurses could be supplementalspeakers in classrooms. I think it is best for the teachers todecide." 

School food services personnel largely agree. "It is notrealistic for us to do more with food safety issues than we arealready doing. While this is a critically important topic,I'm not sure that some teachers would agree. Teachers havestrict mandates that have to be adhered to. They have structurededucational goals for their students that have to be reached.Currently food safety is not among the most pressing requirementsfor teachers in our district. However, I would argue that interms of preparing our students for life, food safety is criticaland should be counted among the highest priorities in theeducation system." Another food service director added,"We can play a vital role, but our role is probablysecondary to them getting an educational message in theclassroom. They should learn about food safety ideas in class,and then we can be a reinforcement of that message. What we arecurrently doing with food safety issues on the back of menus andother things like posters goes a long way toward answeringquestions that students have. It would be nice, though, to have ateam approach to coordinate our efforts with the classroomteachers."

Family and Consumer Science as a Setting for Food SafetyInstruction

Most of the family and consumer sciences teachers who wereinterviewed thought that their courses were a perfect fit forfood safety education. "Food safety education is a priorityfor family and consumer science teachers. It is an eight-plus ona ten-point scale for us. But most other teachers don'tthink it's that important. It is at best a three on aten-point scale." Most family and consumer science teachersstrongly believe that they are the best equipped to provide foodsafety education since it has been their role historically andthey "know how to do it. Several stated that science andhealth classes would be "distant second choices."

Several science teachers agreed that food safety instructionwould best be taught in food related classes. One teacher,however, noted that a small percentage of students tookvocational food-related classes (less than 10 percent in hisschool). Another junior high school science teacher thought thatfood safety instruction would best be covered along withmicrobial growth. "I have seen charts up on the walls ofhome economics classrooms showing the various microbesresponsible for food-borne illness and the symptoms of variousillnesses." He, too, stated that he was not sure that a homeeconomics course are required for all students.

Several family and consumer science teachers stated thatNational standards for family and consumer science have beenestablished by State administrators for family and consumerscience education. Paid for by the States, these standardsincorporate all standards from around the United States,identifying the essential living skills for all studentsnationwide. Seven subject areas in essential living skills arecovered, including nutrition, wellness, relationships, consumerpurchasing and education, parenting, family, and humandevelopment (and some standards also include food preparation).Competencies and application of knowledge are included, and thewhole set of standards is predicated by need to demonstratecompetencies. The standards examine and incorporate relatedacademic proficiencies as well. Scenarios for food safetyinstruction activities and evaluation activities emphasizeauthentic problems for situational learning. Family and consumersciences organizational representatives stated that additionalmaterials would be developed to help teachers with theimplementation of these standards in their classes. Training willalso be provided. The development of the FCS standards has beenvery controversial. Education leaders say that they have nottried to be prescriptive. The standards allow for some latitude,but they still provide real guidelines for family and consumerscience curricula. 

While such standards seem to indicate that food safety has ahome in family and consumer sciences, organizationalrepresentatives are cautious, given a reduction in the number ofstudents who enroll in family and consumer sciences classes."Like all subjects, you will find that there are ups anddowns. But enrollments are increasing these days. We have a sensethat people need to have skills for living. Over the next fewyears, clothing will probably decline since it is not anessential part of living skills these days." Anotherorganizational representative stated, "Whole states are nowrequiring family and consumer sciences curriculums, and this hashappened over the past few years. We don't just live by ouracademic background." Students, the representatives claim,learn in contextual form far better than in a pure academic form."We need to reexamine the ways that people can best benefitfrom education, and understand how we can combine academic andvocational (hands-on) learning for the students'benefit."

Another education representative added, "The educationalsystem in this country is on the verge of a revolution. As youlook at things across the country, educational reform didn'twork out very well. Education will never be offered in one singleway again. You will have to have a multiplistic approach to besuccessful. There is no magic bullet. Educationally, you will geta lot of coverage in the home economics area because it is one ofthe most common electives for all students. If you want aneducational message to hit, you need to hit students from atleast two angles, home economics and the science classes. Thatway you can get coverage for both the average and below, and theacademically inclined students." 

"Our ultimate goal it to make kids to become criticalconsumers," said one organizational representative. Foodsafety is a part of this mission. 

Health Class as Setting for Food Safety Instruction

Many of the interviewees suggested that health classes weredevoted mainly to human sexuality, sexually transmitted diseases,and some nutrition components. In many States students arerequired to take health between the eighth and 10th grades. Thesecourses cover a wide range of topics including sexuality,nutrition, and infectious disease. One family and consumerscience teacher suggested that while the health approachexplained to students a variety of healthy behaviors, homeeconomics philosophically and practically allowed for moreimmediate application of the food safety lesson.That's how you can really change behavior," hestated. One high school science teacher explained that shethought food safety instruction could also be a good fit withsociology, exploring the issue in terms of social mores andcustoms. 

While many health teachers agreed that the message would be agood fit in their curriculum, several indicated that it might notbe the best place for the food safety message. "The biggestobstacle in many States is that health education is not requiredin any grade. Schools are not interested in adding on additionalcourses or topics due to existing pressure for reading, writing,and arithmetic achievement mandates," one health educatorsaid. "Schools are under pressure to cover many healthtopics like breast and testicular cancer, drugs, and AIDS.Everyone sees schools as a great way to reach children, and itis, but teachers get overwhelmed." One middle school scienceteacher who taught on an Indian reservation, said, "Healthteachers focus primarily on eating right and living healthy,which is a response to the big problem on the reservation withdiabetes and high blood pressure." He said that food safetyin and of itself was not a high priority. "The school has afull-time nurse but she doesn't interact with teachers orwith students, except when they are ill. The cafeteria supervisoris new this year, and I'm not sure if he will be interestedand willing to participate in a food safety initiative."

A representative of a health organization discussed thedevelopment of the health standards. The idea that there neededto be health education standards was conceptualized by theAlliance of Health Education, Recreation, and Dance Associations.They developed both Student Standards, (those things thatstudents should be able to do), and the Opportunity to LearnStandards, (what has to happen organizationally). "Theresponse to the health education standards has been very positiveresponse because they are simple, noncontroversial, and logical.Even people in other subject areas have responded verypositively." Though there are currently no related materialsto support and encourage adoption of the health standards, thisinterviewee believes that some States have already adopted thestandards on their own initiative. At the time the standards werebeing completed, most States were under considerable pressure tocomplete their improvement plans for health education. As part ofthese plans, some States developed materials to systematicallytranslate the health standards into practice. Now 32 States haveadopted the standards and have begun to implement them. Withinthese standards, concern about safety, nutrition, and consumerissues (including dietary consumer issues) are found in threeseparate standard areas: nutrition, consumer health issues (e.g.,food labeling), and disease prevention. According to healthstandards advocated, the term "food safety" is amisnomer "because it is not really a safety issue; it is ahealth education issue." 

Science as Setting for Food Safety Instruction

Many interviewees agreed that science classes would be thebest all-around fit for a food safety message in schools. Oneconcern about placing food safety in science curricula is thatthey are unlikely to afford the same hands-on opportunities tostudents as would be found in the home economics curriculum. Asone family and consumer science teacher stated, "In science,they get the intellectual aspects but they wouldn't get thehands-on experience, as it is unlikely that food preparationwould be allowed in chemistry class." Another drawback isthat the curricula are already "full" withscience-related items. "They've already got a lot todo. Maybe middle school science teachers would be receptive tothe idea, but they too have a full plate." 

Science education standards are one reason for this conflict.As one elementary school science specialist stated,"Adoption of the science standards varies by State. OurDepartment of Education (the State of North Carolina) really gotbehind the standards and the whole notion of student inquiryinitially. They held workshops and summer institutes inpreparation for implementation. Then they adopted a programcalled ABC, which stands for Accountability, Basics, and (Local)Control. This set science education way back." Theimplementation of ABC means that now the State only tests inreading, writing, and math. Because of the testing schedules, theamount of science that is taught has been reduced. "Inmiddle and high school, this is less of a problem. These teachershave to be trained to teach science, but elementary teachers aregeneralists and make choices. Since many are not comfortableteaching science and they are not being held accountable forstudent achievement in science, this limits the amount of scienceinstruction students receive." This informant feels thatteachers are really not aware of the National standards. They aremore likely to know what is locally mandated. "Thesestandards are not overly prescriptive and their content is veryloose. There are two main ideas that no one would compromise on.First, science is for everyone and second, science isinquiry".

Currently, food safety is not a mandated science curriculumitem. But many science teachers believe that food safety is anatural fit with science. "Teaching about food safety is anatural for biology teachers, but no other science teachers in mybuilding are doing it. For me, (teaching primarily basic BiologyI) time is a big problem. I would like to teach human biology,but I have to go through all of the lower life forms first. Iwould really like to have the time to address how eating affectsyour body systems." One high school science teacher relatedthat since the standards were published, schools have heldin-service workshops to get familiar with the standards. Aproblem has been that the school boards keep changing and theschool board politics influence the curriculum. The current boardis not supportive of the standards for science, but teacherssupport them in spirit even if they are not being fullyimplemented. 

At the elementary level, many science specialists feel thattheir primary role as educators is to teach children to readfirst and foremost. This is their mission and it is criticalsince the prime time for children to learn to read is ages 5through 7. "Yes, math, writing, and science areimportant," one elementary science teacher stated, "butin reality the standardized tests that children take is whereteachers are held accountable." Many science teachers thinkthat it is unfortunate that science standards have not beenwidely disseminated and adopted. One science teacher describesthis as a communication breakdown. "Rural districts have notgotten it at all, while larger districts, and especially thosewith science consultants, have received the standards." Atthe elementary level there is fear among teachers that a"back to basics" movement could wipe out science foryounger students. It's easy to teach reading, writing,and arithmetic if you don't teach science, but you'renot teaching them everything they need to know. That's whyan interdisciplinary approach is critical; it will allow scienceeducation to survive." To address this concern, she teachesher students to read and write by using books about science.

Representatives of various science organizations agree thatstandards in science education impact what is taught and how itis taught. One organizational representative explained that thestandards movement began in the late 80s with the NationalCouncil for Teachers of Mathematics' (NCTM) releasingcurriculum standards for math. Other groups followed suit anddeveloped standards with their own funding as had the NCTM. WhenGoals 2000 was introduced, funding was provided for thedevelopment of standards in six academic subject areas, includingscience. The National Research Council which comprises a group ofscientists, was awarded the contract from the Department ofEducation to develop the standards. Three working groups wereinvolved in the development of the standards, one group each forcontent, teaching, and assessment. Approximately 16 to 18 peoplewere on each working group, roughly divided into one-thirdscientists, one-third teachers, and the remaining third includingteacher educators, curriculum developers, and curriculumsupervisors. 

Currently many teachers nationwide have only a peripheralknowledge of the National standards. Even for those with morein-depth knowledge, standards do not necessarily translate intoclassroom instruction. Some documents such as"Pathways" (developed by the National Science TeachersAssociation) provide materials to help bridge the knowledge gapbetween the standards and classroom practices. A scienceorganization representative noted that all but two Statesnationwide were involved in developing their own standards, andmany States did not embrace the "squishier stuff"-- those aspects of science education relatedto personal behavior and linked with social studies and otherhumanities courses. "We should keep in mind that it is theState level standards, along with their associated assessments,that really drive what teachers teach," he reminded. 

These issues related to curriculum standards for science areimportant in that food safety is currently not included in thestandards. An education representative who participated in thecreation of the National standards stated that food safety wasnever specifically mentioned during the development process,although health and sanitation were discussed. He said that bythe time education standards reached a level of specificity of"food safety," the item was substantively buried in abroader science topic, such as "microbial growth." Assuch, food safety is considered a special interest, many of whichcompete for instructional time. "Not that food safety is notimportant. Lots of these issues really can improve the quality oflife but it's tricky to know how to bring them into thecurriculum." This informant said that he would not beexcited about a stand-alone "unit" on food safety.Rather, he believed that the food safety message should be athread throughout the science curriculum where examples arerelated to food safety (e.g., observing microbes that grow onmeat at various temperatures). 

"In science, teachers are really trying to increaseunderstanding. Long term behavior change will be limited unlessyou increase understanding. Therefore, it is essential to fit thetopic into some larger ideas in the science classroom. Biologyteachers talk about microbes and to some extent about personalhealth, so there's a natural connection there."Organizational leaders in the science arena do not envision arule-based approach for food safety education in science."This would be more of a behavior modification rather than ascience topic." One science expert thought that for thisreason health and home economics curricula might be moreappropriate for a food safety emphasis. 

 

**IV. Discussion**
***Discussion--****The        complexity of determining placement of food safety        messages in the Nation's schools makes it difficult        to draw conclusions from the data without reflecting on        the findings in terms of the original research questions.*
***Is there an advantage within        the public school system of focusing food safety        education as more of a health issue, a home economics        issue, or a science issue?--****While not as        ideal a curriculum fit as home economics, science classes        represent the best opportunity for food safety issues to        reach the maximum number of students.*

***Where would food        safety instruction have the best chance of finding        support in the school environment?--****Teachers,        administrators, and other school-based staff all        concurred that home economics courses were the ideal fit.*

***Would the concept of        food safety education find greater support among        classroom teachers or among school support staff (i.e.,        nurses or food service staff)?--****Food        safety instruction should be conducted primarily in the        classroom, but school health staff and school food        service personnel can play an important role in teaching        and reinforcing this message.*

***In which grade or        grades should food safety education efforts be        focused?--****Middle school grades seem to be        the most appropriate place for the food safety messages.*

***Should the        educational goal be to raise awareness, increase        knowledge, change attitudes, or modify behavior--Or        is there some other focus?--****USDA/FDA can        expect to achieve educational goals in all of these        areas.*

***At what age/grade        level are students most receptive to learning about safe        food handling techniques?--****The middle        grades and junior high school grades (grades 5 though 8)        appear to offer the best opportunities to integrate food        safety education into the curriculum.*

***What approaches are        most compatible with current instructional practices and        will encourage maximum usage of a food safety education        program?***
*hands-on activities                field trips                 special events                 group activities**television                video                problem solving*
***What technologies        are schools using most, and what formats do teachers and        students prefer?--****Making use of advance        technologies such as computer applications, online        services, video capabilities, satellite transmissions,        and others is one way of capturing student attention and        creating excitement around educational messages.*

The findings in this report run the gamut of understanding forissues related to the placement of food safety messages inAmerican schools. The complexity of the overall question makes itdifficult to draw conclusions from the data without reflecting onthe findings in terms of the original research questions. Whatfollows is a recasting of findings in a concise discussion basedon the original research questions posed by USDA/FDA. Specificrecommendations and conclusions follow in the next section.

**A. Is there anadvantage within the public school system of focusing food safetyeducation as more of a health issue, a home economics issue, or ascience issue?**

Reviewing the existing curricula guidelines for health, homeeconomic and consumer sciences, and science classes reveals thateach of these disciplines has advantages and disadvantages forthe placement of food safety messages. Teachers and curriculumdevelopers alike thought that home economics and family andconsumer science classes represented the best natural fit forfood safety messages in the public schools today. These coursesfit well with the hands-on nature of the food safety message, andprovide opportunities for students to learn about food safetywhile actually handling food--a decided advantage forlearning over the other two subject area alternatives. Family andconsumer sciences, however, has one significant drawback:traditionally this is an elective course and not all students arerequired to take it. This drawback is perhaps too great to ignorein that the food safety message is too important to letsubstantial numbers of students fall through the cracks. Anotherpotential problem with placing the food safety message here isthe current status of home economics and consumer sciences as adiscipline nationwide. Many schools are cutting back on offeringsof this course, and still other districts are doing away withthis offering altogether. The relatively uncertain future of thehome economic/family and consumer science curricula in generalmakes it less attractive albeit an ideal subject-matter fit.

Nationwide, health education presently focuses on narrowlydefined "risk behaviors." In general, health standardsand guidelines are written broadly enough to include food safetymessages (e.g., students will demonstrate the ability to practicehealth-enhancing behaviors and reduce health risks), but littleis stated directly regarding food safety issues. As currentlystated, *Healthy People 2000* objectives that seem to matchwith food safety information are included with "PromoteHealthy Behaviors" goals. These goals include reducingfood-borne infections and reducing salmonella infections amongothers. The focus of health education curricula on drug use,STDs, pregnancy issues, and other high-risk behaviors makes it anunlikely candidate for the placement of the food safety message.While failing to learn about and practice safe food handlingskills could in and of itself be considered a "high riskbehavior," competition for time in the classroom will keepthe high profile risk behaviors firmly rooted in healtheducation, leaving little room for the food safety message.

While not as ideal a curriculum fit as home economics, scienceclasses represent the best opportunity for food safety issues toreach the maximum number of students. Since the standards specifythat science will be taught to all students, it is clear that iffood safety issues are placed here, nearly every studentnationwide will be exposed to the message. Existing sciencecurricula are a good fit with concepts similar to those presentedin the food safety message, although the presentation would berelatively general. Overall it would seem that a typical highschool life science teacher would face some challenges attemptingto conduct in-depth units of study on food safety issues--atleast in terms of the relatively simple messages that arecurrently being disseminated. Focusing on environmental concernsand addressing the science of food safety is one suggestedstrategy for working food safety into science classes at allgrade levels. Science at the lower grade levels are more likelyto be oriented to applications of science in daily livingactivities such as food preparation.

**B. Where wouldfood safety instruction have the best chance of finding supportin the school environment?**

Food safety is most likely to receive support in the familyand consumer sciences classes, where they are available.Teachers, administrators, and other school-based staff allconcurred that home economics courses were the ideal fit.However, many warned that placing the food safety message in thefamily and consumer sciences curriculum will not guarantee themaximum exposure of the message to students.

**C. Would theconcept of food safety education find greater support amongclassroom teachers or among school support staff (i.e., nurses orfood service staff)?**

Food safety instruction should be conducted primarily in theclassroom, but school health staff and school food servicepersonnel can play an important role in teaching and reinforcingthis message. Review of relevant documentation shows that manyinitiatives currently exist in the Nation's school that linkschool health and food services to classroom instruction. Many ofthese initiatives integrate food safety messages, especially withthe school food services. The teachers and organizationalrepresentatives interviewed thought that food service and healthservices staff could have a limited role in delivering a foodsafety message to students, although there was general skepticismas to how involved these staff members realistically could be.Most of the experts interviewed thought that posters in thecafeteria or nurses office would be especially useful andeffective. 

The school health services and food services staff whoparticipated in the interviews agreed that they could play animportant role, albeit backseat to teachers, in delivering thefood safety message. Non-classroom staff often feel that they areimportant contributors to the overall educational experience butthat their roles are secondary to those of the classroominstructors. School health and food service personnel will oftenacquiesce to the authority the teacher in the educationalsetting. The primary role for school health services and schoolfood services staff should be reinforcement of the educationalmessages conveyed in the classroom. At the very least, effortsshould be made to ensure the message presented by teachers in theclassroom is not contradicted by school health service or foodservice staff elsewhere in the school setting. 

**D. In whichgrade or grades should food safety education efforts be focused?**

Literature reviews and interviews suggest that students areinterested in their own health and that for the most partstudents today are interested in taking steps to take care ofthemselves. This suggests that the food safety is likely to bewell received by students. Middle school grades seem to be themost appropriate place for the food safety messages. While foodsafety messages can be tailored to any age, grades six througheight seem to be the popular consensus among interviewees as themost appropriate grade level to focus on food safety education.Several individual respondents to interview questions suggestedthat food safety education should begin in the elementary grades(fourth and under), then be reinforced once in middle school andonce again in high school. "Students are never too young,but it would be best to introduce the message early and thenreinforce it throughout their education. I think it would be bestto start them with something simple in fourth grade, and thenreinforce the message in seventh grade and again during thesophomore year" (School health services personnel). Middleschool grades also represent the time in children'sdevelopment when they begin to prepare food for themselves on aregular basis. Targeting this age group represents the bestoption in two ways: it has immediate impact on the health of thestudent, and it targets an area that the students will beespecially curious about and interested in, thereby increasingthe likeliness that they will internalize the information. 

**E. Should theeducational goal be to raise awareness, increase knowledge,change attitudes, or modify behavior--Or is there some otherfocus?**

USDA/FDA can expect to achieve educational goals in all ofthese areas--raising awareness, increasing knowledge,changing attitudes, and modifying behavior--especially whenpresented to junior high school or middle school students. Gainsin high school should be considered as reinforcement ofeducational messages presented earlier in the education process.High school instruction can also be used to explore more abstractconcepts and issues related to food-borne illnesses and otherfood safety ideas, such as the vocational application of thisknowledge.

**F. At whatage/grade level are students most receptive to learning aboutsafe food handling techniques?**

The middle grades and junior high school grades (grades 5though 8) appear to offer the best opportunities to integratefood safety education into the curriculum for several reasons.First, students at this age are developmentally ready for many ofthe concepts needed for a comprehensive treatment of food safety.Second, there are three subject opportunities for food safetyeducation--science, health, and family/consumer science.Third, middle schools are often arranged in a team concept sothere are more opportunities for cooperation and collaboration atthe middle school level than of any other level. Fourth, teachersof students in the middle grades are less bound by coveragerequirements than are those in high school. These teachers aremore open to thematic units and are in search of activities thatare hands-on and relate to daily living. Fifth, students in thisage group are typically involved in preparing food forthemselves--and in some cases for others in thefamily--and need this information.

High school grades should also be considered for food safetyeducation, although instruction here should be considered reviewand reinforcement of messages taught at the lower grades.Elementary and grade school levels (grades K through 4) are bestfor teaching only the very basics regarding food safety andshould focus primarily on personal hygiene and health issues onlyin the broadest sense. Existing materials for these grade levelsare appropriate and consistent with this thinking.

**G. Whatapproaches are most compatible with current instructionalpractices and will encourage maximum usage of a food safetyeducation program?**

Students enjoy a wide variety of educational presentations.Educational experts agree that students prefer to learn and willincorporate their learnings into attitudes, behaviors andknowledge more readily when they enjoy their lessons. Most of theexperts and educators with whom we talked agreed that studentsliked to participate in hands-on activities and that they wantedto be challenged in a variety of ways. Field trips and specialevents add excitement to learning and were mentioned by teachers,food service staff, and curriculum experts as ways to enhance thelearning experience for students. Television and video arepopular with students as well, but students do not typicallyenjoy the additional assignments, such as worksheets, that oftenaccompany these media presentations. Students do enjoy problemsolving and group activities, and they do enjoy taking ownershipof their educational process. Portfolio management and groupproblem solving exercises represent a nontraditional approach toeducation that seems to work well with most students. 

**H. Whattechnologies are schools using most, and what formats do teachersand students prefer?**

Teachers also recognize the importance of introducing units ofstudy to students in exciting and innovative ways. Making use ofadvance technologies such as computer applications, onlineservices, video capabilities, satellite transmissions, and othersis one way of capturing student attention and creating excitementaround educational messages. Computers are nearly ubiquitous inthe Nation's schools today, as are televisions and VCRs.Most schools have computer laboratories to which teachers can getaccess, and several respondents stated that they have classroomaccess to the Internet and networked computers. Those respondentswho did not have ready access to the Internet stated that theirschools had technology initiatives underway, and that they willsoon have Internet capabilities. Educators expressed interest inlearning how they could make better use of these technologies todeliver food safety and other educational messages. 

Interest in having access to a food safety Web page thatincorporated food safety messages and activities for students ishigh among educators. Educators are adjusting their teachingstyles to reflect student interests in the learning process.Internet and CD-ROM delivery methods are the most popular amongstudents and facilitate group learning and portfolio educationalstyles that are popular in schools today. Food safety issues arereadily adaptable to thematic units of study in many educationalareas including math, science, home economics or family andconsumer sciences, health, and other areas within existing schoolcurricula. 

Other technological considerations include making use of thevariety of telecommunications options available to educatorstoday. Special events, such as television programming, videoteleconferences, online discussions or "chats" withexperts, and other singular and timely "events" canfacilitate the presentation of educational messages that areeagerly anticipated by students and teachers alike. Given thatmuch of the food safety message can be taught in relatively shorttimeframes, special event presentation is one excellent way toensure interest in such an initiative.

 

**V. CONCLUSIONS**

The following conclusions have been reached through theresearch and have resulted in the following recommendations:
- Consider moving some of the food and drug safety        objectives to health promotion, rather than keeping them        under health protection in  Healthy People 2010 .
- Work with textbook publishers to ensure that there is        adequate and appropriate coverage of food safety topics.
- Compile and distribute a resource guide for materials        that are currently available. Improve access to high        quality "orphan" materials.
- Family/consumer science classes provide an ideal setting        for food safety education. The hands-on aspects of the        cooking classroom make it ideal for developing food        safety habits as well as increasing knowledge about the        topic. In terms of reaching the most students, science        seems to offer the most promise. We have provided an        analysis of the science curriculum standards and        indicated where food safety instruction could best fit.        However, it will be important to develop materials that        focus on developing scientific concepts and deepening        student understanding of the living world. Simple food        safety messages are not likely to appeal to or be adopted        by science teachers.
- Promote the importance of food safety education at        various organizational levels--National initiatives        that have a trickle-down influence on education (e.g., Healthy        People 2000, Goals 2000 ); groups involved in        curriculum standards development for relevant subject        areas; regional and State mandates and curriculum        frameworks; school district curriculum supervisors; and        individual classroom teachers.
- The middle grades (5 though 8) appear to offer the best        opportunities to integrate food safety education into the        curriculum for several reasons. First, students at this        age are developmentally ready for many of the concepts        needed for a comprehensive treatment of food safety.        Second, there are three subject opportunities for food        safety education--science, health, and        family/consumer science. Third, middle schools are        arranged in a team concept so there are more        opportunities for cooperation and collaboration at the        middle school level than of any other level. Fourth,        teachers of students in the middle grades are less bound        by coverage requirements than are those in high school.        These teachers are more open to thematic units and are in        search of activities that are hands on and relate to        daily living. Fifth, students in this age group are        typically involved in preparing food for        themselves--and in some cases for others in the        family--and need this information.
- Upper elementary school and high school also offer some        opportunities.
- There are few materials that take into account        populations with special educational needs. These include        populations those with limited English proficiency and        low literacy skills as well as those who have cognitive        or other disabilities. We believe that it is very        important to take into consideration the needs of these        populations as many of them enter the food service        industry.
- There is a need to do a thorough, comprehensive review of        existing materials and to compile and cross-index a        listing of the materials that are considered to be of        high quality. There are a limited number of print        materials that appear to be of high quality from a        content perspective, but that need to be laid out in a        more attractive format to encourage use. Once this        reformatting is accomplished, it would be desirable if        there was a single source from which educators could        obtain the materials.
- Print, video, and audio materials have a relatively long        shelf life--as long as they are sound from a content        and design perspective. The same cannot be said for        computer applications. Not only are there issues related        to platform compatibility, but also in the arena of high        tech instructional materials the bar keeps going up.        Therefore, there is a need to invest carefully in such        materials. At the current time, schools seem to be moving        strongly to use of the Internet as an informational and        instructional resource although it seems likely that CD-ROM        will remain important in schools for several        years, and a successor (e.g., DVD) will take over once        that has been relegated to antiquity.
- School officials (e.g., teachers, school health        professionals, school food service personnel, and        administrators) recognize the need to work new        educational initiatives into existing curricula rather        than to attempt to introduce new curricula. Food safety        issues are perfect for thematic units of study in many        educational areas including math, science, home economics        or family and consumer sciences, health, and other areas        within existing school curricula. Teachers also recognize        the importance of introducing units of study to students        in exciting and innovative ways. Making use of advance        technologies such as computer applications, online        services, video capabilities, satellite transmissions,        and others is one way of capturing student attention and        creating excitement around educational messages. Special        events, such as television programming, video        teleconferences, online discussions or "chats"        with experts, and other singular and timely        "events" can facilitate the presentation of        educational messages that are actually eagerly        anticipated by students and teachers alike. Given that        much of the food safety message can be taught in        relatively short timeframes, special event presentation        is one excellent way to ensure interest in such an        initiative. 

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