II USGS science for a changing world 

Proceedings of the 

Fourth Biennial Conference 

of Research on the Colorado Plateau 

Report Series USGSFRESC/COPL/1999/16 

United States Department of the Interior 

U.S. Geological Survey 
Editorial Staff 

U.S. Geological Survry/FRESC 

Charles van Riper, III 

Maureen A. Stuart 

Managing Editor 

Editor, Publications Coordinator 

and Desktop Publisher 

Cover photo: 

Buttes and mesas of Monument Valley, Arizona 

typify the spectacular landforms of the Colorado Plateau. 

(© AI Richmond) 

This report may be cited as follows: 

van Riper, C., III, and M. A. Stuart, editors. 1999. Proceedings of 

the Fourth Biennial Conference of Research on the Colorado 

Plateau. U.S. Geological Survey /FRESC Report Series 

USGSFRESC/COPL/1999/16. 

Copies of this report are available from the Station Leader, Colorado Plateau Field Station, Northern Arizona University, P.O. Box 

5614, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-5614. 
Proceedings of the Fourth Biennial 

Conference of Research on 

the Colorado Plateau 

Editors 

Charles van Riper III 

Maureen A. Stuart 

Fourth Biennial Conference 

of Research on the Colorado Plateau 

Northern Arizona University 

Flagstaff 

Sponsored and organized by 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Biological Resources Division 

Co-sponsored by 

Northern Arizona University 

Report Series USGSFRESC/COPL/1999/16 
CONTRIBUTORS 

W. Sylvester Allred 

Department of Biological Sciences 

Northern Arizona University 

Box 5640 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 

Janet Balsom 

Grand Canyon National Park 

P.O. Box 129 

Grand Canyon, AZ 86023 

Matthew J. Betenson 

Zion National Park 

Springdale, UT 84767 

Susan R. Boe 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Research Branch 

2221 W. Greenway Rd. 

Phoenix, AZ 85023 

David N. Cagle 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Region I 

HC 62 Box 57201 

Pinetop, AZ 85935 

Timothy W. Canaday 

Death Valley National Park 

Death Valley, CA 92328 

Kenneth L. Cole 

USGS/FRESC 

Colorado Plateau Field Station 

Northern Arizona University 

Box 5614 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 

Timothy E. Crews 

Environmental Studies Program 

Prescott College 

220 Grove Ave. 

Prescott, AZ 86301 

ii 

Anne DaVega 

Prescott College 

220 Grove Ave 

Prescott, AZ 86301 

Norris L. Dodd 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Research Branch 

Box 2326 

Pinetop, AZ 85935 

Ryan T. Eisfeldt 

Center for Environmental Sciences and 

Education 

Northern Arizona University 

Box 5694 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 

William B. Fawcett, Jr. 

Department of Sociology, Social Work, 

and Anthropology 

UMC 0730 

Utah State University 

Logan, UT 84322 

M. Lisa Floyd-Hanna 

Prescott College 

220 Grove Ave 

Prescott, AZ 86301 

L.D. Garrett 

Grand Canyon Monitoring and Research 

Center 

2255 N. Gemini Drive 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 

William S. Gaud 

Department of Biological Sciences 

Northern Arizona University 

Box 5640 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 
John G. Goodwin, Jr. 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Region II 

3500 S. Lake Mary Rd. 

Flagstaff, AZ 86001 

David Hanna 

Prescott College 

220 Grove Ave 

Prescott, AZ 86301 

Matthew King 

Center for Environmental Sciences and 

Education 

Northern Arizona University 

Box 5694 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 

William R. Latady 

Anasazi State Park 

P.O. Box 1429 

Boulder, UT 84716 

Melissa F. Lema 

Department of Biological Sciences 

Northern Arizona University 

Box 5640 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 

Lyndon K. Murray 

University of Texas at Austin 

Department of Geological Sciences 

Austin, TX 78701 

Laird P. Naylor II 

Bureau of Land Management 

Utah State Office 

324 S. State Street, Suite 301 

Salt Lake City, UT 84145 

Martin A. Nie 

University of Minnesota, Duluth 

Department of Political Science 

304 Cina Hall, 10 University Drive 

Duluth, MN 55812-2496 

iii 

Michael J. Rabe 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Non-Game Branch 

2221 W Greenway Rd. 

Phoenix, AZ 85027 

Timothy D. Rogers 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Research Branch 

2221 W Greenway Rd. 

Phoenix, AZ 85023 

William H. Romme 

Biology Department 

Fort Lewis College 

Durango, CO 81301 

Melissa S. Siders 

North Kaibab Ranger District 

Kaibab National Forest 

Fredonia, AZ 86022 

Thomas D. Sisk 

Center for Environmental Sciences and 

Education 

Northern Arizona University 

Box 5694 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 

Tim K. Snow 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Non-Game Branch 

2221 W Greenway Rd. 

Phoenix, AZ 85027 

Michael H. Soulen 

Grand Canyon Monitoring and Research 

Center 

2255 N. Gemini Drive 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 

Elaine Stanley 

Center for Environmental Sciences and 

Education 

Northern Arizona University 

Box 5694 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 
Maureen A. Stuart 

USGS/FRESC 

Colorado Plateau Field Station 

Northern Arizona University 

Box 5614 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 

Charles van Riper III 

USGS/FRESC 

Colorado Plateau Field Station 

Northern Arizona University 

Box 5614 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 

Brian F. Wakeling 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Research Branch 

2221 W Greenway Rd. 

Phoenix, AZ 85023 

iv 

James H. Witham 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Region III 

5325 N. Stockton Hill Rd. 

Kingman, AZ 86401 

Kei Yasuda 

575 East 43rd Avenue 

Eugene, OR 97405 
CoNTENTS 

Page 

Ust of Contributors ....................................................................................... ii 

Preface. Dennis B. Fenn ............................................................................... vii 

Dedication. Charles van Riper III ............................................................ viii. 

Introduction. Charles van Riper III ........................................................... xi 

Section I. Biological Resources ................................................... 1 

Middle and Late Holocene Packrat Middens from Capitol Reef 

National Park. 

Kenneth L Cole and Lyndon K Murray .................................................... 3 

Changes in Character and Structure of Apache/Sitgreaves Forest 

Ecology: 1850-1990. 

LD. Garrett and Michael H. Sou/en ....................................................... 25 

Chapin 5 Fire Vegetation Monitoring and Mitigation. 

M. Lisa Floyd-Hanna, Anne Da V tga, David Hanna, and 

William H. &mme ................................................................................... 61 

Performance of Aerial Forward-Looking Infrared Surveys on Cattle, 

Elk, and Turkey in Northern Arizona. 

Brian F. Wakeh'ng, David N. Cagle, and James H. Witham .................. 77 

Assessing Impacts of Alternative Livestock Management Practices: 

Raging Debates and a Role for Science. 

Thomas D. Sisk, Timotf?y E. Crews, Ryan T. Eisfeldt, Matthew King, 

and Elaine Stanlry ..................................................................................... 89 

Social Behavior of Abert's Squirrels in Ponderosa Pine Forests. 

Melissa F. Lema, W. Sylvester Allred, William S. Gaud, and 

Norris L Dodd ....................................................................................... 1 OS 

Long Foraging Distances in Two Uncommon Bat Species (Euderma 

maculatum and Eumops perotis) in Northern Arizona. 

Mehssa S. Siders, Michael J. Rabe, Tim K Snow, and Kei Yasuda ........ 113 

Merriam's Turkey Winter Survival on the North Kaibab Ranger 

District Following the Bridger Knoll Complex Wildfires. 

Brian F. Wakeling and John G. Goodwin, Jr. ......................................... 123 

v 
Merriam's Turkey Distribution in Relation to the U.S. Forest Service 

Recreational Opportunity Spectrum Forest Classification and Road 

Proximity in North-Central Arizona. 

Timotf?y D. Rogers, Brian F. Wake ling, and Sus an R Boe .................... 133 

Section II. Cultural Resources ................................................. 143 

Changes in the Organization of Technology and Labor among Archaic 

and Ancestral Pueblo Peoples in the Vicinity of the Coombs Site, 

South-Central Utah. 

William B. Fawcett, Jr. and William R Latatfy .................................... 145 

Recent High Altitude Archeological Surveys at Cedar Breaks National 

Monument, Utah. 

Timotf?y W. Canaday, Matthew J Betenson, and Laird P. Naylor, II ... 163 

Cultural Resources and the Glen Canyon Dam-Colorado River 

Experimental Flow of 1996. 

Janet Ba/som ............................................................................................. 183 

Southern Utah Wilderness and the Meaning of the West. 

Martin A. Nie ......................................................................................... 19 5 

Index ........................................................................................... 213 

vi 
PREFACE 

The 13 papers in this volume are contributions from federal, state, 

and private sector researchers, who come together at Northern Arizona 

University every other year to share scientific information with land managers on the Colorado Plateau. This is the fourth Proceedings for which 

I have had the pleasure of providing a Preface. This Colorado Plateau 

Biennial Conference series of publications focuses on providing infor-· 

marion to USGS partners, particularly land managers on the Colorado 

Plateau. The papers of this fourth Proceedings contribute to the ever 

growing pool of scientific data that provides baseline scientific informa- · 

tion pertaining to physical, cultural, and biological resources of the Colorado Plateau. Support for many of these studies have come from a 

spectrum of federal, state, and private partners concerned about the wellbeing of the Plateau's resources. I applaud the effort of the contributors. 

With modest funding and a broad base of public and institutional support, these authors have pursued important lines of work in the four 

states (Arizona, Utah, New Mexico and Colorado) that comprise the 

Colorado Plateau biogeographic region. 

There remains much to be done. As a people, we face the prospect 

of extensive local and global environmental changes that continue to 

perturb the physical, cultural, and biological resources on lands of the 

Colorado Plateau. As the research branch for the Department of the 

Interior, we in the USGS are committed to identify, in a sound scientific 

manner, information that can be used by land managers to protect our 

resources from detrimental change due to modern human influences. 

We must dt;velop the information necessary to alert our managers, leaders, and the public to the importance of their natural surroundings as 

elements of those basic resources that sustain us, inspire us, and represent 

our natural biological and environmental heritage. Our task has just begun. 

DENNIS B. FENN 

Chief Biologist 

U.S. Geological Survey 
D E DICATION 

TO 

D R. H E RY 0. HooPER 

This Proceedings of the Fourth Biennial Conference of Research on tbe Colorado 

Plateau is ded icated to Dr. ll enry 0 . Hooper. Dr. Hooper has been an integral part of the 

growth and success of SGS Colorado Plateau Field Station (CPFS) and other federal 

partnershiJ s on the Northern Ari zona University lAU) campus. Afte r an illustrious 

career as a pro fe ssor of Physics at Wayne State University and then tbe niversity of 

Maine, Dr. Hoo1 er came ro Arizona in "198 1 as Associate Vice President for Academic 

Affairs and Graduate D ean. In 1989, Dr. Dennis foenn of the National Park Service 

approached J\ U regarding the possibili ty of placing a l ational Park Service Cooperative Park tudies Unit ( PSU) on campus. Dr. Hooper took an immediate interest in 

this matter, and continued to support, both fin anciall y and in concept, the CPSU at 

l orthern Arizona niversity. For his efforts, in 1993 Dr. Hooper was awa rded the N PS 

Regional Director's Natural Resources Award for his involvement with the CP 

In the fall of 1993 the CP was transferred to the newly created lational Biological Service, and then in 1997 to the U.S. Geological Survey. Dr. Hooper met each change 

with the same enthusiasm that he directed ro the former CPS . Throughout this 1993-

1998 transition period, Dr. Hooper devoted additional time and energy to assu re that the 

Colorado Plateau Biennial Conference was continued on the NA campus. I lis energies 

also contributed to the quali ty of the Biennial Conference Proceedings cri es. Without 

the continued support of Dr. Hooper, the Colorado Plateau Biennial Confe rence Proceedings would not have been a continuous reali ty. As Dr. I looper moves in to retirement, following the 1999 academic yea r, it is important that we remember and recogn ize 

the contributions that he has made to science an I research at Nt\ , to the SGS Colorado Plateau Field Station, and to federal, state and private land managers throughout 

the Colorado Plateau . 

V III 
Introduction 

Introduction to the Proceedings of the 

Fourth Biennial Conference of Research 

on the Colorado Plateau 

The 13 chapters in this book were selected from the 75 research 

papers presented at the Fourth Biennial Conference of Research on the. 

Colorado Plateau. The theme of this meeting centered around research, 

inventory, and monitoring on lands over the Colorado Plateau, with a 

focus on the newly created BLM Grand Staircase-Escalante National 

Monument. The conference, held on 15-18 September 1997 in Flag- · 

staff, Arizona, was hosted by the USGS Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center Colorado Plateau Field Station (CPFS) and Northern 

Arizona University. 

This is the fourth volume in a planned series of Colorado Plateau 

Proceedings, highlighting research and resource management efforts related to physical, cultural and natural resources within the biogeographic 

province of the Colorado Plateau. Many of the protocols and management techniques presently being utilized in land management units over 

the Colorado Plateau are a result of collaborative work between CPFS 

staff, university and agency scientists, and land managers. The scientific 

work published in this Proceedings Series contributes significantly to those 

collaborative efforts. It has been clearly demonstrated that, because of 

similarities across the Colorado Plateau, techniques that work in one 

management unit are applicable to other units throughout the province, 

and possibly to other areas of the country that have similar habitat and 

climatological parameters. 

Each paper selected for publication in this Proceedings represents 

original research and has been peer reviewed by scientists of that particular research discipline. The papers are divided into two major sections: I. 

those that deal with Biological Resources; and, II. those addressing 

Cultural Resources. The Biological Resources section comprises the 

first 9 chapters of this book, with the first three chapters dealing with 

vegetation and the next six with studies of animal ecology. The final four 

chapters fall under Cultural Resources, evenly divided between archeology and policy chapters pertaining to human perceptions of managing 

cultural resources. 

xi 
I. BIOLOGICAL REsouRcEs 

It is fitting to begin this section, and in particular the book, with a 

chapter dealing with a unique aspect of the Colorado Plateau. The paper 

by Cole and Murray describes Holocene vegetation of Capital Reef National Park from packrat midden analyses. Fossil packrat middens are 

valuable sources of paleoecological information in arid regions of the 

southwest. On the Colorado Plateau, information on pre-settlement 

vegetation is often lacking, and analyses of packrat middens allow researchers to reconstruct these earlier vegetation communities. Such was 

the objective of this first paper, in that Capitol Reef National Park needed 

a baseline of vegetation community information from which to construct restoration guidelines. Information from packrat middens allowed 

Cole and Murray to demonstrate that the present vegetation community 

is apparently an artifact of overgrazing. The chapter clearly documents 

that vegetation species lost since pre-settlement were those that were more 

palatable to large herbivores. In fact, the authors argue that in their reconstruction of vegetation communities, some species reached their lowest 

levels in the past 5,400 years. Conversely, species typical of present-day 

over grazed ranges on the Colorado Plateau, were not present in the 

earlier packrat midden record. The authors also feel that the increase in 

Utah juniper (juniperus osteosperma) pollen in their middens records over 

that past 200 years, has probably been a result of fire suppression at 

Capitol Reef National Park. 

The second chapter of the Biological Resources section also examines vegetation changes, but in this instance switches time-frames, examining only historical forest structure. Garrett and Soulen provide an analysis 

of the changing over-story density of the Apache/Sitgreaves National 

Forest in eastern Arizona. They examine tree-density data from surveys 

in 1911, 1967, 1988 and 1994, concluding that the density of trees per 

acre has increased dramatically in all size classes up to 20" dbh. Computer simulated treatments utilizing analyses with a Geographic Information System, revealed that agencies would realize enhanced positive values if tree densities in the forests were brought into line with pre-settlement conditions. 

The final vegetation chapter by Floyd-Hanna et al. deals with vegetation response to fire at Mesa Verde National Park. The authors document their efforts at monitoring vegetation response and mitigation to 

the lightning-initiated 'Chapin 5' fire in August 1996. The 4,781 burned 

xii 
acres were divided into 7 pre-fire vegetation communities and 2 principal geological substrates for monitoring purposes. Subsets of these 9 

areas were monitored, and either aerially seeded or had mechanical removal of alien plant species. The authors demonstrated multiple pathways of native vegetation recovery from the 1996 fire, but also feel that 

in certain areas alien plants now dominate the landscape and are preventing the recovery of native vegetation communities. This will certainly 

present a challenge to the 'noxious weed' initiative of Mesa Verde Na- . 

tional Park. 

Chapter #4 of the Biological Resources section provides a transition 

into wildlife management, where Wakeling et al. examine the performance of aerial forward-looking infrared (FLIR) surveys on cattle, elk, 

and turkeys in the forests of northern Arizona. Wildlife managers are 

often challenged by techniques needed to determine total numbers of 

animals, whether it be for carrying capacity or in order to set hunting 

season bag limits. Aerial FLIR surveys became popular because they 

seemed to standardize and objectively survey large wildlife species without bias. Wakeling et al. conducted FLIR tests on known number of 

cattle, known turkey roosts, and known locations of elk herds using replications with fixed wing aircraft and then helicopters. Their findings 

demonstrate that FLIR is not yet suitable for small animals such as turkeys, and that not all large animals are observed. The authors recommend against the use of FLIR as a sole estimate of large-bodied wildlife 

species in Arizona, until correction factors for target species, timing, and 

habitat can be developed. 

In the next chapter, Sisk et al. provide a unique insight into how they 

have developed a 'management team' approach to shape an experimental research program that examines the livestock grazing debate on the 

Colorado Plateau. The authors base their chapter on the assumption that 

domestic livestock grazing is the most pervasive human impact on lands 

of the Colorado Plateau. In fact, ranching versus environmental interests 

have made livestock grazing the most contentious issue in the southwestern United States. The authors feel that this polarization of interests has 

come about because there is a lack of scientifically sound, defensible 

information to support either side of the issue. Sisk et al. provide a plan 

of action where they take the claims of each interest group, reformulate 

these claims into testable hypotheses, and then provide research designs 

for each of the hypotheses. This chapter exemplifies a modern-day apxiii 
proach on how science must deal with volatile social issues, if there is 

ever to be any hope of bringing disparate groups together so that a 

solution can be reached which is acceptable to all parties. 

Chapters #6 and #7 move into more wildlife specific information, 

both being radio telemetry studies that examine behavior of mammals. 

Lema et al. examine the social behavior of Abert's Squirrels (S ciurus abertt) 

in Chapter #6, presenting the results of a 12 month study on radiocollared squirrels near Flagstaff, Arizona. They demonstrate, for the ftrst 

time, that this species exhibits extensive social behavior. According to the 

authors, it was previously believed that Abert's squirrels were solitary 

animals. Lema et al. found pairs and trios of squirrels occupying communal nests that included male/ female and male/ male combinations of 

varying age classes. They also found, in over half their observations, that 

more than one Abert's squirrel occupied a tree. The authors conclude 

this chapter suggesting that communal nesting behavior among Abert's 

squirrels may facilitate thermoregulation, and that this type of nesting 

and tree sharing may reinforce social bonding and resource sharing. In 

Chapter #7, Siders et al. examine foraging distances of two uncommon 

bat species on the Kaibab Plateau in northern Arizona. This radio telemetry study determined the foraging areas of seven lactating female spotted bats (Euderma maculatum), documenting daily movements of up to 42 

km. It appears that although the bats forage in locations at 2500 m elevation, they prefer to day roost at lower elevations (e.g., approximately 

1000 m elevation). The authors also provide information on maternity 

roosts and relative numbers of 18 bat species captured from between 

1994 and 1998. 

The final two biological chapters deal with studies of Merriam's turkeys. In Chapter #8 Wakeling and Goodwin examine over-winter survival of turkeys in the North Kaibab region of Arizona. During 1996, 

several severe fires occurred on the Kaibab Plateau, and the authors wanted 

to examine, with radio-collared birds, the potential influence of these 

fires on over- winter survival. They found significantly higher mortality 

in this area of Arizona in 1996 when compared to other regions of the 

state. First-year birds were more greatly affected, with a mortality rate 

of 90°/o versus 34°/o in adult females. All cohorts of turkeys experienced 

the greatest mortality between January and March, and the authors attribute the increased mortality to deep snow and limited food availability. 

This study supports the contention that winter food availability is closely 

xiv 
tied with turkey over-winter mortality. In the last chapter of the Biological Resources section, Rogers et al. examine the impact of U.S. Forest 

Service transportation corridors on male turkey distributions. The authors found that turkeys avoided locations less than 200 m from roads, 

for all resightings and for all roost sites. However, improved high-traffic 

roads had a much greater negative influence than did unimproved, lowtraffic roads. They were not able to ascertain what level of road use that 

turkeys found unacceptable. 

II. CuLTURAL REsouRCES 

Chapter #10 begins the Cultural Resources section of this book, 

with a study by Fawcett and Latady on an archeological survey of Black 

Ledge, a mesa immediately adjacent to Coombs site, the largest ancestral 

pueblo village in south-central Utah. The authors use archeological data 

from Black Ledge (principally lithic artifacts and site settings) to examine 

potential reasons for a prehistoric shift from formal (bifacial) technology 

to expedient (core) technology. In other words, they examined the question of why nomadic people of the Colorado Plateau settled into a 

more sedentary style of living. The theme of this chapter is the comparison of Late Archaic sites of mobile hunter-gathers with the equally ephemeral sites created largely by women, as they harvested, processed and 

transported wild resources for use during the Late Formative period. 

Fawcett and Latady conclude that their survey data support the same 

shift in organization of prehistoric lithic technology (from bifaces to cores) 

on the Colorado Plateau, that has been observed in many other places 

throughout the southwestern United States and around the world. 

An archeological survey of Cedar Breaks National Monument in 

southern Utah, is the theme of Chapter #11. Canaday et al. subdivide 

their survey work at Cedar Breaks into two discrete locations of the 

Markagunt Plateau: those areas below 9,200 feet and those above 10,000 

feet elevation. They found little prehistoric use in the lower site, but 

demonstrated extensive use of the higher elevations over the past 4,000 

years. Procurement of chert from the Brian Head Formation for hunting purposes appears to have been the primary activity. The authors have 

also initiated a number of ancillary studies, such as trace mineral analyses 

and palynological (pollen) studies from a peat bog, to provide a better 

understanding of prehistoric use of Cedar Breaks and the Markagunt 

Plateau. 

XV 
Chapter #12 provides a transition from purely archeological studies 

to human policy surrounding cultural resources. Balsom summarizes the 

benefits and drawbacks of the Spring 1996 'Experimental Habitat Building 

Flow' in Grand and Glen Canyons. In particular the potential loss/preservation of cultural resources from higher water volume releases of Glen 

Canyon Dam is examined. From 45 previously recorded sites, four 

were chosen to measure potential impacts on archeological resources. 

The author's overall conclusion was, with a few cautions, that habitat 

building flows were beneficial to the cultural resources along the Colorado River in Grand and Glen Canyon National Parks. 

The final chapter of the Fourth Biennial Conference Proceedings is 

that of Nie, who examines the debate over establishment of wilderness 

in Utah, and particularly the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument. Through a number of personal interviews and a compilation of 

newspaper articles and federal legislation, the author weaves a complex 

picture surrounding the debate over Southern Utah Wilderness and how 

this fits into the framework of the 'true' West. It is apparent from this 

treatise that issues on the southern Colorado Plateau, and in particular 

Utah, transcends solely environmental protection, to a plethora of regional-specific themes and concerns. Nie argues that placing the debate 

only in terms of wilde~ness acreage is overly simplistic, and that one has 

to examine more clos~ly the values of the local residents and focus on 

culture and place. It is only once these dimensions of cultural values are 

included in the equation, can the wilderness debate on the Colorado Plateau be understood and the conflict diminished. 

AcKNoWLEDGMENTS 

Any Proceedings is never a single effort, but a direct result of work 

by many individuals. This Fourth Proceedings is no exception. The dedicated Colorado Plateau Field Station staff (f. Arundel, K. Cole, M. 

Debold, E. & P. Deshler, C. Drost, K. Estes, J. Grahame, J. Hart, S. 

Jacobs, M. Johnson, E. Nowak, E. Paxton, A., A., & M. Rasmussen, M. 

Sogge, K. Thomas, V. Tondini, and D. Willey) provided much needed 

assistance during the conference. I would especially like to thank Maureen 

Stuart, who spent many hours of editorial assistance with the final drafts 

of each chapter and coordinated with GPO during the publication phase. 

Thanks are also extended to the many reviewers who unselfishly devoted 

their time and efforts to improving each chapter. The financial support 

that Drs. Michael Collopy and Henry Hooper provided for publication 

xvi 
of this Proceedings is greatly appreciated. Finally, I express deep appreciation to my wife Sandy, and our children Jacqueline, Kimberly, Carena 

and Charles IV for their support and understanding during the time that 

this Proceedings was in production. 

This book, like the products of other symposia that are centered 

around a particular theme, should help to focus attention on some of the 

research presently being conducted on lands of the Colorado Plateau. In . 

particular, it is hoped that the new BLM Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument will be able to utilize some of the ideas and concepts 

presented within the Biennial Proceedings, to launch their efforts toward 

management and stewardship of their newly created lands on the Colorado Plateau. Finally, if the material in this volume, as that contained in 

previous Biennial Conference Proceedings~ can act as a stimulus for future support of research and management of physical, cultural, and natural 

resources over the Colorado Plateau, it will make the organizational and 

editorial work of the past two years a worthwhile and productive effort. 

CHARLEs VAN RIPER III 

Station Leader, USGS I BRD 

Forest and Rangeland Eco.rystem Science Center 

Colorado Plateau Field Station 

xvii 
Biological 

Resources 

Middle and Late Holocene 

Packrat Middens from 

Capitol Reef National Park 

Kenneth L. Cole 

USGS/FRESC 

Colorado Plateau Field Station 

P.O. Box 5614 

Northern Arizona University 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 

and 

Lyndon K. Murray 

U niversiry of Texas at Austin 

Department of Geological Sciences 

Austin, TX 78701 

Abstract. Twenty Holocene and two late Wisconsinan packrat middens were collected and analyzed from Capitol Reef National Park. The two older middens, collected 

at 1390 m elevation, were greater than 26,000 years in age and contained species typical 

of much higher elevations, such as Douglas fir, limber pine, Rocky Mountain juniper, and 

Knowlton hophornbeam. These ancient middens demonstrate the antiquity of many 

inaccessible deposits high in the Navajo Sandstone. 

Nine Holocene middens were collected from Hall's Canyon, eight from the Hartnet 

Draw area, and three from other locations. A comparison of the middle and late 

Holocene middens to five modern middens and to modern vegetation suggests that 

vegetation changes taking place in the last several hundred years are more extreme than 

any changes occurring since at least the middle Holocene. The nature and timing of these 

changes imply that they were primarily caused by nineteenth century open-land sheep 

grazing. 

Presettlement middens consistently contained abundant macrofossils of plant species palatable to large herbivores that are now absent or reduced, such as winterfat 

(Ceratoides lanata) and ricegrass (Stipa ~menoides), especially in the most complete series at 

Hartnet Draw. Macrofossils and pollen of pinyon pine (Pinus edu/is), sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) and roundleaf buffaloberry (Sheperdia rotundifo/ia) were also recently reduced to 

their lowest levels for the 5400 year record. Conversely, species typical of overgrazed 

range, such as snakeweed (Gutterrezia sarothrae), viscid rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus 

3 
4 COLEANDMURRAY 

visidiflorus), and Russian thistle (Sa/sola sp.) were not recorded prior to the historic introduction of grazing animals. Pollen of Utah juniper (juniperus osteosperma) also increased 

during the last 200 years, possibly due to the elimination of grassland fires. 

Key words: Holocene vegetation history, grazing impacts, packrat middens, fossil 

pollen, presettlement vegetation 

INTRODUCTION 

The purpose of this study is to produce a vegetation history of 

Capitol Reef National Park, reconstructing past changes in vegetation, 

especially those accompanying the settlement era. A reconstruction of 

the presettlement vegetation, existing just prior to settlement of the area 

by European industrialized society, was needed by the National Park in 

order to set restoration guidelines. Also, a reconstruction of any vegetation changes brought about by settlement impacts was needed to understand the dynamics of ecosystem change in order to better manage the 

park. Among the methods of reconstructing this past vegetation were 

an analysis of fossil packrat middens (reported here) and a study of 

buried plant phytoliths (Fisher et al. 1995). 

Reconstructing Past Vegetation with Packrat Middens 

Fossil packrat middens are valuable sources of paleoecological information in arid regions of the southwestern United States (Cole 1990, 

Betancourt et al. 1990). Plant macrofossils in packrat middens are often 

identifiable to the species level and represent species that grew close to 

the midden location, most likely within 50 m. Because plant identification and location can be precisely known, this method has extremely high 

spatial and taxonomic resolution compared to other methods of reconstructing past vegetation. 

Studies comparing trees and shrubs at midden sites with plant specimens from modern middens typically report similarities exceeding 80°/o 

using a Sorensen's Index of Similarity (Spaulding et al. 1990, Frase and 

Sera 1993, Cole and Webb 1985, Cole 1985). This is especially true when 

small macrofossils ( < 2 mm) are identified using a 1 OX microscope. 

Similarity with forbs and grasses has been reported to be lower (Frase 

and Sera 1993), but inventories of current forbs are usually incomplete 

due to seasonal and yearly variability in the forb flora, and identification 

of diverse forbs and grasses within midden assemblages is difficult. 

Fossil pollen within the middens can also be analyzed (King and Van 
REPORT SERIES 5 

Devender 1977, Thompson 1985, Davis and Anderson 1988), emphasizing different types of vegetation, and representing a larger source area 

than the plant macrofossils. Interpretation of the fossil pollen abundances, like the macrofossil abundances, requires caution and experience, 

as some species are better represented than others. Through the consideration of both the macrofossil and pollen records, a more comprehensive understanding of past environments can be achieved. 

Grazing History of Capitol Reef National Park 

Settlement impacts to the vegetation of Capitol Reef can be attributed mainly to grazing by large introduced herbivores, because this was. 

the primary economic use of these lands. Native large herbivores which 

may have been present in the study area during the last 5000 years include: bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), pronghorn (Antilocapra americana), and possibly bison (Bison bison) and elk ( Cervus 

elaphus) (Van Gelder 1928, Mead et al. 1991). Eurasian horses and asses 

(Equus spp.) were introduced to New Mexico by Spanish colonists as 

early as 1598 AD (Underhill 1971). By the late 1600's, feral horses were 

reported in parts of the west, but it is unlikely that they existed in the 

study area prior to the 1800's. 

In the late 1800's introduced large herbivore populations increased 

dramatically in southern Utah with the widespread increase in open-land 

grazing. Livestock grazing within and near Capitol Reef National Park 

has been documented since at least the 1870's (Frye 1995). By 1909, 

more quantitative herbivore population estimates for the Capitol Reef 

area can be made using grazing permits issued for Powell (now part of 

Dixie) National Forest (Frye 1995). In 1909 the Forest Service issued 

summer grazing permits for 67,000 sheep and 11,000 cattle. The animals that grazed in these high summer pastures presumably spent the 

winter in the lower adjacent areas of Capitol Reef National Park. 

A Bureau of Land Management survey described past use at the 

Hartnet Draw site: 

"Prior to the passage of the Taylor Grazing act in 1934, large 

numbers of livestock were brought from Wayne, Seiver, and 

Emery Counties to winter on these lands. Many of the animals 

remained on the range year-long, resulting in the progressive 

destruction of soils and vegetation. Reports from stockmen in 

the area indicate that many trespass horses used the area until 

about 1955. Prior to 1946 there were at least 163 cattle and 20 

horses year-long in this area" (Hartnet Allotment File 1966). 
6 Cm.EANDMURRAY 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Approximately 1 kg of each midden was separated from the in situ 

larger masses using a hammer and chisel. In the laboratory, these 1 kg 

samples were then dissected producing horizontally stratified sub-samples 

typically measuring about 15 x 20 em with a thickness of several centimeters. This midden sample is smaller than what is often used by some 

other investigators. But, it is of sufficient size to yield a full spectrum of 

identifiable plant macrofossils while minimizing the opportunity for intermixing of layers. 

Weathering rinds and large rocks were removed from each subsample, yielding 300 to 600 g of the hardened midden material. This 

sample was then weighed and disaggregated in water. Pollen samples 

were taken from the wash water after several days of soaking, and processed using standard methods (Faegri and Iversen 1975, Murray 1989). 

Plant, vertebrate, and invertebrate fossils, fecal pellets, and rocks were 

separated from the dissolved middens with a 1 mm sieve. The resulting 

matrix was dried and weighed, yielding 1 00 to 200 g of washed midden 

matrix. The dried matrix was sorted by hand under a 1 OX dissecting 

microscope. Packrat fecal pellets and rocks were removed and weighed. 

Identifiable plant macrofossils, vertebrate bones, and insect fossils were 

identified, counted, labeled, and stored in plastic vials. 

Packrat fecal pellets were submitted to radiocarbon laboratories for 

dating. Calendar year ranges for the radiocarbon ages were calculated 

using the calibration program of Stuiver and Reimer (1993). Some undated middens were considered modern because of the presence of 

green leafy material, cow feces, and, in one sample, a peanut shell. 

Data on midden contents were quantified by number and log10 of 

macrofossil concentration in midden matrix. In order to compensate 

for variability between middens, midden matrix weights were adjusted 

by subtracting the weight of the rocks and pellets from the dried washed 

matrix weight before calculation of the concentration. Using log10 of 

macrofossil concentration calculates a number similar to the semi-quantitative abundance scale used by several other authors, but has the advantage of being quantitative, allowing better comparisons between middens 

of differing size. 
RESULTS 

Midden dating 

REPORT SERIES 7 

The ages of 22 middens ranged from 0 to greater than 39,600 yr B.P. 

(fable 1 ). One of the four collections of modern debris (containing 

loose green plant matter) was radiocarbon dated and found to contain 

Table 1. Ages of middens based upon radiocarbon dates. Radiocarbon ages are 

calibrated to calendar years based upon Stuiver and Reimer (1993). Age classes 

are: PO=Postsettlement midden, TR= Transitional midden, PR=Presettlement midden. 

Probability of dating to post-1870 AD (at one sigma, extrapolated from Stuiver and 

Reimer 1993) shown in parentheses, PMC=Percent modern carbon (sample postdates atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons). Modern debris was not dated 

except for Hartnet Draw #3. All dates except Hartnet Draw #5 (dated on Pinus 

edulis needles) are from Neotoma pellets. 

Conventional Date Calibrated 

(Probability of Dating to Calendar 

Sample Name Postsettlement Period) l)13 c Lab ID No. Range Class 

LOWER HALL CANYON 

Baker Shelter #1 Modern Debris PO 

Narrows #5 Modern Debris PO 

Baker Shelter #3 20 ±80 (40%) -24.0 A-5200 1693-1922 AD TR 

Hall Canyon #4 80 ±100 (33%) -22.0 A-5202 1681-1940 AD TR 

Hall Canyon #6 105 ±70 (31%) -22.5 GX-16779 1672-1955 AD TR 

Hall Canyon #7 170 ±100 (17%) -12.5 GX-15551 1640-1955 AD TR 

Hall Canyon #8 265 ±100 (5%) -21.5 GX-15552 1490-1954 AD PR 

Narrows #2 330 ±100 -27.2 A-5201 1450-1650 AD PR 

Baker Shelter #2 410 ±50 -22.9 A-5199 1438-1609 AD PR 

Hall Canyon #2b 28,050 ±2600 -21.4 GX-15399 PR 

Hall Canyon #2a >39,600 -22.9 GX-15400 PR 

UPPER HARTNET DRAW 

Hartnet Draw #3 137 ±1.2 PMC -22.2 A-5197 1950-1986 AD PO 

Hartnet Draw #2 330 ±60 -21.8 A-5204 1490-1637 AD PR 

Hartnet Draw #8 630 ±100 -21.2 GX-16259 1280-1410 AD PR 

Hartnet Draw #1 A 1020 ±70 -21.7 A-5203 898-1152 AD PR 

Hartnet Draw #7b 1275 ±110 -20.8 GX-15554 640-890 AD PR 

Hartnet Draw #9 2570 ±135 -21.8 GX-15553 889-434 BC PR 

Hartnet Draw #5* 3615 ±70 AA-6447* 2128-1889 BC PR 

Hartnet Draw #6 5450 ±90 -21.8 A-5205 4363-4235 BC PR 

OTHER LOCATIONS 

Long Leaf Flat #1 A Modern Debris PO 

Long Leaf Flat #1 B 1 030 ±80 -23.4 A-5198 901-1148 AD PR 

Fremont River #1 7010 ±105 -25.3 GX-15550 5980-5740 BC PR 

• Tandem Accelerator Mass Spectrometer Date on Pinus edu/is needles. Original unlikely date 

of 142 PMC on pellets is probably a lab error, sample contamination with artificial carbon 

isotopes, or a mislabeled sample. 
8 COLE AND MURRAY 

137 percent modern carbon ("modern" is defined as 1950 AD levels). 

Thus, it post-dates the atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons. 

Because of changes in the ratio of carbon isotopes in the atmosphere during the late Holocene, radiocarbon dates must be calibrated 

to calendar years to be correlated with historical events. The radiocarbon 

ages for this report have been converted to calendar years based on the 

calibration program of Stuiver and Reimer (1993) (fable 1). Unfortunately, because of the burning of fossil fuels, radiocarbon dates under 

300 years can often represent several different time intervals during this 

period, and it may not be possible to determine the true age using existing methods. 

In order to determine which middens dated prior to 1870 AD, which 

is approximately when settlement began in earnest, the probability distribution of the radiocarbon ages under 300 years was assessed. Middens 

that dated before 1870 AD were separated from those that dated after 

1870 AD. Middens with significant possibilities of dating to both before 

and after 1870 AD (at one standard deviation) were placed into a third 

transitional group. This age assessment placed middens in one of three 

age categories; Presettlement (prior to 1870 AD), Postsettlement (after 

1870 AD), and Transitional (dating range extending to before and after 

1870 AD; possibly constructed throughout the settlement period). These 

determinations account for only one standard deviation (65°/o of the 

possible ages) on the measurement of 14C activity in the sample, and do 

not account for the time span represented by the midden itself or other 

errors or contaminations that could have occurred before the radioactivity was measured. The amount of time that the packrat requires to construct the midden (the time period represented in the deposit) is variable, 

but is usually small when compared to the uncertainty associated with the 

radiocarbon date, especially in small samples such as these. 

Hartnet Draw Site 

Seven fossil and two modern middens were collected from Hartnet 

Draw in northern Capitol Reef National Park (Cole et al. 1997, Cole 

1992). This site (38° 15' N, 111° 20' W; Fig. 1 ), at 1920 m elevation in 

Wayne County, Utah, was chosen because of its abundance of fossil 

packrat middens and remote location, free from most anthropogenic 

disturbances other than grazing. 

The most abundant plant species at the site today are: Utah juniper 

Uuniperus osteosperma), Bigelow sagebrush (Artemisia biglovit), big sagebrush 

(A. tridentata), snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae), Torrey ephedra (Ephedra 
R.EPOirr SERII '.S 9 

Figure 1. View of Hartnet Draw midden site. Middens were collected from 

small alcoves in distance. 

torrrycma), viscid rabbitbrus h ( Cbrysotbamnm visidifloms), and central 

pricklypear (Opuntia po!Jacantba). Low areas with thicker soil support a 

sparse growth of the grasses: ricegrass, sand drop seed (Sporobo/m 

cryptandms), and blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis). 

The nine Hartnet Draw middens ranged in age from modern to 

5450 yr B.P. (fable 1). The results of the macrofossil analysis for major 

species from the Hartnet draw middens are shown in Figure 2. The 

complete macrofossil data from these middens can be found in Cole et 

al. (1997) or Cole (1992). All of the Hartnet Draw middens contain 

abundant macrofossils of tah juniper, saltbush (Atriplex spp.), cliff rose 

(C01vania mexicana), and prickly pear (Opuntia sp.), which are all abundant 

at the site today (Fig. 2). The presettlement middens also contain pinyon 

pine (Pinus edttlis), winterfat (Ceratoides lanata), sagebrush (Artemisia sp.) and 

ricegrass (Stipa I?Jmenotdes) which are absent from the one modern midden 

analyzed for macrofossils (Hartnet #3). Winterfat was not observed 

during the field work and pinyon pine was rare in the area. The rarity or 

absence of sagebrush and ricegrass from the modern midden suggests 

that they are less common now than prior to settlement. Similarly, globe 

mallow (Sphaeralcea sp.), needlegrass (Stipa sp.), blue gramma (Bot{te/oua 

gracilis), dropseed (Sporabofis cryptandrus), and roundleaf buffaloberry 
Figure 2. Principal plant macrofossils from Hartnet Draw middens. Fossil values are displayed as Log10 of concentration. The cluster analysis 

(right side of diagram) was created using a stratigraphically constrained multivariate clustering program (CONISS; Grimm 1987). 

Hartnet Draw - Macrofossi I Concentration 

Log fossils/kg washed matrix 

II) 

c> 

<( 

Kenneth Cole 

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 20 40 60 

6000 Total sum of squares 

..... 

0 
REPORT SERIES 11 

(Sheperdia rotundifolia) are common in the presettlement middens but absent from the one modern midden. 

In contrast, Hartnet #3, the modern midden, is the only midden 

containing viscid rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus visidiflorus), greasewood 

(Sarcobatus vermiculatus), and Russian thistle (Sa/sola sp.) macrofossils. Only 

the two most recent middens (#3 and #2) contain snakeweed (Gutterrezia 

sarothrae). Rabbitbrush, snakeweed, and Russian thistle are frequent at the 

site today. The absence of these species from the presettlement middens · 

indicates that these species were formerly absent, or so infrequent as to 

not be represented. Russian thistle is an introduced Eurasian species. 

The cluster analysis (right side of Fig. 2) demonstrates the difference . 

between the modern macrofossil assemblage and the other assemblages. 

The modern assemblage is the primary branch in the dendrogram even 

though the single occurrences of rabbitbrush, greasewood, and Russian 

thistle in the modern midden were disregarded in the analysis. 

The results of the pollen analysis (Fig. 3; Murray 1989) are similar to 

the those from the plant macrofossils. The presettlement middens contained much more pine and sagebrush than the two modern samples (#3 

and #4). Similarly, the percentages of grass and buffaloberry pollen 

were generally higher in the presettlement middens. In contrast, only the 

two modern middens contained pollen of the exotic Russian thistle and 

high amounts of juniper pollen. Like the macrofossil cluster analysis, the 

pollen cluster analysis (right side of Fig. 3) showed that the modern samples 

are very different from all of the presettlement middens. 

HaD's Canyon Middens 

Pleistocene Age Middens 

Two Pleistocene-age sub-samples were collected from a large midden 

(Hall's Canyon # 2) located in a high alcove in the Navajo Sandstone near 

Hall's Canyon (Fig. 4). A picture of the midden itself can be viewed 

from the web page at: http:/ /www.usgs.nau.edu/methods/middens.html. 

The front surface of this large midden measures about 2 m wide x 1 m 

high. The radiocarbon dates from two sub-samples, 28,050±2600 and 

>39,600 yr B.P., show that this midden is very old. Although the younger 

radiocarbon sample produced a finite date, dates of this age are less 

reliable than more recent dates simply because contamination with a minuscule portion of modern material could turn an infinite date (beyond 

the reach of the radiocarbon method) into a 28,000 year date. As a 

result, the true age of this midden is not precisely known, but it is definitely ancient, and possibly beyond the resolution of the radiocarbon 
Figure 3. Principal fossil pollen from Hartnet Draw middens. The cluster analysis (right side of diagram) was created using a stratigraphically 

constrained multivariate clustering program (CONISS; Grimm 1987). 

cL 

ai 

0 

1000 

2000 

b 3000 

Q) 

c> 

<( 

4000 

5000 

6000 

Ll 

I-

...___ I--

~ 

1-

I--

1-

0.20.40.60.81.0 1.21.41.6 

Total sum of squares 

..... 

N 
Figure 4. View of Hall's Canyon from alcove in which Hall's Canyon #2 is 

perched in Navajo Sandstone. 

method (> 40,000 to 50,000). The plant macrofossil and pollen content 

of these samples are shown in Table 2. 

Holocene Middens 

ine Holocene middens were collected from several parts of lower 

Hall's Canyon. Four middens from Hall's Canyon (Baker #3, Hall's Canyon #4, #6, and #7) have a significant probability of dating to either side 

of 1870 AD and must be considered of Transitional age (Table 1). A 

fifth midden (Hall's Canyon #8) had only a very small chance of postdating 1870 AD and is considered Presettlement. 

The plant macrofossils from tl1e Hall's Canyon l[iddens are listed in 

Table 3 and the major taxa are shown in Figure 5. Sagebrush and winterfat 

are more concentrated in the Presettlement middens, while cheatgrass 

(Bromus tectorum) occurs in the Transitional and Postsettlement middens. 

The cluster analysis separates the middens into three groups: Presettlement, 

Transitional, and Postsettlement. A large difference is apparent between 

the Presettlement middens and the others. The diversity of taxa between 

these middens is high, reflecting the microhabitat diversity inherent in an 
14 CoLEANDMVRRAY 

Table 2. Hall's Canyon #2: Pleistocene pollen and macrofossils. 

Pollen Percent Macrofossil Percent 

HC2A HC2B HC2A HC2B 

28 k > 39 k 28 k > 39 k 

Juniperus 10.8 29.7 Juniperus osteosperma 73.1 32.8 

Juniperus scopulorum 0.0 1.3 

Abies 0.4 0.4 

Pice a 0.9 2.7 

Pseudotsuga 5.6 1.9 Pseudotsuga menziesii 0.8 39.9 

Pinus Total 16.4 5.7 Pinus flexilis 0.1 2.2 

Ceonot. - Rhamnus 0.4 0.4 

Betulaceae 0.0 0.4 Ostrya knoltoni 0.0 0.1 

Cercocarpus 0.0 0.8 Cercocarpus intricatus 0.2 0.0 

Quercus 0.0 1.5 

Ephedra Total 0.9 0.0 

Cheno. lAmar. 5.6 1.5 

Artemesia 27.6 14.1 

Ambrosia 5.6 1.5 

Compositeae 6.0 5.7 

Gramineae 0.0 2.3 Oryzopsis sp. 0.0 0.3 

Polygonaceae 0.0 0.4 

Sambucus 0.9 0.0 

cf. Amorpha 0.0 4.9 

Crucifereae 0.4 4.6 

Labiateae 0.0 0.4 

Leguuminoseae 2.2 4.9 

cf. Cleome 11.6 4.6 

Fraxinus 0.0 8.0 cf. Fraxinus anomala 0.0 0.3 

Jug fans 0.0 0.4 

Populus 3.0 2.7 

Salix 0.4 0.0 

Unknowns 6.9 2.6 

Fungal spores 9.1 4.2 

Yucca cf. angustissima 0.0 0.3 

Opuntia sp. 25.8 22.9 

Pollen Sum 232 263 Number of Identified Plant Parts 720 1702 

area with flat grassland communities adjacent to riparian and rock face 

habitats. 

The results from Hall's Canyon (Fig. 6; Murray 1989) are similar to 

the macrofossil results. Pine, sagebrush, mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus), 

and Rosaceae are most abundant in the Presettlement middens, while the 

Postsettlement middens contain Russian thistle and greasewood pollen. 

The total herbaceous pollen is also more abundant in the Postsettlement 

middens, perhaps reflecting browsing and other damage to the shrubs. 
REPoRT SERIES 15 

Table3. Lower Hall's Canyon plant macrofossils (log10 macrofossils per kg washed 

matrix). 

Midden BS 1 BS 3 HC 4 HC 7 HC 8 N2 BS 2 HC 6 

Age Modern 20 80 170 265 330 410 105 

Artemisia (wood) 1.62 2.28 3 

Artemisia dracunculus 0.84 2.18 

Artemisia filifolia ? 2.65 

Artemisia tridentata 2.74 

Amborsia acanthocarpa 2.47 

Atriplex canescens 0.84 1.07 1.85 2.62 

A triplex 2.34 1.44 3.72 2.53 3.4 

Atriplex confer-type seed 2.25 1.91 

Berberis sp. 2.34 1.33 1.85 

Bromus tectorum 1.86 1.3 

Celtis reticulata 2.76 2.16 2.63 1.3 

Cercocarpus intricatus 2.04 

Chrysothamnus sp. 1.15 

Coleogyne ramosissima 2.71 2.16 3.28 3.88 2.66 

cf. Corispermum 2.35 1.15 

Cowania mexicana 1.56 2.59 3.13 2.71 1 2.79 

Ephedra sp. 1.92 1.6 2.04 1.81 2.12 1.92 

Eurotia lanata 1.86 2.12 2.64 1.93 2.87 1.75 

Fraxinus sp. 2.57 2.03 3.1 

Gutterezia sp. 1.86 1.84 2.19 3.69 

Juniperus osteosperma 3.34 2.98 3.26 3.95 4.35 2.33 3.73 3.89 

Lepidium densiflorum 1.14 1.55 1.63 2.26 1.15 

Opuntia sp. 3.73 3.31 2.73 2.38 3.76 2.03 3.7 2.95 

Oryzopsis hymenoides 1.56 0.84 1.68 2.34 2.03 2.3 1.15 

Phoradendron juniperinum 1.3 

Pinus edulis 3.3 

Plantago sp. 1.07 2.18 2.05 

Populus fremontii 1.56 1.54 1.48 

Quercus turbine/fa 1.74 

Sclerocactus parviflorus 1.56 1.44 

Sporobolis flexosus 1.68 1.33 

Sphaeralcea 1.56 1.85 

Yucca angustissima 2.46 1.79 2.61 2.87 2.23 

small hispid grass 1.14 2.11 

The cluster analysis of the Hall's Canyon pollen samples is very similar to 

that of the plant macrofossils. 

Long Leaf Flat Middens 

Two midden samples, one Presettlement and one Postsettlement, 

were collected from an alcove near Long Leaf Flat adjacent to some 
Figure 5. Principal plant macrofossils from Hall's Canyon Holocene middens. Fossil values are displayed as Log,

0 of concentration. The cluster 

analysis (right side of diagram) was created using a stratigraphically constrained multivariate clustering program (CON ISS; Grimm 1987). 

HALL CANYON - PLANT MACROFOSSIL CONCENTRAT\0 

Loq fossils per kg washed matrix 

Kenneth Cole 

CON ISS 

Post Settlement I 

50 

Intermediate 100 

150 

200 

~ 

250 

300 

JJO ± 100 -

410 ±50 · 

I 2 

450 T otol sum of squares 
Figure 6. Principal fossil pollen from Hall's Canyon Holocene middens. The cluster analysis (right side of diagram) was created using a 

stratigraphically constrained multivariate clustering program (CONISS; Grimm 1987). 

HALL CANYON - POLLEN PERCENTAGE Percent Totol Pollen 

K. Cole, 0. Shoffer, L. Murroy 

Post Settlement I 

lntermtdiote 

330 .. 100 -

410 t 50 -

Total sum of squares 450 
18 CoLEANDMURRAY 

isolated ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa). The pine trees, growing at 1980 

m elevation, 4 7 5 m below their normal lowest occurrence (Heil et al. 

1993), appear to have possibly been planted because of their isolated 

distribution. They are growing at the base of a sandstone cliff where 

runoff is focused. 

Both the Postsettlement midden (LLF #1a) and the Presettlement 

midden (LLF #1 b; 1 030±80 yr B.P.) contained ponderosa pine needles. 

These results demonstrate that the isolated, low-elevation ponderosa pine 

have probably occupied this site for a long time, perhaps throughout the 

Holocene. It is unlikely that they were planted at this site. 

Fremont River Middens 

Numerous fossil middens are visible on the steep canyon walls along 

the length of the Fremont River between park headquarters and Deep 

Creek. Access to these middens, especially those that appear to be old, is 

often very difficult. One sample was obtained (Fremont River #1) about 

7.6 m above the floor of the wash and dated to 7010±105 yr B.P. The 

contents of the midden, dominated by seeds of squawbush (Rhus trilobata) 

with some Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontit) and hackberry (Celtis 

reticulata), showed no signs of the recent invaders such as saltcedar (Tamarix 

pentandra), whitebark rabbitbrush, and Russian thistle (Sa/sola kalt) that are 

abundant today at the site. 

Because flood waters over 7.6 m above the modern wash would 

have dislodged this midden, it can be used as a datum to estimate the 

upper limit of flood water capacity and erosion rate along the river. It 

appears that erosion has been proceeding quite slowly along the river, at 

least during most of the Holocene. This hypothesis can easily be tested 

through further study of the middens on these cliffs, in addition to documenting a more complete vegetation history of the local riparian vegetation. 

DISCUSSION 

The macrofossil and pollen data from Capitol Reef National Park 

show that the contents of Postsettlement middens are very different from 

those of the Presettlement deposits, documenting vegetation changes that 

have occurred during the last several hundred years. All of the 

Presettlement middens are statistically more similar to each other than 

they are to the Postsettlement middens. This suggests that the change in 

vegetation during the last 150 years was far greater in magnitude than 

changes during the previous 5000 years. This result is most definitive at 
REPORT SERIES 19 

Hartnet Draw, where the midden series spans 5000 years. In contrast, the 

Hall's Canyon middens, collected from cliffside ledges, emphasize cliffdwelling shrubs. The limited time range of the series and the four Transitional age middens (which could not be clearly classified as Pre- or 

Postsettlement) limit the resolution of the Hall's Canyon data in determining settlement impacts. 

The perspective of natural variation emphasizes the extreme severity 

of the recent vegetation changes. Formerly there was a greater coverage. 

of grasses, winterfat, sagebrush, and pinyon pine, as indicated by the 

plant macrofossils and pollen. Although the vegetation probably fluctuated continuously throughout the late Holocene, this midden record sug-. 

gests that previous changes were minor compared to the changes of the 

last 150 years. The presettlement plant community was likely more similar to the Pinyon-) uniper-Grass Community described by Romme et al. 

(1993) than the juniper-shrub community present at the Hartnet site today. 

Drought History 

The reductions in winterfat, pinyon pine, sagebrush, and ricegrass, 

and increases in juniper, rabbitbrush, and snakeweed might be attributed 

to droughts during the nineteenth or twentieth centuries. But, an analysis 

of the last 400 years of drought frequency for southeastern Utah (Cole 

et al. 1997) using tree-ring data compiled by Fritts (1991), suggests that 

the droughts of the nineteenth century were not unusually severe when 

compared to the seventeenth century. Less is known about the climatic 

variability between 400 and 5000 years ago (prior to this tree-ring record), 

but it seems unlikely that any climatic event of the last 200 years was 

sufficient to cause a change with no precedent during the previous 5000 

years. Drought undoubtedly did assist in some of the dramatic vegetation changes of the last 200 years, but did not set the stage for them. This 

would require an event unprecedented during the previous 5000 years. 

Fire History 

Some of the changes recorded in the middens may have been caused 

by changes in fire regime. The recent increase in juniper could result 

from a decrease in fire frequency caused by the elimination of the grassy 

fuels by grazing. But this does little to explain the shift from palatable to 

non-palatable species or the reductions of pinyon pine, sagebrush, and 

buffaloberry just at the time that fire frequency would decrease. 
20 CoLE AND MuRRAY 

Grazing Impacts 

Impacts from introduced herbivores, especially large sheep herds in 

the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, are the most likely cause 

of the recent radical vegetation changes. The introduction of sheep, 

goats, cattle, and horses was without precedent during the previous 5000 

years. Overall, the vegetation has shifted from palatable forage (grasses, 

winterfat, and buffaloberry), to less palatable forage (rabbitbrush, 

snakeweed, and greasewood). Rabbitbrush and snakeweed are typical 

invaders of overgrazed range (Benson and Darrow 1981, Heil et al. 1993, 

Cronquist et al. 1994). 

Other studies conducted on grazing at Capitol Reef support this 

conclusion. Heil et al. (1993), in a survey of the vegetation of Capitol 

Reef National Park, state that, "Some of the most preferred plant species (for grazers), e.g., Ceratoides lanata and Stipa comata, may have been 

locally extirpated by grazing." This is demonstrated by the packrat midden 

series from Hartnet Draw site. 

An analysis of grass opal phytoliths in buried soil horizons at Capitol 

Reef shows a reduction of palatable grass species over the last several 

hundred years (Fisher et al. 1995). In general, opal phytoliths from 

warm season grasses have recently increased at the expense of cool season grasses. The authors attribute this change to the winter grazing that 

has taken place on these lands. 

In a comparison of bird usage of grazed areas near the Hartnet site 

with similar rarely grazed areas nearby, Willey (1994) found that grazed 

areas were significantly lower in bird species richness. He attributed the 

difference to a less complex structure in the grazed vegetation. His vegetative comparisons showed higher grass coverage in the rarely grazed 

areas, especially a higher coverage of ricegrass, further supporting the 

results of this study. 

An analysis of riparian areas (Barth and McCullough 1988) indicated 

that dramatic changes had occurred prior to the Taylor Grazing Act of 

1934. Forage plants were heavily used, and in many instances cover was 

entirely removed. Recent grazing has perpetuated this removal or reduction of species and inhibited potential recovery. In a lightly grazed area 

palatable shrubs and grasses have increased significantly. 

Pinyon Pine Decline 

Dramatic declines in pinyon, sagebrush, and buffaloberry occurring 

within the most recent several hundred years were probably also caused 

by grazing, but the effects on these species are less well understood. 

Pinyon-juniper woodlands have been reported to have increased in the 
REPORT SERIES 21 

Great Basin during the historic period, especially when comparative photographic techniques which can not discriminate between pinyon and 

juniper are used (West et al. 1975, Tausch et al. 1981). This increase in 

pinyon-juniper woodlands is thought to have been caused by reduced 

competition from grasses and forbs, which were eliminated by grazing 

and by consequent reductions in fire frequency. However, studies discriminating between pinyon and juniper do not portray identical histories 

for both species. Juniper populations have been expanding rapidly, and. 

in places such as western Oregon where it is not associated with pinyon, 

the expansion is clear, although there are numerous possible causes (Miller 

and Wigand 1994). Pine and sagebrush both declined while juniper. 

dramatically increased during the settlement period at Peck's Lake, Arizona (Davis 1987). A study of tree age structure on a presently ungrazed 

site in the Needle Range in southwestern Utah found that during the 

nineteenth century many juniper and few pinyon were established. By 

1915, the situation had reversed with. far more pinyon becoming established in this century (Tausch and West 1988). These results demonstrate 

that pinyon and juniper respond differently to changing regimes of grazing, fire, or climate. The observation that heavy grazing causes an expansion of pinyon-juniper woodland (West et al. 1975) does not equate to 

the expansion of both species in all habitats. 

The results of Tausch and West (1988) and those of the present 

study, suggest that pinyon may have been greatly reduced during the late 

nineteenth century/ early twentieth century by the large numbers of sheep 

grazing the landscape during drought. Pinyon may now be recovering 

part of its former range, assisted by the absence of fire. Sheep readily 

consume pine needles and strip pine bark even in the absence of drought 

conditions (Anderson et al. 1985). Sheep accomplished the near complete elimination of the Bishop pine forest ( Pinus muricata) on Santa Cruz 

Island, California, where they were not fenced out (Hobbs 1980). Cattle 

will also browse some pine when it is available (Pfister and Adams 1993), 

but are less likely to consume entire forests. This suggests that knowledge of the effects of cattle grazing at present stocking levels forms an 

inadequate basis for judging the effects of an overstocked sheep range 

during the droughts of the late nineteenth century. 

Sagebrush populations may have a similar history despite observation of increases in sagebrush caused by the removal of their grass competitors (Young et al. 1978). Although sagebrush may be increasing on 

land presently grazed by cattle, this is not an appropriate analog for intense nineteenth century sheep grazing. Sagebrush is consumed by sheep 
22 COLEANDMURRAY 

during droughts. During the late nineteenth century, sheep severely reduced the populations of California sagebrush (Artemisia californica) on 

Santa Rosa Island, California, after first consuming the grass (Cole and 

Liu 1994). 

AcKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This project was initiated by Norman Henderson, then the Resource 

Management Specialist at Capitol Reef National Park. We were assisted 

in the field by Penny Hoge, Dan Huff, Rick Harris, Bill Romme, and 

John Spence. Debra Maddox, Debra Daugherty, and Betsy Jernigan 

assisted with the sorting and counting of plant macrofossils. David Shafer 

completed the analysis of some pollen samples. Della Snyder assisted 

with editorial comments. This project was funded by the National Resource Preservation Program through The Rocky Mountain Region of 

the National Park Service. 

LITERATURE CITED 

Anderson, G. W, H. Hawke, and R. W Moore. 1985. Pine needle consumption and 

bark stripping by sheep grazing annual pastures in young stands of widely spaced 

Pinus radiata and P. pinaster. Agroforestry Systems 3:37-45. 

Barth, R. C., and E. J. McCullough. 1988. Livestock grazing impacts on riparian areas 

within Capitol Reef National Park. Unpublished report to Capitol Reef National 

Park, Torrey, Utah. 

Benson, L., and R. A. Darrow. 1981. Trees and shrubs of the southwestern deserts. 

University of Arizona Press, Tucson. 

Betancourt, ]. L, T. R. Van Devender, and P. S. Martin, editors. 1990. Fossil packrat 

middens, the last 40,000 years of biotic change. University of Arizona Press, 

Tucson. 

Cole, K. L. 1985. Past rates of change, species richness, and a model of vegetational 

inertia in the Grand Canyon, Arizona. American Naturalist 125:289-303. 

Cole, K. L. 1990. Reconstruction of past desert vegetation along the Colorado River 

using packrat middens. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, and Palaeoecology 

76: 349-366. 

Cole, K. L. 1992. A survey of the fossil packrat middens and reconstruction of the 

pre!,'t'azing vegetation of Capitol Reef National Park. Unpublished report to the 

National Park Service, Capitol Reef National Park, Torrey, Utah. 

Cole, K. L., and R. Webb. 1985. Late Holocene vegetational changes in Greenwater 

Valley, Mojave Desert, California. Quaternary Research 23:227-235. 

Cole, K. L., and G. Liu. 1994. Holocene paleoecology of an estuary on Santa Rosa 

Island, California, U.S.A. Quaternary Research 41:326-335. 

Cole, K. L., N. Henderson, and D. Shafer. 1997. Holocene Vegetation and Historic 

Grazing Impacts at Capitol Reef National Park Reconstructed Using Packrat 

Middens. Great Basin Naturalist 57:315-326. 

Cronquist, A., A. H. Holmgrem, N. H. Holmgren, and]. L. Reveal. 1994. Intermountain Flora: Vol. IV, Asterales, New York Botanical Garden, NY. 
REPORT SERIES 23 

Davis, 0. K. 1987. Palynological evidence for historic juniper invasion in central 

Arizona: a late-Quaternary perspective. Pages 120-124 in The Pinyon-Juniper 

Ecosystem, A symposium. Utah State University, Logan, UT. 

Davis, 0. K., and R. S. Anderson. 1988. Pollen in packrat (Neotoma) middens: Pollen 

transport and the relationship of pollen to vegetation. Palynolo!-,>y 11:185-198. 

Faegri, K., and J. Iversen, 1975. Textbook of pollen analysis. Hafner, New York. 

Fisher, R. F., C. N. Bourn, and W. F. Fisher. 1995. Opal phytoliths as an indicator of 

the floristics of prehistoric grasslands. Geoderma 68: 243-255. 

Frase, B. A., and W. E. Sera. 1993. Comparison between plant species in bushy-tailed 

woodrat middens and in the habitat. Great Basin Naturalist 53: 373-378. 

Fritts, H. C. 1991. Climate reconstructions data and display software. Program 

accompanying Reconstructing large-scale climatic patterns from tree-ring data: A 

diagnostic analysis. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. 

Frye, B. J. 1995. An administrative history of Capitol Reef National Park, Utah. 

Unpublished report to Capitol Reef National Park, Torrey, UT. 

Grimm, E. C. 1987 CONISS: A FORTRAN 77 program for stratigraphically 

constrained cluster analysis by the method of incremental sum of square. 

Pergamon Journals 13:13-35. 

Hartnet Allotment file. 1966. Wonderland Resource Area, Middle Desert Planning 

Unit: Hartnet Allotment Plan, Hanksville Office of the Bureau of Land 

Management files. 

Heil, K. D., J. M. Procter, R. Fleming, and W. H. Romme. 1993. Vascular flora and 

vegetation of Capitol Reef National Park. NPS Technical Report NPS/ 

NAUCARE/NRTR-93/01. Flagstaff, AZ. 

Hobbs, E. R. 1980. The effects of feral sheep grazing on the northern population of 

Pinus muricata on Santa Cruz Island, California. Pages 158-172 in D. M. Power, 

editor. The California Islands: Proceedings of a multidisciplinary symposium 

Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History. 

King, J. E., and T. R. Van Devender. 1977. Pollen analysis of fossil packrat middens 

from the Sonoran Desert. Quaternary Research 8: 191-204. 

Mead, J. 1., S. E. Sharpe, and L. D. Agenbroad. 1991. Holocene bison from Arches 

National Park, Southwestern Utah. Great Basin Naturalist 51: 336-342. 

Miller, R. F., and P. E. Wigand. 1994. Holocene changes in semiarid pinyon-juniper 

woodlands. Bioscience 44:465-574. 

Murray, L. K. 1989. Report on fossil pollen from packrat middens from Capitol Reef 

National Park. Unpublished report to the National Park Service, Indiana Dunes 

National Lakeshore, Porter, IN. 

Pfister, J. A., and D. C. Adams. 1993. Factors influencing pine needle consumption by 

grazing cattle during winter. Journal of Range Management 46: 394-398. 

Romme, W. H., K. Heil, M. Porter, and R. Flemming. 1993. Plant communities of 

Capitol Reef National Park, Utah. NPS Technical Report NPS/NAUCARE/ 

NRTR-93/01. Flagstaff, AZ. 

Spaulding, W. G., J. L. Betancourt, K. L. Cole, and L. Croft. 1990. Fossil packrat 

middens: their nature and methods of analysis. Pages 59-84 in Betancourt, Van 

Devender, and Martin, editors. Fossil packrat middens, the last 40,000 years of 

biotic change in the arid west. University of Arizona Press, Tucson. 

Stuiver, M., and P. J. Reimer. 1993. A Radiocarbon Calibration Program. Radiocarbon 

35: 215-230. Available for downloading at: http:/ /weber.u.washington.edu/ 

-qil/ 
24 CoLE AND MuRRAY 

Tausch, R. J., N. E. West, and A. A. Nabi. 1981. Tree age and dominance patterns in 

Great Basin Pinyon-Juniper woodlands. Journal of Range Management 34: 259-

264. 

Tausch, R. J., and N. E. West. 1988. Differential establishment of pinyon and juniper 

following fire. American Midland Naturalist 119: 174-184. 

Thompson, R. S. 1985. Palynology and Neotoma middens. Pages 89-112 in B. L. FineJacobs, P. L. Fall, and 0. K. Davis, editors. Late Quaternary vegetation and 

climates in the American Southwest. American Association of Stratigraphic 

Palynologists Contributions Series 16. 

Underhill, R. M. 1971. Red Man's America. University of Chicago Press. Chicago, IL. 

Van Gelder, R. G. 1928. Mammals of the National Parks. John Hopkins University 

Press, Baltimore, MD. 

West, N. E., K. H. Rea, and R. J. Tausch. 1975. Basic synecological relationships in 

pinyon-juniper woodlands. Pages 41-53 in The Pinyon-Juniper Ecosystem, A 

symposium. Utah State University, Logan, UT. 

Willey, D. W, 1994. Effects of livestock grazing on grassland birds in Capitol Reef 

National Park, Utah. National Park Service technical report NPS/NAUCARE/ 

NRTR-94/05, Flagstaff, AZ. 

Young, J. A., R. E. Eckert, and R. A. Evans. 1978. Historical perspectives regarding 

the sagebrush ecosystem. Pages 1-13 in The Sagebrush Ecosystem, A symposium. 

Utah State University, Logan, UT. 
Changes in Character and Structure of 

Apache/Sitgreaves Forest Ecology: 1850-1990 

L.D. Garrett 

M.H. Soulen 

Grand Canyon Monitoring and Research Center 

2255 N. Gemini Drive 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 

Abstract. This analysis of the Apache/Sitgreaves National Forest in eastern Arizona was undertaken to evaluate changing ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) overstory tree 

densities and their potential environmental and economic impacts. Assessment of 100 

years of forest overstory data on the Apache/Sitgreaves reveals significant change in 

overstory character and structure. Evaluation of early written observations by explorers, surveyors and naturalists indicate that tree densities of the 1850s were low, and the 

forest floor had minimal fuel loads. Recent research on the Forest indicates pre-European settlement tree densities were originally as low as 34 trees per acre above 4" dbh. 

Analysis of surveys completed in 1911, 1967, 1988, and 1994 reveals that the number of 

trees per acre in ponderosa pine type has increased significantly from approximately 34 

trees per acre above 4" dbh in 1911, to 133 trees per acre above 4" dbh in 1994. Tree 

density increases have occurred in all diameter classes up to 20" dbh. The analysis 

determined that approximately 21 trees existed in these classes in 1911 and over 127 

trees exist today. This represents a 500 percent increase in tree densities between 4" and 

20" dbh over the century. The analysis also determined that of the average of 13 trees 

per acre above 20" dbh in 1911, 7 exist today, a loss of approximately 50%. Computer 

simulated treatments to the forest overstory that approach presettlement conditions 

reveal significant enhancement of forest ecosystem resources as compared to no treatment alternatives. Further, implementation of restoration treatments would realize 

positive net present values from public investments. 

Key words: Forest ecosystem impacts, presettlement, fire suppression, forest resource 

assessment, tree densities, stand density index, economic evaluation 

This document presents a summary of findings from a study of 

past, present and potential future forest overstory conditions on the 

Apache/Sitgreaves National Forest. Brevity required in this summary 

permits coverage of only the most significant findings from two more 

25 
26 GARRETI AND SoUI.EN 

comprehensive technical reports. The reader is referred to the full reports cited below for in-depth coverage of the forest assessment. 

INCREASING TREE DENSITIES IN PoNDEROSA PINE FoREsTs: 

A NATIONAL PROBLEM 

In a 1994 hearing before Congress, Dr. Jack Ward Thomas, Chief 

of the USDA Forest Service, reported that the ponderosa pine region of 

the interior west United States was being severely impacted by declines in 

forest health. He also noted that these forests have high potential risk of 

loss to catastrophic insect, disease and wildfire. The current administration has placed specific emphasis on the northern interior west ponderosa pine region, due to significant insect, disease and wildfire losses. 

Comprehensive analysis of forest health has been initiated in the region 

to develop more effective forest management alternatives for combating extensive degradation to forest ecosystems (USDA Forest Service 

1994, Sampson and Adams 1994). 

As declared in Chief Thomas' testimony to Congress, increasing tree 

densities is the primary factor contributing to degraded ecosystems and 

declining health in interior west ponderosa pine forests. These forests are 

the most extensive coniferous forest ecosystems in the western United 

States, dominating millions of acres of terrestrial environments (Sampson 

and Adams 1994). 

Ponderosa pine forests have been determined to be fire-driven forest ecologies (Pyne 1982, Covington and Sackett 1985, Swetnam 1990). 

Over thousands of years, wildfires, unbridled by the suppression activities of man, moved at regular intervals across entire western landscapes. 

Recurring fires would burn through almost all accessible pine acreages at 

intervals of three to twenty years, depending on the regional location. In 

the southwest region of the United States, these ground fires created a 

forest landscape of 25-50 trees per acre, dominated by 1 0" dbh and 

larger trees (White 1985, Covington and Moore 1994a, Garrett et al. 

1997). 

Intensities of these historical wildfires were low, because the short 

recurring intervals between fires maintained fuel loads well below 10 

tons per acre (Covington and Sackett 1985, Swetnam 1990). Older trees, 

especially trees greater than 1 0" dbh with developed thick bark, were 

largely resistant to damage from these ground fires. Smaller trees, such as 

seedlings and trees up to 5" dbh, were normally destroyed, with only a 

few surviving to maintain the open forest overs tory of the period (Woolsey 

1911, Pearson 1923). 

Introduction of fire suppression activities in western forests at the 
turn of the century, combined with Li vestock grazing and other less significant factors, have contributed to the radical increases in tree densities 

noted in ponderosa pine forest stands today (Cov ington and Moore 

1994b, Garrett et al. 1997). Critical concerns now exist that restraints on 

restoration management in this forest type could further aggravate already seriously overstocked conditions. 

Increasing tree densities in ponderosa pine type and its impacts on 

forest health is now becoming a concern in the Southwest. For example, . 

research completed in the past five years by university and government 

forest specialists have characterized significant increases in densities of 

ponderosa pine overstori es in Arizona (Garrett et al. 1990, Ellenwood 

1994,Johnson 1995 ). Selected research plots on the Kaibab and Coconino 

ational Forests suo-gest that densities have increased across broad landscapes, from less than 50 trees per acre in the late 1800s to 300 or more 

trees per acre in the 1990s (Covington and Moore 1994b). 

f\ssessments of changi ng overstory densities on all ponderosa pine 

forests in Arizona demonstrated that trees increased from an average of 

272 per acre in 1962 to 314 per acre in 1985 (Garrett et al 1990). Analysis 

conducted on differing datasets for all Sf ecies on all ownerships in Arizona and New Mexico reveals average trees per acre increased from 233 

in 1962 to 296 in 1986 Qohnson 1995). In both assessments, the increases exceeded 10 percent in 23 years (Figs. 1 and 2). These increasing 

tree densities raise the specter of potential forest ecosystem degradation, 

140 

<lJ 

...... 

u 120 

<( 

...... 

<lJ 100 Q_ 

C/) 

<lJ 80 

<lJ 

...... 1985 

I-

<lJ 60 

Ol 1962 

~ 40 <lJ 

> 

<( 20 

0 

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 19-28 30+ 

dbh in. 

Figure 1. Comparison of average trees per acre on all Arizona ponderosa pine 

forests: 1962 and 1985. Adapted from Garrett et al. (1990). 
28 G ARREn tu'< D Souu 

100 

• 

Q) 

..... 80 

u 

<( 

..... 

Q) • 

0.. 60 (/) • Q) • 1985 e: 

IQ) 40 1962 0) 

~ • Q) 

> <( 20 • 

• 

• • • • 

0 • 1.0-2.9 5.0-6.9 9.0-10.9 13.0-14.9 17.0-18.9 29+ 

3.0-4.9 7.0-8.9 11.0-12.9 15.0-16.9 19.0-28.9 

dbh in. 

Figure 2. Comparison of average trees per acre for all species and all ownerships 

in Arizona and New Mexico: 1962 and 1985. Adapted from Johnson (1995). 

due to expected impacts on other resources such as soil water, understory productivity, fu el loads, and wildlife habitat. 

This analysis of the Apache/Sitgreaves ational Forest in eastern 

Arizona was undertaken to evaluate changing ponderosa pine overstory 

tree densities and their potential environmental and economic impacts. 

Results from the analysis illustrates the need to aggressively pursue restoration ecology research and treatment in these forest ecosystems. 

T HE APACHE / S ITGREAVES N ATIONAL FOREST: 

100 Y EARS OF C HANGE 

The Apache/ Sitgreaves National Forest is comprised of high mountain 

forest watersheds above d1e Mogollon Rim, and lower elevation woodlands below the rim (Fig. 3). Managed since the 1890s by the USDA 

Forest Service and its predecessor c:livision in the D epartment of Interior, the forest has yielded extensive commodity and amenity resource 

values to the region SDA Forest Service 1988). However, during these 

same 100 years its forest overstories have changed significandy, responding to changing management c:lirection established for the forest over the 

period. 

The character of the extensive ponderosa pine ecosystems of the 
R EPORT SERIES 29 

UTAH COLORADO 

ARIZONA NEW MEXICO 

NORTH 

• No SaleFigure 3. Location of the Apache/Sitgreaves National Forest in the Southwestern 

Region. 
30 GARRETI AND SovLF.N 

Apache/Sitgreaves National Forest and the Southwest were described 

by many early explorers, naturalists and geologists in the mid and late 

1800s (Cooper 1961, Garrett et al. 1997). Of particular note are the 

descriptions by Beale (1858), Dutton (1882), and Woolsey (1911). Beale 

(1858) described the forest as follows: 

''We came to a glorious forest of lofty pines, through which we 

have traveled ten miles. The country was beautifully undulating, and although we usually associate the idea of bareness with 

the pine regions, it was not so in this instance: every foot being 

covered with the finest grass, and beautiful grand grassy veils 

extending in every direction. The forest was perfectly open and 

unencumbered with brushwood, so the traveling was excellent." 

Dutton (1882) noted: 

''The trees are large and noble in aspect and stand widely apart, 

except in the highest parts of the plateau where the spruces 

predominate. Intervals of dense thickets where we are shut in 

by impenetrable foliage, we can look far beyond and see the tree 

trunks vanishing away like an infinite colonnade. The ground 

is unobstructed and inviting. There is a constant succession of 

parks and glades--dreamy avenues of grass and flowers winding between silvan walls or spreading out in broad open meadows." 

And in 1911, Woolsey, a prominent forest specialist of the period, 

wrote: 

''A pure park-like stand made up of scattered groups of 2 to 20 

trees usually connected by scattering individuals. Openings are 

frequent, and very great in size. Within the type are open parks 

of large extent whose origin may be due to peculiar soil conditions such as hard pan, or in other cases to periodic flooding." 

The following visual description of typical 1800s ponderosa pine 

forests is interpreted from the above and other early writings: 

"The forest was open and park-like with less than 60 trees per 

acre, distributed in clumps, 3 to 30 trees in number. Large trees 

were dominant in the landscape, however, clumps of smaller 

trees existed. Open park areas were prominent, occupying 10 or 

more percent of the forest area. Southerly slopes had significant gamble oak and drainages, especially on northerly slopes, 

would have notable presence of aspen, Douglas fir and concolor 

fir. Forest floor debris was minimal, averaging less than 10 
REPORT SERIES 31 

tons per acre across broad landscapes. Understory vegetation 

was dominated by grasses and forbs." 

Early descriptions of the forest overstory have been recently corroborated by scientists involved in restoration ecology research and conservation biology (Covington and Moore 1994b, White 1985). Forest 

ecology specialists have, through scientific procedure, been able to reconstruct and successfully define the forest overstories of the southwest . 

ponderosa pine type that existed 150 or more years ago. This research 

has documented the original pre-European settlement forest to have 

maintained less than 50 trees per acre across regional landscapes. Selected forest areas studied and the overstory densities determined for · 

these areas are presented in Table 1. As noted, the general average range 

in tree stocking is approximately 25 to 50 trees per acre (fable 1). Two 

forest specialists of the period, Pearson and Woolsey, conducted surveys 

and evaluations of the southwest ponderosa pine type during the first 

decade of the century (Woolsey 1911, Pearson 1910, 1920). Woolsey 

(1911) summarized inventory assessments of southwest ponderosa pine 

forests that were conducted over the period 1900 to 1910. Figure 4 

presents a graphic of the average number of trees per acre from surveys 

on six forests in the Southwest during the 1900-1910 period. Included is 

the Black Mesa Forest Reserve, known today as the Apache/Sitgreaves 

National Forest. 

Woolsey's (1911) inventory analysis of the Black Mesa Forest Reserve revealed an average of 34 trees per acre above 4" dbh. This number of trees per acre lies at the mean of current assessments by restoraTable 1. Density of southwestern ponderosa pine presettlement or yellow pine 

trees reported in the literature.1 

Location 

Specific studies in Southwest: 

Ft. Valley, Coconino N.F. 

Bar-M, Coconino N.F. 

North Kaibab R.D., Kaibab N.F. 

North Kaibab R.D., Kaibab N.F. 

White Mountains, Apache/Sitgreaves N.F. 

Southern Utah, Zion N.P. 

Trees/acre 

15 

23 

56 

40-45 

35-45 

22.7 

'Adapted from Covington and Moore 1994. White 1985, Covington and Moore 1994a, Covington and Moore 1994b, 

Rasmussen 1941, Cooper 1960, and Madany and West 1983. 
32 G ARRll'lT IU'ID SOULE! 

10 

8 ... Bl ack Mesa 

(1) .. ..... 

u 

~ 6 ..... '& 

Carson 

(1) 

0.. Alamo 

Ul 

(1) 4 (1) 

..... Zuni 

rJemez 

2 

Coconino 

0 4-6 7-9 10-12 13-15 16-18 19-21 22-24 25-2728-30 31-33 34-3637-3940-4 243-4546-48 

dbh in. 

Figure 4. Trees per acre by diameter class from maximum stands of Western 

Yellow Pine on six southwest forests in 1911 . Derived from Woolsey (1911 ). 

tion ecologists (Table 1), and as noted in Figure 4, somewhat at the mean 

for the differing forest inventories evaluated by Woolsey (1911). 

It is difficult to determine from these early surveys the average number of stems per acre below 6" or 4" dbh, because invent ry specialists 

used differing techniques to determine the number of smaU trees. More 

importantly, data taken on 1 "-6" trees in the first decade of this century 

might significantly overstate the number of trees that existed during the 

earli er presettlement period. This is due to the fact that in many forest 

areas, nglo settlers' efforts to suppress ground fires had occurred for 

10 to 30 years by 1910 (Pyne 1982, Swetnam 1990). Trus permitted time 

for establishment of not o nly seedlings, but trees up to 4" and 6" by 

1910. Due to the above noted uncertrunties in early data collection on 

small trees, most of our analysis focused on evaluating changes in tree 

densities over 4" dbh. 

Since th first descriptio ns and inventories of the presettlement forests, there have been nearly 100 years of USDA Forest ervice management activity on the Apache/ itg reaves ational Forest. The general 

gillding principles for thi management direction was derived from the 

first .S. Forest Service ruef Forester, Gifford Pinchot (1947). He defined ru s management principle as "wise use." The c ncept proposes 

perpetual protection of the basic biological and physical resources of 
REPORT SERIES 33 

forest ecosystems, while managing for "wise use" of forest resources 

such as timber, water, forage, etc. Pinchot's general philosophy and management concept is sustained today on declared "multiple use" areas of 

National Forests. The current philosophy of "ecosystem management," 

adopted in the 1990s, places more intensive focus on protection of basic 

biotic and physical resources, and to restore health and diversity of ecosystems (USDA Forest Service 1994). 

The wise use overstory management philosophy was implemented . 

via a silviculture method known as "selection harvest," and was used on 

National Forests up until the 1970s (Pinchot 1947, Pearson 1950, Schubert 

197 4). This procedure resulted in discriminate selection of diseased, deformed and overmature trees for harvest, and the removal of approximately 1500 board feet per acre during an entry (Pearson 1950, Schubert 

1974). 

In the presettlement pine forest many trees were overmature and 

200-300 years in age. Since the average biological life of ponderosa pine 

is approximately 250 years, many presettlement trees would have succumbed to natural mortality over the first 100 year management cycle 

(i.e., 1900-2000). As such, a management direction was undertaken to 

remove the oldest and most susceptible trees to loss, during the first 100 

year management period (Lang and Stewart 1910). This management 

regime was expected to yield a younger healthier forest at the end of the 

management period. 

By the 1970s and 1980s, forest managers began to recognize that 

forest stands were becoming increasingly more dense due to regeneration and ingrowth. Insect and disease, especially dwarf mistletoe, was 

increasing, requiring modification in management regimes. 

New integrated resource and integrated stand management (IRM, 

ISM) prescriptions were adopted in the 1970s and 1980s to reduce increasing densities. When implemented, these prescriptions removed nearly 

3500 bd. ft. per acre from acres entered. This heavier removal of trees 

to address forest health issues was met by considerable resistance from 

segments of the general public. ISM prescriptions were discontinued by 

forest managers in the late 1980s in favor of current ecosystem management prescriptions. 

The above noted management practices implemented over the past 

century, especially managed fire suppression and some harvest activities, 

have resulted in a changed forest overstory character and structure, which 

is clearly evident in Figure 5. This figure presents average trees per acre 

on the Apache/Sitgreaves National Forest from several survey years, rang-
34 ARRE'fT AN D SoUI.EN 

Q) 

L-

:f. 

-If) 

Q) 

Q) 

L--

1-

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

. . . . . . . . . . . . .... 

····· · ···· · . . . . . . . . . . ········· ·· 

·· ... 

·········· · ········ · 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . 

'················· '·· ..... . 

·····- .... 

·· ...... . ..... 

Figure 5. Comparison of average trees per acre on the Apache/Sitgreaves in 

1911, 1967, 1988 and 1994. 

ing fr m 1911 to the current forest assessments of 1994. Three general 

findings are obvious from these inventory assessments: 

1. The number of trees per acre bas increased significantly from 

approximately 34 trees per acre above 4" dbb in 1911, to 133 

b:ees per acre above 4" dbh in 1994. 

2. Tree density increases have occurred in alJ diameter classes up to 

20" dbh. 

3. A reduction in tr s per acre has occurred in diameters over 20" 

db h. 

Tbe analysis demonstrates that there have been significant increases in 

trees per acre from 4" to 20" dbb . The approximately 21 trees that 

existed in these classes in 1911 has increased to over 127 trees today. Tbis 

represents a 500 percent increase in tree densi ties between 4" and 20" 

dbb over the century. 

In tbe presettlement period, an average of approximately 10-13 tr es 

existed above 20" dbb. Approximately 6-8 trees existed bet\veen 20"-

25" dbb, and 4-5 trees above 25" dbb. Evaluations of early surveys 

indicate that an average of only 0.5-1.5 trees per acre existed above 30" 

dbh (Lang and Stewart 1910, Woolsey 1911 , Pearson 1950). 

There bas been a decline in trees per acre over 20" dbh. AJtbougb 

the decline represents only 6-8 trees per acre on average, it is a loss of 
REPORT SERIES 35 

over 50 percent of the original numbers of trees that existed above 20" 

dbh. Most of the loss (2-4 trees) are in the 22"-27" dbh diameter classes. 

Losses are due primarily to harvests and natural mortality. 

Today an average of only six trees exist above 20" dbh, indicating 

the above noted loss of 6-8 trees in these size classes. Some caution is 

noted regarding this conclusion. Woolsey's (1911) surveys on the Black 

Mesa Forest were of "maximum stands," indicating that average overall 

stocking across the forest might have been lower in large diameter classes .. 

For example, an early comprehensive survey on the North Kaibab revealed an average of only 7-9 trees per acre greater than 20" dbh (Lang 

and Stewart 1910, Ellenwood 1994, Garrett et al. 1997). 

FoREST EcosYsTEM IMPACTS OF 

PAST FoREST MANAGEMENT DIRECTIONS 

The Forest Service new "ecosystem management" direction purports to focus more attention on the protection of intrinsic biophysical 

values associated with the land base. Protection of threatened and endangered plant and wildlife species is a critical part of ecosystem management (USDA Forest Service 1994). In so doing, standards and guidelines are written to accommodate increased levels of protection and, 

therefore, impose greater restrictions on management and use activities. 

Protection activities for threatened and endangered flora and fauna 

and associated habitat has become a primary component of land resource management. However, excessive constraints on management 

activities in these habitats may not embody the basic philosophical intent 

of ecosystem management. For example, the current underlying management philosophy for threatened, endangered, or sensitive (fES) species is single species management, a concept potentially incongruent with 

ecosystem management. The USDA Forest Service mandate to protect 

intrinsic values of forest ecosystems may well become the basis for the 

Forest Service to implement aggressive and comprehensive restoration 

science and management activities in the western ponderosa pine type. 

There are reasons to be concerned about the current status of southwest ponderosa pine forests. Scientific documentation now exists to not 

only characterize increasing tree densities, but also define the potential 

impacts of these densities to other resources of the forest ecosystem, 

such as water, soils, forage, wildlife habitat, and basic intrinsic values such 

as health, diversity and sustainability. 

Research on southwest pine forests has demonstrated fully that in-
36 GARRETI AND Sour.EN 

creasing densities in this forest type is not a "natural phenomenon" (Cooper 1961, Schubert 1974, Ellenwood 1994, Covington and Moore 1994b). 

In fact, it is a phenomenon driven by man's imposed management activities. Suppression of natural, low-intensity ground fire in these forest 

ecosystems and other management activities previously noted, have created the current character and structure of the forest overstory. 

Research on the resource impacts of increased tree densities has demonstrated that moderate and high tree densities in this forest type significantly impact soil water, fuel loads, understory plant productivity, wildlife habitat, etc. (Brown et al. 197 4, Rogers et al. 1984, Covington and 

Moore 1994b). In general, these abnormally high densities have been 

demonstrated through science to: 

1. Significantly increase intra-tree competition for moisture and 

nutrients so as to impose significant stress on all trees. 

2. Increase the probability of loss of larger, over-mature trees, due 

to their inability to sustain themselves under the increased stress 

from intra-tree competition. 

3. Increase the vulnerability of all trees in the stand to insect and 

disease infestation, and the spread of infestations once established. 

4. Decrease average soil moisture content. 

5. Decrease water movement to seeps, springs and instream flows 

in the forest environment. 

6. Increase fuel loads. 

7. Decrease grass, forb and shrub production. 

8. Increase factors contributing to higher risk of catastrophic insect 

and disease outbreaks. 

9. Increase factors contributing to higher risk of intense catastrophic 

wildfire on larger acreages. 

POTENTIAL FUTURE OuTCOMES FROM 

ALTERNATIVE 0VERSTORY MANAGEMENT REGIMES 

To evaluate potential implications of permitting increased densities 

to be maintained on the Apache/Sitgreaves National Forest, we simulated 50 years of changing forest conditions associated with two different management regimes. The regimes and associated prescriptions selected for the simulations are deliberately divergent. This was done to 

demonstrate the wide matrix of opportunities and outcomes that exist in 

managing the diverse forest landscape. 

Like all modeling efforts, the management alternatives are made sim-
REPORT SERIES 3 7 

plistic to permit clear measure of impacts of the different treatments. 

Actual treatments applied across broad forest landscapes would be much 

more complex and involve a mosaic of overstory character and structure. Tree densities would also vary significantly. However, in many 

forest areas, average forest structure and tree densities can be significantly 

changed with restoration treatments, as they are changed in our computer derived examples. 

The treatments that were implemented are as follows: 

• A no management treatment to the forest overstory. This treatment assumes no removals of any overstory trees through the selected 

management period of 50 years. Thinnings, harvest removals, and tim-. 

her stand improvement removals are all excluded as management activities. Regeneration occurs through the period, as well as minimal insect 

and disease control. 

• A Pre-European settlement overstory treatment. This management alternative restores the forest overstory to the presettlement character and structure defined by overstory surveys at the turn of the century. 

It requires implementation of several management activities including 

prescribed burns, fuel removals, thinnings, harvests, etc. 

Using the southwest ponderosa pine ECOlogy SIMulator; ECOSIM, 

forest overstories and associated resources (i.e., understory forage, instream 

water, fuel loads, wildlife habitat, scenic quality, etc.) can be projected 

into the future (Rogers et al. 1984, Covington et al. 1986). The system is 

driven by management activities selected by the manager and/ or analyst. 

The choice of management activities are broad, and can include overstory and understory treatments, watershed improvements, wildlife habitat 

improvements, prescribed burns, etc. 

Defining The Current Forest Condition 

Before one can proceed to project future change with the computer 

model ECOSIM, one must first define the current state of the forest. 

Figure 6 is a characterization of the average number of trees per acre by 

diameter class that currently exist on the Apache/Sitgreaves National Forest. 

This average stand condition is developed from a sample of 15 analysis 

areas on the forest, representing over 130,000 acres (Fig. 7). 

Table 2 provides descriptive data on the current average stand conditions on six of the above noted analysis areas (Fig. 7). Baca, South 

Fork, Middle Mountain, Grapevine, Cottonwood and Blue Ridge Morgan analysis units were selected for evaluation of various future resource 

impacts under our two proposed management alternatives. The average 
38 GARRETr ,\,--:D SoL:LF.N 

70 

60 

(]) 

L.. 

u 

<( 50 L.. 

(]) 

0.. 

(/) 

(]) 

40 

(]) 

L.. 

I- 30 (]) 

O'l 

~ 

1 •• 

(]) 20 

> 

<( 

10 

0 

4-6 7-9 10-12 13-15 16-18 19

---21 22-24 25-27 - 28-30 30+ 

dbh in. 

Figure 6. Average trees per acre on the Apache/Sitgreaves National Forest, 

1994. 

Winslow ... 

lbrook 

Globe..., 

~0~~~ AZ NM oiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii~60 Miles N 

Figure 7. Location of 15 analysis areas and the six areas used for more intensive 

study. 
Table 2. Current average stand conditions per acre on six selected analysis areas on the Apache/Sitgreaves National Forest. 

Analysis %ofPP Average Average Percent Average Acres 

Area in Stand Basal Area SDI Max-SDI Trees/ac 

Baca 71.01 130 267 59.33 942.2 9,570 

Blue-Ridge Morgan 63.25 140 326 72.44 457.1 17,034 

Cottonwood 69.10 91 204 45.33 1022.0 18,725 

MiddleMt. 67.62 101 200 44.44 333.7 13,110 

Southfork 59.70 109 226 50.22 509.0 16,807 

Grapevine 86.22 96 103 42.89 940.9 9,240 

~ 

:ii 

~ (/) 

§ 

~ 

Vl 

\0 
40 GARREIT AND SouLEN 

overstory conditions across the forest and on the six individual analysis 

areas are similar. 

Forest ecologists utilize differing measures to both monitor densities, 

and relate increasing densities to degradation in other resources. Basal 

area, the measure of square foot cross sectional area of tree stems on a 

site, has been used to assess increasing densities, intra-tree competition, 

shading, etc. (i\1cTague 1991). A second measure used by forest specialists is stand density index, a factor that takes into effect the relative incidence of differing diameter trees in the stand (Ellenwood 1994, Garrett 

et al. 1997, McTague 1991). 

When evaluating the overall average basal area on the six analysis 

areas, it was found to be greater than 1 00 square feet per acre, or in the 

upper middle range of basal areas for this forest type in the Southwest. 

Basal areas determined for average forest conditions on the Black Mesa 

Forest Reserve at the turn of the century, ranged between 50 and 80 

square feet per acre. 

More importantly, the computed percentage of maximum stand 

density index for the Apache/Sitgreaves National Forest is determined 

to now be 45 percent. This is more than double the average of 22 

percent that existed on the Black Mesa Forest Reserve in 1911 (fable 3). 

Percent of maximum stand density indexes determined for the Black 

Mesa Forest Reserve (Apache/Sitgreaves) and other forests at the turn 

of the century ranged from 12-30 percent (fable 3). These are considered to be low, and very safe levels by forest specialists, and would contribute to more healthy forest ecosystem conditions (Schmid et al. 1994). 

Table 3. Comparison of average percent of maximum stand density index on 

southwest forests in 1911 and on the Apache/Sitgreaves National Forest in 1994. 

Quadratic Percent 

Mean SOl Maximum 

Diameter SOl 

Carson 19.5 111 25 

Alamo 19.6 137 30 

Zuni 18.7 54 12 

Jemez 21.7 122 27 

Coconino 20.8 111 25 

Datil 19.9 72 16 

Apache 22.3 105 23 

Sitgreaves 19.9 93 21 

Apache/ Sitgreaves 

1994 7.9 200 45 
REPORT SERIES 41 

Forest specialists have determined that percent of maximum SDis 

exceeding 54 are considered high and damaging to health, diversity and 

sustainability of ponderosa pine forest ecosystems (Schmid et al. 1994). 

Stands with 34-54 percent of maximum SDI are considered to have 

moderate to high tree densities, which are negatively impacting other 

resources on site. Overstory treatments to reduce densities are advised 

for all stands above 35 percent of maximum SDI. As noted above, 

percent of maximum SDI below 33 is not considered a threat to other· 

resources. 

Figure 8 presents the average percent of maximum SDI for 15 selected analysis areas across the forest. The 15 analysis areas represent a . 

range in percent of maximum SDI from 27-72 percent, and an average 

of 45. Two are in the low range, 12 are in the moderate range, and one 

is in the high range. 

As noted previously, given the current state of tree densities, restoration ecology management prescriptions should be evaluated for potential application on the forest. The following evaluations of no management and restoration management options characterize probable impacts 

of "doing nothing" or "restoring" the forest landscapes. 

Forest Ecosystem Change Under No Overstory Treatment 

The no overstory treatment alternative restricts the forest manager 

from implementing any overstory management actions during the 50 

100,-----------------------------------------------l 

0 

U) 

E 75 +-----------------------------------------~ ::J 

E 

·x 

co 

~50 r 

] ~ 1··1· : ·~·~·· ~ .. ~~·····~1~1~1~ 0' ',1-,-, -,-,-.-.-,'' 

AS BC BM CN CW EK GN GR KS KT MD RG SF 

Analysis areas 

~I·~ I· - - ... 

SN WG 

Figure 8. Average percent of maximum SOl's in 1994 for fifteen study areas 

across the Apache/Sitgreaves National Forest. 
42 GARRETI AND Soui£N 

year analysis period. No tree thinnings or harvests can occur. The initial 

stand conditions are as described for the six analysis areas in Table 2. 

Each of these analysis areas already have high tree densities. 

Figure 9 characterizes average changes in critical resources on the six 

analysis areas over a 50 year projection period without treatment. Stand 

density index, fuel loads, forage production, and water yield are projected, as well as changes in percent of maximum SDI. 

The obvious result of implementing the no treatment alternative is 

that basal area and intra-tree competition for nutrients and water continue to increase. Tree stagnation occurs, increasing litter fall and the 

buildup of ground fuels to what fire ecologists would consider dangerous levels, exceeding 20 and 30 tons per acre. Soil moisture and instream 

flows are decreased. Herbage productivity in the form of grass, forbs 

and shrubs is suppressed, decreasing the pounds of forage produced 

per year for both wildlife and domestic stock. And, reduction in ground 

plant cover contributes to increased sedimentation. 

Nutrients and water resources are withheld from the understory as 

tree density increases. As a result, flora diversity of the stand is lowered, 

which impacts diversity of fauna. Declines in vigor occur in both overstory and understory plants, as well as wildlife that use the forest environment as a source of energy. Declining health, although not explicitly 

defined in the model prediction, increases the vulnerability of the stand 

to catastrophic insect and disease attack. Such attacks create even higher 

fuel loads and standing dead inventory of trees, greatly increasing the risk 

of catastrophic wildfire loss. 

The Pre-European Forest Treatment 

The second alternative evaluated requires intensive management of 

the overs tory to restore the forest ecosystem to a pre-European settlement forest condition. That overstory requires a much larger average 

diameter, and a significantly smaller number of trees per acre than currently exists (Fig. 4). The percent of maximum stand density index for 

this desired future condition is in the low range of percent of maximum 

stand density indexes, or 20-30 percent. 

The proposed presettlement alternative does permit removal of trees 

in all diameter classes; however, removals are accomplished so as to insure previously lost trees in larger diameter classes are restored. Permitting no removals in larger diameter classes would be inconsistent with an 

actual treatment because many large trees would need to be removed to 

assure forest health, decreased fire risks, and plant diversity. 
Basal Area Percent Maximum SOl 

250 - 140 u ~ 120 I ~ 200 E 100 0" ::> 

~ 150 I E 80 I "' ·;;: 

"' 60 ~ 100 I ::;: I <{ 40 I c;; I 0 (/) 50 ;!! 20 

"' 0 co 1994 2005 2020 2045 0 1994 2005 2020 2045 Year 

Year 

Average Stand Diameter Water Yield 

18 u 12 

16 "' 10 14 :§. .!: 12 "0 8 I I .<: 10 iii I I n >= 6 ., 8 

6 I Q; 4 

4 II II I iii 

5: 2 

2 0 0 1994 2005 2020 2045 1994 2005 2020 2045 

Year Year 

¥40 

Fuel Loading u Herbage Biomass 

~ 210 (/) 

I c g 180 

~30 ::l 150 

tn I "' :5 20 I I E 120 

"' 

iii 90 I I I I 0 Q) 60 ...J 10 "' "' 30 a; .0 

:I Q; 0 u. 0 I 1994 2005 2020 2045 1994 2005 2020 2045 

Year 

Year 

Figure 9. Changes in resource outputs on six selected analysis areas under no 

treatment alternative. 
44 GARRETI AND Souu~N 

Figure 1 0 presents the levels of the various resources predicted when 

the forest is returned to the presettlement forest condition over the 50 

year restoration period. This is accomplished by intensive thinning of 

smaller trees, restoration of understory grasses, forbs and shrubs, and 

reductions in fuel loads in the first decade. Removal of trees 9" dbh and 

greater occurs in the second decade. Thinning and prescribed fires are 

accomplished at 10 year entries throughout the period. Overs tory harvest removals occur in the first decade, and are also accomplished in year 

48. 

As noted in Figure 10, by year 11 the forest has realized lower stand 

density indexes, decreased fuel loads and increased water yield. Theresource benefits will be lost if trees are allowed to again dominate the site. 

Thinning and controlled fire treatments at 10 year intervals will maintain 

low densities through the period. Larger tree removals occur late in the 

cycle (year 48) to insure restoration of previously lost larger trees. At the 

end of 50 years, the dependant forest resources remain at improved 

levels. 

Treatments must be applied at 10 year intervals to prevent the forest 

overstory from returning to more dense conditions. Implementing these 

activities greatly improves individual forest resource capabilities over the 

no management alternative. Improvement in the resources also contributes strongly to improved health, diversity and sustainability of the forest 

ecosystem. Further, all of the larger old trees that originally existed in the 

presettlement period have been restored to the forest overstory, and the 

density of small trees has been reduced significantly. 

ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES 

Biophysical analysis of alternative management regimes indicates restoration treatments could benefit forest ecosystem health and diversity. 

The state of physical resources such as soils, water, fuel loads, and nutrient cycling are improved, as is scenic quality. Biological resources such as 

understory plant diversity and productivity, and overstory character and 

structure are also improved. 

Wildlife habitat indexes would be significantly changed to favor species who adapt best to more open forest environments. Obviously, forest landscape planning could be incorporated to permit spatially dispersed dense stands to accommodate species requiring these type habitats. 

Overall, the restoration treatments would return the forest to a more 

open, natural state. Scientific inquiry in ponderosa pine type would indi-
250 

0 :E 200 

K 150 

"' 

~ 100 

lZ 50 

a:l "' 

.f 

.<: 

.10 

'U 

18 

16 

14 

12 

10 

8 

2 

0 

0 40 

"' "ill 

c 30 ,g 

~ 20 '0 

"' 0 

....J 10 

;;; 

::> 

u. 0 

Basal Area 

0 

(/) 

E 

:J 

E 

';( 

::;; "'

0 

;f. I • Ill 1994 2005 2020 2045 

Year 

Average Stand Diameter 

II I 1994 2005 2020 2045 

Year 

Fuel Loading 

I II II II 1994 2005 2020 2045 

Year 

R EPORT SERIF 45 

Percent Maximum SDI 

140 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 I 20 

1994 

-

2005 • 2020 • 2045 

Year 

Water Yield 12 

10 

I I I I ~ 8 "0 

'ii 6 

>= 

~ 4 

.!l 

~ 2 

0 1994 2005 2020 2045 

Year 

0 Herbage Biomass 

~ 210 

I I -" 180 I "" "' 150 "' 

~ 120 

0 90 I 05 

., 60 Ol 

"' 30 -" :;; 

I 1994 2005 2020 2045 

Year 

Figure 10. Changes in resource outputs on six selected forest analysis areas 

under the presettlement forest treatment alternative. 
46 GARRETI AND SouLEN 

cate that conditions that approach a more open forest support healthier, 

more diverse and more easily sustained forest ecosystems (Brown et al. 

197 4, Rogers et al. 1984). 

A policy question must always be directed at any proposal that appears to be sound from a biological perspective. In this case, the question would be, ''What are the required social costs for implementing and 

maintaining these restoration treatments?" 

The Economic Evaluation Process 

Several economic methods are available to evaluate the economic 

efficiency and effectiveness of forest management alternatives. One in 

particular, benefit cost analysis, BCA, has proven effective in characterizing the suitability of differing public investment opportunities. 

Benefit cost analysis is a process that can be used to evaluate the 

current worth of all future benefits and costs associated with alternative 

forest activities required in managing overstocked ponderosa pine forest 

ecosystems. As a model for economic evaluation, BCA requires the analyst to specify all future costs and benefits, by year, that are associated 

with each investment or management alternative. Specifically designed 

algorithms are structured to accommodate the costs and benefits associated with differing activities and outcomes. 

Our analysis focused primarily on the two management alternatives 

noted earlier, and represented graphically in Figure 11. 

• The No Management Treatment Alternative. No man-imposed 

land management activities are placed on the landscape. Only maintenance activities to reduce threats of insect and disease and wildfire events 

are permitted. 

• The Presettlement Forest Option. A series of management activities are implemented (thinnings, prescribed fire, harvests, etc.) to restore the forest overstory to presettlement character and structure. 

The proposed management alternatives differ significantly in extent 

of activities implemented and modifications to the forest ecosystem. The 

intent of the economic analysis is to represent all activities and outputs in 

dollar values and contrast them at year 0 as present values. 

The benefit cost analysis is designed to compare economic differences in the two alternatives. The no management alternative has only 

protection activities to help mitigate increasing insect and disease and 

wildfire risks. These risks increase as the forest gets more dense over the 

50 year period. Benefits, such as forage production and water, are mea-
Figure 11. Time sequence of activities in the no management and presettlement management alternatives: 1994-2045. 

No Treatment 

2020 

199~------------------------------~--------------------------------~2M5 

• • • • • R R R R R 

T 

• 

B 

* 

T H 

•• 

T 

• 

Presettlement Treatment 

B 

* 

T 

• 

T 

• 

TH 

•• 199~--------------------------------~--------------------------------~2045 

• R • 

Activities 

• R 

Regeneration 

Prescribed Bum 

Commercial Thinning 

Overstory Harvest 

• * • • 

• R • R • R 
48 GARRETI ANOSOULEN 

surable dollar outputs from the alternative, although they decline through 

the period. 

The presettlement alternative requires significant activities and costs 

to restore and maintain the overs tory to presettlement character and structure. Thinnings, prescribed fire and harvests are necessary through the SO 

year period. Dollar benefits from wood products, forage and water are 

all realized from these investments. Further, lower insect and disease 

protection costs result from the more healthy forest. 

Assessment Algorithms 

Two economic algorithms were chosen to measure the differences 

between the no management and presettlement alternative: net present 

value and benefit cost ratio. Net present value (NPV) is the difference in 

benefits and costs occurring across a management period, in this case SO 

years, and discounted back to the year a program is initiated. Benefit cost 

ratio (BCR) is a ratio derived by dividing all future program benefits 

discounted to year 0 by all future costs discounted to year 0. Desirable 

investment opportunities have benefit cost ratios > 1.00 at an acceptable 

interest rate. 

Net Present Value and Benefit Cost Ratios 

of Management Alternatives 

Figure 12 provides developed net present values derived for the no 

management and presettlement alternatives using 4, 7 and 10 percent 

discount rates (interest rates) and average costs and revenues. Interest 

rates used on public investments vary with federal agency, and normally 

range between 4 and 10 percent. We have chosen 7 percent as an average 

rate. 

Cost and revenues also vary, and sensitivity analysis is used later to 

evaluate ranges in these factors. Average values used in the analysis are as 

follows: timber stumpage $1SOIMbf, pulpwood stumpage $Sicord, 

fuelwood $10icord, water $30iacre foot, and forage $1.SOI AUM. 

Average costs used were: timber sales administration $60 I acre, prescribed burning $120iacre, thinning $12Siacre, insect and disease control $20 I acre, and brush disposal $91Mb f. 

As is noted in both alternatives, present net worth is positive. However, the present net worth of the presettlement alternative at a 7 percent 

discount rate is 10 times as great, at $1SS.1S per acre, as the no management alternative. Even though significantly more costs were borne to 

restore the forest ecosystems, the values of the harvested wood prod-
200 

175 

150 

> 125 

a.. 

Z100 

75 

50 

25 

0 

200 

175 

150 

~ 125 

z 100 

75 

50 

25 

0 

REPORT SERIES 49 

No Treatment 

4% 7% 10% 

Interest Rate 

Presettlement Treatment 

4% 7% 

Interest Rate 

10% 

Figure 12. Net present values per acre for the no treatment alternative and the 

presettlement alternative using average costs and revenues. 
50 GARRETI AND SoUIEN 

ucts and the increased incremental returns from forage and water more 

than offset these costs. 

The no management alternative also yielded returns from water and 

forage. Yet, even with minimal management costs for insect and disease 

control, the alternative yielded a NPV of only $16 per acre at a 7 percent 

interest rate. 

Benefit cost ratios were positive for both alternatives (Fig. 13). However, the presettlement alternative with a 1.50 BCR was slightly lower 

than the 1.7 BCR for the no management alternative at the same interest 

rate. BCR for the two alternatives are similar at most rates. 

Sensitivity Analysis 

Figures 14, 15, 16, and 17 contrast the effects of varying costs, and 

revenues on NPV and BCR for the two alternatives. The analysis is most 

sensitive to variance in resource revenues, although considerable variance 

in NPV and BCR is also created when interest rate is varied from 4-10 

percent. NPV and BCR show little sensitivity to changing cost levels. 

High and low values for revenues and costs are 30-50 percent departures 

from the average values. 

Of greatest interest is that NPV stays above $30/acre even at moderate interest rates and low revenues for the presettlement alternative. 

The no management alternative also stayed positive but its NPV per acre 

at a 7 percent rate and low revenues was only $1.16/acre. 

Benefit cost ratios also varied significantly with revenues. However, 

they are less sensitive to interest rates. Even with moderate interest rate 

and low revenue, the BCR for the presettlement alternative was 1.1. The 

BCR for the no management alternative was 1.0. 

The Risk of Wildfire 

Although we have accommodated insect and disease management 

in the analysis (except for catastrophic outbreaks), we have not attempted 

to evaluate the cost of wildfire. Wildfire is treated under the umbrella of 

risk and uncertainty in land resource management. An in-depth analysis 

of this factor was beyond the scope of this project. Although we know 

when we are incurring greater risk of large catastrophic wildfire, we are 

uncertain of exactly when they will occur, and the cost of any single 

event. 

However, as noted in the analysis, we have knowledge of increased 

probabilities of large wildfires associated with increasing tree densities. 

For example, there is a much greater probability that a large wildfire will 
0::: 

~ m 

REPORT SERIES 51 

No Treatment 

4 

3.5 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 

4% ·7% 10% 

Interest Rate 

Presettlement Treatment 

4 ~----------------------------------~ 

3.5 +-------------------------------i 

3+------------------------------_, 

a: 2.5 

~ 2+----------------------------------i 

m 

0.5 

0 

4% ~/o 

Interest Rate 

10% 

Figure 13. Benefit cost ratio for the no treatment alternative and the presettlement 

alternative using average costs and revenues. 
52 GARRETI ANDSOULEN 

500 

450 

400 

350 

> 300 

~ 250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

low 

No Treatment 

i=7 

Medium 

Cost 

. High 

Presettlement Treatment 

500+---------------------------------~ 

4~+---------------------------------~ 

400+---------------------------------~ 

3~+---------------------------------~ 

6: 300 

z 250+-------------------------------~ 

200 

1~ 

100 

50 

0 low Medium 

Cost 

High 

Figure 14. Net present values per acre at low, medium and high costs; revenues 

average. 
REPORT SERIES 53 

No Treatment 

2 

i-7 

1.5 

~ 

Q 

m 

0.5 

0 

low med high 

Cost 

Presettlement Treatment 

2 

1.5 

~ 

Q 1 

m 

0.5 

0 

low med high 

Cost 

Figure 15. Benefit cost ratio at low, medium and high costs; revenues average. 
54 GARRETI ANDSOULEN 

No Treatment 

500 

450 

400 

350 i-7 

>300 a.. 

Z250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

low Medium High 

Revenue 

Presettlement Treatment 

500 

450 

400 

350 

s:aoo 

Z250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

low Medium High 

Revenue 

Figure 16. Net present value per acre at low, medium and high revenue; cost 

average. 
REPORT SERIES 55 

No Treatment 

3 

2.5 

i=7 

2 

~ 

Q 1.5 

m 

1 

0.5 

0 low med high 

Revenue 

Presettlement Treatment 

3 

2.5 

2 ~ 

m 0 1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 low med high 

Revenue 

Figure 17. Benefit cost ratio at low, medium and high revenue; cost average. 
56 GARRETI AND SouLEN 

occur sometime between year 30 and 50 in the no management alternative than in the presettlement alternative. Using this knowledge, we can 

structure a hypothetical "one event" cost for the two treatments in year 

40. 

We can assume that the probability of incurring the cost of one 

15,000 acre and one 300 acre wildfire in year 40 would be 80 percent 

and 20 percent respectively in the no management alternative. The probabilities can be reversed for the presettlement alternative, because treatments would reduce the risk of large wildfire. If we then assume that 

the large fire would cost $20,000,000 to suppress and the small fire 

$1,000,000, we can structure one time costs. 

The expected costs for these events in year 40 would be [($20,000,000 

• .80) + ($1,000,000 • .20)] or $16,200,000 for the no management alternative and [($20,000,000 • .20) + ($1,000,000 • .80)] or $1,200,000 for 

the presettlement alternative. When these costs are entered into the baseline 

analysis (i.e., average costs, revenues and interest rates), we find that the 

NPV for the no management alternative is significantly negative. However, the presettlement treatment, which affords significant lower risk of 

large fires is still maintained as a reasonable social investment. 

DISCUSSION 

The evaluation of forest overstory change in the ponderosa pine 

forests of the Apache/Sitgreaves National Forest over the last 100 years 

clearly demonstrates several patterns as follows: 

1. The number of trees per acre across the landscape has significantly increased from levels of approximately 34 trees per acre 

to current levels of approximately 133 trees per acre above 4" 

dbh. Decreases of 6-8 trees per acre have occurred above 20" 

db h. 

2. These increased densities have resulted in impacts to other resources in the forest, including higher risk of continued loss to 

large over-mature trees, increased fuel loads, decreased water 

availability to other resources, decreased forage productivity, etc. 

3. These changes have increased and are continuing to increase environmental degradation of the forest ecosystems. 

Defined changes in the forest ecosystems are resulting in increased 

occurrence of insect and disease infestations and high-intensity, larger 

wildfires. The overall comprehensive changes in resources is resulting in 

decreases in forest health, diversity, and sustainability of the forest. 

As such, there is an urgent need for adaptive management/ science 
REPORT SERIES 57 

programs to evaluate restoration approaches that could be undertaken in 

these ecosystems. If restoration to presettlement overstory conditions or 

some similar level were to occur, there would be significant improvements in health, diversity and sustainability. 

Computer simulated treatments to the forest overstory that approach 

presettlement conditions, reveal significant enhancement of forest ecosystem resources as compared to no treatment alternatives. On site water as well as understory plant productivity is increased, while fuel loads 

are decreased. Further, implementation of restoration treatments would 

realize positive net present values as public investments. Pursuing a no 

management alternative will greatly increase the risk of high-cost, larger 

wildfires and significant losses in public investments in forest resources. 

LITERATURE CITED 

Beale, E. F. 1858. Wagon road from Ft. Defiance to the Colorado River. 35 Cong. 1 

Sess., Sen. Exec. Doc. 124. 

Brown, H. E., M. B. Baker, Jr., J. J. Rogers, W P. Clary, J. L. Kovner, F. R. Larson, C. 

C. Avery, and R. E. Campbell. 1974. Opportunities for increasing water yields 

and other multiple use values on ponderosa pine forest lands. USDA Forest 

Service Research Paper RM-129. 36 pp. 

Cooper, C. F. 1961. Patterns in ponderosa pine forests. Ecology 42:493-499. 

Covington, W W, and M. M. Moore. 1994a. Postsettlement changes in natural fire 

regimes and forest structure: Ecological restoration of old-growth ponderosa 

pine forests in Assessing forest ecosystem health in the west. Haworth Press, Inc. 

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58 GARRETI AND SoviEN 

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REPORT SERIES 59 

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Forest Service Bulletin 101. 64 pp. 

Chapin 5 Fire Vegetation 

Monitoring and Mitigation 

M. Lisa Floyd-Hanna 

AnneDaVega 

David Hanna 

Prescott College 

220 Grove Ave 

Prescott, AZ 86301 

and 

William H. Romme 

Fort Lewis College 

Durango, CO 81301 

Abstract. The Chapin 5 Fire ignited on 17 August 1996, burning 4,781 acres of 

Mesa Verde National Park. With Burn Area Emergency Rehabilitation (BAER) funding, 

we are (1) evaluating residual vegetation, (2) monitoring post-fire native plant recovery, 

and (3) treating non-native plant invasion. To evaluate residual seeds and grass rootstocks, 

we developed an effective test using the physical strength of the remaining bunch grasses, 

the "pull test." Residual vegetation was low; grass frequency (average=.52) was reduced 

(average=.18) after the fire (t=7.3, P<.05) and few species germinated or re-sprouted in 

1996. Vegetation recovery is being monitored at 75 points randomly placed in 20 habitat 

types defined in a GIS environment. By August 1997, 210 vascular plant species occurred in the burn area. Fire-facilitated species include Gqyopf?ytum ramosissimum, Nicotiana attenuatam and Collomia grandijlora. Re-sprouting shrubs account for 41-60% of the 

vegetative cover in the mountain shrubland habitats. The intensely burned pinon-juniper 

habitats support 23-40% forb cover, 14-40% grass cover and bare soils are common. 

Non-native species are aggressively invading bare soils as well as previously disturbed 

areas. An integrated pest management approach-seeding native grasses, mechanical 

removal, herbicide spot-spraying, and 5 biological control agents-is being used to prevent the spread of non-native species. 

Key words: wildfire, Mesa Verde National Park, non-native species, monitoring, mitigation, Colorado 

61 
62 FLOYD-HANNAETAL. 

ScoPE oF THE PROJECT, YEAR 1 

The lightning-initiated Chapin 5 fire in Mesa Verde National Park 

(MVNP), Colorado, burned 17-24 August 1996. The fire began in the 

dense pinon-juniper/purshia woodland on Chapin Mesa, and after a short 

run to the south, continued essentially northward, burning Soda Canyon, 

Little Soda Canyon, and large portions of the research area Park Mesa, 

when it stopped at the Visitors Center and hotel complex in the dense 

oak and serviceberry shrublands. The fire covered 4,781 acres, 7 pre-fire 

vegetation communities, 2 geologic substrates (Menefee Shale and 

Cliffhouse Sandstones), and numerous soil types. Using primary soil 

hydrophobic characteristics, the BAER hydrologic team mapped levels 

of burn intensities. In addition, pre-fire vegetation communities became 

the basis for predicting probable post-fire vegetation responses. We identified a "revegetation response potential" for each vegetation community. Communities which included re-sprouting shrubs Quercus gambelii 

and Amelanchier utahensis were considered likely to recover rapidly; those 

which lacked significant re-sprouting understory shrubs would recover 

slowly. 

The first year evaluation of vegetation recovery in the Chapin 5 fire, 

funded under the Burned Area Emergency Rehabilitation (BAER) program, focused on the following objectives: 

vegetation was monitored across the diversity of habitats burned 

to determine if plant recovery was adequate to prevent erosion, 

vegetation was monitored to determine if plant recovery was 

adequate to prevent alien species invasion, 

endemic plant species were surveyed to determine the status of 

post-burn recovery, and 

mitigation was carried out to prevent the proliferation of nonnative weedy plant species. 

In the first post-fire year Qate fall 1996 through fall 1997) the BAER 

Vegetation team monitored the recovery of vegetation and initiated mitigation practices to meet the stated objectives. A summary of our methods and first year results is presented in this report. 

METHODS 

The 4,781 acre burn area was classified into 19 different ecological 

habitats. This classification was accomplished in a GIS environment 
REPORT SERIES 63 

(IDRISI) by cross-tabulating the spatial extent of pre-fire vegetation communities, geologic substrate, and slope. Sampling points (78) were defined in IDRISI with a random point generation function. 

Examination of Residuals 

The BAER document proposed that a thorough evaluation of the 

residual seeds and grass rootstocks be made, especially where re-sprouting shrubs were absent. This evaluation took place during September· 

1996, and uncovered the potential for natural recovery, especially of native grasses. While other means of evaluation, for example the use of 

tetrazolium chloride to detect dehydrogenase enzymes, were used, the. 

most telling was the "pull test." At each sample point, a 2x20 meter belt 

transect was laid out and grasses were evaluated for (a) re-sprouting or 

(b) whether the grass remained intact and rooted when "yanked." If it 

passed the yank test, we assumed it would re-sprout the next year. The 

result of this screening led us to carry out aerial seeding of native grasses 

(see below) in the most severely affected areas. 

We returned to each sampling point in May 1997 to evaluate the 

precision of this method. At 63 of the 78 points, we relocated precisely 

the transect location, and then measured the distance to individual grass 

which had been evaluated last year. We determined from re-sprouting 

of grasses, whether our pull test assessment had been correct. 

Documentation of Plant Recovery 

Each sampling point was visited in May and late August-September 

1997. In May, we documented the plant species within an approximately 

100 meter radius of each point. We also laid out an identical belt transect 

to that described above, documenting for each grass clump whether resprouting had occurred. In late August-September, we determined the 

flora of each site as well as the cover of each plant type (forb, grass, 

shrub, dead shrub, non-native species, etc.) utilizing a point frequency 

frame (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenburg 1974). Frequency of each group 

is an estimate of cover. 

We surveyed for the presence of Astragalus schmollae and Hackelia 

gracilenta, two endemic species which are restricted in habitat to Mesa 

Verde and were identified as sensitive species in the BAER plan. Postfire invasion into the Chapin 5 fire was documented and permanent 

monitoring plots were established on Park Mesa surrounding a new population of A. schmollae. 
64 FLOYD-HANNA ET AI.. 

Seeding of Park Mesa 

The pull test indicated that recovery of at least 30°/o of the perennial 

grasses was not expected in the severely burned areas (fable 1). Grass 

recovery on Menefee Shale was better than on Cliffhouse Sandstone (fable 

2). Therefore, we aerially seeded the most severely burned 200 acres of 

Park Mesa with native grass species. This was done in an effort to retard 

the invasion of non-native species onto the relatively sterile soils, and to 

stabilize soils and prevent erosion. 

Native seeds were difficult to obtain due to the number of fires 

requiring rehabilitation in 1996. We were able to purchase or obtain 

Mesa Verde's own native seeds of the following species: 

Poa fendleriana, Mutton Grass 

Kohleria cristata, June Grass 

Oryzopsis f?ymenoides, Indian Rice Grass 

Agropyron tracf?ycauloum, Slender Wheat Grass 

Sitanion f?ystrix, Squirrel-tail Grass 

Table 1. Interpretive information defining the habitat types used to direct the 

placement of sampling points. Habitats were defined based upon underlying 

geologic substrate, slope, and pre-fire vegetation type. 

Habitat Code Substrate Slope Vegetation Type 

1 Cliffhouse (1) Low (1) Meadow (4) 

2 Menefee (2) Low (1) Meadow (4) 

3 Cliffhouse (1) Low (1) Mtn. Shrub (5) 

4 Menefee (2) Low (1) Mtn. Shrub (5) 

5 Cliffhouse (1) Mod (2) Mtn. Shrub (5) 

6 Menefee (2) Mod (2) Mtn. Shrub (5) 

7 Cliffhouse (1) High (3) Mtn. Shrub (5) 

8 Menefee (2) High (3) Mtn. Shrub (5) 

9 Cliffhouse (1) Low (1) Oak woodland (6), PJ-Oak (7), PJ Forest (8) 

10 Menefee (2) Low (1) Oak woodland (6), PJ-Oak (7), PJ Forest (8) 

11 Cliffhouse (1) Mod (2) Oak woodland (6), PJ-Oak (7), PJ Forest (8) 

12 Menefee (2) Mod (2) Oak woodland (6), PJ-Oak (7), PJ Forest (8) 

13 Cliffhouse (1) High (3) Oak woodland (6), PJ-Oak (7), PJ Forest (8) 

14 Menefee (2) High (3) Oak woodland (6), PJ-Oak (7), PJ Forest (8) 

15 Cliffhouse (1) Low (1) PJ-Purshia (9) 

16 Menefee (2) Low (1) PJ-Purshia (9) 

17 Cliffhouse (1) Mod (2) PJ-Purshia (9) 

18 Menefee (2) Mod (2) PJ-Purshia (9) 

19 Cliffhouse (1) High (3) PJ-Purshia (9) 

20 Menefee (2) High (3) PJ-Purshia (9) 
REPORTSERJES 65 

Table 2. Effects of the Chapin 5 fire on the abundance of bunch and sod grasses. 

Abundance is measured as frequency in 75 sample points across the burned 

area. 

Grass Type Present Pre-fire Passing Pull Test Alive 1996 

Bunch Grasses .85 .59 .31 

±.22 ±.40 ±.30 

Sod Grasses undetectable .34 .OS 

±.23 ±.08 

We created two mixes with these seeds, simulating as much as possible the native grass community for the elevation, substrate, and pre-fire 

vegetation, one for north and one for south ends of the burn. We applied the seed by helicopter on October 20 and 21. It began snowing on 

October 21 and the winter precipitation was high during 1996/1997. 

We evaluated the success of seeding in August by setting out a series 

of circular plots (radius 10m~ at approximately 50 meter intervals on a 

north-south line across Park Mesa (Fig. 1 ). The number of seeded grasses 

was counted for each seeded grass species. While we may have included 

non-seeded individuals of the same species, this is unlikely to have contributed many individuals (see control values below). A similar transect 

was placed on the adjacent mesa in an untreated area (Fig. 1). 

Evaluation and Mitigation of Non-Native Plant Species 

Mechanical treatments 

Most of our treatment efforts have been directed toward mechanical removal of Musk and Canada thistles. The treatments consisted of 

removing the fully formed seed heads, and heat destroying them by keeping them tightly bagged, and throwing them away. The entire plant, 

stem, and root was removed. If an obvious archeological site was present, 

the thistle plants were chopped at the surface, but not uprooted to prevent disturbance to subsurface archeological materials. Small patches of 

the rhizomatous Canada thistle were dug up as well. Approximately 326 

acres have been treated mechanically in 116 person-days. 

Biological control 

We are coordinating our efforts with those of Dr. Deb Kendall, 

Fort Lewis College. The areas chosen for release of biological control 
66 FLOYD-l-I ANNtl 1: r til.. 

Grid (]) Noclh 

Meters 

500.00 

Figure 1. Grass seed monitoring transects. 
REPORT SERIES 6 7 

agents did not receive other treatment, except in some cases the removal 

of seed heads. Dr. Kendall has released on Canada thisde in the Far 

View Sewage Lagoon and downstream areas: the Canada thisde gall fly, 

Urophyora cardui; the seed head weevil, Larinus; and she expects to 

release the stem weevil, Ceutorhynchus litura, when insects become available. Dr. Kendall also released Tricocericaulus horridus on Musk thisdes. 

Herbicide application 

In particularly dense Canada thisde stands, the 2-4 D derivative herbicide "Curtail" was applied. Herbicide was also used on particularly 

dense patches of Musk thisde if mechanical treatment was not possible.· 

In mid-April we spot-sprayed Curtail on individual plants throughout 

the most severe infestation in the Far View Sewage lagoon area. This 

was done early to alleviate disturbances on native vegetation. Quanah 

Spencer, a Park employee certified to apply herbicides, also applied Curtail in several areas on Park Mesa. The location and extent of each treatment is shown in Figure 2. 

REsuLTS 

Examination of Residuals 

We returned to each of 78 sampling points distributed in 19 ecological habitats during May 1997 and evaluated the usefulness of the pull test 

to determine potential grass re-growth after fire. While overall the average percentage of correct calls was 30°/o, our success varied across the 

sites (the range was from 0°/o to 100°/o) (fable 1). There was a significant 

difference in our pull test results in Menefee and Cliffuouse substrates 

(F= 1 0.6, P<.OS): we were better able to detect grass recovery potential 

on Menefee Shale (mean=44°/o) than on Cliffhouse sandstone 

(mean=20°/o). There was a significant correlation (r=.54, P<.OS) between 

1996 bunch grass frequency (e.g., pre-fire) and the grass recovery in 1997 

indicating that a large proportion of the bunch grasses present after the 

fire re-sprouted. 

One reason for the lower than expected success of the pull test was 

our inability to distinguish between burned bunch grasses and burned 

upland sedges, Carex gryerii; overall the bunch grasses had a greater success of re-spouting than did the upland sedges. Another problem was 

our inability to relocate each grass clump using only distances from the 

sampling transect. While the pull test is the best way which we have 

found to determine the potential for residual grass recovery, we suggest 

that other methods be designed and evaluated. 
68 fLOYD-H ANNA ET AL. 

Area (ha) of each treatment 

type 

Mechanical 

325.67 

Biologkal 

11.24 

Herbie de 

8.99 

Mechanical and Biologkal 

5.06 

Herbicide and Biologkal 

2.56 

• 

• • • 

Figure 2. Thistle treatment areas, Chapin 5 burn. 

Mechanical control 

Biological control 

Herbicide control 

M/B control 

H/B control 

Grid North 

Meters 

1,500.00 
REPORT SERIES 69 

Seeding of Park Mesa 

Throughout the summer of 1997, grass seedlings on Park Mesa were 

informally monitored. The deposition of grass seed appeared to be 

clumped, probably because runoff patterns moved the seed into small 

drainages. In August 1997, we evaluated the density of grasses in a series 

of plots (Fig. 1). We chose density, rather than cover, as the most realistic 

variable this year because grass growth was significantly increased by the. 

fertilization effect of the fire. Rather than overestimate grass importance 

by its cover, we determined the number of clumps, each a result of 

germination of one seed. Grass density was significantly higher in the 

seeded areas (mean=6/75 m~ than control areas (mean=.5/m2

, F=13.7, · 

P<.OS; Table 3) on Park Mesa. The success of the seeding treatment was 

enhanced by greater densities of all species when seeded areas were compared to control plots (partial F=3.1, P<.OS) except Indian Rice Grass. 

Indian Rice Grass often germinates several years after seeding and we 

can expect that as testa deterioration occurs, the seeds will germinate. All 

species flowered and produced seeds this year. 

While we demonstrated a successful seeding effort, we cannot yet 

determine the effect grass competition will have on the invasion of nonnative exotics. During the next field season, we will be able to evaluate 

whether the increase in grass cover actually decreases the incidence of 

non-native invasions. 

Documentation of Plant Recovery 

We monitored post-fire recovery on 78 randomly generated sample 

points. We established the sampling points immediately after the burn 

(September-October 1997) and returned to each point twice in the 1997 

growing season-in early May and in September-in order to determine post-fire vegetation recovery. By September, one year after the 

fire, vegetation cover (total cover, the sum of all vegetation components) 

Table 3. Comparison of grass densities (#/75m2) between seeded and unseeded 

areas. 

Species Seeded Area Control 

Poa fendleriana 11.8 1.0 

Sitanion hystrix 5.9 0.0 

Oryzopsis hymenoides 0.54 1.0 

Agropyron trachycaulum 5.62 0.0 
70 Fuwo-HANNA ET AL 

varied significantly across vegetation categories-lowest (22°/o) in pinon 

woodlands and highest (56°/o) in re-sprouting shrublands (fable 4). A 

significant difference was detected in the bare soil cover, which was the 

highest in the pinon-juniper and pinon-juniper/ purshia vegetation categories, leaving soils highly exposed to erosion and alien species invasions. Forb cover was not significantly different across the vegetation 

categories. Grasses are lowest (12°/o) in pinon-juniper woodlands. 

The total vegetation cover was significantly different across geologic 

types-the mean cover on Menefee Shale was 48°/o while the mean cover 

on Cliffhouse Sandstone was 34°/o. 

In addition, the pattern in vegetation recovery in the burned pinonjuniper woodlands-in which intercanopy spaces support forbs and grass, 

yet the canopy areas are almost entirely bare-may have interesting consequences for erosion and archeological site stabilization. This patchiness 

in vegetation recovery is being investigated by Resource Management 

(Colyer pers. com.). 

Mountain shrublands, which include Quercus gambelii ("oak 

wooklands" in Fig. 3) or Ame/ancheir utahensis ("mtn shrub" in Fig. 3) are 

nearly half covered with re-sprouting oaks. Erosion is unlikely, and nonnative species are experiencing competition; therefore, we propose no 

treatments for the re-sprouting areas. 

One ascomycete fungus, Pyronema domesticum, formed widespread, 

confluent patches under logs or rocky ledges, especially in the pinonjuniper woodlands. While it was most visible immediately after the burn, 

it reappears with significant precipitation. 

At each of the sampling points, the flora was recorded during late 

August-September 1997. As defined above, the samples had been randomly placed in 19 habitat types (fable 1 ). 

Some floristic trends were obvious. Chenopodium fremontii occurred in 

all 19 habitat types, sometimes occupying up to 1 00°/o of the sample 

Table 4. Frequency of bunch grasses resprouting within the Chapin 5 fire by 

geologic substrate. Data collected 2 months after the burn. 

Geologic Presence Resprouts Seedlings 

Substrate Pre-fire within 2 months within 2 months 

Menefee Shale .95 .42 .84 

±.07 ±.31 ±.64 

Cliffhouse Ss. .78 .24 1.21 

±.24 ±.27 ±1.21 
Figure 3. The average cover of bare soil, !orbs, grasses, and resprouting shrubs by pre-fire vegetation community, Chapin 5 fire. 

--

Bare SaM ('M.) In Pre--nre VegetaUon Communities 

Chapin 5 Fire, Mesa Verde 

Gras sea (%)In Pr .. ftre Vegetation Communities 

Chopin 5 Fire, Men Verde 

---

... -.. 

Resproutlng Shrubs("") In Pr•ftre Vogeto6on Communities 

Chapin S Fifo, Meso Verde 

Forbs (""l In Pre-tire Vegetation Communities 

Chopin 5 Fire, Meso Verde 
72 FLOYD-HANNA ET AL 

points in a habitat type. At the other end of the spectrum, GC!Jopf?ytum 

ramosissimum was found at only 3 of the 19 habitat types, yet it was locally 

abundunt (e.g., it was found in 100°/o of the sample points in habitat 2 

and 50°/o of the points in habitat 6). 

Endemic, Sensitive Plants Monitoring 

The recovery of two endemic plant species listed by the State of 

Colorado, Astragalus schmollae and Hackelia gracilenta, was monitored in 

the Chapin 5 fire. Both are known only from the Mesa Verde region, 

and before the Chapin 5 burn, Astragalus schmollae was known only on 

Chapin Mesa. Prior to the Chapin 5 burn, Hackelia gracilenta was found 

sporadically in the Park on Wetherill Mesa, and in the burn area, near 

Battleship Rock (pers. obs., Colyer pers. com.). 

We discovered a population of over 400 A. schmollae plants on Park 

Mesa in June 1997. The plant appeared mature and many were flowering; therefore their origin (vegetative or germination) could not be reliably determined. However, we also identified new seedlings in the Park 

Mesa population by the presence of cotyledons. A "control" population 

on Chapin Mesa shown no signs of germination-populations persisted 

strictly by vegetative growth. There is no significant difference in immature and mature plant densities in the Park Mesa population and "control" population on Chapin Mesa. Thus, we have reason the believe that 

expansion of this species range is fire-dependent. 

Non-flowering Hackelia gracilenta plants were detected in previously 

known habitats (Battleship Rock) and new habitats (south end of Soda 

Canyon) in the burned area. These populations will be monitored next 

year to determine if they reproduce, their health and whether the population is expanding. 

Nicotiana attenuata, wild tobacco, has been found throughout the Southwest in conjunction with archeological sites and fire treated fields; therefore, it is no surprise that both the Long Mesa fire and the Chapin 5 fire 

support these species. Seeds may remain in the seed bank for hundreds 

of years, germinating after fire when perhaps heat, nitrogen loading, or 

lack of competitors converge. We have found tobacco primarily on 

Cliffuouse Sandstone, rocky slopes, in dense patches of up to 500 plants. 

Mesa Verde Resource Management will be following the population structure, reproductive output, and persistence of 2 of the largest tobacco 

populations over time in an associated project (Steitz 1977). 
REPORT SERIES 7 3 

Evaluation and Mitigation of Non-Native Plant Species 

Past experience with the Long Mesa fire in 1989 has made it clear 

that Musk and Canada thistles, cheat grass, stickseed and other alien species will possibly dominate the severely burned areas (Floyd-Hanna and 

Romme 1995). In fact, native species have not yet outcompeted nonnative plants, 6 years after the Long Mesa fire, but rather non-native 

species have expanded their area by 260°/o (Klein 1997). Populations of 

Canadian thistle were well-established in the Far View Sewage Lagoon · 

area before the Chapin 5 fire, and they have spread downstream in Little 

Soda and Soda Canyons. These populations re-sprouted immediately 

after the burn. Musk thistle was also evident in 1997, but small and 

extensive populations were scattered throughout the southern portions 

of the burn. 

Most of the first year's effort has been focused on preventing the 

expansion of Musk and Canadian thistles into the Chapin 5 burn. At 

varying density, nearly 40°/o of the burn has been infested with one of 

these species. The BAER plan defined an integrated pest management 

plan-limited herbicide application, biological control agents, and manual 

treatments-and each has been implemented (Fig. 2). One of the primary goals of the second field season will be to determine the effectiveness of our treatments. 

Permanent monitoring plots have been established in Little Soda 

and Soda Canyons in which the density of Canada thistle is being monitored annually. Thus far, no permanent plots have been established for 

Musk thistle. 

DISCUSSION 

Each objective outlined in the vegetation monitoring and threatened/ 

endangered plant sections of the BAER plan for Mesa Verde National 

Park has been addressed during this first field season. Vegetation monitoring has shown multiple pathways of vegetation recovery, each suggesting a unique monitoring and treatment program. The northern sector of the burn, which has revegetated by re-sprouting shrubs, had nearly 

50°/o vegetation cover after one growing season; therefore, we have no 

reason to predict that non-native species will become established in the 

coming years unless conditions change considerably. We suggest that 

monitoring of this area continue for at least one additional growing season to insure the proliferation of native species (not non-native weeds) 

and to coordinate with the erosion treatment efforts by the BAER ar-
74 FLOYD-HANNA E-::T AL. 

cheological team. At this time, no mitigation treatment is suggested for 

the burned mountain shrubland areas. 

However, on the southern portions of the burn, and on the slopes 

of Soda Canyon, bare soils still dominate the landscape after the first 

growing season, and vegetation recovery is more than one half that of 

the northern sector. Non-native species are gaining a significant hold. 

We have treated isolated Musk thistle and Canada thistle stands with 

mechanical, chemical, and biological measures. We have also aerially seeded 

the most severely burned portions of Park Mesa. We are using the postfire vegetation of Long Mesa fire (Floyd-Hanna and Romme 1995, Klein 

1997) to model and predict what will likely occur in the southern portion 

of the Chapin 5 fire. The non-native vegetation of Long Mesa has 

spread by 260°/o since our last assessment in 1993, and we have no reason 

to believe that native species will eventually outcompete the aggressive, 

non-native species (Floyd-Hanna et al. 1993). This has clearly pre-empted 

the influx of native plant species and is not a desirable condition from 

the standpoint of natural resource management. Therefore, we recommended that treatment, specifically removal of non-native plant species, 

continue. Mesa Verde National Park has made a commitment to managing noxious weeds in their recent resource management initiative (L. 

Towle pers. com.), and our treatments are therefore in keeping with the 

overall Park goals. During the next growing season, 1997-1998, we will 

begin to evaluate the effectiveness of each treatment. We also propose a 

continuation of monitoring which leads to specific treatments of erosion and non-native species problems related to the Chapin 5 fire. 

Therefore, the objectives proposed by the BAER Vegetation group 

for the 1997-1998 growing season are: 

Monitoring the 78 sampling points for vegetation recovery. 

Evaluate the effectiveness of treatments for non-native plant 

species invasions. 

Continue to treat non-native plant species invasions and 

monitor treatment success. 

Establish a monitoring program for Hackelia gracilenta and 

continue to monitor the population size and health of Astragalus schmollae. 

AcKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The authors would like to recognize the important contributions made 

by Dr. William Litzinger, the project taxonomist, and Marilyn Colyer, 

Resource Manager for Mesa Verde National Park, whose extensive knowl-
REPORT SERIES 7 5 

edge of the park was invaluable in making management decisions regarding native plant species. We also thank Charlotte Thompson and 

Tess Johnstone for their excellent field work. 

LITERATURE CITED 

Floyd-Hanna, L., and W H. Romme. 1995. Fire history and fire effects in Mesa 

Verde National Park. Final Report MEVE-R91-0160. Rocky Mountain Region, 

National Park Service. 

Floyd-Hanna, L., W H. Romme, M. Colyer, and A. Loy. 1993. Biological invasion of 

Mesa Verde National Park. Park Science 29:12-14. 

Klein, K. 1997. Spatial assessment of non-native plant species following the 1989 

Long Mesa Burn, Mesa Verde National Park. Report submitted to Prescott 

College course Field Biology Studies: Colorado Plateau. 

Mueller-Dombois, D., and H. Ellenberg. 1974. Aims and methods of vegetation 

ecology. John Wiley and Sons, NY. 

Steitz, J. 1997. Population and dispersal characteristics of Nicotiana attenuata after the 

Chapin 5 fire, Mesa Verde National Park. Report submitted to Prescott College 

course Field Biology Studies: Colorado Plateau. 

Performance of Aerial Forward-Looking 

Infrared Surveys on Cattle, Elk, and Turkey 

in Northern Arizona 

Brian F. Wakeling 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Research Branch 

2221 W. Greenwqy Rd. 

Phoenix, AZ 85023 

David N. Cagle 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Region I 

HC 62 Box 57201 

Pinetop,AZ 85935 

and 

James H. Witham 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Region III 

5325 N. Stockton Hill Rd. 

Kingman, AZ 86401 

Abstract. We conducted performance tests of aerial forward-looking infrared (FLIR) 

technology to assess its capability to survey cattle, elk (Cervt~S elaphus), and Merriam's 

turkey (Meleagris gallapavo merriamt) in forested habitat. Fixed-wing FLIR surveys of 

known numbers of cattle were inaccurate, but linear correlations explained 86% of the 

variation, and initial estimates could be corrected to provide accurate estimates. We 

observed no relationship among fixed-wing FLIR, helicopter FLIR, and visual fixedwing surveys for elk. In three attempts, we were unable to detect roosting turkeys in 

night-time aerial, fixed-wing FLIR overflights. FLIR surveys seem to be capable of 

quantifying large-bodied wildlife, but corrections for sightability need to be developed 

for each species, season, and habitat that will be surveyed. This correction will probably 

require several populations of known number to evaluate. Small-bodied wildlife may 

prove problematic. We recommend against the use of aerial FLIR surveys as the sole 

estimate of large-bodied wildlife species until correction factors can be developed. 

Key words: Arizona, cattle, Cervus elaphus, elk, FLIR, infrared, Meleagris gallopavo 

merriami, Merriam's turkey, survey 

77 
78 WAKELING ET AL. 

Game management agencies typically survey many wildlife species 

by direct observation using visual ground, fixed-wing aircraft, and helicopter surveys (Davis and Winstead 1980). Resource managers and resource user groups have questioned the accuracy and precision of visual 

surveys because observers cannot quantify the number of undetected 

animals with these survey protocols or may not be able to ensure that the 

proportion of undetected animals remains constant (Shupe and Beasom 

1987, White et al. 1989). Because contemporary resource management 

requires increasingly precise and accurate information for guidance, we 

investigated the performance of aerial forward-looking infrared (FLIR) 

technology to determine if it could objectively survey specific wildlife 

species or indicate necessary improvements to existing survey protocols. 

Aerial FLIR surveys have become popular in the scientific literature 

because they seem to standardize and objectively survey large wildlife 

species with acceptable bias (Adams et al. 1997, Garner et al. 1995, Naugle 

et al. 1996, Wiggers and Beckerman 1993). Hansen and Beringer (1997) 

summarized the limitations of aerial FLIR surveys as the (1) inability to 

consistently differentiate between the radiation of target wildlife and the 

background, (2) inability to differentiate among species, (3) presence of 

forest canopy that retards the detection of infrared radiation, and ( 4) 

high cost. Recent literature (Garner et al. 1995, Naugle et al. 1996, Wiggers 

and Beckerman 1993) suggests that advances in FLIR technology have 

overcome some of the limitations that historically reduced the effectiveness of FLIR in conducting wildlife surveys. 

We tested the performance of aerial FLIR to detect free-ranging 

ungulates and roosting turkeys in forested habitat in northern Arizona. 

Our objectives were to (1) evaluate the efficacy of aerial fixed-wing FLIR 

surveys to count cattle in pinyon (Pinus edulis)-juniper (juniperus spp.) woodlands, (2) contrast observations of elk (Cervus elaphus) among standard 

aerial fixed-wing visual, aerial fixed-wing FLIR, and helicopter FLIR surveys, and (3) determine if aerial fixed-wing FLIR could detect Merriam's 

turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo merriamt) on night-time roosts in ponderosa 

pine (P. ponderosa) habitat. 

STUDY AREAS 

Cattle Surveys 

We selected four fenced livestock allotments on the Prescott National Forest to evaluate the ability of FLIR to detect a known number 

ungulates. The allotments were on four ranches located 40-80 km northwest of Prescott, Yavapai County, Arizona. The Hitt allotment encom-
REPORT SERIES 79 

passed 1,024 ha, the South allotment 1,536 ha, the Juniper allotment 2,560 

ha, and the K-4 allotment encompassed 12,544 ha. The predominant 

plant community on each allotment was Great Basin conifer woodland 

(pinyon pine-juniper Uuniperus scopulorum]). These woodlands are broken 

with interstitial areas comprised of plains grasslands, interior chaparral, 

ponderosa pine, and interior deciduous riparian communities (Brown 

1994). Elevations range from 914 to 1,524 m. 

Elk Surveys 

We addressed our second objective in two study sites within the 

Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests in Navajo County, Arizona. The first , 

study site is located about 16 km northeast of Heber, Arizona. It encompassed 250 km2 of primarily open canopy pinyon-juniper grassland. 

About 1,500 ha is in agricultural production. Mean elevation is 1,830 m 

with relatively level topography except for bluffs along the northern portion and two washes in the southwest corner. 

The second study site is located about 5 km east of Show Low, 

Arizona. This site encompassed about 110 km2 of ponderosa pine and 

pinyon-juniper woodland. Open meadows as large as 500 ha are present. 

Elevation averages 2,075 m with little topographical relief except for 

seven wooded knolls composing less than 5°/o of the area. 

Turkey Surveys 

Our final objective was studied at three turkey roost sites about 16 

km south of Flagstaff, Coconino County, Arizona, within the Coconino 

National Forest. These roosts were located within predominantly ponderosa pine forest stands. We followed radio-marked Merriam's turkeys 

to locate the roost sites. 

METHODS 

Aerial fixed-wing surveys were flown using a Cessna 337G twinengine aircraft (operated by AirScan, Inc., Titusville, FL). We used a Bell 

Jet Ranger 206 helicopter (operated by the USDA Forest Service) to 

conduct our helicopter FLIR surveys. FLIR surveys were conducted 

using FLIR High Performance Infrared Imaging 2000 A/B units, with a 

temperature sensitivity of ±0.2°C. These units had a 10 power zoom 

lens that could be used to identify wildlife after detection. Standard 

fixed-wing visual surveys were conducted from a Cessna 182 singleengine aircraft. FLIR surveys were conducted with a pilot and a scanner 
80 W AKEUNG ET AL. 

operator-observer. FLIR surveys were recorded on VHS video tape 

and were reviewed after the survey. Visual fixed-wing surveys were 

conducted with a pilot and two trained observers familiar with the area. 

Cattle Surveys 

Although our primary interest in aerial FLIR technology involved 

wildlife surveys, we surveyed cattle to meet our first objective because 

they approximated the body size of elk and the number of adult cattle 

within each allotment was known. Cattle were the main ungulates within 

the allotments, but elk, mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), and domestic horses 

were present in lower numbers. In addition, cattle were calving during 

the survey period on three of the four allotments and the exact number 

of young was unknown. 

We conducted two replicate blind surveys on consecutive days, 21 

and 22 February 1997. During the first survey flight, wind speeds aloft 

were 20-75 km/hr, but decreased during the next flight. Winds during 

the first survey affected the pilot's ability to maintain the aircraft on transects 

and produced ground speeds that varied depending on flight direction. 

We planned to move cattle between survey efforts to change the number 

of target animals within several allotments. We informed the observers 

that cattle numbers would change between survey efforts. However, we 

chose not to change cattle numbers because of complex logistic requirements and a short time period between survey efforts. The observers 

were unaware that cattle numbers within each allotment were not altered 

between survey efforts. 

We provided the pilot with the perimeter coordinates of each allotment. The K-4 allotment is comprised of two allotments that were 

combined to include a common area of private land between them. 

The pilot was directed to select the optimal time, flight altitude, and airspeed to produce the highest detection rate. The first survey began at 

0730 hrs. To provide better detection contrast, the pilot initiated the 

second survey at 0620 hrs. Flight altitudes varied from 610-760 m AGL, 

and airspeed was selected at 150-165 km per hour. The pilot flew 

non-overlapping survey transects defined by the aircraft on-board global positioning system. The pilot flew orbits over animals that surveyors 

detected. The aircraft returned on transect when the surveyor was satisfied that all animals detected were enumerated. 

We used a paired t-test (Zar 1984) to test for differences between 

surveyed cattle and known numbers. We also used linear regression to 

test for a linear relationship between known and surveyed numbers of 
REPORT SERIES 81 

cattle. We used the regression equation to adjust surveyed numbers and 

again tested the adjusted numbers with minimum known numbers using 

a paired t-test. 

Elk Surveys 

We conducted comparative aerial surveys for elk on two study sites 

during 18 and 19 February 1997. We selected early winter mornings for 

this survey because of low thermal loading of the landscape and the· 

greatest potential temperature differential between survey targets and the 

background landscape. The first study site had three separate surveys 

flown the morning of 18 February 1997. All observers and pilots were. 

supplied with maps of the survey area and perimeter coordinates. The 

helicopter FLIR and the visual fixed-wing surveys each flew 18 transect 

lines in this study area, which were approximately 0.8 km apart. Fixedwing FLIR surveys were conducted on 14 transects and were about 1.1 

km apart. The observations from this latter survey were adjusted to 

correspond to the transect lines for the other two survey methods. The 

three aircraft flew the transect lines sequentially so that animal detection 

availability would remain similar among flights. Parallel north-south 

transects were flown beginning on the east side. Transect lines were 

about 750 m apart. Animal observations were recorded by transect line. 

We flew surveys sequentially, beginning with the survey at the highest 

altitude. We flew aerial fixed-wing FLIR surveys at 610 m AGL, helicopter FLIR surveys at 155m AGL, and visual fixed-wing surveys at 60 

m AGL. We believed that the chance for animal disturbance would 

increase as AGL of surveying aircraft decreased. The fixed-wing FLIR 

survey began about 0500 hrs, the helicopter FLIR survey began at 0715, 

and the visual fixed-wing survey began at 07 40. The surveys required 

about two hours to complete. 

The second study site was surveyed on the morning of 19 February 

1997, using the same protocol. We used only the helicopter FLIR and 

visual fixed-wing surveys in this area. The helicopter FLIR survey began 

at 0710 hrs and the visual fixed-wing survey followed at 0730 hrs. The 

surveys were again completed within two hours. 

Because we could not ensure that we were surveying the same animals with each subsequent survey, we did not attempt to statistically test 

for differences among survey methods. We did, however, use linear 

regression to test for a linear relationship among survey methods. 
82 W AKELING ET AL. 

Turkey Surveys 

We followed radio-marked Merriam's turkeys to their night-time 

roosting sites. These turkeys had been marked as part of another study 

(see Wakeling and Rogers 1998 for a description of capture and marking 

details). We recorded the coordinates of two roosts that we had visual 

confirmation of turkey use and one that we had radio-triangulated the 

approximate location. These coordinates were provided to the pilot to 

locate the roost sites. 

We placed ground observers within 100 m of the two visually confirmed roost sites during the survey. The ground observers maintained 

radio communications with the aerial observers and provided a thermal 

reference point during the survey efforts. Survey efforts began at 0400 

hrs and 610 m AGL. When the flight arrived at the roost site location, 

the aircraft made concentric orbits of < 1 km around the roost site. 

Concentric orbits reduced in altitude until the final orbit was flown at 

305m AGL. Survey efforts alternated among the three roost sites until 

the turkeys left their roosts at about 0700 hrs. 

RESULTS 

Cattle Surveys 

Aerial fixed-wing FLIR surveys did not accurately measure the number of cattle in the four allotments (t =3.283, 7 df, P=0.013; Table 1 ). 

The surveys had a strong linear relationship with minimum cattle numbers (Y=65.21 +1.79X, r =0.865, P=0.001). Adjusted surveyed cattle 

numbers did not differ from minimum known numbers (t =0.004, 7 df, 

P=0.992; Table 2). 

Table 1. Allotments, size, minimum cattle present, and number surveyed with 

aerial fixed-wing FUR during two survey efforts on the Prescott National Forest, 

Yavapai County, Arizona, during February 1997. 

Allotment Allotment Size (Ha) Cattle Numbers Survey 1 Survey 2 

Hitt 2,560 150 0 2 

South 3,840 28 0 5 

Juniper 6,400 25 0 7 

K-4 31,360 394 201 161 

Total 44,160 597 201 175 
REPORT SERIES 83 

Table 2. Allotments, size, minimum cattle present, and adjusted (Y =65.21 + 1. 79X, 

t2 =0.865, P=0.001) number surveyed with aerial fixed-wing FUR during two survey 

efforts on the Prescott National Forest, Yavapai County, Arizona, during February 

1997. 

Adjusted Adjusted 

Allotment Allotment Size (Ha) Cattle Numbers Survey 1 Survey 2 

Hitt 2,560 150 65 69 

South 3,840 28 65 74 

Juniper 6,400 25 65 78 

K-4 31,360 394 425 353 

Total 44,160 597 620 574 

Elk Surveys 

The surveys of the first study site were variable in the number and 

species of wildlife observed among survey methods (fable 3). Fixedwing FLIR observers detected 37 elk in three herds and one group of 

seven pronghorn (Antilocapra americana). Helicopter FLIR observers detected 18 elk in two herds. Visual fixed-wing survey observers detected 

77 elk in 11 herds, approximately 100 pronghorn in 10 herds, eight mule 

deer in three herds, and three coyotes. No linear relationship explained 

more than 35°/o of the variation in elk observations between any two 

survey methods. 

The second study site produced similar variable results, except that 

the helicopter FLIR observers detected more elk than the visual fixedwing observers (fable 4). The visual fixed-wing survey noted 24 mule 

deer, 45 pronghorn, and a flock of turkeys not recorded by the helicopter FLIR survey. A linear relationship explained less than 6°/o of the 

variation in elk observations between the two survey methods. 

Turkey Surveys 

The turkey surveys did not successfully detect the target wildlife. No 

turkeys were detected with the fixed-wing FLIR at the three roost sites. 

The ground observers were detected at the two roost sites where they 

were placed, and non-target elk were also observed. 

DISCUSSION 

Although the fixed-wing FLIR cattle surveys did not provide accurate results, the adjusted survey numbers did not differ from the mini-
Table 3. Wildlife observed by transect line with fixed-wing FUR, helicopter FUR, and visual fixed-wing surveys on 18 February 1997, 

near Heber, Arizona. 

Wildlife Observed by Survey Method 

Transect Number Fixed-wing FLIR Helicopter FLIR Visual Fixed-wing 

1 0 0 1 0 elk, 1 0 pronghorn, 3 coyotes 

2 0 0 12 pronghorn, 3 mule deer 

3 0 0 2 pronghorn, 1 coyote 

4 0 0 4 elk, 8 pronghorn, 1 mule deer 

5 0 10 elk 15 elk 

6 36elk 8elk 15 elk, 11 pronghorn 

7 0 0 4elk 

8 0 0 23 pronghorn 

9 1 elk 0 12 pronghorn 

10 0 0 20elk 

11 0 0 4 mule deer 

12 0 0 0 

13 0 0 0 

14 0 0 9 elk, 22 pronghorn 

15 0 0 0 

16 7 pronghorn 0 0 

17 0 0 0 

18 0 0 0 

TOTAL 37 elk, 7 pronghorn 18 elk 77 elk, 8 mule deer, 4 coyotes, 1 00 pronghorn 
Table 4. Wildlife observed by transect line with helicopter FUR and visual fixed-wing surveys on 19 February 1997, near Show 

Low, Arizona. 

Transect Number 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

TOTAL 

Wildlife Observed by Survey Method 

Helicopter FLIR 

0 

0 

0 

0 

74elk 

0 

0 

91 elk 

182 elk 

114 elk 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

243 elk 

0 

0 

0 

91 elk 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

795 elk 

Visual Fixed-wing 

0 

0 

0 

0 

22elk 

20 mule deer 

72 elk, 2 antelope, flock turkeys 

69elk 

10 elk 

139 elk 

34 elk, 9 antelope 

71 elk, 22 antelope 

0 

0 

6elk 

0 

0 

0 

2elk 

91 elk, 4 mule deer 

0 

0 

0 

21 antelope 

0 

95elk 

611 elk, 24 mule deer, 54 antelope, 1 flock turkeys 00 

VI 
86 W AKELING ET AL. 

mum numbers of adult cattle. A linear relationship explained 86°/o of 

the variation between cattle observations by the fixed-wing FLIR surveys and known minimum adult cattle numbers. Because cattle in three 

of the four allotments were calving during the survey effort, the results 

of the .survey are less precise than they appear. Although the difference 

in size between adults and calves was sometimes detected, such differences could not be consistently assessed for each observation. 

When comparing elk observations among the three survey methods, 

neither FLIR survey seemed to detect more elk than conventional visual 

fixed-wing surveys. The one exception was the number of elk observed 

on 19 February, when 795 elk were detected by the helicopter FLIR 

versus 611 elk during the visual fixed-wing survey. A group of 243 elk 

was detected by the helicopter FLIR, but was not seen by the visual 

observers approximately 20 minutes later. The FLIR scanner operator 

stated that the elk herd was moving out of a meadow into dense canopy 

cover. When the visual fixed-wing observers flew that transect the herd 

may have been undetected because they had moved into the tree canopy. 

Another apparent difficulty with FLIR surveys was the apparent inability of the FLIR to detect smaller wildlife such as pronghorn and mule 

deer. The fixed-wing FLIR survey detected a herd of seven pronghorn, 

but no others were detected. The visual surveys detected approximately 

100 pronghorn in the same area, and the helicopter FLIR did not detect 

any smaller wildlife. 

The inability of FLIR technology to document smaller wildlife is 

further supported by the lack of detection of roosting turkeys. Turkeys 

may have been obscured by dense ponderosa pine tree canopies, but 

their thermal images were too small to detect with current technology. 

Despite some early success in detecting turkeys in other studies (Garner 

et al. 1995), free-ranging turkeys seem to be difficult to detect with aerial 

FLIR efforts. 

Aerial FLIR surveys promise to be valuable wildlife management 

tools. However, further research and technological advances are needed 

to identify the accuracy and precision of estimates from those surveys. 

Our experience suggests that the limitations of aerial FLIR surveys noted 

by Hansen and Beringer (1997) are still prevalent. We believe that the 

ability to correct for the cattle surveys with a simple linear relationship is 

encouraging, but this strongly suggests that any survey of a wildlife population of interest would need to be adjusted. This adjustment should be 

conducted for each species, habitat, and season when FLIR surveys were 

of interest. Further, this adjustment would require several populations 

of known numbers to develop sound relationships. 
REPORT SERIES 87 

Despite its appeal, we recommend that aerial FLIR surveys should 

not be relied upon to provide sole population monitoring information 

on wildlife species. Aerial FLIR may be valuable in documenting occurrence of free-ranging, large-bodied wildlife, but the accuracy and precision of those surveys are unknown. Until such time as these factors are 

documented, FLIR is of little value beyond documenting the presence 

of large-bodied wildlife. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

We gratefully acknowledge the time and talents of William J. 

Krausmann and Patrick Donnelly (U.S. Forest Service) and John F. Piowaty · 

(AirScan, Inc.) for FLIR surveys and professional analysis of survey tapes. 

T. D. Rogers assisted as a ground observer on the turkey surveys. The 

cattle surveys were coordinated through the Prescott Habitat Partnership 

Committee. We thank the Box L, Cross U, K-4, and Old Camp ranches 

and the Prescott National Forest for their cooperation. This research 

was funded by the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation, the National Wild 

Turkey Federation Research Grant Program, the Arizona Game and Fish 

Department, the U.S. Forest Service, and the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-78-R. 

LITERATURE CITED 

Adams, K. P., P. J. Pekins, K. A. Gustafson, and K. Bontaites. 1997. Evaluation of 

infrared technology for aerial moose surveys in New Hampshire. Alces 33:129-

139. 

Brown, D., editor. 1994. Biotic communities - Southwestern United States and 

Northwestern Mexico. Univ. Utah Press, Salt Lake City. 342 pp. 

Davis, D. E., and R. L. Winstead. 1980. Estimating the numbers of wildlife 

populations. Pages 221-245 inS. D. Schemnitz, editor. Wildlife management 

techniques manual, Fourth Ed. The Wildlife Society, Washington, D. C. 

Garner, D. L., H. B. Underwood, and W. E Porter. 1995. The use of modern 

infrared thermography for wildlife population surveys. Environmental Management 19(2):233-238. 

Hansen, L. P., and J. Beringer. 1997. Evaluation of forward looking infrared (FLIR) 

imaging for determining characteristics of white-tailed deer populations. 

Missouri Dep. Conservation, Federal Aid Project No. W-13-R-50, Missouri 

Department of Conservation. 13 pp. 

Naugle, D. E., J. A. Jenks, and B. J. Kerhohan. 1996. Use of thermal infrared sensing 

to estimate density of white-tailed deer. Wildlife Society Bulletin 24:37-43. 

Shupe, T. E., and S. L. Beasom. 1987. Speed and altitude influences on helicopter 

surveys of mammals in brushlands. Wildlife Society Bulletin 125:552-555. 

Wakeling, B. E, and T. D. Rogers. 1998. Summer resource selection and year-long 

survival of male Merriam's turkeys in north-central Arizona, with associated 
88 WAKEI1NG ET AL. 

implications from demographic modeling. Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Technical Report 28, Phoenix, AZ. 50 pp. 

White, G. C., R. M. Bartmann, L. H. Carpenter, and R. A. Garrot. 1989. Evaluation 

of aerial line transects for estimating mule deer densities. Journal of Wildlife 

Management 53:626-635. 

Wiggers, E. P., and S. E Beckerman. 1993. Use of thermal infrared sensing to survey 

white-tailed deer populations. Wildlife Society Bulletin 21:263-268. 

Zar, J. H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis. Second ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 

NJ. 718 pp. 
Assessing Impacts of Alternative 

Livestock Management Practices: 

Raging Debates and a Role for Science 

Thomas D. Sisk 

Center for Environmental Sciences and Education 

Northern Arizona University 

P.O. Box 5694 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 

Timothy E. Crews 

Environmental Studies Program 

Prescott College 

220 Grove Ave. 

Prescott, AZ 86301 

Ryan T. Eisfeldt 

Matthew King 

and 

Elaine Stanley 

Center for Environmental Sciences and Education 

Northern Arizona University 

P.O. Box 5694 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 

Abstract. Grazing of domestic livestock is the most pervasive and persistent human impact on the grasslands and shrublands of the Colorado Plateau. Impacts on 

ecosystem function and biological diversity are thought to be great, but few studies have 

attempted to characterize such effects and compare the impacts of alternative livestock 

management practices. The dearth of pertinent, defensible information has contributed 

to the polarization of ranching and environmental interests, and has exacerbated what is 

one of the most contentious social issues in the southwestern USA. We discuss the role 

of ecological science in deriving and disseminating information that will help focus and 

perhaps resolve the impasse over grazing impacts and other natural resource issues. 

Specifically, we describe results of our involvement in "management teams" that include 

ranchers, environmentalists, public servants, and interested citizens, and how this collaborative process has helped shape an experimental research program that would be 

impossible to execute without the involvement of divergent interests in the grazing 

89 
90 SISK ET AL. 

debate. Claims of various interest groups are reformulated as testable hypotheses, and a 

research design is presented. 

Key words: arthropods, biological diversity, conflict resolution, cooperative research, 

plant communities, grazing, net primary productivity, ranching 

INTRODUCTION 

Grazing of domestic livestock is the most pervasive and persistent 

human impact on grasslands and shrublands of the arid Southwest 

(Fleischner 1994). The practice of livestock grazing affects approximately 

70o/o of western states (Fleischner 1994), and 86°/o of the land surface in 

Arizona (Mayes and Archer 1982). Since the 1860's, the cattle industry 

has played a significant role in the social, cultural and political development of Arizona (Schlegel 1992) and, along with other factors, it has 

brought profound ecological change (Hastings and Turner 1965, Bahre 

1991). 

Today, the ubiquitous practice of cattle grazing in the arid West, in 

general, and Arizona, in particular, is an intensely contentious social issue 

(Dagget 1995). Widespread rangeland degradation has led public interest groups to challenge traditional grazing practices and demand a policy 

that will insure long-term productivity of public rangelands and the conservation of native biological diversity (e.g., Cooperrider and Wilcove 

1995, Southwest Forest Alliance 1996). Meanwhile, ranchers facing weakening markets and declining profits, have fiercely resisted cutbacks in 

grazing allotments, increased fees, and greater regulation (Hecox and Ack 

1996). Polarization of the policy debate has led to an impasse among 

ranchers, environmentalists, and resource managers regarding appropriate management of public lands (Brown and McDonnell 1995, 

Cooperrider and Wilcove 1995). Continuing debate, court actions, and 

pending lawsuits may have profound impacts on ranching and the future 

use of public lands in the Southwest. While it is clear that livestock grazing will remain an important economic activity and land use on the Colorado Plateau and throughout the region, it is also clear that grazing will be 

restricted or eliminated on some public lands. Which lands to graze, and 

how best to graze them, are pressing questions. How these questions are 

answered will greatly impact the ecological condition of the arid Southwest, as well as the future of one of the region's few significant food 

production systems. 
REPORT SERIES 91 

A RoLE FOR SciENCE 

Like many environmental issues, the grazing debate is so polarized 

that it often seems that there is little room for science. Positions have 

been staked out for years, and scientific input often is reduced to a parade of "expert witnesses" presenting opposing interpretations of existing information. Yet many environmental issues rise to public prominence precisely because existing scientific information is equivocal or inadequate and, therefore, subject to misuse or misinterpretation (Ehrlich · 

and Ehrlich 1996). Certainly there is no shortage of published research 

addressing many aspects of domestic livestock raising; however, much 

of this information fails to address directly the issues that have become · 

pivotal to the grazing debate, namely the impacts of grazing on rangeland productivity and biological diversity. The impacts of domestic livestock on arid rangeland productivity and biological diversity are thought 

to be great, but quantitative information comparing different grazing 

approaches is scant. Furthermore, many studies comparing grazed and 

ungrazed areas have been criticized on methodological grounds because 

they rely on small exclosure areas for ungrazed sites (Bock et al. 1993), 

employ questionable photographic comparison techniques, or employ 

unreplicated designs in field comparisons (Brown and Waller 1986). 

Objective evaluation of the many conflicting statements regarding 

the impacts of overgrazing or the benefits of certain range management 

techniques are further complicated by the failure of many advocates to 

clearly articulate specific claims and the response variables being discussed. 

Terms like "rangeland health," "biodiversity," "overgrazing," and 

"overrest" can mask the specifics and make it tempting to drown legitimate debate in arguments over vague generalities. The current grazing 

controversy, for example, often focuses on two distinct topics: ecosystem productivity and biological diversity. Unfortunately, references to 

these very different issues are often confused and muddled in discussions 

of "range condition" or "ecosystem health." 

For these reasons, we have initiated a study of ecological factors that 

we believe undergird much of the controversy over grazing practices in 

the Southwest. Our first objective is to identify the points of conflict that 

emerge from differing claims regarding the ecological impacts of livestock grazing. We believe that if scientists are to contribute to solving real 

environmental problems they must strive to understand the issues that 

underlie and sustain conflict. By focusing research on these issues, we 

hope that it will be possible to engage a diverse group of landowners, 

public servants, and interested citizens to support and participate in ef-
92 SISK ET AL. 

forts to improve our understanding of certain ecological factors that all 

agree are important determinants of environmental quality on arid rangelands (fable 1). 

For the past three years we have participated in "management teams" 

- loosely organized groups of ranchers, environmentalists, agency officials, and interested citizens who are working collectively to improve 

management practices on private and public rangelands in Arizona. This 

experience has helped us to develop a research program that addresses 

questions of import to land managers and is broadly understood and 

appreciated by people on di~ferent sides of the grazing debate. 

CoMMoN GROUND: SusTAINABLE EcosYSTEMs 

One idea that is shared almost universally is the importance of managing grassland ecosystems for long-term, sustainable use. While the 

concept of sustainability has been widely embraced (e.g., Goodland 1995), 

inadequate definition combined with frequent use has diluted its meaning 

substantially. Nevertheless, sustainability is a central concept in the grazing debate and constitutes the common ground upon which any real 

resolution of the issue is likely to be founded. Clearly, for any type of 

agriculture to persist it must be both economically and ecologically sustainable (Crews et al. 1991). Across much of the arid West, economics 

Table 1. Scientists, managers, landowners, and public interest groups often 

disagree on the role of science in land and resource management. Researchers 

attempting to illuminate controversial issues should strive to understand the conflict 

and assess the potential contributions of new research before launching 

investigations. Our experiences suggest the following sequence of steps for 

developing research projects that address scientific issues underlying conflict. 

Steps for Turning Conflicting Claims Into Questions, and Then Into 

Testable Hypotheses: 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Study the controversy; understand the conflict. 

Restate contradictory claims as questions or hypotheses . 

Discuss questions/hypotheses with all parties . 

Get "buy-in" on research approach from the affected parties. If unsuccessful, repeat previous step, or change the approach. 

Design research through an open process, with opportunities for 

discussion and dialog. 

Initiate the study and guard scientific independence . 

Maintain channels of communication and provide regular updates . 
REPORT SERIES 9 3 

has tended to dictate what is achievable ecologically, rather than ecology 

dictating what is achievable economically. This has resulted in a shortterm perspective that sacrifices ecosystem sustainability for short-term 

economic viability. As ranchers struggle increasingly to stay afloat financially, it is increasingly evident that further ecological deterioration is unacceptable to many. Moving to an ecological viewpoint, while remaining 

economically viable, is the challenge facing many ranchers and resource 

managers. While economic analyses are beyond the scope of this paper,. 

it is important to note that ecological knowledge must be integrated with 

economic strategies if livestock grazing is to be truly sustainable. 

In this paper we focus on two important aspects of ecological. 

sustainability: ecosystem productivity and biological diversity. Ecological sustainability is concerned with the production of digestible plant 

material over the long term (decades to centuries), without significant 

external inputs, such as diverted water and fertilizers. Biological diversity 

reflects the ability of the land to support viable population of native 

species, from soil microorganisms to plants to the herbivores that consume them. These two issues lie at the heart of the grazing debate. Does 

grazing reduce or enhance the productivity of rangelands? Is the diversity of native organisms higher or lower on grazed lands? These are very 

different, though related questions, and the scientific approaches for answering them are also quite distinct. We are working with diverse management teams, on lands under active management, to investigate simultaneously these two aspects of ecosystem sustainability. 

ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO RANGELAND MANAGEMENT 

For the past 120 years, traditional cattle operations in Arizona have 

turned animals out onto large pastures for relatively long periods of time 

(Schlegel 1992). It is not unusual to see stocking densities of one animal 

per 1 00+ acres, with herds being moved between summer pastures at 

higher elevations and winter pastures in lower, desert grasslands. The 

result is relatively low grazing pressures over relatively long periods of 

time (Fig. 1 ). Stocking densities are manipulated in an attempt to maximize production without degrading range quality and the future ability 

of the system to produce forage. Hereafter, we will refer to this approach as "traditional grazing." 

An alternative approach involves much higher stocking rates for relatively short periods of time (Fig. 1). Grazing episodes are followed by 

long periods of complete rest from the impacts of domesticated livestock, allowing time for the heavily impacted rangelands to recover prior 
94 SISK ET AL. 

Single, Traditional 

Pasture 

. • • • 

Example: 

50 head of cattle graze 5,000 

acres of rangeland for 5 months, 

continuously. 

Low stocking rate, low animal 

impact, long-term disturbance, no 

rest. 

Pasture Divided into 10 

Paddocks 

50 head of cattle graze 500 

acres of rangeland for 15 

days, then move to a new 

paddock. 

High stocking rate, high animal 

impact, short-term disturbance, 

followed by 41

/

2 months of rest. 

Figure 1. Alternative grazing practices employed in the arid Southwest include 

season-long grazing on large pastures, at relatively low stocking densities (referred 

to as ''traditional grazing" in this paper), and relatively rapid rotation of cattle among 

multiple small pastures, followed by long periods of rest (we refer to this as "HAMstyle grazing"). The diagram contrasts two hypothetical grazing strategies for the 

same herd. 

to the next introduction of cattle (Savory 1978). Stocking densities and 

rotation times may vary, often in response to prevailing economic or 

ecological conditions, but in virtually all cases the stocking density is several times that of traditional grazing systems, and the cattle are left in a 

particular pasture for a period of several days to weeks, rather than several months (Fig. 1 ). High density, short duration grazing is frequently 

implemented as part of a system called Holistic Resource Management 

(HRM, see Savory 1988) that has gained many enthusiastic adherents 

among ranchers, some public range managers, and some members of 

the environmental community (Dagget 1995). 

While there is a considerable body of work on the effects of livestock grazing on native species and ecosystem function (e.g., Jeffries and 

Klopatek 1987, Belsky 1987, Belsky and Blumenthal 1997), and on the 

removal of livestock from rangelands (e.g., Bock et al. 1984, Brady et al. 

1989, Milchunas and Lauenroth 1993) few studies have examined the 

relative impacts of alternative strategies. This is unfortunate because the 
REPORT SERIES 9 5 

actual policy decisions made by land managers seldom involve the introduction of livestock onto previously ungrazed lands, or the complete 

removal of livestock from current rangelands. Instead, development of 

sustainable grazing policy demands that ranchers and public lands managers choose an appropriate management strategy and stocking level to 

protect the integrity of the grazed ecosystem. The current project attempts to assist decision makers by providing information on grazing 

impacts on both ecosystem function and biological diversity, under alter- . 

native management strategies. 

REsEARCH APPROACH 

Involvement with ranchers, anti-grazing activists, and management 

teams has identified numerous conflicting claims regarding the ecological 

effects of grazing. Our first task was to turn these claims into clear 

questions that could be stated as testable hypotheses that are amenable to 

scientific inquiry. We include here three examples of the contradicting 

claims and the approaches that we have taken in addressing them through 

field research. For illustrative purposes, we have presented direct quotes 

from two published sources that are widely cited by activists on opposite 

sides of the grazing controversy. 

Question 1. Do rates of organic matter decomposition and related 

nutrient cycling vary with grazing intensity? 

• "In brittle environments ... most dead plant material breaks 

down through slow oxidation and weathering. Large accumulations of unrecycled plant parts suppress plant growth and 

reduce uptake of those nutrients that eventually do get below 

the soil" (Savory 1988). 

• "Grazing disrupts the fundamental ecosystem functions of 

nutrient cycling and succession .... On the Colorado Plateau ... a 

single footprint can bring a local nitrogen cycle almost to a 

halt" (Fleischner 1994). 

Approaches: 

1) Decomposition: Undertake a 3-year grass decomposition experiment using litter bags and grass stems to compare rates of decomposition (mass loss), as well nitrogen and phosphorus release 

rates (both immobilization and mineralization). Measure rates of 

soil respiration across a gradient of grazing intensity. 
96 SISK ET AL. 

2) Nutrient availability: Over 3 years, measure the availability of important soil nutrients using buried anion and cation exchange resin 

bags, and analysis of leaf tissue nutrient concentrations and soilextractable nutrients. 

3) Nitrogen fixation: Using the natural abundance of 15N, as well as 

acetylene reduction, determine whether grazed grasses support more 

or less rhizosphere-associated nitrogen fixation than ungrazed 

grasses. 

Question 2. Do rates of water inftltration vary according to grazing 

intensity? 

• 

• 

''Tools that break up a sealed or "capped" surface, or increase 

the soil's organic content and crumb structure, speed penetration. A loosened, rough surface or one covered by old, prone 

plant material achieves this" (Savory 1988). 

"Microbiotic crusts in arid ecosystems have been correlated 

with ... increased soil water inftltration .... Grazing has repeatedly 

been shown to decrease water infiltration" (Fleischner 1994). 

Approach: Compare soil moisture in matched grazed and ungrazed 

plots immediately following rainfall events. 

Question 3. How do native plant diversity and community composition vary with grazing intensity? 

• 

• 

"Periodic high animal impact ... could remove old material, 

invigorate existing plants without exposing soil, create conditions for new plants to establish and move succession away 

from forbs and woody plants; ... prolonged rest does not 

favor perennial grass plants" (Savory 1988). 

"Decreases in density of native plant species and diversity of 

native plant communities as a result of livestock grazing 

activity have been observed in a wide variety of western 

ecosystems" (Fleischner 1994). 

Approach: Quantify plant community composition under different grazing practices; implement controlled, replicated experiments and document plant communities before and after treatments, over several years. 

Measure living/ dead plant material, species composition, and plant abundances under a replicated, spatial sampling design. 
REPORT SERIES 97 

Response Variables and Sampling Design 

These examples illustrate an approach to research that is driven not 

only by the scientific questions but also by the context of the debate over 

grazing impacts and the management of arid rangelands. We believe that 

this approach offers an opportunity for doing sound science that will 

help illuminate real land use issues. Table 2lists the response variables that 

we are monitoring and provides a brief reference to the methods that 

we will employ. 

Our sampling design is based on the Modified-Whittaker plot, which 

Table 2. Response variables measured and methods employed in integrated 

studies of rangeland productivity and biodiversity. All measurements are made 

contemporaneously on common research plots. 

RESPONSE VARIABLE 

Productivity Variables 

Net Primary Productivity 

N and P availability 

Decomposition I 

Soil Organic Matter 

Nitrogen fixation 

Soil Water Infiltration 

Biodiversity Variables 

Plant Species Richness, 

% Cover by species, 

% Native species. 

Plant Biomass, by 

growth form 

Arthropod Diversity and 

Abundance (at various 

taxonomic levels) 

Arthropod Biomass, by 

taxon 

METHODS EMPLOYED 

Aboveground annual productivity harvests. 

Soil respiration measurements after rainfall 

events. 

Buried anion and cation resin bags. In-lab 

mineralization using KCI extracts. Grass leaf 

tissue analyses. Measurements of immobilization and mineralization throughout decomposition experiments. 

Mass loss of tethered grass bundles and litter 

bags. Soil carbon fractionation analysis. 

Measurement of rhizosphere N-fixation activity 

using acetylene reduction. Estimate of rhizosphere fixation using natural abundance of 15N. 

Bulk density and water infiltration capacity 

throughout soil profiles. Soil water content by 

depth following rainfall events. 

Exhaustive survey of nested ModifiedWhittaker subplots; frequency sampling in 

smallest subplots to estimate percent cover. 

Aboveground harvests and dry biomass of 

grasses, forbs, and woody perennial. 

Pitfall trapping associated with smallest 

Modified-Whittaker subplots; sweep-net 

sampling along transects within ModifiedWhittaker plot. 

Dry weight of sorted pitfall and sweep-net 

samples. 
98 SISK ET AL. 

has been shown to capture spatial variability in grassland studies, and to 

more accurately estimate species richness (Stohlgren et al. 1995). The 

largest plot, 20m x SOm, contains subplots of differing sizes and varying 

amounts of replication (Fig. 2). The approach permits estimation of 

variance among subplots, providing a measure of spatial variability. Recent studies suggest that the Modified-Whittaker approach also is effective at detecting rare plants (Stohlgren et al. 1997) and the presence of 

exotic species. We have integrated measurements of a host of grazing 

response variables (fable 2) with the Modified-Whittaker design. For 

example, ion exchange bags, pitfall traps and sweep-net transects have 

been associated with vegetation subplots, permitting similar analytical 

approaches for ecosystem variables, vegetation, and arthropod data when 

comparing the effects of different grazing treatments. In some cases, we 

employ additional plots and/ or transects to increase replication and/ or 

spatial independence of sample points. 

STUDY SITES 

We have begun work at three sites in Arizona to test productivity and 

biodiversity response variables (Fig. 3). 

Reed Lake Site 

Located at 2190 m on the Colorado Plateau, and classified as Plains 

and Great Basin Grassland (Brown 1994), the Reed Lake site is comI A 

20m 

l 

c 

c=J 

B 

+----------------------SOm--------------------~ 

Figure 2. The Modified-Whittaker plot combines aspects of traditional plot and 

transect methods. Small subplots capture spatial variability; these and the larger 

subplots (A, B, C, and the 20m X 50m outer plot) permit estimates based on 

species:area relationships (Stohlgren et al. 1995). Modified-Whittaker plots are 

employed in each treatment type at all study sites. 
Figure 3. Research is underway at three study sites, one in a desert grassland in a monsoonal climate (Post Canyon), one in a mid-elevation high 

desert grassland (Ash Creek), and one in a high-elevation summer pasture on the Colorado Plateau (Reed Lake). At the Post Canyon site, comparison 

of three treatment types is made possible by the presence of the Appleton-Whittell Research Ranch which has not been grazed since 1969. At Reed 

Lake and Ash Creek, replicated experimental plots supplement sample plots on adjacent ranches employing different grazing strategies. 

Reed La ke e 

• Ash Creek 

Post Can yo ~ 

" 

Babocomari Ranch 

Traditional grazing since 1890's. 

Diamond C Ranch 

HRM Management since 1988. 

-

-

Applcton-Whinell Audubon 

Research Ranch 

Ungrazed since 1969. 

-

Ha rt Ranch 

LEGEND: 

C- Conventional grazing treatment (unfenced) 

E - Canle Exclosure (fenced I ha plots) 

H - High intensity HRM-style (fenced I ha plots) 

L- Low intensily HRM-style grazing (unfenced) 
1 00 SISK ET AL. 

prised of two working ranches, the Flying M and the Hart Ranch. The 

Flying M Ranch has practiced Holistic Resource Management, including 

relatively high stocking rates with long periods of rest, beginning in 1988. 

The experimental design we are using at Reed Lake consists of plots that 

receive 4 levels of livestock grazing1. Livestock excluded. This treatment consists of three, 1 ha replicate plots located on the Flying M. These plots were fenced in 

July of 1997 to exclude livestock. Modified-Whittaker plots are 

located within each of the 1 ha plots. 

2. Conventional, low density livestock grazing. Three ModifiedWhittaker plots are established in an open pasture of the Hart 

Ranch, across the fence from the Flying M plots. 

3. HRM-style livestock grazing. Three Modified-Whittaker plots 

are established in an open pasture under HRM management on 

the Flying M Ranch. 

4. High-intensity HRM-style livestock grazing. Adjacent to the livestock exclosures established on the Flying-M Ranch, three, 1 ha 

enclosures were fenced in July of 1997. The exclosures are 

stocked twice each summer with the full Flying-M herd (typically 300-500 animals) for 3-8 hrs per plot, depending on number of animals and range condition. This treatment does not 

mimic actual ranching practices; it is designed to provide an opportunity for testing hypothesized mechanistic links between animal impact, ecosystem function, and biological diversity. 

Ash Creek Site 

The Ash Creek site is located at 1280 m elevation near Dugas, Arizona, and is classified as Semidesert Grassland (Brown 1994). The experimental design described for the Reed Lake site has been duplicated 

at Ash Creek, with three replicates of the same four grazing treatments. 

The livestock exclosure plots, the HRM managed rangeland plots, and 

the extreme high-intensity plots are all located on the Orme Ranch, which 

has been practicing HRM since 1985. The project has been endorsed by 

the Orme Ranch management team and the Prescott National Forest. 

Field work was initiated in Spring 1998. 

Post Canyon Site 

Located at 1520 m in the Sonoita Valley of SE Arizona, the vegetation of the Post Canyon site is classified as Plains and Great Basin Grassland (Brown 1994). The experimental design of the Post Canyon site 
REPORT SERIES 101 

differs from that of the Reed Lake and Ash Creek sites. At Post Canyon, 

the three land management treatments of interest converge at one point 

(Fig. 3) - The Diamond C Ranch has been managing livestock according to HRM principles since 1984; the Babocomori Ranch uses conventional, low intensity livestock management practices; and the AppletonWhittell Audubon Research Ranch has excluded livestock from its premises since 1969. We have taken advantage of these three well established "treatments" by setting up Modified Whittaker plots, supplemented· 

by stratified random samples on comparable land forms within 1 km of 

the convergence of the three ranches. 

CoNCLUSIONS 

Environmental issues are often so polarized that there appears to be 

little room for objective scientific analysis. Yet few pressing environmental issues can be resolved without sufficient scientific understanding. The 

debate over grazing impacts and the proper use of public rangelands in 

the Southwest presents quite a "Catch 22" situation, with different interests advancing forceful arguments, each claiming that their position is 

based on sound science. Environmental scientists often find themselves 

called upon to bolster one side of the argument or the other, rather than 

doing what they are trained to do: identify important questions, design 

rigorous studies to address them, and analyze and interpret the results. If 

scientists wish to contribute to resolving real management issues, such as 

those posed by livestock grazing in the Southwest, they must understand 

(and target for research) the notions that underlie and sustain conflict. 

Developing an objective research approach that is broadly understood 

by all affected parties is a difficult task, but one that is essential to conducting relevant research that will be considered by decision makers. 

We have worked with ranchers, environmentalists, agency scientists, 

and interested citizens to identify appropriate scientific questions and design approaches for field research. Exposure to a wide range of perspectives and interactions with many committed individuals have helped 

us develop a research effort that many agree is addressing key questions 

that are relevant to the future management of southwestern rangelands. 

While our geographic, taxonomic, and conceptual approaches are necessarily focused on particular issues and locations, the interactive process, 

which continues as our field work progresses, provides an encouraging 

indication that the results (whatever the outcome) will be considered by 

ranchers, public officials, and involved citizens - those individuals whose 

opinions and actions will determine future grazing policy. 
1 02 SISK ET AL. 

AcKNOWLEDGMENTS 

We wish to thank the owners, managers and employees of the Flying 

M, Orme, Diamond C, Babocomari, and Hart Ranches, and the 

Appleton-Whittell Audubon Research Ranch. We are also thankful for 

the hard work and dedication of the Diablo Trust, student researchers E. 

Baldwin, L. Golten, A. Keller, and numerous ranchers, agency officials, 

and interested citizens who have helped us develop and implement these 

ideas, and who continue to participate in this exciting research effort. 

This work was supported by an Organized Research award from Northern 

Arizona University, the U.S. Department of Energy and in-kind contributions from the Agroecology Program of Prescott College and the 

Flying M Ranch. 

LITERATURE CITED 

Bahre, C. J. 1991. A Legacy of Change: Historic impact on vegetation in the Arizona 

borderlands. Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. 

Belsky, A. J. 1987. The effects of grazing: Confounding ecosystem, community, and 

organism scales. American Naturalist 127:870-892. 

Belsky, A. J. and D. M. Blumenthal. 1997. Effects of livestock gazing on stand 

dynamics and soils in upland forests of the interior West. Conservation Biology 

11:315-327. 

Bock, C. E., J. H. Bock, W R. Kenney, and V. M. Hawthorne. 1984. Responses of 

birds, rodents, and vegetation to livestock exclusion in a semidesert grassland site. 

Journal of Range Management 37:239-242. 

Bock, C. E., J. H. Bock, and H. M. Smith. 1993. Proposal for a system of federal 

livestock exclosures on public rangelands in the western United States. Conservation Biology 7:731-733 

Brady, W W, M. R. Stromberg, E. E Aldon, C. D. Bonham, and S. H. Henry. 1989. 

Response of a semidesert grassland to 16 years of rest from grazing. Journal of 

Range Management 42:284-288. 

Brown, D. E., editor. 1994. Biotic communities: Southwestern United States and 

northwestern Mexico. Univ. of Utah Press, Salt Lake City, UT. 342 pp. 

Brown, J. H., and W McDonald. 1995. Livestock grazing and conservation on 

southwestern rangelands. Conservation Biology 9:1644-164 7. 

Brown, M. A. and S. S. Waller. 1986. The impact of experimental design on the 

application of grazing research results - an exposition. Journal of Range 

Management 39:197-200. 

Cooperrider, A. Y and D. S. Wilcove. 1995. Defending the desert: Conserving 

biodiversity on BLM lands in the Southwest. Environmental Defense Fund, New 

York. 

Crews, T. E., C. L. Mohler, and A. G. Power. 1991. Energetics and ecosystem 

integrity: The defining principles of sustainable agriculture. American Journal of 

Alternative Agriculture 6:146-149. 

Dagget, D. 1995. Beyond the rangeland conflict. Gibbs-Smith, Layton, UT. 

Ehrlich, P. R. and A. H. Ehrlich. 1996. Betrayal of science and reason: How anti-
REPORT SERIES 103 

environmental rhetoric threatens our future. Island Press, Washington, D.C. 338 

pp. 

Fleischner, T. 1994. Ecological costs of livestock grazing in western North America. 

Conservation Biology 8:629-644. 

Goodland, R. 1995. The concept of environmental sustainability. Annual Review of 

Ecology and Systematics 26:1-24. 

Hastings, J. R. and R. M. Turner. 1965. The changing mile: An ecological study of 

vegetation change with time in the lower mile of an arid and semiarid region. 

Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. 

Hecox, W. E. and B. L. Ack. 1996. Charting the Colorado Plateau: An economic and 

demographic exploration. Grand Canyon Trust, Flagstaff, AZ. 51 pp. 

Jeffries, D. L. and J. M. Klopatek. 1987. Effects of grazing on the vegetation of the 

blackbrush association. Journal of Range Management 40:390-392. 

Mayes, H. M. and T. F. Archer. 1982. Arizona cattle ranches on public land. College of· 

Agriculture, Univ. of Arizona. Tucson, AZ. 12 pp. 

Milchunas, D. G. and W. K. Lauenroth. 1993. Quantitative effects of grazing on 

vegetation and soils over a global range of environments. Ecological Monographs 

63:327-366. 

Savory, A. 1978. A holistic approach to ranch management using short duration 

grazing. Pages 555-557 in First International Rangeland Congress. Society for 

Range Management, Denver, CO. 

Savory, A. 1988. Holistic resource management. Island Press, Washington, DC. 

Schlegel, P. A. 1992. A history of the cattle industry in northern Arizona, 1863-1912. 

M.A. thesis, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ. 

Southwest Forest Alliance. 1996. Forests Forever. Southwest Forest Alliance, 

Flagstaff, AZ. 30 pp. 

Stohlgren, T. J., F. W. Chong, M. A. Kalkhan, and L. D. ScheU. 1997. Multiscale 

sampling of plant diversity: Effects of minimum mapping unit size. Ecological 

Applications 7:1064-107 4. 

Stohlgren, T. J., M. B. Falkner and L. D. ScheU. 1995. A Modified-Whittaker nested 

vegetation sampling method. Vegetatio 117:113-121. 

Social Behavior of Abert's Squirrels 

in Ponderosa Pine Forests 

Melissa F. Lema 

W Sylvester Allred 

William S. Gaud 

Department of Biological Sciences 

Box5640 

Northern Arizona University 

Flagstaff, AZ 86011 

and 

Norris L. Dodd 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Research Branch 

Box2326 

Pinetop, AZ 85935 

Abstract. During an ongoing 12 month radio-telemetry study, apparent social behavior was observed in Abert's squirrels (Sciurus aberli abertt) at two study sites near 

Flagstaff, Arizona. Although considered mostly a solitary species, approximately 53% of 

the radio-collared squirrels (n=28) exhibited communal nesting behavior at least once 

during the period from November 1996 through early May 1997. The pairs and trios of 

squirrels occupying communal nests included male/ male combinations and male/ female 

combinations. Furthermore, nest sharing occurred between both squirrels of the same 

age class (adult/adult, juvenile/juvenile) and squirrels of different age classes (adult/ 

juvenile). Tree sharing behavior was also observed among the squirrels. Approximately 

59% of the radio-collared squirrels (n=32) were visually located in a ponderosa pine 

(Pinus ponderosa) concurrently occupied by one or more squirrels at least once during the 

course of the study. Communal nesting behavior among Abert's squirrels may facilitate 

thermoregulation, and both communal nesting and tree sharing may reinforce social 

bonding and resource sharing. 

Key words: Abert's squirrel, communal nesting, tree sharing, thermoregulation, social bonding 

105 
1 06 LEMA ET AL. 

Abert's squirrels are one of six subspecies of tassel-eared squirrels 

endemic to ponderosa pine forests of the southwestern United States 

and Mexico (Brown 1984, Hoffmeister and Diersing 1978). These animals are intricately associated with the ponderosa pine ecosystem. Squirrels feed on the cones, inner bark of pine shoots, and symbiotic mycorhizal 

fungi of the pines (Keith 1965, States et al. 1988, Allred et al. 1994). Tree 

nests are constructed from pine shoot clippings (Keith 1965). In addition, Abert's squirrels represent an important prey for the northern goshawk and hence are a vital intermediate in the forest food chain (Pogany 

and Allred 1995, Reynolds et al. 1992). Since this animal plays an integral 

role in the ecosystem, the Abert's squirrel may be considered an indicator 

species of ponderosa pine forest health (Allred and Gaud, 1999). 

Abert's squirrels are generally considered solitary animals except during the breeding season which usually occurs from April through June 

(Brown 1984). However, research by Allred and Pogany (1996) has provided data that expand the known breeding period. Aside from territorial displays during the mating season, all other aggressive exchanges are 

thought to occur between animals occupying a common feeding area 

(Brown 1984). Although considered rare, communal nesting among the 

subspecies S. a. ftrreus has been documented in the Rocky Mountains in 

Boulder County, Colorado (Halloran and Bekoff 1994). Unrelated female/male pairs constituted the majority of observed shared nests 

(Halloran and Bekoff 1994). However, nest sharing among kin has been 

documented among gray squirrels (Koprowski 1991), and researchers 

have suggested that female Abert's squirrels may permit one offspring to 

remain with them through the young's first winter (Keith 1965). 

Since tassel-eared squirrels are denoted as a non-gregarious species 

(Brown 1984), until this research, no studies documented social behavior 

among this subspecies. Unlike the many colonial species of ground squirrels, sociality among these tree squirrels has not been apparent. 

This study presents evidence for social behavior among Abert's squirrels in ponderosa pine forests of northern Arizona. Both nest sharing 

and tree sharing behaviors were documented during non-breeding months 

among radio-collared animals. Both of these behaviors may facilitate 

social bonds. In addition, as proposed by Grodzonski (1985, Golightly 

and Ohmart 1978), nest sharing may provide thermoregulatory benefits. 

Tree sharing may result from an abundant food resource, such as ovulate 

cones, provided by the tree. 
REPORT SERIES 107 

METHODS 

Abert's squirrels were trapped using Tomahawk Live Traps (#104) 

and radio-collared at two study sites within 20 miles of Flagstaff, Arizona. The Marshall Mesa site, an uneven aged stand with interlocking 

canopies, was considered good quality habitat for squirrels (Patton 1984). 

In contrast, the Fort Tuthill site, most recently logged in 1992, was a fairly 

even aged stand with few interlocking trees, a poorer quality squirrel 

habitat (Patton 1984). The trapping grid at each study site was com-· 

posed of 144 small mammal traps and an area of 153 acres at Fort 

Tuthill and 177 acres at Marshall Mesa (Dodd pers. com.). 

Data for this study were collected during a 12 month period from · 

September 1996 through August 1997. Adult squirrels were trapped 

and radio-collared in August 1996. Juvenile squirrels were collared in 

October 1996. The weight of the Telonics' radio-collars was approximately 18 grams with a battery life of 10 months. Each squirrel was 

tracked with a hand-held H-antenna twice a week. Visual observations 

were used to verify each located squirrel. When the battery life of the 

collars terminated, individual squirrels were trapped and recollared. New 

squirrels were radio-collared to replace those animals lost to predation. 

Data from both sites were pooled for G-Test analyses. Communal 

nesting behavior was observed among a sample of 28 squirrels during 

the period from November 1996 through early May 1997. Nest sharing 

was not observed during the remaining portion of the year. Tree sharing 

behavior was examined from a total sample of 32 squirrels during most 

of the 12 month period. These samples included both sexes (male, female) and age classes (adult, juvenile) of squirrels. 

REsuLTS 

Data were collected from September 1996 through August 1997. 

Communal nesting behavior was defined as at least one observation of 

a radio-collared squirrel sharing a nest with another squirrel. Tree sharing 

behavior was defined as the observation of a radio-collared squirrel sharing a tree with another squirrel on at least one occasion. 

Communal Nesting Behavior 

Communal nesting was observed from November 1996 through 

early May 1997 (Fig. 1). Approximately 53°/o, of the radio-collared squirrels (n=28) were located in a nest simultaneously occupied by another 

squirrel. At least 50°/o of the squirrels exhibited nest sharing behavior 
108 LEMA ET AL. 

14 

f/) 12 

c 

0 10 ':;::; 

ca 

~ 8 Cl) 

f/) 6 .c 

0 4 0 

=II: 2 

0 <0 <0 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 

> b C: .iJ ~ ~ :>, 0 Q) ca Q) ca Q. ca z c ..., u. :E <( :E 

Month 

Figure 1. Months during which communal nesting was observed. 

(Gadi(o.os,t]=2.28, P<O.OS). A total of 234 nest observations were collected from the 28 radio-collared animals during the period from November through May. Shared nesting was observed in 12°/o of the cases. 

Most of the observations of nest sharing were between radio-collared 

squirrels. The radio-collars allowed verifications of the location of multiple squirrels in the same nest without visual observations of the animals. 

However, three of the shared nest observations were of one radiocollared squirrel and one non-collared animal. In these instances, the 

squirrels exited the nest, thereby enabling the researchers to make visual 

confirmations of the animals. 

Sex and age class (adult, juvenile) of squirrels that exhibited communal nesting varied greatly (fable). However, the highest percentage of 

observations involved an adult female with an adult male (20°/o) or two 

Table. Squirrel combinations in shared nests. 

Squirrel combination # of observations o/o of observations 

juv male I juv male 6 20 

adult male I adult female 6 20 

adult male I adult female I juv female 4 13 

adult male I juv female 3 10 

adult female I juv female 3 10 

adult male I adult male 2 7 

juv male I unknown 2 7 

adult female I unknown 2 7 

adult male I unknown 1 3 
REPORT SERIES 109 

juvenile males (20°/o). The predominance of an adult male and an adult 

female sharing a nest has also been documented among the subspecies S. 

a. fi"eus in Colorado (Halloran and Bekoff 1994). Other combinations 

of nest sharers among the radio-collared squirrels included adult female 

and juvenile female (10°/o), adult male and adult male (10°/o), and adult 

male and juvenile female (7°/o). Furthermore, a trio of radio-collared 

squirrels, an adult male, adult female, and juvenile female, were located in 

the same nest on four occasions (13°/o). 

Tree Sharing Behavior 

Tree sharing behavior was observed from September 1996 through. 

August 1997 (Fig. 2). Of the total radio-collared squirrels (n=32), 59°/o 

(19) were located in a tree occupied by at least one other squirrel, not 

necessarily a radio-collared animal. Again, as with communal nesting 

behavior, at least 50°/o of the animals exhibited this behavior 

(GadifO.os,tJ=1.11, P<O.OS). Of the total observations (n=1341) of radiocollared squirrels, 1.6°/o (22) were observations of multiple squirrels in 

the same tree. From these 22 observations, 20 were of two squirrels 

sharing the same tree, and two were of three squirrels in the same tree. 

Also, many of the radio-collared animals (n=28) exhibited both nest 

sharing and tree sharing behaviors (Fig. 3). Approximately 33°/o of the 

squirrels exhibited both behaviors, 25°/o were observed in a shared tree, 

21 °/o were observed in a shared nest, and 21 °/o exhibited neither behavior. 

6 

(I) 5 c 

0 

~ 4 ftS 

C': 

CD 3 (I) 

.c 2 0 

-0 

- I I 0 <0 <0 <0 <0 ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) ~ 0) 

a. t; > 0 C: .0 cij c5. :>. C: :; c, Q) 0 0 Q) «S Q) 

~ < «S :::1 .., :::1 CJ) z c .., u... ~ .., < 

Month 

Figure 2. Months during which tree sharing was observed. 
11 0 LllMA ET JIL. 

Neither 

21 % 

Tree sharers & 

Communal nesters 

33% 

Communal nesters 

21% 

Tree sharers 

25% 

Figure 3. Proportion of radio-collared squirrels (November through early May) 

that exhibited social behaviors. 

DISCUSSION 

D ata from this study suggest that S. a. aberti are more social than 

previously reported. At least 50% of the radio-collared animals were 

observed in a shared nest. In addition, at least 50% of the squirrels were 

observed in a shared tree. 

Nest sharing behavior was observed from ovember to early May. 

Thus, such behavior may facilitate thermoregulation during months of 

cold temperatures (Golightly and Ohmart 1978). If the squirrels can 

reduce the loss of body heat, tl1en less time will be required for foraging, 

an activity which exposes the animals to both cold temperatures and 

increased risk of predation. In addition, communal nesting may reinforce social bonds between animals. This may be especially true between 

mothers and offspring, sibli.ngs, or male/ female breeding pairs. Although 

not observed, communal nesting may also occur during the warmer 

months. During the summer, the squirrels are active in early morning. 

Researchers did not radio-track the animals before dawn, hence any shared 

nesting behavior may have been missed during those months. 

Tree sharing behavior was observed among the radio-collared squirrels throughout most of the year. Again, this behavior may reinforce 

social bonds among the animals. However, this behavior may also be the 
REPORT SERIES 111 

result of an abundant food resource, for example, ovulate cones or palatable terminal shoots (Keith 1965, Allred et al. 1994). The peak in tree 

sharing during July appears to correspond to the peak in cone production in the pines. In addition, when located in a shared tree, squirrels were 

frequently observed peeling cones. Consequently, it is possible that the 

only attractant for the squirrels to occupy a shared tree is the food resource. The animals may simply tolerate the presence of other squirrels 

in order to obtain the valuable cones. 

Social behavior, nest sharing and tree sharing, among Abert's squirrels may be more common than this study indicates. These data are from 

the observations of radio-collared animals. During the 12 months of. 

this study, the uncorrected population estimate within the trapping grid at 

Marshall Mesa averages approximately 39 squirrels (Dodd pers. com.). 

About 35°/o of the animals were radio-tracked. At Fort Tuthill, the uncorrected population estimate is approximately 26 animals in the winter 

and 43 animals in the summer (Dodd pers. com.). Squirrel movements 

appear to respond to food resources at that site and, therefore, population size fluctuates. Still, only approximately 32°/o of the squirrels were 

radio-tracked. Also, a visual location of each squirrel twice a week equates 

to about one half hour of observation time per squirrel per week. Squirrels may perform many behaviors not observed. This study provides 

one window into aspects of the social behavior of Abert's squirrels. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This research has been funded by the Arizona Game and Fish Department, Research Branch and the Department of Biological Sciences, 

Northern Arizona University. Thanks to the Northern Arizona University faculty, staff, and students and Arizona Game and Fish Department 

employees who participated in tracking the squirrels. Thanks also to the 

Game and Fish Department for orchestrating the seemingly endless task 

of radio-collaring these tassel-eared animals. 

LITERATURE CITED 

Allred, S. W, S. Gaud, and J. S. States. 1994. Effects of herbivory by Abert squirrels 

(Sdums abertr) on cone crops of ponderosa pine. Journal of Mammalogy 75:700-

703. 

Allred, S. and W S. Gaud. 1999. Abert squirrel (Sdums aberlt) as a soil excavator. 

The Southwestern Naturalist 44:88. 

Allred, S. and G. Pogany. 1996. Early estrus in a female Abert squirrel (Sdums aberti 

abertr). The Southwestern Naturalist 41:90. 
112 LEMAETAL 

Brown, D. E. 1984. Arizona's tree squirrels. Arizona Game and Fish Department, 

Phoenix, AZ. 144 pp. 

Golightly, R. T., Jr., and R. D. Ohmart. 1978. Heterothermy in free-ranging Abert's 

squirrels (Sciurus abertt). Ecology 59(5):897-909. 

Grodzinski, W. 1985. Ecological energetics of bank voles and wood mice. Symposium of the Zoological Society of London 55:169-192. 

Halloran, M. E. and M. Bekof£ 1994. Nesting behavior of Abert squirrels (Sciurus 

abertt). Ethology 97:236-248. 

Hoffmeister, D. F. and V. M. Diersing. 1978. Review of the tassel-eared squirrels of 

the subgenous Otosciurus. Journal of Mammalogy 59:402-413. 

Keith, J. 0. 1965. The Abert squirrel and its dependence on ponderosa pine. Ecology 

46:150-163. 

Koprowski, J. L. 1991. The evolution of sociality in tree squirrels: the comparative 

behavioral ecology of fox squirrels and eastern gray squirrels. Ph.D. dissertation, 

Univ. of Kansas, Lawrence. 

Patton, D. R. 1984. A model to evaluate Abert squirrel habitat in uneven-aged 

ponderosa pine. Wildlife Society Bulletin 12: 08-414. 

Pogany, G. C. and W. S. Allred. 1995. Abert's squirrels of the Colorado Plateau: their 

reproductive cycle. Pages 293-305 in C. van Riper, III, editor. Proceedings of 

the Second Biennial Conference on Research in Colorado Plateau National Parks. 

25-28 October 1993. National Park Service Transactions and Proceedings Series 

NPS/NRNAU/NRTP-95/11. 

Reynolds, R. T., R. T. Graham, M. H. Reiser, R. L. Bassett, P. L. Kennedy, D. A. 

Boyce, Jr., G. Goodwin, R. Smith, and E. L. Fisher. 1992. Management 

Recommendations for the Northern Goshawk in the Southwestern United 

States. 

States, J. S., W. S. Gaud, W. S. Allred, and W. J. Austin. 1988. Foraging patterns of 

tassel-eared squirrels in selected ponderosa pine stands. Pages 425-431 in 

Proceedings, Management of Amphibians, Reptiles, and Small Mammals in 

North America. General Technical Paper RM-166. USDA Forest Service, Fort 

Collins, CO. 
Long Foraging Distances 

in Two Uncommon Bat Species 

(Euderma macula tum and Eumops perotis) 

in Northern Arizona 

Melissa S. Siders 

North Kaibab Ranger District 

Kaibab National Forest 

Fredonia, AZ 86022 

Michael J. Rabe 

Tim K Snow 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Non-Game Branch 

2221 W. Greenway Rd. 

Phoenix, AZ 85027 

and 

Kei Yasuda 

575 East43rdAve 

Eugene, OR 97405 

Abstract. The Kaibab Plateau of north-central Arizona is a high elevation, limestone plateau on the northern edge of the Grand Canyon. We used radio telemetry to 

determine foraging areas for seven lactating female spotted bats (Euderma maculatum) and 

located roosts for four of these bats. We also captured greater western mastiff bats 

(Eumops perotis) and located a single roost for this species. Roosts for both spotted and 

mastiff bats were in xeric cliffs in or near Grand Canyon National Park (GCNP) at 

approximately 650 to 1040 m elevation. Distances from capture location to maternity 

roosts ranged from approximately 28 to 42 km. Capture sites and foraging areas were 

located at approximately 2600 m elevation for spotted bats and 1900 m for mastiff bats. 

We caught 18 bat species during mist net surveys conducted from 1994 through 1998. 

The high species diversity that we observed may be due to the proximity of the Kaibab 

Plateau to the Grand Canyon, and the great range of elevations and habitats available 

from the floor of GCNP (600 m elevation, desert) to the meadows (2600 m elevation, 

subalpine) on the Kaibab Plateau. 

113 
114 SIDERS ET AL. 

Key words: foraging, western mastiff bats, Eumops perotis, spotted bats, Euderma 

maculatum, Kaibab Plateau, Arizona, Grand Canyon National Park, surveys 

I 

\ 

INTRO,DUCTION 

Once thought to be extremely rare, spotted bats (Euderma maculatum) 

are widely distributed throughout western North America and probably 

have a discontinuous, patchy distribution (Fenton et al. 1987, Nagorsen 

and Brigham 1993). Much of what is known of spotted bat behavior 

and ecology has been gained from three locations where they are relatively common: the Okanagan Valley in southern British Columbia, Canada 

(Leonard and Fenton 1983), Big Bend National Park in southern Texas 

(Easterla 1970), and Fort Pierce Wash on the Utah-Arizona border 

(Ruffner et al. 1979). High cliffs were nearby in all three of these locations. Radio tracking of three spotted bats in British Columbia (WaiPing and Fenton 1989) found that bats foraged all night and did not 

travel farther than 10 km from cliff day roosts. Preferred foraging habitat appears to be open areas surrounded by ponderosa pines (Woodsworth 

et al. 1981, Leonard and Fenton 1983, Wai-Ping and Fenton 1989). 

Roost sites for greater western mastiff bats (Eumops perotis) were not 

known from the state of Arizona since the 1970s, and was not known 

north of the Grand Canyon until we captured eight lactating females in 

199 5. These captures were a range expansion for the species (Castner et 

al. 1996). Roost sites have been described for California (Cockrum 1960, 

Dalquist 1946, Howell and Little 1924), Texas (Ohlendorf 1972) and 

Arizona (Cox 1965). In general greater western mastiff bats live in high, 

dry places, and roosts are in locations that allow the bat to drop > 3 m to 

launch into flight (Freeman 1981). In the southwestern United States, 

roosts are typically found in rugged rocky canyons and cliffs (Barbour 

and Davis 1969, Dalquest 1946). Little is known about the foraging 

habitat for this species. The purpose of this study was to locate day 

roosts and foraging areas used by spotted and mastiff bats on the North 

Kaibab Ranger District (NKRD) of the Kaibab National Forest, in northern Arizona. 

METHODS 

During July - August 199 5, July 1996, July - August 1997, and August 1998 we caught bats with mist nets set across small ponds (ca. 15 to 

35 m across) in subalpine meadows on the NKRD, north of Grand 

Canyon National Park (GCNP). Spotted bats were captured in mead-
REPORT SERIES 115 

ows from approximately 2400 to 2650 m in elevation that were linked 

across the landscape to form a series of meadow systems. These meadows were surrounded by ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests that 

included Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziezit), white fir (Abies conco/01), and 

patches of aspen (Populus tremuloides) Mastiff bats were captured in similar meadows from approximately 1900 to 2400 m elevation. 

We attached radio transmitters to captured spotted and mastiff bats 

with surgical glue, and followed them to day roosts. We placed transmit-. 

ters (0.68 g, BD2, Holohil Inc., Ontario, Canada) on six (1 male, 4 lactating females, 1 post lactating female) spotted bats in 1995, six (four lactating and two non-reproductive adult females) spotted bats in 1996 and 

seven (all lactating adult females) spotted bats in 1997. We also placed' 

1.28g transmitters on six (all lactating female) mastiff bats in 1995, one 

(non-reproductive adult female) mastiff bat in 1997, and one Oactating 

adult female) mastiff bat in 1998. Radio telemetry was conducted through 

a combination of vehicle pursuit, stationary positions, and airplane. 

REsuLTS 

The presence of many audible Oow-frequency) spotted bat echolocation calls and feeding buzzes (increased rates of echolocation calls associated with insect detection and pursuit; Griffin et al. 1960) in the meadows indicated that spotted bats were locally common and that the 

meadow systems were heavily used as foraging areas. Over 13 weeks, 

during four summers, we caught 25 spotted bats and 18 mastiff bats in 

44 nights of netting, and we heard many spotted bat and mastiff bat 

calls. We caught other bats that also used the meadows for foraging (big 

free-tail, l'{yctinomops macrotis; Mexican free-tail, Tadarida braziliensis; and 

Allen's big-eared bat, Idionycteris pf?yllotis), but spotted bat and mastiff bat 

calls are distinctive (Fenton et al. 1987, Cockrum 1960) and we could 

distinguish their calls from the others. Although we primarily netted ponds 

within forested habitat on the NKRD, we rarely heard and never caught 

spotted or mastiff bats in forested areas. 

Spotted Bats 

Spotted bats are rapid flyers (Woodsworth et al. 1981, Wai-Ping and 

Fenton 1989) and the rugged topography and few roads on the NKRD 

made nighttime pursuit difficult. While radio tracking from the ground, 

foraging bats were rarely detectable > 1.5 km due to effects of forest 

canopy and topography. When in open country or from lookout towers, we were sometimes able to- detect the bats from greater distances. .. -
116 SIDERS ET AL. 

Initial attempts to detect signals from roosting bats during daylight, even 

from aircraft, were unsuccessful. However, by using a combination of 

vehicle pursuit and hilltop radiotelemetry sites, several bats were relocated sufficiently to obtain general flight directions during early morning 

when bats left meadows and were presumably en route to day roosts. 

In July 1996, we tracked one lactating female to a day roost in a 

remote area of GCNP, 38 km from the capture site (Rabe et al. 1998; 

Table 1). We located the roost from an airplane overflight after triangulating transmitter signals from the canyon rim in early morning .• The day 

roost was at an elevation of ca. 700 m in a south-facing limestone cliff 

ca. 150 m above and 200 m from the Colorado River. The roost site was 

located in Sonoran Desert habitat with predominantly catclaw (Acacia 

greggiz) and mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) vegetation. 

The bat followed a predictable pattern in its foraging movements. 

In four sequential nights of monitoring, we ftrst detected the signal from 

the canyon rim (we could detect signals near the river 8 to 15 km distant) 

at 2010 h to 2030 h (170 to 190 minutes after sunset) each night the bat 

emerged from its cliff roost. It arrived in the same meadow system each 

night at about 2130 h, and foraged until ca. 2400 h to 0100 h, when it 

night-roosted in the same patch of aspen on the south face of a small 

ridge, 1 km east of the meadow. Radio signals indicated no movement 

during this night-roosting period, but the bat did not appear torpid. The 

bat was easily disturbed and would fly away if approached. Each night, 

the bat left the night roost between 0330 h and 0350 h (1 03 to 83 nimutes 

before sunrise) and flew directly towards the cliff roost, 38.5 km away. 

The animal did not seem to forage after night roosting and we lost the 

signal over the rim of the Grand Canyon 40 to 45 minutes after departTable 1. Spotted bat capture and roost site elevations and roost-to-capture-site 

distances. 

Capture Roost Elevation Distance 

Year Bat Elevation (m) Elevation (m) Change (m) (km) 

1996 102 2499 700 1799 38.7 

1997 216 2536 1024 1512 42.7 

1997 246 2536 ca. 1000 

1997 275 2536 1036 1500 39.4 

1997 301 2597 768 1829 41.3 

1997 325 2597 ca. 1000 

1997 371 2524 1134 1390 38.2 

1997 406 2597 
REPORT SERIES 117 

ing the night roost. This resulted in a flight speed of approximately 50 

km/h. 

In July 1997, we tracked four additional lactating females to four day 

roosts in remote areas of GCNP and Kanab Creek Wilderness on the 

NKRD. Distances from the capture sites ranged from 38.2 km to 42.7 

km (fable 1 ). We located the bat roosts from airplane overflights after 

triangulating transmitter signals from the canyon rims in early morning. 

Day roosts ranged in elevation from ca. 700 m to 1080 m. One roost . 

was approximately 850 m from the Colorado River. The three roosts 

located within Kanab Creek canyon were all < 100 m from Kanab Creek. 

Roost sites were located in Sonoran Desert habitat with predominantly 

catclaw (Acacia greggit) and mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) vegetation. Be- · 

cause these roosts were located in very rugged, isolated desert country, 

we visited only one roost for an exit count. The Kanab Creek roost was 

visited on two occasions, 18 July and 24 July 1997. The exact roost site 

could not be determined during exit counts; however, the general location was on a cliff face, approximately 20 m from the base of the cliff, 

in the top one-third of the cliff. The bat exited the roost at approximately 2015 h (ca. 30 minutes after sunset) each night and returned to 

roost at approximately 0420 h. Based on audible echolocation calls and 

radio telemetry signals, this was the only bat to exit. 

In 1996 and 1997, female spotted bats averaged three hours foraging in the high elevation meadows. With extensive radio telemetry on six 

lactating female spotted bats in 1997, there appeared to be an overlap of 

foraging territories (Fig. 1 ). In 1997, we again noticed night roosting 

behavior in some of the females; however, they also appeared to arrive 

in the meadow systems later and leave earlier than in 1996. Because we 

were tracking spotted bats slightly earlier in the season from 1996, we 

thought that perhaps the females could not leave younger offspring for 

long periods of time due to feeding demands. Bats arrived in the meadow 

systems at approximately 2300 h and left at approximately 0200 h. Again, 

bats flew straight lines back to their canyon day roosts and did not appear to forage on the return trip. 

Greater Western Mastiff Bats 

In 1995 we captured eight greater western mastiff bats, six of which 

where lactating females. Since all eight females were captured relatively 

early in the evening (60 to 100 minutes after sunset), we speculated that a 

roost site was nearby. We placed transmitters (BD-2, Holohil) on the six 

lactating females and attempted to follow them. Mastiffs are very rapid 
118 SIDERS r:r til .. 

Figure 1. Estimated foraging areas for six spotted bats in 1997. Foraging areas 

were estimated from radio telemetry observations of individual bats. 

fli ers and we were able to follow them for only a short period that night. 

We detected only one faint signal the next day in a cliff a few miles south 

of the trap site, but quickly lost the signal. We detected no signals over 

the next few nights despite substantial effort. 

In 1997 we cap tured several greater western mastiff bats at higher 

elevation meadow tanks. Because we assumed that the 1995 trap location was near the maternity roost, we waited to attach radios until we 

returned to that trap location. Although many masti ff bats we~e heard at 

the 1995 location at various times during the summer, we were only able 
REPORT SERIES 119 

to capture one non-reproductive female in 1997. We held her until early 

morning (ca. 0400 h) when a plane we had arranged to be overhead 

arrived. Equipped with telemetry receiver and antenna, the plane was 

able to track her until just after sunrise, when she roosted in a tall ponderosa pine tree near the rim of the Grand Canyon, ca. 19.5 km from the 

trap site. Over six nights of telemetry from stationary points along the 

rim of the Grand Canyon, we were able to triangulate on a 20 km2 area 

along the Colorado River (ca. 29 km from the trap site) where the bat 

appeared at ca. 2000 h and ca. 0500 h each day (fable 2). On day six, no 

signal was detected, and it was assumed that the bat dropped its transmitter at the roost. A plane made an overflight of the area two days 

later, but did not detect any radio signal. 

Although we did not attempt to determine the foraging areas for the 

mastiff bat, it did return to the plateau and headed in the general direction of the trap site each night. Mastiff bats were also heard in several 

locations on the plateau in meadows, where they appeared to travel in 

groups. Hoffmeister (1986) suggested that these bats forage in groups, 

keeping contact with their roost mates. 

In 1998, we again attempted to capture mastiff bats at several locations. It appeared to us that fewer feeding buzzes were detected at several locations compared to previous years. One lactating female was 

finally captured at the 199 5 trap location and a radio transmitter attached. 

A general roost location was determined from three telemetry points 

along the rim of the Grand Canyon, very close to the 1997 location. An 

airplane overflight determined the exact roost location, which appeared 

to be near an overhang of an east-facing cliff in a side drainage approximately 1000 m from the Colorado River. The location was accessible 

only from the river, with no feasible overland route. We accompanied 

GCNP personnel to the site during a scheduled river trip on September 

18, but could not determine if mastiff bats were in the area. 

Distances from the capture sites to apparent roosts were approximately 28 km in 1997 and 29.1 km in 1998. The apparent day roost we 

Table 2. Greater western mastiff bat capture and roost site elevations and roostto-capture-site distances. 

Year 

1997 

1998 

Bat 

015 

155 

Capture 

Elevation (m) 

~889 

1889 

Roost 

Elevation (m) 

ca. 606-883 

737 

Elevation 

Change (m) 

1152 

Distance 

(km) 

ca. 28 

28.7 
120 SIDERS ET AL. 

located in 1998 was at 737 m elevation. The site was located in Sonoran 

Desert habitat, similar to the spotted bat roosts. 

DISCUSSION 

Female spotted and mastiff bats appear to forage long distances 

from their night roosts and use completely different roosting and foraging habitats. The differences between the foraging behaviors of spotted 

bats in British Columbia and the Kaibab Plateau may be explained by a 

lack of suitable high-cliff roost sites near the meadow systems on the 

Kaibab Plateau. In British Columbia, observed spotted bats (1) foraged 

in open areas 6 to 10 km from day roosts in cliffs, (2) foraged continuously while away from cliff roosts, and (3) flew at about 19 km/h while 

foraging (Wai-Ping and Fenton 1989). The night-roosting that we observed may be a response to the high energy demand of long distance 

flight. The faster flight speeds we report probably indicate that bats on 

the Kaibab Plateau were not foraging on their return flight and may 

approximate the actual flight speed capabilities of spotted bats. 

The long distance traveled by spotted bats from roost to foraging 

habitat (77 -86 km round trip) is substantially longer than previously reported distances for this species (Wai-Ping and Fenton 1989). Spotted 

bats have very low frequency echolocation calls that may enable them to 

detect insects at relatively long distances but probably limits them to resolving large (> 1 0 mm) prey (Woodsworth et al. 1981, Leonard and 

Fenton 1984). Spotted bats may, therefore, prefer open foraging areas 

because uncluttered habitats allow detection of large prey items at relatively long distances. 

Little has been described about the foraging habitat and habits of 

mastiff bats. Due to the timing of our first and last radio signals each 

day, we feel confident that the 1997 bat was roosting near the Colorado 

River in the Grand Canyon and may be the same roost as that found in 

1998. This results in a relatively long distance traveled by this mastiff bat 

from roost to trap site (58 km round trip). 

For both the spotted and mastiff bats to travel such distances, we 

suspect there may be an abundance of insect prey in the high meadow 

systems sufficiently valuable to justify the energy expenditure of such 

long flight distances. The large elevation and temperature differences 

between the low, hot desert cliff roost in GCNP and the high, cool 

subalpine meadows on the NKRD present an opportunity to forage in 

several habitat types, but high energetic demands oflactation (Racey 1982) 

should force lactating females to choose the most productive foraging 
REPORT SERIES 121 

habitat. Although we have not yet analyzed insect sampling data, large 

moths appeared abundant in meadows on the NKRD during July and 

August. Further research should document whether the long day-roost 

to foraging distance and night roosting behavior of these bats is typical 

of local spotted and mastiff bats and what insect species bats select in 

these meadows. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This project was a cooperative effort between the Arizona Game 

and Fish Department (AGFD), and the North Kaibab Ranger District 

of the U.S. Forest Service. Funding was provided by an AGFD Heritage 

grant, the U.S. Forest Service and the AGFD Research Branch. We thank 

W. Alber, T. Bricker, B. Breyer, L. Bunting, D. Garcia de la Cadena, P. 

Campbell, S. Castner, K. Covert, W. Draper, D. Emmons, C. Funari, ]. 

Foster, R. Gordon, L. Gowey, G. Grasso, H. Green, G. Harding, M. 

Herder, T. Hiserodt, R Hoverman, M. Howard, J. Jackson, J. Kendall, J. 

Lowsky, A. Miller, A. Mcintire, M. Painter, N. Plomgren, R Plomgren, 

W. Porter, R. Revis, D. Sinton, R. Steffensen, D. Ward, and L. Williams 

for assistance in the field. J. Petterson, S. Cherry, R Ward, E. Leslie, and 

M. Vandzura of GCNP and R. Miller, S. MacVean, A. Holycross, and]. 

C. deVos, Jr. of the AGFD provided valuable logistical support. 

LITERATURE CITED 

Barbour, R. W. and W. H. Davis. 1969. Bats of America. The Univ. Press of 

Kentucky, Lexington, 286 pp. 

Castner, S. V., T. K. Snow, D. C. Noel, M. J. Rabe, M. S. Siders, and D. Garcia de Ia 

Cadena. 1996. Redefining the range of the greater-western mastiff bat in 

Arizona. Bat Research News 37(1):23. 

Cockrum, E. L. 1960. Distribution, habitat and habits of the mastiff bat, Eumops 

perotis, in North America. Journal of the Arizona Academy of Science 1:79-84. 

Cox, T. J. 1965. Behavior of the mastiff bat. Journal of Mammalogy 46:687-688. 

Dalquest, W. W. 1946. The daytime retreat of a California mastiff bat. Journal of 

Mammalogy 27:86-88. 

Easterla, D. A. 1970. First records of the spotted bat in Texas and notes on its 

natural history. American Midland Naturalist 83:306-308. 

Fenton, M. B., D. C. Tennant, and J. Wyszecki. 1987. Using echolocation calls to 

measure the distribution of bats: the case of Euderma maculatum. Journal of 

Mammalogy 68:142-144. 

Freeman, P. W. 1981. A multivariate study of the family Molossidae (Mammalia, 

Chiroptera): morphology, ecology, evolution. Fieldiana: Zoology, new series, 

7:1-173. 

Grifftn, D. R., E A. Webster, and C. R. Michael. 1960. The echolocation of flying 

insects by bats. Animal Behavior 8:141-154. 
122 SIDERS ET AL. 

Hoffmeister, D. F. 1986. Eumops-Mastiff bat. Pages 120-121 in Mammals of 

Arizona. The Univ. of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ. 

Howell, A. B. and L. Little. 1924. Additional notes on California bats: with 

observations upon the young of Eumops. Journal of Mammalogy 5:261-263. 

Leonard, M. L., and M. B. Fenton. 1983. Habitat use by spotted bats (Euderma 

maculatum, Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae): roosting and foraging behavior. 

Canadian Journal of Zoology 61:1487-1491. 

Leonard, M. L., and M. B. Fenton. 1984. Echolocation calls of Euderma maculatum 

(Vespertilionidae): Use in orientation and communication. Journal of Mammalogy 65:122-126. 

Nagorsen, D. W., and R. M. Brigham. 1993. Bats of British Columbia. Univ. of 

British Columbia Press, Vancouver, British Columbia. 

Ohlendorf, H. M. 1972. Observations on a colony of Eumops perotis (Molossidae). 

The Southwestern Naturalist 17:297-300. 

Rabe, M. J, M. S. Siders, C. R. Miller and T. K. Snow. 1998. Long range foraging 

distance for a spotted bat (Euderma maculatum) in Northern Arizona. The 

Southwestern Naturalist 43:266-269. 

Racey, P. A. 1982. Ecology of bat reproduction. Pages 57-104 in T. H. Kunz, editor. 

Ecology of Bats. Plenum Press, New York. 

Ruffner, G. A., R. M. Poche, M. Meierkord, and J. A. Neil. 1979. Winter bat activity 

over a desert wash in southwestern Utah. The Southwestern Naturalist 24:447-

453. 

Wai-Ping, V., and M. B. Fenton. 1989. Ecology of spotted bat (Euderma maculatum) 

roosting and foraging behavior. Journal of Mammalogy 70:617-622. 

Woodsworth, G. C., G. P. Bell, and M. B. Fenton. 1981. Observations of the 

echolocation, feeding behavior, and habitat use of Euderma maculatum 

(Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) in southcentral British Columbia. Canadian Journal 

of Zoology 59:1099-1102. 
Merriam's Turkey Winter Survival on the 

North Kaibab Ranger District Following the 

Bridger Knoll Complex Wildftres 

Brian F. Wakeling 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Research Branch 

2221 W. Greenway Rd. 

Phoenix, AZ 85023 

John G. Goodwin, Jr. 

Anzona Game and Fish Department 

Region II 

3500 S. Lake Mary Rd. 

Flagstaff, AZ 86001 

Abstract. During the winter of 1996-1997, we studied the survival of 34 radiomarked Merriam's turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo merriamt) on the North Kaibab Ranger 

District (NKRD) of the Kaibab National Forest following the Bridger Knoll complex 

wildfires. We studied these turkeys because food availability seemed limited and the fires 

had substantially altered part of the traditional turkey winter range. During winter 

1996-97, adult female turkeys from NKRD had lower (P < 0.001) body weights at 

capture than those from other Arizona habitats. Adult female over-winter survival was 

greater (Z = 3.901, P < 0.001) than survival of subadult turkeys, but did not differ from 

mean adult female turkey over-winter survival in north-central Arizona (Z = 0.861, P > 

0.195). On the NKRD, subadult turkeys experienced 10.4% over-winter survival while 

adult females experienced 66.2% over-winter survival. Turkeys experienced the greatest 

mortality during late January and throughout March, generally in conjunction with adverse weather conditions and increased snowfall. Limited food availability and deep 

snow negatively influenced turkey survival. Although this study was prompted by concerns about the wildfire effects on the NKRD, we believe that limited winter food 

availability would have resulted in depressed survival rates even if the wildfires had not 

occurred. Our study supports the contention that winter food availability is closely tied 

with turkey over-winter survival. 

Key words: Arizona, food, Meleagris gallopavo merriami, Merriam's turkey, mortality, 

survival, winter 

123 
124 W AKELING AND GooDWIN 

During late June 1996, several lightning-ignited wildf1res merged and 

burned 217 km2 on the Kaibab National Forest North Kaibab Ranger 

District (NKRD) (Fig. 1 ). These fires, known as the Bridger Knoll complex, burned across a substantial portion of traditional turkey winter range. 

Because turkeys select specific winter habitat characteristics (Rumble and 

Anderson 1993, Rumble and Anderson 1996a, Wakeling and Rogers 1996), 

have selective diets (Rumble and Anderson 1996b, Wakeling and Rogers 

1996), and respond differently to various habitat changes (Scott and Boeker 

1977, Wakeling et al. 1997), this large-scale alteration could affect the 

quality of the turkey winter range in two ways by: (1) changing physical 

habitat attributes, and (2) removing winter food sources. 

During late fall 1996, observations on the unburned portion of the 

traditional winter range disclosed limited mast production and availability. Mast items are a critical component of turkey winter diet (Wakeling 

and Rogers 1996). The lack of available mast on NKRD suggested that 

turkeys using this range during the winter of 1996-97 might be nutritionally stressed. 

We studied turkey survival on the NKRD during the winter of 1996-

1997 to determine if seasonal survival would correlate with relative seasonal habitat quality. Eastern turkey (M. g. silvestris) populations in northern habitats where food is seasonally limited experience lowest survival 

rates during winter (Austin and DeGraff 1975, Wunz and Hayden 1975, 

Porter et al. 1980). Wakeling (1991) speculated that winter food availability might have the greatest influence on over-winter survival in the Southwest as well. 

Our objective was to ascertain winter survival rates of turkeys among 

age and gender classes on the west side of the NKRD and relate those 

rates to nutritional status. Specifically, we tested hypotheses that body 

weights did not differ during winter capture effori:s on the NKRD from 

turkey body weights during winter in other Arizona habitats, and that 

winter survival did not differ among age and gender classes on the NKRD 

and adult females studied by Wakeling (1991). 

STUDY AREA 

Our study was conducted on 1,511 km2 of the western portion of 

the NKRD of the Kaibab National Forest in northern Arizona (Fig. 1 ). 

Elevations ranged from 914 to 2,838 m. Great basin conifer woodland 

(45.8°/o), petran montane conifer forest (26.7°/o), petran subalpine conifer 

forest (13.8°/o), great basin desertscrub (12.4°/o), and subalpine grassland 
REPORT SERIES 125 

c=l Great Basin Conifer Woodland 

~ Petran Montane Conifer Forest 

00 Petran Subalpine Conifer Forest 

R Plains & Great Basin Grassland 

- Subalpine Grassland 

~ Great Basin Desertscrub 

D Fire Location 

• Turkey Capture Locations 

Figure 1. Boundaries of the Bridger Knoll complex wildfires, habitat types, and 

turkey trap locations on the North Kaibab Ranger District, Arizona, during the 

winter of 1996-97. 
126 W AKEUNG AND GOOD\'\'IN 

(1.3°/o) comprised the habitat types within the study area (Brown et al. 

1980; Fig. 1 ). 

The NKRD averages 25.7 em of precipitation during December 

through April and receives 53.9 em throughout the year. Temperatures 

during December through April averaged 3.2°C, with lows rarely exceeding -20 °C (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1997). 

Timber harvesting, livestock grazing, and recreation are the predominant 

land uses on the NKRD, with extremely limited activities during the winter. 

METHODS 

We captured turkeys with rocket nets (Bailey et al. 1980) at sites baited 

with whole oats between December 1996 and February 1997 on the 

traditional NKRD western winter range. Each turkey was weighed and 

fitted with a backpack-mounted, motion-sensing, radio-telemetry unit 

(felonies model LB 400, Mesa, AZ) that was secured with a 5-mm bungee 

harness. We released each turkey at the site of capture. 

Because of deep snow, turkeys were monitored aerially ~1X every 2 

weeks. Mortality signals were estimated to occur at the midpoint of the 

time interval since the bird was last heard alive (Heisey and Fuller 1985). 

Birds that did not survive at least 2 weeks following radio instrumentation were eliminated from analysis. Monthly precipitation data were provided by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 

We compared weights from adult female turkeys captured in 1997 

in our study area with weights of female turkeys captured during January 

and February in other areas of Arizona, specifically west of Prescott, 

Arizona (Camp Wood [CWSA] Stone 1993), south of Winslow, Arizona 

(Chevelon [CSA] Wakeling 1991, Mollohan et al. 1995, Wakeling and 

Rogers 1995, Wakeling and Rogers, 1998), and south of Flagstaff (Mormon Lake [MLSA] Wakeling and Rogers, 1998). We used Analysis of 

Variance (SAS Inst. Inc. 1985) to test for differences among mean body 

weights by geographic area. Individual class differences were tested using Scheffe's mean separation procedure (Zar 1984). 

The Kaplan-Meier technique (Pollock et al. 1989) was used to calculate survival rates. We evaluated survival rates among 5 intervals (12 

Dec-11 Jan, 12Jan-31 Jan, 1 Feb-28 Feb, 1 Mar-31 Mar, and 1 Apr-17 

Apr) and by age-gender classes (adult F, subadult M, subadult F). We 

compared over-winter survival among age-gender classes and with adult 

hen survival rates on the CSA (Wakeling 1991). Pair-wise comparisons in 

survival rates were made with the Z statistic (Heisey and Fuller 1985). 
REPORT SERIES 127 

REsuLTS 

We captured turkeys on 12 December 1996 (3 subadult M, 6 subadult F, 2 adult F), 12 January 1997 (9 subadult :M), and 31 January 1997 

(29 adult F). Fifteen birds died within 2 weeks of capture and were 

eliminated from analysis. Survival rates of subadult male and subadult 

female turkeys did not differ and were pooled for further analysis. 

Turkey weights from birds captured on NKRD differed from those. 

captured elsewhere. Specifically, adult female turkeys captured during 

January 1997 on the NKRD weighed less than female mean weights 

from elsewhere in Arizona (F = 12.302, P < 0.001; Table 1). No differences were detected among January and February weights from adult· 

females captured in other Arizona habitats. 

Survival of subadult turkeys on the NKRD decreased in conjunction with increased precipitation (Fig. 2). During the interval in which 

survival was lowest for both subadults and adults (1 Mar-31 Mar), the 

NKRD received a large amount of snowfall (which made the weather 

station inaccessible). During the interval in which subadults experienced 

the second lowest survival (12 Jan-31 Jan), several deep snowfalls also 

occurred. Six adult female, 10 subadult male, and 3 subadult female 

turkeys died during the study period. 

Over-winter survival rates for adult females were higher than for 

subadult turkeys (Z = 3.901, P < 0.001; Table 2). Although substantially 

lower, over-winter survival rates for adult females on the NKRD did 

not differ significantly from those observed fot adult females in northcentral Arizona (Z = 0.861, P > 0.195; Fig. 3). 

Table 1. Body weights, standard errors, and sample sizes of female turkeys 

captured during January and February on the North Kaibab Ranger District (NKRD), 

the Camp Wood study area (CWSA), the Chevelon study area (CSA), and the 

Mormon Lake study area (MLSA), Arizona. 

Study Area Weight (kg)• SE n 

NKRD 4.04* 0.045 29 

CWSA 4.50 0.103 19 

CSA 4.51 0.039 119 

MLSA 4.52 0.053 47 

• Overall F ratio = 12.302, 210 df, P < 0.001, * denotes weight that differs from all 

others based on Scheffe's mean separation procedure. 
128 W AKELING AND GooDWIN 

fl) 

Q) 

1ii 

a: 

a; 

> 

·~ 

::::J 

(/) 

100 ---- ~- - - --. 

' ' 

60 

40 

20 

' ' ' ' ' , ' . , 

Precipitation 

Data 

10 

e 

~ 

c: 6 0 

N ·a. 

4 ·~ 

D.. 

2 

Oc: 

Missing 

c: .0 ~ ~--~----=---~---,w 

as as Q) .., .., u.. ~ ~ 

~ co (;; 

~ (\1 

.0 

Q) ~ c .., u.. ~ 

..... 

..... 

~ (\1 (\1 

..... ..... 

Interval 

- Subadult Survival 

... Adult Female Survival 

· •- Precipitation 

Figure 2. Monthly survival rates of adult female and subadult turkeys and 

precipitation on the North Kaibab Ranger District, Arizona, during the winter of 

1996-97. 

DISCUSSION 

Over-winter survival influences population size. Turkeys suffered 

lower than average survival rates on the NKRD during the winter of 

1996-97. The greatest mortality occurred in the subadult segment of the 

population, virtually eliminating an entire age cohort. Because yearling 

females in the Southwest rarely nest (Wakeling 1991), the removal of the 

yearling cohort will necessitate a two-year lag in the recruitment of addiTable 2. Merriam's turkey survival rates (95% confidence intervals) among age 

and interval classes on the North Kaibab Ranger District during the winter of 1996-

97. 

12 Dec· 12 Jan- 1 Feb· 1 Mar- 1 Apr· Over 

Class 11 Jan 31 Jan 28 Feb 31 Mar 17 Apr Winter 

Subadult (all) 100.0 42.4 65.5 37.7 100.0 10.4 

(25.3-74.6) (39.6-1 00.0) (14.3-1 00.0) (3.5-51.4) 

Adult F 100.0 100.0 100.0 66.2 100.0 66.2 

~48.7-92.2~ ~48.7-92.3~ 
100.-------------------------, 

::::: D-:: :: ~ n ~ :: U80 

Q) 

(ij 

a: 60 

0 

Age-gender-habitat Class 

REPO RT S ERJ ES 129 

0 Upper 90% Cl 

0 Lower 90% Cl 

- Survival Rate 

Figure 3. Over-winter survival of subadult turkeys and adult female turkeys on 

the North Kaibab Ranger District, Arizona (NKRD), during the winter of 1996-1997 

and mean over-winter survival of adult female turkeys on the Chevelon study 

area, Arizona (CSA, Wakeling 1991). 

tional breeding females into the population and will result in a substantial 

population fluctuation. Among-year fluctuations in turkey survival and 

populations are common (Wakeling 1991, Vangilder 1996), and depressed 

subadult survival may be common and responsible for observed fluctuations in turkey populations and recruitment. 

Weight and survival appear to be influenced by food availability. 

Based on mid-winter body weights, adult female turkeys on the KRD 

seemed to be nutritionally stressed. Hoffman et al. (1996) noted that 

subadult females with low body weights were less likely to nest and renest, 

demonstrating that weight affected productivity. Vangilder (1996) was 

only able to find a weak relationship between acorn production and fall 

survival on one of his study areas, but Wakeling (1991) suggested a stronger 

relationship between total mast production and subadult winter survival. 

Wakeling and Rogers (1996) speculated that winter food availability and 

diversity directly influenced the stability of turkey use of winter ranges. 

Weather seems to have influenced food availability in our study area. 

Most mortality occurred in association with inclement weather, which 

may have covered meager food resources or driven turkeys into less 

suitable habitats. According to Haroldson (1996), an adult female in our 
130 W AKEUNG AND GooDWIN 

study would require about 13.1 kg of acorns to survive a 120 day winter. 

We collected no data, besides the anecdotal data that winter food was 

limited, that would suggest how much food was available on the NKRD, 

but deep snowfall could certainly exacerbate conditions that were already unfavorable for turkey survival. 

Despite the fact that Bridger Knoll complex wildfires substantially 

altered a large portion of the traditional western NKRD turkey winter 

range, we believe that range-wide limited mast (acorns, juniper fluniperus 

spp.] berries, and ponderosa [Pinus ponderosa] and pinyon pine [P. edulis] 

seeds) production had the effect of limiting over-winter survival. In 

addition, we believe that our research supports the contention that winter 

food diversity and availability has a strong influence on the stability and 

density of southwestern turkey populations. The lack of subadult female nesting may pose the greatest obstacle to rapid turkey population 

recovery. 

Finally, we acknowledge that the left-censoring of the 15 handlingrelated mortalities, while prudent to control oc: and Type I errors, may 

have been unnecessarily restrictive. The proportion of handling-related 

mortalities in our study was greater than we have encountered in similar 

studies (Wakeling 1991, Mollohan et al. 1995, Wakeling and Rogers 1995) 

and may reflect unfavorable environmental conditions rather than handling-related mortality. This conservative approach may have artificially 

inflated survival rates. Had censoring not been necessary, more and larger 

differences in survival rates might have been observed. Resource managers should recognize the trade-off between Type I and Type II errors 

in our study and expect the possibility of greater mortality rates than we 

reported during winters of poor food availability. 

AcKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This research could not have been completed without the assistance 

of F. E. Phillips, T. Buck, T. Britt, D. Magnuson, and F. Coles. Financially, this work was supported by the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration 

Projects W-53-M and W-78-R as well as the Arizona Chapter of the 

National Wild Turkey Federation. We would also like to thank the Missouri Department of Conservation for providing several radio telemetry units for our use. We extend our thanks to R. E. Schweinsburg and 

C. R. Miller for reviewing earlier drafts of this manuscript. 
REPORT SERIES 131 

LITERATURE CITED 

Austin, D. E., and L. W. DeGraff. 1975. Winter survival of wild turkeys in the 

southern Adirondacks. Pages 55-60 in Proceedings of the National Wild Turkey 

Symposium 3. 

Bailey, W., D. Dennett, H. Gore, J. Pack, R. Simpson, and G. Wright. 1980. Basic 

considerations and general recommendations for trapping the wild turkey. Pages 

10-23 in Proceedings of the National Wild Turkey Symposium 4. 

Brown, D. E., C. H. Lowe, and C. P. Pase. 1980. A digitized systematic classification 

for ecosystems with an illustrated summary of the natural vegetation of North 

America. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM-73. 93 pp. 

Haroldson, K. J. 1996. Energy requirements for winter survival of wild turkeys. 

Pages 9-14 in Proceedings of the National Wild Turkey Symposium 7. 

Heisey, D. M., and T. K. Fuller. 1985. Evaluation of survival and cause-specific 

mortality rates using telemetry data. Journal of Wildlife Management 49:668-

674. 

Hoffman, R. W., M. P. Luttrell, and W. R. Davidson. 1996. Reproductive performance of Merriam's wild turkeys with suspected Mycoplasma infection. Pages 

145-151 in Proceedings of the National Wild Turkey Symposium 7. 

Mollohan, C. M., D. R. Patton, and B. F. Wakeling. 1995. Habitat selection and use 

by Merriam's turkey in northcentral Arizona. Arizona Game and Fish Department Technical Report 9, Phoenix, AZ. 46 pp. 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1997. Arizona climatological 

data. Vol. 101. 

Pollock, K. H., S. R. Winterstein, C. M. Bunck, and P. D. Curtis. 1989. Survival 

analysis in telemetry studies: The staggered entry design. Journal of Wildlife 

Management 53:7-15. 

Porter, W. F., R. D. Tangen, G. C. Nelson, and D. A. Hamilton. 1980. Effects of corn 

food plots on wild turkeys in the upper Mississippi Valley. Journal of Wildlife 

Management 44:456-462. 

Rumble, M. A., and S. H. Anderson. 1993. Macrohabitat associations of Merriam's 

turkeys in the Black Hills, South Dakota. Northwest Science 67:238-244. 

Rumble, M. A., and S. H. Anderson. 1996a. Microhabitats of Merriam's turkeys in 

the Black Hills, South Dakota. Ecological Applications 6:326-334. 

Rumble, M. A., and S. H. Anderson. 1996b. Feeding ecology of Merriam's turkeys 

(Meleagris gallopavo meniamt) in the Black Hills, South Dakota. American Midland 

Naturalist 136:157-171. 

SAS Institute Inc. 1985. SAS/STATJ Guide for Personal Computers, version 6 

edition. SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, N.C. 378 pp. 

Scott, V. E., and E. L. Boeker. 1977. Responses of Merriam's turkey to pinyonjuniper control. Journal of Range Management 30:220-223. 

Stone, S. B. 1993. Habitat use and selection by Merriam's turkey in the Prescott 

National Forest, Arizona. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Ariz., Tucson. 115 pp. 

Vangilder, L. D. 1996. Survival and cause-specific mortality of wild turkeys in the 

Missouri Ozarks. Pages 21-31 in Proceedings of the National Wild Turkey 

Symposium 7. 

Wakeling, B. F. 1991. Population and nesting characteristics of Merriam's turkey 

along the Mogollon Rim, Arizona. Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Technical Report 7, Phoenix, AZ. 48 pp. 
132 W AKEUNG AND GOODWIN 

Wakeling, B. F., C. ]. Mehling, and C. M. Mollohan. 1997. Characteristics of 

Merriam•s turkey loafing habitat reused following silvicultural treatment. Pages 

85-91 in C. van Riper, III and E. Deshler, editors. Proceedings of the Third 

Biennial Conference of Research on the Colorado Plateau. October 1995. 

National Park Service Transactions and Proceedings Series NPS/NRNAU/ 

NRTP-97 /12. 

Wakeling, B. F., and T. D. Rogers. 1995. Winter habitat relationships of Merriam•s 

turkeys along the Mogollon Rim, Arizona. Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Technical Report 16, Phoenix, AZ. 4 pp. 

Wakeling, B. F., and T. D. Rogers. 1996. Winter diet and habitat selection by 

Merriam•s turkey in north-central Arizona. Pages 175-184 in Proceedings of the 

National Wild Turkey Symposium 7. 

Wakeling, B. F., and T. D. Rogers. 1998. Summer resource selection and year-long 

survival of male Merriam•s turkeys in north-central Arizona with associated 

implications from demographic modeling. Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Technical Report 28, Phoenix, AZ. 50 pp. 

Wunz, G. A., and A. H. Hayden. 1975. Winter survival and supplemental feeding of 

turkeys in Pennsylvania. Pages 61-69 in Proceedings of the National Wild 

Turkey Symposium 3. 

Zar, J. H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis. Second ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 

NJ. 718 pp. 
Merriam's Turkey Distribution 

in Relation to the U.S. Forest Service 

Recreational Opportunity Spectrum 

Forest Classification and Road Proximity 

in North-Central Arizona 

Timothy D. Rogers 

Brian F. Wakeling 

Susan R. Boe 

Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Research Branch 

2221 W. Greenwqy Rd. 

Phoenix, AZ 85023 

Abstract. We studied male Merriam's turkey (Meleagris gallopavo merriamz) summer 

distribution in relation to the U.S. Forest Service Recreational Opportunity Spectrum 

(ROS) habitat classifications and road proximity to determine if the potential indices of 

disturbance influenced turkey habitat and roost site use. The ROS habitat classification 

proved of limited use, but turkeys avoided habitats <200 m from roads for both total 

locations and roost site locations. Improved high-traffic roads seem to negatively influence turkey habitat use, although turkeys were often found in association with unimproved, low-traffic roads. We did not ascertain what level of road use turkeys found 

unacceptable. 

Key words: Arizona, disturbance, habitat, Meleagris gallopavo merriami, Merriam's turkey, roads, ROS 

Habitat use by many wildlife species is influenced by human-related 

activities including vehicular and pedestrian traffic, although the magnitl,lde of that influence is rarely quantified. For example, turkeys avoided 

habitats surrounding paved roads with > 70 vehicles/hr (McDougal et al. 

1990). Little is known about turkey response to lesser-traveled roads 

and habitats receiving varying degrees of recreational use. Understanding the factors that influence disturbance, and turkey response, is useful 

when planning for the recreational demands of Arizona's growing population. 

133 
134 RoGERS ET AL. 

Because human disturbance was identified as an important factor 

influencing turkey distribution at a recent turkey management workshop 

(Holland et al. 1996), we studied the summer distribution of male 

Merriam's turkeys in a habitat receiving substantial summer recreational 

activity. Our objective in this study was to determine how turkey distribution and habitat selection varied in relation to ROS classification and 

road proximity. Further, we wanted to be able to infer from these data 

how disturbance influenced turkeys during summer high-recreationaluse periods. 

STUDY AREA 

We conducted our study in the Coconino National Forest south of 

Flagstaff, Arizona, in Game Management Unit (GMU) 6A. Precipitation 

averages 47 em annually. Summer temperature highs range from 21-

320C, rarely exceeding 35°C, with summer average daily temperature at 

12°C (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1997). 

The study area encompassed 1 ,655 km2 delineated by a minimum 

convex polygon with a 0.5 km buffer around all summer-time male 

turkey locations. Elevations ranged from 1,829 min the south to >2,440 

min the north. Vegetation communities included pinyon (Pinus edulis)-

juniper (juniperus spp.) with scattered grasslands at lower elevations to 

ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa)-Gambel oak (Quercus gambelit) at mid-elevations and mixed-conifer habitats at higher elevations. Improved road 

density on our study area averaged 0.82 km/km2

• Most improved roads 

received greatest traffic during the summer months. 

METHODS 

Using rocket nets, we captured and radio-marked (felonies, Inc., 

model LB400, Mesa, AZ) male Merriam's turkeys during the winters of 

1995-96 through 1996-97 at sites baited with whole oats. All birds were 

released at the capture site. 

Between 1 June and 10 September 1996 and 1997, we located turkeys once per week from the ground using a hand-held telemetry unit 

(felonies, Inc., model TR-2, Mesa, AZ). All relocations were plotted on 

7.5' USGS topographic maps and the Universal Transverse Mercator 

coordinates were recorded then transferred to an ARC/INFO Geographic Information System (GIS). 

We obtained a GIS file from the Coconino National Forest documenting ROS classifications of habitats within our study area (Fig. 1 ). 

The classifications within ROS described the characteristics that visitors 
R EPORT SEIU llS 135 

Coconino National 

Forest 

Recreational Opportunity 

Spectrum (ROS) 

• Primitive 

• Pristine 

II Rural 

0 Roaded Natural 

~ Semi-Primitive 

Motorized 

Ill Semi-Primitive 

Non-Motorized 

0 2 4 6 8 \0 20 

Figure 1. Habitats classified with the U.S. Forest Service Recreational 

Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) within our study area in the Coconino National 

Forest, Arizona. 
136 ROGERS ET AL. 

could expect in these habitats (fable 1 ). USGS Digital Line Graphs 

(DLG) were then used to identify improved roads within our study area 

(Fig. 2). Most of these roads were improved and numbered U.S. Forest 

Service roads, but others were paved municipal, state, and interstate roadways. 

We used GIS to analyze male turkey habitat use, placing buffers of 

200, 201-400, 401-600, and >600 m around improved roads. We tested 

for disproportionate habitat use among distance-from-road categories 

and habitats classified with ROS using Chi-square goodness-of-fit tests 

(Zar 1984) and Bonferroni confidence intervals (Neu et al. 1974, Byers et 

al. 1984). The degree of selection was evaluated using Jacobs' D selectivity index Oacobs 1974). 

Table 1. Classifications within the U.S. Forest Service Recreational Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) and their characteristics. 

ROS class Characteristics 

Pristine Solitude, unmodified natural setting, very low interaction between users, minimal evidence of 

users, non-motorized access, no vegetative alterations. 

Primitive Solitude, unmodified or natural appearing environment, very low interaction between users, 

minimal evidence of users, non-motorized access, no vegetative alterations. 

Semi-Primitive, non-motorized High probability of solitude, natural appearing 

environment, low interaction between users, 

some evidence of other users, nonmotorized 

access, vegetative alterations are not evident. 

Semi-primitive, motorized Moderate probability of solitude, predominantly 

natural appearing environment, low concentration of users, often evidence of others on trails, 

vegetative alterations visually subordinate. 

Roaded natural Limited solitude, mostly natural appearing environment, user interaction common, conventional 

motorized travel including sedans and trailers, 

vegetative alterations to meet Forest objectives. 

Rural Little solitude, natural environment modified, high 

user interaction, excellent vehicular access. 
R EPORT S ERJES 13 7 

Coconino National 

Forest 

Le end 

A/ Roads Within 

Study Area 

/'vi' Interstate 

j o 2 " 'a 10 20 I 

Figure 2. Improved roads within our study area in the Coconino National 

Forest, Arizona. 

RESULTS 

We obtained 114 locations from 32 marked and seven unmarked 

male Merriam's turkeys, with 89 locations used in our analysis. Twentyfive locations were eliminated because multiple marked birds were located together simultaneously. o single turkey contributed >7.9% (9) 

of locations. Twenty-one roost sites were also located and used in our 

analysis. 

When considering all locations, male turkeys used habitat classified 
138 RoGERS ET AL. 

with ROS disproportionate with availability (X2 = 13.541,2 df, P = 0.002; 

Table 2). While the birds selected habitats classified as roaded natural, 

they avoided habitats classified as semi-primitive motorized. Roosting 

turkeys used habitats classified with ROS proportionate with availability 

(X2 = 1.202, 1 df, P = 0.285; Table 3). 

Between all locations and roosting locations, male turkeys showed 

consistent use of distance-from-road categories (fables 4 and 5). Male 

turkeys used habitat disproportionately for all locations (X2 = 13.120, 2 

df, P = 0.005) and for roosting locations (X2 = 11.890, 2 df, P = 0.005), 

in both cases avoiding habitats within 200 m of roads. All other distance-from-road categories were used proportionate with availability. 

DISCUSSION 

The ROS classification system did not seem to provide a useful tool 

for describing habitat use by male Merriam's turkeys during summer. 

Although turkeys used habitats classified with ROS disproportionately 

during our study, insufficient quantities of many habitat classifications 

were present to adequately evaluate their use by turkeys. Turkeys used the 

roaded natural classification, the most commonly available habitat classification the most, but a great deal of heterogeneity of microhabitat characteristics occur within this gross-scale classification and these characteristics influence turkey habitat selection (Wakeling and Rogers 1998). Further, the ROS system did not provide any classification that adequately 

described male turkey roosting habitat. The ROS habitat classification 

system, while valuable for evaluating recreation, is probably inadequate 

for evaluating turkey habitat. 

We did explain summer male turkey use for all locations and roosting location using road proximity. We believe that the physical characteristics of roads were not the factor that the birds were avoiding, rather 

they avoided the disturbance associated with those roads. Many of the 

locations occupied by male turkeys were in close proximity to closed or 

low-grade roads not noted on the USGS DLG maps. 

Avoidance of roads by turkeys has been attributed to roads associated with open habitats, fences, or specific topographic features (Eichholz 

and Marchinton 1975, McDougal et al. 1990). In our study, the heterogeneity of these associations limited the probability of such a relationship. Increased habitat use by turkeys in Arizona summer habitats is 

usually associated with areas of greater horizontal cover (.M:ollohan et al. 

1995, Wakeling and Rogers 1998). Burbridge and Neff (1975) noted 

that vehicles moving rapidly on roads were less disturbing than vehicles 
Table 2. Male Merriam's turkey summer use (all turkey locations) of habitats classified with the U.S. Forest Service Recreational Opportunity 

Spectrum (ROS) in north-central Arizona, 1996-1997. Overall x_2 = 13.541,2 df, P= 0.002. 

Observed Expected Expected Bonferroni 

ROS Classa Area (km2) Locations Proportion Proportion Locations Confidence Intervals Selectionb 

PM-SPNM 14.9 3 0.033 0.009 0.8 -0.012-0.078 

SPM 561.0 18 0.202 0.348 31.0 0.100-0.304 

RNA 1037.8 68 0.764 0.643 57.2 0.656-0.872 + 

a ROS classes include primitive-semiprimitive non-motorized (PM-SPNM), semi-primitive motorized (SPM), and roaded natural (RNA). 

b Classifications may be selected (+), avoided (-), or used as available (=). 

Jacobs' D 

-0.357 

0.285 

Table 3. Male Merriam's turkey summer roosting use of habitats classified with the U.S. Forest Service Recreational Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) in 

north-central Arizona, 1996-1997. Overall X2 = 1.202, 1 df I p = 0.285. 

Observed Expected Expected 

ROS Classa Area (km2) Locations Proportion Proportion Locations 

SPM 561.0 5 0.238 0.351 

RNA 1037.8 16 0.762 0.649 

a ROS classes include semiprimitive motorized (SPM), and roaded natural (RNA). 

b Classifications may be selected (+), avoided (-), or used as available (=). 

7.4 

13.6 

Bonferroni 

Confidence Intervals Selectionb Jacobs' D 

0.030-0.446 

0.554-0.970 
Table 4. Male Merriam's turkey summer use (all turkey locations) of distance-from-road categories in north-central Arizona, 1996-1997. Overall X2 

= 13.120, 2 df, p = 0.005. 

Distance from Observed Expected Expected Bonferroni 

Road (m) Area (km2) Locations Proportion Proportion Locations Confidence Intervals Selection• Jacobs' D 

0-200 470.4 12 0.135 0.284 25.3 0.044-.0225 -0.435 

201-400 363.5 26 0.292 0.220 19.6 0.173-0.410 

401-600 272.4 22 0.247 0.165 14.7 0.134-0.361 

>600 547.2 29 0.326 0.331 29.5 0.203-0.448 

a Distance-from-road categories may be selected (+), avoided (-), or used as available (=). 

Table 5. Male Merriam's turkey summer roosting use of distance-from-road categories in north-central Arizona, 1996-1997. Overall X2 = 11.890,2 df, 

P= 0.005. 

Distance from Observed Expected Expected Bonferronl 

Road (m) Area (km2) Locations Proportion Proportion Locations Confidence Intervals Selection• Jacobs' D 

0-200 470.4 0.048 0.284 6.0 -0.069-.165 -0.774 

201-400 363.5 4 0.190 0.220 4.6 -0.024-0.404 

401-600 272.4 9 0.423 0.165 3.5 0.153-0.693 

>600 547.2 7 0.333 0.331 7.0 0.076-0.590 

a Distance-from-road categories may be selected (+), avoided (-), or used as available (=). 

-

~ 

0 
REPORT SERIES 141 

moving slowly, although less often, on lower quality roads. Our study 

does not negate this possibility, but suggests that the disturbance associated with improved roads is sufficient to dissuade turkey use. However, 

turkeys have demonstrated the ability to habituate and acclimate with 

certain types of vehicular disturbance (Wright and Speake 1975). 

Vehicular and other associated disturbance that occurs along roads 

may be a critical factor influencing turkey distributions in Arizona, as 

male Merriam's turkeys apparently avoid habitats within 200 m of hightraffic roads. In habitats supporting turkey populations below habitat 

potential, resource managers should carefully evaluate open road quality 

and density. We suggest that closing high traffic roads may favor turkey 

populations in habitats that receive a substantial amount of recreational 

disturbance. On the other hand, the closure of low-traffic, low-quality 

roads may not be as beneficial for turkeys. Further research into quantity 

and composition of road-related disturbance sufficient to displace turkeys is warranted. 

AcKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This research was financially sponsored by the Arizona Game and 

Fish Department through the Federal Aid to Wildlife Restoration Project 

W-78-R. Logistical support was provided by the Long Valley Ranger 

District of the Coconino National Forest. We are grateful to Mark 

Whitney, Richard Miller, and Jim Beard for helpful ideas and suggestions 

while designing this study. Bob Miles, MariAnn McKenzie, Erik Dial, 

Chris Heilman, and Heather Jaramillo assisted with data collection. 

LITERATURE CITED 

Burbridge, W R., and D. J. Nef£ 1975. Coconino National Forest-Arizona Game and 

Fish Department cooperative roads-wildlife study. Pages 44-57 in Proceedings 

of the Elk-Logging-Roads Symposium. Univ. of Idaho, Moscow. 

Byers, C. R., R. K. Steinhorst, and P. R. Krausman. 1984. Clarification of a 

technique for analysis of utilization-availability data. Journal of Wildlife 

Management 48:1050-1053. 

Eichholz, N. F., and R. L. Marchinton. 1975. Dispersal and adjustment to habitat of 

restocked wild turkeys in Georgia. Pages 373-378 in Proceedings of the Annual 

Conference of the Southeastern Association of Game and Fish Commissions 29. 

Holland, L., D. Carrothers, M. Godwin, J. Heffelfinger, J. Hinkle, R. Miller, T. Pender, 

and B. Wakeling. 1996. Management of Arizona's Merriam's turkey: a workshop. 

Arizona Game and Fish Department, Phoenix, AZ. 31 pp. 

Jacobs, J. 1974. Quantitative measurement of food selection. Oecologia 14:413-417. 

McDougal, L. A., M. R. Vaughan, and P. T. Bromley. 1990. Wild turkey and road 
142 RoGERS ET AL. 

relationships on a Virginia National Forest. Pages 96-106 in Proceedings of the 

National Wild Turkey Symposium 6. 

Mollohan, C. M., D. R. Patton, and B. F. Wakeling. 1995. Habitat selection and use 

by Merriam's turkey in northcentral Arizona. Arizona Game and Fish Department Technical Report 9, Phoenix, Az. 46 pp. 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1997. Arizona climatological 

data. Vol. tot. 

Neu, C. W., C. R. Byers, and J. M. Peek. 1974. A technique for analysis of utilizationavailability data. Journal of Wildlife Management 38:541-545. 

Wakeling, B. F., and T. D. Rogers. 1998. Summer resource selection and year-long 

survival of male Merriam's turkeys in north-central Arizona, with associated 

implications from demographic modeling. Arizona Game and Fish Department 

Technical Report 28, Phoenix, AZ. 50 pp. 

Wright, G. A., and D. W. Speake. 197 5. Compatibility of the eastern wild turkey 

with recreational activities at Land Between the Lakes, Kentucky. Pages 578-

584 in Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of 

Game and Fish Commissions 29. 

Zar, J. H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis. Second ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 

NJ. 718 pp. 
Cultural 

Resources 

Changes in the Organization of Technology 

and Labor among Archaic and Ancestral 

Pueblo Peoples in the Vicinity of the 

Coombs Site, South-Central Utah 

William B. Fawcett, Jr. 

Utah State U niversiry 

Logan, UT 84322-0730 

and 

William R. Latady 

Anasazi State Park 

P.O. Box 1429 

Boulder, UT 84716 

Abstract. Archeologists have proposed alternative explanations (decreased mobility, risk avoidance, adoption of agriculture, sexual division of labor) to account for the 

shift from formal (bifacial) technology to expedient (core) technology. We examine these 

alternatives through an analysis of lithic artifacts and site settings documented through 

an archeological survey of Black Ledge-a mesa immediately adjacent to the Coombs 

site, the largest ancestral pueblo village in south-central Utah. We contrast the sites 

associated with more mobile hunter-gatherers during the Late Archaic, to the equally 

ephemeral sites created largely by women as they harvested, processed, and transported 

wild resources for use in their Late Formative village at Coombs. 

Key words: archeology, Utah, Coombs site, Black Ledge, lithic artifacts, Late Archaic, Late Formative 

Throughout North America archeologists have perceived a change 

in chipped-stone from formal (bifacial) technology to expedient (core) 

technology. They have variously attributed this technological change to 

decreased mobility, the adoption of agriculture, the availability and quality of raw materials, risk avoidance, and sexual division of labor. We 

further this discussion by contributing an analysis of data obtained from 

our recent archeological survey near the Coombs site ( 42Ga34)-the 

largest pueblo existing in south-central Utah between 1150 and 1200 

AD. We contrast the organization of lithic technology at Late Archaic 

145 
146 FAWCETIANDLATADY 

sites-much older than Coombs-with what we observed at Late Formative sites-contemporary with Coombs. Our analysis is by no means 

complete, but outlines a program of additional research in the region. 

BACKGROUND TO CoOMBS 

Noel Morse (1931) investigated the Coombs site for Harvard University. He recognized that the site had puebloan affiliation based on 

ceramics and architecture. As part of the Glen Canyon project, the University of Utah excavated architectural features within the Coombs site 

during the summers of 1958 and 1959 (Lister 1959, Lis~er et al. 1960, 

Lister and Lister 1961 ). Since the site became Anasazi State Park in 1960, 

small-scale excavations, primarily between 1970 and 1991, have added 

to the collections. 

Based on their analysis of the ceramics and architecture, Lister and 

Lister (1961) linked Coombs Village to the Kayenta Anasazi. They believed that Coombs was rapidly colonized and settled by Kayenta immigrants because the entire settlement seemed to be constructed according 

to a master plan and no evidence was found for the existence of ancestral villages either below this settlement or in the immediate vicinity (Lister 

and Lister 1961 ). The Kayenta-style jacal and masonry rooms were arranged in two unit pueblos-one L-shaped and the other U-shaped. 

About 100 rooms once existed in the two adjacent units. Over twothirds of these rooms were used for storage. The ten pitstructures and a 

ramada are believed to be contemporary with the unit pueblos. Based 

on the internal architecture, the pitstructures are believed to have been 

constructed and used for habitation, rather than as kivas. The absence or 

rarity of kivas and prevalence of storage rooms has also be noted at 

Virgin Anasazi settlements to the west (Lyneis 1995, 1996). 

Tree-ring, radiocarbon and ceramic dates place the most likely age 

estimate for Coombs between 1150 and 1200 AD (Bannister et al. 1969, 

Prince et al. 1998). At the time Coombs was established by Kayenta 

colonists from the south, the eastern-most Virgin Anasazi settlements 

were being abandoned (Lyneis 1996). Even though Coombs was the 

largest village in the region, it still probably included no more than 200 

people, presuming that the 30-40 habitation rooms and pitstructures were 

all contemporary. The isolated position and size of Coombs very likely 

contributed to the brief (50 year), unsustainable occupation of the village. 

Coombs was not isolated from more distant communities. The presence of trade wares from many portions of the ancestral pueblo world · 
REPORTSERIES 147 

(e.g., Mesa Verde, Kayenta, Chaco, and Virgin) and Fremont, as well as 

locally-made pottery in the Kayenta style (Morgenstein and Latady 1998) 

probably indicated attempts by Coombs villagers to foster long-distance 

alliances through exchanges of ceramics and artifacts of exotic materials 

(marine shells from the Pacific and turquoise from a single, but unknown 

source; Prince et al. 1998). 

Based on the size and planned layout, Lister and Lister (1961) proposed that Coombs was inhabited year-round. In contrast, Jennings 

(1966) and Lipe (1970) proposed that many villages were occupied on a 

seasonal basis. Lipe (1970) argued that large upland villages, like Coombs, 

only represented winter occupations. Small parties left their upland vil-. 

lages in the spring, and then traveled to the low, hot, and well-watered 

lowland canyons along the Colorado River where they planted and tended 

their crops. Part of their harvest was transported back to upland (winter) 

villages, while the remainder was stored in the canyons to provide food 

and seed for the following year. Given the kinds and diversity of architecture at Coombs, as well as the finding of numerous short-term logistical settlements in our survey of a nearby mesa (Black Ledge), we also 

propose that Coombs was inhabited year-round. 

The Listers (1961) concluded that the occupants of Coombs were 

primarily farmers because they found numerous examples of corn and 

squash, relatively few wild plant remains (e.g., pinyon, indian rice grass 

and chenopodium), stone hoes (tchamahias), trough metates, and twohanded manos. Trough metates and larger, two-handed, manos are generally presumed to have been used to mill cultigens, while slab metates 

and smaller manos are presumed to have been used with wild plants and 

pigment (Hard 1990, Mauldin 1993, Nelson and Lippmeier 1993, 

Schlanger 1991 ). 

Coombs was located near West Deer Creek. Other perennial streams 

flow south off the Aquarius Plateau enabling villagers to engage in more 

intensive, but predictable, irrigation-based horticulture. The first Mormon settlers discovered ancient ditches in the vicinity of the by-thenabandoned Coombs site that might represent the remains of a former 

irrigation system. 

A palynological study of the village and a packrat midden from an 

adjacent mesa provides additional evidence for the existence of agricultural fields (Prince et al. 1998), and adds support to claims for yearround occupation. The reduced coverage of pinyon-juniper woodlands 

continued after the abandonment of Coombs in about 1200 AD, until 

about 1650 AD. This persistence of cleared/ disturbed vegetation, after 

the abandonment of Coombs, was attributed to the efforts of Numic 
148 FAWCEIT AND LATADY 

peoples, although very little evidence of Numic or Late Prehistoric occupations has been found in the surrounding area (see Madsen and Rhode 

1994 for elaboration on the Numic spread and Late Prehistoric). 

The residents of Coombs also hunted large and small animals. Among 

the larger faunal remains bighorn sheep predominate, followed by fewer 

mule deer and even less frequent pronghorn. Cottontail and jackrabbit 

bones dominate the smaller mammal remains. The remains of a few 

dogs have been found. 

We are uncertain where the villagers hunted game animals, whether 

they concentrated on agricultural fields or on more distant uplands and 

less inhabited places. We suspect that deer and rabbits were obtained 

from the fields, while the more human-sensitive sheep were hunted in 

remote locations, such as the mesa tops. 

Earlier sites associated with Archaic hunter-gatherers (8000-3000 BP) 

and incipient horticulturalists (3000-1500 BP) are known from other 

portions of the Colorado Plateau (Geib 1996, Janetski 1993, Parry and 

Smiley 1990). Many of the early sites are either buried or destroyed by 

erosion. The people who created these sites lived at low population 

densities and organized their lives towards high mobility to exploit seasonal resources as they became available. As reliance upon farming increased and mobility declined during the Formative, ancestral puebloan 

peoples made greater use of local raw materials (Parry and Smiley 1990) 

and r~lied more on expedient (flake) tools made from cores. In contrast, 

for reasons explored below, bifaces are more common in Archaic sites 

(Parry and Kelly 1987, Kelly 1988, 1992). 

ORGANIZATION OF LITHIC TECHNOLOGY 

Archeologists have repeatedly noted the shift over time from formal 

bifaces to informal cores in lithic assemblages from many areas of North 

America, especially where sources of raw materials were spatially re;-

stricted. They offer several explanations for this shift: (1) decreased 

mobility (Kelly 1988, Kelly and Todd 1988, Parry and Kelly 1987); (2) 

risk avoidance (Torrence 1989); and, (3) increased horticultural production (Abbott et al. 1996). 

(1) Mobility 

Parry and Kelly (1987, Kelly 1992) propose that mobile people produce and use bifaces because they need long-lasting, flexible, and reliable 

tools to carry and use in places where raw materials are lacking. Bifaces 

served both as tools and as cores from which to strike flakes that could 
REPORT SERIES 149 

also be used as tools (Kelly 1988). They were often made from better, 

but more locally restricted, materials to insure their reliability and extend 

their use-life. 

Parry and Kelly (1987) argue that the change from bifacial to expedient core technology coincided with sedentism. By living in one place, 

people could stockpile materials and recycle older artifacts. Because sedentary people use their tools mostly at their residential sites, there is little 

spatial incongruity between raw material and tool use. 

As Sassaman (1992) notes, expedient core technology has been observed among mobile hunter gatherers who also used formal bifacial 

technology in places with a super-abundance of raw materials. Biface. 

technology was restricted to anticipated needs and expedient to immediate needs. Sassaman (1992) also points out that where people continued 

to make logistical trips-traveling from sedentary villages-to hunt game, 

we might expect a continuation in biface production and use, both as 

cores and as weapons. Instead of presuming that the entire group moves 

together (residential mobility), it is probably more useful to consider differences in tool movement arising from sexual division of labor. 

(2) Risk Avoidance 

Torrence (1989) proposes that greater risk is associated with hunting 

than with gathering because prey animal are mobile and less predictable. 

Hunting tools should consist of complex, formal (bifacial) tools designed 

for reliable, long-lasting use. They should be easily repaired. Incorporating these technological features averts the risk and uncertainty of hunting 

by minimizing the chance of technological failure. The timing and severity of risk are less among gatherers, encouraging them to use simple, 

short-term, expedient tools made on flakes from cores. Torrence proposes that the shift from biface to core technologies coincides with the 

transition to food production or horticulture. 

As Sassaman (1992) indicates, instead of seeing the two technologies 

as replacing one another, we should more often expect both hunting and 

gathering to operate simultaneously with a sexual division of labor, involving both formal (bifaces) and expedient (core) technologies. The 

co-occurrence of formal and expedient technologies would depend upon 

the organization of land-use, duration of occupation, site reoccupation, 

and the availability of raw materials. Hunting continued, and even intensified in the vicinity of more sedentary horticultural villages, but as Sassaman 

notes (1992), by then bifaces, and especially smaller projectile or arrow 

points, were made on flakes. Expedient core technology converged and 

incorporated aspects of bifacial technology. 
150 FAWCETI ANDLATADY 

(3) Agriculture 

Abbott et al. (1996) reject the other two alternatives, as well as 

Sassaman's, because they involve behavioral variables. Instead, they argue 

for a Darwinian selectionist approach. The change in replicative success 

of the technologies (the decline in the relative frequency of biface technology and increase in flake technologies over time) might be the product of stochastic processes, selection, or sorting. After eliminating stochastic and sorting, they argue for selection due to the clear directionality 

of change. Because selective agents by definition are environmental, they 

conclude by proposing two possibilities: (1) 'flake technology is proximately the product of reduced mobility ... and reduced mobility the product 

of selective agents favoring increased maize production ... '; and, (2) ' .. .if 

flake technology is associated ... with the mechanics of agricultural production, increases in the proportion of flake technology in the record 

may be a product of subsistence shift toward increased agricultural production, because of the increased importance of technology associated 

with agriculture, and perhaps because of the decreased importance of 

technology associated with hunting.' 

The exact ways in which flake technology is linked to agricultural 

production remains unclear, and unspecified. We return to this problem 

later. 

ANOTHER ALTERNATIVE 

Sassaman (1992) demonstrates that the bifacial technologies did not 

always stand in opposition to those based on cores. Furthermore, the 

shift that archeologists have perceived is attributable to the greater attention archeologists award to hafted bifaces (projectile points) during the 

preceramic (Archaic) and ceramics during the Formative for the determination of temporal placement and cultural identity. The archeologists' 

research methods make bifaces more visible in Archaic sites, and cores 

more visible in more recent, Formative sites. As Sassaman (1992) says 

among both Archaic hunter-gatherers and Formative farmers, hunters 

and gatherers we might expect the manufacture, distribution, and consumption of stone tools to both shape and reflect the division of labor 

by sex. We should not presume that men were exclusively the stone tool 

makers and users (Gero 1991), in that both men and women influenced 

each others decisions about lithic technology. Because the presumed shift 

from bifacial to core technologies coincides with the advent of pottery 

and increased reliance upon horticulture, it may be attributable to changes 

in sexual division of labor. 
REPORT SERIES 151 

Again following Sassaman (1992), 'bifacial and expedient core technologies varied from being independent to being interdependent.' Away 

from sources, bifaces served both as tools and as cores for flakes. Women 

would have been dependent on men for flakes, if we assume that men 

were the makers and users of bifaces. 

With increased population density and sedentism during the Formative, access to good and distant raw material sources probably declined. 

The adoption of the bow and arrow enabled people to use smaller . 

projectile points, readily made by bifacing flakes. Expedient core technology wastes less material and can be accomplished with poorer quality 

material than biface technology. 

Similar demands on women's time and energy, to those outlined by 

Sassaman (1992) for the Woodland period in Eastern North America, 

shaped the lives of women in the American Southwest. Puebloan peoples 

practiced a mixed economy, involving horticulture, hunting of wild game, 

and gathering of wild plants. Based on various cross-cultural studies and 

ethnographic analogies, Crown and Wills (199 5) propose that Puebloan 

women were responsible for much of the everyday agricultural labor, 

food processing and preparation, house cleaning and clothing laundry, 

the manufacture of clothing, mats, baskets, leather products, and pottery, 

primary child care, and collection of firewood and water. With even a 

portion of these demands, Pueblo women would have faced a time and 

energy crisis. 

In response to the crisis, Puebloan women sought out local raw 

materials-encountered during other tasks-to manufacture their own 

stone tools. To minimize their time investment, they manufactured tools 

from flakes struck from expedient cores. Such cores could be made 

with materials too small, or too poor in quality for bifacial technology. 

Women scavenged and recycled lithic refuse from other, and often more 

ancient, sites. With unmodified and slightly modified flakes, women could 

accomplish many of the tasks outlined above. Grinding stones, used for 

processing plant foods away from the village, were cached near the places 

where the plants grew in anticipation of future use. As Sassaman (1992) 

suggests, both women and men probably produced expedient cores at 

residential places, with some of the flakes being bifaced to produce arrow points. He also proposes that formal bifaces remained in male 

domain, but now to create artifacts for use in ceremonies and rituals, 

perhaps representing a form of male resistance in response to their loss 

of control over lithic production. 

Many studies of lithic technology in the American Southwest have 

focused on the more substantial residential settlements. In contrast, our 
152 FAWCE1T I D L ATADY 

study examines more ephemeral artifact scatters and camps located on a 

mesa near the Coombs site. \Y/e intend to compare the '..vays more mobile Archaic hunter-gatherers manufactured and used chipped-stone tools, 

to the more recent sites associated with the Coomb site. We also examine how changes in the sexual division of labor structured lithic technology. 

T HE B LAcK LEDGE Su RVEY 

Black Ledge is a large mesa located just east of Boulder, UT and the 

Coombs site (Fig. 1). We surveyed 900 acres of private land that has 

been subdivided for residential housing. 

\\' I Krn 

Figure 1. Location of the Black Ledge survey project near Boulder, Utah and 

the Coombs site. 
REPORT SERIES 153 

The authors and Celeste Clegg led three 3-4 person groups of student volunteers. A maximum of 30 m spacing was maintained between 

survey members while walking survey transects. Isolated artifacts and 

archeological sites (defined as localities exhibiting evidence for multiple 

activities with considerable accumulations of artifacts) were plotted on 

7 .5' USGS topographic maps and flagged as they were located. Later 

we returned to the sites to record them on IMACS forms and to complete infield tabulations of artifacts. 

Thirty-six prehistoric sites were located during our survey. They 

occur in two major settings: on the lowlands to the north of the mesa (21 

sites) and atop the mesa (15 sites). The sites on the northern lowlands 

tend to be smaller and more concentrated than the ones located on the 

mesa top. The only natural water sources occurring today are depressions in the Navajo sandstone where water collects after summer thundershowers and spring snowmelt. Sites cluster around these bedrock water 

holes and along a ephemeral wash in the northern lowlands. In the same 

setting we observed many pieces of ground stone, numerous cores, and 

several cultural features (hearths and other pit-features). Some of the 

features were exposed in backhoe trenches excavated by the landowner. 

Time diagnostic artifacts were limited to a few arrow points and several 

black-on-white potsherds. We suspected that most of the sites in the 

northern lowlands are contemporary with Coombs, and represent shortterm (one-day and over-night) trips to procure and process wild plant 

resources that were either stored for later use or transported back to the 

village. 

On the mesa top we recorded more extensive and discrete sites than 

in the northern lowlands. No cultural features were observed, although 

subsurface hearths are suspected given the existence of discolored aeolian 

sands at several sites. Ground stone and cores were scarce, and most 

time diagnostic artifacts date from the Late Archaic (mostly Elko dart 

points)-predating the Coombs site. A Desert side-notched arrow point 

found at one site provides the only evidence for occupations post-dating 

Coombs. The prevalence of projectile points, combined with the location of several of the sites on overlooks (from which game animals 

would have been visible) suggests that many of the mesa-top sites were 

associated with hunting activities. The shattered remains of a single Tusayan 

Corrugated Coombs variety jar was recorded as an isolated find. No 

other sites occurred nearby. This jar would be contemporaneous with 

the occupation of Coombs. 

No archeological sites were located on the southernmost portion of 

the mesa. While the southern tip of the mesa is now slickrock, areas to 
154 f AWCETf t\ND L\Tt\DY 

the north are still covered with dense pinyon-juniper so that it seems 

unlikely tbat site destruction through erosion can be used to explain the 

absence of sites in the south. 

ANALYSIS OF S URVEY D ATA 

Ancient peoples made considerable use o f Black J edge for bunting 

and plant gathering, including processing; however, no evidence exists 

for farming on or immediately adj acent to the mesa. We did not fi nd 

any unit pueblos, farming implements, trough rnetatcs, two-han l manos, 

field houses, or agricultural features (check darns, ditches, fields, etc.). All 

of the sites appear to have been crea ted as short-term camps and places 

where limited activities were accomplished. 

The key questions is whether many of these sites were contemporary 

with the Coombs site. The scarcity of time diagnostic artifacts, especially 

projectile points and ceramics, in part clue to prior artifact collection by 

persons unknown, make this question somewhat difficul t to address. 

However, as we demonstrate below, the settings o f rchaic and Formative sires appear to have been distinct. 

Upon examining the few (17 out of 37) sites with diagnostic artifacts 

we found that Archaic sites we re located significantly furth er from 

Coombs than Formative ites, contemporary witb the village (Fig. 2; Table 

1). Archaic sites are also concentrated at higher-elevations, on the mesa 

4.5 

4.0 

~ 

~ 

(f) 3.5 J <D 

30 1 

::;: 

0 

0 

u 

::;: 

0 

0:: 25 j u.. 

w 

u 

z 

<( 2.0 1-

(f) 

0 1.5 -

1.0 J 

N• 

-- 0 4 

~ ,=s- I 

_L @s=? 

20 10 3 3 1 

Missing EARLY FORMATIVE LATE PREHISTORIC 

LATE ARCHAIC LATE FORMATIVE 

TIME PERIOD 

Figure 2. Boxplot depicting the distance from Coombs for sites of various time 

periods. 
R EPORT SERIES 155 

Table 1. Comparison between Late Archaic and Formative sites according to their 

distance (in km) from the Coombs site. 

Time Period Mean S.d. n 

Late Archaic 2.63 0.55 10 

Formative 1.99 0.23 7 

I= 3.28 

d.f. = 13 

P = 0.006 

top, while the Formative sites occur at lower-elevations, mostl y on the 

northern lowlands (Fig. 3; Table 2). Closer examination of the 17 sites 

with cliagnostic artifacts revealed that nearly aU of the Archaic sites are 

located above 6800' and over 2.3 km from the Coombs site, and Formative sites occu.rred at lower elevations, closer to the village. 

After applying this classificati on scheme to assign presumed ages to 

the remaining (20) sites, we evaluated the age estimates by examining the 

prevalence of cores in relation to bifaces. As in previous studies that 

have focused on the organization of technology, bifaces predominate 

more frequently at presumed Archaic sites, and cores at presumed Formative sites (Table 3). Notice that far more of the 'misclassified' ages are 

7000 

I 6900 

~ 6800 T ~ g I z 0 I 0 6700 I i= 

<( 

> w 6600 -' w 

6500 

-'-- I 6400 ' -- -

N• 20 10 3 3 ' Missing EARLY FORMATIVE LATE PREHISTORIC 

LATE ARCHAIC LATE FORMATIVE 

TIME PERIOD 

Figure 3. Boxplot depicting the elevation of sites on Black Ledge from various 

time periods. 
156 FAWCETI AND LATADY 

Table 2. Comparison of elevation (in feet) between Late Archaic and Formative 

sites. 

Time Period Mean S.d. n 

Late Archaic 6825 44 10 

Formative 6666 88 7 

t= 4.40 

d.f. = 8 

P= 0.002 

among sites presumed to date from the Formative (at 8 presumed Formative sites bifaces outnumber cores). 

This pattern can be attributed to recycling of older bifaces during 

the later Formative. Recycling probably also accounts for the scarcity of 

Archaic sites at lower elevations and closer to the Coombs site. Other 

Archaic sites, yet to be discovered, may have existed in the fields and 

beneath the town of Boulder, but they have yet to be recorded. They 

were probably impacted to an even greater extent through later recycling 

of lithic materials by Formative villagers. 

Most of the presumed Formative sites are concentrated at lower 

elevations on the northern lowlands. At these sites we observed numerous examples of one-hand manos and slab or basin metates-forms of 

ground stone believed to be associated primarily with processing wild 

plants. Ground stone only rarely occurred among the sites presumed to 

Table 3. Predominance of cores or bifaces at Archaic and Formative sites. 

Presumed Cores Bifaces 

Age Predominate Predominate Total 

Late Archaic 15 (10.8) 1 (5.2) 16 

Formative 8 (12.2) 10 (5.8) 18 

Total 23 11 34 

x2 = 9.41 

d.f. = 1 

P= 0.002 

( ) = Expected 
REPORT SERIES 157 

date from the Late Archaic, and were strongly associated with presumed 

Formative sites where cores also predominate (fable 4). 

DISCUSSION 

The relatively few examples of Archaic sites at Black Ledge are concentrated on the mesa top. The assemblages and settings of these sites 

suggest that they were very short-term camps associated with hunting 

activities. Both the contents and settings are redundant, and almost certainly the Archaic sites only represent a small fraction of the annual or 

seasonal round over which their creators moved. Mobility and the absence of abundant, high-quality raw materials, probably contributed to 

the predominance of formal (bifacial) technology at the Archaic sites. 

Artifacts that archeologists have often associated with women's work 

(scrapers for processing hides and plant fiber, ground stone for mealing 

seeds, and flake tools) rarely occur within the Archaic sites. Their absence 

and the existence of a sexual division of labor probably contributed to 

the brief nature of the utilization of Black Ledge during the Archaic. 

Based on our analysis, we propose that most of the sites on the 

northern lowlands date from the Formative and were created while wild 

plant resources were harvested and processed, before they were transported (< 1 mile) back to the village at Coombs. Ground stone, cores, 

and flakes occur in great abundance on the lowland sites. Whether these 

sites can be attributed to the efforts of task-groups of women is debatable, but would agree with the ethnographic and cross-cultural studies 

reviewed by Crown and Wills (1995) that include firewood and plant 

collection, and food processing among the tasks accomplished by women 

in villages with mixed economies. The prevalence of core-based techTable 4. Association of Ground Stone with Formative sites. 

Time Period 

Late Archaic 

Formative 

Total 

x2 = 3.71 

d.f. = 1 

P= 0.05 

Ground Stone (manos/metates) 

Absent Present Total 

15 (12.4) 

12 (14.6) 

27 

2 (4.6) 

8 (5.4) 

10 

17 

20 

37 
158 fAWCETI ANDLATADY 

nology, using poorer-grade, local raw materials and recycled bifaces, to 

produce flakes and flake tools supports our proposal that much of the 

archeological record on the northern lowlands can be attributed to the 

activities of women faced with considerable constraints on their time 

and energy. Given the prevalence of short-term camps and logistical 

use-areas on Black Ledge, we suggest that Coombs must have been 

occupied year-round. 

On the other hand, our presumed age estimates for both the mesa 

top and lowland sites may be in error. Some of the lowland sites may 

represent the activities of women during the Archaic, who insisted upon 

making and using their own tools from local materials, while men and 

perhaps women also hunted on the nearby mesa tops. Archaic sites may 

not have been so spatially separated from Formative sites, as we presume from our analysis. Given the limited range of the assemblages and 

features at all of the sites, we suggest that it is unlikely that these ephemeral settlements can be attributed to adaptive diversity, or in this casehunter-gatherers living in proximity to farmers (see Simms 1986, Upham 

1984, 1988, 1992, 1994, Young 1994 for elaborations upon this alternative). 

By testing the features (hearths, ash stains, slab-lined cists, and pits) at 

sites in both settings we should be able to obtain radiocarbon samplesto resolve chronological questions, bulk soil samples for pollen and flotation analysis-to resolve questions about the utilization of plant resources, faunal remains-to address questions about hunting activities, 

and tool and debitage samples for microwear and technological studies 

(See Geib 1996 for an additional example of the advantages of investigating features). Ceramics will be sourced and compared with those from 

Coombs. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Our survey of a mesa within close proximity to the Coombs sitethe largest pueblo village during the 12th century AD in the area-addresses changes in the organization of technology and sexual division of 

labor between the much earlier, Late Archaic, and the Late Formativecontemporary with Coombs. Our analysis of the survey data from Black 

Ledge indicates that indigenous peoples used this area, and most of the 

sites appear to be contemporary with and attributable to short-term visits by the residents of Coombs. This information indicates that the villagers supplemented their agricultural production through seasonal procurement of plants and animals in the surrounding uplands. The pres-
REPORT SERIES 159 

ence of these logistical camps and localities argues for the year-round 

occupation of Coombs Village, rather than seasonal transhumance to 

lowland agricultural villages at Glen Canyon. We also propose that many 

of these sites were created by women using a core technology and local 

stone that they encountered while harvesting and processing wild plants 

and gathering firewood, clay (for pottery), and other materials on the 

northern lowlands, near their village. 

Earlier sites, dating from the Archaic, are concentrated at higher el-. 

evations, further away from Coombs Village (mostly on top of the mesa). 

Because projectile points are more prevalent at these sites than at later 

ones and because some are situated on overlooks, these Archaic sites 

may be associated with hunting activities. Ground stone is also rarer at 

the Archaic sites. 

Through preliminary analysis of our survey data we have documented 

the same shift in the organization of lithic technology (from bifaces to 

cores) observed at many other places around the world. Further research will be directed at evaluating the various alternative explanations 

for this shift 

AcKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This research was made possible by the permission and contributions of land owner, Mark Austin, the volunteer labor of students Oill 

and Kristan Jensen, Celeste and Bryan Clegg, and Margo Marmot), and 

various efforts of many Boulder residents. Thanks also to Joan Gero 

and Ken Sassaman for reviewing an earlier draft. 

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movement and the expansion of the Numa. Univ. of Utah, Salt Lake City. 

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local pottery by magnetic susceptibility measurements, geochemical and petrographic analysis: The Coombs site, 42Ga34. Pages 103-120 in L. M. Hill, editor. 

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managing the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument. Bureau of Land 

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Cambridge. 

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285-304 in J. Johnson and C. Morrow, editors. The organization of core 

technology. Westview, Boulder. 

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Arizona and southeastern Utah. Pages 47-56 in P. E. Minnis and C. L. Redman, 

editors. Perspectives on southwestern prehistory. Westview, Boulder. 

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northeastern portion of the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument. 
REPORT SERIES 161 

Pages 121-132 in L. M. Hill, editor. Proceedings of Learning from the Land: 

Scientific Inquiry for planning and managing the Grand Staircase-Escalante 

National Monument. Bureau of Land Management, Salt Lake City. 

Sassaman, K. E. 1992. IJthic technology and the hunter-gatherer sexual division of 

labor. North American Archeologist 13:249-262. 

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American Antiquity 56:460-474. 

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Cambridge. 

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154. 

Recent High Altitude 

Archeological Surveys at 

Cedar Breaks National Monument, Utah 

Timothy W. Canaday 

Death Valley National Park 

Death Va14J, CA 92328 

Matthew J. Betenson 

Zion National Park 

Springdale, UT 84767 

and 

Laird P. Naylor II 

Bureau of Land Management 

324 S. State Street, Suite 301 

Salt Lake City, UT 84145 

Abstract. The cultural history of southern Utah's Markagunt Plateau is not well 

known, but recent archeological surveys have focused on the identification and interpretation of cultural resources within Cedar Breaks National Monument. We conducted 

survey work in two discrete areas: (1) the lower portions of the monument at elevations 

ranging from 7,800 to 9,200 feet (2,377 to 2,804 m); and (2) at higher elevations ranging 

from 10,100 to 10,600 ft (3,078 to 3,230 m). The lower survey areas were found to 

contain very few archeological resources while the upper portions of the monument 

were heavily utilized by prehistoric people for at least 3-4,000 years and perhaps longer. 

Procurement of chert from the Brian Head Formation appears to have been a primary 

activity. In addition to the archeological investigations, ancillary studies were initiated, 

including petrographic and trace mineral analysis of the chert source, obsidian sourcing, 

palynological studies of area peat bogs, and dendroclimatic studies. These ancillary 

studies will enable a better understanding of prehistoric land use on the Markagunt 

Plateau, and specifically at Cedar Breaks National Monument. 

Key words: cultural resources, Archaic, Late Prehistoric, lithic scatters, chert quarries, paleoenvironment, Cedar Breaks National Monument, Markagunt Plateau 

163 
1 64 C Al'-:ADAY ET AL. 

INTRODUCTION 

The farkagunt Plateau, oriented southwest-northeast, is the 

westernm st of the High Plateaus subdivision of the Colorado Plateau 

physiographic province (Foster 1968), with the Great Basin beginrung 

directly west of the Markagunt Plateau. Cedar Breaks ational Monument is a 6,155 acre preserve located along the western margin of the 

Markagunt Plateau (Fig. 1). In an attempt to learn more about the cultural rustory of Cedar Breaks , we conducted an archeological survey of 

the monument. 

This project is located along the western edge of the Markagunt 

Plateau and encompasses both the lower portions of Cedar Breaks I ationa] ionument as well as the upper rim (Fig. 2). Tills project is part of 

the I ational Park ervice's Systemwide Archeological Inventory Program and was conducted by archeologists from Zion ational Park. We 

are currently in the third year of a four-year project, and have intensively 

examined nearl y all of the monument accessible to pedestrian surveyors. 

This paper summarizes the results of two years of research at Cedar 

Breaks and provides a framework for research during the final two years. 

Figure 1. Overview of Cedar Breaks National Monument. 
Figure 2. Location of the Cedar Breaks Archeological Project showing survey coverage. 

Cedar Breaks 

National Monument 

Archeological Project 

• Survey Coverage 

1996- 1997 

s 

Contour Interval = 60 ft 
166 CANADAYEfAL 

Project Area Description 

The Markagunt Plateau is well watered, containing numerous springs, 

streams and small lakes. Rose and Snedeker (1982) note that several 

major creeks rising from the Markagunt Plateau form the headwaters of 

the Sevier River drainage of the Great Basin physiographic province. 

Cedar Breaks National Monument is located east of Cedar City, Utah 

and rises to elevations over 10,000 ft (3,048 m). It covers most of a 

spectacular erosional escarpment of the Tertiary Claron Formation 

(Wasatch Formation) exposed along the Hurricane fault (Agenbroad et 

al. 1992). 

Elevations in the lower breaks range from 7,800 to 9,200 ft (2,377 to 

2,804 m). The lower breaks are an erosional feature comprised of 

knifelike ridges, steep talus cones and cliff bands of limestone. This area 

is extremely steep, rugged, and heavily dissected. Due to these topographic extremes, vegetation (commonly associated with the Canadian 

life zone) is limited to thin ridge tops, benches, and drainages. 

The upper rim of Cedar Breaks includes wide, undulating valleys 

and alpine meadows, forested hillsides and ridges, and exposed knolls 

and peaks. Elevations on the upper rim range from 10,100 ft (3,078 m) 

to the summit of Brian Head Peak, 11,278 ft (3,437 m) just north of the 

monument. Vegetation commonly associated with the Hudsonian life 

zone predominates. Arno and Hammerly (1984) note that the upper rim 

supports a subalpine forest of Englemann spruce, subalpine fir, and clones 

of quaking aspen. Krummholz occasionally descends into the dry limestone amphitheater, and limber and bristlecone pines are present along 

the rim (Arno and Hammerly 1984). Limestone sink holes, peat bogs, 

basalt and rhyolite flows, and large areas covered by brecciated rhyolite 

are also features of the upper rim. 

Previous Archeological Research 

at Cedar Breaks National Monument 

An overview of the history of Cedar Breaks National Monument 

and its environs has been provided by Klein (1991). Two historic era 

sites within Cedar Breaks (the Visitor Center and the Caretakers Cabin) 

were nominated to the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. These 

log structures are set on shaped rock foundations and were constructed 

in 1937 by members of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). They 

were added to the National Register because of their relation to the 

CCC and because they serve as very good examples of the National 

Park Service (NPS) rustic architectural style. 
REPORT SERIES 16 7 

High altitude areas in the western United States have only recently 

been the focus of scholars interested in prehistoric land use (e.g., Benedict 

1975, 1981, 1985, 1992, 1996, Bettinger 1990, 1991, Bettinger and Oglesby 

1985, Canaday 1991, 1992a, 1992b, 1996, 1997, Canaday and Reutebuch 

1994, Canaday et al. 1997, Grayson 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, n.d., Simms 

1979, 1993, Thomas 1982, Thomas and Pendleton 1990, Wickstrom 1993, 

Winter 1983). Prior to the Cedar Breaks Archeological Project, the only 

prehistoric investigations conducted in the high country of the Markagunt 

Plateau were related to Cultural Resource Management (CRlvl) projects 

(e.g., Craig 1977, Dykman 1976, Rose and Snedeker 1982, Sargent 1979). 

Between 1974 and 1982 archeologists from the Dixie National Forest conducted thirteen CRM projects on the Markagunt Plateau. The 

surveys covered some 2,180 acres and a total of 45 sites were identified 

(Craig 1977, Dykman 1976, Rose and Snedeker 1982: Table 2). These 

sites consist of lithic scatters with no apparent subsurface cultural deposits. All seem to share similar characteristics in that hearths, structural features, groundstone and ceramics are absent and the majority of the 

debitage is thought to be the locally-available Brian Head chert and chalcedony. The only non-chert lithic materials on any of these sites are a few 

pieces of obsidian (Rose and Snedeker 1982). Obsidian samples analyzed from four Markagunt Plateau sites (42In223, 229, 231, and 232) 

have been traced to the Mineral Mountains approximately 50 miles (80.5 

km) to the north (Nelson and Holmes 1979). 

Several sites discovered during these CRM projects suggest that the 

prehistory of the Markagunt Plateau is both behaviorally and temporally 

complex. The Long Flat site (42In330), first reported by Dykman (1976), 

was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. This site 

ranges in elevation from 10,000 to 10,200 ft (3,048 to 3,109 m), encompasses approximately 7 50,000 square meters (1 ,500 x 500 meters in some 

places), and is thought to date from the Archaic to Ethnohistoric times 

(Hawkins 1979). It was added to the National Register because of its 

importance as a chert quarry centered around four chert outcrops, its 

large size and intra site complexity, and its high elevation (Rose and 

Snedeker 1982). 

The Lowder Creek Bog site ( 42In461 ), tested by Sargent (1979), is 

perhaps more important for its paleoenvironmental potential than for its 

archeological significance. This site is located at the base of Brian Head 

Peak, at an elevation of 10,319 ft (3, 145 m), approximately two miles 

(3.2 km) northeast of Cedar Breaks and seems to have served primarily 

as a quarry and associated tool manufacture. Sargent (1979) suggests that 
168 CANADAYET AL 

much of the chert/ chalcedony debitage recovered at the Lowder Creek 

Bog site had been heat treated. 

The North Point site (42In1210), described by Agenbroad (1992, 

1993), contains several deeply buried paleosols eroding from the edge 

of Cedar Breaks some 6.56 to 13.12 ft (2 to 4 m) below the present 

ground surface. Dates recovered from these strata were 7,650 + /- 90 

years BP (Beta 21121) and 9,005 + /- 175 years BP (GX:11405), respectively. Limited cultural debris is present including utilized flakes, tertiary 

flakes and a one-hand, sandstone mana/hammer. Unfortunately, the 

association of the artifacts to the paleosols is not clear and much archeological research remains to be done at this site (Adrienne Anderson pers. 

com.). Paleoenvironmental research at the North Point site is discussed 

below. 

RESEARCH QUESTIONS 

The primary objective of this project was a 100 percent archeological inventory of all portions of Cedar Breaks National Monument that 

are not too steep for human use. Because of the small size of the park, 

roughly 9.5 square miles (24.3 km~, and its position on the Markagunt 

Plateau, cooperative research with the surrounding Dixie National Forest 

was built into the overall program. 

Because very little archeological research has been conducted in the 

monument and the surrounding Markagunt Plateau, data collection was 

designed to provide information for efficient management and interpretation of both historic and prehistoric resources. To that end, each resource is entered into the monument's GIS program. Research questions 

are tied to a series of domains - including Chronology, Settlement Patterns, Subsistence and Resource Procurement, Material Culture, and 

Paleoenvironment. The program is expected to address the basic questions of: (1) who used monument lands during the historic and prehistoric period; (2) during what specific time periods did this use occur; (3) 

what types of activities took place; and, ( 4) what resources were being 

utilized. 

SuRVEY REsuLTS IN THE LoWER BREAKS 

An intensive pedestrian survey of Cedar Breaks National Monument was conducted during the summers of 1996 and 1997 using transects 

spaced approximately 49 ft (15 m) apart. A total of 2,218 acres (approximately 36°/o of the monument) was inspected during the two summer field seasons. Survey during the first field season (Frank 1997) pri-
REPORT SERIES 169 

marily concentrated on the lower portion of the monument, below the 

rim of the plateau, although a small section of the upper rim was also 

inspected. Survey areas were determined by percentage of slope, less 

than 20°/o, thus omitting large sections of the rough and dissected terrain 

in the lower part of the breaks. Surprisingly few cultural resources were 

encountered in the lower breaks despite intensive inspection. Four historic sites dating to the early zorh Century and twenty-one isolated prehistoric occurrences were encountered in the lower breaks during the 1996 . 

field season. 

Historic Resources in the Lower Breaks 

Three of the four historic sites are located just outside of the monument on Forest Service property, and all are related principally to logging 

of the Ashdown Meadows (Frank 1997). Two of the sites appear to be 

historic homesteads containing cabin remnants, corrals and scatters of 

historic debris. One site is thought to be a logging camp, while the fourth 

site is a historic road linking several sites along Ashdown Creek. 

Prehistoric Resources in the Lower Breaks 

All of the isolated occurrences documented in the lower breaks consist of single pieces of debitage (seven occurrences) or small, discrete 

scatters of debitage, cores or expedient tools (14 occurrences containing 

between two and eight artifacts). These isolates indicate limited prehistoric use of the lower breaks. No diagnostic, time sensitive prehistoric 

artifacts were encountered in the lower portions of the monument. The 

limited prehistoric use of the lower breaks differs greatly from that observed on the upper rim. 

SuRVEY REsuLTS ON THE UPPER RIM 

Survey of the upper rim of the monument was completed during 

the 1997 field season (Canaday 1998). Archeology of the higher monument elevations is in stark contrast to that observed in the lower breaks. 

Here, extensive lithic scatters and lithic source areas are the norm, most 

dating to the Middle and Late Archaic, though limited Late Prehistoric 

and historic use is also evident. A total of 96 sites were recorded, 77 

prehistoric, 15 historic and four sites with both historic and prehistoric 

components. In addition, 11 isolated artifacts (solitary flakes, bifaces and 

projectile points) were encountered. Eleven high density loci were also 

identified and recorded within a very large, previously identified prehis-
170 i\1 AOAY F:r A I .. 

toric site (42In1135) located on both the Dixie National Forest and Cedar Breaks ational .Monument. 

Historic Resources in the Upper Breaks 

Historic use of the upper rim is present in the form of sheep herding camps, log fences, roads, and recreation related sites. Of the 19 

historic sites (including historic components within prehistoric sites), four 

contain cabin remnants; three are wood pole fences probably associated 

with the original Cedar Breaks boundary; tbre contain miscellaneous 

scatters of historic debris such as bottles (Fig. 3), wood and metal fragments; two appear to be borrow areas associated with the construction 

Figure 3. Historic era bottles from Cedar Breaks National Monument. The artifact 

depicted in the upper left was collected from the lower breaks (421n1 424); the 

remaining artifacts were collected from the upper breaks (421n1543). 
REPORT SERIES 171 

of State Route 148 through the monument; two are USGS benchmarks 

dating to 1936; two are roads; one is a grove of aspen containing historic 

inscriptions (1909-1946); one is a rock foundation probably constructed 

by the CCC in the 1930s; and one is the site of the original Cedar Breaks 

Lodge. 

One of the historic cabin remnants is the site of Minnies Mansion, 

(42In1429) which was built in 1921 and included a dance hall. Minnies 

Mansion was named for Miriam 'Minnie' Adams Burton, who provided . 

lodging and food for sheep herders operating in the area. Occasionally, 

rodeos and dances were held at Minnies Mansion for the local inhabitants of 'Little Ireland' (a collection of Irish Morman families who had 

established ranches near the base of Brian Head Peak), and residents of 

Parowan (Klein 1991, Frank 1997). With the establishment of Cedar 

Breaks National Monument in 1933, Minnies Mansion was razed. Frank 

(1997) notes that milled lumber fragments and a historic debris scatter 

are still present at this site. 

Cedar Breaks Lodge (42In1573) was razed by the National Park 

Service in 1971. The lodge was established in 1924 by the Union Pacific 

Company (of railroad fame) who operated a tour business in southwestern Utah and northern Arizona. Lodges were operated at various 

locations (including Zion, the North Rim of the Grand Canyon, Bryce 

Canyon and Cedar Breaks) by the Union Pacific Company in order to 

cater to railroad customers interested in touring the scenic wonders of 

the area (Klein 1991). All that is left of the lodge today are several foundation remnants, access roads (now revegetated), and a scatter of historic and recent debris. 

Prehistoric Resources in the Upper Breaks 

Boundaries of historic and prehistoric sites are defined as continuous cultural resources if there is no break in the artifact scatter greater 

than 98 ft (30 m). Under this definition, some of the prehistoric sites 

encountered during the Cedar Breaks survey are very large. The largest 

of these (42In1135) is over three miles (4.8 km) long and nearly a mile 

(1.6 km) wide. Thousands of pieces of debitage are scattered nearly 

continuously across this site, broken only by areas of dense concentration 

where chert and chalcedony nodules of the local Brian Head formation 

have been tested and reduced. On the main, primary reduction is the 

focus at this site with final reduction performed elsewhere. Based on 

diagnostic artifacts collected from the surface, use of the area spans the 

last three or four thousand years and perhaps longer, because Forest 
172 CANADAYET AIService archeologists report a possible fluted point from this site (.M. 

Jacklin pers. com.). 

The 81 sites containing prehistoric components discovered on the 

upper rim are similar in many ways to 42In1135 and to the other sites 

previously reported on the Markagunt Plateau (e.g., Rose and Snedeker 

1982). The Table below presents data on artifact distributions from sites 

located on the upper rim of the monument. Projectile point types collected from these sites include Humboldt, Pinto, Gypsum, Elko, Rosegate, 

Bull Creek, and Parowan Series (Figs. 4 and 5). Artifact distributions and 

diagnostic projectile point frequencies suggest that most of these sites 

served as tool stone reduction loci by people visiting the high country 

during the Middle and Late Archaic Periods. Of all projectile points 

collected from the surface of the Cedar Breaks sites, 79°/o are considered 

to be from the Archaic Period (Fig. 6). Based on the preponderance of 

debitage and tested chert nodules, procurement and primary reduction 

Table. Artifact summary from Cedar Breaks National Monument. 

# of #Of # of Artifacts Artifacts 

Artifact Type Dates (B.P.)* Sites Ob Chert Other Total 

Pinto Series 8250 to 6150 4 3 2 5 

Humboldt Series 7950to5950 1 1 1 

ElkoSeries 7950to 950 7 3 9 12 

Gypsum Series 4450to 1450 4 1 8 9 

Rosegate Series 1650 to 1050 2 1 1 2 

Bull Creek Series 1100to 800 2 2 2 

Parowan Series 950 to 750 3 1 2 3 

Large Corner Notch 8 4 9 13 

Small Corner Notch 1 1 1 

Side & Basal Notch 1 1 1 

Biface 32 14 74 88 

Uniface 4 3 1-0zt 4 

Scraper 7 16 16 

Utilized Flake 19 93 93 

Hammerstone 4 2-Ryo,2-SS,3-Qtz 7 

Edge Grinder 1 1-Qtz 1 

Groundstone-Siab 1 1-Ryo 1 

Snake Valley B/G 1050 to 750 1 Black-on-gray 1 

Unknown Ceramics 1550 to 700 2 Plain Grayware 24 

Db-Obsidian; Qtz-Quartzite; Ryo-Rhyolite; SS-Sandstone 

*Ceramic dates based on Fairley et al. (1989) and R. Madsen (1977). 
REPORT SERJES 173 

8 c 0 

H I 

E F G 

0 c:n 3 

K 

J 

M N 0 

Figure 4. Selected Humboldt (A), Pinto (B - G), and Gypsum Series projectile 

points from Cedar Breaks National Monument. 

of the locally-available Brian Head chert seems to be the main focus of 

prehistoric land use. Hunting of both large and small mammals undoubtedly occurred, but special game procurement strategies (i.e., using 

hunting blinds and drive!ines) such as those described in similar high altirude settings of the Great Basin (Canaday 1992b, 1996, 1997, Thomas 

1982) and Rocky Mountains (Benedict 197 5, 1981 , 1985, 1987, 1992, 

1996), were not encountered at Cedar Breaks. Similarly, sites reported 

from the Markagunt Plateau lack hunting blinds and drivelines indicative 
174 C 11\D!IYF:J' i\1.. 

A 3 c D E 

F G H I J 

0 c:n 3 

' . 

K L M N 

0 

Q s T u 

Figure 5. Selected Elko (A - L; N - 0), Rosegate (M), Bull Creek (Q - R), and 

Parowan (S - U) Series projectile points, and an unknown type (P) projectile point 

from Cedar Breaks National Monument. 

of intercept hunting strategies (Binford 1978, Canaday 1997, Pendleton 

and Thomas 1983). 

Late Prehistoric use of the upper rim is indicated at three sites where 

ceramics and arrow points are present. i\ Fremont Snake Valley Blackon-gray jar sherd and a BuU Creek projectile point were collected from 

the surface of site 42In1430. Two other sites (42In1135 and 42In1522) 

contain plain grayware sherds that are probably attributable to Fremont 

though the presence of Virgin Anasazi in the area cannot be discounted. 
Parowan Series 

9% 

Bull Creek Series 

6% 

Rosegate Series 

6% 

Gypsum Series 

26% 

REPO RT S ERWS 1 7 5 

Pinto Series 

15% 

Humboldt Series 

3% 

Elko Series 

35% 

Figure 6. Percentage of projectile point types found at Cedar Breaks National 

Monument. 

Analysis of manufacturing technique, and temper and clay composition, 

failed to definitively assign these sherds to a specific cultural affiliation. 

Regardless, the presence of ceramics in these high elevation settings is 

unique to the Markagunt Plateau. Groundstone, previously identified at 

only the North Point site, is also present at one of the sites (42In1522) 

containing ceramics, as is a possible fire hearth. The presence of 

groundstone, together with ceramics at this site, suggests the possibility 

of a changing land use strategy during the Late Prehistoric, perhaps one 

utilizing a different suite of resources. 

ANCILLARY I NVESTIGATIONS 

Ancillary analyses of paleoclimate and resource potential of the Cedar Breaks area have been initiated. These analyses will be used to help 

interpret the archeological record. Included in these satellite studies will 

be: (1) additional pollen analyses of area peat bogs; (2) dendroclimatic 

reconstruction through analysis of bristlecone pine cores; (3) trace element analysis of obsidian artifacts to determine where these exotic materials originated; (5) petrographic analysis of the local Brian Head chert; 

and, (6) geological studies of the thick colluvial deposits that cover the 
176 CANADAYET AL. 

upper rim in order to determine their origin. In addition, specific investigations into the regional paleoenvironment will be undertaken to ascertain the degree of environmental change that has occurred within the 

area over the last 10,000 years. 

Petrographic analysis of the local Brian Head cherts has been initiated. Samples of chert from several locales were collected and described 

following guidelines set forth in Luedtke (1992) and McCutcheon and 

Dunnell (1998). Specimens were collected from chert ledges on Brian 

Head Peak, and from chert boulders and nodules discovered both within 

and south of the monument. Petrographic and trace mineral analyses 

will compare the chemical composition of the naturally occurring 

toolstone with artifacts collected from Cedar Breaks archeological sites. 

Agenbroad et al. (1992, 1993) have conducted paleoenvironmental 

research within Cedar Breaks at the North Point site and at Alpine Pond 

as well as at Lowder Creek Bog Qocated just outside of the monument). 

Two paleoclimatic signatures are indicated from the analysis of molluscan paleofauna from the North Point site. In addition, the pollen spectra 

indicates a shift from alpine forest communities at or before 9,005 B.P. to 

open shrub land at or about 7,650 B.P. (Agenbroad et al. 1992). Environments similar to that observed today were apparently in place by 1,530 

± 130 years B.P. 

Madsen (1997) has recently completed preliminary analyses of peat 

bog deposits adjacent to Cedar Breaks as part of a cooperative agreement between the NPS, Dixie National Forest and the Utah Geological 

Survey. His work has centered on Lowder Creek bog (where he hopes 

to extend the paleoenvironmental record initiated by Agenbroad et al.) 

and Red Valley bog. This research was initiated in order to 'provide data 

on the changing environmental conditions facing prehistoric people in 

the area.' Evidence of beetle infestations and fire frequency that might 

have affected regional forest ecosystems was sought at Red Valley bog. 

At least 14 fire horizons were recognized by Madsen (1997) at Red Valley 

bog and 'appear to occur at rather constant intervals throughout the 

deposits.' The bog deposits span the last approximately 11,400 years, 

and fires appear to re-occur every 700 - 800 years. Additional work is 

planned at Red Valley bog to determine how consistent the deposition 

rate is and to directly date fire horizons. Collection and analysis of plant 

macrofossils is also planned in order to assess the local forest composition. Other paleoenvironmental research planned at Red Valley bog includes pollen analyses and retrieval of fossil beetle assemblages. 

Finally, an additional component of the Cedar Breaks Archeological 
REPORT SERIES 177 

Project will include ethnographic studies. Ethnographic work is planned 

with the Southern Paiute of Utah and Arizona, who have cultural affinity 

to and traditional uses of the Markagunt Plateau. DeBloois (1983) suggests that Southern Paiute groups wintering at Panguich Lake (at the north 

end of the Markagunt Plateau) followed a seasonal round that started 

and ended at higher elevations than their Great Basin neighbors. As winter snows melted in the spring and summer, these groups are thought to 

have ranged upward to the higher elevations. Oral interviews are planned. 

with Paiute elders to gain a better understanding of both historic and 

contemporary traditional uses of Cedar Breaks. 

CoNCLUSIONS 

The second year of this four year project has just been completed. 

Thus, the research reported here is still preliminary but does provide 

guidance for future work as well as the basis for interim conclusions. 

The lower portions of Cedar Breaks National Monument are characterized by limited prehistoric and historic use. Historic utilization consists 

mainly of logging related activities. Prehistoric use is present, but on a 

very limited basis. 

The upper portions of Cedar Breaks National Monument, on the 

other hand, were heavily utilized by prehistoric groups intent on procuring lithic raw material. The majority of sites discovered on the monument's 

upper rim contain evidence of primary lithic reduction. Tested chert 

nodules, primary decortication flakes, and secondary percussion flakes 

are present at nearly all sites. Late-stage biface reduction flakes are present 

at only a few of the sites but never dominate. Local Brian Head chert 

and chalcedony artifacts are present at every site that we encountered. 

Indeed, non-cultural Brian Head chert and chalcedony debris is prevalent 

throughout the area. Field protocols were developed to distinguish between natural and cultural lithic debris. Thus, it appears that primary 

reduction of the local Brian Head chert was the focus of Archaic peoples 

visiting the Cedar Breaks area with later stage reduction occurring elsewhere. 

During the Late Prehistoric this pattern probably continued, but at a 

smaller scale. However, the presence of ceramics, groundstone and a 

possible hearth at one site may indicate additional activities being carried 

out. Frank and Betenson (1997) note that Cedar Breaks is near a transitional zone between the Parowan Fremont and the Virgin Anasazi. Both 

of these distinct, yet contemporary cultures were sedentary horticulturalists, 

but they may have had a seasonal interest in the monument resources. 
178 CANADAY ET AIOnly one of the sherds recovered from the surface of the three ceramicbearing Cedar Breaks sites could be positively identified as Fremont (a 

Snake Valley Black-on-gray jar sherd). The other plain grayware sherds 

could not be assigned to a specific group. 

Virgin Anasazi use of high altitude areas has never been identified. 

Because ceramic typology is the traditional diagnostic indicator for Virgin Anasazi, use of the highlands by task-specific groups carrying an 

aceramic toolkit may have occurred, but may well be invisible to present 

day archeologists. This is especially the case for surface assemblages. 

One of the goals for the third season of fieldwork will be to recover a larger sample of ceramic artifacts from Cedar Breaks sites. Test 

excavation of site 42In 1522, which contained plain grayware sherds, 

groundstone and a possible hearth, is planned. Excavations are also 

planned at a number of other sites on the upper rim that appear to 

contain buried cultural deposits. Included will be a reexamination of the 

North Point site in order to determine the association of cultural remains 

to the deeply buried strata exposed along the edge of the Breaks. 

This project will ultimately result in a clearer picture of the cultural 

history of Cedar Breaks National Monument. 

AcKNOWLEDGMENTS 

This study was funded by the National Park Service Systemwide 

Archeological Inventory Program. We thank T. Henry and S. Robinson 

(Cedar Breaks National Monument), A. Anderson (National Park Service), and M. Jacklin (Dixie National Forest) for assistance and advice 

throughout the course of this project. Crew members included M. 

Betenson, B. Brownholtz, T. Canaday, B. Frank, L. Naylor, M. Thurs, C. 

VonSleichter, and B. White. Volunteer assistance was provided by P. 

Corson, P. McCutcheon, P. Hungar, S. Pruett, and Q. Radford. 

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Southwestern Region. 

Cultural Resources and the 

Glen Canyon Dam-Colorado River 

Experimental Flow of 1996 

Janet Balsom 

Grand Caf!Yon National Park 

P.O. Box 129 

Grand Caf!Yon, AZ 86023 

Abstract. The Bureau of Reclamation conducted an experimental flow from Glen 

Canyon Dam in late March and early April of 1996. The flow reached a maximum of 

45,000 cfs and was expected to provide system-wide mitigation to most cultural sites in 

the river corridor through the accumulation of more sediment. A positive effect was 

presumed, but not guaranteed. Monitoring in the years prior to the experimental flow 

determined that a possible negative impact could result at eight archeological sites along 

the river corridor between Glen Canyon Dam and Lake Mead. On-site mitigation was 

required at these locations to fulfill federal agency responsibilities for any impacts sustained as a result of the proposed experimental flow. In addition to the required mitigation, monitoring of archeological sites and other kinds of cultural resources, ethnobotanical resources, beaches, and sediment accumulation at the mouths of arroyos was 

undertaken to assess the results of the experimental flow. Terraces were studied in the 

Glen Canyon Reach to determine whether terrace erosion in this area occurred as a result 

of the experimental flow. This paper summarizes the results of the coordinated mitigation and monitoring of cultural resources and sediments in the area of potential effect of 

the 1996 experimental habitat building flow from Glen Canyon Dam. 

Key words: archeology, Glen Canyon Dam, Colorado River, American Indian Tribes, 

geomorphology, ethnobotany 

The cultural resources of Glen and Grand canyons take many different forms and are viewed from many different perspectives. This 

paper summarizes the various ways in which cultural resources were 

handled by federal and tribal researchers attempting to understand the 

effects of the experimental habitat building flow upon the cultural resources of the canyon. To many scientists, the cultural perspective seems 

more like philosophy than science. However, the melding of the tradi183 
184 BALSOM 

tiona! native American perspective with the western scientific method 

comes together within the cultural disciplines. Although scientific method 

was used in evaluating sand deposition, depletion and vegetation impacts, the overall program was guided by overarching principles of preservation and protection of cultural resources. This view is shared by 

both the federal land managers and the tribal researchers who participated in the studies. This coming together of science and philosophy is a 

difficult concept for many, but it forms the basis of our perceptions of 

Grand Canyon and why these resources are so important. 

Cultural resources embody the broad view of the landscape, where 

places and their inherent values have significance. Whether it be the geographical locations, archeological sites, plants and animals, air and water, 

or rocks and minerals, all things are viewed from both their human perspective and the ways in which humans interact with the natural world. 

In many ways, the cultural resource approach is the original ecosystem 

management approach. 

The approaches taken to understand the effects of the habitat building flow on cultural resources underscores the opportunities that are presented through the range of natural resource studies and the interdisciplinary nature of cultural resource concerns. Researchers within the cultural 

disciplines are both users and providers of information with application 

to other studies. 

The notion of what constitutes a "cultural resource" in the 1996 

Glen Canyon-Colorado River experimental flow was very different from 

the typical western view of cultural resources. Usually, cultural resources 

are thought of quite narrowly, generally encompassing little more than 

archeological sites and historic properties. However, cultural resources 

along the Colorado River corridor include not only archeological and 

historical sites, but also water sources, sediment and mineral deposits, 

plants and animals, and locations identified as traditional cultural properties. All of these resources have the potential to be affected by Glen 

Canyon Dam. The ultimate goal of the cultural resource efforts related 

to Glen Canyon Dam operations is preservation in situ, with minimal 

impact to the integrity of the resources. 

The Hopi Tribe conducted research on sediment deposition and 

depletion. Vegetation transects at significant locations were studied by 

the Southern Paiute Consortium and the Hualapai Tribe. National Park 

Service (NPS) archeologists and conservation specialists from the Pueblo 

of Zuni conducted mitigation of potential impacts to archeological sites. 

Traditional archeological studies were conducted by the NPS through 

inundation models, repeat photography, planimetric survey, terrace map-
REPORT SERIES 185 

ping, drainage cross-sections, aerial photography, and data recovery/ excavation. All of these studies applied interdisciplinary approaches, yet all 

were cultural resource studies. Collectively, these studies evaluated the 

effects of the habitat building flow upon a wide range of potentially 

impacted cultural resources. 

The following statement, prepared by Joseph Dishta of the Pueblo 

of Zuni, exemplifies the perspective provided by the Indian tribes of the 

area: 

"The Grand Canyon, from the indigenous peoples point of 

view, is a vast 'traditional cultural property' that links traditional 

lifeways with the present. For example, ancestral archeological 

sites contain human burials, individuals who are still fulfilling 

their spiritual life journey. Sacred plants, animals, all living beings and elements, are significant. Birds, waterfowl, and animals of the canyon are important messengers of the spirit 

world. Minerals, part of the living earth, are also important. 

Many indigenous groups relate their existence to the Canyon. 

A place where they emerged from its depths and still reside in 

today. Traditionallifeways of indigenous people are affected by 

every aspect of scientific and technical studies that have occurred 

as a result of the experimental habitat building flow. Elements 

from the inorganic, vegetation, aquatic, and the animal, to archeological sites are of great importance to the indigenous people 

of the area. The ultimate concern is for the protection of all 

cultural resources of the canyon" (Dishta 1997 pers. com.). 

METHODS 

The studies conducted by researchers representing the cultural discipline followed seven separate lines of inquiry, examining 46 separate locations. The following summarizes the various efforts and conclusions 

for each of the methodologies employed. 

Terrace Mapping 

Terrace mapping was completed at five locations in the Glen Canyon Reach (0). Surveyors from the Glen Canyon Environmental Studies 

(GCES) and archeologists from Glen Canyon National Recreation Area 

(GLCA) performed the work. Data were collected on planimetric survey areas, cumulative cut and fill volumes, and net sediment gain or loss 

at the terrace margins. Pre-flow, post-flow, and isopach topographic 

maps were produced, with cut and fill data based upon 0.25 meter contour intervals (Burchett et al. 1996). 
186 BALSOM 

At four of the five sites mapped, the experimental flow had a beneficial effect upon the river terraces, evidenced by the increase in the 

amount of sediment at the base of the terraces. However, at one location, the experimental flow had an adverse effect, evidenced by the loss 

of sediment at the terrace margin, even though the beach at the base of 

the terrace was replenished. Review of the maps and measured volumes 

suggest that, at this terrace, the experimental habitat building flow increased the beach at the bottom of the terrace at the expense of the 

terrace deposit itself (Burchett et al. 1996). 

Sand Deposition and Retention (Drainage Cross Sections) 

Examination of the effectiveness of the experimental flow to elevate sediment into the mouths of ephemeral arroyos that drain the margin 

deposits along the Colorado River was undertaken by the Hopi Tribe. 

Four study locations were chosen, one in Reach 0, and three in Reach 5. 

These locations were chosen because they contained cultural resources, 

well within the area of potential effect from the experimental flow, and 

had arroyos or drainages that would be overtopped at the level of the 

45,000 cfs flow. A Glen Canyon Environmental Studies surveyor and a 

Hopi tribal archeologist conducted fieldwork. Pre- and post flow maps 

were completed at a 0.25 meter contour interval (Yeatts 1996). 

At three of the four study locations, sediments were deposited in the 

mouths of the arroyos. The fourth site received no deposition and did 

not experience erosion. One of the Reach 5 locations, consisting of two 

arroyos, had the highest variability in response. Some areas of the site 

eroded as much as 0.5 meters, while other portions of the site received 

nearly 0.8 meters of deposition. A band of sediment was deposited at 

the 45,000 cfs level. Overall, 202.4 cubic meters of material was deposited in this site while 124.6 cubic meters of material was eroded (Yeatts 

1996). 

This study illustrated that planned high flows can elevate sediments 

into the mouths of ephemeral arroyos, which have been implicated as a 

factor in the erosion of archeological sites. The results substantiate the 

concept advanced in the Glen Canyon Dam Environmental Impact Statement (GCDEIS) that high flows can be used as a management tool for 

system-wide stabilization of cultural resources. One of the most critical 

aspects of the study that needs to be addressed through long-term monitoring is the duration of time that the deposits remain in the arroyos. 

Ultimately, if these deposits are not retained long enough to slow down 
REPORT SERIES 187 

the rate of erosion in the arroyo systems, then the goal for these deposits 

of stabilizing cultural resources sites will not be realized (Yeatts 1996). 

Aerial Imaging 

Two different types of analysis utilizing aerial imagery were utilized 

to evaluate the experimental habitat building flow. An archeologist and 

hydrologist at Glen Canyon in conjunction with Bureau of Reclamation's 

Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Group utilized one technique. The other method, utilized by Grand Canyon archeologists, employed aerial video documentation taken at the 45,000 cfs level to determine actual distance from the water's edge to the archeological site. The 

video image was processed on CD-ROM and was analyzed using the 

Map Image Process System (MIPS) (Burchett et al. 1996). 

Five locations within Reach 0 were evaluated using aerial photography. Evaluation of the area pre-flow and post flow suggests that three 

of the five sites exhibited gains in sediment, while two sites exhibited 

minor loss (7°/o and 10°/o) (Burchett et al. 1996). 

Videography and MIPS analysis was conducted at 18 sites within 

reaches 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 and 10. Of the 18 sites evaluated, only three sites 

were impacted by the experimental flow. Two other sites, both historic 

inscriptions located in reach 2, were underwater during the flow. Reclamation prediction models of flow elevation at one site predicted actual 

flow to within 15 centimeters. Flow predictions at the other site indicated that the feature was 1.8 meters underwater at 45,000 cfs. Although 

both sites were affected directly by the flow, no negative impacts were 

identified (Burchett et al. 1996). 

Inundation Model 

The accuracy of a predictive 45,000 cfs inundation model supplied 

by Reclamation was evaluated at six sites in Reach 0. Locations were 

selected because they were within the area of potential effect and consisted of alluvial terraces with archeological sites. Work was conducted 

by a Glen Canyon archeologist utilizing Bureau of Reclamation data. 

The predictive 45,000 cfs water line was a linear interpolation developed 

from existing flow data available prior to the experimental flow. Photographic images with the interpolated 45,000 cfs flow were produced 

(Burchett et al. 1996; Fig 1 ). 

The 45,000 cfs inundation model was very accurate at three of the 

six terraces under study. The model was less accurate at the other three 

terraces, predicting greater inundation than what actually occurred. The 
Figure 1. Linear interpolation of the 45,000 cfs water line that was developed from existing flow data. 

GCES RMILE -11.1 45,000cfs FLOW 

50 0 Meters 

.-=J 

l[GfNO 

[ J 5.000ds 

·rtv·· 45.((hJcls 

wat~r !lrt0 IS a 

hne::tf tnt,:.rf.oOiauon 

d·"V•?I•JrRd ll·.m ~ .. )()sl!nq flow data. 

Fullh€'r rnk•rrMirm 

about th~s~., data 

are •)lllatnal~~' hom 

111<'> lJSBOH l'lem'l" 

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Ornup, O,•n-;Pi CO. 
REPORT SERIES 189 

linear interpolation model from existing flow data should be used prior 

to future experimental flows to determine where inundation might occur (Burchett et al. 1996). 

Photographic Replication 

Photographic replication was employed by NPS archeologists at 24 

locations within the river corridor, producing over 200 images. Six locations within Reach 0 were visually evaluated using pre- and post-flow 

photographs. All but one site appeared to have lost terrace material 

from the experimental flow (Burchett et al. 1996). 

Photographic replication was conducted at 18 sites below Lees Ferry 

as part of an enhanced monitoring program related directly to the effects of the experimental habitat building flow. Sites were chosen based 

upon proximity to the river and potential for sediment change as a result 

of the flow. All analyses were conducted as a time 1 (pre-flood) verses 

time 2 (post-flood) comparison (Burchett et al. 1996). 

Photographic replication documented an immediate overall positive 

effect on archeological sites located in close proximity to the river below 

Lees Ferry through the accumulation of sediment. A combination of 

pre-flow mitigation efforts and replicate photography was undertaken at 

Palisades. Considerable effort was expended prior to the flow in the 

construction of erosion control features within arroyos cutting through 

archeological deposits. Pre- and post flow photographs document the 

amount of sediment accumulation in these locations and provide good 

indications that site stabilization efforts, coupled with sediment depositing events may preserve sites in situ (Burchett et al. 1996). 

Sediment accumulation was documented at five locations, with deposition in eddy complexes adjacent to sites noted at two locations. No 

sites were adversely affected by the flow, and the information gathered 

provides considerable insight into the effectiveness of controlled high 

flows as system-wide mitigation for archeological sites where sediment 

depletion is the causal factor (Burchett et al. 1996). 

Mitigation 

Eight sites (four historic and four prehistoric) had the potential for 

inundation, erosion and/ or damage from bank slum page or direct surface erosion. These sites were chosen for mitigation based upon their 

relative location within the area of potential effect and the possibility for 

catastrophic loss, requiring data recovery prior to the experimental flow. 

The experimental flow was found to have no effect or no adverse effect 
190 BAI.SOM 

on seven of the sites. The flow was found to have a beneficial effect on 

one historic site located in Reach 0 (Andrews et al. 1996). 

Three forms of mitigation were conducted consisting of data recovery, medium format photography, and pre-and post-flow underwater dives to determine the extent of impact to the structural integrity of 

the Charles Spencer steamboat. Photographs and detailed measurements 

of sediment at various points around the vessel were taken pre and post 

flow to determine the effect of the flow. Sediment accumulation was 

documented, indicating a positive effect from the flow (Andrews et al. 

1996). 

Recovery measures at the four prehistoric sites resulted in mitigation 

of any adverse impacts due to the experimental flow. Data recovery was 

the appropriate mitigation strategy because the flow had the potential to 

adversely affect these resources. Additional information was gained 

through the data recovery program that allowed expanded information 

on the geomorphic setting and soil formation processes at these locations. Photographic documentation revealed no adverse impact to the 

historic inscriptions (Andrews et al. 1996). 

Ethnobotany 

The Southern Paiute Consortium (SPC) and the Hualapai Tribe undertook ethnobotanical studies. Methods utilized in the studies included 

both permanent and nonpermanent evaluative techniques. Nonpermanent measures included qualitative assessments of the level of impact 

due to erosion, flooding, and the presence or absence of river-based 

streams. Permanent measures included photography, belt transects, line 

intercept transects, and selected plot monitoring. In general, the impacts 

were either positive or negligible. For example, the initial scouring and 

burial of plants, such as willow (Salix exigt) that reproduce vegetatively, 

results in an increase in the abundance of those plants. Nevertheless, the 

long-term impacts of the increase of introduced species, such as Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), are unknown. Also, the effects of the availability of water to plants within the old high water zone are not immediately apparent. Thus, each of these monitoring sites will be visited again 

in 1997 and reevaluated (Austin and Osife 1996, Phillips and Jackson 

1996). 

Riparian communities are well adapted to periodic disturbance by 

flooding. Renewal of eroded sediments along shorelines, scouring out 

of stagnant return channels, scarification and water-borne dissemination 

of seeds, and removal of excess dead brush are all potential positive 
REPORT SERIES 191 

effects of flooding on riparian communities. Most riparian species are 

well adapted to periodic catastrophic habitat disturbance. The general 

trend related to the effects of the experimental flow on ethnobotanical 

resources indicates stabilization of the habitat and recovery of vegetation 

(Austin and Osife 1996, Phillips and Jackson 1996). 

The Gooding Willow at Granite Park, of special concern to the 

Hualapai Tribe, survived the flood and was observed to be in better 

health afterwards than it had been in previous years (Austin and Osife. 

1996, Phillips and Jackson 1996). 

CoNCLUSIONS 

The overall findings of the cultural resources studies done in conjunction with the 1996 Glen Canyon Dam-Colorado River experimental flow strongly suggest that this event had either no effect, no adverse 

effect, or a beneficial effect on cultural resources. These findings support 

the original contention that habitat-building flows can offer a systemwide mitigation for cultural resources. Some locations, especially in the 

Glen Canyon Reach, did experience loss of sediments or redeposition 

of sediments in a way that, in the long run, could be detrimental to 

cultural resources. 

Specific results include: 

1. At four of the five sites mapped, the flow had a beneficial effect 

upon the river terraces as evidenced by the increase in the amount 

of sediment at the base of the terrace. 

2. The inundation model was very accurate at three of the six terraces under study; however, at three sites, the model predicted 

greater inundation than what actually occurred. 

3. The flow had an immediate overall positive effect on the cultural 

resources proximal to the river; however, this gain may be of short 

duration without additional maintenance flows of equal or greater 

volume. 

4. At three of the four study locations, sediments were elevated in 

the mouths of ephemeral arroyos that may slow erosion of sediments containing archeological materials. 

5. The flow did impact culturally important plants, however the impacts were either positive or negligible as scouring resulted in an 

increase in the abundance of those plants. 

6. The Gooding Willow at Granite Park appeared healthier than it 

had been for several years during the 1996 growing season. Stabilization efforts prior to the flood release slowed erosion and the 
192 BALSOM 

tree was not adversely affected. However, possible loss of stabilization materials and erosion of the underwater bank at the shoreline during high releases are potential causes for concern. 

One caution that should be heeded in the planning of future experimental flows is that flows higher than 45,000 cfs will impact other cultural resources than those monitored and mitigated for this experimental 

flow. Additional monitoring will be necessary to determine the duration 

of the beneficial effects of sediment deposition on sediment deposits 

which protect cultural resources by slowing the erosion of the terraces 

on which they are located. However, if the newly deposited sediments 

are shown to slow erosion significantly, the system-wide benefits from 

the experimental flow will be well worth repeating for the perspective 

of cultural resource preservation. 

Continued monitoring will be necessary to determine the duration 

of the beneficial effects of sediment deposition on beaches, which protect cultural resources by slowing the erosion of the terraces on which 

they are located. The relatively high steady flows which have been released from Glen Canyon Dam since the spring 1996 experimental flow 

have caused significant erosion to the newly built alluvial terraces. Although most cultural resources appear more stable than prior to the experimental flow, the need for additional sediment deposition remains. 

LITERATURE CITED 

Andrews, N. B., T. W. Burchett, D. Hubbard, and L. M. Leap. 1996. Cultural 

resources mitigation in response to the experimental habitat building flow of 

1996 in Glen and Grand Canyons in J. R. Balsom and S. Larralde, editors. 

Mitigation and Monitoring of Cultural Resources in Response to the Experimental Habitat Building Flow in Glen and Grand Canyons, Spring 1996. Grand 

Canyon Monitoring and Research Center Final Report, 31 December 1996. 

Austin, D., and C. Osife. 1996. Southern Paiute Consortium Study of the Impacts of 

he 1996 Glen Canyon Dam Beach/Habitat Building Test Flow in J. R. Balsom and S.-

Larralde, editors. Mitigation and Monitoring of Cultural Resources in 

sponse to the Experimental Habitat Building Flow in Glen and Grand Canyons, Spring 1996. Grand Canyon Monitoring and Research Center Final Report, 31 

ecember 1996. 

Burchett, T. W., C. Coder, and D. Hubbard. 1996. Monitoring of archaeological sites 

below Glen Canyon Dam along the Colorado River in response to the experimental habitat building flow of 1996 in ]. R. Balsom and S. Larralde, editors. 

Mitigation and Monitoring of Cultural Resources in Response to the Experimental Habitat Building Flow in Glen and Grand Canyons, Spring 1996. Grand 

Canyon Monitoring and Research Center Final Report, 31 December 1996. 

Phillips, A. J., and L. Jackson. 1996. Evaluation and mitigation efforts for the March, 

1996 Colorado River test flow experiment in J. R. Balsom and S. Larralde, 
REPORT SERIES 193 

editors. Mitigation and Monitoring of Cultural Resources in Response to the 

Experimental Habitat Building Flow in Glen and Grand Canyons, Spring 1996. 

Grand Canyon Monitoring and Research Center Final Report, 31 December 

1996. 

Yeatts, M. 1996. High elevation sand deposition and retention from the 1996 spike 

flow: An assessment for cultural resources stabilization in ]. R. Balsam and S. 

Larralde, editors. Mitigation and Monitoring of Cultural Resources in Response 

to the Experimental Habitat Building Flow in Glen and Grand Canyons, Spring 

1996. Grand Canyon Monitoring and Research Center Final Report, 31 

December 1996. 

Abstract: 

Southern Utah Wilderness 

and the Meaning of the West 

Martin A. Nie 

U niversiry of Minnesota, Duluth 

Department of Political Science 

304 Cina Hal4 10 University Drive 

Duluth, MN 55812-2496 

The debate over Southern Utah wilderness and the more recent Grand 

Staircase-Escalante National Monument designation transcends issues of environmental 

protection to include a host of regional-specific themes and concerns. Cultural contours 

and cleavages such as a rural Western economy and federal versus de jure wilderness, have 

framed the Utah wilderness debate. These cultural contours and their significance are 

discussed in the larger context of a western political culture and stem from a series of indepth qualitative interviews. It is only once the full range of cultural issues are considered that conflict can be minimized and the true meaning of the West better understood. 

Key words: policy, Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument, economics 

In September 1996, using the 1906 Antiquities Act, President Bill 

Clinton proclaimed 1.7 million acres of Southern Utah as the Grand 

Staircase-Escalante National Monument. Even today, said the president, 

"This unspoiled natural area remains a frontier ... it is a place where one 

can see how nature shapes human endeavors in the American West" (USDI 

1997). Presidential proclamation 6920 is but one part of a long contemptuous battle over public lands in Utah. The Utah wilderness debate 

provides an excellent case in which to understand how political culture 

may affect environmental politics in the American West. This case study 

is chosen because of its timeliness, relevancy, the cultural and sometimes 

contrasting values it involves, its environmental impact, and the number 

and diversity of political players involved. Within the battle for additional Utah wilderness, cultural values are at play, and divergent ones are 

often pitted against one another for the meaning of the West. 

The debate in southern Utah involves more than just wilderness or 

monument designation. The contours of the debate, real or imaginary, 

195 
196 NIE 

are central in many respects and invariably frame its discourse. There are 

five such contours discussed herein: (1) the Utah economy; (2) federal 

versus local control of public lands; (3) the lack of incorporating local 

knowledge and gathering community input into environmental decision 

making; ( 4) the perceived influence of non-Western and urban interests; 

and, (5) the differences between de facto and de jure wilderness. At 

times, in fact, the question of wilderness seems a peripheral issue. But 

whatever the importance of Utah wilderness may be, it has proven to be 

an excellent means to further understand some of this study's earlier findings. An in-depth examination of this particular case, using personal 

narratives to help illustrate, shows just how unmistakable a Western political culture can be, and the environmental ramifications it inevitably 

presents. 

BACKGROUND 

Henry David Thoreau once mused that "in wilderness is the preservation of the world," thus staking an importance on wilderness that would 

reverberate in the years to come. It is not surprising, therefore, that the 

designation of wilderness often elicits the most passion and controversy 

among those concerned with public land issues. Much of this is due to 

the language of the 1964 Wilderness Act that defines wilderness as an 

area " ... where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by 

man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain." An area may 

be determined suitable for wilderness designation if it has the following 

characteristics: 

[It is] an area of undeveloped land retaining its primeval character and influence, without permanent improvements or human habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions and which (1) generally appears to 

have been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the 

impact of man's works substantially unnoticeable; (2) has outstanding opportunities for solitude or primitive and unconfined type of recreation; (3) has at least 5, 000 acres ofland or is 

of sufficient size as to make practicable its preservation in use 

and in an unimpaired condition; and, (4) may also contain ecological, or other features of scientific, educational , scenic, or 

historic value (Public Law 88-571 1964). 

Congress has the authority to designate areas as wilderness and uses 

its power to do so under the act. The intent is to make designations 

permanent and to add new lands as Congress sees fit. 
REPORT SERIES 197 

The 1964 act established the National Wilderness Preservation System and set aside 9.14 million acres of wilderness in 54 areas, all on 

national forests. The system now protects more than 99 million acres of 

wilderness in national forests, wildlife refuges, parks, and BLM lands, 

and is managed by a host of agencies including the Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, National Park Service, and the Fish and Wildlife Service. As the Table below shows, more than 95°/o of designated 

wilderness is located in these 12 western states. 

Although protected to preserve its natural conditions, a number of 

non-motorized activities such as horseback riding, hiking, camping, fishing, and hunting are allowed in wilderness areas. Preexisting and valid. 

extractive uses are also allowed to continue until permits granted for 

such activities expire, are abandoned, or are purchased by the government. Preexisting grazing is also allowed to continue as long as it is 

found consistent with sound resource management practices. Activities 

that are not allowed in wilderness areas include mining (new claims), 

Table. Western state wilderness areas, 1995. 

State 

Alaska 

Arizona 

California 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Montana 

Nevada 

New Mexico 

Oregon 

Utah 

Washington 

Wyoming 

Western Total 

National Total 

Acreage 

57,408,589 

4,537,864 

13,851,936 

3,257,398 

4,005,545 

3,442,305 

792,525 

1,613,263 

2,087,072 

800,958 

4,320,308 

3 080 358 

99,198,121 

1 03,596,244 

Source: Bureau of Land Management, Washington, D.C., 1995. 

Note: This is federal wilderness acreage in the states, managed by the 

Bureau of Land Management, the US Forest Service, the US Fish and Wildlife 

Service, and the National Park Service. 
198 NIE 

timber harvesting, chaining, water development, mountain biking, and 

use of any motorized equipment such as snowmobiles. These allowances in the 1964 wilderness bill can be seen as a compromise between 

preservationists and those resource interests concerned with grazing, mining, timber harvesting, water development, and motorized recreation. 

In 197 6, the Federal Land Policy and Management Act (FLPMA) 

required the BLM to inventory all roadless areas suitable for wilderness 

classification. Completed on a state by state basis, Utah's wilderness inventory was completed in 1980. Although a highly controversial and 

contested issue, the BLM ended up recommending 1.8 million acres as 

possible wilderness in the state. 

The debate over wilderness designation has a long and notable ancestry, and has been ongoing since preservation calls were made by John 

Muir and foresters such as Aldo Leopold, Arthur Carhart, and Bob 

Marshall during the 1920s (Hendee et al. 1990, Zaslowsky and Watkins 

1994). The dialogue between what political scientist Christopher McGrory 

Klyza calls 'preservationists" and "technocratic utilitarians" has a rich historical context showing just how little the debate over wilderness has 

changed since its institutional inception (Klyza 1996). 

Environmental historian Roderick Nash believes the historic conception of wilderness, especially the frontier movement from east to 

west, provides a glimpse into the American mind (Nash 1967). Those 

such as Leopold also recognized the importance of the frontier in how 

the concept of wilderness was first constructed: "To the laborer in the 

sweat of his labor, the raw stuff on his anvil is an adversary to be conquered. So was wilderness an adversary to the pioneer" (Leopold 1966). 

Yet, Leopold also contends that it is the philosophical "laborer in repose" that sees " ... that same raw stuff is something to be loved and 

cherished, because it gives definition and meaning to his life" (Leopold 

1966). 

THE DEBATE: THE BIRDWATCHERS AND RouGHRIDERS 

The battle over the federal designation of additional wilderness areas in southern Utah involves up to 5.7 million acres of Utah's 22 million 

acres of public land. The contested area abuts six national parks and 

recreation areas-Zion, Capitol Reef, Arches, Canyonlands, Bryce Canyon, and Glen Canyon, and includes several geological systems including 

the Upper Paria Canyon, the White and Vermillion Cliffs, and the 

Kaiparowits Plateau. The area also includes coveted archeological sites 

and findings from native peoples such as the early Anasazi, Fremont, 
REPORT SERIES 199 

Southern Paiute, and Navajo cultures. Given the varied terrain, the region is also home to a multitude of various flora and fauna. 

For these reasons, wilderness advocates such as the Southern Utah 

Wilderness Alliance, the Grand Canyon Trust, the Utah Wilderness Coalition, and thousands of Utah and non-Utah residents believe the area 

should be forever preserved in its most natural and primitive state. The 

region, the last to be mapped in the continental U.S., remains the most 

primitive and wild place in the lower forty-eight states. Its proximity to. 

national parks, amount of surrounding public lands, and distance from 

any major urban areas, some observers say, makes southern Utah the 

prime candidate for future American wilderness designation. 

There are a number of recommendations made by organizations 

concerning the amount of land that should be set aside as wilderness in 

the state (as of 1997). One million acres or less has been recommended 

by Utah's county governments, 1.2 million acres by Utah representatives 

Bill Orton and Jim Hansen, 1.9 million acres by the BLM, 2.8 million 

acres by the Utah Wilderness Association, and 5. 7 million acres by the 

Utah Wilderness Coalition. Despite these acreage variations, predictably, 

the debate has focused on the two extreme proposals pitting the county 

position, interpreted as the local or rural response, against the 5. 7 million 

acre plan championed by groups such as the Southern Utah Wilderness 

Alliance. 

The Utah Wilderness Coalition represents 115 citizen groups that 

support the designation of 5.7 million acres of Utah BLM land as wilderness-approximately 15 percent of all land in the state. The group 

formed in 1985 as a response to the perceived failure of the BLM Utah 

lands inventory-not enough wilderness. The "Citizen's Wilderness Proposal" was first introduced by then Utah Congressmember Wayne Owens 

as H.R. 1500, and then reintroduced as ''America's Redrock Wilderness 

Protection Act" by Maurice Hinchey of New York. It is the largest 

acreage proposal and adopts the strictest interpretation of the 1964 Act. 

Similar to earlier wilderness disputes, the Coalition and its former 

spokesperson Wallace Stegner see the conflict on the Colorado Plateau as 

not only one between the material and the spiritual, but also one of 

disparate cultures. 

According to Stegner: 

Utahns were, and some still are, frontiersmen. They share states' 

rights assumptions and biases. Away from Wasatch Front, the 

population is so thin and the wild land so extensive that they 

cannot conceive of its being damaged .... No more than other 

Westerners do they like dictation or interference from outsiders, 
200 NIE 

and they are as susceptible as other frontier Westerners to the 

temptation of violence. Many consider the wilderness inventory, and indeed all federal regulation, an unwarranted intrusion into land use decisions that should properly be made by 

the people who live there (Stegner 1989). 

Stegner saw the conflicting parties as conststtng of the 

" ... Birdwatchers and the Roughriders, the responsible stewards of the 

earth and those galvanized by the spirit that 'won the West"' (Stegner 

1989). Although Stegner, a Utah native, remained sympathetic to many 

rural Utah concerns and understood the roots of their intransigence, many 

of which stem from historic religious persecution, he believed they have 

failed to read their own history. Southern U tahns, said Stegner, are willing to sacrifice what makes their place so special in return for marginal 

economic and material rewards. 

Many wilderness advocates appeal to the emotional and soulful importance of this redrock environment. T. H. Watkins, editor of Wilderness, the magazine of the Wilderness Society, points to the " ... usual suspects [that] include mining, grazing, timber extraction, oil and gas development, industrial-strength tourism, and unfettered urban growth and 

the water projects that will be necessary to sustain it" as the primary 

threats to the southern Utah environment (Watkins 1996). 

Those who live in wilderness areas, on the other hand, often feel 

under siege by those who live outside, but nevertheless want to "lock 

up" the area's natural resources. It is southern Utah counties, says the 

Utah Wilderness Education Project, an advocate for the county position, 

that together have the most collective expertise about the area's wilderness, e.g., proper boundaries, micro-economic impacts, travel corridors. 

Therefore, it is largely believed that the people closest to the land should 

have more decision-making power over how that land is managed. 

Southern U tahns are often portrayed as being against additional wilderness or monument designation-sometimes out of principle and 

sometimes for economic factors (Kluger 1997). While those like Stegner 

and Watkins direct criticism at the "usual suspects," many southern Utahns 

see extractive industries, on a limited scale, as being the only means of 

recovering a lost rural economy, keeping a distinct culture intact, and 

providing the incentives to keep young adults in the area. 

An important component in the wilderness debate has been the use 

and contesting nature of public opinion polling. As a whole, Utah residents are in favor of additional wilderness area designations in the southern part of their state. Studies show there are pockets of "anti-environ-
REPORT SERIES 201 

mentalism" in the West and southern Utah is used as one such example. 

The Utah wilderness surveys cited, however, were taken before the acrimony became more pronounced and the sides more clearly visible (1986 

and 1990). Since these surveys, there have been a number of competing 

polls and other information used by various parties in the debate to 

strengthen their positions. Surveys and other information that confirms 

support are embraced while those that question are eschewed. 

Other measures of public opinion show state residents to be sup-. 

portive of the 5.7 million acre plan. Utah governor Mike Leavitt, asking 

for public comment on the contesting bills, received 22,000 letters and 

petitions, 65 °/o of which supported the largest acreage set aside (Kriz . 

1996). County hearings were also scheduled by the state to elicit additional input, and while many of these hearings were held in the most rural 

parts of the state, hundreds of miles away from the central Utah population-an intentional strategy according to wilderness advocates--citizens in favor of H. R. 1500 outnumbered opponents by a reported ratio 

of six, seven, and nine to one. According to wilderness advocate Dave 

Foreman, the Utah Sierra Club and SUWA effectively mobilized wilderness sentiment and " ... took that lie away from the Utah congressional 

delegation that the people of Utah are against wilderness" (Kriz 1996). 

Despite this apparent success, however, those who support additional wilderness designation report the public hearing process to be anything but the hearing of the public. Despite wilderness proponents outnumbering their opposition, former Utah congressmember Karen Shepherd reports that "never in my memory have so many had so little influence on their own elected representatives" (Glick 1995). 

A more representative way to measure Utah wilderness opinion, state 

public opinion polls show state residents to be in favor of additional 

wilderness, with how much wilderness to designate still in question. A 

Desert News poll finds only 4°/o of the state wanting no more additional 

land set aside as wilderness, while 26 °/o support the 1.8 million acre 

proposal, and 36 °/o supporting the 5.7 million acre plan (Satchell 1995). 

There is no consensus on how much wilderness Utahns favor. Surveys 

done by Utah State University, Desert News, Salt Lake Tribune, and 

other interested parties, uncovers no consistent majority favoring a certain proposal. 

THE GRAND STAIRCASE-EscALANTE NATIONAL MoNUMENT 

Encompassed within the debate over southern Utah wilderness designation is President Clinton's executive order creating the Grand Stair-
202 NIE 

case-Escalante National Monument. Although monument status is not 

as restrictive as is wilderness designation, lands within the Monument are 

withdrawn from entry, location, selection, sale, leasing, or other disposition under public land laws (USDI 1997). Thus, no new mineral leases 

can be issued within monument boundaries. Despite these restrictions, 

several valid existing rights in the monument are recognized, meaning 

that such preexisting activities as grazing can continue. 

Since the Antiquities Act of 1906, more than 100 national monuments have been established by presidential proclamation, including those 

in the southwest such as Grand and Bryce Canyons and Zion. Although 

there are differences between wilderness and monument status, Congress does have the ability to create wilderness areas within a monument's 

boundaries, and the Grand Staircase-Escalante contains approximately 

900,000 acres of existing BLM wilderness study areas (WSAs). 

Many people in Utah believe that the Grand Staircase-Escalante 

National Monument's designation was politically motivated. Made during the 1996 presidential campaign, with Ralph Nader's Green Party threatening to take environmental votes away from the Democrats, Clinton 

was ensured positive environmental coverage while knowing that winning Utah was already improbable. Clinton's strategy appears to have 

gone as planned. For example, whereas Utah Senator Bob Bennett said 

Clinton's pronouncement " ... shows blatant disregard for existing process in exchange for a campaign photo-op at the Grand Canyon," executive director of the National Resources Defense Council, John Adams, 

said the president " ... deserves tremendous credit for his leadership and 

vision in preserving this portion of Utah's magnificent and unique red 

rock wilderness" (Siegel 1996). 

WESTERN CULTURAL CONTOURS 

Within the debate over wilderness and monument designation in 

southern Utah are a number of important and repeating themes that 

have set the terms of its discussion. Taken together, these cultural contours and cleavages show how Western political culture can shape and 

inform its environmental politics. 

Economics: Southern Utah as Playground or Paycheck 

The Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument and other southern Utah wilderness proposals include areas that have the potential for 

increased economic development. The Kaiparowits Plateau includes 

650,000 acres of coal-rich lands that the Dutch-owned Andalex com-
REPORT SERIES 203 

pany wants to extract. Coal-mining the Kaiparowits has drawn interest 

since 1965 from such companies as Southern California Edison, San Diego 

Gas and Electric, and Arizona Public Services of Phoenix (the Kaiparowits 

energy consortium) (Bishop 1996). The proposed production of 2.5 

million tons of coal, and its accompanying sales taxes, property taxes, 

royalty payments, and potential source of employment, is seen by several 

government and business leaders in the state as a way to resuscitate a 

fragile southern Utah economy (Utah Energy Office 1989). 

Andalex's proposed Smokey Hollow coal mine has been challenged 

on economic grounds by those wishing to preserve the area. The Flagstaff-based Grand Canyon Trust argues that the mine is comparatively 

uneconomical due to higher transportation costs and lower coal quality 

than central Utah mining operations (Duffield 1995). Expecting to sell 

its coal to the California industrial and Pacific Rim steam coal markets, 

Andalex has asked the state to commit resources to build and maintain 

new roads along the coal haul route. The Trust sees the mine as not only 

environmentally deleterious, but also views these government subsidies 

as being economically unsound. 

The economic value and opportunity costs associated with wilderness and monument designation is a central theme in the public lands 

controversy. Larger wilderness designation bills are opposed by most 

rural county officials because they are seen as a loss of revenue either 

from lost payments-in-lieu of taxes or mineral leases. Although some 

cite this as a red herring, the loss of possible revenue produced by school 

and institutional trust lands-acreage owned by Utah for the purpose of 

generating revenue for education-is another reason put forth by Utah 

counties not to support a larger wilderness bill. 

Some southern Utah counties believe wilderness will jeopardize the 

economic and social stability of the region, while preservationists believe 

it will spur economic growth in wilderness related service sectors while 

also protecting the environment. County representatives point to the 

small percent of privately owned land in Utah and the economic ramifications of this federal presence. It is private property, not federal land, 

they say, that generates revenue to pay for such services as education, 

infrastructure, law enforcement, emergency services, fire protection, and 

ironically, a host of tourist needs and services. 

The assumption that the wilderness-related service sector provides 

an economically and environmentally sound alternative is also suspect by 

many in the region. For example, one comprehensive study done by 
204 NIE 

Utah State University in 1995 finds that the economic benefits from added 

wilderness recreation appear to be inconsequential (Snyder et al. 1995). 

The economic arguments made by the countries and others who 

favor less wilderness are doubted by such organizations as the Southern 

Utah Wilderness Alliance. The supposed economic opportunity costs 

associated with increased wilderness is fallacious according to the Alliance. Executive director Mike Matz contends that wilderness opponents 

are" ... clinging to this historic notion that they have to exploit the land in 

order to make a living" (Glick 1995 in /itt.). Not only are several existing 

uses respected by the Wilderness Act, but the Alliance contends that global economic trends, changing energy markets, increased automation, 

and the increasing importance of the service sector, among other factors, are changing national as well as rural Utah employment patterns. 

Wilderness, contends the Alliance using logic supported by Thomas Michael 

Power and other economists, provides the possibility of abandoning the 

boom and bust economy symbolic of the West in favor of a more 

sustainable and ecologically sensitive economy. 

These differences of interpretation regarding the southern Utah 

economy are ubiquitous across the West and are perhaps best illustrated 

by a bumper sticker asking, ''Are you an environmentalist or do you 

work for a living?" In other words, environmentalists, including those in 

Utah, are being perceived as condemning all work in nature, or sentimentalizing certain archaic forms of work. The environmentalists are 

viewed as being unaware of the nature that supports them, whether it be 

the wood that heats their homes, the dammed water they drink, or the 

electricity that runs their computers. As environmental historian Richard 

White notes, environmentalists are seen as being part of a privileged leisure class that identifies nature as a place to play and visit, and not a place 

to work, stay, or live (White 1996). 

Federal Versus Local Control 

A predominant theme in this debate is the amount of land in the area 

that is already owned and operated by the federal government. Simply 

put, preservationists believe that this federal presence is necessary to ensure that these public lands can be enjoyed by a public that goes beyond 

southern Utah. The canyons of Utah, says writer and wilderness supporter Stephen Trimble, belong not to an elite cadre of backpackers, not 

to the cattle-raising families of Escalante and Kanab, not to the Utah 

state legislature, not to the Bureau of Land Management, but belong to 

all citizens of the United States. In truth, they belong to no one (Trimble 

1996 in /itt.). 
REPORT SERIES 205 

According to SUMA's Mike Matz, public ownership is necessary to 

ensure that non-Westerners - those who have long subsidized Western 

growth and development - are taken into account when land use decisions are being made. Underlying this support of federal control is a 

distrust among preservationists of what southern Utah communities would 

do to the land if given the opportunity. Matz maintains that "this land is 

owned by you and me. But if special interests and local politicians have 

their way, it is a land that could be lost to us forever" (Matz 1997 pers .. 

com.). 

The local response to this extensive federal presence is an angry and 

culturally-based one. According to Garfield county commissioner, Louise 

Liston, whose county is comprised of less than 2 percent of private land: 

The truth is, massive federal ownership of lands in Utah and 

the West with its accompanying laws, regulations, and policies, 

is destroying the custom, culture and economic stability of rural America [and] wilderness is perceived as yet one more nail in 

the coffin (11ston 1995 pers. com.). 

The ubiquitous federal presence is cause for concern for many in 

southern Utah. Clinton's use of the Antiquities Act, without meaningful 

state consultation, and proclaiming the south rim of the Grand Canyon 

in Arizona but not Utah, angered Utah political representatives and provides an example for some of just how out of touch the federal government has become with some Western communities. According to Utah 

Senator Orrin Hatch, this "mother of all land grabs" is a clear example 

of "the arrogance of federal power" (Siegel 1996). 

This antipathy towards the federal government may stem from the 

belief that those closest to the area's natural resources know best how to 

manage those resources. For example, in one survey of 602 respondents 

in southwestern Utah, a largely rural area including the cities of St. George, 

Hurricane, La Verkin, Toquerville, and Virgin, residents express the most 

satisfaction with the job state (65°/o) and local (66°/o) governments are 

doing to manage the area's natural resources, while they express the lowest satisfaction for federal government management (48°/o) (pers. obs.). 

Ken Sizemore, a community and economic development director 

for the Utah Association of Governments and a member of the Grand 

Staircase-Escalante Monument planning team, believes that Mormon history provides a partial but important explanation for hostility towards 

the federal government (Sizemore 1997 pers. com.). Historically persecuted and driven out of such states as Illinois and Missouri, the federal 

government refused to defend Mormon religious rights, as well as the 
206 NIE 

legitimacy of the Desert state. The federal government, according to 

Sizemore, is perceived by Mormon culture as being historically hostile, 

or at least unsympathetic, to Mormonism, and this history's legacy still 

endures. 

It is also worthwhile to note that while southern Utahns remain disdainful of a far-away and overbearing government, they do not seem to 

show the same degree of enmity towards out-of-region corporations 

such as the Dutch-owned Andalex company. 

Local Knowledge and Community Input 

Closely related to this federal antagonism is the feeling among many 

in the region that they are continually slighted by an overcentralized, technocratic, and out-of-touch federal government. The President's proclamation, made without meaningful Utah consultation, angered those who 

believe they have the most at stake in protecting the area's natural resources and amenities. These sorts of feelings are pervasive in southern 

Utah, and while most are comfortable with the status quo of BLM multiple use management, most express a desire for greater consultation and 

community collaboration. 

Jim Matson, a one-time Kaibab Industries employee (one of the last 

regional timber companies to close), and now a "biopolitics" consultant 

in southern Utah, believes that federal administrative agencies" ... cannot 

hide behind palace walls," but must become more entrenched and integrated into local communities (Matson 1997 pers. com.). Matson cites 

the Soil Conservation Service and BLM as examples of successful integrating efforts (Foss 1960, Culhane 1981). 

Scott Truman, executive director of the Utah Rural Development 

Council, and vice chair of the Southwestern Utah Planning Authorities 

Council, concurs with Matson and believes the outside expert is bound 

to be more successful as a "local." Accordingly, says Truman, "The 

BLM Resource Manager, the area Forester, the District Ranger, the FWS, 

and the environmentalists need to be a part of the community. They 

need to coach Little League, be on community committees, be involved 

with the PTA, rope with ropers, drink coffee at the local cafe, etc .... As 

'locals' we can better resolve our differences amongst ourselves" (Truman 

1997 pers. com.). Truman also contends that as a local, one gets better 

feel for the area's land, politics, and attached values. Truman, however, is 

adamant about expanding the traditional definition of "local" to encompass a variety of stakeholders, including preservationists (Truman 1997 

pers. com.). 
REPORT SERIES 207 

Although many in southern Utah are disappointed by being left out 

of such important federal decision making as the Grand StaircaseEscalante National Monument designation, they now do not want to be 

left out of its operations. Gerry Rankin, mayor of Big Water, Utah, the 

likely southern gateway community to the newly established monument, 

believes a hearing of community concerns is absolutely essential if local 

support is to be galvanized (Rankin 1997 pers. com.). Although Rankin is 

disappointed at being left out of the initial monument planning process, . 

she hopes her town can heretofore play a role in its management, such as 

having a BLM Monument substation in Big Water. 

Many in the region believe they are vilified by those outside southern 

Utah and receive no credit for keeping the beauty of the area intact. 

Karla Johnson, a rancher in Kanab, Utah, likens the situation to a neighbor who after admiring another neighbor's home and upkeep, demands 

to take over its management, while they have never put any work of 

effort into its maintenance Oohnson 1997 pers. com.). Thus, there is a 

feeling among many of those in the region, many of whose families have 

lived in the area for generations, that local knowledges are not appreciated nor taken into account by environmental decision makers. 

Urban and Non- Western Influence 

Several in southern Utah believe that increased wilderness designation and Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument support comes 

from those outside the area who are either completely unfamiliar with 

the region, or use it solely on a playground basis. Much of this criticism 

is directed towards Eastern and California political representatives who 

want to dictate how land, that they are not responsible or accountable 

for, is managed. 

Those outside the region, on the other hand, due to such instances as 

the hanging of the Interior Secretary Bruce Babbitt in effigy, and "Black 

Wednesday" in which some Utah residents wore black ribbons andreleased black balloons to commemorate Clinton's Monument Proclamation, are apt to see locals as being environmentally hostile and thus untrustworthy caretakers. 

Non-Western support for H. R. 1500 is indeed strong. For example, 

there are 82 co-sponsors of the bill as of 30 March 1997, and excluding 

California, only five are from the West. This Eastern support, especially 

from those such as original sponsor Maurice Hinchey of New York and 

former Senator Bill Bradley of New Jersey, is resented by some Western 

congressional representatives. According to Utah Senator Orrin Hatch, 
208 NIE 

"They don't even know what wilderness is. We do [and] we've got 

plenty in Utah" (anonymous 1996a). 

Another example of non-Western animosity is provided by Utah 

representative Jim Hansen, who steered his House Resources Subcommittee on National Parks, Forests and Land, to approve funding for 

protection of New Jersey's 17,500 acre Sterling Forest, but only if it was 

ftrst declared as wilderness. Arguing that 5.7 million acres of wilderness 

does not ftt southern Utah, just as 17,500 acres may not ftt New Jersey, 

Hansen asserted that "roads in New York are the same as in Utah [and] 

power lines in Utah are the same as power lines in New York" (anonymous 1996b). 

The debate over southern Utah wilderness has been framed in national terms, so a national strategy has been adopted. Because threequarters of SUWA's members are from outside Utah, including 23 of 

the 36 members on its board of directors and advisory committee, and 

the acreage in question is federal and not state-owned land, the approach 

seems logical. Full-page ads in the New York Times and USA Today are 

meant to target a more sympathetic American audience. 

Tom Robinson, director of conservation policy for the Grand Canyon Trust, notices a backlash in rural Utah because of this outsider strategy (Robinson 1997 pers. com.). Yet, Robinson, like other concerned 

preservationists, notes that these are national lands with certain national 

values attached to them; thus, the stakeholder community goes beyond 

southern Utah. But as Craig Sorenson, a BLM outdoor recreation planner in Escalante recognizes, "These are very fiercely independent people 

[and] they don't want to be told what to do. They perceive it as their 

land, yet it's public land. It belongs to all of us" (Ryckman 1996). 

A rural-urban dichotomy is also evident in the debate, with those 

living in such cities as Salt Lake City perceived as being more pro-wilderness than those in rural Utah. Recognizing where pro-wilderness support is strongest, groups such as the SUWA are headquartered in Salt 

Lake City, and not in the more rural parts of the state. 

Many in the area feel indignant about this vocal urban and non-Western wilderness support. The outside strategy has polarized much of the 

state, with preservationist concerns and beliefs being equated with nonrural beliefs and values. There is a sense that urbanites interpret southern 

Utah as a place where wilderness should be championed, while human 

occupation discouraged-even though it is the preserved records of 

early human occupation that makes the area such a valued anthropological and archeologic place of study. 
REPORT SERIES 209 

Wilderness Versus wilderness 

One of the most consistent themes in the southern Utah wilderness 

debate is the difference between de jure and de facto wilderness, that is, 

whether or not officially recognized wilderness will be beneficial or detrimental to the land. According to Sizemore, preservationists want officially recognized and managed wilderness (wilderness with a capital W), 

while locals believe that it is this official designation, or the newly established Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument designation, that· 

will ruin and not preserve the area. According to Steve Crosby, commissioner of Kane County, "Environmentalists need to know that it does 

not have to have a wilderness stamp on it to be wilderness" (Crosby. 

1997 pers. com.). Hence, while one side emphasizes human restrictions, 

the other side focuses on human impact. 

Some feel wilderness or monument status, as does national park 

status, poses a greater environmental threat than does the status quo. 

Boulder, Utah Mayor Julee Lyman sees the newly created monument as 

potentially harmful: "Now it's going to become more destroyed, because people destroy the land faster than animals do" (Ryckman 1996). 

The specter of another Moab, the epitome to many of a new recreationbased West that benefits those owning hotels, restaurants, and trinket 

shops, but not providing enough stability to keep young people from 

leaving the area, are feared by many in the region. Some also worry that 

wilderness or monument designation, as was the case with the former 

Capitol Reef National Monument, is a prelude to adding yet another 

national park in the region, and thus, more visitors and more impact. 

Several residents of southern Utah also believe that wilderness in the 

area will ipso facto always remain wilderness, with or without official recognition. Crosby believes the land in question is self-preserving and will 

not be developed because of its rugged terrain and notorious lack of 

rainfall (Crosby 1997 pers. com.). Many believe that the fear among 

preservationists like SUWA's Matz (that if the area is not officially set 

aside, it will be developed) is unfounded given the area's past conservation record. 

CoNCLUSION 

The debate over wilderness in southern Utah transcends questions 

of acreage and management. At its roots are different interpretations of 

culture and place. Although many of these differences go beyond a 

Western framework, and are more central to environmental values, some 

are particularity regional in orientation and are better understood using a 
210 NIE 

Western political cultural framework. Placing the debate in cultural terms 

also shows how the usual way of framing this debate-more or less 

wilderness-is overly simplistic. Arguing over 1.8 or 5. 7 million acres 

misses the point. It is only once these dimensions of the debate are fully 

explored that the true meaning and importance of wilderness and the 

West can be better understood and conflict diminished. 

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