Pacific Islands Regional Office

Seabird Interactions and 

Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii 

Longline Fisheries

2016 ANNUAL REPORT
Seabird Interactions and Mitigation 

Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries

2016 ANNUAL REPORT

January 2018

Pacific Islands Regional Office

NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service

1845 Wasp Blvd.

Honolulu, HI 96818

www.fpir.noaa.gov

Please note: Data in this report are considered to be preliminary, and may be revised as better information becomes available. For the most current data, 

please contact the NMFS Pacific Islands Regional Office.

Cover image: Black-footed albatross
Red-footed booby Contents

1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Seabird Mitigation Measures for the Hawaii Longline Fisheries............................................................................... 4

1.3 Protected Species Workshops ................................................................................................................................ 6

1.4 Fishing Effort and Observer Coverage ................................................................................................................... 6

2. Interactions..................................................................................................................................................................... 7

2.1 Species.................................................................................................................................................................. 7

2.2 Location of Interactions.......................................................................................................................................... 8

2.3 Number of Interactions ........................................................................................................................................ 10

3. ESA-listed Seabirds ..................................................................................................................................................... 13

4. Management ............................................................................................................................................................... 13

5. Research ...................................................................................................................................................................... 13

6. Summary...................................................................................................................................................................... 14

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................................... 14

References ........................................................................................................................................................................ 15

Tables

Table 1. Number of observed Hawaii longline vessels that side- and stern-set in 2016......................................................... 4

Table 2. Seabird mitigation requirements for the Hawaii longline fleet.................................................................................. 5

Table 3. Hawaii deep- and shallow-set longline fisheries effort and observer coverage, 2015 and 2016............................... 6

Table 4. Species recorded hooked or entangled in Hawaii longline fisheries ......................................................................... 7

Table 5. Summary of collected seabirds from the Hawaii longline fisheries, 2016................................................................. 7

Table 6. Numbers of observed seabird catch levels, fishing effort, and interaction rates in the combined 

Hawaii longline fisheries, 2004-2016................................................................................................................................. 10

Table 7. Estimated total seabird interactions in the Hawaii deep-set longline fishery, 2016................................................. 11

Table 8. Capture and release details by species for seabird interactions in the Hawaii longline fisheries, 2016................... 11

Table 9. Observed interactions of seabirds with bands in the shallow-set and deep-set Hawaii longline fisheries, 2016. .... 12

Table 10. Comparison of observed interactions in Hawaii longline fisheries, 2015 and 2016............................................... 14

Figures

Figure 1. Spatial distribution of fishing effort by the Hawaii deep-set longline fishery, 2016 ................................................. 2

Figure 2. Spatial distribution of fishing effort by the Hawaii shallow-set longline fishery, 2016 ............................................. 3

Figure 3. Locations of seabird interactions observed in Hawaii deep-set longline fishery, 2016 ............................................ 8

Figure 4. Locations of seabird interactions observed in Hawaii shallow-set longline fishery, 2016........................................ 9

Figure 5. Seabird interaction rates in the deep-set and shallow-set longline fisheries, 2004-2016 ..................................... 11

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
1

1. Introduction

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Pacific Islands 

Regional Office (PIRO) attempts to reduce, as practicable, 

interactions between Hawaii pelagic longline fishing 

operations and seabirds. NMFS monitors the fisheries to 

determine the effectiveness of management measures 

implemented to reduce interactions and the severity of 

interactions. NMFS documents interactions and mitigation 

efforts aboard vessels at sea, and reports annually on fishing 

effort, seabird interactions, and mitigation research.1

 You 

may view this report, and similar reports from previous 

years, at www.fpir.noaa.gov.

1.1 Background

NMFS and the Western Pacific Fishery Management Council 

(WPFMC) manage two Hawaii pelagic longline fisheries 

under the Fishery Ecosystem Plan for Pelagic Fisheries of 

the Western Pacific (FEP) and implementing regulations. 

The deep-set longline fishery targets primarily bigeye tuna 

at depths to 400 m and operates mainly north-northeast 

and southwest of the main Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 1). The 

shallow-set longline fishery targets swordfish at depths 

to 100 m and typically operates north and east of the 

Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 2). The FEP contains a detailed 

description of the Hawaii longline fisheries (WPFMC 2009, 

as amended).

Since 1994, the Hawaii longline fleet has been limited to 

164 permits. Activity levels in any given year since 2004 

range from 11 to 35 vessels in the shallow-set longline 

fishery, and 122 to 139 vessels in the deep-set longline 

fishery. Nearly all vessels in the shallow-set longline fishery 

also participate, to some degree, in the deep-set longline 

fishery during the year.

Laysan albatross, black-footed albatross, shearwaters, 

fulmars, boobies, and the endangered short-tailed albatross 

feed around the Hawaiian Islands in areas where the 

longline fisheries operate. During the deployment (setting) 

and retrieval (hauling) of longline fishing gear, hooks, 

and line may occasionally hook or entangle seabirds that 

attempt to take bait or catch. Seabirds are more likely to 

drown when the interaction occurs during setting because 

the weight of the gear may pull the seabird underwater. 

Although some interactions are inevitable, fishermen take 

steps to avoid and minimize interactions. By using safe 

handling and release techniques, fishermen help many 

seabirds survive their interactions.

Effective management of the fisheries has greatly 

minimized interactions with seabirds. In 2000, NMFS 

estimated 2,433 seabird interactions in the Hawaii longline 

fisheries. From 2001 – 2006, NMFS implemented seabird 

mitigation measures. These measures have significantly 

reduced interactions and are described below. In 2016, 

there were 65 interactions in the shallow-set longline 

fishery. For the 2016 deep-set longline fishery, we 

expanded the observed interactions using the observer 

coverage rate and estimated 691 interactions in the deepset longline fishery. Credit for this successful reduction in 

interactions is mostly due to the fishermen, who understand 

and implement the seabird mitigation measures. The 

measures include training in seabird identification, seabirddeterrent fishing gear and techniques, and special handling 

and release of incidentally-caught seabirds.

Northern fulmar in flight.

1

This annual report is required in the Terms and Conditions of the 2012 Biological Opinion of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for the operation of Hawaii-based Pelagic 

Longline Fisheries (USFWS 2012). 

Pacific Islands Regional Office | Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries - 2016 Annual Report

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
2

Figure 1. Spatial distribution of fishing effort by the Hawaii deep-set longline fishery, 2016.

Source: NMFS Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center (PIFSC) logbook, unpublished data, received 7/25/2017.

Pacific Islands Regional Office | Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries - 2016 Annual Report

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
3

Figure 2. Spatial distribution of fishing effort by the Hawaii shallow-set longline fishery, 2016.

Source: NMFS PIFSC logbook, unpublished data, received 7/25/2017.

Pacific Islands Regional Office | Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries - 2016 Annual Report

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
4

1.2 Seabird Mitigation Measures for the 

Hawaii Longline Fisheries

Most of the regulations for the Hawaii longline fisheries 

are identified in Title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations 

Part 600 and Part 665 (50 CFR Parts 600 and 665). NMFS 

also provides a regulation summary and compliance 

guides to Hawaii longline fishermen and the general 

public, available from http://www.fpir.noaa.gov/SFD/pdfs/

seabird-compliance-guide_(rev.7-8-14).pdf. Regulations 

specific to the mitigation of seabird interactions and safe 

handling techniques are at 50 CFR 665.815. The ways that 

fishermen implement required seabird mitigation measures 

depend on how and where fishermen fish. Mitigation 

measures to reduce seabird interactions differ between the 

two options of stern-setting and side-setting. The following 

sections describe each of the main gear and operation 

requirements. The 2012 Biological Opinion (USFWS 2012) 

also describe these measures.

Black-footed albatross competing for a bite of strategic offal discards.

Side-Setting

Side-setting involves deploying the gear from the side of 

the vessel, compared to the conventional method of setting 

from the stern. In side-setting, crew set baited hooks 

forward and close to the side of the vessel’s hull where 

seabirds are unable or unwilling to pursue the hooks. With 

required branch line weighting, by the time the vessel stern 

passes the location where baited hooks have been set, 

the baited hooks will have sunk to a depth where seabirds 

cannot reach them (Gilman and Brothers 2006; Gilman et 

al. 2005, 2007a, 2007b). Additionally, deploying a required 

bird curtain aft of where crew is deploying the gear inhibits 

seabirds from landing on the water along the side of the 

vessel where baits are accessible. 

Table 1 summarizes the number of Hawaii pelagic longline 

deep- and shallow-set vessels observed to set from 

the stern and from the side in 2016, with some vessels 

operating in both deep- and shallow-set longline fisheries. 

In 2016, most vessels in the deep-set longline fishery and 

all vessels in the shallow-set longline fishery chose to 

stern-set. 

Table 1. Number of observed Hawaii longline vessels 

that side- and stern-set in 2016.

Fishery Deck setting position Vessels

Deep-set Stern-setting 103

Deep-set Side-setting 26

Shallow-set Stern-setting 13

Shallow-set Side-setting 0

Source: NMFS PIRO Observer Program, unpublished data, 9/18/2017

Weighted Branch Lines

Fishermen place weights close to the hook on branch lines 

so baited hooks sink quickly and help prevent foraging 

seabirds from possibly becoming hooked or entangled in 

longline gear. When required, Hawaii longline fishermen 

must attach a weight of at least 45 g within 1 m of the hook 

to sink the branch line quickly. Fishermen commonly use 

weights from 45 to 80 g. 

Thawed and Blue-dyed Bait

Dyeing bait to a specific blue color reduces visibility by 

reducing contrast with the sea surface. Fishermen thaw 

the bait to increase sink rates and to allow a more effective 

penetration of the blue dye. Almost all bait used in the 

Hawaii longline fisheries consists of the fusiform fishes 

mackerel (saba), sardines, and saury (sanma). NMFS 

prohibits the use of squid bait in the shallow-set longline 

fishery to reduce sea turtle interactions. While fishermen 

may still use squid in the deep-set longline fishery, the 

squid bait costs more than some fish bait and is, thus, 

less preferred.

Strategic Offal Discards

Fishermen developed the technique of strategically 

discarding offal to distract seabirds from attempting to 

steal baits from hooks before the branch lines are retrieved. 

Fishermen discard swordfish heads and livers on the 

opposite side of the vessel from fishing operations to 

distract birds away from the baited hooks. NMFS observers 

in the mid-1990s noted that strategically discarding offal 

reduced incidental hooking or entanglement of albatrosses, 

and it is now a requirement. When seabirds are present 

Pacific Islands Regional Office | Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries - 2016 Annual Report

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
5

around the vessel, fishermen that are deep-setting north of 23° N., or shallow-setting anywhere, are required to use 

strategic offal discards as a seabird mitigation measure when setting from the stern.

Night Setting

Night-setting as a seabird mitigation measure requires shallow-set longline fishermen, when stern-setting, to start deploying gear no earlier than one hour after local sunset and complete the set no later than the following sunrise. The measure 

also requires using the minimum lighting necessary to conform to navigation rules and best safety practices. The night-set 

measure is based on the premise that seabirds cannot see baited hooks in the dark and, thus, do not attack them. Nightsetting has been a very effective seabird mitigation measure, reducing seabird interactions as much as 98% (McNamara et 

al. 1999, Boggs 2003). 

Table 2 summarizes the seabird mitigation requirements.

Table 2. Seabird mitigation requirements for the Hawaii longline fleet.

What you need to do

Stern-setting Side-setting

Shallow-Set

Anywhere

Deep-Set

North of 230 N

Shallow-Set

Anywhere

Deep-Set

North of 230 N

Deploy mainline from port or starboard side at least 1 m forward 

of stern corner - - Yes Yes

If line shooter is used, mount it at least 1 m forward from 

stern corner - - Yes Yes

Use a specified bird curtain aft of the setting station during the set - - Yes Yes

Deploy gear so that hooks do not resurface - - Yes Yes

Attach 45 g or heavier weights within 1 m of hook of each hook - Yes Yes Yes

Use a line shooter to set the mainline - Yes - -

Keep two 1-pound containers of blue-dye on boat Yes Yes - -

Use completely thawed and blue-dyed bait Yes Yes - -

Keep fish parts and spent bait with all hooks removed for strategic 

offal discard Yes Yes - -

Cut all swordfish heads in half, and use heads and livers for 

strategic offal discard Yes Yes - -

Night Set - begin set 1 hour after local sunset and finish 1 hour 

before next sunrise and keep lighting to a minimum Yes - - -

Pacific Islands Regional Office | Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries - 2016 Annual Report

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
6

1.3 Protected Species Workshops

In addition to gear and operational mitigation measures 

to deter or reduce seabird interactions, owners and 

operators of pelagic longline vessels must complete a 

protected species workshop each year (50 CFR 665.814). 

The workshop includes training in the identification, safe 

handling, and release techniques for sea turtles, marine 

mammals, and seabirds. The workshop also reviews 

regulatory and compliance requirements. In a classroom 

setting, fishermen learn from oral presentations, hands-on 

demonstrations, videos, and printed reference materials. 

NMFS also offers the workshops on line. A valid workshop 

certificate is necessary for owners to obtain or renew 

Federal longline fishing permits. Longline vessel operators 

must also have on board the vessel a valid protected species 

workshop certificate issued by NMFS to the operator of the 

vessel.

In 2016, NMFS PIRO provided protected species workshop 

training for 263 Hawaii-based longline vessel owners and 

operators, and other interested individuals. Another 62 

vessel owners, operators, and crewmembers completed the 

training in American Samoa with assistance from the PIRO 

Observer Program. An example of the types of gear that are required aboard Hawaii-based 

longline vessels. This gear assists the crew with the release of seabirds and 

other protected species that become unintentionally hooked or entangled in 

longline fishing gear.

1.4 Fishing Effort and Observer Coverage 

Table 3 summarizes effort data from 2015 and 2016 by haul date. From 2015 to 2016, effort in the deep-set longline fishery 

increased, and effort in the shallow-set longline fishery decreased. Deep-set fishing trips increased by 2% and shallow-set 

fishery trips decreased by 34%. 

Please note that other summaries throughout this report and elsewhere may vary slightly depending upon the data source, 

including revisions. For example, observers may report seabird interactions by date of trip (departure or arrival), set date, or haul 

date in a given year. NMFS typically bases observer coverage levels on the trip departure date. The NMFS Observer Program 

typically bases protected species interactions in their quarterly, semiannual, and annual reports on vessel arrival date (http://

www.fpir.noaa.gov/OBS/obs_qrtrly_annual_rprts.html). NMFS also provides summary reports from mandatory logbook data 

reported by longline captains.

Table 3. Hawaii deep- and shallow-set longline fisheries effort and observer coverage, 2015 and 2016.

2016

Fishery Number of vessels Trips Sets Hooks Observer coverage

Deep-set 141 1,476 19,344 51,015,174 20.13%

Shallow-set 13 46 727 796,165 100%

2015

Fishery Number of vessels Trips Sets Hooks Observer coverage

Deep-set 141 1,444 18,433 47,409,044 20.6%

Shallow-set 23 70 1,156 1,274,805 100%

Source: NMFS PIRO Observer Program, unpublished data, 9/18/2017, and NMFS PIFSC unpublished data, 8/31/2017.

Pacific Islands Regional Office | Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries - 2016 Annual Report

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
7

2. Interactions

2.1 Species

NMFS observers have recorded the following bird species 

being hooked or entangled in the longline fisheries 

since 1994, when NMFS began deploying observers: 

Laysan albatross (Phoebastria immutabilis), black-footed 

albatross (P. nigripes), sooty shearwater (Puffinus griseus), 

unidentified shearwaters, brown booby (Sula leucogaster), 

red-footed booby (S. sula), and northern fulmar (Fulmarus 

glacialis) (Table 4). None of these species is listed under 

the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Both Hawaii longline 

fisheries have a low level of interactions with these 

species. Based on the population estimates, the fisheries 

likely have very little effect on these populations.

Brown booby

Table 4. Species recorded hooked or entangled in Hawaii longline fisheries

Species Global Population estimate Demographic information

Laysan albatross 666,658 breeding pairs (ACAP 2017)

The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) has the 

world’s largest colonies and more than 99% of the global 

breeding population (ACAP 2012a)

Black-footed albatross 69,969 pairs (ACAP 2017) More than 95% of the population breeds in the NWHI 

(ACAP 2012b)

Northern fulmars 20 million individuals (Birdlife 

2017a) Located throughout the North Atlantic and North Pacific

Red-footed booby More than 1 million birds 

(Birdlife 2017b) Winters on tropical islands in most oceans

Brown booby More than 200,000 adults 

(Birdlife 2017c) Located throughout the pan-tropical oceans

Sooty shearwaters 20 million (Birdlife 2017d) Nest in Australia, New Zealand, and southern South 

America (Birdlife 2017d)

Some seabirds, especially shearwaters, are difficult to 

identify. Table 5 provides a summary of seabird specimens 

that NMFS observers collected for identification and 

biological study after capture in the Hawaii longline 

fisheries in 2016. Most seabird specimens are frozen and 

shipped to the Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research 

Center in Santa Cruz, California. Since 2007, staff with the 

organization Oikonos have been collecting morphometric 

data on shipped specimens.

Table 5. Summary of collected seabirds from the 

Hawaii longline fisheries, 2016.

Species Number retained

Black-footed albatross 85

Laysan albatross 24

Sooty shearwater 4

Red-footed booby 1

Note: Not all dead seabirds are collected as specimens.

Source: NMFS PIRO Observer Program, unpublished data, 9/18/2017.

Pacific Islands Regional Office | Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries - 2016 Annual Report

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
8

2.2 Location of Interactions

Figs. 3 and 4 show the spatial distribution of observed seabird interactions in deep- and shallow-set longline fisheries, 

respectively, based on observations of seabirds in 2016. Most of the interactions occur north of 25° N, where seabirds are 

typically more abundant, and where fishing effort is more concentrated.

Figure 3. Locations of seabird interactions observed in Hawaii deep-set longline fishery, 2016.

Note: NMFS deployed observers on 20.13% of deep-set trips in 2016. Source: NMFS PIRO Observer Program, unpublished data, 8/3/2017.

Pacific Islands Regional Office | Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries - 2016 Annual Report

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
9

Figure 4. Locations of seabird interactions observed in Hawaii shallow-set longline fishery, 2016.

Note: NMFS deployed observers on every shallow-set trip in 2016. Source: NMFS PIRO Observer Program, unpublished data, 8/3/2017.

Pacific Islands Regional Office | Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries - 2016 Annual Report

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
10

2.3 Number of Interactions 

Table 6 summarizes the number of observed seabird interactions, and the condition of the seabirds upon release, and 

fishing effort in both longline fisheries from 2004 – 2016. During that period, NMFS deployed observers on 100% of 

shallow-set longline fishing trips; therefore, the number of interactions shown in Table 6 represents the fishery-wide totals. 

NMFS deployed observers on 20.13% of deep-set trips in 2016, so we expanded the observed interactions using the 

observer coverage rate to estimate total interactions (Table 7).

Table 6. Numbers of observed seabird catch levels, fishing effort, and interaction rates in the combined Hawaii 

longline fisheries, 2004-2016. Year Laysan albatross Black-footed 

albatrossSooty shearwaterOther or unidentified bird species caughtTotal birds observed caughtBirds released injured and aliveBirds released deadTotal observed effort (hooks)Seabird interaction rate (birds per 1,000 hooks observed) 

DEEP-SET FISHERY

2004 2 5 - 2 9 - 9 7,900,681 0.001

2005 6 11 - 11 18 - 18 9,360,671 0.002

2006 1 17 5 - 23 - 23 7,540,286 0.003

2007 7 18 - - 25 - 25 7,620,083 0.003

2008 14 30 14 22 60 4 56 8,775,951 0.007

2009 18 23 4 - 45 - 45 7,877,861 0.006

2010 39 17 1 - 57 1 56 8,184,127 0.007

2011 32 13 3 - 48 2 46 8,260,092 0.006

2012 31 36 7 - 74 5 67 8,768,728 0.008

2013 48 49 8 - 105 5 100 9,278,133 0.011

2014 12 38 1 - 51 6 45 9,608,244 0.005

2015 25 101 4 24 132 19 113 9,393,234 0.014

2016 33 104 4 35 144 7 137 9,882,920 0.015

SHALLOW-SET FISHERY

2004 1 - - - 1 1 - 76,750 0.013

2005 62 7 - - 69 47 22 1,328,806 0.052

2006 8 3 - - 11 5 6 745,125 0.015

2007 40 8 - - 48 40 8 1,292,036 0.037

2008 33 6 - - 39 24 15 1,350,127 0.029

2009 81 30 1 - 112 88 24 1,767,128 0.063

2010 40 38 - 13 79 61 18 1,828,529 0.043

2011 49 19 - - 68 53 15 1,611,395 0.042

2012 62 37 - - 99 77 21 1,418,843 0.070

2013 45 28 2 - 75 48 27 1,000,084 0.075

2014 39 32 1 - 72 56 16 1,509,727 0.048

2015 43 38 - - 81 65 16 1,286,628 0.063

2016 25 40 - - 65 50 15 830,177 0.078

Note: Observer Program data (unpublished, 9/18/2017) are based on the date and time of the beginning of the haul, with the exception of the total observed 

effort (hooks), which is based on departure date from the Observer Program annual reports (NMFS 2017a and NMFS 2017b). Interaction rates are calculated and 

rounded to the nearest thousandths (third decimal) place. Footnote: 1brown booby, 2red-footed booby and unidentified seabird, 3northern fulmar, 4red-footed 

booby and unidentified shearwater, 5two red-footed boobies and one unidentified albatross.

Pacific Islands Regional Office | Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries - 2016 Annual Report

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
11

Fig. 5 shows the seabird interaction rate from 2004 to 2016 

from Table 6. In recent years, the seabird interaction rates 

have increased. 

Figure 5. Seabird interaction rates in the deep-set and 

shallow-set longline fisheries, 2004-2016.

Almost all interactions in the deep-set longline fishery occur 

when fishermen set gear during the day while seabirds are 

actively feeding. Seabirds may be hooked or entangled, and 

then drown while the gear sinks. Because most seabirds 

are inactive at night, very few interactions occur when 

fishermen typically haul deep-set longline gear. In 2016 

in the deep-set longline fishery, observers documented 

interactions with 33 Laysan albatrosses, 104 black-footed 

albatrosses, four sooty shearwaters, and two red-footed 

boobies, and one unidentified albatross (Table 6). Nearly 

all of the seabirds observed to interact with the deep-set 

longline fishery were dead (95%). Table 7 contains the total 

estimated number of interactions with Laysan albatross, 

black-footed albatross, shearwaters, and red-footed booby 

based on observer records for the deep-set fishery in 2016. 

Table 7. Estimated total seabird interactions in the 

Hawaii deep-set longline fishery, 2016.

Species Total annual estimate

Black-footed albatross 485

Laysan albatross 166

Unidentified albatross 7

Shearwaters 21

Red-footed booby 12

Note: Table lists point estimates of the total number of incidental interactions 

by species in the Hawaii deep-set longline fishery based on observed 

interactions during 2016. The estimate for shearwaters represents an 

estimate for the number of incidental interactions by the group of species 

considered shearwaters. Source: McCracken 2017.

The shallow-set longline fishery typically sets at night 

and hauls the gear during the day; therefore, most of the 

interactions occur when fishermen retrieve the gear and 

birds are actively feeding. In 2016, the shallow-set longline 

fishery interacted with 25 Laysan albatrosses and 40 

black-footed albatrosses (Table 6). Fishermen released 

approximately 77% of seabirds alive.

Seabirds can be hooked, entangled, or both. Table 8 

provides a summary of capture details in 2016. Regulations 

require fishermen to remove as much gear as safely 

possible from any seabirds captured before the seabirds 

are released.

Table 8. Summary of capture details by species for seabird interactions in the Hawaii longline fisheries, 2016.

Species Hooked only Entangled only Both hooked 

and entangled

Not known or 

not recorded

Laysan albatross 46 6 5 1

Black-footed albatross 121 4 19 0

Sooty shearwater 3 1 0 0

Red-footed booby 2 0 0 0

Note: None of the seabirds released alive had any gear attached.

Source: NMFS PIRO Observer Program, unpublished data, 7/18/2017.

Pacific Islands Regional Office | Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries - 2016 Annual Report

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
12

Recovered Seabird Bands 

State and Federal agencies and other groups attach identification bands to the legs of birds to study bird movement, survival, 

and other characteristics. Table 9 provides a summary of observed seabirds with leg bands from Hawaii longline fisheries 

interactions in 2016. Most of the recovered bands were from albatrosses banded on French Frigate Shoals in the NWHI and 

caught incidentally in the first half of the year.

Table 9. Observed interactions of seabirds with bands in the shallow-set and deep-set Hawaii longline fisheries, 2016.

Species Disposition Date 

banded

Band(s) 

recovery 

date

Location banded

Age at 

banding 

(yr)

Age at 

recovery 

(yr)

Black-footed albatross1 Dead 6/8/2010 5/13/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 5

Black-footed Albatross Dead 1/1/2001 1/17/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) >1 >15

Black-footed Albatross Dead 6/28/2004 1/20/2016 Laysan Island <1 12

Black-footed Albatross Dead 1/4/2007 1/22/2016 Laysan Island >1 >9

Laysan Albatross Dead 6/9/2008 1/22/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 8

Laysan Albatross Dead 6/13/2006 1/23/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 10

Black-footed Albatross Dead 5/28/2007 1/25/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 9

Laysan Alabtross Dead 4/5/2005 1/26/2016 Kauai (Kilauea Point) >1 >11

Laysan Alabtross Dead 4/8/2015 1/28/2016 Oahu (Kaena Point) >1 >2

Black-footed Albatross Dead 5/22/2008 1/29/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 8

Black-footed Albatross Dead 12/12/1997 2/5/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) >3 >22

Black-footed Albatross Dead 6/8/2002 2/10/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 14

Laysan Alabtross Dead 5/30/2002 2/12/2016 Kauai (Kilauea Point) <1 14

Black-footed Albatross Dead 12/16/2006 2/15/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) >1 >10

Laysan Alabtross Dead 6/21/2006 2/25/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 10

Black-footed Albatross Injured 5/16/2010 2/27/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 6

Black-footed Albatross Dead 5/21/2008 2/28/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) >1 7

Laysan Albatross Injured 5/14/2007 3/3/2016 Punta Sur, Guadalupe Island, Baja 

California, MX <1 9

Black-footed Albatross Dead 1/3/1998 3/13/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) >3 >21

Black-footed Albatross Dead 6/6/2008 3/15/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 8

Black-footed Albatross Injured 5/22/2006 4/12/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 10

Black-footed Albatross Dead 1/29/1998 4/19/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) >2 >20

Black-footed Albatross Dead 6/11/2004 5/14/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 12

Black-footed Albatross Dead 5/31/1995 6/4/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 21

Black-footed Albatross Dead 5/18/2009 7/2/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 7

Black-footed Albatross Dead 6/8/2007 12/17/2016 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 >9

1

Inadvertently excluded from 2015 seabird interactions report.

Source: USGS, USFWS, and NMFS, unpublished data, received 7/18/2017.

Pacific Islands Regional Office | Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries - 2016 Annual Report

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
13

3. ESA-listed Seabirds 

There have been no observed interactions (hooking or 

entanglement) between the fisheries and any ESA-listed 

seabirds. The distributions of three seabird species that 

are protected under the ESA overlap with the areas where 

the Hawaii longline fisheries operate: the endangered 

short-tailed albatross and Hawaiian dark-rumped petrel 

(Pterodroma sandwichensis), and the threatened Newell’s 

shearwater (Puffinus auricularis newelli). There were no 

sightings of short-tailed albatross on observed deep-set 

and shallow-set longline trips in 2016. 

Short-tailed albatross

4. Management 

In May 2015, consistent with the Migratory Bird Treaty 

Act, the USFWS issued a Special Purpose Permit to NMFS 

for the shallow-set longline fishery. The permit authorized 

the incidental take of a limited number of migratory birds 

in the shallow-set longline fishery until March 31, 2018. 

The permit included short-tailed albatross, black-footed 

albatross, Laysan albatross, sooty shearwater, and Northern 

fulmar. For further information, please visit the USFWS 

website (http://www.fws.gov/pacific/migratorybirds/nepa.

html).

In December 2017, the U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals 

reversed a District Court’s judgment affirming FWS’s 

decision to issue the Special Purpose Permit to NMFS 

(Turtle Island Restoration Network; Center for Biological 

Diversity vs. National Marine Fisheries Service, 12-cv00594, D-Haw). Specifically, the 9th Circuit Court concluded 

that the FWS’s grant of an incidental take permit to the 

NMFS in reliance on the special purpose permit provision 

in 50 CFR 21.27 was arbitrary and capricious because 

the FWS’s interpretation of § 21.27 does not conform to 

either the MBTA’s conservation intent or the plain language 

of the regulation. The Court explained its conclusion by 

discussing the other “form” permits authorized under the 

MBTA for discrete types of takings (scientific collection, 

taxidermy, and rehabilitation), and then stated that the 

FWS’s new interpretation of § 21.27’s special purpose 

activity exception as applying to basic commercial activities 

like fishing that have no articulable special purpose is, 

therefore, inconsistent with the existing permitting scheme 

that the FWS has enacted.

5. Research

Shallow-set Fishery

Effective management in the Hawaii shallow-set fishery 

has greatly reduced seabird interactions, primarily through 

mitigation measures required during gear setting. Since 

effective implementation of these measures in 2001, 

approximately 75% of the remaining seabird interactions 

occur during gear hauling (Gilman et al. 2014). Because 

most shallow-set longline fishermen choose the option 

to stern set at night, they haul their gear primarily during 

the day when seabirds are more likely to be foraging. In a 

review of observer data from 2004 to 2012, Gilman et al. 

(2014) found an increasing temporal trend of albatrosses 

attending vessels during hauling, which may have been one 

of the factors that results in the observed increasing trend 

in the seabird standardized haul catch rate during this time. 

The highest relative standardized seabird catch rates 

from January through March corresponded with brooding 

and chick rearing for mature Laysan and black-footed 

albatrosses, when the albatrosses forage in areas that 

overlap with the shallow-set longline fishery. The lowest 

live seabird catch rates occurred during the non-breeding 

season in August and September, when albatross foraging 

areas overlap less with the fishery (Gilman et al. 2014). 

In 2016 and 2017, Eric Gilman, with funding from 

the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, conducted 

commercial demonstrations of a bird curtain that could 

reduce haul interactions in the shallow-set longline fishery. 

Gilman interviewed Hawaii longline swordfish captains on 

potential haulback mitigation techniques. He asked captains 

to rate the following in terms of potential effectiveness: bird 

curtain, towed buoy, maximized crew branchline coiling 

rate, refraining from flicking spent bait during hauling, 

attaching weighted swivels close to the hook, positioning 

crew further forward on deck, adjusting the vessel hauling 

speed, and using a water spray. Gilman used the captains’ 

responses to select the bird curtain option as the mitigation 

option to employ during a demonstration during three 

fishing trips. After the demonstration, Gilman interviewed 

the vessel captain and observers to document the economic 

viability, practicality, and safety of the bird curtain. Results 

Pacific Islands Regional Office | Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries - 2016 Annual Report

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
14

suggest that the bird curtain continues to hold promise 

at being both effective at avoiding bird captures during 

haulback and being commercially viable (Gilman and Musyl 

2017). Indeed, bird curtains and side-setting are part of 

the suite of seabird mitigation requirements in the longline 

fisheries.

Deep-set Fishery

Since NMFS introduced seabird regulations in 2001 in the 

Hawaii deep-set longline fishery, the seabird catch rate 

had declined. Over the past decade, however, seabird catch 

levels have increased with increasing fishing effort and 

interaction rates. Decreasing ocean productivity in recent 

years may have contributed to the increasing trend in the 

nominal seabird interaction rate. In a review of observer 

data from 2004 to 2014, Gilman et al. (2016) found the 

bird catch rate significantly increased as annual mean 

multivariate El Niño Southern Oscillation index values 

increased. This result suggests that the decreasing ocean 

productivity observed in recent years in the central North 

Pacific may have contributed to the increasing catch 

rate. Higher numbers of albatrosses attending vessels, 

possibly linked to declining regional ocean productivity and 

increasing absolute abundance of black-footed albatrosses, 

may also have contributed to the increasing rate. 

Gilman et al. (2016) found the largest opportunities 

for bycatch reductions are through increased efficacy 

of seabird mitigation measures north of 23° N, where 

mitigation methods are required, and during setting instead 

of during hauling. Both options for meeting regulatory 

requirements, side vs. stern setting, and blue-dyed vs. 

untreated bait, significantly reduced the seabird catch rate. 

However, side-setting had a significantly lower seabird 

catch rate than blue-dyed bait. There was significant 

spatio-temporal and seasonal variation in the risk of 

seabird capture with the highest catch rates in April and 

May, and to the northwest of the main Hawaiian Islands.

NMFS is working with the Council on investigating seabird 

interactions, in particular black-footed albatrosses in the 

deep-set longline fishery. In 2017, a student in the Ernest F. 

Hollings Scholarship Program worked with NMFS staff and 

external partners on analyzing the demographics of blackfooted albatross takes in the deep-set longline fishery. Her 

work was included in a workshop hosted by the Council 

on factors influencing albatross interactions in the Hawaii 

longline fishery in November 2017. Workshop results will 

be published in Spring 2018. 

6. Summary

Table 10 compares the 2015 and 2016 observed 

interactions in the two fisheries. The observed interactions 

and interaction rate for the shallow-set and deep-set 

longline fisheries increased from 2015 to 2016. In 2015, 

the shallow-set longline fishery interacted with 81 seabirds 

(43 Laysan albatrosses and 38 black-footed albatrosses). 

In 2016, the shallow-set longline fishery interacted with 

65 seabirds (25 Laysan albatrosses and 40 black-footed 

albatrosses). In 2015, observers in the deep-set longline 

fishery documented interactions with 132 seabirds (25 

Laysan albatross, 101 black-footed albatrosses, four sooty 

shearwaters, one unidentified shearwater, and one redfooted booby). In 2016, observers in the deep-set longline 

fishery documented interactions with 144 seabirds (33 

Laysan albatrosses, 104 black-footed albatrosses, four 

sooty shearwaters, two red-footed boobies, and one 

unidentified albatross) (see Table 6).

Table 10. Comparison of observed interactions in 

Hawaii longline fisheries, 2015 and 2016.

Observed Interactions 2015 2016 % 

Change

Seabirds observed in 

deep-set fishery 132 144 9%

Seabirds observed in 

shallow-set fishery 81 65 -20%

Deep-set interaction rate 

(birds per 1,000 hooks 

observed)

0.014 0.015 7%

Shallow-set interaction rate 

(birds per 1,000 hooks 

observed)

0.063 0.078 24%

Note: There was 20.6% and 20.13% observer coverage in the deep-set 

longline fishery in 2015 and 2016, respectively, and 100% coverage in the 

shallow-set longline fishery.

Acknowledgements

The NMFS PIRO Sustainable Fisheries Division prepared 

this report, with contributions from C. Tokita, H. Wang, 

and M. McCracken at the NMFS Pacific Islands Fisheries 

Science Center, and J. Peschon, and L. Rassel at the NMFS 

PIRO Observer Program. For more information, please 

contact Sarah Ellgen, PIRO Sustainable Fisheries Division, 

at Sarah.Ellgen@noaa.gov.

Pacific Islands Regional Office | Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries - 2016 Annual Report

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
15

Black-footed albatross

References

ACAP (Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels). 2017. 

Report of the Population and Conservation Status Working Group. 

Tenth Meeting of the Advisory Committee. Wellington, New Zealand, 

September 11–15, 2017.

-----. 2012a. Species assessments: Laysan Albatross (Phoebastria immutabilis). 

Downloaded from http://www.acap.aq on September 13, 2017.

-----.2012b. Species assessments: Black-footed Albatross (Phoebastria 

nigripes). Downloaded from http://www.acap.aq on September 13, 2017.

BirdLife International. 2017a. Species factsheet: Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus 

glacialis). Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on September 13, 

2017.

-----. 2017b. Species factsheet: Red-footed Booby (Sula sula). 

Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on September 13, 2017.

-----. 2017c. Species factsheet: Brown Booby (Sula leucogaster). 

Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on September 13, 2017.

-----. 2017d. Species factsheet: Sooty Shearwater (Puffinus griseus). 

Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on September 13, 2017.

Boggs, C.H. 2003. Annual report on the Hawaii longline fishing experiments 

to reduce sea turtle bycatch under ESA Section 10 Permit 1303. U.S. 

National Marine Fisheries Service Honolulu Laboratory, Honolulu, HI. 

42 pp.

Gilman, E., and N. Brothers. 2006. Technical assistance for Hawaii pelagic 

longline vessels to change deck design and fishing practices to side set. 

Hawaii Longline Association, U.S. NOAA Fisheries Pacific Islands Fisheries 

Science Center and Pacific Islands Regional Office, and Western Pacific 

Fishery Management Council: Honolulu, HI.

Gilman, E., N. Brothers, and D. Kobayashi. 2005. Principles and approaches to 

abate seabird bycatch in longline fisheries. Fish and Fisheries 6(1): 35-49.

-----. 2007a. Comparison of three seabird bycatch avoidance methods in 

Hawaii-based pelagic longline fisheries. Fisheries Science 73: 208-210.

Gilman, E., T. Moth-Poulsen, and G. Bianchi. 2007b. Review of measures taken 

by inter-governmental organizations to address problematic sea turtle 

and seabird interactions in marine capture fisheries. Fisheries Circular No. 

1025, ISSN 0429-0329. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United 

Nations, Rome.

Gilman, E., M. Chaloupka, B. Wiedoff, and J. Willson. 2014. Migrating seabird 

bycatch during hauling by pelagic longline vessels. PLOS ONE: 9(1): 

e84499. Doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0084499.

Gilman, E., M. Chaloupka, J. Peschon, S. Ellgen. 2016. Risk factors for seabird 

bycatch in a pelagic longline tuna fishery. PLoS ONE 11(5):e0155477. 

Doi:10.137 1/journal.pone.0155477.

Gilman, E., Musyl, M. 2017. Captain and observer perspectives on the 

commercial viability and efficacy of alternative methods to reduce 

seabird bycatch during gear haulback in the Hawaii-based pelagic 

longline swordfish fishery. Grant report to the National Fish and Wildlife 

Foundation. Available online. https://www.acap.aq/en/working-groups/

seabird-bycatch-working-group/seabird-bycatch-wg-meeting-8/

sbwg8-information-papers/2928-sbwg8-inf-23-perspectives-on-thecommercial-viability-and-efficacy-of-alternative-methods-to-reduceseabird-bycatch-during-gear-haulback/file.

McCracken, M. 2017. Estimation of bycatch with sea turtles, seabirds, and fish 

in the 2016 Hawaii permitted deep-set longline fishery. Pacific Islands 

Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service. 

McNamara, B., L. Torre, and G. Kaaialii. 1999. Hawaii longline seabird 

mortality mitigation project. Western Pacific Fishery Management Council, 

Honolulu, HI.

NMFS (National Marine Fisheries Service). 2017a. Pacific Islands regional 

observer program deep-set annual status report. January 1, 2016 – 

December 31, 2016. Pacific Islands Regional Office. National Marine 

Fisheries Service, Honolulu, HI. Dated: January 27, 2017.

-----. 2017b. Pacific Islands regional observer program shallow set annual 

status report. January 1, 2016 – December 31, 2016. Pacific Islands 

Regional Office. National Marine Fisheries Service, Honolulu, HI. 

Dated: January 27, 2016.

USFWS (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service). 2012. Biological Opinion of the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service for the operation of Hawaii-based pelagic longline 

fisheries, shallow-set and deep-set, Hawaii, January 2012, Honolulu, HI. 

2011-F-0436. 53 pp.

WPFMC (Western Pacific Fishery Management Council). 2009, as amended. 

Fishery Ecosystem Plan for Pelagic Fisheries of the Western Pacific 

Region. WPFMC, Honolulu, HI.

Pacific Islands Regional Office | Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries - 2016 Annual Report

U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service
U.S. Secretary of Commerce

Wilbur Ross

Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and

Atmosphere and Acting Under Secretary of Commerce

for Oceans and Atmosphere

RDML Tim Gallaudet, Ph.D., USN Ret.

Assistant Administrator for Fisheries

Chris Oliver

January 2018

www.fisheries.noaa.gov

OFFICIAL BUSINESS

NOAA Fisheries

1315 East-West Highway

Silver Spring, MD 20910