NOTICE
 

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IN THE COURT OF APPEALS OF THE STATE OF ALASKA 

FALEALO MANUELE PULUSILA, 

Appellant, 

v. 

STATE OF ALASKA, 

Appellee. 

Court of Appeals No. A-12783 

Trial Court No. 3AN-13-5018 CR 

O P I N I O N 

No. 2599 — May 18, 2018 

Appeal from the Superior Court, Third Judicial District, 

Anchorage, Paul E. Olson, Judge. 

Appearances: Callie Patton Kim, Assistant Public Defender, 

and Quinlan Steiner, Public Defender, Anchorage, for the 

Appellant. Patricia L. Haines, Assistant Attorney General, 

Office of Criminal Appeals, Anchorage, and Jahna Lindemuth, 

Attorney General, Juneau, for the Appellee. 

Before: Mannheimer, Chief Judge, Allard, Judge, and Suddock, 

Superior Court Judge.* 

Judge MANNHEIMER. 

In September 2016, Falealo Manuele Pulusila was on felony probation, and 

his driver’s license was suspended. Pulusila borrowed another man’s truck. The 

* Sitting by assignment made pursuant to Article IV, Section 16 of the Alaska 

Constitution and Administrative Rule 24(d). 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Anchorage police contacted Pulusila; one thing led to another; and the police searched 

the truck. 

Inside the front console, the police found a small explosive device. 

Underneath a pile of clothes in the back seat, they found ammunition for a firearm. And 

inside a backpack in the back seat, they found a methamphetamine pipe. 

One of Pulusila’s conditions of probation prohibited him from having any 

ammunition or explosives in his “custody, residence, or vehicle”. Another of Pulusila’s 

conditions of probation prohibited him from having any drug paraphernalia in his 

“residence or ... any vehicle under [his] control”. Based on the discovery of the 

explosive device, the ammunition, and the meth pipe in the truck that Pulusila was 

driving, the State petitioned the superior court to revoke Pulusila’s probation. 

Pulusila contested the State’s petition. He pointed out that the truck was 

borrowed, and he asserted that he was unaware that the truck contained the explosive 

device, the ammunition, and the meth pipe. 

The superior court did not resolve the question of whether these items 

belonged to Pulusila, or whether Pulusila was even aware that the truck contained these 

items. Instead, the superior court ruled that it did not make any difference whether 

Pulusila knew that these items were in the truck. 

More specifically, the superior court ruled that Pulusila’s probation could 

lawfully be revoked if the State proved (1) that Pulusila was aware of the two probation 

conditions that prohibited him from having these items, and (2) that the prohibited items 

were present in a vehicle that was under Pulusila’s control, even if Pulusila did not know 

about them. 

According to the court, it was no defense that Pulusila was unaware that the 

prohibited items were in the vehicle. If the law were otherwise, the superior court 

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declared, this would “give free rein” to anyone on probation to say, “It’s not my car”, or, 

if the car was rented, “[Those items were] left in there by [a] previous renter.” 

Based on this ruling, the superior court revoked Pulusila’s probation and 

imposed all of Pulusila’s remaining suspended jail time. 

Pulusila now appeals the superior court’s decision. 

Pulusila’s first argument is that, contrary to the superior court’s ruling, his 

two probation conditions did not make him strictly liable for any prohibited items that 

might be found in his residence or vehicle. Pulusila contends that his probation 

conditions prohibited him from knowingly possessing ammunition, explosives, or drug 

paraphernalia. 

Pulusila next argues that if his probation conditions did, in fact, make him 

strictly liable for any prohibited items found in the borrowed truck, then those probation 

conditions violated the constitutional guarantee of due process of law. 

The State responds that Pulusila’s probation conditions did, indeed, impose 

strict liability for any prohibited items found in the borrowed truck. The State contends 

that even if Pulusila had no reason to know that the truck contained these prohibited 

items, Pulusila nevertheless had a duty to make sure, before he borrowed the truck, that 

the vehicle did not contain any items that he was prohibited from having. 

The State further contends that this kind of strict liability is lawful. More 

specifically, the State argues that, under Alaska law, a court can properly revoke a 

defendant’s probation even when it is clear that the defendant was not at fault and did not 

act with any culpable mental state. According to the State, the defendant’s lack of fault 

is a matter that a court should consider at the disposition hearing (i.e., at sentencing) — 

after the court has found that the defendant violated their probation. 

We will address these contentions in reverse order. We will first discuss 

the State’s claim that Alaska law allows a court to hold a defendant strictly liable for any 

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violation of probation, regardless of the defendant’s lack of fault. As we explain in this 

opinion, the State’s argument is partially correct. There are circumstances when a court 

can revoke a defendant’s probation for a violation of probation that was not the 

defendant’s fault. But there is no universal rule that a defendant’s lack of fault is 

irrelevant. 

Rather, under Alaska law, a court can revoke a defendant’s probation when 

the defendant’s violation of probation supports the conclusion that the aims of probation 

are not being met, and that the defendant’s continued release on probation would be at 

odds with the goals of protecting society and fostering the defendant’s rehabilitation. 

When a court makes this determination, the defendant’s fault (or lack of fault) may 

sometimes have little relevance — but conversely, the defendant’s fault or lack of fault 

may sometimes be a crucial factor in the court’s decision. 

We will then address the question of how to interpret Pulusila’s conditions 

of probation, given our construction of Alaska probation law. As we explain in this 

opinion, we agree with Pulusila that his conditions of probation only prohibited him from 

knowingly possessing the ammunition, explosives, and drug paraphernalia. And because 

of this, the superior court was required to resolve the contested issue of whether Pulusila 

was aware that these prohibited items were present in the vehicle. 

The question of whether a defendant’s probation may be revoked even 

when the defendant bears no fault for their failure to abide by the 

conditions of probation 

As we just explained, the State takes the position that a defendant’s 

probation can be revoked even when the defendant’s action (or the defendant’s failure 

to act) was not accompanied by any culpable mental state — in other words, even when 

the failure to abide by the conditions of probation was not the defendant’s fault. The 

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State bases this argument on our supreme court’s decision in Trumbly v. State, 515 P.2d 

707 (Alaska 1973). 

(a) The Alaska Supreme Court’s decision in Trumbly 

In Trumbly, the State petitioned the sentencing court to revoke a 

defendant’s probation because the defendant failed to promptly report to his probation 

officer upon his release from prison. In fact, Trumbly left Alaska without obtaining his 

probation officer’s permission. 1 

Trumbly defended by asserting that he was mentally ill, that his mental 

disease or defect “deprived him of the substantial capacity to conform his conduct to the 

conditions of [his] probation”, and that he therefore should not be held accountable for 

his failure to report and for his unauthorized departure from the state. 2 

This phrasing— “substantialcapacity” to “conform [one’s] conduct” to the 

requirements of the law — is drawn from the second prong of the American Law 

Institute’s formulation of the insanity defense. See § 4.01(1) of the Model Penal Code 

(Official Draft, 1962). This was the version of the insanity defense that was in effect in 

Alaska when Trumbly’s case was litigated. See Schade v. State, 512 P.2d 907, 911 & 

n. 2 (Alaska 1973). 

The supreme court concluded that even if Trumbly lacked the substantial 

capacity to obey his conditions of probation because of mental disease or defect, this did 

not prevent the sentencing court from revoking Trumbly’s probation. 

1 Trumbly, 515 P.2d at 708. 

2 Ibid. 

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The question, according to the supreme court, was not whether Trumbly 

was morally blameworthy or potentially criminally liable for failing to abide by the 

conditions of his probation. Rather, the question was whether the sentencing court could 

reasonably conclude that the aims of probation were not being met, and that Trumbly’s 

continued release on probation “would be at odds with the need to protect society and 

society’s interest in [Trumbly’s] rehabilitation”: 

[T]he defense of insanity is irrelevant to the issues 

which are to be determined in a probation revocation hearing. 

At such a hearing, the inquiry is focused on whether the 

probationer engaged in conduct violative of the conditions 

under which he was permitted to [remain free on probation]. 

... [A] probationer should [not] be able to prevail upon an 

assertion that his probation should not be revoked because 

mental illness renders him unable to conform his conduct to 

the terms of his probation. Conformity to reasonable and 

lawful terms of probation is a prerequisite to the continuation 

of probationary status. 

Trumbly, 515 P.2d at 708-09. 

The supreme court then described the procedures that a court should follow, 

and the decisions that a court must make, when the government petitions the court to 

revoke a defendant’s probation: 

The first step in a [probation] revocation decision 

involves a wholly retrospective factual question: whether the 

[probationer] has in fact acted in violation of one or more of 

the conditions of his [probation]. Only if it is determined that 

the [probationer] did violate the conditions does the second 

question arise: should the [probationer] be recommitted to 

prison[,] or should other steps be taken to protect society and 

improve chances of rehabilitation. 

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The requirement that probation revocation follow after 

a showing of “good cause” [see AS 12.55.110] requires the 

trial judge to find that [a] continuation of probationary status 

would be at odds with the need to protect society and 

society’s interest in the probationer’s rehabilitation. 

Revocation should follow [a defendant’s] violation of a 

condition of probation when that violation indicates that the 

corrective aims of probation cannot be achieved. 

Trumbly, 515 P.2d at 709. 

(b) The State’s suggested interpretation of Trumbly 

The State argues that we should draw two conclusions from the Trumbly 

decision. 

First, the State suggests that probation revocation proceedings should be 

viewed as having two parts. According to the State, the first part of the proceedings is 

an adjudication phase, where the court determines the historical facts and decides 

whether the defendant has violated the terms of probation. Then, if the court finds that 

the defendant has violated their probation, the proceedings move to a disposition phase, 

where the court decides what should be done about the defendant’s violation of probation 

— which could range from simply returning the defendant to probation, all the way to 

imposition of the entirety of the defendant’s remaining suspended sentence. 

Second, the State suggests that Trumbly stands for the proposition that a 

defendant’s lack of fault is irrelevant in the adjudication phase of the proceedings. 

According to the State, the fact that a defendant lacked any culpable mental state, and 

that a defendant may have done their best to conform to the conditions of probation, only 

becomes relevant during the disposition phase of the proceedings. Even if the defendant 

was not at fault, this does not prevent the sentencing court from finding that the 

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defendant violated the conditions of probation. The defendant’s lack of fault only 

matters when the court decides what consequences should be imposed for the violation. 

We conclude that both of the State’s assertions mischaracterize the supreme 

court’s decision in Trumbly. 

First, even though Trumbly appears to describe probation revocation 

proceedings as having two stages, it is clear from the supreme court’s discussion that a 

sentencing court must perform three duties. The court’s first duty is to ascertain the 

historical facts of the case. The court’s second duty is to decide whether, given those 

facts, there is good cause to revoke the defendant’s probation. (Under AS 12.55.110(a), 

a defendant’s probation can only be revoked for good cause.) The court’s third duty — 

which arises only if the court has found good cause to revoke the defendant’s probation 

— is to determine what consequences, if any, should be imposed on the defendant. 

The problem with describing probation revocation proceedings as having 

two phases — an “adjudication” phase and a “disposition” phase — is that this 

description can mask the underlying reality that the court must perform three separate 

duties. This problem becomes acute when, as in Pulusila’s case, the State argues that the 

“adjudication” phase encompasses both the court’s duty to ascertain the historical facts 

and the court’s duty to decide whether those facts constitute good cause for revokingthe 

defendant’s probation. 

By grouping both of these duties into the adjudication phase, and then 

arguing that a defendant’s lack of fault is irrelevant to the entire adjudication phase, the 

State reaches the conclusion that a defendant’s lack of fault is irrelevant to the question 

of whether there is good cause to revoke the defendant’s probation. But Trumbly says 

the opposite. 

In Trumbly, the supreme court expressly recognized that, whatever the 

historical facts of a specific case might be, our law forbids a sentencing court from 

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revoking a defendant’s probation unless the court finds that those facts constitute “good 

cause” to revoke probation. Id. at 709. The supreme court then defined “good cause” 

as a finding that “the corrective aims of probation cannot be achieved”, and that 

“continuation of [the defendant’s] probationary status would be at odds with the need to 

protect society and society’s interest in the probationer’s rehabilitation.” Ibid. 

The Trumbly court did not say that a defendant’s lack of culpability was 

irrelevant to this determination. Rather, the Trumbly court said that a defendant’s lack 

of responsibility under the second prong of the American Law Institute’s test forinsanity 

was irrelevant to this determination. 

As we have already explained, Trumbly asserted that his probation should 

not be revoked because he met the second prong of the American Law Institute’s test for 

insanity — i.e., he suffered from a mental disease or defect, and this mental disease or 

defect deprived him of “the substantial capacity to conform his conduct to the conditions 

of [his] probation”. 

This was not a claim that Trumbly lacked any culpable mental state when 

he violated his probation. Rather, Trumbly was claiming that, despite his awareness that 

he should be reporting to his probation officer, and that he should not leave Alaska 

without permission, his failure to abide by these duties should be excused because his 

mental disease or defect deprived him of the capacity to conform his conduct to the 

requirements of his probation. 

We explained this point of law in Hart v. State, 702 P.2d 651 (Alaska App. 

1985): 

[W]hatever insanity defense exists [under the 

“substantial capacity” test], it is different from ... [a negation 

of] the prosecution’s proof that the defendant had the 

necessary mens rea to commit a particular offense ... . [See] 

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3 

Mill v. State, 585 P.2d 546 (Alaska 1978) (mental disease or 

defect can prevent formation of specific intent but not general 

intent). ... [E]ven if the Alaska legislature ... entirely 

repeal[ed] any insanity defense, it would stillbe necessary for 

the state to prove beyond reasonable doubt that the defendant 

engaged in conscious voluntary acts, [see AS 11.81.600(a)], 

and [that the defendant] possessed the requisite mens rea for 

the offense. AS 12.47.020. 

Hart, 702 P.2d at 655-56. 

In other words, under the American Law Institute’s test, proof that a 

defendant lacked the substantial capacity to conform their conduct to the requirements 

of the law was not a negation of the defendant’s mens rea. Rather, it was an additional 

factor that excused the defendant’s mens rea. 3 

This is the context for the supreme court’s statement in Trumbly that, even 

assuming Trumbly could establish the second prong of the American Law Institute’s 

insanity test, Trumbly’s inability to stop himself from violating the conditions of 

probation was not a valid defense to a probation revocation proceeding — because, if 

Trumbly could not stop himself from violating his probation, then it was clear that the 

aims of Trumbly’s probation were not being met, and that Trumbly’s continued release 

For an example of the supreme court’s application of this principle, see Smith v. State, 

614 P.2d 300, 304 (Alaska 1980): 

All the evidence points to a finding that Smith ... appreciate[d] the wrongfulness 

of his conduct when he shot Officer Jordan. Smith admitted ... that what he did was 

illegal and morally wrong. All three medical experts testified that Smith, even if 

suffering from a mental illness, could appreciate the wrongfulness of his conduct. 

The record contains no contrary evidence. Thus, [our] focus ... is on the second prong 

of the legal responsibility test: whether Smith had substantial capacity to conform his 

conduct to the requirements of the law when he shot Officer Jordan. 

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on probation “would be at odds with the need to protect society and society’s interest in 

[his] rehabilitation”. 

Thus, the State misreads Trumbly when the State asserts that Trumbly 

stands for the proposition that a defendant’s lack of culpability for a probation violation 

is never relevant when assessing whether there is good cause to revoke the defendant’s 

probation. 

For example, nothing in Trumbly suggests that the supreme court would 

have upheld a revocation of Trumbly’s probation if Trumbly had failed to report to his 

probation officer because he was involved in a car accident on his way to the probation 

office and was taken to the hospital. Similarly, nothing in Trumbly suggests that the 

supreme court would have upheld a revocation of probation if Trumbly’s probation 

officer had moved up Trumbly’s appointment at the last minute, and if Trumbly did not 

arrive until his normally scheduled time because he never received notice of the new, 

earlier time for his appointment. 

These circumstances — the lack of a voluntary act in the first example, and 

the lack of a culpable mental state in the second example — would be relevant to a 

determination of whether there was good cause to revoke Trumbly’s probation. We 

therefore reject the State’s contention that Trumbly stands for the proposition that a 

defendant’s lack of culpability is completely irrelevant when a court decides whether the 

facts establish good cause to revoke the defendant’s probation. 

Instead, we interpret the supreme court’s decision in Trumbly as consistent 

with the approach reflected in State v. Leach, 20 P.3d 709 (Idaho App. 2001). Like 

Trumbly, the Leach decision emphasizes that the ultimate issue to be decided is whether 

the defendant’s conduct demonstrates that the conditions of probation are not ensuring 

the public safety or fostering the defendant’s rehabilitation — and that sometimes there 

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will be good cause to revoke the defendant’s probation even when the defendant’s 

violation of probation was not willful or was beyond the defendant’s control. 4 

(The State cites dozens of cases from other jurisdictions in support of its 

overly expansive reading of Trumbly. Many of these cases do, indeed, include language 

suggesting that a defendant’s lack of culpability is no excuse in a probation revocation 

proceeding. But most of these cases involve the same issue presented in Trumbly — i.e., 

whether a defendant’s violation of probation should be excused because of the 

defendant’s mental disease or defect. 5 And in several other cases, the expansive 

language that the State relies on is dictum — because those courts ultimately based their 

decisions on findings by the sentencing court that the defendant did act with a culpable 

mental state. 6

) 

4 See Leach, 20 P.3d at 713: “In deciding whether revocation of probation is the 

appropriate response to a violation, the court considers whether the probation is achieving 

the goal of rehabilitation and whether continued probation is consistent with the protection 

of society. ... [If] a probationer’s violation of a probation condition was not willful, or was 

beyond the probationer’s control, a court may not revoke probation and order imprisonment 

without first considering alternative methods to address the violation. Only if the trial court 

determines that alternatives to imprisonment are not adequate in a particular situation to meet 

the state’s legitimate interest in punishment, deterrence, or the protection of society, may the 

court imprison a probationer who has made sufficient, genuine efforts to obey the terms of 

the probation order.” (Citations omitted) 

5 See, e.g., United States v. Gallo, 20 F.3d 7, 14-15 (1st Cir. 1994); United States v. 

Brown, 899 F.2d 189, 194 (2nd Cir. 1990); Knight v. Estelle, 501 F.2d 963, 964-65 (5th Cir. 

1974); United States v. Pinjuv, 218 F.3d 1125, 1127, 1130-31 (9th Cir. 2000). 

6 See, e.g., United States v. Jones, 133 F.Appx 824, 826 (3rd Cir. 2005); United States 

v. Warner, 830 F.2d 651,657-58 (7thCir. 1987);Vann v. State, 143 So.3d 850, 861-62 (Ala. 

Crim. App. 2013); State v. Joe, unpublished, 2008 WL 2838501 at *4 (Ariz. App. 2008); 

People v. Colabello, 948 P.2d 77, 79-80 (Colo. App. 1997). 

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Why we conclude that Pulusila’s conditions of probation prohibited him 

from knowingly possessing the prohibited items in the borrowed vehicle 

As we explained in the introductory section of this opinion, the superior 

court ruled that Pulusila’s conditions of probation made him strictly liable for the 

presence of the explosive device, the ammunition, and the meth pipe in the truck, even 

if Pulusila had no reason to know that the truck contained these prohibited items. 

However, the superior court did not take testimony (or consider any other 

evidence) when it construed the meaning of Pulusila’s two probation conditions. Instead, 

the superior court based its ruling on the wording of the conditions — and on the 

perceived benefits of a policy that would allow sentencing courts to revoke a defendant’s 

probation based on prohibited items that were left in a rental car by a previous renter. 

In these circumstances, we do not owe deference to the superior court’s 

interpretation of the two probation conditions. Instead, we will independently determine 

how a reasonable person in Pulusila’s place would have understood these probation 

conditions, “taking into consideration the language of the disputed provision[s] ... and 

the case law interpreting similar provisions”. 7 

Here is the text of the two provisions at issue: 

You shall not own, possess, purchase, transport, 

handle[,] or have in your custody, residence, or vehicle, any 

firearm, ammunition, explosives, or weapon(s) ... capable of 

inflicting bodily harm or incapacitation. 

You shallnot use, possess, handle, purchase, give[,] or 

administer any controlled substance, including marijuana, 

without a valid prescription. ... You shall not have on your 

Joubert v. State, 926 P.2d 1191, 1193 (Alaska App. 1996), citing Peterson v. Wirum, 

625 P.2d 866, 872 n. 10 (Alaska 1981). 

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7 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

person, in your residence or vehicle[,] or [in] any vehicle 

under your control, any drugs or paraphernalia normally 

associated with the illicit use of drugs. 

The State asserts that these two provisions, on their face, prohibited Pulusila 

from being in control of a vehicle that had these prohibited items in it — even if Pulusila 

remained wholly ignorant of their presence. This argument is based on a 

misunderstanding of the law of possession. 

Under Alaska’s criminal law, to prove that a person “possessed” an item, 

the government must prove that the person engaged in a voluntary act of possessing or 

controlling the item. AS 11.81.600(a). In this context, a “voluntary” act of possession 

means physical possession or control where the person “was aware of the physical 

possession or control for a sufficient period to have been able to terminate it.” 

AS 11.81.900(b)(66). 

The State points out that, strictly speaking, the definitions contained in 

AS 11.81 apply only to the interpretation of the criminal statutes in Title 11. But 

AS 11.81.600(a) and AS 11.81.900(b)(66) merely codify the common understanding of 

what “possession” means. Reasonable people would not expect that a court could revoke 

a person’s probation and send them to prison for “possessing” something that they had 

no knowledge of. 

As the Supreme Court of California recently noted in People v. Hall, 388 

P.3d 794, 799 (Cal. 2017), “knowledge of the contraband’s presence and of its restricted 

nature is implicit in probation conditions restricting firearms and narcotics, regardless 

of any minor variations in the wording of those conditions.” 

We conclude that Pulusila’s conditions of probation must be interpreted in 

light of this common understanding. We do not believe that a reasonable person in 

Pulusila’s circumstances would interpret his probation conditions as authorizing the 

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superior court to revoke Pulusila’s probation and send him to prison if his teenage child, 

or one of his child’s friends, secretly brought marijuana into his home. Likewise, we do 

not believe that a reasonable person in Pulusila’s circumstances would interpret his 

probation conditions as authorizing the superior court to revoke Pulusila’s probation and 

send him to prison if Pulusila borrowed or rented a car and, unbeknownst to him, 

someone else had left a weapon or drugs in the car. 

This interpretation of the two probation conditions is also supported by the 

rule laid down by our supreme court in Roman v. State, 570 P.2d 1235, 1240 (Alaska 

1977) — the rule that conditions of probation must be “reasonably related to the 

rehabilitation of the offender and the protection of the public[,] and [not] unduly 

restrictive of liberty.” 

Roman counsels us that, if there is ambiguity in the meaning of a probation 

condition, we should consider whether either of the two competing interpretations makes 

more sense in light of the purposes of probation. Here, it is unclear what public benefit 

would be achieved by sending probationers back to jail for “possessing” explosives, 

ammunition, or drug paraphernalia that they did not know they had. 

For these reasons, we conclude that Pulusila’s two conditions of probation 

prohibited him from knowingly possessing the listed prohibited items. Thus, without 

proof that Pulusila knew that these items were in the truck, the superior court had no 

basis for finding that Pulusila violated these conditions of his probation. 

In its brief to this Court, the State asserts that the superior court 

affirmatively found that Pulusila was, in fact, aware of the presence of the prohibited 

items in the vehicle — that Pulusila’s claim of ignorance was “simply not supported by 

the facts”. But the record fails to support the State’s characterization of the superior 

court’s ruling. The superior court expressly ruled that it did not make any difference 

whether Pulusila knew that the prohibited items were present in the vehicle. Indeed, the 

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court declared that it would be contrary to good policy to require the State to prove that 

Pulusila was aware of these items in the vehicle. 

Because of this ruling, the superior court never resolved the issue of 

whether Pulusila was aware of the presence of the prohibited items in the truck. Instead, 

the superior court mistakenly concluded that the resolution of this issue was irrelevant 

to the question of whether Pulusila violated the conditions of his probation. 

Conclusion 

The superior court’s judgement is REVERSED. The State is free to renew 

its petition to revoke Pulusila’s probation, but the State must prove that Pulusila 

knowingly possessed the prohibited items. 

Given our resolution of this issue, we need not address Pulusila’s claim that 

his probation revocation sentence was excessive. 

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