SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS i

SYnthesis of 

ADAPTATION

OPTIONs FOR

COASTAL AREAS
Recommended Citation:

U.S. EPA (2009). Synthesis of Adaptation Options for Coastal Areas. Washington, DC, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

Climate Ready Estuaries Program. EPA 430-F-08-024, January 2009.
You can download this document from EPA’s Climate 

Ready Estuaries Website at:

http://www.epa.gov/cre/adaptationoptions.html

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Air and Radiation

Office of Water

EPA 430-F-08-024

January 2009

SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs

FOR COASTAL AREAS

Table of Contents

I. Introduction...................................................................................................................................................... 1

II. Overview of Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Areas.......................................................................... 1

Vulnerability of Coastal Areas to Climate Change...................................................................................................1

III. Adaptation Options for Coastal Areas....................................................................................................... 4

Adaptation Options Relevant to Estuarine Management Goals.........................................................................4

Management Goal A: Maintain/Restore Wetlands.....................................................................................................6

Management Goal B: Maintain Sediment Transport..................................................................................................8

Management Goal C: Preserve Coastal Land/Development (Including Infrastructure)........................... 10

Management Goal D: Maintain Shorelines Utilizing “Soft” Measures............................................................. 12

Management Goal E: Maintain Shorelines Utilizing “Hard” Measures .......................................................... 15

Management Goal F: Invasive Species Management............................................................................................. 16

Management Goal G: Preserve Habitat for Vulnerable Species........................................................................ 17

Management Goal H: Maintain Water Quality ........................................................................................................ 19

Management Goal I: Maintain Water Availability .................................................................................................... 21

IV. Summary: Moving Forward on Adaptation ............................................................................................... 22

V. References ..................................................................................................................................................... 23

Appendix A ........................................................................................................................................................ 24

Useful Websites.................................................................................................................................................................... 24

Appendix B ........................................................................................................................................................ 25

General Contact Information for Governments, NGOs, and Program Managers................................... 25

SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS 1

1 Climate change adaptation is an evolving field. As the science advances on both coastal vulnerability and adaptation options, this document will need to be revised 

accordingly. 

2 IPCC AR4 WGII: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Introduction.

I. Introduction

Climate change is being observed in many of our nation’s natural systems. Estuaries and other coastal systems are 

particularly vulnerable to many of the projected impacts of climate change. Regardless of future action to reduce 

emissions, the atmospheric buildup of greenhouse gases has committed the earth to some level of future climate change. 

Projected effects on estuaries include sea level rise, altered frequencies and intensities of precipitation, increased water 

temperatures, and more intense storm events. These effects will impact the health of our coastlines, including the people 

and species that inhabit them.

While not all of these changes will directly affect day-to-day management of estuarine systems, many of them will require 

some adjustment in management strategies and decision making. Managing for a changing climate is further complicated 

by ongoing population growth in coastal areas. As estuarine areas face an increasing risk from both the direct and indirect 

impacts of climate change and the consequences of human responses to climate change, managers will be faced with 

new and different challenges on top of existing system stressors. 

Management actions can ameliorate or exacerbate a system’s vulnerability to climate change. Actions taken to reduce 

impacts or exploit beneficial opportunities resulting from climate change are commonly referred to as climate change 

adaptation. Consideration of climate change impacts and appropriate adaptation options can help to ensure that 

managers’ actions reduce risk, improve resiliency, and ameliorate rather than exacerbate the vulnerability of their coastal 

ecosystems. 

This guide provides a brief introduction to key physical impacts of climate change on estuaries and a review of onthe-ground adaptation options available to coastal managers to reduce their systems’ vulnerability to climate change 

impacts. Reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases, referred to as “mitigation,” is a necessary component of the overall 

response to climate change, and can help avoid, reduce, or delay future impacts. However, this guide focuses on climate 

change adaptation for estuaries and coastal areas because: 1) estuaries are highly and uniquely vulnerable to climate 

change, 2) adaptation will be necessary to address impacts resulting from warming which is already unavoidable due to 

past and current emissions, and 3) adaptation can help reduce the long-term costs associated with climate change.1 For 

more information on how communities and individuals can reduce greenhouse gas emissions, please visit EPA’s Climate 

Change Website (http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/wycd/index.html).

The guide is organized as follows:

•	 Overview of key climate change impacts on coastal areas; 

•	 Existing adaptation options; and

•	 Selected resources for further information. 

II. Overview of Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Areas

Vulnerability of Coastal Areas to Climate Change

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) describes climate vulnerability as a function of: (1) the character, 

rate, and magnitude of the climate change stressor (e.g., 1°C increase in water temperature over the next decade), 

(2) the sensitivity of the system to the climate stressors, and (3) the ability of the system to adjust to climate change, 

moderate potential damages, take advantage of opportunities, or cope with the consequences (referred to as “adaptive 

capacity”).2

The character, rate, and magnitude of climate change stressors will vary regionally. For example, sea level rise will impact 

the bedrock coasts of New England and Oregon differently than the sandy barrier island shorelines of North Carolina. 
2 SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS

3

 IPCC AR4 WGII: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Chapter 6

4

 CCSP Synthesis and Assessment Products are available online at http://www.globalchange.gov/publications/reports/scientific-assessments/saps.

5

 Two different terms are commonly used to describe sea level rise: relative and global (or eustatic) sea level rise. As defined in IPCC AR4 WGII, “‘Eustatic [global] 

sea-level rise’ is a change in global average sea level brought about by an increase in the volume of the world ocean. ‘Relative sea-level rise’ refers to a local increase 

The nation’s diverse estuarine systems will thus be vulnerable to different climate stressors and the ability of these 

systems to adjust to climate change will vary. The specific vulnerability of any single estuary will depend on physical 

features (e.g., elevation gradient, estuarine depth, size), geomorphology, and species composition. All estuaries, however, 

are expected to be vulnerable to climate change to some degree.3

Table 1 provides an overview of key climate change stressors and projected impacts on estuarine systems, which have 

been gleaned from several recent publications: 

•	 The IPCC released its Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) in 2007, which is organized according to three working 

groups focused on: (I) The Physical Science Basis; (II) Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability; and (III) Mitigation of Climate 

Change. The report considers climate change impacts globally and regionally, as well as what actions can be taken to 

address these impacts. 

•	 The U.S. Climate Change Science Program (CCSP) is developing 21 Synthesis and Assessment Products (SAPs) 

to provide information on climate change that is useful to policymakers, resource managers, stakeholders, and the 

public. SAP 4.1 addresses the vulnerability of coastal areas to sea level rise. SAP 4.4 focuses on adaptation options 

for climate sensitive ecosystems and resources. SAP 4.7 examines the impacts of climate change on transportation 

systems, focusing on the Gulf Coast.4

•	 The National Research Council (NRC) recently published a study entitled Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered 

Coasts, which addresses options to protect sheltered coasts against erosion.

The overview of projected impacts in Table 1 provides context for understanding how adaptation options can reduce 

vulnerability and address various management goals. Table 1 should not be considered as a comprehensive source of 

information for climate change impacts to estuaries and coastal systems. There are many other sources of information not 

captured here that should be consulted to obtain a more complete understanding.

Table 1. Overview of Potential Climate Change Impacts on Estuarine Systems

Climate 

Change 

Stressor

Vulnerable 

Area Potential Impact on Estuarine Systems

Sea level rise5 Ocean shores and 

estuarine shores

•	 Coastal change (e.g., erosion, landward migration, barrier island disintegration)

•	 Change in coastal water quality – saltwater intrusion, rising water tables

Wetlands •	 Migration of estuarine salinity gradients

•	 Inundation and erosion of coastal marshes, beaches, mudflats, and other wetlands (leading to loss 

of habitat for many species)

•	 Altered tidal range and tidal asymmetry (leading to tidal mixing and changes in sediment 

transport)

Estuarine open 

water

•	 Increased salinity

•	 Increased water depths

Species •	 Inundation and/or migration inland of marsh species (including vegetation, birds, invertebrates, and 

fish nurseries)

•	 Altered structural diversity of foundation species (e.g., intertidal marsh plants)

•	 Habitat changes (both structural and functional), which could impact a variety of species within 

marsh and wetland ecosystems

•	 Less sunlight available to submerged aquatic vegetation
SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS 3

Climate 

Change 

Stressor

Vulnerable 

Area Potential Impact on Estuarine Systems

Increases 

in water 

temperatures

Ocean shores and 

estuarine shores

•	 Increased stratification/changed circulation

•	 Greater vulnerability to coral bleaching events

Wetlands •	 Shift in species composition (e.g., mangroves and cypress swamps moving northward)

•	 Reductions in water quality due to increased growth of nuisance algae and to lower oxygen levels

Estuarine open 

water

•	 Lower oxygen levels

•	 Increased algal blooms

•	 Changes to microbial processes (nitrogen fixation and denitrification)

Species •	 Altered species distributions (especially seasonal distributions of birds, fish and shellfish) and 

increased invasive species

•	 Increased species mortality rates (e.g., greatly increased coral reef die-off)

•	 Extirpation of cool water species due to temperature spikes after precipitation events

•	 Altered reproductive rates and maturation leading to declining populations

Altered 

timing of 

seasonal 

changes

Ocean shores and 

estuarine shores

•	 Altered winter-spring discharge rates, leading to increased erosion and runoff in some areas 

(West Coast in particular)

Wetlands •	 Increased/decreased precipitation (depending on region) affecting water balance/availability

•	 Changes in timing of spring flow of pollutants

Species •	 Changes in precipitation affecting river discharge balance

•	 Altered species migration and species distribution (especially seasonal distributions of birds, fish, 

and shellfish) and increased invasive species

•	 Disruption of predator/prey availability (especially within fisheries)

•	 Disruption in the synchronicity of food and reproductive pulses (notably in bird populations)

Increases 

in air 

temperatures

Wetlands •	 Decreased water availability and drought in some regions

Species •	 Altered species distributions6

•	 Altered species interactions and metabolic activity

•	 Increased risk of disease and parasitism, especially in species engaged in symbiotic partnerships7

•	 Opened niches for invasive species

Changes in 

precipitation

Ocean shores and 

estuarine shores

•	 Flooding of coastal areas due to higher peak stream discharge rates

•	 Increased erosion due to high-flow discharge

•	 Changes in volume and timing of runoff and sediment distribution

Wetlands •	 Altered winter-spring discharge rates, leading to more pronounced flooding (especially if high flow 

coincides with heavy precipitation events)

•	 Reduced water quality due to changes in freshwater runoff

•	 Changes in precipitation affecting pollutant loading levels in water bodies

•	 Altered salinity gradient from increase/decrease of streamflow

Species •	 Local extirpations of fish, amphibians, or water-dispersed plants due to drought conditions that 

isolate tributaries

in the level of the ocean relative to the land, which might be due to increased volume and/or land subsidence (IPCC AR4 WGII: Glossary). The use of the term “sea 

level rise” throughout this document refers to relative sea level rise. 

6

 For example, SAP 4.4 finds that “warm water species of zooplankton, intertidal invertebrates, and fish in marine systems have migrated into areas previously too ‘cool’ 

to support growth” (SAP 4.4, Chapter 7).

7

 SAP 4.4 reports that, “marine diseases in corals, turtles, mollusks, marine mammals, and echinoderms have increased sharply over the past three decades, especially 

in the Caribbean” (SAP 4.4, Chapter 7). As with most climate change stressors, temperature will interact with other stressors such as chemical pollutants and excess 

nutrients, which will complicate the ability to predict species responses.
4 SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS

Climate 

Change 

Stressor

Vulnerable 

Area Potential Impact on Estuarine Systems

Elevated 

atmospheric 

CO2

Ocean shores •	 Reduced carbonate deposition in marine taxa

•	 Increased coral reef die-off

Wetlands •	 Increased algal blooms

Species •	 Changes in plant growth and turnover 

•	 Ocean acidification, impacting upon pH-sensitive organisms

Changes 

in storm 

intensity

Oceans shores 

and estuarine 

shores

•	 Increased intensity of coastal storms in some areas, causing coastal erosion, altered sediment 

transport, inundation of tidal wetlands, and loss of established upland vegetation and structures

Estuarine open 

water

•	 Increased magnitude of coastal storms in some areas, altering hydrological regimes

All of the above impacts statements are derived from the following reports: IPCC AR4 WGII: Chapters 3,6,19; SAP 4.1: Chapters 1-4; SAP 4.4: 

Chapters 6-8; SAP 4.7: Chapter 3; NRC: Chapter 2

III. Adaptation Options for Coastal Areas

Climate change adaptation options vary based on the timing of the management response (prior to or after a climate 

event has occurred) and the type of action (e.g., physical, technological, institutional). Two different time frames for 

adaptation options are generally considered: (1) proactive measures to preserve and protect resources in anticipation 

of climate change impacts (a.k.a., anticipatory options); or (2) reactive measures that are implemented after climate 

change impacts are observed. Reactive adaptation options can be further categorized into (a) responses that are 

developed immediately but planned to be initiated once climate change impacts are observed; and (b) ad hoc reactive 

responses to climate change impacts after they have been observed. Managers can select among these options based on 

available information on risks and reversibility of the negative consequences and costs associated with action taken now 

versus later. Adaptation strategies undertaken in any of these time frames may involve physical changes, technological 

advancements, or simply management decisions that reflect awareness of climate change impacts on the region. 

Different stakeholders may also be involved depending on the type of option or may all be involved in different aspects 

of any given adaptation strategy. Key actors could include local governments (e.g., county and city agencies, planning 

and zoning commissions), state governments (e.g., environmental, land, and coastal management agencies), the federal 

government (e.g., EPA, NOAA, Army Corps of Engineers), businesses (e.g., contractors, engineers, developers, commercial 

fishing operations), non-governmental organizations, research institutions, and the public.

Adaptation Options Relevant to Estuarine Management Goals

Adaptation options are organized below according to some of the major categories of management goals common to 

estuarine programs, including:

•	 Management Goal A: Maintain/restore wetlands

•	 Management Goal B: Maintain sediment transport

•	 Management Goal C: Preserve coastal land/development (including infrastructure)

•	 Management Goal D: Maintain shorelines utilizing “soft” measures

•	 Management Goal E: Maintain shorelines utilizing “hard” measures

•	 Management Goal F: Invasive species management

•	 Management Goal G: Preserve habitat for vulnerable species

•	 Management Goal H: Maintain water quality

•	 Management Goal I: Maintain water availability
SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS 5

Some adaptation options may apply directly or indirectly to multiple management goals. For example, allowing wetlands 

to migrate inland will not only maintain wetlands, but could also directly address management goals of maintaining water 

quality and preserving habitat for vulnerable species. Adaptation options are categorized according to the management 

goal they most directly affect or address. 

It is also important to note that some adaptation options may contribute to the protection of human infrastructure, 

while causing detrimental effects to natural systems. For example, shoreline hardening could adversely affect wetlands 

by preventing sediment transport essential to that ecosystem. Since shoreline hardening, softening, and retreat options 

(i.e., promote wetland migration) all have individual benefits for shoreline and coastal protection, it may be beneficial to 

develop a comprehensive shoreline plan outlining which areas can benefit from the appropriate shoreline protection 

approach. A comprehensive shoreline plan allows managers to take into consideration priorities and tradeoffs and 

consider implementing different options in different areas according to which resources are most in need of protection.

The text boxes throughout this section provide specific examples of measures undertaken by states or localities.

The tables in this section provide examples of adaptation options for each management goal. 

Each option is characterized according to the following categories: 

•	 Climate Stressor Addressed – identifies one or more of the key climate stressors described in Section II

(and Table 1) that the adaptation option could address.

•	 Additional Management Goals Addressed – indicates additional management goals that the adaptation option may 

help address.

•	 Benefits – lists some of the environmental, economic, or other benefits of the adaptation option.

•	 Constraints – lists some of the limitations of the adaptation option.

•	 Examples – includes references to specific locations and/or organizations that have implemented this adaptation 

option (where known/available). 
6 SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS

Management Goal A: Maintain/Restore Wetlands

Adaptation options for maintaining/restoring wetlands 

primarily focus on facilitating wetland migration through 

changes in legislation and regulations (e.g., rolling 

easements) and prohibitions on shoreline hardening. 

Examples of these types of policies are presented in Table 2.

Programs seeking to protect existing wetlands from 

development, pollution, and habitat changes that may be 

exacerbated by sea level rise could consider developing 

legislation or modifying land use rules (e.g., zoning) to facilitate 

wetland migration inland. Programs that are not constrained 

by existing institutions or policies could focus on prohibiting 

bulkheads and allowing marshes to migrate inland.

Table 2. Adaptation Options for Maintaining/Restoring 

Wetlands

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Allow coastal 

wetlands to migrate 

inland (e.g., through 

setbacks, density 

restrictions, land 

purchases8

)

Sea level rise Preserve habitat for 

vulnerable species; 

Preserve coastal 

land/development

Maintains species 

habitats; maintains 

protection for inland 

ecosystems

In highly developed 

areas, there is often 

no land available for 

wetlands to migrate, 

or it can be costly to 

landowners

Buzzards Bay, 

Massachusetts9

Promote wetland 

accretion by 

introducing sediment

Sea level rise Maintain sediment 

transport

Maintains sediment 

transport to 

wetlands, which 

protects coastal land 

from storms

Requires continual 

management; can be 

very costly

Southern Louisiana10

Prohibit hard shore 

protection 

Sea level rise Preserve habitat for 

vulnerable species; 

Maintain sediment 

transport

Allows for species 

migrations inland

Alternatives 

of bulkhead 

construction are 

more expensive and 

more difficult to 

obtain permits for

Numerous states and 

local governments 

have drastically 

reduced permits 

for hard protection 

(e.g., King County, 

Washington11).

8

 This adaptation option may not be appropriate in some locations due to biologic or geologic processes that prevent wetland migration inland, or due to lack of land 

available for wetlands to migrate.

9

 Buzzards Bay Action Plan: Planning for a Shifting Shoreline (1991 CCMP), http://www.buzzardsbay.org/ccmpold/ccmp-ap-shift.pdf

10 Louisiana Comprehensive Master Plan for a Sustainable Coast, http://www.lacpra.org/index.cfm?md=pagebuilder&tmp=home&nid=24&pnid=0&pid=28&fmid=0&ca

tid=0&elid=0

11 King County Shoreline Erosion Control Bulletin, http://www.metrokc.gov/DDES/acrobat/cib/16.pdf

Transportation Planning Incorporating 

Wetland Preservation in HoustonGalveston, Texas

Management Goal: Management Goal A:

Maintain/restore wetlands

Climate Stressor Addressed: Sea level rise

The Houston-Galveston Area Council, a voluntary 

organization of local government officials and agencies, 

developed the 2035 Regional Transportation Plan, a longrange system plan that aimed to improve transportation in 

the region. One of the major goals of the plan was to alleviate 

some of the environmental impacts of transportation on 

habitats. The plan identified eight ecological zones within the 

region, paying particular attention to wetlands, which not only 

provide rich ecological habitats, but also protect shoreline 

areas from erosion and serve as buffers from flooding and 

coastal storms.

Source: SAP 4.7, Chapter 5
SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS 7

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Remove hard 

protection or other 

barriers to tidal and 

riverine flow (e.g., 

riverine and tidal 

dike removals)

Sea level rise Maintain sediment 

transport; Maintain 

shorelines

May allow for 

wetland migration

Costly and 

destructive to 

shoreline property

King County, 

Washington12

Incorporate wetland 

protection into 

infrastructure 

planning (e.g., 

transportation 

planning, sewer 

utilities)

Sea level rise; 

Changes in 

precipitation

Maintain water 

quality; Preserve 

habitat for 

vulnerable species

Protects valuable 

and important 

infrastructure

Houston-Galveston 

long-range 

transportation plan 

(see text box on 

page 6)

Preserve and restore 

the structural 

complexity and 

biodiversity of 

vegetation in tidal 

marshes, seagrass 

meadows, and 

mangroves

Increases in water 

temperatures; 

Changes in 

precipitation

Maintain water 

quality; Maintain 

shorelines; Invasive 

species management

Vegetation protects 

against erosion, 

protects mainland 

shorelines from tidal 

energy, storm surge, 

and wave forces, 

filters pollutants, and 

absorbs atmospheric 

CO2

Chesapeake Bay 

Living Shorelines 

Initiative13

Identify and 

protect ecologically 

significant (“critical”) 

areas such as 

nursery grounds, 

spawning grounds, 

and areas of high 

species diversity

Altered timing of 

seasonal changes; 

Increases in air and 

water temperatures

Invasive species 

management; 

Preserve habitat for 

vulnerable species

Protecting critical 

areas will promote 

biodiversity and 

ecosystem services 

(e.g., producing and 

adding nutrients 

to coastal systems, 

serving as refuges and 

nurseries for species)

May require federal 

or state protection

Massachusetts 

Climate Protection 

Plan14

Establish rolling 

easements15

Sea level rise Maintain water 

quality; Maintain 

sediment transport 

Lower long-term 

costs; sediment 

transport remains 

undisturbed; property 

owner bears risks of 

sea level rise

Does not prevent 

migration of salinity 

gradient 

Worcester 

County, Maryland; 

South Carolina 

Coastal Council; 

California Coastal 

Commission16

12 King County, WA - Land Use, Planning, and Infrastructure Actions for Estuary/Nearshore, http://www.govlink.org/watersheds/8/planning/chinook-plan/volumeI/

02_Executive_Summary.pdf

13 

See Appendix B 14 

Massachusetts Climate Protection Plan, http://www.newamerica.net/files/MAClimateProtPlan0504.pdf

15 Rolling easements are a type of easement placed along the shoreline to prevent property owners from holding back the sea but allow other types of use and activity 

on the land. As the sea advances, the easement automatically moves or “rolls” landward. Because shoreline stabilization structures cannot be erected, sediment transport 

remains undisturbed and wetlands can migrate naturally. Unlike setbacks, which prohibit development near the shore and can often result in “takings” claims if a property 

is deemed undevelopable due to the setback line, rolling easements place no restrictions on development. They allow the landowner to build on their property with 

the understanding that they will not be able to prevent shoreline erosion by armoring the shore, or the public from walking along the shore—no matter how close 

the shoreline gets to their structure. If erosion threatens the structure, the owner will have to relocate the building or allow it to succumb to the encroaching sea. Titus,

James, 1998, Rising Seas, Coastal Erosion, and the Takings Clause: How to Save Wetlands and Beaches Without Hurting Property Owners, Maryland Law Review, 57: 

1279-1399, http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/downloads/takings.pdf

16 NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/initiatives/shoreline_ppr_easements.html
8 SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS

Management Goal B: Maintain Sediment Transport

Many adaptation options that maintain sediment transport 

are reactionary, in that they seek to reverse changes that 

have already occurred or changes that will continue to 

occur. Because sediment transport is based on a constant 

cycle of gains and losses, all of these options require 

maintenance. However, when combined with other actions, 

these adaptation options may work to prevent loss of 

coastal habitats and enable marshes to accrete at a rate 

consistent with sea level rise.

Adaptation options to maintain sediment transport include 

either trapping sediment that would otherwise migrate 

or reintroducing sediment into systems (see Table 3). 

Constructing groin structures traps sand from traveling down 

shore. Adding sand to beaches through beach nourishment 

projects that extend the shoreline or create dunes 

encourages sediment transport and reverses losses due to 

erosion. Creating a regional sediment management (RSM) plan to manage sediments from source to sink within a watershed 

can potentially save money, solve engineering problems, and restore natural processes.

Table 3. Adaptation Options for Maintaining Sediment Transport

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Trap or add sand 

through beach 

nourishment – the 

addition of sand to a 

shoreline to enhance 

or create 

a beach area

Sea level rise Preserve habitat for 

vulnerable species; 

Preserve coastal 

land/development; 

Maintain shorelines

Creates protective 

beach for inland 

areas; replenishes 

sand lost to erosion

Periodic 

maintenance cycle 

required; high costs 

to import beach 

material

Cape Charles, 

Virginia; Ocean 

City, Maryland; 

Virginia Beach, 

Virginia17; Avalon, 

New Jersey; Bethany 

Beach, Delaware18, 

Delaware Bay (see 

text box above)

Trap sand through 

construction of 

groins – a barriertype structure 

that traps sand 

by interrupting 

longshore transport

Sea level rise Preserve coastal 

land/development; 

Maintain shorelines

Creates more 

natural shore face 

than bulkheads or 

revetments; quick fix

Can trigger or 

accelerate erosion 

on downdrift side 

and loss of beach 

habitat

Rappahannock River, 

Virginia; Ocean City, 

Maryland19; Long 

Beach, New York

Beach Nourishment to Protect Horseshoe 

Crab Habitat in Delaware Bay

Management Goal: Management Goal B: Maintain sediment 

transport

Climate Stressor Addressed: Sea level rise

The Delaware Department of Natural Resources and 

Environmental Control and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 

combined efforts to conduct a study on the impact of beach 

nourishment on horseshoe crab populations in the Delaware 

Bay. Habitats that received beach nourishment were shown to 

increase horseshoe crab spawning and abundance. The study 

also showed that the type of sediment used for nourishment 

is critical, with coarser estuarine beach sediments providing a 

more suitable habitat for horseshoe crabs. 

Source: Delaware Division of Soil and Water Conservation, 2002, http://

el.erdc.usace.army.mil/tessp/pdfs/New%20Horseshoe%20Crab%20

Habitat.pdf 

17 NRC 2007, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3

18 Bethany Beach Beach Nourishment and Storm Damage Reduction Project, http://www.swc.dnrec.delaware.gov/Pages/Beach%20nourishment%202007.aspx 

19 NRC 2007, Mitigating Shore ErosionAlong Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3
SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS 9

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Create a regional 

sediment 

management (RSM) 

plan 

Changes in 

precipitation; Sea 

level rise

Maintain water 

quality

Considers entire 

watershed, including 

upstream reaches

Will require more 

coordination across 

regions, including 

private lands

Currently under 

development: New 

York-New Jersey 

Harbor Estuary 

Program20

Develop adaptive 

stormwater 

management 

practices (e.g., 

promoting natural 

buffers, adequate 

culvert sizing)

Changes in 

precipitation; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Maintain water 

quality

Preserves natural 

sediment flow 

and protects 

water quality of 

downstream reaches

Improvements can 

be costly

St. John’s River 

Water Management 

District21

20 NY-NJ Harbor Estuary Program, http://harborestuary.org/rsm.htm

21 St. John’s River Water Management District – The Guana Marsh Renovation Project, http://agcj.tamu.edu/404/pdf/fs-guana-ex.pdf
10 SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS

Management Goal C: Preserve Coastal Land/

Development (Including Infrastructure)

Adaptation options that preserve coastal land and 

development focus on land use planning and management, 

land exchange and acquisition programs, and changes 

to infrastructure (See Table 4). These adaptation 

options primarily aim to preserve coastal land on which 

development is planned or already exists. Land use 

management involves using integrated approaches to 

coastal zone management as well as land use planning. Land 

exchange and acquisition programs allow for coastal land to 

be freed up for preservation uses. Changes to infrastructure 

can include limiting where hazardous and polluting 

structures can be built (including landfills and chemical 

facilities) as well as changing engineering structures that 

affect water bodies and will be impacted by climate change.

Land use planning and management, as well as changes 

to infrastructure, would be appropriate adaptation options for programs that are looking to implement anticipatory 

changes. These options require working with various key stakeholders and a longer timeline for implementation. Land 

exchange and acquisition programs would be viable options for estuaries that have a management goal of acquiring 

more land in order to protect currently threatened areas.

Table 4. Adaptation Options for Preserving Coastal Land/Development (Including Infrastructure)

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Land exchange 

programs – owners 

exchange property 

in the floodplain 

for county-owned 

land outside of the 

floodplain

Changes in 

precipitation; Sea 

level rise; Changes in 

storm intensity

Preserve habitat for 

vulnerable species; 

Maintain/restore 

wetlands

Preserves open 

spaces; more land 

available to protect 

estuaries

Program is 

voluntary; land 

must be available 

for development 

elsewhere

Suffolk County, 

New York22

Integrate coastal 

management into 

land use planning

Changes in 

precipitation; Sea 

level rise; Changes in 

storm intensity

Preserve habitat for 

vulnerable species; 

Maintain/restore 

wetlands

Requires more 

state agency 

oversight; allows for 

conservation and 

management goals to 

be incorporated

Can be difficult to 

have local and state 

agencies agree; 

private property 

rights

Oregon; 

Chesapeake Bay 

(Virginia); Florida; 

North Carolina23

Create permitting 

rules that constrain 

locations for landfills, 

hazardous waste 

dumps, mine tailings, 

and toxic chemical 

facilities

Sea level rise; 

Increases in water 

temperatures; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Preserve habitat for 

vulnerable species; 

Maintain/restore 

wetlands; Maintain 

water quality

Zones accordingly 

to protect estuaries 

and coastal zones

Can be difficult to 

enact these zoning 

regulations

Many states have 

recognized the 

impacts sea level 

rise and flooding will 

have on these types 

of facilities24, but few 

have taken action

22 The Trust for Public Land, 2008 Conservation Award Winners, http://www.tpl.org/tier3_cd.cfm?content_item_id=22135&folder_id=2867 

23 NRC 2007, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 5

24 San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission, http://www.bcdc.ca.gov/planning/climate_change/climate_change.shtml

New Jersey Coastal Blue Acres 

Land Acquisition Program

Management Goal: Management Goal C: 

Preserve coastal land/development (including infrastructure)

Climate Stressor Addressed: Sea level rise

The Coastal Blue Acres program, organized by the New 

Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, is a land 

acquisition program that takes into account the impacts of 

climate change on coastal areas. The program acquires coastal 

lands damaged or prone to damages by storms to provide a 

buffer for other lands, as well as providing space for recreation 

and conservation. For example, program funds were used to 

acquire 18.5 acres in Lower Township, Cape May County as an 

addition to the Higbee Beach Wildlife Management Area. 

It provides critical undeveloped, upland and wetland habitat at 

the southern end of the Cape May Peninsula, and will be used 

for habitat and species restoration.

Source: IPCC AR4 WGII, Chapter 17; New Jersey Department of 

Environmental Protection, http://www.state.nj.us/dep/greenacres/index.html
SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS 11

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Manage realignment 

and deliberately 

realign engineering 

structures affecting 

rivers, estuaries, and 

coastlines

Changes in 

precipitation; Sea 

level rise; Changes in 

storm intensity

Preserve habitat for 

vulnerable species; 

Maintain/restore 

wetlands; Maintain 

sediment transport

Reduces engineering 

costs; protects 

ecosystems and 

estuaries; allows for 

natural migration of 

rivers

Can be costly United Kingdom/

European Union25

Land acquisition 

program – purchase 

coastal land that is 

damaged or prone 

to damage and use it 

for conservation

Altered timing of 

seasonal changes; 

Increases in air and 

water temperatures; 

Sea level rise; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Preserve habitat for 

vulnerable species; 

Maintain/restore 

wetlands

Can provide a 

buffer to inland 

areas; prevents 

development on the 

land

Can be expensive; 

land may not be 

available

New Jersey Coastal 

Blue Acres (see text 

box on page 10)

Integrated Coastal 

Zone Management 

(ICZM) – using 

an integrated 

approach to achieve 

sustainability

Changes in 

precipitation; Sea 

level rise; Increases 

in air and water 

temperatures; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Preserve habitat for 

vulnerable species; 

Maintain/restore 

wetlands; Maintain 

water availability; 

Maintain water 

quality; Maintain 

sediment transport; 

Maintain shorelines

Considers all 

stakeholders in 

planning, balancing 

objectives; addresses 

all aspects of climate 

change

Stakeholders 

must be willing to 

compromise;

requires much more 

effort in planning

European Union; 

Australia26

Incorporate 

consideration of 

climate change 

impacts into 

planning for new 

infrastructure (e.g., 

homes, businesses)

Sea level rise; 

Changes in 

precipitation; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Preserve habitat for 

vulnerable species; 

Maintain/restore 

wetlands

Engineering could 

be modified to 

account for changes 

in precipitation or 

seasonal timing of 

flows; siting decisions 

could take into 

account sea level rise

Land owners 

will likely resist 

relocating away 

from prime coastal 

locations 

Rhode Island State 

Building Code27

25 IPCC AR3 WGII: Chapter 13, http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/tar/wg2/511.htm; The Effects of Biological and Physical Processes on Saltmarsh Erosion and Restoration 

in SE England, http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/research/theme4/workshop1/chapter_5.pdf

26 European Commission Coastal Zone Management, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/iczm/home.htm; Australian Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage 

and the Arts: National Cooperative Approach to Integrated Coastal Zone Management - Framework and Implementation Plan, http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/

publications/framework/index.html; Integrated Coastal Zone Management, http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/iczm/index.html

27 Rhode Island Sea Grant – Coastal Resources Center, http://seagrant.gso.uri.edu/ccd/slr/SLR_policies_summary_Mar6_final.pdf
12 SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS

Management Goal D: 

Maintain Shorelines Utilizing “Soft” Measures

Approaches for maintaining shorelines in the face 

of sea level rise include both “soft” measures and 

“hard” measures. Each of these approaches or some 

combination of them may be appropriate depending 

on the characteristics of a particular location (e.g., shore 

protection costs, property values, the environmental 

importance of habitat, the feasibility of protecting shores 

without harming the habitat). “Soft” measures aim to 

develop living shorelines through beach nourishment, 

planting dune grasses, marsh creation, and planting 

submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) (See Table 5).

Table 5. Adaptation Options for 

Maintaining Shorelines through “Soft” Measures

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Replace shoreline 

armoring with living 

shorelines – through 

beach nourishment, 

planting vegetation, 

etc.

Sea level rise; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Maintain/restore 

wetlands; Preserve 

habitat for 

vulnerable species; 

Preserve coastal 

land/development

Reduces negative 

effects of armoring 

(downdrift erosion); 

maintains beach 

habitat

Can be costly; 

requires more 

planning and 

materials than 

armoring

Living Shorelines 

Stewardship Initiative 

(Chesapeake Bay)28

Remove shoreline 

hardening structures 

such as bulkheads, 

dikes, and other 

engineered 

structures to 

allow for shoreline 

migration

Sea level rise Maintain sediment 

transport

Allows for shoreline 

migration

Costly for, and 

destructive to, 

shoreline property

King County, 

Washington29; Puget 

Sound Action Team30

Plant SAV (such 

as sea grasses) to 

stabilize sediment 

and reduce erosion

Changes in 

precipitation; 

Sea level rise

Maintain/restore 

wetlands; Preserve 

habitat for 

vulnerable species; 

Preserve coastal 

land/development

Stabilizes sediment; 

does not require 

costly construction 

procedures

Seasonality – grasses 

diminish in winter 

months, when wave 

activity is often 

more severe because 

of storms; light 

availability is essential

Chesapeake Bay 

(Living Shoreline 

Stewardship 

Initiative)31; 

Tampa Bay NEP32

Creating Marshes in the Chesapeake Bay, 

Maryland Shore Erosion Control Program

Management Goal: Management Goal D: 

Maintain shorelines utilizing “soft” measures

Climate Stressor Addressed: Sea level rise

Through the Maryland Department of Natural Resources, the 

Shore Erosion Control program has created over 300 marsh 

fringe sites along the Chesapeake Bay. The marshes have been 

created as “living shoreline” in order to control erosion and 

reduce land lost to sea level rise. These non-structural shoreline 

stabilization methods create a vegetative buffer for the land, 

improve water quality, and provide habitat to many species. The 

marshes were created with sand fill and stabilized through the 

planting of marsh grasses and the use of soils, stones, gravels, and 

biodegradable protective materials. Individual property owners 

who wish to construct these types of erosion control measures 

can also receive financial assistance to do so through the Shore 

Erosion Control program.

Source: IPCC AR4 WGII, Chapter 3; Maryland Department of Natural 

Resources, http://www.dnr.state.md.us/ccws/sec/index.asp

28 See Appendix B

29 Seahurst Bulkhead Removal and Beach Restoration Assessment, http://www.govlink.org/watersheds/9/plan-implementation/SRFB-seahurst-park-bulkhead-study.aspx

30 Puget Sound Alternative Shoreline Stabilization Evaluation Project, http://www.psparchives.com/our_work/restore_habitat/restore_resources.htm

31 See Appendix B

32 Tampa Bay Sea Grass Planting Initiative, http://www.tampabaywatch.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=content.home&pageID=24 
SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS 13

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Create marsh by 

planting the 

appropriate species 

– typically grasses, 

sedges, or rushes – 

in the existing 

substrate

Sea level rise Maintain water 

quality; Maintain/

restore wetlands; 

Preserve habitat for 

vulnerable species; 

Invasive species 

management

Provides protective 

barrier; maintains 

and often increases 

habitat

Conditions must 

be right for marsh 

to survive (e.g., 

sunlight for grasses, 

calm water); can be 

affected by seasonal 

changes

Maryland Shore 

Erosion Control 

Program33; 

Chesapeake Bay 

(Living Shoreline 

Stewardship 

Initiative)34

Create dunes along 

backshore of beach; 

includes planting 

dune grasses and 

sand fencing to 

induce settling of 

wind-blown sands

Sea level rise Preserve coastal 

land/development

Protects both the 

beach and inland 

areas from sea level 

rise

Costs of importing 

sand; takes land away 

from public use

Chesapeake 

Bay (Virginia, in 

particular)35

Use natural 

breakwaters of 

oysters (or install 

other natural 

breakwaters) to 

dissipate wave 

action and protect 

shorelines

Increases in water 

temperatures; Sea 

level rise; Changes 

in precipitation; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Preserve coastal 

land/development; 

Maintain water 

quality; Invasive 

species management

Naturally protect 

shorelines and 

marshes and inhibit 

erosion inshore of 

the reef; will induce 

sediment deposition

May not be 

sustainable in the 

long-term, because 

breakwaters are 

not likely to provide 

reliable protection 

against erosion in 

major storms

South Carolina 

Oyster Restoration 

and Enhancement 

(SCORE)36; New 

York/New Jersey 

Baykeeper Oyster 

Restoration 

Program37; VIMS 

Oyster Restoration 

Programs 

(Virginia)38; Oyster 

Reef Restoration in 

the Mid-Atlantic39

Install rock sills 

and other artificial 

breakwaters in front 

of tidal marshes 

along energetic 

estuarine shores

Sea level rise; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Preserve coastal 

land/development; 

Maintain water 

quality

Naturally protect 

shorelines and 

marshes and inhibit 

erosion inshore of 

the reef; will induce 

sediment deposition

May not be 

sustainable in the 

long-term, because 

breakwaters 

are not likely to 

provide reliable 

protection against 

erosion in major 

storms; requires 

encroachment 

bayward or 

riverward, usually 

beyond the property 

limit, complicating 

the process for 

obtaining permits for 

construction

St. Mary’s County, 

Maryland40; 

MississippiAlabama Sea 

Grant Consortium 

(MASGC)41

33 Maryland Department of Natural Resources, http://www.dnr.state.md.us/ccws/sec/index.asp

34 See Appendix B

35 NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3; Chesapeake Bay Living Shoreline Stewardship Initiative (see Appendix B)

36 South Carolina Oyster Restoration and Enhancement, http://score.dnr.sc.gov/index.php 

37 New York/New Jersey Baykeeper, http://www.nynjbaykeeper.org/programs/42 

38 Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Molluscan Ecology Program, http://www.vims.edu/mollusc/monrestoration/restoyreef.htm 

39 University of New Hampshire - Oyster Restoration Program, http://www.oysters.unh.edu/other_restoration.html 

40 NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3

41 Shoreline Protection Alternatives, http://www.masgc.org/pdf/masgp/07-026.pdf
14 SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Restrict or prohibit 

development in 

erosion zones

Sea level rise; 

Changes in 

precipitation; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Preserve coastal 

land/development; 

Maintain/restore 

wetlands

Allows for more 

land available to 

protect estuaries

Will not help areas 

already developed; 

difficult to get all 

parties to agree

New Jersey (limits 

development)42; San 

Mateo, California43

Redefine riverine 

flood hazard zones 

to match projected 

expansion of 

flooding frequency 

and extent

Sea level rise; 

Changes in 

precipitation; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Preserve coastal 

land/development; 

Maintain/restore 

wetlands

Protects riverine 

systems and zones 

accordingly

Impacts on flood 

insurance; may 

require changing 

zoning ordinances, 

which can be difficult

King County, 

Washington44

Increase shoreline 

setbacks

Sea level rise; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Preserve coastal 

land/development

Protects coastal 

property in the long 

term and prevents 

development directly 

on the shoreline

Will not help areas 

already developed

Buzzards Bay45; 

North Carolina 

Coastal Resources 

Commission (CRC) 

is developing new 

setback rules46; 

South Carolina47

Composite systems 

– incorporate 

elements of two 

or more methods 

(e.g., breakwater, 

sand fill, and planting 

vegetation)

Sea level rise; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Preserve coastal 

land/development 

Incorporates 

benefits of multiple 

systems; can address 

longer stretches of 

coastline

“Softer approaches” 

(e.g., vegetation, 

beach nourishment) 

require more 

maintenance over 

time; can become 

costly

Chesapeake Bay; 

James City County, 

Virginia48; 

MississippiAlabama Sea 

Grant Consortium 

(MASGC)49

42 New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection – Coastal Zone Management Rules, http://www.state.nj.us/dep/landuse/7-7e.pdf 

43 California Environmental Resources Evaluation System – County of San Mateo Local Coastal Program Policies, http://ceres.ca.gov/planning/lcp/sanmateo/visual.html 

44 King County, WA 2007 Climate Action Plan, http://www.metrokc.gov/exec/news/2007/pdf/ClimatePlan.pdf 

45 Buzzards Bay Action Plan: Planning for a Shifting Shoreline (1991 CCMP), http://www.buzzardsbay.org/ccmpold/ccmp-ap-shift.pdf

46 North Carolina Coastal Resources Commission, http://dcm2.enr.state.nc.us/CRC/crc.htm 

47 South Carolina Code of Regulations, http://www.scstatehouse.net/coderegs/c030.htm 

48 NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3

49 Shore Protection Alternatives, http://www.masgc.org/pdf/masgp/07-026.pdf
SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS 15

Management Goal E: Maintain Shorelines Utilizing “Hard” Measures

Shoreline protection can also be achieved through hardening techniques such as constructing bulkheads, seawalls, 

revetments, and breakwaters, or reinforcing dikes and headlands (See Table 6). Adaptation options that use hardening 

techniques are often preserving existing development (e.g., homes and businesses) and infrastructure (e.g., sewage 

systems, roads), or protecting land available for future development or infrastructure. While these options may provide 

immediate remediation, they may not be sustainable in protecting coastal land in the long term. Many of these adaptation 

options have potential negative impacts on habitats and ecosystems as well, including wetland loss where migration is 

blocked by hard structures. 

Table 6. Adaptation Options for Maintaining Shorelines through “Hard” Measures 

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Fortify dikes Sea level rise; 

Changes in 

precipitation; 

Increases in water 

temperatures; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Maintain water 

quality; Preserve 

coastal land/

development

Protect land subject 

to flooding and 

storm surges

Can be costly; 

salinity gradient may 

still migrate

Tyrell County, 

North Carolina 

(dikes primarily 

used to protect 

agricultural land)50

Harden shorelines 

with bulkheads – 

anchored, vertical 

barriers constructed 

at the shoreline to 

block erosion

Sea level rise; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Preserve coastal 

land/development

Most common; 

simple materials 

used for 

construction; quick 

fix

Loss of intertidal 

habitats; adjacent 

properties must 

be bulkheaded to 

maintain consistent 

shorefront

Manhattan, Long 

Island, New York; 

Mobile Bay, Alabama; 

Delaware Bay; 

Pacific Northwest51

Harden shorelines 

with seawalls

Sea level rise; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Preserve coastal 

land/development

Withstand greater 

wave energy than 

bulkheads; simple 

materials used for 

construction; quick 

fix

Loss of intertidal 

habitats

Puget Sound, 

Washington; James 

River in Newport 

News, Virginia52

Harden shorelines 

with revetments that 

armor the slope face 

of the shoreline

Sea level rise; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Preserve coastal 

land/development

Simple materials 

used for 

construction; quick 

fix

Loss of intertidal 

habitats; often 

constructed 

poorly and lead to 

destabilization of 

banks, increasing 

erosion

Potomac 

River, Virginia; 

Northumberland 

County, Virginia53

Harden shorelines 

with breakwaters 

– structures placed 

offshore to reduce 

wave action

Sea level rise; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Maintain water 

quality; Preserve 

coastal land/

development

Employs materials 

that are locally 

available; quick fix; 

create good habitat 

for marshes and 

mangroves (calm 

water)

Downdrift coast 

may be deprived of 

sediment, increasing 

erosion; loss of 

habitat

Chesapeake Bay54

Headland control – 

reinforce or 

accentuate an existing 

geomorphic feature 

or create an artificial 

headland (e.g., 

Geotextile tubes)

Sea level rise; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Preserve coastal 

land/development

Can be cost-effective May reduce 

sediment supply 

to adjacent shores, 

increasing erosion; 

loss of habitat

Hog Island, Virginia; 

Westmoreland 

County, Virginia; 

Texas55

50 SAP 4.1, Coastal Sesitivity to Sea-Level Rise: A Focus on the Mid-Atlantic Region, Appendix G

51 NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3

52 NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3

53 NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3

54 NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3

55 NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapter 3
16 SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS

Management Goal F: Invasive Species Management

Limiting invasions by non-native species as climate-driven changes modify habitat conditions may involve preventing the 

introduction of invasive species or removing species that are already posing a threat to native populations (see Table 7). As a 

reactive solution, the removal of invasive species allows for native species to be re-established and ecosystems to be restored. 

Preventing the introduction of invasive species requires proactive planning and strengthening of rules and regulations. 56

In some cases, adapting to species change will be necessary. Climate change will likely shift habitats poleward, forcing 

some species to migrate in order to survive. Management options may have to consider climate change when making 

long term investments based on an assumption of species persistence.

Table 7. Adaptation Options for Invasive Species Management

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Strengthen rules 

that prevent the 

introductions of 

invasive species (e.g., 

enforce no discharge 

zones for ballast 

water)

Altered timing of 

seasonal changes; 

Increases in air and 

water temperatures

Maintain/restore 

wetlands; Preserve 

habitat for vulnerable 

species

Prevents difficult 

eradication of 

invasives by 

preventing their 

introductions

Difficult to regulate Oregon57

Remove invasive 

species and restore 

native species

Altered timing of 

seasonal changes; 

Increases in air and 

water temperatures

Maintain/restore 

wetlands; Preserve 

habitat for 

vulnerable species

Local removals of 

invasives is locally 

viable to improve 

marsh characteristics 

that promote fish 

and wildlife

Difficult (if not 

impossible) on a 

larger scale

Peconic Estuary 

Program58

56 For more information on invasive species management, see http://www.epa.gov/owow/invasive_species/invasives_management/; U.S. EPA and the Environmental 

Law Institute Report: Effects of Climate Change on Aquatic Invasive Species and Implications for Management and Research, http://oaspub.epa.gov/eims/eimscomm.

getfile?p_download_id=472114

57 Oregon Department of Fish & Wildlife, Oregon Invasive Species Action Plan, http://www.oregon.gov/OISC/docs/pdf/oisc_plan6_05.pdf

58 Invasive Species Management in the Peconic Estuary, http://www.peconicestuary.org/Invasives.html 
SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS 17

Management Goal G: Preserve Habitat for Vulnerable Species

Adaptation options to preserve habitat for vulnerable species may involve actively increasing ecosystem boundaries or 

removing barriers that prevent habitat expansion or migration (see Table 8). Actions to increase ecosystem boundaries 

could include purchasing upland development or property rights and expanding the planning horizons of land use 

planning to incorporate longer-term climate predictions. Actions that remove barriers to expansion might include 

retreating away from and abandoning coastal barriers (e.g., seawalls). The actions listed in Table 8 may be similar to those 

listed under Management Goal A: Maintain/Restore Wetlands, however, the primary goal of the options listed below is to 

help improve the resiliency of species that are vulnerable to climate change. 

Removing existing ecosystem barriers could be either a reactionary or a proactive adaptation option, depending on 

whether it is undertaken in response to observations that habitats are shifting or in anticipation that habitats may shift. 

Increasing ecosystem boundaries is an anticipatory adaptation option, focusing on the potential for habitats to fluctuate 

in size, and allowing for flexibility in their movement.

Table 8. Adaptation Options for Preserving Habitat for Vulnerable Species

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Retreat from, and 

abandonment of, 

coastal barriers

Sea level rise Maintain/restore 

wetlands

May help protect 

estuaries, allowing 

them to return to 

their natural habitat

Not politically 

favored due to 

the high value of 

coastal property and 

infrastructure

Purchase upland 

development rights 

or property rights

Changes in 

precipitation; Sea 

level rise

Maintain/restore 

wetlands; Maintain 

water quality

Protects habitats 

downstream

Costly; uncertainty 

about sea level rise 

means uncertainty 

in the amount of 

property purchased

San Francisco 

Estuary Project 

(planned)59; 

Massachusetts 

Climate Protection 

Plan60

Expand the planning 

horizons of land 

use planning to 

incorporate longer 

climate predictions

Changes in 

precipitation; Sea 

level rise

Preserve coastal 

land/development

Could inhibit risky 

development and 

provide protection 

for estuarine habitats

Land use plans rarely 

incorporate hard 

prohibitions against 

development close 

to sensitive habitats 

and have limited 

durability over time

San Francisco Bay 

Conservation 

and Development 

Commission 

(SFBCDC) 

has proposed 

recommendations61

59 San Francisco Estuary Project CCMP Section on Wetlands Management, http://sfep.abag.ca.gov/pdfs/ccmp/Wetlands_Management.pdf

60 Massachusetts Climate Protection Plan, http://www.newamerica.net/files/MAClimateProtPlan0504.pdf

61 Climate Change Strategy for the San Francisco Bay Region, http://www.bcdc.ca.gov/planning/climate_change/climate_change.shtml
18 SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Adapt protections 

of important 

biogeochemical zones 

and critical habitats as 

the locations of these 

areas change with 

climate

Increases in air and 

water temperatures; 

Altered timing of 

seasonal changes; 

Changes in 

precipitation; Sea 

level rise

Maintain/restore 

wetlands

Allows for migration 

of critical areas

Will require 

consistent 

monitoring efforts

Connect landscapes 

with corridors to 

enable migrations 

Altered timing of 

seasonal changes; Sea 

level rise

Maintain/restore 

wetlands

Allows for species 

migration with 

climate change; 

sustains wildlife 

biodiversity across 

the landscape

May require 

significant effort and 

resources

Design estuaries 

with dynamic 

boundaries and 

buffers

Altered timing of 

seasonal changes; Sea 

level rise

Maintain/restore 

wetlands

Protects breeding 

and foraging habits 

of highly migratory 

species

In highly developed 

areas, boundaries 

may already be 

unmovable

Replicate habitat 

types in multiple 

areas to spread 

risks associated with 

climate change

Altered timing of 

seasonal changes; 

Increases in air and 

water temperatures

Maintain/restore 

wetlands; Invasive 

species management

Protects biodiversity 

and critical areas

Land may not be 

available to replicate 

habitats
SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS 19

62 Louisiana Department of Natural Resources, Local Coastal Programs, http://dnr.louisiana.gov/crm/coastmgt/interagencyaff/lcp/parish/cam_emu.asp 

63 IPCC AR4 WGII: Chapter 14, http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg2.htm 

Management Goal H: Maintain Water Quality

Sea level rise and changes in the timing and intensity of 

precipitation can affect the water quality of estuaries. 

Protecting existing infrastructure and planning for impacts 

to new infrastructure can help reduce vulnerability to 

these impacts (e.g., sizing drainage and sewer treatment 

systems to accommodate changes in flow). Other 

options for maintaining water quality of marshes and 

wetlands include preventing or limiting groundwater 

extraction from shallow aquifers and protecting land 

subject to flooding by plugging canals (see Table 9). 

Determining the type of adaptation option to implement 

is dependent on what specific management challenge 

a particular estuary is facing, or is expecting to face 

in the future. If the water quality is being threatened 

by development, then incorporating sea level rise into 

planning for new infrastructure may be appropriate. 

However, if saltwater intrusion is predicted to pose future 

risks, then options such as modifying or designing new 

drainage/sewer systems may be more appropriate.

Table 9. Adaptation Options for Maintaining Water Quality

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Plug drainage canals Sea level rise; 

Changes in 

precipitation

Preserve coastal 

land/development

Prevent subsidenceinducing saltwater 

intrusion; protect 

land subject to 

flooding

Elimination of 

transportation 

routes

Louisiana62

Prevent or limit 

groundwater 

extraction from 

shallow aquifers 

Sea level rise Preserve coastal 

land/development; 

Maintain/restore 

wetlands; Maintain 

water availability

Will limit relative 

sea level rise 

by preventing 

subsidence and 

reducing saltwater 

intrusion into 

freshwater aquifers

Need to find an 

alternative water 

source 

Design new coastal 

drainage system

Changes in 

precipitation; Sea 

level rise; Changes in 

storm intensity

Many systems need 

to be restructured 

anyway

Planning and 

construction can be 

very costly and timeconsuming 

Vancouver, 

Canada (planned – 

CitiesPLUS 

100-year plan)63

The Guana Marsh Renovation Project, St. 

John’s County, Florida

Management Goal: Management Goal H: 

Maintain water quality

Climate Stressor Addressed: Changes in precipitation

The water quality of the Guana Marsh has been negatively 

impacted by increasing development, agricultural runoff, 

and the elevation of water tables. The St. John’s River Water 

Management District has developed a Guana Basin Master 

Plan to improve water quality and restore the marsh. This plan 

allowed for several different improvements to be completed, 

including the replacement of inadequate or failing flow 

structures with box culverts; the construction of a water 

control weir to provide water level control and storage for 

water quality treatment; and the removal of aquatic plants 

that blocked the natural channel flow. The water quality of the 

marsh will continue to be improved through the replacement 

of septic tanks with a central sewer system. 

Source: St. John’s River Water Management District – The Guana Marsh 

Renovation Project , http://agcj.tamu.edu/404/pdf/fs-guana-ex.pdf
20 SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Incorporate sea 

level rise into 

planning for new 

infrastructure (e.g., 

sewage systems)

Sea level rise Preserve coastal 

land/development Preserves long-term functional integrity 

of structures; pre- vents contamination 

of water supply

Measures can be 

costly

Deer Island, Boston, 

Massachusetts64

Develop adaptive 

stormwater 

management 

practices (e.g., 

remove impervious 

surface, replace 

undersized culverts)

Changes in 

precipitation; 

Changes in storm 

intensity

Maintain/restore 

wetlands

Minimizes pollutant 

and nutrient 

overloading of 

existing wetlands

May require costly 

improvements

Massachusetts 

Bays NEP65; St. 

John’s River Water 

Management District 

(see text box on 

page 19); New 

Jersey66

64 IPCC AR4 WGII: Chapter 17, http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/ar4-wg2.htm 

65 Action Plan for Massachusetts Bays Program Comprehensive Conservation Management Plan, http://www.mass.gov/envir/massbays/pdf/Chapter%20V%20part%201.

pdf 

66 New Jersey Coastal Management Program, http://www.nj.gov/dep/cmp/309_combined_strat_7_06.pdf
SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS 21

Management Goal I: Maintain Water Availability

In order to maintain water availability, adaptation options 

must either free up additional water sources or reallocate 

water distribution. Creating water markets is one option 

that will free up new water sources. To reallocate water 

distribution, “use containment areas” (where withdrawal is 

allocated and capped) can be established or broadened to 

allocate and cap water withdrawal (see Table 10). 

Integrating climate change scenarios into water supply 

systems is an approach that may facilitate planning to both 

free up and reallocate water distribution.

Depending on the region, some programs may already 

be facing water shortages or flooding, and may benefit 

from reactionary adaptation options that free up new 

water sources. For areas that see water availability as a future problem, anticipatory measures such as establishing “use 

containment areas” or integrating climate change into water system planning may be better options to consider.

Table 10. Adaptation Options for Maintaining Water Availability

Adaptation 

Option

Climate 

Stressor 

Addressed

Additional 

Management 

Goals Addressed

Benefits Constraints Examples

Create water 

markets – 

transferring land 

and water from 

agricultural to 

community use

Changes in 

precipitation; 

Increases in air 

temperatures

Preserve habitat for 

vulnerable species

Increases availability 

of water for 

environmental uses

Program is voluntary; 

landowners must 

be willing to give up 

some water 

Metropolitan Water 

District of Southern 

California (see text 

box above)67

Establish or broaden 

“use containment 

areas” to allocate 

and cap water 

withdrawal

Changes in 

precipitation; Sea 

level rise

Maintains sustainable 

aquifer yields and 

prevents saltwater 

intrusion

Could be difficult to 

maintain; politically 

sensitive

Integrate climate 

change scenarios 

into water supply 

system

Increases in air and 

water temperature; 

Changes in 

precipitation; Sea 

level rise

Preserve coastal 

land/development

Takes changes 

in temperature, 

precipitation, and 

sea level rise into 

account in planning

Could show that 

major restructuring 

is needed; changes 

could become costly

New York City68

Manage water 

demand (through 

water reuse, 

recycling, rainwater 

harvesting, 

desalination, etc.)

Increases in air and 

water temperatures; 

Changes in 

precipitation; Sea 

level rise

Increases availability 

of water for all uses

Requires 

coordination among 

water agencies and 

districts

San Francisco 

Estuary Project69

67 IPCC AR4 WGII: Chapter 3; Metropolitan Water District of Southern California Press Release, http://www.mwdh2o.com/mwdh2o/pages/news/at_a_glance/Palo_Verde.pdf

68 IPCC AR4 WGII: Chapter 17; New York City Department of Environmental Protection Climate Change Task Force, http://ccsr.columbia.edu/cig/taskforce/index.html 

69 San Francisco Estuary Project CCMP, Water Use Chapter, http://sfep.abag.ca.gov/pdfs/ccmp/Water_Use.pdf

Water Markets in Southern California

Management Goal: Management Goal I: Maintain water 

availability

Climate Change Stressor: Changes in precipitation

The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California 

provides water for urban water utilities in the counties of 

Los Angeles, San Diego, San Bernardino, Orange, Riverside, 

and Ventura. It has created a water market system that 

compensates landowners and agencies for agreeing to 

irrigate less land. Its 35-year contract with the Palo Verde 

Irrigation District specified that 29% of the valley’s farm land 

would not be irrigated. This action freed up a large water 

supply for urban use and conservation.

Source: IPCC AR4 WGII, Chapter 3
22 SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS

IV Summary: Moving Forward on Adaptation

Despite a growing awareness of the threats posed by climate change, there are relatively few examples of coastal 

organizations already preparing to adapt to these changes. For example, many states acknowledge sea level rise as a 

concern in their coastal zone management assessments, but have not yet developed a comprehensive strategy to deal with 

it. Part of this delayed response can be traced to institutional barriers to changes in management and individuals’ behavior. 

Some of the primary institutional barriers to adaptation in estuarine systems include policy biases and decision paralysis due 

to scientific uncertainty at the local scale.

Established policies often favor one type of response over another, causing institutional biases. Policies at the 

federal level tend to favor shore protection over retreat in developed areas, and retreat over shore protection in 

undeveloped areas. Hard structures tend to be favored over living shorelines in some longstanding federal policies, 

but more recent state policies (e.g., Maryland) favor living shorelines that rely on soft solutions such as rebuilding an 

eroded marsh or bay beach.70

Uncertainty surrounding impacts, the relative benefits of different adaptation options, and how others will respond to 

climate change stressors may delay or impede decisions regarding whether and how to protect resources or abandon 

resources that cannot be saved. The specific effects of climate change stressors on individual systems are still highly 

uncertain, as are the expected responses that will result from implementing adaptation strategies. Decision makers are 

hesitant to act in the face of an uncertain future. Furthermore, many estuaries are managed by interdependent agencies; 

not knowing how other decision makers will respond to stressors makes it difficult to decide what actions to take.

Finally, the options suggested in this guide are potentially difficult and costly to implement. There may be some easy 

solutions; in fact, there is a strong case to be made that the sooner they are completed, the easier and perhaps cheaper 

they will be compared to the costs of inaction. However, in many cases, land managers and property owners will be 

faced with difficult and potentially costly tradeoffs and actions. More work is needed to evaluate the feasibility of options, 

better define the cost-effectiveness, and provide additional guidance for land managers.

Decision makers can, nevertheless, begin to take steps toward adapting to climate change. While some of the examples 

presented above may not provide precise models for adapting to climate change, they do provide some ideas of how 

others have begun to take adaptive measures to ensure existing management goals continue to be met. A list of relevant 

Websites is also included in Appendix A, and a list of potential contacts is included in Appendix B.

70 NRC, Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered Coasts, Chapters 1 and 5
SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS 23

V. References

CCSP, 2008. Coastal Sensitivity to Sea-Level Rise: A Focus on the Mid-Atlantic Region. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change 

Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [Blunden, J., and A.M. Waple (eds.); Anderson, K.E., 

D.R. Cahoon, S.K. Gill, B.T. Gutierrez, E.R. Thieler, J.G. Titus, and S.J. Williams (Authors)]. U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, Washington, DC, USA.

CCSP, 2008. Impacts of Climate Change and Variability on Transportation Systems and Infrastructure: Gulf Coast Study, Phase I. 

A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [Savonis, 

M. J., V.R. Burkett, and J.R. Potter (eds.)]. U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, USA, 445 pp.

CCSP, 2008. Preliminary review of adaptation options for climate-sensitive ecosystems and resources. A Report by the U.S. 

Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. [Julius, S.H., J.M. West (eds.); J.S. 

Baron, L.A. Joyce, B.D. Keller, M.A. Palmer, C.H. Peterson, and J.M. Scott (Authors)]. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 

Washington, DC, USA, 873 pp.

Dyer, K. 1995. Response of estuaries to climate change. In Eisma, D. (ed.) Climate Change: Impact on Coastal Habitation, 

Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, pages 85-110.

IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment 

Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, 

M. Tignor, and H.L. Miller (eds.)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 996 pp.

IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth 

Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, [O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden, and C.E. 

Hanson (eds.)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 976 pp.

IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, and L.A. Meyer (eds.)], Cambridge 

University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 851 pp.

NRC, 2007. Mitigating Shore Erosion along Sheltered Coasts, National Research Council, The National Academies Press, Washington, 

DC, USA, 174 pp.

Short, F.A., and H.A. Neckles, 1999. The effects of global climate change on seagrasses. Aquatic Botany 63:169-196. Page 178. 
24 SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS

Appendix A

Useful Websites 

Below is a list of selected online information sources currently available to resource managers.

EPA’s Climate Ready Estuaries Website http://www.epa.gov/cre/ 

This site provides information on climate change impacts and adaptation options; profiles member estuaries and their efforts 

to address climate change; provides details on how prospective programs can become members; and provides links to 

important resources, news and events, and contact information. 

EPA’s Climate Change Website http://www.epa.gov/climatechange

This site offers comprehensive and accessible information on climate change, including effects on public health and the 

environment as well as basic information about the science of climate change.

National Estuaries Program Website http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries

The NEP establishes partnerships with State, local, and academic interests to improve the quality of estuaries of national 

importance. The National Estuary Program is comprised of 28 estuaries in the U.S. 

U.S. Global Change Research Program Website http://www.globalchange.gov

The U.S. Global Change Research Program integrates federal research on climate and global change as sponsored by thirteen 

federal agencies. This site provides a library of research reports, including all 21 Synthesis and Assessment Products.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Website http://www.ipcc.ch

The IPCC was established “to assess the scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding 

of human induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for mitigation and adaptation” (IPCC Website). The IPCC 

Fourth Assessment Report, including Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, is available for download.

National Research Council Website http://sites.nationalacademies.org/nrc/index.htm

The National Research Council is part of a private, nonprofit institution that provides science, technology and health policy 

advice. This site provides access to research on various issues pertinent to NEPs. Mitigating Shore Erosion Along Sheltered 

Coasts is available for download at: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11764.html 

NOAA Coastal Services Center http://www.csc.noaa.gov/

This site is devoted to serving the nation’s state and local coastal resource management programs. Resources available include 

data, software, and decision support tools. The Center also offers training to coastal managers on these resources. 

NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/mystate/welcome.html

This site provides state-specific information on activities NOAA’s Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management is 

involved in, including coastal zone management, research, outreach, and funding.
SYnthesis of ADAPTATION OPTIONs FOR COASTAL AREAS 25

Appendix B

General Contact Information for Governments, NGOs, and Program Managers

Below is a list of organizations, many of which are mentioned in this report, that have undertaken adaptation actions 

and may serve as resources for other communities as they move forward in adapting to climate change.

California Coastal Commission

45 Fremont, Suite 2000

San Francisco, CA 94105- 2219

(415) 904- 5200

http://www.coastal.ca.gov/ 

Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority of Louisiana

Capital Annex, Suite 138

1051 North 3rd Street

Baton Rouge, LA 70802

(225) 342-3968

http://www.lacpra.org/

Delaware Department of Natural Resources 

and Environmental Control

Division of Soil and Water Conservation

89 Kings Highway

Dover, DE 19901

http://www.swc.dnrec.delaware.gov/ 

Houston-Galveston Area Council

P.O. Box 22777

Houston, TX 77227-2777

http://www.h-gac.com/

King County (Washington) Shoreline Master Program

201 S. Jackson Street

Seattle, WA 98104

http://www.kingcounty.gov/environment/waterandland/shorelines.

aspx 

Living Shorelines Stewardship Initiative

A partnership between NOAA, National Fish and Wildlife 

Foundation, the Keith Campbell Foundation, and the 

Chesapeake Bay Trust

NOAA:

http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/habitat/restoration 

Keith Campbell Foundation:

http://www.campbellfoundation.org/html/related_projects.html

Chesapeake Bay Trust:

http://www.cbtrust.org/site/c.enJIKQNoFiG/b.2028493/k.4D43/

Living_Shorelines_Grant_Program.htm 

Virginia Coastal Zone Management Program:

http://www.deq.virginia.gov/coastal/livingshore.html 

Maryland Department of Natural Resources:

http://shorelines.dnr.state.md.us/living.asp

Maryland Department of Natural Resources, 

Shore Erosion Control Program

Tawes State Office Building D-3

580 Taylor Avenue 

Annapolis, Maryland 21401

http://www.dnr.state.md.us/ccws/sec/index.asp

Massachusetts Water Resources Authority

Charlestown Navy Yard 

100 First Ave, Building 39 

Boston, MA 02129

 (617) 660-7971

http://www.mwra.state.ma.us/index.html

Metropolitan Water District of Southern California

P.O. Box 54153

Los Angeles, CA 90054-0153

 (213) 217-6000

http://www.mwdh2o.com/

New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, 

Green Acres Program

Bureau of Green Trust Management 

PO Box 412

Trenton, NJ 08625-0412

http://www.state.nj.us/dep/greenacres/index.html

Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management Council

Stedman Government Center, Suite 3

4808 Tower Hill Road

Wakefield, RI 02879-1900

(401) 783-3370

http://www.crmc.ri.gov/

San Francisco Bay Conservation 

and Development Commission

50 California Street, Suite 2600

San Francisco, CA 94111 

(415) 352-3600

http://www.bcdc.ca.gov/

Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council

1926 Victoria Avenue

Fort Meyers, FL 33901

(239) 338-2550

http://www.swfrpc.org/
Office of Air and Radiation

Office of Water

EPA 430-F-08-024

January 2009