Part III. 

reflectIons on the sPace age 

~
 

 

Chapter 18 

a Melancholic Space age anniversary 

Walter a. McDougall 

My sincere thanks to Steven Dick, roger Launius, and the entire space 

history and space policy communities for inviting an old dilettante like 

myself to this event. Some of you good people I’ve not seen since we 

commemorated the 40th anniversary of Sputnik, and some of you doubtless I 

shall not have occasion to meet again. that alone makes this a somewhat 

melancholy affair for me. But I also have a sense that the 50th anniversary of the 

birth of the Space age is draped with a certain melancholy. Do you sense a 

mood of disappointment, frustration, impatience over the failure of the human 

race to achieve much more than the minimum extrapolations made back in the 

1950s, and considerably less than the buoyant expectations expressed as late as 

the 1970s? after all, one modest prediction went like this: “there are few today 

who do not look forward with feelings of confidence that spaceflight will some 

day be accomplished. all that we require is to make rocket motors somewhat 

larger than those already in existence . . . the pooling of skills already available, 

and a good deal of money . . . . We may reasonably suppose that a satellite 

vehicle is entirely practicable now and that travel to the moon is attainable in 

the next fifty years.”1 that was Dr. hugh Dryden in 1953, on the occasion of 

the 50th anniversary of the Wright brothers’ flight. (Indeed, if all of us 

interviewed by the media this month have accomplished anything I think we 

have at last disabused journalists of the notion that the eisenhower administration 

was “surprised” by the first satellite launch.) But what that means is that all the 

satellites, space probes, and human missions launched over 50 years amount 

pretty much to what Dryden took for granted would happen. Moreover, the 

fact that the Moon landing was achieved just 16 years after he wrote this only 

compounds the disappointment that it proved to be a dead end. 

that disappointment is also evident, I think, in the false expectation I 

expressed this past spring in an essay written for the Foreign policy research 

Institute. I began it like this: 

1. hugh L. Dryden,“the Next Fifty Years,” Aero Digest (July 1953). 
 

 

390 reMeMBerINg the SpaCe age 

It has gone down in history as ‘the other world series’: a championship match even more shocking than the Milwaukee 

Braves’ upset victory over the New York Yankees in baseball’s 1957 Fall Classic. that shot literally ‘heard ’round 

the world’ was Sputnik I, the first artificial earth satellite 

that gave birth to the Space age, and its 50th anniversary 

this October 4th is sure to inspire worldwide attention. By 

contrast, another anniversary of equal importance was all 

but ignored this past March. the birth certificate of that 

other age born 50 years ago was the treaty of rome which 

founded the european Community. Its charter members 

numbered just six and pledged only to coordinate some economic policies. But 50 years later europe is a Union, not 

just a Community, counts 27 members, and has so deepened 

and broadened its purview that europe today has become a 

veritable state of mind.2 

In retrospect it has indeed been european integration—a boring, 

bureaucratic enterprise for the most part—that worked a metamorphosis across 

a whole continent over 50 years, whereas any global consciousness or Spaceship 

earth mentality inspired by astronautics has worked no metamorphosis 

in national or international affairs. So perhaps it is fitting that the Sputnik 

anniversary passed without the great global eclat I predicted. For if Space age 

technology had enabled a great portion of the human race to imagine itself a 

family sharing a fragile planet and cosmic destiny, then one might have expected 

a global celebration on the scale of that staged for Y2K. Instead, we got World 

Space Week sponsored by the United Nations Office for Outer Space affairs. 

But the U.N. does Space Week every year between October 4 and October 10, 

the day the Outer Space treaty was signed in 1967. and since the U.N.’s special 

attraction this year was Valentina tereshkova, the first female cosmonaut, it 

reduced our species’ first escape from its planet to a human interest story. 

In the classroom October 4, I asked my 120 students if they knew 

the significance of the date. a few senior-citizen auditors and exactly one 

undergraduate knew the answer. My survey of Web sites was also deflating. 

SearchEngineLand.com reported that google temporarily altered its logo in honor 

of Sputnik (and perhaps to hype its Lunar X prize of $30 million to a private 

2.	 Walter a. McDougall, “Will europe Survive the 21st Century? a Meditation on the Fiftieth 

anniversary of the european Community,”2 parts,part I:“the Other age Born in 1957,”Foreign 

policy research Institute e-Note, http://www.fpri.org (august 3, 2007). 
 

 

 

a MeLaNChOLIC SpaCe age aNNIVerSarY 391 

inventor of a Moonship).3 But then, google also alters its logo in honor of St. 

patrick’s Day and halloween. Other Internet portals treated the anniversary, 

if at all, like any other feature story. Nor did Web surfers display much interest 

outside of techie and trekkie blogs. InformationWeek.com invited discussion of its 

brief story on Sputnik and received exactly zero posts. the anniversary page on 

Makezine.com received just four posts, one of which was this forlorn message: 

“I was happy to see a Sputnik post on this historic day. thanks.” another site 

reported the european Space agency’s plan to launch 50 miniature “nanosats” 

in honor of the anniversary, but complained, “the event has not been widely 

covered. I found only very short pieces of information, such as a press release 

from arianespace.” 

the New York Times essay on the anniversary was elegant, insightful, and 

graceful because John Noble Wilford wrote it.4 But his tone was nostalgic, 

and he closed with decidedly downbeat judgments from gerald griffin, John 

Logsdon, and alex roland, plus Neil armstrong’s lament over “external 

factors or forces which we can’t control.” Indeed, if the commentary of space 

experts has had any unified theme it is that politics and economics—both 

foreign and domestic—have always dictated the scale and trajectory of space 

programs, rather than a revolutionary technology transforming politics and 

economics. In short, there has been no paradigm shift but instead international 

behavior as usual. to be sure, one could point to the Outer Space treaty, 

international conventions on geosynchronous satellites, telecommunications, 

remote sensing, scientific cooperation, and so forth. But those achievements 

are simply comparable to what the otherwise rival nation states of the 19th 

and 20th centuries did when they established regimes to govern telegraphy, 

undersea cables, postal service, maritime law, standard time zones, air travel, 

radio, and rules for global commons such as the seabed and antarctica. 

another noteworthy tribute (noted by John Krige as well) ran in the USA 

Today science supplement on September 25. after making the conventional 

point that turning civilian spaceflight into a race undercut its appeal after 

apollo, the author quoted roger Launius to the effect that support for human 

spaceflight has always been “a mile wide and an inch deep.”5 that apt remark 

reminded me of the chapter in Critical Issues in the History of Spaceflight in which 

Launius listed five rationales for space technology (noted also by asif Siddiqi): 

1) human destiny and perhaps the survival of our species; 2) geopolitics and 

3.	 “google Logo Celebrates Sputnik” (accessed October 16, 2007), http://searchengineland. 

com/071004-111609php; “50 ‘Nanosats’ for Sputnik’s Fiftieth anniversary” (accessed October 

16, 2007), http://www.primidi.com/2004/10/13.html. 

4.	 John Noble Wilford,“With Fear and Wonder in Its Wake, Sputnik Lifted Us Into the Future,” the 

New York Times (September 25, 2007). 

5.	 traci Watson, “Sputnik’s anniversary raises Questions about Future of Space exploration,” 

USA Today (September 25, 2007). 
 

 

392 reMeMBerINg the SpaCe age 

national prestige; 3) military defense; 4) applications and economics; and 5) 

science and discovery. (another whimsical way of listing those rationales 

is to say human beings do five things in space: work, play, fight, boast, and 

worship.) It seems in retrospect that what happened between 1955, when the 

IgY satellite program was announced, and 1961, when Yuri gagarin orbited, 

was the elevation of prestige to an inordinate, artificial primacy in that mix of 

rationales. that spawned a crash program that space enthusiasts believed was, 

or should be, the norm when in fact it was a grotesque aberration made even 

worse by the 1970s decision to throw the baby (apollo/Saturn hardware) out 

with the bathwater. 

Where we stand today with respect to global vs. national identities and 

rationales for spaceflight can be deduced by recalling two wise sayings from the 

otherwise not-always-wise robert S. McNamara. First, he said space is not a 

mission or a cause; it is just a place. Second, he said the budget is the strategy. So 

let us look at humanity’s budget. Let us indeed “follow the money.” according 

to the Space Foundation’s latest estimates the world’s allocations for activities 

in the place called outer space totaled $74.5 billion in 2006.6 By coincidence, 

that is almost identical to the supplemental appropriations the White house 

requests every year for Iraq. (hence, space advocates need no longer rely on 

the quip that U.S. consumers spend more on tobacco or cosmetic surgery than 

the space program because they need only observe that the U.S. government 

spends more existing tax revenue on one dubious exercise in overseas statebuilding than the whole world does on space exploration.) 

equally significant is the fact that just under $60 billion, or about 80 percent 

of global investment in space, is america’s share, so ipso facto the priorities of 

the human race are really the priorities of one nation state. I understand where 

Neil Degrasse tyson and Jim garvin are coming from when they say that 

america has been standing still, that China, Japan, and India may spark the next 

space race, and that a manned mission to Mars will likely plant “a whole sheaf 

of flags” in the ruddy dust. But apart from such high-profile human endeavors 

as the ISS or planetary exploration, space technology remains overwhelmingly 

a national activity overwhelmingly dominated by the United States. 

eSa contributes $3.5 billion or just below 5 percent, and all other national 

programs (led by Japan and China) about $11.4 billion or 15 percent. the 

motives of eSa derive largely from science and applications. the motives of 

national programs such as those of Japan, China, India, and France run mostly 

to defense, economics, and prestige. Needless to say, no one spends a euro or a 

yen on “human destiny and the survival of the species.” 

6.	 Data on space spending is Space Foundation, Colorado Springs, CO, “government Budgets— 

the Space report 2007 Update (October 11, 2007), http://www.spacefoundation.org/news/story. 

php?id=419. 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

a MeLaNChOLIC SpaCe age aNNIVerSarY 393 

the breakdown of american spending, precisely because of its scale, is 

even more telling. the biggest chunk—$22.5 billion—goes to the pentagon, 

with another $20.5 billion going to black programs such as those of the National 

reconnaissance Office and geo-spatial Intelligence agency. thus, about $43 

billion, or 58 percent of humanity’s space budget, is spent on the defense of 

the U.S. and its allies. perhaps that is necessary. It is a fundamental tenet of the 

national strategy that the United States maintain hegemony in the aerospace 

theater, and most other nations would much rather have america police that 

global commons than to see it contested or dominated by some other nation. 

But in the context of rationales and priorities, those budget numbers are the 

most telling evidence that defense outweighs all other spaceflight put together, 

several times over. By contrast, NaSa, which is responsible for the human 

spaceflight program, science and exploration, satellite applications, new launch 

technologies, test-bed technologies, and even the “human destiny and survival” 

rationale if we count astrobiology and asteroid research, receives $16.6 billion. 

that amounts to 28 percent of U.S. space spending and 22 percent of global 

space spending. 

to put it another way, if we add NaSa’s budget to that of the eSa and 

estimate that a third of the various national budgets are devoted to civilian 

pursuits, we arrive at a sum of about $24 billion or 32 percent of the Space 

Foundation’s global figure. that means 68 percent—more than two-thirds—of 

planet earth’s space effort serves national defense and prestige. and that means 

the answer to today’s question—“has the Space age fostered a new global 

identity?—is “No.” 

has the Space age at least fostered—especially among young people—a 

sense of awe, wonder, curiosity, and impatience to know, an urge to explore 

and a rekindled faith in progress, the future, and human nature, or perhaps 

even a postmodern, gnostic religious vision conflating transhuman evolution, 

biological or post-biological immortality, space colonization, and contact with 

extraterrestials? those have been stock themes of science fiction authors like 

Isaac asimov, ray Bradbury, and arthur C. Clarke, none of whom could be 

considered a crackpot.7 Indeed, it was Captain Jacques Cousteau, not exactly a 

cult leader, who took the occasion of NaSa’s 1976 conference on “Why Man 

explores” to echo Konstantin tsiolkovskii’s conviction that, in conquering 

gravity, humanity would conquer death. perhaps the Space age will alter the 

consciousness of a critical mass of people. perhaps, as William Sims Bainbridge 

eloquently contends, such a quasi-religious consciousness may give rise to 

a new social movement transforming the scale and priorities of the human 

presence in space. 

7.	 For the late Sir arthur C. Clarke’s wise reflections, see Spectrum, “remembering Sputnik: Sir 

arthur C. Clarke,” http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/print/5584. 
394 reMeMBerINg the SpaCe age 

perhaps, but not yet. twice this year I myself was thrilled to experience 

anew the awe and wonder so many felt at the dawn of the Space age. the first 

experience was a stroll on the surface of Mars! I luckily visited NaSa headquarters 

on May 17, the very day Dr. alfred Mcewen of the University of arizona 

revealed “Mars as You’ve Never Seen Before,” courtesy of the Mars Orbiter 

and phoenix rovers Spirit and Opportunity. the second experience a few weeks 

later occurred while I was on a VIp tour of JpL courtesy of Blaine Baggett, who 

is producing a documentary for the 50th anniversary of explorer 1, america’s 

first satellite. Pace howard McCurdy (whose brilliant analysis of robots consigns 

them to the dying industrial age of human culture), I marveled at the magical 

robotic spacecraft designed and assembled in the hills above pasadena. It is they 

who have made what Carl Sagan called the golden age of planetary exploration; 

and it is they who bear witness to what Samuel Florman called “the existential 

pleasures of engineering.” Yet I also watched troop after troop of children on 

school field trips to JpL and could not help but wonder whether it made any 

impression on them. Can youth today feel the tingle that homer hickam felt the 

night Sputnik passed over West Virginia? Or have today’s kids been so jaded by 

the far more spectacular virtual reality of Nintendo and Dreamworks that NaSa 

cannot compete? Or will the excitement of virtual reality instead render brilliant 

young people impatient to accelerate the human thrust into space? 

On young people—and the future—I have no authority to speak. But as 

an historian with some authority to pronounce on the past 50 years, I would 

suggest that the trajectory spaceflight has taken reflects the fact that the nation 

that drove the enterprise, the United States, has been perversely burdened by 

its responsibilities as defender of most of the world and is perversely ill-suited 

to what spaceflight requires. Not as ill-suited as that fraudulent technocracy, 

the Soviet Union, but ill-suited nonetheless. given the costs, lead-times, and 

distances involved, the pioneering of space requires a coherent, sustainable, longterm approach, predictably financed and supported by a patient people willing 

to sacrifice and delay gratification even over a generation or more. americans 

do not fit that description. Likewise (and I defer here to political scientists such 

as John Logsdon) the U.S. government does not exactly fit the description of a 

streamlined technocracy, given its checks and balances, contesting parties, rival 

bureaucracies, frequent elections and personnel turnovers, mixed public and 

private sectors, gigantic distractions both foreign and domestic, and reliance 

in all cases on a meandering, manipulable public opinion. Indeed, given those 

handicaps and the mistakes and false starts bound to occur in a venture of such 

scope and novelty, perhaps Sir arthur C. Clarke was correct when he recently 

said, all disappointment aside, that a great deal has been accomplished in the first 

50 years of the Space age. Not least, I would stress, the cosmic advances in space 

science which, so far at least, have been strangely ignored in our proceedings. 

Will the United States continue to dominate humanity’s agenda in space? 

Or will we pass the baton to others, such as several countries in asia? Or will 
 

a MeLaNChOLIC SpaCe age aNNIVerSarY 395 

some new, genuinely cheap and safe launch technology emerge to permit rapid 

expansion of the human footprint in space without any government having 

to lead? When and if that occurs, then private and corporate activity may 

indeed become an independent variable capable of transforming geopolitics and 

geoeconomics. When and if that occurs, a new generation of the sort McCurdy 

awaits may indeed hearken to Siddiqi’s plea that we cease fearing our own 

imaginations. When and if that occurs, a tired old baby-boomer such as I will 

eagerly take Charles Murray’s advice “to get a grand mission . . . give it to a new 

generation, and get the hell out of the way.”8 

8.	 Charles Murray, and Catherine Bly Cox, Apollo: Race to the Moon (New York, NY: Simon & 

Schuster, 1989). 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 19 

has Space Development 

Made a Difference? 

John M. Logsdon 

I

n his paper in this volume, J. r. McNeill writes that “It is in fact too soon to 

tell what the real significance of the Space age may be. at the moment, 

space exploration, space flight, space research, all seem at most secondary next 

to the dominant trends of contemporary history. . . . the big things would 

probably be much the same, for better or for worse.” he adds “space programs 

changed the history of our times, but not (yet) in any fundamental ways.” 

Walter McDougall in his paper adds that he senses “that the fiftieth anniversary 

of the birth of the Space age is draped with a certain melancholy. Do you sense 

a mood of disappointment, frustration, impatience over the failure of the 

human race to achieve much more than the minimum extrapolations made 

back in the 1950s, and considerably less than the buoyant expectations expressed 

as late as the 1970s?” 

I beg to disagree, at least in part. the assignment for this paper was to 

discuss this question: “has the Space age fostered a new global identity, or has 

it reinforced distinct national identities? how does space history connect with 

national histories and with the histories of transnational or global phenomena 

. . . ?” It is an interesting mental exercise to imagine what today’s world would 

be like, at least in the urbanized Northern hemisphere, if all space systems were 

shut down for 24 hours. I believe that we would quickly realize that those 

systems have become deeply integrated into the infrastructure of the modern 

world, and that neither the modern nation state nor the global economy could 

operate effectively without them. If the overall history of most of the past 

50 years has not been fundamentally affected by the development of space 

capabilities, it is my view that the history being made today and in the recent 

past is in meaningful ways a product of how nation states and the private sector 

have incorporated the possibilities made available through space technology 

into their everyday operations.1 In this sense, the ability to operate in outer 

space is part of history, not an independent variable shaping it. 

1.	 Most of the papers in Steven J. Dick and roger D. Launius, eds., Societal Impact of Spaceflight 

NaSa Sp2007-4801 (Washington, DC: Government printing Office, 2007) provide evidence 

and analysis in support of this assertion. 
 

 

 

 

 

398 reMeMberING the SpaCe aGe 

the IMpaCtS Of SpaCe DeveLOpMeNt 

that reality may be part of the problem in identifying the impact of space 

development during its first half-century. as various capabilities have become 

operational,they have been subsumed into the larger pattern of human activity and 

not usually thought of separately as “space.” McNeill suggests that ”Some things 

would have been a bit different without spy satellites, communications satellites, 

weather satellites, earth-observation satellites, and so forth,” but, in his view, not 

dramatically different. he asks whether “the current surge of globalization has 

derived some of its momentum from an enhanced awareness that we are all in the 

same boat, all stuck on the same small blue dot spinning through the darkness? 

Or could it owe something to instantaneous communications via satellites?” his 

view is that “the best answer is: yes, but not much. If no one had ever seen photos 

of the earth from space, and if information from India and Indonesia still arrived 

by telegraph and took a day or two to reach other continents instead of a second 

or two, would globalization be substantially different?” 

for at least the latter of his two questions, my answer would be “yes.” It 

is really difficult to imagine today’s world absent instantaneous information 

flow, and space systems are a crucial part of the global information transmission 

network that makes such flow possible.Whether the view of earth from cosmic 

distances—earthrise over the barren lunar surface or the “pale blue dot” most 

recently glimpsed by the Cassini spacecraft as it orbits Saturn—has created a 

global consciousness is more debatable. Certainly, the earthrise image became the 

icon of the environmental movement in the 1970s and references to “Spaceship 

earth” still appear in admonitions of the Green movement. but, as McDougall 

comments, “any global consciousness or Spaceship-earth mentality inspired by 

astronautics has worked no metamorphosis in national or international affairs.” 

Somewhat the same can be said for the other space capabilities that McNeill 

cites. for nations with global or regional security interests—during the Cold War, 

the United States and the Soviet Union, and today an additional small number of 

other nation states—the ability to obtain near-real-time information on potential 

security threats is a stabilizing element in international security affairs. but spacederived intelligence information is merged with intelligence from other sources, 

and it is not possible to measure its independent contribution to avoiding or 

ameliorating (or abetting) conflict.Information regarding the variables determining 

short- and longer-term weather patterns obtained from meteorological satellites 

is integrated with other information; there are many projections of the billions of 

dollars and hundreds of lives not lost due to better weather forecasts.2 

2.	 See, for example, the discussion in henry r. hertzfeld and ray a. Williamson, “the Social 

and economic Impact of earth Observing Satellites” in Launius and Dick, The Societal Impact 

of Spaceflight, pp. 237-263. 
 

 

 

 

haS SpaCe DeveLOpMeNt MaDe a DIffereNCe? 399 

McNeill does not discuss the impact of satellites delivering positioning, 

navigation, and timing services. but such satellites, most notably to date the 

U.S. GpS system, have become the basis for a global utility with multiple applications from guiding precision weapons to their targets to providing the timing 

information that makes the Internet possible. again, one does not often think 

of the space-based source of these capabilities; what matters is the application, 

not the means that enables it. 

though not the focus of this and the other papers in this volume, it would 

be remiss to avoid discussing the impact of space capabilities on warfighting in 

an assessment of the importance of the last 50 years of space development. So far, 

only the United States has made its approach to power projection and fighting 

wars strongly dependent on the use of space systems. It is well beyond the scope 

of this paper to discuss whether that commitment to space as a military tool was 

a wise one, endowing the United States with decisive military advantages. but 

certainly space capabilities are central to what has been described in the United 

States as a “revolution in military affairs.”3 

It is instructive to observe that countries pursuing rapid social and economic 

development—China and India are probably the best examples—are investing 

significant amounts of their scarce financial and human resources in space 

development.they seem convinced that space capabilities can have fundamental 

impacts on their future history. 

I conclude, then, that by its contributions to the various ways in which 

everything from international conflicts to day-to-day life unfolds, space development has indeed been a significant influence in recent human history, though one 

whose specific contributions are difficult to separate out.Comparing a world today 

without the capabilities provided by space systems to one in which those systems 

are fully integrated would, I believe, support the validity of this judgment. 

fOrty yearS Of frUStratION 

McDougall senses a feeling of “melancholy” because space development 

has not moved beyond what was predicted for it more than a half century ago. 

I would substitute the word “frustration” for “melancholy.” both visionaries 

such as arthur C. Clarke and hard-nosed analysts at the rand Corporation by 

the early 1950s had indeed spelled out most of the various domains in which 

space capabilities, once they were technologically and financially achievable, 

could contribute to human life in important ways. What happened in that 

decade is interesting to remember. first of all, these space visions became part 

of popular culture well before the first satellites were launched. those raised in 

3.	 See, for example, Steven Lambakis, On the Edge of Earth: The Future of American Space Power 

(Lexington, Ky: University press of Kentucky, 2001) for a discussion of the link between space 

capabilities and military power. 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

400 reMeMberING the SpaCe aGe 

the 1950s (I was among them) had available in print, in film, and on the thennew medium of television multiple images of a future transformed by space 

activity. the 1952 Collier’s cover declaring “Man Will Conquer Space Soon” 

was typical of the message we were receiving.4 

at the same time, the leaders of the two Cold War superpowers decided that 

developing the technologies needed to operate in space were linked to their countries’ core national interests. More quickly than anyone could have anticipated at 

the start of the decade, the U.S. and Soviet governments provided the funds needed 

to develop a broad array of space capabilities, primarily, as McDougall notes, on the 

basis of national security considerations.but to those steeped in the space visions of 

the decade,it seemed that the predictions of Clarke,von braun,and their colleagues 

might soon become reality.We did not sense the contingent character of government commitment to space, which linked space to broader geopolitical interests. 

the acme of this linkage was, of course, project apollo. as I wrote in 

1970, by his decision to use american trips to the Moon as a way of symbolizing 

U.S. power vis-à-vis the Soviet Union, president John f. Kennedy “linked the 

dreams of centuries to the politics of the moment.”5 by backing up his decision 

to go to the Moon with a war-like mobilization of human and financial resources 

to achieve the lunar landing goal, Kennedy created a sense that what was in fact 

a crash program aimed at a specific political goal was instead a U.S. national 

commitment to achieve on an accelerated schedule the various elements of the 

1950s space vision. this sense was reinforced by NaSa administrator James 

Webb’s argument to Kennedy that the real goal was “preeminence”—a clearly 

leading position in all areas of space activity. Not only human spaceflight, but 

all areas of space science and applications, grew rapidly in the 1960s. 

thus it is not surprising that the space community in 1969, as the apollo 

goal was achieved, proposed to take the next steps, including large space stations, 

a lunar base, human missions to Mars, and increasingly ambitious robotic missions. 

their expectations were quickly dashed, as president richard Nixon in March 1970 

announced that “We must think of [space activities] as part of a continuing process ... 

and not as a series of separate leaps,each requiring a massive concentration of energy.” 

the president added “Space expenditures must take their proper place within a rigorous system of national priorities. . . .What we do in space from here on in must 

become a normal and regular part of our national life and must therefore be planned 

in conjunction with all of the other undertakings which are important to us.”6 

4.	 excerpts from the Collier’s series on space can be found in John M. Logsdon et al., eds. Exploring 

the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program,vol. I, Organizing for 

exploration, NaSa Sp-4407 (Washington, DC: Government printing Office, 1995), pp. 176-200. 

5.	 John M.Logsdon,The Decision to Go to the Moon:Project Apollo and the National Interest (Cambridge, 

Ma: MIt press, 1970), p. 7. 

6.	 president Nixon’s statement can be found at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid= 

2903&st=&st1= (accessed april 6, 2008). 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

haS SpaCe DeveLOpMeNt MaDe a DIffereNCe? 401 

this perspective was bound to frustrate those who,in the immediate aftermath 

of the lunar landings, thought that the government commitment to space that 

had fueled apollo would continue. What is unfortunate is that this frustration 

continues today; in the almost four decades since Nixon set forth the policy that 

has in effect guided civilian space decisions since, the space community has not 

adjusted its expectations to a much slower-paced but perhaps ultimately more 

sustainable approach to space development. apollo created a large governmentindustrial-scientific complex optimized for carrying out fast-paced development 

and operation efforts.that complex exists, albeit in a diminished form, today, and it 

continues to be frustrated that its aspirations are not fully supported by the White 

house, Congress, and ultimately the american public.that the space community 

still hopes to recapture something approaching the apollo approach to space is 

what is “melancholy.”as howard McCurdy has commented 

the reality of space travel depleted much of the vision that 

originally inspired it. Space-flight engineers have not developed technologies capable of achieving the dream; advocates 

have not formulated alternative visions capable of maintaining 

it.at the same time, no alternative vision of sufficient force has 

appeared to supplant the original dream.advocates still embrace 

the original vision of adventure, mystery, and exploration.they 

continue to dream of expeditions to nearby planets and the discovery of habitable worlds.the dreams continue, while the gap 

between expectations and reality remains unresolved.7 

that being said, I think one can look back at what has been accomplished 

over the past 50 years and agree with the late Sir arthur C. Clarke’s observation: 

“On the whole, I think we have had remarkable accomplishments during the 

first 50 years of the Space age. Some of us might have preferred things to 

happen in a different style or time frame, but when our dreams and aspirations 

are adjusted for reality, there is much we can look back on with satisfaction.”8 

What abOUt SpaCe expLOratION? 

McNeill comments that “Space exploration, as opposed to the totality of space 

programs,could well be relegated to the status of historical footnote....[e]xploration 

programs are another matter: they are especially expensive and they probably won’t 

cure cancer or defeat terrorism, so they are at high risk of being phased out. . . . If 

7.	 howard e. McCurdy, Space and the American Imagination (Washington, DC: Smithsonian 

Institution press, 1997), p. 243. 

8.	 arthur C. Clarke, “remembering Sputnik” at http://spectrum.ieee.org/oct07/5584 (accessed 

March 30, 2008). 
 

 

 

 

402 reMeMberING the SpaCe aGe 

so, in time space exploration will be forgotten, a dead end, a historical cul-de-sac.” 

he adds “On the other hand, it could be that space exploration will thrive, find 

new budgetary champions in the corridors of power.” McNeill suggests that “Space 

exploration may survive on one or another basis, but it still will not loom large in 

terms of human history unless something really new and interesting happens.” If 

that occurs,“then the first 50 years of space exploration will look like the beginning 

of something of epic significance.” If it does not,“it will look like a small step for 

mankind that led nowhere,and did not amount to much in the balance before being 

consigned to the dustbin of history.” McNeill concludes, and I concur, that “It is 

indeed too soon to judge whether the whole enterprise is a gigantic folly diverting 

money and talent from more urgent applications,a noble calling consonant with our 

deepest nature, or something else altogether.”9 

In the first 50 years of the Space age, only 2710 americans ventured 

beyond earth orbit to begin the exploration of the solar system by voyages to the 

Moon. In reality, that sentence is not completely accurate. While many space 

advocates saw project apollo as the beginning of a long period of human space 

exploration, the political leaders who provided the funds for apollo certainly 

did not do so out of a commitment to space exploration. Given the dead-end 

character of apollo and the fact that it was driven by geopolitical considerations, 

I do not think there is much that can be said about its historical contributions 

as an exploratory undertaking. the history of human space exploration is yet 

to be written. Whether it will begin to be written in the next few decades is 

today’s most pressing space policy question. 

McNeill cites one of his colleagues, felipe fernandez-armesto, as 

suggesting that space exploration has been a “gigantic folly.”11 he is not alone 

in that view. the Economist recently commented that “a scandalous amount 

of money has been wasted on the conceit that voyaging across the cosmos 

is humanity’s destiny”12 aerospace executive rick fleeter in October 2004 

criticized advocates of space exploration for taking “as axiomatic that space’s 

highest and true calling is achieving societal goals of research and exploration 

into the unknown.” In fleeter’s view, “hauling this burdensome baggage of 

an aristocratic calling, now bankrupt both ideologically and financially, is not 

helping space—it is hindering our community from reaching our potential to 

9.	 McNeill is talking here about both human and robotic space exploration. It is my view that 

robotic exploratory missions of some character will continue for the foreseeable future, although 

ambitious multi-billion dollar undertakings may be few. to me, the key issue is whether 

governments in the early 21st century will support human exploration beyond earth orbit. 

10. two people—eugene Cernan, and John young— both made a trip to lunar orbit without 

landing and a second trip to the lunar surface. One person—James Lovell—went into lunar orbit 

on the apollo 8 mission and then looped around the Moon on the ill-fated apollo 13 mission. 

11. felipe fernandez-armesto, 	Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration (New york, Ny: 

Norton, 2006), p. 399. 

12. the Economist, September 29, 2007: 23. 
 

 

haS SpaCe DeveLOpMeNt MaDe a DIffereNCe? 403 

serve humanity.” this is so, he argued, because these “old ideas are rigid and 

anachronistic, no longer pointing us to a brighter tomorrow, but rather back 

toward a dead end of technological progress for its own sake.”13 

I suggest that there is no compelling evidence one way or the other to 

assess the validity of these assertions, since the actual experience of human space 

exploration is so limited. In addition, the belief that sending humans beyond 

earth orbit is the correct next step in space development is gaining political 

acceptance around the world. Leaders of the United States and, more recently, 

france have committed their countries to the support of human exploration, 

beginning with a return to the Moon before 2020 and including eventual 

voyages to Mars. to me, the issue is whether this round of human exploration 

will be designed to answer, at least for this century, the question of whether 

such steps are indeed a “gigantic folly,” or part of future human history. 

the requirements for sustained human exploration beyond earth orbit 

were perceptively stated by harry Shipman in his 1989 study, Humans in Space.14 

Shipman says that the future of human activity beyond earth orbit depends on 

the answer to two questions: 

1. Can extraterrestrial materials be used to support life in locations other than 

earth? 

2. Can 	activities of sustained economic worth be carried out at those 

locations? 

Depending on the answer to those questions, Shipman suggests, the 

following outcomes are probable: 

CAN IN SITU MATERIALS BE USED TO 

SUPPORT HUMAN LIFE? 

NO	 YES 

CAN SPACE 


COMMERCE


EMERGE?
 

YES NO


Space science only research and tourism 

robot mines, factories, 

and labs 

full space settlement 

13. rick fleeter, Space News, October 18, 2004: 10. fleeter’s remarks were in response to an op-ed 

essay I had published in the same venue two weeks earlier. 

14. harry Shipman, Humans in Space: 21st Century Frontiers (New york, Ny: plenum press, 1989), p. 17. 
 

 

 

 

404 reMeMberING the SpaCe aGe 

humanity may be at a branch point in future space development, one that 

could provide the answers to Shipman’s questions. there is on the table a bold 

proposition, put forth by U.S. president George W. bush in January 2004—that 

the nations of the world, led by the United States, accept as the guiding purpose 

of their governments’ space programs carrying out “a sustained and affordable 

human and robotic program to explore the solar system and beyond.”15 It seems 

as if space leaders in other spacefaring countries, and those eager to become 

more active in space, are also embracing exploration beyond earth orbit as an 

essential element in their future activities. for example, 14 space agencies16 

in May 2007 issued a statement of Global exploration Strategy that argued 

“this Global exploration Strategy will bring significant social, intellectual 

and economic benefits to people on earth.” the document argued that “space 

exploration is essential to humanity’s future.” It added that [emphasis added by 

the author.] “Opportunities like this come rarely. The human migration into space is still 

in its infancy. For the most part, we have remained just a few kilometers above the Earth’s 

surface—not much more than camping out in the backyard.”17 

the key words here are “opportunities like this come rarely.” I would go 

even further. Never before has a major government, in this case the United States, 

committed itself to an open-ended vision of space exploration. the pressing 

issues are: Will the United States sustain that commitment in coming years? Will 

other countries join the United States in such a long-term exploratory effort? Or 

will others follow a different path, developing an exploration program of their 

own? finally, will space exploration by humans prove not to be sustainable, 

and thus will humans focus their space efforts on robotic exploration and space 

applications that provide direct benefits here on earth? 

these are the key questions for the next period of spaceflight. Only after 

they are answered can we state with any assurance that space exploration was “a 

false start that led no where and did not amount to much in the balance before 

being consigned to the dustbin of history.” 

Other outcomes are also possible,as space dreamers have reminded us. Looking 

back 50 years from now, it may be that our evaluation of the historical significance 

of space exploration can be much more definitive, and much more positive. 

15. the 	White house, A Renewed Spirit of Discovery: The President’s Vision for U.S. Space 

Exploration, January 2004. 

16. NaSa; Canadian Space agency, european Space agency; CNeS; DLr; Italian Space agency; 

british National Space Center; russian Space agency, roscosmos; Ukrainian Space agency; 

Indian Space research Organization; Chinese National Space administration; Korean 

aerospace research Institute; Japanese aerospace exploration agency; Jaxa; and australian 

Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial research Organization. 

17. each of the 14 agencies issued the document in some form. See, for example, www.nasa.gov/ 

pdf/178109main_ges_framework.pdf., p. 3 (accessed april 6, 2008). 
Chapter 20 

has there Been a Space age? 

Sylvia Kraemer 

Our conference opened with the observation by John Logsdon that how 

one remembers the Space age depends mightily on who does the 

remembering. I would add that how we remember the Space age today is also 

likely to depend on one’s angle of repose, or that point in our shared history at 

which we have acquired sufficient stability to pause and to reflect on the relative 

importance of striking features in the cultural and political/economic landscape 

that surrounds us. 

So I will begin with some observations that cause me to question whether 

U.S. or global space activity since Sputnik warrants its characterization 

as defining an “age.” Whether space has fostered globalization or increased 

nationalism is part of this question. then I will comment on the ways in which 

space activity has nonetheless left an indelible and lasting mark on our world. 

When we refer to any development as defining an age of human history, 

we imply that it has been a singular agent of historical change. the notion that 

space activity is one such development may appeal to those who equate events 

that receive extensive media attention with the things that are historically 

important. and space activity has certainly helped to shape the careers of 

millions of engineers, scientists, and managers in corporate america and within 

the federal government and many of our universities. For these individuals 

space activities have defined a substantial portion of their lives. 

But space activity has some strong competition as a claimant to defining 

our world. First, I would offer the Cold War, in which space was an important 

salient but not principal provocateur. that role of preeminence is held by 

ideology—ours as well as that of the Soviet Union. No less important were the 

post-World War II geopolitical changes wrought by the emergence of the United 

States as the world’s dominant “superpower” and the regional realignments 

in europe, the Middle east, and Southeast asia. as we know only too well, 

those realignments have challenged our military, economic, and diplomatic 

independence to an arguably unprecedented degree. I also think a strong case 

can be made for the emergence, popularization, and ramifications of digital 

communications and information technologies as the defining phenomenon of 

the “age” following the end of the Cold War. 
406 reMeMBerINg the SpaCe age 

the panel was also asked to consider whether space activity fostered a 

new global identity, or reinforced distinct national identities. here I think a 

two-handed response is unavoidable. On the one hand, nations do take pride 

in being able to demonstrate to everyone that they, too, can launch and sustain 

space missions, including human missions. along with this we have the national 

security implications—not only for the United States, but for everyone else—of 

being able to deliver catastrophic weapons to adversaries’ soil and military assets 

wherever they might be. the same can be said for nations’ ability to spy on each 

other continuously from space and to use satellites for tactical advantages in the 

field with space-based surveillance and targeting. 

has the ability to amplify national military capabilities in space, one of 

the most visible manifestations of national technological capacity, strengthened 

nationalism? We tend to assume it has, but I think that notion is debatable. We 

might recall the premise, built into president eisenhower’s space policy and 

illustrated in the case of the Soviet Union, that international belligerence is less 

sustainable when nations can accurately assess one another’s military capacities. 

So we can debate whether the enhancement of military capabilities by space 

weaponry, reconnaissance, and targeting actually fosters nationalism or simply 

elevates the geopolitical balance of powers to a higher plane. 

and now, to the other hand: Our ability to observe earth from space 

has unquestionably reinforced our understanding that earth is a solitary 

and probably unique traveler through space, its natural plenitude the single 

greatest treasure bequeathed to humankind, whether by a divine creator or the 

mysterious “fickle finger of fate.” But the indirect contribution to globalization 

may be more important than this more obvious visual paradigm. 

to begin with, earth imagery from space has brought to fruition the 

historic process of global discovery that began in earnest during that previous 

“age of reconnaissance” of the 14th and 15th centuries. Secondly, by engaging 

scientists from around the world in the shared investigation of earth’s dynamic 

climate and physical geography, as well as the relationship of its dynamic 

processes to those of the Sun, space activity has reinforced the cosmopolitanism 

of intellectual life—an essential component of genuine “globalization.” 

I believe that the contribution of space activity to globalization has 

been far greater than its contribution to nationalism. Indeed, space travel has 

been largely a product of nationalism, rather than one of its sources. and I 

believe that a symbiotic relationship between space activity and globalization 

will prevail over whatever uses individual nations may wish to make of their 

ability to operate in space. this is because the nation state is being overtaken 

by the globally invested corporation as the primary means of aggregating 

economic and allied political interests. Moreover, thanks to now ubiquitous 

“outsourcing,” the functions of government are increasingly carried out by 

corporations wielding enough financial power to buy favorable, or at least 

neutral, government policies. 
haS there BeeN a SpaCe age? 407 

Space activity has contributed to this process by enabling virtually instant 

communication of information and wealth across national boundaries. If the 

more adventurous super-rich like richard Branscomb have their way, in the 

future we will move around the globe with a speed comparable to that at which 

information and money now move around the world. We might even be able 

to travel around the globe in less time than it takes today to get by air from New 

York to Boston. If and when that day occurs, the great cities of the world will 

have more in common with each other than they have with their respective 

hinterlands, and space travel will have, indeed, reshaped us into one world. 

 

Chapter 21 

Cultural Functions of Space exploration 

Linda Billings 

Culture: a “historically transmitted pattern of meanings 

embedded in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions 

expressed in symbolic forms by means of which [people] 

communicate, perpetuate and develop their knowledge 

about and attitudes toward life.”1 

What role has space exploration played in the cultural environment of the 

U.S. and the world? What has space exploration meant, or done, for the 

vast majority of people on earth outside the space community? has this role or 

function varied across cultural boundaries (for example, gender or nationality), 

time, or space? Where, or what, has space exploration been in public discourse? 

has space exploration had subcultures as well as a dominant culture? In short, 

what cultural functions has space exploration performed? how have people 

remembered, represented, and made use of space exploration? 

all these questions may be addressed from a broad range of perspectives. 

the papers in this volume illustrate in a variety of ways that space exploration 

means different things to different people at different times and in different 

geographical and sociocultural places. Official and dominant cultural narratives 

of space exploration are not the only sites where meaning is constructed. the 

so-called “public” makes meaning out of space exploration in its own ways. Just 

how space exploration has affected aspects of social life such as material culture, 

education, aesthetics, values and attitudes, and religion and spirituality is an 

interesting question in its own right. In her paper in this volume, University of 

California, Irvine, historian emily rosenberg documented how the apolloera U.S. space program influenced art and architecture and produced “space 

spectaculars” for the newly dominant mass medium of television. “Space was 

the star of this historical moment,” she said. Ultimately, she concluded, space 

exploration might mean many things, or it might mean nothing. National air 

and Space Museum historian Martin Collins noted that the traditional narrative 

1. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1973), pp. 14, 34. 
 

 

410 reMeMBerING the SpaCe aGe 

of space exploration as a lone, heroic, and progressive enterprise “still resonates, 

but in a much diminished way.” 

In a 1945 letter to president eisenhower accompanying the now-famous 

July 1945 report, Science: The Endless Frontier, White house Office of Scientific 

research and Development Director Vannevar Bush wrote “the pioneer 

spirit is still vigorous within this nation. Science offers a largely unexplored 

hinterland for the pioneer who has the tools for this task. the rewards of such 

exploration both for the nation and the individual are great. Scientific progress 

is one essential key to our security as a nation, to our better health, to more 

jobs, to a higher standard of living, and to our cultural progress.”2 Science: The 

Endless Frontier laid out a U.S. scientific research and technology development 

program for the post-World War II era. 

By substituting the words “space exploration” for “science” in this passage, 

Vannevar Bush’s post-World War II rhetoric becomes indistinguishable from 

the rhetoric of contemporary space exploration advocates. an example of 

current rhetoric is a so-called “elevator speech” developed by NaSa’s Office of 

Strategic Communications planning in 2007 to offer a rationale for the civilian 

space program: 

NaSa explores for answers that power our future. NaSa 

exploration powers inspiration that engages the public and 

encourages students to pursue studies in challenging hightech fields. NaSa exploration powers innovation that creates new jobs, new markets, and new technologies that 

improve and save lives every day in every community. . . . 

NaSa exploration powers discovery that enables us to better understand our Solar System and protect earth through 

the study of weather and climate change, monitor the effects 

of the Sun and detect objects that could collide with earth. 

Why explore? . . . Because exploration powers the future 

through inspiration, innovation, and discovery.3 

In considering what space exploration has meant, or done, for the vast 

majority of people who are not a part of the “official” space community, what 

role do these official narratives play? Do people construct their own narratives 

and make their own meanings, in consideration of their own, specific cultural 

boundaries of gender, nationality, time, or space? Media commentaries on the 

50th anniversary of the launch of Sputnik and the beginning of the Space 

2.	 Vannevar Bush, Director of the Office of Scientific research and Development, Science: 

The Endless Frontier. A Report to the President, July 1945. United States Government printing 

Office, Washington: 1945. (letter of transmittal, n.p.) 

3.	 NaSa Message Construct, NaSa Office of Communications planning, June 1, 2007. 
 

 

 

CULtUraL FUNCtIONS OF SpaCe expLOratION 411 

age tended to repeat familiar and official narratives. the New York Times 

reported, for example, “Sputnik changed everything: history, geopolitics, the 

scientific world. It launched careers, too. . . . Sputnik lifted us into the future.” 

the Houston Chronicle asserted, “today the U.S. reigns over a growing cast of 

nations . . . on a vast new frontier,” framing contemporary space exploration as 

the geopolitical enterprise it was depicted to be in the 1960s. Writing in the Los 

Angeles Times, Matthew Brzezinski (author of Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the 

Hidden Rivalries that Ignited the Space Age) characterized space exploration since 

Sputnik as geopolitics as usual. 

In contrast, the Toronto Globe and Mail offered a different 50th anniversary 

perspective on the meaning of space exploration. In an editorial entitled 

“Venturing into space and finding earth,” the paper made the claim that “the 

most significant achievement of the space age is a better understanding of the 

vulnerability of our own home planet.” 

University of California, Santa Barbara, cultural studies scholar Constance 

penley is one of a small number of researchers who have explored alternative 

or subordinate narratives of space exploration. to young people and others for 

whom the official narrative of space exploration may not have been meaningful, 

she noted during comments at this meeting, the makers of Star Trek offered an 

alternative narrative, “a sustainable and inclusive vision” of a human future in 

space.4 Star Trek producers have done a better job than NaSa has of articulating 

a widely appealing vision. today young people “are not interested in space 

unless they can participate in some way,” penley said, and while NaSa “lives 

and dies by popular culture,” they have just barely begun to engage with 18­

35-year-olds via now-dominant social networks such as MySpace that provide 

broad opportunities for participation. penley mentioned NaSa ames research 

Center’s creation of a meeting and working space on the social networking site 

Second Life and ames’s hosting of a public “Yuri’s Night” party in 2007 as first 

steps toward a more participatory space program. She also mentioned privatesector initiatives to expand public participation in space exploration, such as 

the Google-sponsored Lunar x prize competition to land a robotic explorer 

on the Moon. 

During the meeting, Yale University historian, Bettyann Kevles showed 

how artists working in a range of media, from science fiction to dance to music, 

have interpreted and remembered the Space age, making space exploration 

meaningful in ways not typically considered outside the space community. 

Kevles played an excerpt of a jazz suite composed and performed by saxophonist 

Jane Ira Bloom under commission by NaSa’s space art program. It is not clear 

what interest space exploration holds for contemporary artists. 

4. Constance penley, NASA/TREK: Popular Science and Sex in America. (New York, NY:Verso, 1997). 
 

412 reMeMBerING the SpaCe aGe 

Margaret Weitekamp, the Curator at the National air and Space Museum 

in charge of the museum’s Social and Cultural Dimensions of Spaceflight 

collection, offered her views on how social and cultural products of the Space 

age tell a story of space exploration that may converge with and diverge from 

the official narrative that tends to be embodied in the space hardware and 

technology that people typically think of as artifacts of the Space age. 

Finally, alan Ladwig contributed a unique perspective to the discussion 

on what space exploration means to different sorts of people. as a NaSa official 

in the 1980s and 1990s, Ladwig managed a variety of programs including the 

space agency’s teacher in Space and Journalist in Space programs and the 

Shuttle Student Involvement program. these programs were intended to give 

people outside the traditional aerospace community a chance to engage directly 

in the experience of spaceflight. the space agency was not enthusiastic about 

implementing these programs, and in fact NaSa did not proceed with the 

Journalist in Space program. Ladwig advocated organizing public events to 

engender public discussion about what space exploration means to different 

sectors of society. precedent has been set: In the 1970s, the Committee for the 

Future held a series of syn-cons (synthetic convergences) to find out what space 

exploration means to different sectors of society5

; the National Commission 

on Space, appointed by president reagan in 1985 to develop a long-term plan 

for space exploration, held public forums around the country in 1985 and 1986 

to solicit public opinion about the human future in space; and in 1992, NaSa 

administrator Daniel S. Goldin presided over a nationwide series of town 

meetings designed for the same purpose. 

With China’s efforts in space exploration typically framed in public discourse 

as a “race” with the West, it is clear that what we call the Space age has not yet 

fostered a new global identity. Will 21st century space exploration achieve this 

goal? here at the beginning of the new century, it is clear that the enterprise of 

space exploration has gone global. Will a new global identity emerge? 

the 21st century cultural environment for space exploration is radically 

different from the cultural environment that nurtured the U.S. space program 

through its first 50 years. It remains to be seen whether NaSa can, or will, 

respond to shifting public interests and concerns and give the people the kind 

of space program they want. the first step in reconfiguring the space program 

to survive and thrive in the 21st century is to involve citizens in the process, to 

ask what sorts of visions they have for a human future in space. 

5.	 Barbara Marx hubbard interview by David S. Cohen for the Light Connection (accessed 

December 21, 2007), http://208.131.157.96/fce/content/node/30. 
About the Authors 

Linda Billings is coordinator of communications for NASA’s Astrobiology 

Program in the Science Mission Directorate on assignment to NASA under an 

Intergovernmental Personnel Agreement with the SETI Institute of Mountain 

View, CA. As astrobiology communications coordinator, Dr. Billings is responsible for reviewing, assessing, and coordinating communications, education, 

and public outreach activities sponsored by the Astrobiology Program. From 

September 2002 through December 2006, Dr. Billings conducted science and 

risk communication research for NASA’s Planetary Protection Office. From 

September 1999 through August 2002, she was Director of Communications 

for SPACEHAB, Inc., a builder of space habitats. Dr. Billings has three decades 

of experience in Washington, DC, as a researcher, journalist, freelance writer, 

communication specialist, and consultant to the government. She was the 

founding editor of Space Business News (1983-1985) and the first senior editor for space at Air & Space/Smithsonian Magazine (1985-1988). She also was 

a contributing author for First Contact: The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence 

(New American Library, 1990). Dr. Billings was a member of the staff for the 

National Commission on Space (1985-1986). Her freelance articles have been 

published in outlets such as the Chicago Tribune, Washington Post Magazine, and 

Space News. Dr. Billings’s expertise is in mass communication, science communication, risk communication, rhetorical analysis, journalism studies, and 

social studies of science. Her research has focused on the role that journalists 

play in constructing the cultural authority of scientists and the rhetorical strategies that scientists and journalists employ in communicating about science. 

She earned her B.A. in social sciences from the State University of New York 

at Binghamton, her M.A. in international transactions from George Mason 

University, and her Ph.D. in mass communication from Indiana University’s 

School of Journalism. 

Andrew J. Butrica earned his Ph.D. in history of technology and science from 

Iowa State University in 1986. He then worked at the Thomas A. Edison Papers 

Project and the Center for Research in the History of Science and Technology 

in Paris. Subsequently, as a contract historian, he has researched and written 

Out of Thin Air, a history of Air Products and Chemicals, Inc., a Fortune 500 

firm; Beyond the Ionosphere, a history of satellite communications; To See the 

Unseen, a history of planetary radar astronomy that won the Leopold Prize of the 

Organization of American Historians; and Single Stage To Orbit: Politics, Space 
 

 

 

414 REMEMBERING THE SPACE AGE 

Technology, and the Quest for Reusable Rocketry, which was recently published by 

Johns Hopkins University Press and won the 2005 Michael C. Robinson Prize 

of the National Council on Public History. In addition, he was the historian on 

NASA’s X-33 Program and currently is a historian on the Defense Acquisition 

History Project responsible for researching and writing the fourth volume of 

From the Reagan Buildup to the End of the Cold War, 1981–1990. 

Martin J. Collins is a curator in the Smithsonian National Air and Space 

Museum. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Maryland in history 

of science and technology. Book publications include Cold War Laboratory: 

RAND, the Air Force, and the American State (2002); Showcasing Space, edited 

with Douglas Millard, Volume 6, Artifacts series: Studies in the History of Science 

and Technology (2005); and After Sputnik (2007), editor. He is currently working 

on a history of satellite telephony and globalism in the 1990s. 

Jonathan Coopersmith is an associate professor of history at Texas A&M 

University, where he has taught the history of technology since 1988. He 

received his D.Phil. in 1985 in Modern History at Oxford University. His 

books include The Electrification of Russia, 1880-1926 and, with coeditor Roger 

Launius, Taking Off: A Century of Manned Flight. Currently, his main areas of 

research are the history of the fax machine from the 1840s to the present and 

the close links between communication technologies and pornography. 

Steven J. Dick is the Chief Historian for NASA. He obtained his B.S. in 

astrophysics (1971) and his M.A. and Ph.D. (1977) in history and philosophy of 

science from Indiana University. He worked as an astronomer and historian of 

science at the U.S. Naval Observatory in Washington, DC, for 24 years before 

coming to NASA Headquarters in 2003. Among his books are Plurality of Worlds: 

The Origins of the Extraterrestrial Life Debate from Democritus to Kant (1982), The 

Biological Universe: The Twentieth Century Extraterrestrial Life Debate and the Limits of 

Science (1996), and Life on Other Worlds (1998). The latter has been translated into 

Chinese, Italian, Czech, Polish and Greek. His most recent books are The Living 

Universe: NASA and the Development of Astrobiology (2004) and a comprehensive 

history of the U.S. Naval Observatory, Sky and Ocean Joined: The U.S. Naval 

Observatory, 1830–2000 (2003). The latter received the Pendleton Prize of the 

Society for History in the federal government. He is editor of Many Worlds: The 

New Universe, Extraterrestrial Life and the Theological Implications (2000), editor (with 

Keith Cowing) of the proceedings of the NASA Administrator’s symposium Risk 

and Exploration: Earth, Sea and the Stars (2005), and (with Roger Launius) of Critical 

Issues in the History of Spaceflight (2006) and Societal Impact of Spaceflight (2007). He 

is the recipient of the Navy Meritorious Civilian Service Medal. He received 

the NASA Group Achievement Award for his role in NASA’s multidisciplinary 

program in astrobiology. He has served as chairman of the Historical Astronomy 
 

 

 

 

ABOUT THE AUTHORS 415 

Division of the American Astronomical Society as president of the History of 

Astronomy Commission of the International Astronomical Union, and he as 

president of the Philosophical Society of Washington. He is a member of the 

International Academy of Astronautics. 

Slava Gerovitch is a lecturer in the science, technology and society program at 

the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His research interests include the 

history of Soviet science and technology during the Cold War, especially 

cosmonautics, cybernetics, and computing. His book From Newspeak to 

Cyberspeak: A History of Soviet Cybernetics (2002) received an honorable mention 

for the Wayne S. Vucinich Book Prize for an outstanding monograph in Russian, 

Eurasian, or East European studies from the American Association for the 

Advancement of Slavic Studies. His articles appeared in the journals Technology 

and Culture, Social Studies of Science, Science in Context, and The Russian Review 

and in the collections Science and Ideology, Cultures of Control, and Universities and 

Empire. His most recent article on human-machine issues in the Soviet space 

program was published in the collection Critical Issues in the History of Spaceflight 

(2006). He is the recipient of the 2007-2008 Fellowship in Aerospace History 

from the American Historical Association. He received two doctorates in the 

history and social study of science and technology from the Russian Academy of 

Sciences (1992) and from MIT (1999). 

James R. Hansen is professor of history in the department of history at Auburn 

University in Alabama, where he teaches courses on the history of flight, history 

of science and technology, space history, and the history of technological failure. 

He has published nine books and three dozen articles on a wide variety of 

technological topics including the early days of aviation, the first nuclear fusion 

reactors, the Moon landings, and the environmental history of golf course 

development. His books include First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong (2005); 

The Bird is on the Wing: Aerodynamics and the Progress of the Airplane in America 

(2003); The Wind and Beyond: A Documentary Journey through the History of 

Aerodynamics in America (Vol. 1, 2002), Spaceflight Revolution (1995), From the 

Ground Up (1988), and Engineer in Charge (1987). Hansen earned a B.A. degree 

with high honors from Indiana University (1974) and an M.A. (1976) and Ph.D. 

(1981) from The Ohio State University. He served as historian for NASA Langley 

Research in Hampton, Virginia, from 1981 to 1984, and as a professor at the 

University of Maine in 1984-85. Professor Hansen has received a number of 

citations for his scholarship, including the National Space Club’s Robert H. 

Goddard Award, Air Force Historical Foundation’s Distinction of Excellence, 

American Astronautical Society’s Eugene Emme Prize in Astronautical Literature 

(twice), American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics’s History Book 

Award; and AIAA Distinguished Lecturer. He has served on a number of 

important advisory boards and panels, including the Research Advisory Board 
 

 

416 REMEMBERING THE SPACE AGE 

of the National Air and Space Museum, the Editorial Advisory Board of the 

Smithsonian Institution Press, the Advisory Board for the Archives of Aerospace 

Exploration at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, the Museum 

Advisory Board of the U.S. Space and Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama, 

and the board of directors of the Space Restoration Society. He is a past vicepresident of the board of directors of the Virginia Air and Space Museum and 

Hampton Roads History Center in Hampton, Virginia. 

Robert G. Kennedy, III, PE, took Heinlein’s advice about a liberal education 

to heart. He is a registered professional mechanical engineer (robotics specialty 

for military, nuclear, and industrial applications) in Tennessee and California. 

He minored in Soviet studies and holds a special master of arts in national 

security studies, and speaks, reads, and writes Russian, Latin and, to a lesser 

degree, Arabic and Classical Greek. In 1994, he was selected as the American 

Society of Mechanical Engineers Congressional Fellow for that year, working 

for the Subcommittee on Space in the United States House of Representatives. 

Also in 1994, he was invited to present Robert A Heinlein: The Competent Man at 

the Library of Congress. In 1997, he published, manufactured and distributed 

the Russian CD-ROM 40th Anniversary of Sputnik: Russians in Space. Also in 

1997-1999, he served on the Where To? panel in the inaugural issues of The 

Heinlein Journal published by The Heinlein Society. He is an amateur military 

historian, published artist and writer on strategic affairs in the Journal of the 

British Interplanetary Society among other venues, and past chair of the American 

Society of Mechanical Engineer’s (ASME) Technology & Society Division. He 

currently resides with his spouse and numerous cats under his own vine and fig 

tree in the Manhattan Project city of Oak Ridge, Tennessee. 

Bettyann Kevles is a lecturer in the history department at Yale University. She 

writes about science, technology, and popular culture. Her most recent book, 

Almost Heaven: The Story of Women in Space, (paperback revised edition MIT 

Press 2006), is a cross-cultural exploration of the lives and ambitions of women 

who have traveled into orbit. During 2000, she held the Charles A. Lindbergh 

Chair in Space History at the Smithsonian’s National Air and Space Museum. 

Almost Heaven was selected as the best science book of 2003 by the American 

Library Association, and in 2005 she was awarded the Educator’s Award for the 

book by Women in Aerospace. Before joining the faculty at Yale, she lived in 

Pasadena, California, where she wrote a regular science column and science 

book reviews for the Los Angeles Times, taught at the Art Center College of 

Design, and became an active member of the Planetary Society. 

Sylvia K. Kraemer served as NASA Chief Historian from 1983-1990 and as 

NASA’s Director of Policy Development, Director of Interagency Relations, and 

Chair of Inventions and Contributions Board from 1990-2004. She obtained 
 

 

ABOUT THE AUTHORS 417 

her Ph.D. in history from The Johns Hopkins University. Among many other 

publications, she is the author of NASA Engineers and the Age of Apollo (1992). 

John Krige is an historian who specializes on the place of science and technology 

in the postwar reconstruction of Europe. He received his Ph.D. in physical 

chemistry at Pretoria in 1965 and his Ph.D. in philosophy at Sussex in 1979. 

He was a member of a multinational team that wrote the history of CERN and 

the leader of the project that produced a two-volume history of the European 

Space Agency. Krige is the editor of the journal History and Technology and has 

served on the editorial board of the several other journals. His current research 

deals with the use of science and technology as instruments of U.S. foreign 

policy during the Cold War, notably in its relations with Western Europe. His 

new book, American Hegemony and Postwar Reconstruction of Science in Europe, was 

published by the MIT Press in 2006. He also edited (with Kai Henrik Barth, 

Georgetown University), Vol. 21 of OSIRIS entitled Global Power Knowledge. 

Science and Technology in International Affairs (University of Chicago Press, 2006). 

In 2005, Krige was the Charles A. Lindbergh Professor of Aerospace History at 

the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, DC. In May 2005, he was 

awarded the Henry W. Dickinson medal by the (British) Newcomen Society for 

the Study of Technology and Society. In Fall 2006, Krige was a Visiting Fellow at 

the Shelby Cullom Davis Center for Historical Studies at Princeton University. 

Monique Laney is a Ph.D. candidate in the American studies program at the 

University of Kansas. Her dissertation explores the immigration and integration 

process of German families associated with Project Paperclip and Wernher Von 

Braun who moved to Huntsville, Alabama, in the 1950s. For this investigation, 

she uses oral histories, archival material, newspaper clippings, literature, and 

film. Currently Ms. Laney is finishing a pre-doctoral Smithsonian fellowship 

at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, DC. She holds an M.A. 

degree in American studies from the Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität, 

Frankfurt, Germany, and her research interests include national identity, U.S. 

immigration history, history and memory, German Americans after WWII, 

and the cultural and social impact of the U.S. on Germany and vice versa. Her 

first publication, “The New York Times and Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung: 

Two Perspectives on the War in Iraq,” appeared in Safeguarding German-American 

Relations in the New Century: Understanding and Accepting Mutual Differences, eds. 

Kurthen, Hermann; Antonio V. Menendez-Alarcon; and Stefan Immerfall 

(Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books-Rowman & Littlefield, 2006). 

Roger D. Launius is a member of the division of space history at the 

Smithsonian Institution’s National Air and Space Museum in Washington, DC. 

Between 1990 and 2002, he served as Chief Historian of NASA. A graduate 

of Graceland College in Lamoni, Iowa, he received his Ph.D. from Louisiana 
418 REMEMBERING THE SPACE AGE 

State University, Baton Rouge, in 1982. He has written or edited more 

than 20 books on aerospace history, including Critical Issues in the History of 

Spaceflight (NASA SP-2006-4702, 2006); Space Stations: Base Camps to the Stars 

(Smithsonian Books, 2003), which received the AIAA’s history manuscript 

prize; Reconsidering a Century of Flight (University of North Carolina Press, 

2003); To Reach the High Frontier: A History of U.S. Launch Vehicles (University 

Press of Kentucky, 2002); Imagining Space: Achievements, Possibilities, Projections, 

1950-2050 (Chronicle Books, 2001); Reconsidering Sputnik: Forty Years Since 

the Soviet Satellite (Harwood Academic, 2000); Innovation and the Development 

of Flight (Texas A&M University Press, 1999); Frontiers of Space Exploration 

(Greenwood Press, 1998, rev. ed. 2004); Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential 

Leadership (University of Illinois Press, 1997); and NASA: A History of the U.S. 

Civil Space Program (Krieger Publishing Co., 1994, rev. ed. 2001). He served 

as a consultant to the Columbia Accident Investigation Board in 2003 and 

presented the Harmon Memorial Lecture on the history of national security 

space policy at the United States Air Force Academy in 2006. He is frequently 

consulted by the electronic and print media for his views on space issues, and 

has been a guest commentator on National Public Radio and all the major 

television networks. 

Cathleen Lewis is curator of International Space programs at the Smithsonian 

Institution’s National Air and Space Museum, specializing in Soviet and 

Russian programs. Her current research is on the history of the public and 

popular culture of the early years of human spaceflight in the Soviet Union. She 

has completed degrees in Russian and East European Studies at Yale University 

and is currently writing her dissertation, The Red Stuff: A History of the Public 

and Material Culture of Early Human Spaceflight in the U.S.S.R., 1959-1968 in the 

History Department at George Washington University. 

John M. Logsdon is director of the Space Policy Institute at George Washington 

University’s Elliott School of International Affairs, where he is also Research 

Professor and Professor Emeritus of Political Science and of International 

Affairs. From 1983-2001, he was the director of GW’s Center for International 

Science and Technology Policy. A faculty member at GW since 1970, he also 

taught at the Catholic University of America from 1966-1970. He holds a B.S. 

in physics from Xavier University (1960) and a Ph.D. in political science from 

New York University (1970). Dr. Logsdon’s research interests focus on the 

policy and historical aspects of U.S. and international space activities. 

Dr. Logsdon is the author of The Decision to Go to the Moon: Project 

Apollo and the National Interest and is general editor of the eight-volume series 

Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space 

Program. He has written numerous articles and reports on space policy and 

history and authored the basic article on the topic of “space exploration” for 
ABOUT THE AUTHORS 419 

the most recent edition of Encyclopedia Britannica. Dr. Logsdon has lectured 

and spoken to a wide variety of audiences at professional meetings, colleges 

and universities, international conferences, and other settings, and has testified 

before Congress on several occasions. He has served as a consultant to many 

public and private organizations and is frequently consulted by the electronic 

and print media for his views on space issues. Dr. Logsdon is a member of 

the NASA Advisory Council and of the Commercial Space Transportation 

Advisory Committee of the Department of Transportation. In 2003, he 

served as a member of the Columbia Accident Investigation Board. He is a 

recipient of the Distinguished Public Service and Public Service Medals from 

NASA, the 2005 John F. Kennedy Astronautics Award from the American 

Astronautical Society, and the 2006 Barry Goldwater Space Educator Award 

from the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. He is a Fellow 

of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics and the American 

Association for the Advancement of Science, and a member of the International 

Academy of Astronautics and former Chair of its Commission on Space Policy, 

Law, and Economics. He is a former member of the Board of Directors of the 

Planetary Society and member of the Society’s Advisory Council. He is faculty 

member of the International Space University and former member of its Board 

of Trustees. He is on the editorial board of the international journal Space Policy 

and was its North American editor from 1985-2000. He is also on the editorial 

board of the journal Astropolitics. 

Dr. Logsdon has served as a member of a blue-ribbon international committee 

evaluating Japan’s National Space Development Agency and of the Committee 

on Human Space Exploration of the Space Studies Board, National Research 

Council. He has also served on the Vice President’s Space Policy Advisory Board, 

the Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board of the National Research Council, 

NASA’s Space and Earth Sciences Advisory Committee, and the Research Advisory 

Committee of the National Air and Space Museum. He has served as the Director 

of the District of Columbia Space Grant Consortium. He is former Chairman of 

the Committee on Science and Public Policy of the American Association for the 

Advancement of Science and of the Education Committee of the International 

Astronautical Federation. He has twice been a Fellow at the Woodrow Wilson 

International Center for Scholars and was the first holder of the Chair in Space 

History of the National Air and Space Museum. 

Robert MacGregor is currently a graduate student in the history of science 

program at Princeton University. Before coming to Princeton he studied at Rice 

University in Houston, Texas, where he received a B.S. in chemical physics and 

a B.A. in history. Robert has also studied at Moscow State University in Russia 

where he studied Russian language, history, and culture. His current work 

focuses on the processes in the U.S. government that lead to the formation of 

NASA between the launch of Sputnik in October 1957 and the signing into 
420 REMEMBERING THE SPACE AGE 

law of the National Air and Space Act in July 1958. In the future, he plans to 

delve into the history of the Soviet space program and the early amateur rocket 

societies in Germany, the United States, and the Soviet Union. 

Hans Mark became Deputy Administrator of NASA in July 1981. He had 

previously served as Secretary of the Air Force from July 1979 until February 

1981 and as Under Secretary of the Air Force since 1977. Dr. Mark was born 

in Mannheim, Germany, June 17, 1929. He came to the United States in 1940 

and became a citizen in 1945. He received his bachelor’s degree in physics from 

the University of California, Berkeley, in 1951 and his doctorate in physics 

from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1954. In February 1969, 

Mark became director of NASA’s Ames Research Center in Mountain View, 

California, where he managed the Center’s research and applications efforts 

in aeronautics, space science, life science, and space technology. He has taught 

undergraduate and graduate courses in physics and engineering at Boston 

University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the University of 

California (Berkeley and Davis campuses). Following completion of graduate 

studies, Dr. Mark remained at MIT as a research associate and acting head of 

the Neutron Physics Group, Laboratory for Nuclear Science until 1955. He 

then returned to the University of California, Berkeley, as a research physicist 

at the University’s Lawrence Radiation Laboratory in Livermore until 1958. 

He subsequently served as an assistant professor of physics at MIT before 

returning to the University of California’s Livermore Radiation Laboratory’s 

Experimental Physics Division from 1960 until 1964. He then became chairman 

of the University’s Department of Nuclear Engineering and administrator of 

the Berkeley Research Reactor before joining the NASA team. Dr. Mark has 

served as a consultant to government, industry, and business, including the 

Institute for Defense Analyses and the President’s Advisory Group on Science 

and Technology. He has authored many articles for professional and technical 

journals. He also coauthored the books Experiments in Modern Physics and Power 

and Security, and coedited The Properties of Matter under Unusual Conditions. He 

also published The Space Station: A Personal Journey (Duke University Press, 

1987), and The Management of Research Institutions (NASA SP-481, 1984). When 

Dr. Mark left NASA in 1984, he became Chancellor of the University of Texas 

system, a post he held until 1992. He then became a senior professor of aerospace 

engineering at the University of Texas at Austin. In July 1998, he took a job 

at the Pentagon as the director, defense research and engineering. In January 

2001, he returned to the department of aerospace engineering and engineering 

mechanics and the University of Texas at Austin. 

Walter A. McDougall is the Alloy-Ansin professor of international relations 

and history and the University of Pennsylvania. His honors include the 

Pulitzer Prize for history, election to the Society of American Historians, 
 

 

 

ABOUT THE AUTHORS 421 

and appointment to the Library of Congress Council of Scholars. McDougall 

graduated from New Trier High School in Illinois in 1964 and Amherst 

College, Massachusetts in 1968. After serving in the U.S. Army artillery 

in Vietnam, he took a Ph.D. under world historian William H. McNeill at 

the University of Chicago in 1974. The following year he was hired by the 

University of California, Berkeley, and taught there until 1988, when he was 

offered the chair at Penn. McDougall is also a Senior Fellow at Philadelphia’s 

Foreign Policy Research Institute where he edited its journal Orbis and now 

codirects its History Academy for secondary school teachers. His articles and 

columns have appeared in the New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Los Angeles 

Times, Commentary, and other national publications. An unabashed generalist, 

his books include France’s Rhineland Diplomacy 1914-1924: The Last Bid for a 

Balance of Power in Europe (1978), . . . the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History 

of the Space Age (1985), Let the Sea Make a Noise: A History of the North Pacific 

From Magellan to MacArthur (1992), Promised Land, Crusader State: The American 

Encounter with the World Since 1776 (1997), and Freedom Just Around the Corner: A 

New American History 1585-1828. His current project, Throes of Democracy: The 

American Civil War Era 1829-1877, will appear early in 2008. A lover of books, 

music from Bach to Bob Dylan, chess, sports, and politics, McDougall lives 

with his wife and two teenagers in suburban Philadelphia. 

J. R. McNeill was born in Chicago on October 6, 1954. He studied at 

Swarthmore College and Duke University, where he completed a Ph.D. in 

1981. Since 1985 he has taught some 2,500 students at Georgetown University 

in the history department and school of foreign service, where he held the 

Cinco Hermanos chair in Environmental and International Affairs before 

becoming University professor in 2006. His research interests lie in the 

environmental history of the Mediterranean world, the tropical Atlantic 

world, and Pacific islands. He has held two Fulbright awards, a Guggenheim 

fellowship, a MacArthur grant, and a fellowship at the Woodrow Wilson 

Center. He has published more than 40 scholarly articles in professional and 

scientific journals. His books are The Atlantic Empires of France and Spain, 1700­

1765 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985); Atlantic American 

Societies from Columbus through Abolition (coedited, London: Routledge, 1992); 

The Mountains of the Mediterranean World (New York: Cambridge University 

Press); The Environmental History of the Pacific World (edited, London: Variorum, 

2001); Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentiethcentury World (New York: Norton, 2000), co-winner of the World History 

Association book prize, the Forest History Society book prize, and runner-up 

for the BP Natural World book prize, and translated into six languages; and 

most recently The Human Web: A Bird’s-eye View of World History (New York: 

Norton, 2003), coauthored with his father William H. McNeill. He also edited 

or coedited five more books, including the Encyclopedia of World Environmental 
 

 

 

422 REMEMBERING THE SPACE AGE 

History (New York: Routledge, 2003). He is currently working on a history of 

yellow fever in the Americas from the 17th through the 20th centuries. 

Amy Nelson received her Ph.D. from the University of Michigan and is 

currently an associate professor of history at Virginia Tech. A specialist in 

Russian and Soviet Culture, her current research focuses on the significance 

of non-human animals in Russian-Soviet History. She is writing a collective 

biography of the Soviet space dogs and, together with Jane Costlow (Bates 

College), is editing a volume of essays entitled, The Other Animals: Situating the 

Non-Human in Russian Culture and History. Nelson is the author of Music for the 

Revolution. Musicians and Power in Early Soviet Russia (Penn State University Press), 

which received the Heldt Prize for “The Best Book by a Woman in Any Area 

of Slavic/East European/Eurasian Studies,” from the Association of Women in 

Slavic Studies in 2005. Her recent publications include, “A Hearth for a Dog: 

The Paradoxes of Soviet Pet Keeping” in Borders of Socialism: Private Spheres of 

Soviet Russia, ed. Lewis Siegelbaum (New York, 2006) and “Accounting for 

Taste: Choral Circles in Early Soviet Workers’ Clubs” in Chorus and Community, 

ed. Karen Ahlquist, (Chicago, 2006). 

Michael J. Neufeld is chair of the Space History Division of the National Air 

and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. Born in Canada, 

he received history degrees from the University of Calgary and the University 

of British Columbia followed by a Ph.D. in modern European history from The 

Johns Hopkins University in 1984. Before Dr. Neufeld came to the National 

Air and Space Museum in 1988 as an A. Verville Fellow, he taught at various 

universities in upstate New York. In 1989-1990 he held Smithsonian and NSF 

fellowships at NASM. In 1990, he was hired as a Museum Curator in the 

Aeronautics Division, where he remained until early 1999. After transferring to 

the Space History Division, he took over the collection of German World War II 

missiles and, from 2003-2007, the collection of Mercury and Gemini spacecraft 

and components. In fall 2001, he was a Senior Lecturer at The Johns Hopkins 

University in Baltimore. He was named Chair of Space History in January 

2007. In addition to authoring numerous scholarly articles, Dr. Neufeld has 

written three books: The Skilled Metalworkers of Nuremberg: Craft and Class in the 

Industrial Revolution (1989), The Rocket and the Reich: Peenemünde and the Coming 

of the Ballistic Missile Era (1995), which won two book prizes, and Von Braun: 

Dreamer of Space, Engineer of War, which is forthcoming in September 2007. He 

has also edited Yves Béon’s memoir Planet Dora (1997) and is the coeditor of The 

Bombing of Auschwitz: Should the Allies Have Attempted It? (2000). 

Emily S. Rosenberg is professor of history at the University of California, 

Irvine. Two of her books, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and 

Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945 and Financial Missionaries to the World: The Politics 
 

 

ABOUT THE AUTHORS 423 

and Culture of Dollar Diplomacy, 1900-1930, deal with the intersections of culture 

and economics in U.S. international relations. Her most recent book, A Date 

Which Will Live: Pearl Harbor in American Memory (also translated into Japanese), 

examines the issue of collective historical memory in a media age. She is a coauthor 

of Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People (5th ed., 2007). She has 

served as president of the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations 

(SHAFR); an editor of the Oxford Companion to United States History; a board 

member of the Organization of American Historians; and coedits the American 

Encounters, Global Interactions book series for Duke University Press. 

Asif A. Siddiqi is assistant professor of history at Fordham University in New 

York. He specializes in the social and cultural history of technology and modern 

Russian history. His forthcoming book, The Rockets’ Red Glare: Spaceflight and 

the Russian Imagination, 1857-1957 (Cambridge University Press, 2008) is the 

first archive-based study on the social, cultural, and technological forces that 

made Sputnik possible. 

Michael Soluri is a New York City-based photographer. His work has been 

published in editorial magazines like Wired, Time, Discover, BBC Horizons, 

and GEO, as well as in corporate, institutional, and nonprofit multimedia 

communications. He is a contributing editor and photographer for Discover, 

Space.Com and Ad Astra. Profiled in Photo District News and on Space.Com 

for his expertise in the photography and editing of human and robotic space 

exploration, he has lectured at the Smithsonian Institute and at the National 

Science Foundation. In an 18-month photographic documentation of the 

last service mission to the Hubble Space Telescope, Soluri secured exclusive 

access to the integration of flight hardware, EVA tools, engineering personnel, 

and the crew of SM4 that resulted in the first creatively controlled portrait 

session of an astronaut crew in more than 25 years. He was also invited by the 

crew to present a photo seminar on making more communicative, insightful 

photographs during their historic mission to the Hubble Space Telescope. In 

addition, since 2005, Soluri has been following and documenting the project 

scientists and technicians with NASA’s New Horizons mission to Pluto and 

the Kuiper Belt. Currently published in eight languages, Soluri is coauthor and 

picture editor of What’s Out There—Images from Here to the Edge of the Universe 

and Cosmos—Images from Here to the Edge of the Universe, for which he secured 

Stephen Hawking to write these books’ forewords. He was a contributing editor 

for The History of Space Travel, a special edition of Discover commemorating 50 

years of spaceflight. A former professor of photographic studies at the Rochester 

Institute of Technology, Soluri is currently adjunct faculty at Pratt Institute in 

New York City. He holds an MFA in photography from the Rochester Institute 

of Technology. 
424 REMEMBERING THE SPACE AGE 

Margaret A. Weitekamp is a Curator in the Division of Space History at the 

National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, in Washington, DC. 

As curator of the Social and Cultural Dimensions of Spaceflight collection, she 

oversees over 4,000 individual pieces of space memorabilia and space science 

fiction objects. These social and cultural products of the Space Age—including 

toys and games, clothing, stamps, medals and awards, buttons and pins, comics 

and trading cards—round out the story of spaceflight told by the museum’s 

collection of space hardware and technologies. 

Her book Right Stuff, Wrong Sex: America’s First Women In Space Program 

(published by the Johns Hopkins University Press) won the Eugene M. Emme 

Award for Astronautical Literature given by the American Astronautical 

Society. The book reconstructs the history of a privately funded project that 

tested female pilots for astronaut fitness at the beginning of the Space Age. In 

addition, Weitekamp has also contributed to the anthology Impossible to Hold: 

Women and Culture in the 1960s, ed. Avital Bloch and Lauri Umansky (New York 

University Press, 2005). Weitekamp won the Smithsonian Institution’s National 

Air and Space Museum Aviation/Space Writers Award in 2002 and served as 

an interviewer for The Infinite Journey: Eyewitness Accounts of NASA and the Age 

of Space (Discovery Channel Publishing, 2000). She spent the academic year 

1997-1998 in residence at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Headquarters History Division in Washington, DC, as the American Historical 

Association/NASA Aerospace History Fellow. She is a 1993 Mellon Fellow 

in the humanities. Weitekamp received her B.A. summa cum laude from the 

University of Pittsburgh and her Ph.D. in history at Cornell University in 2001. 

Before joining the Smithsonian Institution, Weitekamp taught for three years 

as an assistant professor in the women’s studies program at Hobart and William 

Smith Colleges in Geneva, New York. 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Acronyms and Abbreviations 

AAAS American Academy of Arts and Sciences 

ABM Antiballistic Missile 

ABMA Army Ballistic Missile Agency 

AEC Atomic Energy Commission 

ARPA Advanced Research Projects Agency 

ASAT Anti-Satellite 

CaLV Cargo Launch Vehicle 

CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research 

CIA Central Intelligence Agency 

CLV Crew Launch Vehicle 

CNES French National Space Agency (Centre Nationale des Études 

Spatiales) 

CNSA China National Space Administration 

CNTA China’s National Tourism Administration 

COPUOS United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer 

Space 

COSPAR Committee on Space Research 

DOD Department of Defense 

DOT Department of Transportation 

EEO Equal Employment Opportunity 

ELDO European Launcher Development Organization . 

ELV Expendable Launch Vehicle 

ESA European Space Agency 

ESRO European Space Research Organization 

EVA Extra Vehicular Activity 

FSA Farm Securities Administration 

GLONASS GLObal Navigation Satellite System 

GPS Global Positioning System 
426 REMEMBERING ThE SPACEAGE 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ICBM Intercontinental Ballistic Missile 

IGY International Geophysical Year 

INKhUK Moscow Institute of Artistic Culture 

ISPM International Solar Polar Mission 

ISS International Space Station 

ITAR International Traffic in Arms Regulations 

JSC Johnson Space Center 

LEM Lunar Excursion Module 

MAD Mutual Assured Destruction 

MESA Modularized Equipment Stowage Assembly 

MLS Manana Literary Society 

MMU Manned Maneuvering Unit 

MNC Multinational Corporation 

MRI Midwestern Research Institute 

MRO Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 

NACA National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 

NAMC Navy Air Materials Center 

NASM National Air and Space Museum 

NASP National Aero-Space Plane 

NDEA National Defense Education Act 

NEAR Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous 

NEP New Economic Policy 

NGO Non-Governmental Organization 

NKVD People’s Commissariat Internal Affairs 

NSC National Security Council 

NSDD National Security Decision Directive 

NST Nuclear and Space Talks 

OCST Office of Commercial Space Transportation 

ODM Office of Defense Mobilization 

OPF Orbiter Processing Facilities 

OSI Office of Special Investigations 

OTA Office of Technology Assessment 
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 427 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PAO Public Affairs Office 

PSAC President’s Science Advisory Committee 

R&D Research and Development 

SAC Strategic Air Command 

SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks 

SAO Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar 

SDI Strategic Defense Initiative 

SEI Space Exploration Initiative 

SIG (Space) Senior Interagency Group for Space 

SLBM Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile 

SOhO Solar and heliosperic Observatory 

SRTM Shuttle Radar Topography Mission 

START Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty 

TCP Technological Capabilities Panel 

TVA Tennessee Valley Authority 

UAh University of Alabama in huntsville 

UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural 

Organization 

USAAF United States Army Air Force 

USAF U.S. Air Force 

VAB Vehicle Assembly Building 

VDNKh Exhibition of Achievements of the National Economy 

VSE Vision for Space Exploration 

WPA Work Projects Administration 

 

 

The NASA hiSTory SerieS 

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Grimwood, James M., and Barton C. hacker, with Peter J. Vorzimmer. 


Project Gemini Technology and Operations: A Chronology. NASA SP-4002, 1969. 

Link, Mae Mills. Space Medicine in Project Mercury. NASA SP-4003, 1965. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1963: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. 

NASA SP-4004, 1964. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1964: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. 

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Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1965: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. 

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430 reMeMBeriNG The SPACe AGe 

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ezell, Linda Neuman. NASA Historical Data Book, Vol. II: Programs and 

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Gawdiak, ihor, with helen Fedor. NASA Historical Data Book, Vol. IV: 

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rumerman, Judy A. NASA Historical Data Book, Vol. V: NASA Launch 

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rumerman, Judy A. NASA Historical Data Book, Vol. VI: NASA Space 

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Acquisition/Support Operations, Commercial Programs, and Resources, 1979–1988. 

NASA SP-4012, 1999. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1969: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. 

NASA SP-4014, 1970. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1970: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. 

NASA SP-4015, 1972. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1971: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. 

NASA SP-4016, 1972. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1972: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. 

NASA SP-4017, 1974. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1973: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. 

NASA SP-4018, 1975. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1974: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. 

NASA SP-4019, 1977. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1975: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. 

NASA SP-4020, 1979. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1976: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. 

NASA SP-4021, 1984. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1977: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. 

NASA SP-4022, 1986. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1978: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. 

NASA SP-4023, 1986. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1979–1984: Chronology of Science, Technology, 

and Policy. NASA SP-4024, 1988. 
 

 

The NASA hiSTory SerieS 431 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1985: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. 

NASA SP-4025, 1990. 

Noordung, hermann. The Problem of Space Travel:The Rocket Motor. edited by 

ernst Stuhlinger and J.D. hunley, with Jennifer Garland. NASA SP-4026, 1995. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1986–1990:A Chronology. NASA SP-4027, 1997. 

Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1991–1995: A Chronology. NASA SP-2000-4028, 

2000. 

orloff, richard W. Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference. NASA 

SP-2000-4029, 2000. 

Management histories, NASA SP-4100: 

rosholt, robert L. An Administrative History of NASA, 1958–1963. NASA 

SP-4101, 1966. 

Levine,Arnold S. Managing NASA in the Apollo Era. NASA SP-4102, 1982. 

roland, Alex. Model Research: The National Advisory Committee for 

Aeronautics,1915–1958. NASA SP-4103, 1985. 

Fries, Sylvia D. NASA Engineers and the Age of Apollo. NASA SP-4104, 1992. 

Glennan, T. Keith. The Birth of NASA: The Diary of T. Keith Glennan. 

edited by J.D. hunley. NASA SP-4105, 1993. 

Seamans, robert C. Aiming at Targets: The Autobiography of Robert C. Seamans. 

NASA SP-4106, 1996. 

Garber, Stephen J., editor. Looking Backward, Looking Forward: Forty Years of 

Human Spaceflight Symposium. NASA SP-2002-4107, 2002. 

Mallick, Donald L. with Peter W. Merlin. The Smell of Kerosene: A Test 

Pilot’s Odyssey. NASA SP-4108, 2003. 

iliff, Kenneth W. and Curtis L. Peebles. From Runway to Orbit: Reflections 

of a NASA Engineer. NASA SP-2004-4109, 2004. 

Chertok, Boris. Rockets and People,Volume 1. NASA SP-2005-4110, 2005. 

Chertok, Boris. Rockets and People: Creating a Rocket Industry, Volume II. 

NASA SP-2006-4110, 2006. 

Laufer, Alexander, Todd Post, and edward hoffman. Shared Voyage: 

Learning and Unlearning from Remarkable Projects. NASA SP-2005-4111, 2005. 

Dawson, Virginia P., and Mark D. Bowles. Realizing the Dream of Flight: 

Biographical Essays in Honor of the Centennial of Flight, 1903–2003. NASA 

SP-2005-4112, 2005. 

Mudgway, Douglas J. William H. Pickering: America’s Deep Space Pioneer. 

NASA SP-2008-4113, 
 

 

432 reMeMBeriNG The SPACe AGe 

Project histories, NASA SP-4200: 

Swenson, Loyd S., Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C.Alexander. This 

New Ocean:A History of Project Mercury. NASA SP-4201, 1966; reprinted 1999. 

Green, Constance McLaughlin, and Milton Lomask. Vanguard: A History. 

NASA SP-4202, 1970; rep. ed. Smithsonian institution Press, 1971. 

hacker, Barton C., and James M. Grimwood. On Shoulders of Titans: A 

History of Project Gemini. NASA SP-4203, 1977, reprinted 2002. 

Benson, Charles D., and William Barnaby Faherty. Moonport: A History of 

Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations. NASA SP-4204, 1978. 

Brooks, Courtney G., James M. Grimwood, and Loyd S. Swenson, Jr. 

Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft. NASA SP-4205, 1979. 

Bilstein, roger e. Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/ 

Saturn Launch Vehicles. NASA SP-4206, 1980 and 1996. 

Compton, W. David, and Charles D. Benson. Living and Working in Space: 

A History of Skylab. NASA SP-4208, 1983. 

ezell, edward Clinton, and Linda Neuman ezell. The Partnership: A History 

of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. NASA SP-4209, 1978. 

hall, r. Cargill. Lunar Impact: A History of Project Ranger. NASA SP-4210, 

1977. 

Newell, homer e. Beyond the Atmosphere: Early Years of Space Science. NASA 

SP-4211, 1980. 

ezell, edward Clinton, and Linda Neuman ezell. On Mars: Exploration of 

the Red Planet, 1958–1978. NASA SP-4212, 1984. 

Pitts, John A. The Human Factor: Biomedicine in the Manned Space Program to 

1980. NASA SP-4213, 1985. 

Compton, W. David. Where No Man Has Gone Before: A History of Apollo 

Lunar Exploration Missions. NASA SP-4214, 1989. 

Naugle, John e. First Among Equals: The Selection of NASA Space Science 

Experiments. NASA SP-4215, 1991. 

Wallace, Lane e. Airborne Trailblazer: Two Decades with NASA Langley’s 

737 Flying Laboratory. NASA SP-4216, 1994. 

Butrica, Andrew J., ed. Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite 

Communications. NASA SP-4217, 1997. 

Butrica, Andrew J. To See the Unseen: A History of Planetary Radar Astronomy. 

NASA SP-4218, 1996. 

Mack, Pamela e., ed. From Engineering Science to Big Science: The NACA 

and NASA Collier Trophy Research Project Winners. NASA SP-4219, 1998. 
 

The NASA hiSTory SerieS 433 

reed, r. Dale. Wingless Flight:The Lifting Body Story. NASA SP-4220, 1998. 

heppenheimer, T. A. The Space Shuttle Decision: NASA’s Search for a 

Reusable Space Vehicle. NASA SP-4221, 1999. 

hunley, J. D., ed. Toward Mach 2: The Douglas D-558 Program. NASA 

SP-4222, 1999. 

Swanson, Glen e., ed. “Before This Decade is Out . . .” Personal Reflections 

on the Apollo Program. NASA SP-4223, 1999. 

Tomayko, James e. Computers Take Flight: A History of NASA’s Pioneering 

Digital Fly-By-Wire Project. NASA SP-4224, 2000. 

Morgan, Clay. Shuttle-Mir: The United States and Russia Share History’s 

Highest Stage. NASA SP-2001-4225. 

Leary, William M. We Freeze to Please: A History of NASA’s Icing Research 

Tunnel and the Quest for Safety. NASA SP-2002-4226, 2002. 

Mudgway, Douglas J. Uplink-Downlink: A History of the Deep Space Network, 

1957–1997. NASA SP-2001-4227. 

Dawson, Virginia P., and Mark D. Bowles. Taming Liquid Hydrogen: The 

Centaur Upper Stage Rocket, 1958–2002. NASA SP-2004-4230. 

Meltzer, Michael. Mission to Jupiter: A History of the Galileo Project. NASA 

SP-2007-4231. 

heppenheimer, T. A. Facing the Heat Barrier: A History of Hypersonics. 

NASA SP-2007-4232. 

Tsiao, Sunny. “Read You Loud and Clear!” The Story of NASA’s Spaceflight 

Tracking and Data Network. NASA SP-2007-4233. 

Center histories, NASA SP-4300: 

rosenthal, Alfred. Venture into Space: Early Years of Goddard Space Flight 

Center. NASA SP-4301, 1985. 

hartman, edwin, P. Adventures in Research: A History of Ames Research 

Center, 1940–1965. NASA SP-4302, 1970. 

hallion, richard P. On the Frontier: Flight Research at Dryden, 1946–1981. 

NASA SP-4303, 1984. 

Muenger, elizabeth A. Searching the Horizon: A History of Ames Research 

Center, 1940–1976. NASA SP-4304, 1985. 

hansen, James r. Engineer in Charge: A History of the Langley Aeronautical 

Laboratory, 1917–1958. NASA SP-4305, 1987. 

Dawson, Virginia P. Engines and Innovation: Lewis Laboratory and American 

Propulsion Technology. NASA SP-4306, 1991. 
 

 

 

434 reMeMBeriNG The SPACe AGe 

Dethloff, henry C. “Suddenly Tomorrow Came . . .”: A History of the Johnson 

Space Center, 1957–1990. NASA SP-4307, 1993. 

hansen, James r. Spaceflight Revolution: NASA Langley Research Center 

from Sputnik to Apollo. NASA SP-4308, 1995. 

Wallace, Lane e. Flights of Discovery: An Illustrated History of the Dryden 

Flight Research Center. NASA SP-4309, 1996. 

herring, Mack r. Way Station to Space: A History of the John C. Stennis 

Space Center. NASA SP-4310, 1997. 

Wallace, harold D., Jr. Wallops Station and the Creation of an American Space 

Program. NASA SP-4311, 1997. 

Wallace, Lane e. Dreams, Hopes, Realities. NASA’s Goddard Space Flight 

Center: The First Forty Years. NASA SP-4312, 1999. 

Dunar, Andrew J., and Stephen P. Waring. Power to Explore: A History of 

Marshall Space Flight Center, 1960–1990. NASA SP-4313, 1999. 

Bugos, Glenn e. Atmosphere of Freedom: Sixty Years at the NASA Ames 

Research Center. NASA SP-2000-4314, 2000. 

Schultz, James. Crafting Flight:Aircraft Pioneers and the Contributions of the Men 

and Women of NASA Langley Research Center. NASA SP-2003-4316, 2003. 

Bowles, Mark D. Science in Flux: NASA’s Nuclear Program at Plum Brook 

Station, 1955–2005. NASA SP-2006-4317. 

Wallace, Lane e. Flights of Discovery: An Illustrated History of the Dryden 

Flight Research Center. NASA SP-4318, 2007. revised version of SP-4309. 

General histories, NASA SP-4400: 

Corliss,William r. NASA Sounding Rockets, 1958–1968:A Historical Summary. 

NASA SP-4401, 1971. 

Wells, helen T., Susan h. Whiteley, and Carrie Karegeannes. Origins of 

NASA Names. NASA SP-4402, 1976. 

Anderson, Frank W., Jr. Orders of Magnitude: A History of NACA and 

NASA, 1915–1980. NASA SP-4403, 1981. 

Sloop, John L. Liquid Hydrogen as a Propulsion Fuel, 1945–1959. NASA 

SP-4404, 1978. 

roland, Alex. A Spacefaring People: Perspectives on Early Spaceflight. NASA 

SP-4405, 1985. 

Bilstein, roger e. Orders of Magnitude: A History of the NACA and NASA, 

1915–1990. NASA SP-4406, 1989. 
 

 

 

 

 

The NASA hiSTory SerieS 435 

Logsdon, John M., ed., with Linda J. Lear, Jannelle Warren Findley, ray 

A. Williamson, and Dwayne A. Day. Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents 

in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, Volume I, Organizing for Exploration. 

NASA SP-4407, 1995. 

Logsdon, John M., ed, with Dwayne A. Day, and roger D. Launius. 

Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space 

Program, Volume II, External Relationships. NASA SP-4407, 1996. 

Logsdon, John M., ed., with roger D. Launius, David h. onkst, and 

Stephen J. Garber. Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the 

U.S. Civil Space Program, Volume III, Using Space. NASA SP-4407,1998. 

Logsdon, John M., ed., with ray A. Williamson, roger D. Launius, 

russell J. Acker, Stephen J. Garber, and Jonathan L. Friedman. Exploring the 

Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, Volume 

IV, Accessing Space. NASA SP-4407, 1999. 

Logsdon, John M., ed., with Amy Paige Snyder, roger D. Launius, 

Stephen J. Garber, and regan Anne Newport. Exploring the Unknown: Selected 

Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, Volume V, Exploring the 

Cosmos. NASA SP-4407, 2001. 

Logsdon, John M., ed., with Stephen J. Garber, roger D. Launius, and 

ray A. Williamson. Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History 

of the U.S. Civil Space Program, Volume VI: Space and Earth Science. NASA 

SP-2004-4407, 2004. 

Logsdon, John M., ed., with roger D. Launius. Exploring the Unknown: 

Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, Volume VII: Human 

Spaceflight: Projects Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo. NASA SP-2008-4407, 2008. 

Siddiqi, Asif A., Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 

1945–1974. NASA SP-2000-4408, 2000. 

hansen,James r.,ed.The Wind and Beyond:Journey into the History of Aerodynamics 

in America,Volume 1,The Ascent of the Airplane. NASA SP-2003-4409, 2003. 

hansen,James r.,ed.The Wind and Beyond:Journey into the History of Aerodynamics 

in America,Volume 2, Reinventing the Airplane. NASA SP-2007-4409, 2007. 

hogan, Thor. Mars Wars:The Rise and Fall of the Space Exploration Initiative. 

NASA SP-2007-4410, 2007. 

Monographs in Aerospace history (SP-4500 Series): 

Launius,roger D.,and Aaron K.Gillette,comps. Toward a History of the Space 

Shuttle:An Annotated Bibliography. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 1, 1992. 

Launius, roger D., and J. D. hunley, comps. An Annotated Bibliography of 

the Apollo Program. Monograph in Aerospace history No. 2, 1994. 
 

436 reMeMBeriNG The SPACe AGe 

Launius, roger D. Apollo: A Retrospective Analysis. Monograph in Aerospace 

history, No. 3, 1994. 

hansen,James r. Enchanted Rendezvous: John C. Houbolt and the Genesis of the 

Lunar-Orbit Rendezvous Concept. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 4, 1995. 

Gorn, Michael h. Hugh L. Dryden’s Career in Aviation and Space. Monograph 

in Aerospace history, No. 5, 1996. 

Powers, Sheryll Goecke. Women in Flight Research at NASA Dryden Flight 

Research Center from 1946 to 1995. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 6, 1997. 

Portree, David S. F., and robert C. Trevino. Walking to Olympus: An EVA 

Chronology. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 7, 1997. 

Logsdon, John M., moderator. Legislative Origins of the National Aeronautics 

and Space Act of 1958: Proceedings of an Oral History Workshop. Monograph in 

Aerospace history, No. 8, 1998. 

rumerman, Judy A., comp. U.S. Human Spaceflight, A Record of Achievement 

1961–1998. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 9, 1998. 

Portree, David S. F. NASA’s Origins and the Dawn of the Space Age. 

Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 10, 1998. 

Logsdon, John M. Together in Orbit: The Origins of International Cooperation 

in the Space Station. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 11, 1998. 

Phillips, W. hewitt. Journey in Aeronautical Research: A Career at NASA 

Langley Research Center. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 12, 1998. 

Braslow, Albert L. A History of Suction-Type Laminar-Flow Control with 

Emphasis on Flight Research. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 13, 1999. 

Logsdon, John M., moderator. Managing the Moon Program: Lessons Learned 

From Apollo. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 14, 1999. 

Perminov, V. G. The Difficult Road to Mars: A Brief History of Mars Exploration 

in the Soviet Union. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 15, 1999. 

Tucker, Tom. Touchdown: The Development of Propulsion Controlled Aircraft at 

NASA Dryden. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 16, 1999. 

Maisel, Martin, Demo J.Giulanetti, and Daniel C. Dugan. The History 

of the XV-15 Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft: From Concept to Flight. Monograph in 

Aerospace history, No. 17, 2000. NASA SP-2000-4517. 

Jenkins, Dennis r. Hypersonics Before the Shuttle: A Concise History of the 

X-15 Research Airplane. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 18, 2000. NASA 

SP-2000-4518. 

Chambers, Joseph r. Partners in Freedom: Contributions of the Langley 

Research Center to U.S. Military Aircraft of the 1990s. Monograph in Aerospace 

history, No. 19, 2000. NASA SP-2000-4519. 
The NASA hiSTory SerieS 437 

Waltman, Gene L. Black Magic and Gremlins: Analog Flight Simulations at 

NASA’s Flight Research Center. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 20, 2000. 

NASA SP-2000-4520. 

Portree, David S. F. Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission Planning, 

1950–2000. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 21, 2001. NASA 

SP-2001-4521. 

Thompson, Milton o., with J. D. hunley. Flight Research: Problems 

Encountered and What they Should Teach Us. Monograph in Aerospace history, 

No. 22, 2001. NASA SP-2001-4522. 

Tucker, Tom. The Eclipse Project. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 

23, 2001. NASA SP-2001-4523. 

Siddiqi, Asif A. Deep Space Chronicle: A Chronology of Deep Space and 

Planetary Probes 1958–2000. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 24, 2002. 

NASA SP-2002-4524. 

Merlin, Peter W. Mach 3+: NASA/USAF YF-12 Flight Research, 1969–1979. 

Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 25, 2001. NASA SP-2001-4525. 

Anderson, Seth B. Memoirs of an Aeronautical Engineer: Flight Tests at Ames 

Research Center: 1940–1970. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 26, 2002. 

NASA SP-2002-4526. 

renstrom, Arthur G. Wilbur and Orville Wright: A Bibliography Commemorating 

the One-Hundredth Anniversary of the First Powered Flight on December 17, 1903. 

Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 27, 2002. NASA SP-2002-4527. 

No monograph 28. 

Chambers, Joseph r. Concept to Reality: Contributions of the NASA Langley 

Research Center to U.S. Civil Aircraft of the 1990s. Monograph in Aerospace 

history, No. 29, 2003. SP-2003-4529. 

Peebles, Curtis, editor. The Spoken Word: Recollections of Dryden History, The 

Early Years. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 30, 2003. SP-2003-4530. 

Jenkins, Dennis r., Tony Landis, and Jay Miller. American X-Vehicles: 

An Inventory- X-1 to X-50. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 31, 2003. 

SP-2003-4531. 

renstrom, Arthur G. Wilbur and Orville Wright: A Chronology Commemorating 

the One-Hundredth Anniversary of the First Powered Flight on December 17, 1903. 

Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 32, 2003. NASA SP-2003-4532. 

Bowles, Mark D., and robert S. Arrighi. NASA’s Nuclear Frontier: The 

Plum Brook Research Reactor. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 33, 2004. 

(SP-2004-4533). 
 

438 reMeMBeriNG The SPACe AGe 

Matranga, Gene J., C. Wayne ottinger, Calvin r. Jarvis, and D. Christian 

Gelzer. Unconventional, Contrary, and Ugly: The Lunar Landing Research Vehicle. 

Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 35, 2006. NASA SP-2004-4535. 

McCurdy, howard e. Low Cost Innovation in Spaceflight: The History of 

the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) Mission. Monograph in Aerospace 

history, No. 36, 2005. NASA SP-2005-4536. 

Seamans, robert C., Jr. Project Apollo: The Tough Decisions. Monograph in 

Aerospace history, No. 37, 2005. NASA SP-2005-4537. 

Lambright,W.henry.NASA and the Environment:The Case of Ozone Depletion. 

Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 38, 2005. NASA SP-2005-4538. 

Chambers, Joseph r. Innovation in Flight: Research of the NASA Langley 

Research Center on Revolutionary Advanced Concepts for Aeronautics. Monograph in 

Aerospace history, No. 39, 2005. NASA SP-2005-4539. 

Phillips, W. hewitt. Journey Into Space Research: Continuation of a Career 

at NASA Langley Research Center. Monograph in Aerospace history, No. 40, 

2005. NASA SP-2005-4540. 

rumerman, Judy A., Chris Gamble, and Gabriel okolski, compilers. U.S. 

Human Spaceflight: A Record of Achievement, 1961–2006. Monograph in Aerospace 

history No. 41, 2007. NASA SP-2007-4541. 

Dryden historical Studies 

Tomayko, James e., author, and Christian Gelzer, editor. The Story of SelfRepairing Flight Control Systems. Dryden historical Study #1. 

electronic Media (SP-4600 Series) 

Remembering Apollo 11: The 30th Anniversary Data Archive CD-ROM. 

NASA SP-4601, 1999. 

Remembering Apollo 11: The 35th Anniversary Data Archive CD-ROM. NASA 

SP-2004-4601, 2004. This is an update of the 1999 edition. 

The Mission Transcript Collection: U.S. Human Spaceflight Missions from Mercury 

Redstone 3 to Apollo 17. SP-2000-4602, 2001. Now available commerically from 

CG Publishing. 

Shuttle-Mir: the United States and Russia Share History’s Highest Stage. NASA 

SP-2001-4603, 2002. This CD-roM is available from NASA Core. 

U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission presents Born of Dreams ~ Inspired by 

Freedom. NASA SP-2004-4604, 2004. 

Of Ashes and Atoms: A Documentary on the NASA Plum Brook Reactor Facility. 

NASA SP-2005-4605. 
The NASA hiSTory SerieS 439 

Taming Liquid Hydrogen: The Centaur Upper Stage Rocket Interactive CDROM. NASA SP-2004-4606, 2004. 

Fueling Space Exploration: The History of NASA’s Rocket Engine Test Facility 

DVD. NASA SP-2005-4607. 

Conference Proceedings (SP-4700 Series) 

Dick, Steven J., and Keith Cowing, ed. Risk and Exploration: Earth, Sea and 

the Stars. NASA SP-2005-4701. 

Dick, Steven J., and roger D. Launius. Critical Issues in the History of 

Spaceflight. NASA SP-2006-4702. 

Societal impact (SP-4800 Series) 

Dick, Steven J., and roger D. Launius. Societal Impact of Spaceflight. NASA 

SP-2007-4801. 

Index 

numbers in bold indicate pages with illustrations 

A
 

Abadzis, nick, 248
 

Abernathy, Ralph, 362–63
 

Abraham, Itty, 32
 

Abstract expressionism, 182–83
 

Acronyms and abbreviations, 425–27
 

Adams,Ansel, 285–86n26
 

Adams, Robert, 331–32
 

Adler, Hans, 68–69
 

Adorno,Theodor, 189
 

Advanced Research Projects Agency 


(ARPA), 55; Project defender, 128
 

Aelita, 254, 256–60, 257n11
 

Africa: economic growth, 13;
 

migration from, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10
 

African Americans: in Huntsville, 

Alabama, 91, 94–104, 95n16, 105; 

Spaceship earth and, 177–78; 

treatment of in Germany, 100–101, 

100–101nn31–32 

Air Force. U.S., 349–50 

Alabama A&M, 102–3, 102n35, 

103n37
 

Alas, Babylon (Frank), 64
 

Aldrin, Buzz, 278, 279, 280, 300, 330


Alien “others,” 178
 

ALSOS, Project, 349
 

Amaldi, edoardi, 42, 43
 

American Academy of Arts and 


Sciences (AAAS): Committee on 


Space, 141, 142, 147, 148, 151;
 

Committee on Space efforts and 


Society, 135; effects of space efforts,
 

studies of detection of, 148; effects 


of space efforts, studies of evaluation 

and feedback of information 

about, 149–50; effects of space 

efforts, studies on anticipation of 

the, 142–47, 150–54; goal of, 135,
 

150–52; historians involvement in 

studies, 142–43; historical analogies, 

141–47, 150–54; mission of, 136; 

nASA-funded study, 135–36, 

138–39, 141–42; Railroad and the 

Space Program,The (Mazlish), 141–47, 

150–51; Second-Order Consequences 

(Bauer, Rosenbloom, and Sharp), 

142, 148; Social Indicators (Bauer),
 

142, 149–50; technology transfer 

from space program to civilian use, 

146
 

American exceptionalism, 24, 354, 


355–60, 360n17, 384–85
 

American Patent Law Association, 68
 

American space program. See United 


States space program 

Americas, exploration of and 

migration to, 4, 8
 

Ames Research Center, 411
 

Anderson, Ray, 242
 

Andrews, James, 119
 

Andrews, Scott, 304–7, 334–35
 

Anthropocene, 13
 

Anti-ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty 


(1972), 128, 129, 130
 

Antiballistic missile defense system,
 

124
 
442 ReMeMBeRInG THe SPACe AGe 

 

Antiballistic Missile Treaty (SALT I),
 

127, 129
 

Anti-satellite (ASAT) missile events,
 

112, 112n4, 113, 113n5, 128
 

Apollo program: activity level during,
 

xii, xiii, 364, 400–401; conspiracy 


theories about Moon landing,
 

375–84; disasters and operational 


crises, 184, 203; employment 


numbers, 164; Giantstep-Apollo 11 


Presidential Goodwill Tour, 169;
 

indigenous technologies, 22, 22n9;
 

justification of, 28; Launch Complex 


34, 334–35, 335; photographs from,
 

321–22, 328, 330, 330–31, 334–36,
 

335, 337; significance of, 356–57;
 

space race as Cold War battleground,
 

127; technology and national 


prowess, 26–27
 

Apollo 4, 337
 

Apollo 7, 300, 302–3, 335
 

Apollo 8, 402n10 

Apollo 11, 278, 279, 280, 282, 362–63,
 

376, 377

Apollo 12, 278–80, 281, 284–85, 322,
 

376
 

Apollo 13, 170, 184, 376, 402n10
 

Apollo 14, 322
 

Apollo 15, 322
 

Apollo 16, 322, 330, 331
 

Apollo 17, 280, 285–86n26, 307, 322,
 

337
 

“Apollo:A Prophecy” (Kahn and 


Selesnick), 328
 

Apollo Prophecies,The (Kahn and 


Selesnick), 327–31, 329

Arai,Akino, 249
 

Arcade Fire, 247–48 

Arcades Project, 191
 

Architectural styles, 180–82 

Arendt, Hannah, 193
 

Ares-I Crew Launch Vehicle, 116n14 

Ares-V Cargo Launch Vehicle, 116n14 

Ariane launcher, 43, 45, 52
 

Armstrong, neil, 135, 169, 278, 280,
 

282, 391
 

Army Air Force, U.S., 349
 

Army Ballistic Missile Agency, U.S.,
 

356
 

Asia, 8, 13
 

Asimov, Isaac, 63–64, 158, 346, 347,
 

393
 

Astounding Science Fiction, 345
 

Astrofuturists, 158–60, 168
 

Astronauts as cultural icons, 207
 

Atlantis, 319

Atomic Cafe, 242
 

Atomic diplomacy, ix n1, 57–58,
 

64–69
 

Atomic energy Acts, 57, 64–65, 67,
 

68–69
 

Atomic energy Agency, 62
 

Atomic energy Commission 


(AeC): dOd’s relationship with, 

67; laboratories, 57, 57n8; liaison 

committees, 66–67; mission of, 

67–68; nASA and, ix n1, 64–65, 

66; ROVeR program, 69; as 

technocracy, 56–57, 69–70 

Atomic Peace Ship, 62–63
 

Atoms-for-Peace program, 62
 

Auger, Pierre, 42, 43
 

Australia, 4, 5, 8
 

Avedon, Richard, 310n58
 

B 

Baggett, Blaine, 394
 

Bainbridge,William Sims, 393
 

Ballet Russes, Les , 258
 

Bangladesh, 113
 

Batalov, nikolai, 257
 

Battle Beyond the Stars, 262n29
 

Baudrillard, Jean, 188, 193
 

Bauer, Raymond A., 139, 140, 142,
 

143, 147, 150
 

Bean,Alan, 278–80, 281, 285, 286
Index 443 

 

 

Becher, Bernd, 333
 

Becher, Hilla, 333
 

Bechtle, Otto, 78
 

Belgium, 50
 

Bell, david, 191–92 

Benjamin, Marina, 209
 

Benjamin,Walter, 191, 193
 

Benson, Michael, 322–23, 332
 

Bergaust, erik, 76
 

Bethe, Hans, 61
 

Between Two Ages (Bzrezinski), 174
 

Beyond,Visions of the Interplanetary 


Probes (Benson), 322
 

Bezmolvnaia zvzda, 262
 

“Big history” movement, x
 

Billings, Linda, xii, 409–12, 413
 

Bilstein, Roger e., 361
 

Biosphere, 13–14 

Blipp!, 248
 

Bloom, Jane Ira, 411
 

Blue Streak ballistic missile, 44

“Blue-marbled” earth, 280,
 

285–86n26
 

Bonestell, Chesley, 159, 286–87, 288
 

Boorstein, daniel, 188–93, 188n9, 201
 

Boulding, Kenneth, 143, 175
 

Bowles, Bill, 334
 

Boym, Svetlana, 214
 

Bradbury, Ray, 176, 377, 393
 

Brady, Mathew, 277, 277n11, 284
 

Brand, Stewart, 176, 193, 194–95
 

Brandfon, Robert, 146–47 

Branscomb, Richard, 407
 

Brazil, 19n2 

Brecht, Bertolt, 331, 336
 

Brezhnev, Leonid, 215, 224
 

Brian,William, 378–79 

Brookings Institute, 138–39 

Brooklyn Bridge, 296, 297

Brown, Martin, 334
 

Brzezinski, Matthew, 411
 

Buck-Morss, Susan, 238
 

Bundy, McGeorge, 40
 

Buran space shuttle, 23n12
 

Bush, George W., 34, 113, 130, 134,
 

372, 404
 

Bush,Vannevar, 361, 410
 

Butrica,Andrew J., 121–34, 413–14
 

Bzrezinski, Zbigniew, 174
 

C 

Calotype, 276
 

Canticle for Leibowitz,A (Miller), 64
 

Canyon de Chelly,Arizona, 287, 289

Cape Canaveral, Florida, 166, 334–35,
 

335

Capitalism and the Space Age, 231–35, 

233

Capricorn One, 380
 

Carpenter, M. Scott, 354

Carter, Jimmy, 128
 

Cassini spacecraft, 281, 338
 

Castro, Fidel, 373
 

Caute, david, 238
 

CCCP, 245
 

Cemosphere, 181
 

Center for Culture and Technology 


(Motorola), 198
 

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA),
 

349
 

Central Scientific Research Institute 


of Machine Building, 217
 

Century of Flight, 94, 106
 

CeRn (european Organization for 


nuclear Research), 42, 48
 

Cernan, eugene, 285–86n26, 327, 330,
 

402n10
 

Chadwick, James, 341
 

Chaikin,Andrew, 358
 

Challenger, 133, 152, 184, 203, 280, 304
 

Chandler,Alfred, 146
 

Chase econometrics, 371
 

Chelomei,Vladimir, 225
 

Chertok, Boris, 22n11, 222, 227–28
 

China: aeronautics theme park, 109,
 

110, 120; anti-traditionalism, 117,
 
444 ReMeMBeRInG THe SPACe AGe 

120; energy use, 12; exploration of 


and migration to, 4; international 


community, integration in, 113;
 

liberal nationalism, 117, 120; national 


identity, 109–20; nationalities in,
 

110; nativism, 117, 120; Olympics,
 

120; pragmatic nationalism,
 

116–17, 120; rocketry birthplace,
 

26; science fiction interests, 115;
 

space benefactor club, 113; space 


exploration, enthusiasm for, 114–15;
 

urbanization, 12
 

China national Tourism 


Administration (CnTA), 109–10
 

China Space Technology Group, 109
 

China’s Quest for National Identity 

(dittmer and Kim), 110, 111
 

Chinese space program: achievements 


of, 18, 35;ASAT missile events,
 

112, 112n4, 113, 113n5; budget of,
 

392; development of, ix, 399, 412;
 

founding father, 19; hero images and 


celebrity status, 119–20; indigenous 


technologies, 23, 33; ISS, exclusion 


from, 113, 114; justification of, 29;
 

missile and rocket development, 33,
 

111; Moon missions, 115–16; nASA 


officials’ visit to, 113–16; nationalism 


and, 17, 27, 109, 117–18, 119–20;
 

public support for, 114–15, 119–20;
 

satellite launches, 113; Shenzhou 


V, 111, 118, 119; technology and 


national prowess, 27
 

Citizen’s Action Committee for Space, 

345
 

Clark, Katerina, 219
 

Clarke,Arthur C., 158, 174, 393, 399,
 

401
 

Clinton, Bill, 376
 

Clinton, George, 247
 

Clinton, Hillary Rodham, 372
 

Close, Chuck, 333
 

Cochran,Thomas, 146
 

Cold War: satellite use during, 

127–28; space exploration and, 6–7, 

55–56, 405; space race as Cold War 

battleground, 127–28, 158–67, 368; 

spy satellites, significance of, 14–15 

Collective memory, 205–6, 205–6n13 

Collier’s, 77, 86, 169, 349, 400
 

Collins, Martin J., xi, 185–202,
 

231–32, 409–10, 414
 

Columbia, 130, 131, 152, 203, 318

Columbus, Christopher, 4
 

Coming of Post-Industrial Society (Bell), 

191–92 

Commercial Space Launch Act, 133,
 

371
 

Commercial Space Policy (nASA),
 

133
 

Commercial Technology Program 


(nASA), 29
 

Commercialization and militarization 


of oceans, 126
 

Commercialization and militarization 

of space, 123, 126–33, 371–72. See 

also Private space industry 

Committee for the Future, 412
 

Committee on Space Research 


(COSPAR), 45
 

Common Market, 47
 

Communication satellites, 14, 15
 

Communications Satellite 


Corporation (Comsat), 170
 

Concentration camps, 81–82, 86, 106.
 

See also Mittelbau-dora labor camp
 

Concorde, 47
 

Confucius, 109–10 

Congress, U.S.: Manned Space 


Flight Subcommittee, 170; Science 


Committee, 171
 

Conquest of Space,The (Bonestell and 


Ley), 159
 

Conrad, Charles Pete, 278–80, 281, 


285
 
Index 445 

 

 

Conservative space agenda, 121–34, 

365, 366–72 

Conspiracy theories, 353–54, 373–84 

Conspiracy Theory, 380–81 

Constellation program, 333–34 

Constructivism, 257, 257n12, 258–59, 

258n17
 

Cooper, L. Gordon, 354

Coopersmith, Jonathan, 135–54, 414
 

Cootner, Paul, 145
 

Cornog. Robert, 345
 

Corporate universities, 198
 

Cosmism, 25
 

Cosmonaut myth, 214–17, 216

Cosmonaut Training Center, 229, 230
 

Cosmos Pavilion, 231
 

Cotton, Charlotte, 332, 333
 

Council of Social Advisors, 150
 

Courreges,André, 179
 

Cousteau, Jacques, 393
 

Cronkite,Walter, 169
 

Crossbow and Overcast (McGovern), 81
 

Crutzen, Paul, 13
 

Cuban Missile Crisis, 165
 

Cultural memory, 206–10, 236
 

Culture: astronauts as cultural icons,
 

207; Googie style, 180–83; Media 

Age, 167–72, 208; Mid-Century 

Modernism, 179–83; narrative and 

image control, 217–21; Russian 

capitalism and the Space Age, 

231–35, 233; Soviet Union space 

program, 211–14; Space Age and, 

208–10; space exploration and, 

xi–xii, 118–19, 409–12; Spaceship 

earth, 175–78, 208; symbols of Space 

Age, 232–33, 233;Technetronic Age, 

172–79 

Cunningham, Randy, 145
 

Cunningham,Walt, 300, 303

Curtis, edward, 287–88, 290, 292

d 

da Gama,Vasco, 4
 

daddario, emilio Q., 148
 

daguerre, Louis-Jacques-Mandé, 276
 

daguerreotypes, 276, 276n10
 

dale, dick, 244
 

damon and naomi, 248
 

dARPA (defense Advanced Research 


Projects Agency), 15
 

Date Which Will Live,A (Rosenberg),
 

xi
 

day, dwayne, 152
 

Day the Earth Stood Still, 176
 

de Hevesy, George, 341n1
 

de Salignac, eugene, 295–96, 297, 304,
 

334
 

de Tocqueville,Alexis, 342, 342n3
 

dean, Gordon, 64
 

“death of God” controversy, 174
 

deCamp, L. Sprague, 346, 347
 

defender, Project, 128
 

defense, U.S. department of (dOd):
 

budget of, nASA and, 125; creation 


of, 349; history programs of, 151,
 

153–54; nASA’s relationship with,
 

64, 65–67
 

defense Advanced Research Projects 

Agency (dARPA), 15
 

degh, Linda, 380–81
 

Democracy in America (de Tocqueville),
 

342, 342n3
 

Destination Moon, 159, 173, 350
 

Destruction of the European Jews,The
 

(Hilberg), 82
 

diagalev, Sergei, 258
 

dick, Steven J., 414–15
 

dIReCT v2.0, 116n14
 

disasters and operational crises, 146,
 

184, 203
 

Discovering Chinese Nationalism in 


China (Zheng), 110, 111–13
 

Discovery, 305, 307, 315–16, 316
446 ReMeMBeRInG THe SPACe AGe 

disney theme parks and TV, 75, 86,
 

109, 159, 176, 180, 181
 

dittmar, Mary Lynne, 380
 

dittmer, Lowell, 110, 111
 

dole, elizabeth Hanford, 133
 

doolittle, James H., 58, 58n11
 

Dora (Michel), 85
 

dora labor camp, 19, 31, 71, 73, 80,
 

81–82, 84, 85–86, 89, 98–99
 

dornberger,Walter, 71, 72–73, 76,
 

78–81, 86; V-2, 78–81, 79

draper, John, 276n10
 

“dream,The” (Rousseau), 324, 325
 

dryden, Hugh, 389
 

e 

eagle nebula “Pillars of Creation,” 

280
 

eakin, Paul, 205
 

earth:“blue-marbled” earth, 280,
 

285–86n26;“earthrise” photo,
 

175, 193, 398; iconic images of,
 

280; photographs of, 321, 337, 406;
 

Spaceship earth, 175–78, 208, 390,
 

398
 

earth-observation satellite system, 113
 

easterbrook, Greg, 357
 

eastman, George, 298
 

ecological awareness, 176
 

economic growth, 13
 

education: corporate universities, 198;
 

Huntsville, opportunities in, 102–3,
 

102nn35–36, 103n37; national 


defense education Act (ndeA), 55,
 

162–63
 

eisele, donn, 300, 302

eisenhower, dwight d.:Atoms-for-


Peace program, 62; education, federal 

aid for, 162–63; foreign policy and 


nuclear technology, 61–64, 406;
 

government spending, 59–60; space 


program commitment, 366, 368;
 

space program funding, 166; Sputnik 


launch and reaction to, 58–61,
 

160–63, 355–56;Western europe,
 

relationship with, 40
 

eisenshtein, Sergei, 264, 268n35
 

ekster,Alexandra, 257, 257n12
 

Encyclopedia of Human Spaceflight, 227
 

energy use, 12–13
 

england, Kyler, 246
 

Enterprise, 176–77, 178
 

environmental turbulence, 13–14
 

essen war-crimes trial, 84–85
 

etzioni,Amitai, 166, 361–62
 

europa, 43, 44
 

europe: economic growth, 13; energy 


use, 12; expeditionary science, 16;
 

exploration of and migration to,
 

4; integration, 390; space program 


development, ix; U.S. ties to, 40
 

european Launcher development 


Organization (eLdO), 43, 46, 47,
 

48, 51
 

european Organization for nuclear 

Research (CeRn), 42, 48
 

european Science Foundation, 153
 

european Space Agency (eSA):
 

achievements of, 19, 35, 35n42;
 

budget of, 392; fair return principle,
 

49; membership of, 18–19; science 


programs as mission of, 46; Sputnik 


anniversary celebration, 391
 

european space program: civil 

dimension of, 42–45; fair return 

principle, 49–50; foreign policy, 

47–48; industrial policy, 48–49, 

50; launchers developed by, 43–45, 

44; military control and funding 

for, 42–43; regional capability and 

identity through, 39–41; regional 

integration and national interests, 

49–50, 390; regional integration 

through, 40; satellites as focus of, 46; 

science projects, collaboration on, 

45–46; strength of nation and interest 
Index 447 

in collaboration, 50; U.S. role in, 

40–41, 45–46, 51–53 

european Space Research 

Organization (eSRO), 46, 47, 48, 50
 

exact Change publishers, 248
 

exhibition of Achievements of the 


national economy, 242
 

expedition 7 Soyuz launch, 306

expedition 8, 308, 309
 

expeditionary science, 16
 

exploration and migration:
 

biological adaptations, 8; challenges 

and liberation in, 8–10, 359; 

expeditionary science, 16; Paleolithic, 

4–6, 7; pathogenic load, 8, 9–10; 

reasons for, 5–7; risks of, 5, 7; social 

and cultural evolution, 9
 

explorer 1, 272, 274, 275, 355, 394
 

explorer 6, 280
 

explorer project, 355
 

F 

Fair return principle, 49–50
 

Farm Securities Administration (FSA),


336
 

Federation of American Scientists, 345
 

Fëdorchenko,Aleksei, 265, 266–68
 

Fedorov, nikolai, 25
 

Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe, 3, 402
 

Fiedler, Margaret, 246
 

Films: Laika-inspired, 239, 243–44;
 

nASA productions, 239; Russian 


films, 255, 265–70; Soviet films,
 

253–64, 254n1, 269–70
 

Finan,William F., 68–69
 

Fine arts photography, 320–31, 324, 


325, 326, 327, 329, 330

First on the Moon (Pervye na lune), 265,


266–68, 269

Fixsen, Guy, 246
 

Fleeter, Rick, 402–3
 

Fleming,Arthur S., 62
 

“Flight into the Future” (Heinlein and 

Laning), 349
 

Flint, James, 248
 

Florman, Samuel, 394
 

Fly Me to the Moon, 159
 

Fogel, Robert, 145–46, 151
 

Fontcuberta, Joan, 249, 323–26, 324, 


326

Forbidden Planet, 178
 

Ford, Gerald R., 128
 

Fort Bliss,Texas, 90
 

Fossil fuels, 12
 

Foster, Clyde, 102–4
 

Foundation trilogy (Asimov), 63–64
 

Founding fathers, 19–20, 30–32, 211
 

FrameworkCT, 116n14
 

France: achievements of space 


program, 18;Ariane launcher,
 

43, 45, 52; collaborative military 


projects, 43; expeditionary science,
 

16; fair return principle, 50; military 


dimension of space program, 42;
 

missile and rocket development, 33;
 

movie theaters in, 255; nASA’s role 


in space program of, 46; national 


Space Agency Centre nationales 


des Études Spatiales (CneS), 45;
 

space exploration commitment, 403;


Symphonie telecommunications 


satellite, 52; technology, influence of 


ideology on, 121
 

Frank, Pat, 64
 

Freund, Paul, 136
 

Fritzsche, Peter, 206
 

Frontier thesis, 24, 118, 123–24,
 

123–24n9, 383
 

Frozen Lighting (Die gefrorenen Blitze) 


(Mader), 84
 

FSB, 235
 

Fulbright, J.William, 362
 

Full Moon (Light), 321
 

Fuller, Buckminister, 175
 
448 ReMeMBeRInG THe SPACe AGe 

G
 

Gagarin,Yuri, 127, 163, 203, 215, 216, 

219–20, 228–31, 229, 232, 233

Gagarin conferences, 211 

Gagarin Parties, 231 

Galbraith, John Kenneth, 56n7, 

194n23 

Galloway, eilene, 64–65, 64n31 

Gardner,Alexander, 284 

Garvin, Jim, 392 

Gefrorenen Blitze, Die (Frozen Lighting) 

(Mader), 84 

Geheimnis von Huntsville (Secret of 

Huntsville) (Mader), 84, 86 

Gemini program, 165, 328, 330 

Gemini 4, 280, 300, 327, 330 

Gemini 9, 300, 327, 330 

Gemini 12, 300, 330 

Gender issues, 177–78 

Geographical and geologic 

documentation, 284–91, 285, 289, 

290

Geological Survey, U. S., 287, 307 

Geo-spatial Intelligence Agency, 393 

Germany:African American 

soldiers, treatment of, 100–101, 

100–101nn31–32;Allied occupation 

of, 101, 105; anti-German prejudice, 

82–83; essen war-crimes trial, 

84–85; fair return principle, 50; 

foreign policy, 47–48; indigenous 

technologies and space program 

achievements, 22, 22n9, 22n11; 

Jews in, treatment of, 81–82, 98, 

98n25, 99; missile and rocket 

development, 31–32, 33, 71–86, 

118–19; Mittelbau-dora labor camp, 

19, 31, 71, 73, 80, 81–82, 84, 85–86, 

89; nordhausen, 71–72, 72, 72n2, 76, 

77, 80, 81–82, 85, 86; science fiction 

interests, 115, 118–19; scientific 

and technological collaboration, 

47–48, 50; Spacelab collaboration, 

46; Symphonie telecommunications 

satellite, 52 

Gerovitch, Slava, xi, 119, 203–36, 415 

Gerstenfeld,Virginia, 346, 350 

Ghandi, Indira, 21 

Giantstep-Apollo 11 Presidential 

Goodwill Tour, 169 

Gingrich, newt, 124–26, 370 

Glenn, John H., Jr., 165, 168, 169, 280, 

299, 354

Glenn Research Center (Lewis 

Research Center), 294–96, 295, 298, 

313

Global consciousness, 175–76 

Global economy, 13 

Global exploration Strategy, 404 

GLObal navigation Satellite System 

(GLOnASS), 234–35 

Global Positioning Satellite (GPS), 

195–96, 233–35, 399 

Global village, 187–88 

Globalization and global identity, 

113; emergence of, 191–95, 

194n23–24; impact of space science 

and technology, 397–99; ISS and, 

33–34; multinational corporations, 

197–200; satellite communication 

and, 15; space activity contribution 

to, xii, 406–7, 412; Space Age and, 

x–xi; space exploration and, 34–35, 

200–202 

GLOnASS (GLObal navigation 

Satellite System), 234–35 

Glushko,Valentin, 223, 225, 225–26 

Goddard, Robert, 30–31 

Goddard Space Flight Center, 316, 

317

Goldin, daniel S., 134, 412 

Goldwater, Barry, 122, 366 

Golovanov, Iaroslav, 222 

Googie style, 180–83 

Googie’s Coffee Shop, 181 

Google, 390–91, 411 
Index 449 

Gorbachev, Mikhail, 223
 

Gorillaz, 245
 

GPS (Global Positioning Satellite),
 

195–96, 233–35, 399
 

Graham, daniel O., 126, 129
 

Graham, John, Jr., 180
 

Great Britain: achievements of space 


program, 18; Blue Streak ballistic 


missile, 44; collaborative european 


space program, interest in, 47;
 

collaborative military projects, 43;
 

Common Market, request to join, 47;
 

expeditionary science, 16; military 


dimension of space program, 42;
 

missile and rocket development, 33;
 

space policy, 47
 

Great Society programs, 122, 165

357–58, 362, 366–67, 368


,


Green, Jonathan, 298, 301
 

Griffin, Michael, 113–14, 115–16, 365
 

Grisson,Virgil I., Jr., 354

Gross, Bertram M., 149
 

Gross, H. R., 165–66
 

H 

Haage, Ulrike, 240
 

Haber, Heinz, 75

Habermas, Jürgen, 385
 

Habitus (Flint), 248
 

Halström, Lasse, 239, 243–44
 

Hannon, neil, 247
 

Hansen, James R., 109–20, 415–16
 

Harvard Business School, 141
 

Haskell, douglas, 181
 

Hays, edward L.“Ted”, 346–47
 

Health and Human Services, U.S.
 

department of, 125
 

Health revolution, 10–11
 

“Hearts of Space,” 240
 

. . . the Heavens and the Earth 

(Mcdougall), 119, 175
 

Heinlein, Robert, 344–51;
 

education of, 345–46; engineering 


employment, 346;“Flight into the 

Future,” 349; health of, 343, 346;
 

influence of, 341, 347, 350–51;
 

inventive devices attributed to, 344; 

literary style and techniques, 158,
 

344–45; political interests, 347, 349;
 

Revolt in 2100, 347–49, 348; Rocket 

Ship Galileo, 350; science interests of, 

345–46; Solution Unsatisfactory, 345; 

Space Cadet, 349
 

Hereford, Sonnie, III, 96–97, 99–100,
 

101, 103
 

Heritage Foundation, 129
 

Hermann, Rudolf, 80
 

Hero images and celebrity status:
 

Chinese space program, 119–20; 

Laika, 237–38, 239–41; Russian space 

program, 228–31, 229; Soviet Union 

space program, 214–17, 216, 224–26, 

225; United States space program, 

163–64, 167–70; von Braun, 83–84, 

86, 93
 

Hickam, Homer, 394
 

High Frontier, Project, 129
 

Hilberg, Raul, 82
 

Hill, Stephen, 240
 

Hillers, J. K., 284, 287, 289, 307
 

Himmler, Heinrich, 76, 80
 

Hine, Lewis, 310–11, 312, 314
 

Hiroshima, 63
 

Historical analogies, 141–47, 150–54
 

History:Americans’ interest in,
 

381–82; reality, memory, and 

meaning, xi–xii; truth, 383. See also 

Memory; narratives
 

History and Theory, 143
 

History news network, 153
 

History news Service, 153
 

History Office (nASA), 151–52
 

Hitler,Adolph, 76, 78, 80
 

Holocaust, 73, 81–82, 85, 86
 

Home Planet,The, 321
 

Homo erectus, 4–5
 
450 ReMeMBeRInG THe SPACe AGe 

Homo sapiens, 4–5
 

Howard, Bart, 159
 

Howard, Hanson, 94, 94–95n15, 104
 

Hu Jintao, 113
 

Hubble Space Telescope, 133, 280, 338
 

Hughes,Thomas P., 144–45
 

Human Values on the Spaceship Earth 

(Boulding), 175
 

Humans in Space (Shipman), 403
 

Hunt, Linda, 85
 

Hunter, Maxwell W., II, 126, 128–29
 

Huntsville,Alabama:African American 

community in, 91, 94–104, 95n16, 

105; barbecue party to welcome 

German rocket team and families, 97,

97n23; development of, 92–93, 92n7;

educational opportunities, 102–3, 

102nn35–36, 103n37; German 

rocket team and families, 91, 92,
 

96–106; oral histories project, 90–92, 

93–94; response to Rudolph case, 

89–90, 89n1; segregation in, 95–101, 

95n17
 

Hydrogen bombs, 63
 

I
 

I Aim at the Stars, 83
 

ICBM (intercontinental ballistic 


missiles), 63, 159, 211
 

Ice MC, 246, 247
 

Ideal citizen, 190
 

Ilinsky, Igor, 257
 

Image, or What Happened to the American 

Dream,The (Boorstein), 188, 188n9
 

Image-culture, 188–95, 201
 

Imboden, Otis, 303
 

In the Shadow of the Moon, 207
 

Incredible Shrinking Man,The, 173
 

India: energy use, 12; exploration 


of and migration to, 4; rocketry 


development, 26
 

Indian space program: achievements 


of, 18, 21n6; development of, 399;
 

founding father, 19; indigenous 


technologies, 21, 21n6, 33;
 

nationalism and, 17, 27; technology 


and national prowess, 27
 

Indigenous technologies, 20–23, 21n6, 

22n9, 22n11, 23n12, 32–33
 

Indonesia, 113
 

Industrial and urban landscape 


photography, 291, 294, 294–96, 295, 


297, 298, 316, 318, 319, 319–20
 

Infectious diseases, 8, 10
 

Ingalls, Bill, 307–9, 309n55
 

Intercontinental ballistic missiles 


(ICBM), 63, 159, 211
 

International Solar Polar Mission 


(ISPM), 52
 

International space law, 177
 

International Space Station (ISS):
 

China’s exclusion from, 113, 114;
 

completion of, ix; conservative 


space agenda and, 125; international 

cooperation to build, 33–34;
 

Malaysian cosmonaut’s visit to, 27,
 

27n25; South Korean cosmonaut’s 


visit to, 27, 27n25; U.S. role in, 34
 

International Traffic in Arms 

Regulations (ITAR), 52–53
 

International Workers’Aid, 256n8
 

Internet, 15, 399
 

Interplanetary Revolution 

(Mezhplanetnaia revolutsiia), 259–60, 

260

Introduction to Outer Space (Killian), 160


Iran, 19n2, 113
 

Iraq, 392
 

Iridium, 196–200, 199

Irving, david, 81
 

Israeli space program: achievements of,
 

18; founding father, 19; indigenous 

technologies, 33
 

Italy, 50
 

ITAR (International Traffic in Arms 


Regulations), 52–53 
Index 451 

Itokawa, Hideo, 19
 

Ivanova, natalia, 230
 

Ivanovskii, Oleg, 226–27
 

Ivins,William, 274, 281, 283
 

J 

Jackson,William Henry, 284
 

Jameson, Frederic, 186, 188
 

Japan: energy use, 12; Olympics, 170
 

Japan Aerospace exploration Agency 


(JAxA), 30
 

Japanese space program: achievements 


of, 18, 35, 35n42; budget of, 392;
 

founding father, 19; indigenous 


technologies, 33; justification 


of, 29–30; missile and rocket 


development, 33; nationalism and,
 

17, 27
 

Jefferson,Thomas, 16, 369
 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 356, 394
 

Jetsons, 173, 182
 

J.F.K., 373
 

Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center, 114
 

Johnson, Lyndon: conspiracy theories 


about Kennedy assassination, 373;
 

liberal government agenda, 357–58;
 

space exploration, reasons for, 6–7;
 

space program funding, 165, 368;
 

spaceflight, success of, 360; Sputnik 


launch, reaction to, 58, 161
 

Johnson Space Center, 166, 171
 

Journalist in Space program, 412
 

Jupiter launcher, 116n14 

Jupiter-C Redstone rocket (explorer 


One), 272, 274, 275, 355
 

Justice, U.S. department of, Office of 


Special Investigations, 85, 86, 89
 

K 

Kahn, nicholas, 327–31
 

Kamanin, nikolai, 217–19, 220, 222
 

Kammler, Hans, 76, 77
 

Karth, Joseph, 365–66 

Kaysing, Bill, 379
 

Kennedy, John F.: conspiracy theories 


about assassination of, 373, 384;
 

frontier analogies, 123, 123–24n9;
 

liberal government agenda, 357–58;
 

Media Age and, 168; Moon landing,
 

support for, 58, 163, 400; motivation 


from challenges by, 164; space 


program funding, 164–65, 368; space 


race as Cold War battleground, 127,
 

163–64; Sputnik launch, reaction to,
 

161
 

Kennedy, Robert G., III, 341–52, 416
 

Kennedy Space Center: Launch 


Operations Center, 166; Orbiter 


Processing Facilities, 315–16, 316; 


protest of launch at, 362–63; Space 


Shuttle photographs, 316, 318, 319, 


319–20; visitor center, 109
 

Kevles, Bettyann, 411, 416
 

Keyworth, George, 131
 

Khodataev, nikolai, 259–60 

Khrushchev, nikita, 56n5, 161, 162,
 

214–15, 223, 224
 

Khrushchev, Sergei, 225
 

Kilgore, deWitt douglas, 178
 

Killian, James R., 58–59n13, 60, 62,
 

160
 

Kim, Samuel S., 110, 111
 

Kingsolver, Barbara, 185
 

Kinison, Sam, 358–59 

Kistiakowsky, George, 63
 

Klimuk, Petr, 229

Kloka, 249
 

Klushantsev, Pavel, 263–64, 268
 

Koch, ed, 365
 

Komarov,Vladimir, 211
 

Komisarenko, Zenon, 259–60 

Korolev, Sergie: anniversary 

celebration of, 211; anonymity 

of, 214; celebrity status of, 211; 

contributions of, 223; dispute with 
452 ReMeMBeRInG THe SPACe AGe 

 

other engineers, 225; as founding 


father, 19, 20; narrative and image 


control, 218, 219;Tsiolkovskii,
 

meeting with, 212–13
 

Korolev conferences, 211
 

Kosmicheskii reis (Spaceflight), 260–62,
 

261, 264, 268, 268n35
 

Kosmos kak predchuvstvie (Space as 


Premonition), 265–66, 267
 

Kraemer, Sylvia K., xii, 405–7, 416–17
 

Kranzberg, Melvin, 138
 

Krige, John, xii, 37–53, 417
 

Kubrick, Stanley, 174, 175


Kundera, Milan, 237, 240
 

Kuttner, Henry, 347
 

L 

Labor force photographs, 309–16, 312, 


313, 314, 315, 316, 317

Ladwig,Alan, 412
 

Laika: anniversary celebration of,
 

211; books inspired by, 248–49;
 

celebrity status of, 237–38, 239–41;
 

controversy over spaceflight of,
 

238–39; film inspired by, 239,
 

243–44; launch of, 6; launch of,
 

reaction to, 238–39; memory of,
 

240–41, 243, 249–50; music inspired 


by and dedicated to, 239–40,
 

242–43, 244, 245, 246–48, 249,
 

251–52; musical groups named 


for, 239, 244–46; Soviet tributes 


to, 241–42, 247; space capsule for,
 

161, 239; spaceflight of, 7; theatrical 


production inspired by, 248;Web sites 

devoted to, 249
 

Laika (Abadzis), 248
 

Laika (musical group), 245–46
 

Laika and the Cosmonauts, 244–45
 

Lambright, Henry, 152
 

Land, edward H., 58–59
 

Landscape photography, 284–91, 285, 


285–86n26, 286, 288, 289, 290, 291, 


291n33, 307, 334–36
 

Landscapes without Memory 

(Fontcuberta), 323
 

Laney, Monique, 89–107, 417
 

Lang, daniel, 76
 

Lang, Fritz, 258
 

Laning, Caleb, 349, 350
 

Large Astronomical Satellite, 46
 

Laser weapons, 128
 

Launius, Jeffrey Hilliard, 375–76
 

Launius, Roger d., 353–85, 417–18;
 

astronauts as cultural icons, 207;
 

Columbia investigation, 152;
 

justification of space exploration,
 

28; mythology of spaceflight, 209;
 

narratives of space exploration, xi,
 

xii; rationales for space technology,
 

391–92; Spaceflight and the Myth of 


Presidential Leadership, 122–23
 

Lautner, John, 181
 

Lee, Peggy, 159
 

LeFevre, Mike, 311–12


Left-leaning government agenda,
 

357–58 

Left-leaning space agenda, 123–24, 

360–66
 

Lem, Stanislaw, 218, 262
 

Lenin,Vladimir, 214, 215, 253–54,
 

254n1
 

Leningrad Cowboys, 244, 245
 

Lewis, Cathleen S., 214, 253–70, 418
 

Lewis Research Center (Glenn 


Research Center), 294–96, 295, 298, 


313

Ley,Willy, 71–74, 75, 78, 81, 86, 158,
 

159
 

Liberal government agenda, 357–58
 

Liberal space agenda, 123–24, 360–66
 

Life, 168–69
 

Light, Michael, 321, 323, 332
 

Lilienthal, david, 70
 
Index 453 

Link, O.Winston, 307
 

Literary and social movements and 


technology development, 118–19
 

Loader, Jayne, 242
 

Logsdon, John M., xii, 152, 391, 394,
 

397–404, 418–19
 

Look, 169
 

Lorenzini, Michael, 334
 

Lovell,Amoree, 237, 246
 

Lovell, James, 300, 402n10
 

Lucid, Shannon, 114–15
 

Lucky Dragon 5 (Japanese fishing boat),

63
 

Luna III, 277, 278

Lunacharsky,Anatolii, 253, 256
 

Lunar Orbiter 1, 280
 

Lunar x Prize, 390–91, 411
 

Lundquist, Charles A., 89n2
 

Lyotard, Francois, 188, 201
 

M 

M16, eagle nebula “Pillars of 


Creation,” 280
 

MacGregor, Robert R., ix n1, 55–70,
 

419–20
 

Machine in the Garden,The (Marx), 147
 

MacLeish,Archibald, 175
 

Macmillan, Harold, 47
 

Mader, Julius, 84, 86
 

Magellan, Ferdinand, 4
 

Mahan,Alfred T., 126
 

Mailer, norman, 174, 175, 301
 

Making of the Atomic Bomb,The

(Rhodes), 341–43
 

Malaysia, 27, 27n25
 

Man on the Moon,A (Chaikin), 358
 

Manhattan district, 67
 

Manhattan Project, 341, 345, 349
 

Manned Space Flight Subcommittee,
 

170 

Murakami, Haruki, 248
 

Marcuse, Herbert, 193
 

Mare’s Nest,The (Irving), 81
 

Mariner 10, 338
 

Mark, Hans, 420
 

Market capitalism, 190
 

Mars, 264
 

Mars: exploration of, xiii, 35n42,
 

116, 134, 183, 235, 364, 392, 403;
 

photographs of, 287–88, 290, 291, 


338
 

“Mars As You’ve never Seen Before,” 

394
 

Mars exploration Rovers, 287–88, 394
 

Mars Project (von Braun), 78
 

Marshall,William S., 152
 

Marshall Space Flight Center, 83, 90
 

Marx, Leo, 147
 

Massacre, 247, 248
 

May, ernest R., 154
 

Mazlish, Bruce, 135, 137, 141–44, 145,
 

147, 150, 154
 

McArthur, Megan, 290–91, 293

McCandless, Bruce, II, 280
 

McCormick, John, 161
 

McCretton, niki, 248
 

McCurdy, Howard e.: Columbia
 

investigation, 152; conspiracy 


theories, 378; mythology of 


spaceflight, 118, 209, 365, 401;
 

robots, analysis of, 394; Spaceflight 


and the Myth of Presidential Leadership, 


122–23
 

Mcdivitt, James, 300
 

Mcdougall,Walter A., 420–21;
 

criticism of space exploration goals,
 

367, 368–69; . . . the Heavens and the 


Earth, 119, 175; reflection on Space 


Age, xii, 389–95, 397; separation 


of civil and military dimension of 


space exploration, 41; Space Age 


as saltation, ix n1; Sputnik launch 


and reaction to, 55–56; technocracy 


concept, 56, 369
 

Mcewen,Alfred, 394
 

McGovern, James, 81
 
454 ReMeMBeRInG THe SPACe AGe 

McLeod, Ken, 243
 

McLuhan, Marshall, 189
 

McMahon Act, 65. See also Atomic 


energy Acts
 

Mcnamara, Robert S., 392
 

Mcneill, John R., x, 3–16, 397,
 

398–99, 401–2, 402n9, 421–22
 

Mcneill,William H., x
 

Mecano, 244
 

Media Age, 167–72, 208
 

Memory: accuracy of, 203–4,
 

240–41; collective memory, 205–6, 

205–6n13; counter-memory, 

226–28; cultural memory, 206–10, 

236; identity construction through, 

204–5; institutionalization of, 206; 

privatization of, 224, 226–28; reality, 

meaning, and, xi–xii; recall of, 204, 

240; Russian space program, 228–31, 

229; Soviet narrative, collapse 

of, 224–28; Soviet Union space 

program, 211–14, 235–36 

“Men from Mars,” 341, 341n1
 

Mercury, 338
 

Mercury 7, 354

Mercury program, 162, 165, 169
 

Meridiani Planum, 288, 290, 291

Merkulov,Yuri, 259–60
 

Metropolis, 258
 

Metschan, Stephen, 116n14
 

Mezhplanetnaia revolutsiia (Interplanetary 


Revolution), 259–60, 260

Mezhrabpom-Rus, 256, 256n8
 

Michel, Jean, 85
 

Mid-Century Modernism, 179–83
 

Midwestern Research Institute (MRI),

371 

Mighty Sparrow, 242–43
 

Militarization of space, 123, 126–33
 

Military Industrial Commission, 227
 

Miller,Walter M., Jr., 64
 

Milton, John, 3
 

Milward,Alan, 49–50
 

Minta Gimnasium, 341n1
 

Mir space station, 228, 230
 

Missile and rocket development,
 

21, 21n8, 30–31, 33; birthplace of,
 

26; Blue Streak ballistic missile,
 

44; China, 33, 111; France, 33;
 

Germany, 31–32, 33, 71–86,
 

118–19; Great Britain, 33; Japan,
 

33; ROVeR program, 69; service 


branch responsible for, 349–50;
 

Soviet Union, 33; technology for, 21;
 

United States, 33; von Braun, 71–74,
 

75–78, 83–86, 355
 

Missile defense Agency, 130
 

Missile Technology Control Regime 


(MTCR), 21
 

Mississippi Test Facility, 146–47
 

Mittelbau-dora labor camp, 19, 31, 71,
 

73, 80, 81–82, 84, 85–86, 89, 98–99
 

Mittelwerk weapons plant, 71, 73,
 

81–82, 81n13, 84, 85, 89, 98–99
 

“Model schizophrenia,” 219
 

Modernism, 179–83
 

Mondale,Walter “Fritz,” 150, 362
 

Moon: China’s missions to, 115–16;
 

conspiracy theories about landing,
 

375–84; landing on, support for, 58,
 

163, 400; photographs of, 277–80,
 

278, 279, 281, 282, 284–85, 286, 321;
 

return to, 403; space walks on, ix;
 

success of program, 184
 

Moon,The, 264
 

Moon Girl Collection, 179
 

Moon-Doggle,The (etzioni), 166
 

Moorthy, R. S., 198
 

Morse, Ralph, 303
 

Moscow Institute of Artistic Culture 


(InKhUK), 259
 

Mote in God’s Eye (niven and 


Pournelle), 347
 

Motorola, 197–200, 199

Motorola University, 198
 

Motorola University Press, 198
 
Index 455 

 

Moxy Früvous, 247 

MTS billboard campaign, 232–33, 233

Multinational corporations, 197–200 

Mumford, Lewis, 174, 193 

Muncy, James A. M., 125 

Murray, Charles, 395 

Music: Laika-inspired, 239–40, 

242–43, 244, 245, 246–48, 249, 

251–52; technology for, 241 

“Muttnik, the First dog in Space,” 

248 

Mutual assured destruction (MAd) 

strategy, 127, 129 

Muybridge, edward, 284 

My Life as a Dog, 239, 243–44 

Myth of the Machine,The (Mumford), 

193 

n 

nagasaki, 63 

narratives:American exceptionalism, 

24, 354, 355–60, 360n17, 384–85; 

conspiracy theories, 353–54, 373–84; 

cosmonaut myth, 214–17, 216; 

master narratives, 350, 384–85; 

nASA, image creation by, 167–72, 

208–10; reality, memory, and 

meaning, xi–xii; Soviet counternarratives, 221–23, 226–28; Soviet 

master narrative, 217–21; Soviet 

narrative, collapse of, 224–28; Star 

Trek narrative, 411; U.S. space 

program narratives, 353–85. See also 

Culture; Memory 

national Advisory Committee for 

Aeronautics (nACA), 55, 355–56 

national Aeronautics and Space Act 

(1958), 45, 57, 64–69, 355 

national Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (nASA): atomic 

diplomacy and, ix n1, 57–58, 64–69; 

budget of, 125–26, 164–66, 356, 

362–63, 364, 372, 393; Commercial 

Space Policy, 133; Commercial 

Technology Program, 29; criticism 

of goals of, 63, 360–72; dOd’s 

relationship with, 64, 65–67; 

employment numbers, 164, 356; 

european space program, role 

in, 40–41, 45–46, 51–53; films 

produced by, 171; formation 

of, 55–58, 64–69, 162, 355–56; 

History division, x; History Office, 

151–52; history use by, 151–52; 

image creation by, 167–72, 208–10; 

industrial photographs, 316, 318, 

319, 319–20; institutional culture 

of, 210; intellectual property rights, 

68–69; international collaboration 

policy, 45, 51–53; justification of, 

28–29, 48–49, 410; labor force 

photographs, 309–16, 313, 315, 

316, 317; laboratories, 57, 57n8; 

liaison committees, 66–67; national 

prestige and, 58, 63; Office of Public 

Affairs, 171; Office of Strategic 

Communications Planning, 410; 

photographers, 304, 307–9, 309n55; 

reform of, calls for, 133–34; return 

on R&d investment, 371; space race, 

entrance into, 162; Spinoff, 28–29; 

Sustaining University Program, 

141; as technocracy, 56–58, 69–70; 

technology transfer from space 

program to civilian use (spinoffs), 

146, 169, 171, 173;Technology 

Utilization Program, 28; transition of 

nACA into, 55 

national Aeronautics and Space 

Council, 66 

national Aero-Space Plane (nASP), 

124 

national Air and Space Museum, 171, 

336; Space History division, x 

national Archives, xii 

national Commission on Space, 412
456 ReMeMBeRInG THe SPACe AGe 

national defense education Act 

(ndeA), 55, 162–63 

national Planning Association, 141
 

national Policy on the Commercial 


Use of Space, 132
 

national Reconnaissance Office, 393
 

national Science Foundation, 61, 336
 

national Security Council (nSC),
 

60–61, 131
 

national Space Agency Centre 


nationales des Études Spatiales 


(CneS), 45
 

national Space Council, 133
 

national Space Policy (national 


Security decision directive 42),
 

131–32
 

nationalism and national identities:
 

Chinese space program, 17, 27,
 

109, 117–18, 119–20; Indian space 


program and, 17, 27; Russian space 


program, 17, 24–25; space activity 


contribution to, xii, 406; Space 


Age and, x–xi, 176–77, 184; space 


programs and, 17–19, 23–27, 27n25,
 

33–35; technology and national 


prowess, 26–27, 58–64; U.S. space 


program, 17, 24
 

Nation-State by Construction,A (Zhao), 

110, 116–18 

nATO Science Committee, 42
 

naval Research Laboratory, 356
 

navy, U.S., 349–50 

Nebo zovët (Sky Calls), 262–63, 

262n29 

ne’eman,Yuval, 19
 

neher, Franz Ludwig, 78
 

neisser, Ulric, 203
 

nelson,Amy, 237–52, 422
 

neufeld, Michael J., 71–87, 118–19, 

422 

neustadt, Richard e., 154
 

new economic Policy (neP), 256,
 

256n8, 258–59
 

new Horizons mission, 313n63, 

315n63, 316, 317

new natural, 185
 

new Soviet Man, 215
 

new York City department of 


Bridges/Plant and Structures, 

295–96, 297, 304
 

new York World’s Fair, 180
 

new Zealand, 4, 5–6, 8
 

news media photographers, 301,
 

303–7
 

niépce, Joseph nicéphore, 276
 

nigeria, 113
 

nimoy, Leonard, 178
 

niven, Larry, 347
 

nixon, Richard, 123, 127, 129, 170,
 

356–57, 365, 400–401
 

noble, david, 56n7
 

nora, Pierre, 206
 

nordhausen, Germany, 71–72, 72, 


72n2, 76, 77, 80, 81–82, 85, 86
 

north Korea, 19n2
 

nuclear and Space Talks (nST), 129
 

nuclear programs and weapons:
 

atomic diplomacy, ix n1, 57–58, 

64–69;Atomic Peace Ship, 62–63; 

Atoms-for-Peace program, 62; 

indigenous technologies, 32; 

perception of, 63–64; proliferation 

of, 23n14; ROVeR program, 69; 

U.S. foreign policy and, 61–64 

O 

Of a Fire on the Moon (Mailer), 174,
 

301
 

Office of Commercial Space 


Transportation, 133
 

Office of defense Mobilization 

(OdM), 62; Science Advisory 

Committee (SAC), 58, 58–59n13 

Office of Research and Intelligence 


Reporting, 61
 
Index 457 

Office of Scientific Research and 

development,White House, 410 

Office of Special Investigations, U.S. 

department of Justice, 85, 86, 89 

Office of Strategic Communications 

Planning, 410 

Office of Technology Assessment, 150 

Olympics, 120, 170, 217 

Omon Ra (Pelevin), 266, 266–67n34 

On the Beach (Shute), 64 

O’neill, Gerard K., 24 

Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth 

(Fuller), 175 

Operation Paperclip. See Paperclip, 

Project 

Opportunity, 394 

Oral histories, 90–92, 93–94 

Ordway, Fred, 84, 85 

Orient express, 124 

Orientalism (Said), 111 

O’Sullivan,T. H., 283, 284, 285, 307 

Oushakine, Serguei, 230–31 

Outer Space Treaty, 177, 390, 391 

Ouyang Ziyang, 27 

P 

Pakistan, 113 

Pal, George, 350 

Pamuk, Orhan, 203, 207 

Paperclip, Project: hometown for 

German team and families, 90; 

purpose of program, 72, 89;“rocket 

scientist” term use, 92n6; screening 

process for, 74; service branch 

responsible for, 349; space history 

shaped by, 86; unveiling of, 74 

Pathfinders (Fernandez-Armesto), 3 

Patrushev, nikolai, 235 

Pearl Harbor, 345n9, 373, 374 

Pearson, drew, 84 

Peenemünde rocket center, 71, 73–74, 

76, 77, 80–81, 81n13, 82, 84, 85–86 

Pelevin,Viktor, 266, 266–67n34 

Penley, Constance, 209, 411 

Penn, Irving, 310n58 

Pentagon, 393 

Pentagon of Power,The (Mumford), 174 

People’s Commissariat of Foreign 

Trade, 256 

Peru, 113 

Pervye na lune (First on the Moon), 265, 

266–68, 269

Petrograd workers’ councils, 256 

Photographer and the American Landscape, 

The (Szarkowski), 284 

Photography: access to photographs, 

277, 283, 303–4, 304n49; blackand-white photography, 332–33, 

333n84–85; cameras in space, 299, 

300, 300n42, 321–22; cataloguing 

and archiving of, 334, 336; 

engineering systems, elegance of, 

301; evolution of equipment, 283–84, 

296; fine arts photography, 320–31, 

324, 325, 326, 327, 329, 330; future 

of space exploration documentation, 

336–39; geographical and geologic 

documentation, 284–91, 285, 

289, 290; history of, 276–77, 

276–77nn10–11, 277; iconic images, 

271–74, 273, 274, 275, 277–83, 

278, 279, 281, 282; iconic images, 

candidates for during next 50 

years, 338–39; industrial and urban 

landscape photography, 291, 294, 

294–96, 295, 297, 298, 316, 318, 

319, 319–20; landscape photography, 

284–91, 285, 285–86n26, 286, 288, 

289, 290, 291, 291n33, 307, 334–36; 

nASA industrial photographs, 316, 

318, 319, 319–20; nASA labor force 

photographs, 309–16, 313, 315, 316, 

317; nASA photographers, 304, 

307–9, 309n55; photojournalism, 

296–97, 301, 303–7; quality of, 

331–33; remote cameras, 305n52; 
458 ReMeMBeRInG THe SPACe AGe 

snapshot photography, 297–301,
 

299; transitions to new programs,
 

333–36; visual expression, 274; visual 


reporting, 274
 

Photojournalism, 296–97, 301, 303–7
 

Pichel, Irving, 350
 

Pickering,William, 272, 275

Pidgeon,Walter, 178
 

Planet of Storms (Planeta bur’), 263, 


263–64, 263n30, 268
 

Pluto mission, 313n63, 315n63
 

P.M., 74
 

Pohl, Frederick, 347
 

Polanyi, Michael, 341n1
 

Polo, Marco, 4
 

Polynesia, 4, 5–6, 7
 

Pond, 246
 

Ponomareva,Valentina, 220–21
 

Pool, Ithiel de Sola, 149
 

Popovich, Pavel, 220
 

Population explosion, 11
 

Postmodernity, 189, 201–2
 

Pournelle, Jerry, 347
 

Pousette-dart, Richard, 183
 

Powell, Colin, 100–101n32
 

Powell Survey, 287
 

President’s Science Advisory 


Committee (PSAC), 55, 58–59n13, 

61
 

Price, don, 56–57n7
 

Private space industry, 33, 116,
 

116n14, 371–72, 390–91, 411
 

Project Paperclip. See Paperclip,
 

Project
 

Protazanov, Iakov, 256–57, 256n9,
 

257n11, 258–60
 

Proxmire,William, 164, 362
 

Pulp Fiction, 244, 245
 

Putin,Vladimir, 228–30, 229, 234
 

Q 

Qian xuesen, 19
 

Quayle, dan, 133–34
 

R
 

R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile, 

211
 

Rabi, Isidor I., 47, 58–59n13
 

Rabinovich, Isaak, 257
 

Racial issues, 177–78. See also African 

Americans
 

Rafferty, Kevin, 242
 

Rafferty, Pierce, 242
 

Railroad and the Space Program,The 

(Mazlish), 141–47, 150–51 

Railroads and American Economic Growth 

(Fogel), 145–46
 

RAnd, Project, 349
 

Rand Corporation, 399
 

Rapoport, Robert n., 148
 

Rauschenberg, Robert, 183
 

Ray, Charles, 95–96, 97–98, 106
 

Ray Anderson and the Homefolks,
 

242
 

Reagan, Ronald: commercialization of 


space, 124, 130–33, 371; conservative 


space agenda, 121, 125, 126; national 


Aero-Space Plane (nASP), 124, 126;
 

national Commission on Space, 412;
 

Space Station Freedom, 126; Star 


Wars speech, 129; Strategic defense 


Initiative (SdI), 124, 126, 129–30
 

Redstone Arsenal, 90, 92n7 

Remembering the Space Age: 50th 

Anniversary Conference, x–xiii 

Representation: challenges of, 187–95; 

GPS, 195–96; Iridium, 196–200, 199; 

new order of experience, 185–87 

Restricted data, 67
 

Revolt in 2100 (Heinlein), 347–49, 348

Rhodes, Richard, 341–43
 

Richter, Max, 240
 

Riedel, Paul, 311, 313, 334
 

Rieger, Bernhard, 26
 

Right Stuff,The (Wolfe), 184
 

Right-leaning space agenda, 121–34,
 

365, 366–72 
Index 459 

 

Rights revolution, 122
 

Robotic space probes, ix, 402n9
 

Rocket Ship Galileo (Heinlein), 350
 

Rocket Team,The (Ordway and Sharpe),
 

85
 

Rockets. See Missile and rocket 


development
 

Rockets (Ley), 73
 

Rockets, Missiles, and Space Travel (Ley),


73
 

Rockets and Space Travel (Ley), 73
 

Rodchenko,Aleksandr, 259
 

Roddenberry, Gene, 176
 

Roland,Alex, 358, 368, 391
 

Roosevelt, Franklin d., 373, 374
 

Rosenberg, emily S., xi, 157–84, 208,
 

209, 409, 422–23
 

Rosenbloom, Richard S., 142
 

Rosenzweig, Roy, 381–82
 

Ross, Jerry, 115
 

Rousseau, Henri, 324
 

ROVeR program, 69
 

Rudenko, Sergei, 220
 

Rudolph,Arthur, 80, 85, 89–90, 89n1
 

Rumsfeld, donald, 130, 166
 

Russia: capitalism and the Space Age,
 

231–35, 233; expeditionary science,
 

16; films, 255, 265–70; rocketry 


development, 349n16; science fiction 


interests, 265–70; space exploration,
 

conflict as beginning of, 6–7;
 

technological utopianism, 25
 

“Russian Satellite,” 242
 

Russian space program: achievements 


of, ix, xiii; hero images and 


celebrity status, 228–31, 229; 


indigenous technologies, 22; ISS 


visits by Malaysian and South 


Korean cosmonauts, 27, 27n25;
 

memorialization, 226; nationalism 


and, 17, 24–25; photographs of, 306, 


307–9, 308; public support for, 235
 

S
 

Sacks, Oliver, 204
 

Sagan, Carl, 174, 337, 394
 

Sahl, Mort, 83
 

Said, edward W., 111
 

Saint-Simon, Claude Henri de 


Rouvroy, le comte de, 121
 

Saint-Simonians, 121
 

Salgado, Sebastian, 332–33
 

Salsbury, Stephen, 146
 

Salyut 3 space station, 227–28
 

Sanders,August, 310n58
 

Santa Monica Bay, 325, 325

Sarabhai,Vikram, 19
 

Satellites: advance in, ix; anti-satellite 


(ASAT) missile events, 112, 112n4, 

113, 113n5, 128; China as space 

benefactor club, 113; Cold War 

use of, 127–28; earth-observation 

satellite system, 113; european space 

program focus on, 46; GLOnASS, 

234–35; GPS, 195–96, 233–35, 399; 

indigenous technologies, 21; launch 

capabilities of nations, 21, 21n6; 

military purpose of, 41; national 

prestige and launch of, 60–61; overflight freedom, 60n18; significance 

of, 14–15; spy satellites, 14–15, 160; 

Symphonie telecommunications 

satellite, 52 

Saturday Evening Post, 169
 

Saturn, 281, 287, 288, 338
 

Schirra,Walter M.“Wally,” 300, 302, 


354

Schmitt, Harrison, 285–86n26
 

Schneeberge, Jon, 303
 

Schultze, Charles, 362
 

Schweigende stern, Der (Silent Star), 262
 

Science Committee, 171
 

Science fiction interests: China, 115;
 

Germany, 115, 118–19; Heinlein’s 

influence on, 347; history-changing 

events and, 341–44; Russia, 265–70;
460 ReMeMBeRInG THe SPACe AGe 

Soviet Union, 115, 254–55, 257–58, 

260–64, 269–70; United States, 

63–64, 115, 158–60, 177–78 

Science:The Endless Frontier (Bush), 410 

Scientific Research Institute no. 88, 

217 

Seattle Century 21 exposition Space 

needle, 180 

Seattle World’s Fair, 180 

Second nature, 186, 202, 232 

Second-Order Consequences (Bauer, 

Rosenbloom, and Sharp), 142, 148 

Secret of Huntsville (Heheimnis von 

Huntsville) (Mader), 84, 86 

Seitz, Fred, 42 

Selesnick, Richard, 327–31 

Senior Interagency Group (SIG 

Space), 131 

Sequence (Serra), 336–37 

Serra, Richard, 336–37 

Sexton, John, 318–20, 332, 333 

Sharp, Laure, 142 

Sharpe, Mitchell, 85 

Shatner,William, 176 

Shenzhou V, 111, 118, 119 

Shepard,Alan B., Jr., 163, 165, 168, 

280, 354

Shipman, Harry, 403 

Shute, nevil, 64 

Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, 

325, 325

Siberia, 4, 5, 10 

Siddiqi,Asif A., 17–35, 206–7, 211, 

212, 224, 227, 227n77, 423 

Silent Star (Schweigende stern, Der), 262 

Sky Calls (Nebo zovët), 262–63, 

262n29 

Slave labor system, 98–99 

Slayton, donald K.“deke,” 354

SLV-3 rocket, 21, 21n8 

Smith,Adam, 369 

Smith, Michael, 96, 98–99 

Smithsonian Institution, xii 

Snapshot photography, 297–301, 299

Snoop dogg, 247 

Social Indicators (Bauer), 142, 149–50 

Solaris, 218 

Solnetseva, Iuliia, 257 

Soluri, Michael, 271–339, 423 

Solution Unsatisfactory (Heinlein), 345 

South Korea, 19n2, 27, 27n25 

Soviet exhibition of People’s 

economic Achievements, Moscow, 

231 

Soviet Union:ABM Treaty, 

128, 129; collapse of, 224–28; 

Communist Party Program, 215; 

expeditionary science, 16; films, 

253–64, 254n1, 269–70; literary and 

social movements and technology 

development, 119; movie theaters in, 

255; new economic Policy (neP), 

256, 256n8, 258–59; new Soviet 

Man, 215; science fiction interests, 

115, 254–55, 257–58, 260–64, 

269–70; START, 130; urbanization, 

12 

Soviet Union space program: 

achievements of, 18, 34–35;ASAT 

missile events, 128; collapse of, 

224–28; cosmonaut myth, 214–17, 

216; counter-narratives, 221–23, 

226–28; founding father, 19–20; hero 

images and celebrity status, 214–17, 

216, 224–26, 225; indigenous 

technologies, 22–23, 22n11, 23n12, 

32; manipulation of by Khrushchev, 

56n5; memory and mythology of, 

211–14, 235–36; missile and rocket 

development, 33; narrative and image 

control, 217–21; reasons for success 

of, 58–59; space race as Cold War 

battleground, 127–28, 158–67, 368; 

technology and national prowess, 400 

Sovkino, 256, 257, 257n11 

Soyuz 1 mission, 211 
Index 461 

Soyuz 15 mission, 227–28 

Soyuz rockets, 306, 307–9, 308

Space Age: changes on earth during, 

10–14; culture and, 208–10; curiosity 

and urge to explore inspired by, 

393–94; historical analysis by USA 

Today, 37–39; individual memories 

and visual representations, 157–58; 

legitimacy as “Age,” xiii, 405; 

nationalism and national identities 

and, x–xi, 176–77, 184; as saltation, 

ix, ix n1; significance of, 14–16; 

spiritual meaning of, 174 

Space and American Imagination 

(McCurdy), 118 

Space as Premonition (Kosmos kak 

predchuvstvie), 265–66, 267 

Space Cadet (Heinlein), 349 

Space exploration: activity level of, 

xii, xiii, 7–8, 364, 400–401; advance 

in, ix; biological adaptations, 9, 10; 

challenges and liberation in, 9–10, 

359; Cold War and, 6–7, 55–56, 

405; conflict as beginning of, 6–7; 

consequences of, studies of, 152; 

continuation of, 15–16, 393–95, 

401–4; cost of and funding for, 33, 

392–93, 402; cultural preoccupation 

with, 157–58, 399–400; culture and, 

xi–xii, 118–19, 409–12; as folly, 3; 

globalization and global identity and, 

34–35, 200–202; history of, 86–87; 

human spaceflight, xiii; mythology 

of, 18–35, 206–7, 209; pathogenic 

load, 9–10; political economy of, 

144–46; private space industry, 33, 

116, 116n14, 371–72, 390–91, 411; 

public involvement in, 409–12; 

public support for, 37–38; rationales 

for, 391–92; risks of, 7, 8; robotic 

space probes, ix, 402n9; significance 

of, 14–16; social and cultural 

evolution, 9 

Space exploration Initiative (SeI), 

134, 152, 372 

Space Foundation, 392, 393 

Space Frontier Foundation, 125 

Space Launch Commercialization Act, 

133 

“Space Man—The Story of My Life” 

(von Braun), 77 

Space needle, 180 

Space programs: founding fathers, 

19–20, 30–32; historical basis 

to support, 25–26; indigenous 

technologies, 20–23, 21n6, 22n9, 

22n11, 23n12, 32–33; justification 

of, 27–30; nationalism and national 

identities and, 17–19, 23–27, 27n25; 

women and, 19n3. See also specific 

programs 

Space Shuttle program: activity level 

during, 364; commercialization and 

militarization of space through, 123, 

130–33; conservative space agenda 

and, 125, 134; criticism of, 364, 365; 

development of, justification for, 

49; launch photographs, 305, 307, 

309n55; liberal space agenda support 

for, 123; Orbiter Processing Facilities, 

315–16, 316; photographs of, 318, 

318–20, 319; Student Involvement 

Program, 412 

Space Station Freedom, 126 

Space suits, 346–47 

Space telescopes, ix 

Space Week, 390 

Spaceflight (Kosmicheskii reis), 260–62, 

261, 264, 268, 268n35 

Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential 

Leadership (Launius and McCurdy), 

122–23 

Spacelab, 46 

Spaceship earth, 175–78, 208, 390, 

398 

Spain, 49, 50 
462 ReMeMBeRInG THe SPACe AGe 

Special Assistant for Science and 

Technology, 55, 59
 

Speer,Albert, 80, 85
 

Spinoff (nASA), 28–29
 

Spinoffs, 146, 169, 171, 173, 360
 

Spirit, 394
 

Spiritual meaning of Space Age, 174
 

Sputnik: anniversary celebration, 211,
 

390–91; importance of, ix, ix n1;
 

launch of, 7n8; launch of, reaction 


to, 55–56, 58–61, 158, 160–63, 167,
 

355–56, 410–11; technology and 


national prowess, 26
 

Sputnik (musical group), 246
 

“Sputnik” (photo installation), 249
 

“Sputnik” (song), 249
 

Sputnik Foundation, 325–27, 326

Sputnik II, 6, 7, 161, 211
 

Sputnik Sweetheart (Murakami), 248
 

“Sputniks and Mutniks,” 242–43
 

Spy satellites, 14–15, 160
 

Stalin, Joseph, 214–15, 224, 254


Star Trek, 176–77, 178, 411
 

Staver, Robert, 74
 

Steinheimer, Richard, 307
 

Steinhoff, ernst, 80
 

Stennis Space Center, 146–47
 

Stephenson, Robert Louis, 343
 

Stevenson, earl P., 139
 

Stoy, Rasputin, 245
 

Strand, Paul, 291, 294
 

Strategic Air Command (SAC), 162
 

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty 


(START), 130
 

Strategic defense Initiative (SdI), 124,
 

126–30, 345
 

Strauss, Lewis, 62, 66, 68
 

Student Involvement Program, 412
 

Submarine-launched ballistic missile 


(SLBM), 349–50
 

Sultan,Tippu, 26
 

Sun, Laiyun, 113–14
 

Sun xuecai, 120
 

Supreme Council of the national 


economy, 256
 

Surveyor 3 spacecraft, 285, 286

Sustaining University Program 


(nASA), 141
 

Symphonie telecommunications 


satellite, 52
 

Szarkowski, John, 284
 

Szilard, Leo, 341–43, 341n1, 362
 

T 

Tachikawa, Keiji, 30
 

Talbot,William Fox, 276
 

Tarkovsky,Andrei, 218
 

Taub, Bill, 304
 

Taylor, Frederick Winslow, 56–57n7
 

Teacher in Space program, 412
 

Teague, elwood, 345
 

Teague, Olin “Tiger,” 165, 170, 171
 

TeamVision Corp., 116n14
 

Technetronic Age, 172–79
 

Technocracy, 56–58, 56–57nn7–8,
 

69–70, 172–75, 178–79, 369
 

Technological Capabilities Panel 


(TCP), 60, 60n18
 

Technology: economics and,
 

144–45; impact of space science 


and technology on American life,
 

135–36, 138–39, 141, 397–99;
 

influence of ideology on, 121;
 

literary and social movements and 


technology development, 118–19;
 

national prowess and, 26–27, 58–64,
 

400; rationales for space technology,
 

391–92; technological utopianism,
 

25; transfer from space program to 


civilian use (spinoffs), 146, 169, 171,
 

173, 360
 

Technology Utilization Program 

(nASA), 28
 

Technostructure, 56n7
 

Television, 169, 182
 

Teller, edward, 341n1
 
Index 463 

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 70 

Tensions of europe network and 

research collaboration, 153 

Tereshkova,Valentina, 390 

Terkel, Studs, 311–12 

Thailand, 113 

Thelen, david, 381–82 

Things to Come, 345 

Thinking in Time (neustadt and May), 

154 

Time Machine,The, 350 

Tolstoy,Aleksei, 254, 258, 259 

Transparency International, 149 

Transportation, U.S. department of 

(dOT), 132–33 

Trickle down economics, 125 

Truman, Harry, 349 

Tsander, Fridrikh, 211 

Tsereteli, nikolai, 257 

Tsiolkovskii, Konstantin, 24–25, 

211–14, 213, 234, 253, 261–62, 270, 

393 

Tsiolkovskii conferences, 211 

Turner, Frederick Jackson, 24, 126, 

383 

2001:A Space Odyssey, 174, 379 

Tyson, neil deGrasse, 392 

U 

U-2 spy plane flights, 160 

Uchitel,Aleksei, 265–66, 268 

UFO sightings, 168 

Ulam, Stanislaus, 69 

Uncompromised Integrity, 197–98 

United nations: Committee on 

the Peaceful Use of Outer Space 

(COPUOS), 177; educational, 

Scientific and Cultural Organization 

(UneSCO), 47–48; Office for Outer 

Space Affairs, 390; Space Week, 390 

United Space Alliance technician, 

315–16, 316

United States: activist government 

spending, 357–58;American 

exceptionalism, 24, 354, 355–60, 

360n17, 384–85; anti-satellite 

(ASAT) missile events, 112; 

conservative movement, 121–22; 

foreign policy, 51–53; foreign policy 

and nuclear technology, 61–64; 

Germans, treatment of in, 101, 

105; globalization and, 194–95, 

194n23–24; liberal government 

agenda, 357–58; military advantages, 

399; rights revolution, 122; science 

fiction interests, 63–64, 115, 158–60, 

177–78; slave labor system, 98–99; 

trickle down economics, 125 

United States space program: 

achievements of, 18, 34–35; 

activity level of, xii, xiii, 7–8, 364, 

400–401; anti-German prejudice, 

82–83; commercialization and 

militarization of space, 123; 

conservative space agenda, 121–34, 

365, 366–72; conspiracy theories, 

353–54; continuation of, 393–95, 

401–4; disasters and operational 

crises, 146, 184, 203; founding 

fathers, 19, 30–32; frontier thesis, 

118, 123–24, 123–24n9; funding 

for, 392, 393; hero images and 

celebrity status, 163–64, 167–70; 

ideological debate over, 122–23; 

indigenous technologies, 22, 22n9, 

32–33; industrial policy, 48–49; 

justification of, 28–29, 48–49, 

410; liberal space agenda, 123–24, 

360–66; management of, 146–47; 

military dimension of, 41–42, 399, 

406; narratives of, 353–85; national 

prestige and, 58–64; nationalism and, 

17, 24; political economy of, 145–46; 

public involvement in, 409–12; 

public support for, 118, 363; reform
464 ReMeMBeRInG THe SPACe AGe 

 

of, calls for, 133–34; space race as 

Cold War battleground, 127–28, 

158–67, 368; Spacelab collaboration, 

46; Sputnik launch and reaction 

to, 55–56; technology and national 

prowess, 26–27, 58–64, 400. See also 

specific programs 

University of Alabama, Huntsville, 

102–3, 102nn35–36 

Urbanization, 11–12 

USA Today, 37–39 

V
 

V-2 (dornberger), 78–81, 79

V-2 rocket, 98–99; capture of, 31;
 

development of, 71–86; Mittelbaudora labor camp, 19, 31, 71, 73,
 

80, 81–82, 84, 85–86, 89, 98–99;
 

Peenemünde rocket center, 71,
 

73–74, 76, 77, 80–81, 81n13, 82, 84,
 

85–86
 

Valier, Max, 119
 

Van Allen, James, 272, 275, 355, 364
 

Van Allen Radiation Belts, 355, 362,
 

364
 

Vanguard project, 60–61, 355;
 

Vanguard One launch-explosion,
 

271–72, 273;Vanguard TV-3 rocket,
 

161
 

Vaughan, diane, 152
 

Venezuela, 113
 

Virtual factory, 198–200, 199

Visible Hand,The (Chandler and 


Salsbury), 146
 

Vision for Space exploration (VSe),
 

34, 134, 152, 372
 

von Braun,Wernher: activity level of 


space exploration, xiii; anti-German 


prejudice, 83; as disney advisory,
 

75, 159; explorer One launch, 272,
 

275; as founding father, 19, 31–32;
 

hero image and celebrity status of,
 

83–84, 86, 93; I Aim at the Stars, 83;
 

Mars Project, 78; memoirs of, 75–78,
 

80; Mittelbau-dora labor camp, 19,
 

31, 84, 86; nazi activities of, 74,
 

76, 83; rocket development, 71–74,
 

75–78, 83–86, 355; space exploration,
 

support for by, 24, 158; space history 


written by, 84;“Space Man—The 


Story of My Life,” 77; spaceflight 


dreams of, 75–76; Sputnik launch,
 

reaction to, 160; SS membership 


of, 74, 76, 84–86; surrender to 


Americans, 76; University of 


Alabama, Huntsville, 102–3, 102n36;
 

vision of space exploration, 183;
 

“Why I Chose America,” 77
 

von Karman,Theodor, 341n1
 

von neumann, John, 341n1
 

von Renouard, ed, 280
 

Vostok mission, 227
 

Voyage to the Planet of Prehistoric Women, 


263n30
 

Voyage to the Prehistoric Planet, 263n30
 

Voyager 1, 280
 

V-weapons literature, 81
 

W 

Wallace, George, 122
 

Walpi village, 288, 290

Walt disney and disney Corporation,
 

75, 86, 109, 159, 176, 180, 181
 

War and Remembrance (Wouk), xi
 

War of the Worlds, 350


Warfighting, 399
 

We Never Went to the Moon (Kaysing),
 

379
 

Weaver, Bruce, 304
 

Webb, James e., 138, 141, 165, 361,
 

368, 400
 

Weight (Winterson), 248–49
 

“Weimar Culture and Futuristic 


Technology” (neufeld), 118–19
 

Weinberger, Caspar, 49
 
Index 465 

Weitekamp, Margaret A., 309–10, 334, 

412, 424 

Wells, H. G., 341–42, 343–44, 345 

Wenchang Satellite Launching Center, 

109, 110, 120 

West Wing, 363, 366 

When the Sleeper Wakes (Wells), 343–44 

When Worlds Collide, 350 

White, ed, 280, 300, 327, 330 

White, Minor, 320 

White Castle,The (Pamuk), 203 

White House Office of Scientific 

Research and development, 410 

Whole Earth Catalog (Brand), 176, 193 

“Why I Chose America” (von Braun), 

77 

Wigner, eugene, 341n1 

Wilford, John noble, 376, 391 

Winterson, Jeanette, 248–49 

Wolfe,Tom, 184 

Women: in Huntsville,Alabama, 

106–7; space programs and, 19n3; 

Spaceship earth and, 177–78 

Wonder of It All,The, 207 

Working (Terkel), 311–12 

World Set Free,The (Wells), 342, 344 

Wouk, Herman, xi, xii 

Y 

Yang Liwei, 119, 120 

Yao Ming, 120 

Young, John, 330, 331, 402n10 

Yurchak,Alexei, 231 

Z 

Zhao, Suisheng, 110, 116–18, 120

Zheng,Yongnian, 110, 111–13

Zhou enlai, 14, 14n25 

Zhuravlev,Vasilii, 260–61, 268 

Zubrin, Robert, 24, 364 

Zuni woman, 290, 292