Responsible 

Fatherhood 

Spotlight 

February 2010 

Take Time to Be a Dad Today 

National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  20410 Observation Drive Suite 107  Germantown, MD 20876  

Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Father Involvement – Children With Disabilities 

Although very little research has been conducted with fathers of children with disabilities, existing studies 

suggest that having a disabled child may have important implications for fathers’ well-being and 

involvement with their children. 

Definitions 

Father involvement refers to the type and level of a father’s involvement with his children. The concept 

encompasses three main dimensions: engagement (a father’s involvement in activities with his child), 

accessibility (a father’s availability to his child), and responsibility (the extent to which a father provides his 

child with resources, including financial support).40, 41 

Importance and Implications of Fathers’ Involvement with Children With Disabilities 

Most research on children with disabilities has focused almost exclusively on the role that mothers play in 

the lives of these children. Very few studies have looked at fathers’ roles. The few studies that have 

examined fathers’ involvement with children with disabilities have yielded mixed results about how fathers 

are affected by a child’s disability status. 

Implications for Fathers 

Some of the research in this area has found that having a child with a disability has a negative effect on 

father’s well-being; other research has found no negative effects; while still other research has found 

positive effects. 

 Several studies have reported that having a child with a disability has adverse effects on fathers’ 

well-being 

o Fathers often have intense reactions to their child’s initial diagnosis and many report 

experiencing existential conflicts (e.g., reconsidering the purpose of life) as they attempt 

to adapt to the situation.2, 28, 29 

o Some evidence suggests that fathers of children with disabilities experience poorer 

psychological functioning (e.g., higher rates of depression, personality difficulties) than do 

fathers of nondisabled children.6, 7, 15, 44

o Some studies suggest that fathers of children with special needs have lower self-esteem 

than do fathers of typically developing children. 7, 11, 52

o Fathers of children with disabilities often report feelings of guilt, disappointment, lack of 

control, inferiority, and isolation, which can lower their overall sense of well-being.11, 38

o For many fathers, the experience of raising a disabled child may be disheartening, as 

they may not know how to help and care for a child with special needs.45, 55

o Fathers of children with disabilities have reported lower levels of satisfaction with family 

life, less self-confidence, and fewer perceived opportunities for independence, personal 

growth, or recreational activities, compared with fathers of typically developing children.38, 

44, 48

o Fathers of children with disabilities often report feeling cut off from sources of social 

support, and many report feeling resentful toward others (e.g., neighbors, coworkers) 

who fail to offer such support.7, 17, 29, 37 
 Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 2 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

 Overall, research suggests that fathers’ satisfaction with the social support that 

they receive (rather than the amount of perceived support) is associated with 

fathers’ adjustment.18, 30

o Fathers of children with disabilities often experience a great deal of stress that affects 

their well-being. 

 Fathers report being especially worried about the financial costs associated with 

raising a child with a disability and with their child’s prospects for future success 

in adulthood.38

 Parenting stress tends to be higher among fathers of children with disabilities, 

compared with fathers of nondisabled children,1, 13 and tends to increase as 

disabled children age.1, 27

 Such stress may have a negatively effect on the well-being of fathers’ partners, 

the quality of the father-mother relationship, and fathers’ ability to care for and be 

involved with their children.13, 21, 29

 One reason that fathers of children with disabilities may experience higher stress 

may be that their actual experience of fatherhood diverges so much from their 

expectations and ideal images of the role.55

 Other research suggests that fathers’ stress is often exacerbated when care 

providers, program providers, and other sources of support fail to recognize, 

include, and support fathers in their attempts to care for their children.45

o Fathers of children with disabilities may experience higher levels of marital distress and 

dissolution than do fathers of nondisabled children.3, 6, 22, 32, 43, 64

 Other research, however, has failed to support the idea that fathers of children with disabilities 

have lower levels of well-being than do fathers of nondisabled children, and some findings 

suggest that fathers may derive potential benefits from having a child with disabilities. 

o Several studies have not found significant differences in stress levels or other indicators 

of psychological strain in families of children with disabilities, compared with families with 

typically developing children.19, 21, 30, 50, 26, 33, 34, 70

o Recent studies suggest that although mothers of children with disabilities experience 

elevated stress and depression levels, the same is not true for fathers, perhaps because 

they are less involved in the daily care of their children.16, 56, 66

o Several studies show that fathers of children with disabilities do not report higher levels of 

marital distress or dissolution than do fathers of nondisabled children.23, 30, 60, 67

o Many fathers report that the experience of caring for a disabled child has led them to 

experience personal growth and that this experience also has had positive effects on 

their family life, suggesting that having a child with a disability may have some benefits 

for fathers.29, 51

 Fathers’ responses and adaptation to having a child with a disability may depend on a number of 

important factors. 

o Some research suggests that fathers adapt more positively to having a daughter with a 

disability than to having a disabled son, perhaps because they may have higher 

expectations for a son’s achievement and thus are more disappointed when a disability 

prevents their son from meeting those expectations.18, 19, 38 Other studies, however, have 

found no difference in fathers’ adaptation to having a disabled child by child gender.30

o Fathers of children with severe disabilities may have lower levels of well-being than do 

fathers of children with less severe disabilities.7, 18, 31, 69

o Fathers with lower levels of education or income may be more adversely affected by 

having a child with a disability than are fathers with higher education and income levels.30, 

51 

o Fathers’ own personality characteristics may influence their well-being as it relates to the 

disability of their child. 

 For example, fathers who are less neurotic and more popular have been found to 

adapt more positively to their children’s disabilities.30
 Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 3 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

o Fathers who report better marital quality and fewer behavioral problems among their 

children with disabilities report lower levels of stress and depression, compared with 

fathers with poorer marital quality or more perceived child behavior problems.35

 Research suggests that how fathers cope with and accept their child’s disability significantly 

affects mothers’ well-being, particularly their ability to cope with the child’s disability and their 

marital satisfaction.39, 57

 Studies suggest that fathers who receive professional support related to raising a child with a 

disability (e.g., by attending support groups for fathers of special-needs children) experience 

more positive adaptation and well-being than do fathers who lack such support.38

Implications for Father Involvement 

Studies examining the implications of having a child with a disability for fathers’ levels of involvement with 

their children also have yielded mixed results. 

 Several studies have suggested that fathers of disabled children are less involved than are 

mothers of disabled children and than are fathers of typically developing children, and also 

perceive multiple barriers to greater involvement. 

o Fathers of children with disabilities tend to be less involved in children’s physical and 

mental health care than are mothers and have less contact and interaction with the 

professionals who work with their children.9, 46, 58, 29

o Fathers report being afraid to engage in physical, rough-and-tumble play with children 

with disabilities, and often perceive a lack of other opportunities to engage with their 

children.20, 38

o Fathers of children with disabilities may also lack the information and skills that they feel 

they need to become more involved with their children.11, 45 This situation suggests that 

providing fathers with information, support, and guidance about how to care for their 

disabled children may lead to increases in involvement.59

o Many fathers of children with disabilities perceive that they are not expected or welcomed 

to participate in decisions and activities related to their child’s heath treatment, education, 

and daily care. Perceived exclusion by professionals who work with their children may 

lead to lower levels of paternal involvement.11, 54, 59, 68

o Fathers of disabled children may not experience the same levels of support that mothers 

receive because fathers are not typically regarded as caregivers and often lack role 

models from whom to gain guidance about caring for a disabled child.11, 54, 59

o Most fathers of children with disabilities, despite showing low levels of involvement, 

express a desire to become more involved in their children’s lives.25

 Other studies, however, have found no differences in levels of involvement between fathers of 

children with disabilities and fathers of typically developing children.53, 61, 65, 70

 Several studies provide evidence that fathers of children with disabilities are highly committed to 

and involved in the care of their children.5, 12, 65

o Qualitative research conducted with fathers of children with special needs suggests that 

these fathers are highly committed to and connected with their children, are involved in 

providing both physical and emotional care, and engage in both verbal and nonverbal 

communication with their children.5

o Some research suggests that fathers of children with disabilities may be slightly more 

likely to spend time at home, to be involved in child care, to hold their children, and to 

engage in nonverbal interactions with their children, compared with fathers of typically 

developing children.63, 65

o Fathers of children with disabilities may be especially involved in playing with their 

children, nurturing them, disciplining them, and deciding on the use of services that they 

may need.62

 Several factors may influence fathers’ levels of involvement with children with disabilities.12, 70
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 4 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

o Fathers of children with disabilities who report high levels of stress are less likely to have 

positive interactions with their children than are fathers who report lower levels of 

stress.10

o Fathers’ levels of involvement and interaction with children with disabilities are higher 

among fathers with higher levels of education and income than among less educated, 

lower-income fathers.13, 24, 47, 49

o Fathers who perceive higher levels of social support and who have better coping skills 

are more likely to be involved with their children with disabilities than are fathers who 

perceive lower levels of social support.24

o Fathers of children with disabilities tend to be more involved and to feel more competent 

if the father's own parents were involved with the family.67

Implications for Children 

 Few studies have examined the influence of father involvement on outcomes for children with 

disabilities. Research on father involvement with typically developing children, however, suggests 

that children benefit in multiple ways when fathers are positively involved in their lives, and this is 

likely to also be the case for children with disabilities.40

 One study that directly examined the influence of father involvement on outcomes for children 

with disabilities found these children experience greater cognitive benefits from high levels of 

paternal engagement than do typically developing children, suggesting that father involvement 

may be especially important for children with special needs.4 

Resident Fathers’ Involvement With Children With Disabilities 

The following estimates are for fathers of infants (nine-month-old children). 

Figure 1 and Table 1 show that resident fathers of infants with disabilities were significantly less involved 

than were fathers of infants who were not disabled in the areas of physical care and cognitive stimulation. 

However, there were no significant differences in fathers’ levels of caregiving, warmth, or nurturing based 

on children’s disability status. 

Figure 1: Differences in Resident Father Involvement by Child Disability 

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Caregiving Physical Care Cognitive

Stimulation

Warmth Nurturing

Type of Father Involvement

ResidentFathers' Involvement With Infants

By Child Disability Status

Disabled

Not Disabled

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
 Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 5 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

Table 1: Differences in Resident Father Involvement by Child Disability 

Type of 

Involvement Disabled Not Disabled 

Possible 

Range 

Caregiving 12.3 12.1 0-15 

Physical Care 10.0 10.4 a 0-20 

Cognitive 

Stimulation 3.7 4.0 a

 0-9 

Warmth 9.6 9.7 0-10 

Nurturing 9.1 9.1 0-16 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Differences in Fathers’ Prenatal Involvement by Subgroup 

Differences by Father Age 

Figure 2 and Table 2 show that among resident fathers of all age groups, there were no significant 

differences in fathers’ caregiving based on children’s disability status. 

Figure 2. Father Caregiving Involvement by Father Age and Child Disability 

11

11.5

12

12.5

13

24 and younger 25‐34 35‐44 45 and older

F

a

t

h

e

r

C

a

r

e

g

i

v

i

n

g

Father Age

Resident Fathers' Caregiving Involvement

by Child Disability Status and Father Age

Disabled

NotDisabled

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 2. Father Caregiving Involvement by Father Age and Child Disability 

Father Age Disabled Not Disabled Possible Range 

24 and younger 12.8 12.7 0-15 

25-34 12.2 12.2 0-15 

35-44 12.2 11.8 0-15 

45 and older 12.5 11.6 0-15 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 6 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 3 and Table 3 show that resident fathers between the ages of 25 and 34 were significantly more 

likely to provide physical care for nondisabled children than for disabled children. There were no 

significant differences in fathers’ levels of physical care with disabled and nondisabled children among 

fathers of other age groups. 

Figure 3. Father Physical Care Involvement by Father Age and Child Disability 

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

24 and younger 25‐34 35‐44 45 and older

F

a

t

h

e

r

s

'

P

h

y

s

i

c

a

l

C

a

r

e

Father Age

Resident Fathers'Physical Care With Infants

by ChildDisability Status and Father Age

Disabled

Not Disabled

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 3. Father Physical Care Involvement by Father Age and Child Disability 

Father Age Disabled Not Disabled Possible Range 

24 and younger 11.7 11.5 0-20 

25-34 9.9 10.5a

 0-20 

35-44 9.5 9.8 0-20 

45 and older 10.1 10.3 0-20 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 7 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 4 and Table 4 show that resident fathers between the ages of 25 and 34 were significantly more 

likely to engage in cognitively stimulating activities with nondisabled children than they were with disabled 

children. There were no significant differences in fathers’ levels of cognitive stimulation with disabled and 

nondisabled children among fathers of other age groups. 

Figure 4. Father Cognitive Stimulation Involvement by Father Age and Child Disability 

0

1

2

3

4

5

24and younger 25‐34 35‐44 45and older

F

a

t

h

e

r

s

'

C

o

g

n

i

t

i

v

e

S

t

i

m

u

l

a

t

i

o

n

FatherAge

Resident Fathers' Cognitive Stimulation

Involvement by Child Disability Status and

Father Age

Disabled

Not Disabled

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 4. Father Cognitive Stimulation Involvement by Father Age and Child Disability 

Father Age Disabled Not Disabled Possible Range 

24 and younger 4.3 3.9 0-9 

25-34 3.5 4.0 a 0-9 

35-44 3.7 3.9 0-9 

45 and older 4.2 4.0 0-9 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 8 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 5 and Table 5 show that among resident fathers of all age groups, there were no significant 

differences in fathers’ displays of warmth toward children with and without disabilities. 

Figure 5. Father Warmth Involvement by Father Age and Child Disability 

9.2

9.3

9.4

9.5

9.6

9.7

9.8

9.9

24 and younger 25‐34 35‐44 45 and older

F

a

t

h

e

r

W

a

r

m

t

h

Father Age

Resident Fathers' Warmth by Child

Disability Status and Father Age

Disabled

Not Disabled

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 5. Father Warmth Involvement by Father Age and Child Disability 

Father Age Disabled Not Disabled Possible Range 

24 and younger 9.7 9.8 0-10 

25-34 9.7 9.7 0-10 

35-44 9.6 9.6 0-10 

45 and older 9.4 9.5 0-10 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 9 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 6 and Table 6 show that resident fathers aged 24 and younger were significantly more likely to be 

nurturing toward children with disabilities than toward children without disabilities. For fathers older than 

24, there were no significant differences in fathers’ nurturing by child disability status. 

Figure 6. Father Nurturing Involvement by Father Age and Child Disability 

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

24 and younger 25‐34 35‐44 45and older

F

a

t

e

h

r

N

u

r

t

u

r

i

n

g

Father Age

ResidentFathers' Nurturing by Child

Disability Status and Father Age

Disabled

NotDisabled

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 6. Father Nurturing Involvement by Father Age and Child Disability 

Father Age Disabled Not Disabled Possible Range 

24 and younger 10.6 9.7a

 0-16 

25-34 8.7 9.0 0-16 

35-44 8.9 8.8 0-16 

45 and older 9.7 9.7 0-16 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 10 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

Differences by Child Gender 

Figure 7 and Table 7 show that among resident fathers, there were no significant differences in fathers’ 

levels of caregiving for either boys or girls with and without disabilities. 

Figure 7. Father Caregiving Involvement by Child Disability and Child Gender 

11.7

11.8

11.9

12

12.1

12.2

12.3

12.4

12.5

12.6

Boy Girl

F

a

t

h

e

r

C

a

r

e

g

i

v

i

n

g

Child Gender

Resident Fathers' Caregiving Involvement

by Child Disability Status and Gender

Disabled

Not Disabled

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 7. Father Caregiving Involvement by Child Disability and Child Gender 

Poverty Status Disabled Not Disabled Possible Range 

Boy 12.5 12.2 0-15 

Girl 12.1 12.0 0-15 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 11 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 8 and Table 8 show that among resident fathers, there were no significant differences in fathers’ 

levels of physical care for either boys or girls with and without disabilities. 

Figure 8. Father Physical Care Involvement by Child Disability and Child Gender

9.6

9.8

10

10.2

10.4

10.6

Boy Girl

F

a

t

h

e

r

P

h

y

s

i

c

a

l

C

a

r

e

Child Gender

ResidentFathers' Physical Care by Child

Disability Status and Gender

Disabled

Not Disabled

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 8. Father Physical Care Involvement by Child Disability and Child Gender 

Poverty Status Disabled Not Disabled Possible Range 

Boy 10.2 10.5 0-20 

Girl 9.9 10.2 0-20 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 12 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 9 and Table 9 show that among resident fathers, fathers of children with disabilities were 

significantly less likely to provide cognitive stimulation for girls but not for boys, compared with fathers of 

children without disabilities. 

Figure 9. Father Cognitive Stimulation Involvement by Child Disability and Child Gender 

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.9

4

4.1

F Boy Girl a

t

h

e

r

C

o

g

n

i

t

i

v

e

S

t

i

m

u

l

a

t

i

o

n

Child Gender

ResidentFathers' Cognitive Stimulation by

Child Disability Status and Gender

Disabled

Not Disabled

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 9. Father Cognitive Stimulation Involvement by Child Disability and Child Gender 

Poverty Status Disabled Not Disabled Possible Range 

Boy 3.7 3.9 0-9 

Girl 3.8 4.0a

 0-9 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data

Figure 10 and Table 10 show that there were no significant differences in fathers’ warmth for either boys 

or girls with and without disabilities. 

Figure 10. Father Warmth Involvement by Child Disability and Child Gender 

9.54

9.56

9.58

9.6

9.62

9.64

9.66

9.68

9.7

9.72

Boy Girl

F

a

t

h

e

r

W

a

r

m

t

h

Child Gender

Resident Fathers' Warmth by Child

Disability Status and Gender

Disabled

Not Disabled

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

Table 10. Father Warmth Involvement by Child Disability and Child Gender 

Poverty Status Disabled Not Disabled Possible Range 

Boy 9.6 9.6 0-10 

Girl 9.6 9.7 0-10 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Figure 11 and Table 11 show that among resident fathers, there were no significant differences in 

fathers’ level of nurturing for disabled and nondisabled children of either gender. 

Figure 11. Father Nurturing Involvement by Child Disability and Child Gender

8.9

8.95

9

9.05

9.1

9.15

9.2

9.25

Boy Girl

F

a

t

h

e

r

N

u

r

t

u

r

i

n

g

Child Ge nder

ResidentFathers' Nurturing by Child

Disability Status and Gender

Disabled

Not Disabled

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 11. Father Nurturing Involvement by Child Disability and Child Gender 

Poverty Status Disabled Not Disabled Possible Range 

Boy 9.2 9.1 0-16 

Girl 9.0 9.0 0-16 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 13 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 14 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

Differences by Father Race/Ethnicity 

Figure 12 and Table 12 show that black resident fathers of children with disabilities participated in 

significantly less caregiving, compared with black resident fathers of nondisabled children. For fathers in 

other racial groups, there were no significant differences in fathers’ caregiving by children’s disability 

status. 

Figure 12. Father Caregiving Involvement by Father Race and Child Disability 

0

5

10

15

White Hispanic Black Other

F

a

t

h

e

r

C

a

r

e

g

i

v

i

n

g

Father Race

ResidentFathers' Caregiving

Involvement by Child Disability Status

and Father Race

Disabled

Not Disabled

 Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 12. Father Caregiving Involvement by Father Race and Child Disability 

Father Age Disabled Not Disabled Possible Range 

White 12.5 12.2 0-15 

Hispanic 11.5 11.6 0-15 

Black 10.1 13.1 a 0-15 

Other 12.2 11.7 0-15 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
 Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 15 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 13 and Table 13 show that black resident fathers of children with disabilities participated in less 

physical care of their children, compared with black resident fathers of nondisabled children. For fathers 

in other racial groups, there were no significant differences in fathers’ physical care by children’s disability 

status. 

Figure 13. Father Physical Care Involvement by Father Race and Child Disability 

9

9.5

10

10.5

11

11.5

White Hispanic Black Other

F

a

t

h

e

r

P

h

y

s

i

c

a

l

C

a

r

e

Father Race

Resident Fathers' Physical Care by Child

Disability Status and Father Race

Disabled

Not Disabled

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 13. Father Physical Care Involvement by Father Race and Child Disability 

Father Age Disabled Not Disabled Possible Range 

White 9.8 10.1 0-20 

Hispanic 10.7 10.9 0-20 

Black 10.0 11.1 a 0-20 

Other 10.4 10.6 0-20 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 16 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 14 and Table 14 show that among white resident fathers, fathers of children with disabilities 

engaged in significantly lower levels of cognitive stimulation than did fathers of children without 

disabilities. For fathers in other racial groups, there were no significant differences in fathers’ cognitive 

stimulation by child’s disability status. 

Figure 14. Father Cognitive Stimulation Involvement by Father Race and Child Disability 

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.9

4

4.1

White Hispanic Black Other

F

a

t

h

e

r

C

o

g

n

i

t

i

v

e

S

t

i

m

u

l

a

t

i

o

n

Father Race

Resident Fathers' Cognitive Stimulation

by Child Disability Status and Father

Race

Disabled

Not Disabled

 Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 14. Father Cognitive Stimulation Involvement by Father Race and Child Disability 

Father Age Disabled Not Disabled Possible Range 

White 3.7 4.0a

 0-9 

Hispanic 3.8 4.0 0-9 

Black 3.9 4.0 0-9 

Other 3.8 3.8 0-9 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 17 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 15 and Table 15 show that Hispanic fathers of children with disabilities displayed significantly 

higher levels of warmth toward their children than did Hispanic fathers of children without disabilities. 

Conversely, black fathers of children with disabilities displayed significantly lower levels of warmth toward 

their children than did black fathers of children without disabilities. There were no significant differences in 

levels of warmth by child disability status for white fathers or fathers in “other” races. 

Figure 15. Father Warmth Involvement by Father Race and Child Disability 

8.8

9

9.2

9.4

9.6

9.8

10

W hite Hispanic Black Other

F

a

t

h

e

r

W

a

r

m

t

h

Father Race

ResidentFathers' Warmth by Child

Disability Status and Father Race

Disable d

Not Disabled

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 15. Father Warmth Involvement by Father Race and Child Disability 

Father Age Disabled Not Disabled Possible Range 

White 9.7 9.7 0-10 

Hispanic 9.8 9.6 a 0-10 

Black 9.2 9.7 a 0-10 

Other 9.5 9.5 0-10 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 18 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 16 and Table 16 show that among white resident fathers, fathers of children with disabilities 

exhibited higher levels of nurturing toward their children than did fathers of children without disabilities. 

For fathers in other racial groups, there were no significant differences in fathers’ nurturing by child’s 

disability status. 

Figure 16. Father Nurturing Involvement by Father Race and Child Disability 

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

White Hispanic Black Other

F

a

t

h

e

r

N

u

r

t

u

r

i

n

g

Father Race

ResidentFathers' Nurturing by Child

Disability Status and Father Race

Disabled

Not Disabled

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data

Table 16. Father Nurturing Involvement by Father Race and Child Disability 

Father Age Disabled Not Disabled Possible Range 

White 8.6 8.2 a 0-16 

Hispanic 10.0 10.2 0-16 

Black 9.7 10.2 0-16 

Other 10.0 10.0 0-16 

a = significantly different from fathers of disabled 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data

Definitions and Measurement 

Father involvement was measured by adding together scores from a series of questions about the 

frequency with which fathers take part in various activities with their children. These activities included 

reading books, singing songs, telling stories, going on errands, playing chasing games, preparing meals, 

changing diapers, giving the child a ride on shoulders, playing indoors, putting the child to sleep, bathing 

the child, playing outside, helping the child get dressed, going out to eat, helping the child eat, helping the 

child brush teeth, taking the child to religious services, soothing an upset child, staying home with an ill 

child, or taking the child to day care. 

Data Sources 

The tables and charts in this brief documenting resident fathers’ involvement are based on Child Trends’ 

analyses of data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study–Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) 9-month surveys. 

The ECLS-B is a nationally representative longitudinal survey of American children born in 2001. The 

ECLS-B includes 10,688 children and their caregivers, and it follows these children from infancy until the 

time that they enter first grade. Data were collected through parent interviews, direct child assessments, 

birth certificate data, and interviews with children’s caregivers and teachers. The National Center for 

Education Statistics collected the data. 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 19 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

Data Limitations 

Because fathers are asked a different series of questions about involvement with children at each survey 

wave, the measure of father involvement differs slightly at each time point. 

Resources 

 The National Healthy Marriage Resource Center provides research-based information about 

marriage in the United States and about programs designed to improve relationship quality: 

http://www.healthymarriageinfo.org/ 

 The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services supports programs and research about 

fatherhood development and the importance of fathers for children: http://fatherhood.hhs.gov/ 

 The National Center on Fathers and Families provides research-based information on father 

involvement and child well-being aimed at improving children’s lives through the positive 

participation of their fathers: http://www.ncoff.gse.upenn.edu/ 

References 

1 Baker B. L., McIntyre L. L., Blacher J., Crnic J., Edelbrock C., & Low L. (2003) Pre-school children with and without developmental 

delay: Behavior problems and parenting stress over time. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 47, 217-230. 2 Blacher, J. (1984). Severely handicapped young children and their families:Research in review. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. 3 Bristol, M. M., Gallagher, J. J., & Schopler, E. (1988). Mothers and fathers of young developmentally disabled and nondisabled 

boys: Adaptation and spousal support. Developmental Psychology, 24(3), 441-451. 4 Bronte-Tinkew, J., Carrano, J., Horowitz, A., & Kinukawa, A. (2008). Involvement among resident fathers and links to infant 

cognitive outcomes. Journal of Family Issues, 29(9), 1211-1244. 5 Brotherson, S. E., & Dollahite, D. C. (1997). Generative ingenuity in fatherwork with young children with special needs. In A. J. 

Hawkins and D. C. Dollahite (Eds.), Generative fathering: Beyond deficit perspectives (Vol. 3, pp. 89-104). Thousand Oaks, CA: 

Sage. 6 Brown, R. T., & Pacini, J. N. (1989). Perceived family functioning, marital status, and depression in parents of boys with attention 

deficit disorder. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22(9), 581-587. 7 Cummings, S. T. (1976). The impact of the child’s deficiency on the father: A study of fathers of mentally retarded and chronically ill 

children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 46, 246-255. 8 Cunningham, C. E., Reuler, E., Blackwell, J., & Deck, J. (1981). Behavioral and linguistic developments in the interactions of 

normal and retarded children with their mothers. Child Development, 52, 62-70. 9 Curtis, W. J., & Singh, N. N. (1996). Family involvement and empowerment in mental health service provision for children with 

emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 5(4), 503-517. 10 Darke, P. R., & Goldberg, S. (1994). Father-infant interaction and parent stress with healthy and medically compromised infants. 

Infant Behavior and Development, 17, 3-14. 11 Davis, P. B., & May, J. E. (1991). Involving fathers in early intervention and family support programs: Issues and strategies. 

Children's Health Care, 20(2), 87-92. 12 Dollahite, D. C. (2004). A narrative approach to exploring responsible involvement of fathers and their special-needs children. In 

R. D. Day and M. E. Lamb (Eds.), Conceptualizing and measuring father involvement (pp. 109-128). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence 

Erlbaum. 13 Dyson L. (1997) Fathers and mothers of school-age children with developmental disabilities: Parental stress, family functioning, 

and social support. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 102, 267-279. 14 Dyson, L. L., & Fewell, R. F. (1986). Stress and adaptation in parents of young handicapped and nonhandicapped children: A 

comparative study. Journal of the Division for Early Childhood, 10, 25-35. 15 Eisenberg, L. (1957). The fathers of autistic children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 27, 715-724. 16 Emerson, E., & Llewellyn, G. (2008). The mental health of Australian mothers and fathers of young children at risk of disability. 

Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 32, 53-59. 17 Ferrari. M. (1986). Perceptions of social support of chronically ill versus healthy children. Children’s Health Care, 15, 26-31. 18 Frey, K. S., Fewell, R. R., & Vadasy, P. F. (1989a). Parental adjustment and changes in child outcomes among families of young 

handicapped children. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 8, 38-57. 19 Frey, K. S., Greenberg, M. T., & Fewell, R. R. (1989). Stress and coping among parents of handicapped children: A 

multidimensional approach. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 94, 240-249. 20 Gallagher, J. J., & Bristol, M. M. (1989). Families of young handicapped children. In M. C. Wang, M. C. Reynolds and H. J. 

Walberg (Eds.), Handbook of special education: Research and practice (pp. 295-317). Oxford: Pergamon. 21 Gallagher, J., Cross, A., & Scharfman, W. (1981). Paternal adaptation to the young handicapped child: The father's role. Journal 

of the Division for Early Childhood, 3, 3-14. 22 Gath, A. (1977). The impact of an abnormal child upon the parents. British Journal of Psychiatry, 130, 405-410. 23 Gath, A., & Gumley, D. (1984). Down's syndrome and the family: Follow-up of children first seen in infancy. Developmental 

Medicine and Child Neurology, 26, 500-508. 24 Gavidia-Payne, S., & Stoneman, Z. (1997). Family predictors of maternal and paternal involvement in programs for young children

with disabilities. Child Development, 68(4), 701-717. 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 20 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

25 Hadadian, A., & Merbler, J. (1995). Fathers of young children with disabilities: How do they want to be involved? Child and Youth 

Care Forum, 24(5), 327-338. 26 Harris, V. S., & McHale, S. M. (1989). Family life problems, daily caretaking activities, and the psychological well-being of mothers 

of mentally retarded children. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 94, 231-239. 27 Hauser-Cram P., Warfield M. E., Shonkoff J. P., & Krauss M. W. (2001) Children with disabilities: A longitudinal study of child

development and parent well-being. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 66(3). 28 Hornby, G. (1992). Counseling family members of people with disabilities. In R. Brown and S. Robertson (Eds.), Rehabilitation 

counseling. London: Chapman & Hall. 29 Hornby, G. (1992b). A review of fathers’ accounts of their experiences of parenting children with disabilities. Disability, Handicap, 

and Society, 7(4), 363-374. 30 Hornby, G. (1995). Effects on fathers of children with Down Syndrome. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 4(2), 239-255. 31 Holroyd, J., & McArthur, D. (1976). Mental retardation and stress on parents: A contrast between Down's syndrome and childhood 

autism. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 80, 431-436. 32 Holt, K. S. (1958). The home care of severely retarded children. Pediatrics, 22, 744-755. 33 Kazak, A. E. (1987). Families with disabled children: Stress and social networks in three samples. Journal of Abnormal Child 

Psychology, 15, 137-146. 34 Kazak, A. E., & Marvin, R. (1984). Differences, difficulties and adaptation: Stress and social networks in families with a 

handicapped child. Family Relations, 33, 67-77. 35 Kersh, J., Hedvat, T. T., Hauser-Cram, P., & Warfield, M. E. (2006). The contribution of marital quality to the well-being of parents 

of children with developmental disabilities. 

Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 50(12), 883-893. 36 Konstantareas, M. M., & Homatidis, S. (1992). Mothers' and fathers' self-report of involvement with autistic, mentally delayed, and 

normal children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 54, 153-164. 37 Lamb, M. E. (1983). Fathers of exceptional children. In M. Seligman (Ed.), The family with a handicapped child. New York: Grune 

& Stratton. 38 Lamb, M. E., & Billings, L. A. L. (1997). Fathers of children with special needs. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child 

development (3rd ed., pp. 179-190). New York: John Wiley & Sons. 39 Lamb, M. E., & Meyer, D. J. (1991). Fathers of children with special needs. In M. Seligman (Ed.), The family with a handicapped 

child (2nd ed., pp. 151-179). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. 40 Lamb, M. E., Pleck, J. H., Charnov, E. L., & Levine, J. A. (1985). The role of the father in child development: The effects of 

increased paternal involvement. In B. B. Lahey and 

A. E. Kazdin (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 229-266). New York: Plenum. 41 Lamb, M. E., Pleck, J. H., Charnov, E. L., & Levine, J. A. (1987). A biosocial perspective on paternal behavior and involvement. In 

J. B. Lancaster, J. Altman, S. Rossi, and L. 

R. Sherrod (Eds.), Parenting across the lifespan: Biosocial dimensions (pp. 111-142). New York: Aldine de Gruyter. 42Levy-Shiff, R. (1986). Mother-father-child interactions in families with a mentally retarded young child. American Journal of Mental 

Deficiency, 91, 141-149. 43 Lonsdale, G. (1978). Family life with a handicapped child: The parents speak. Child: Care, Health and Development, 4, 99-120. 44 Margalit, M., Leyser, Y., & Avraham, Y. (1989). Classification and validation of family climate subtypes in Kibbutz fathers of 

disabled and non-disabled children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 17, 91-107. 45 May, J. E. (1991). Fathers of children with special needs: New horizons. Bethesda, MD: Association for the Care of Children's 

Health. 46 McConachie, H. (1986). Parents and young mentally handicapped children: A review of research issues. London: Croom Helm. 47 McConachie, H. (1989). Mothers’ and fathers’ interactions with their young mentally handicapped children. International Journal 

of Behavioral Development, 12, 239-255. 48 McLinden, S. (1990). Mothers’ and fathers’ reports of the effects of a young child with special needs on the family. Journal of Early 

Intervention, 14, 249-259. 49 McLloyd, V. (1989). Socialization and development in a changing economy: The effects of paternal job and income loss on 

children. American Psychologist, 44, 293-302. 50 Mercer, R. T. (1974). Two fathers' early responses to the birth of a daughter with a defect. Maternal-Child Nursing Journal, 3, 77-

86. 51 Meyer, D. J. (1986). Fathers of children with mental handicaps. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The father’s role: Applied perspectives. New 

York: Wiley. 52 Meyer, D., Vadasky, P., & Fewell, R. (1982). Involving fathers of handicapped infants: Translating research into program goals.

Journal of the Division for Early Childhood, 5, 64-72. 53 Mitchell, W. M., Jr. (1979). Fathers of children with Down syndrome. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Available from University 

of Michigan, PO Box 1346, Ann Arbor, MI, 48106. 54 Moore, T., & Kotelchuck, M. (2004). Predictors of urban fathers’ involvement in their child’s health care. Pediatrics, 113(3), 574-

580. 55 Murray, C. I., Sullivan, A. M., Brophy, D. R., & Mailhot, M. (1991). Working with parents of spinal cord injured adolescents: A

family systems perspective. Child and Adolescent Social Work, 8(3), 225-238. 56 Olsson, M. B., & Hwang, C. P. (2001). Depression in mothers and fathers of children with intellectual disability. Journal of 

Intellectual Disability Research, 45, 535-543. 57 Peck, J. R., & Stevens, W. B. (1960). A study of the relationship between the attitudes and behavior of parents and that of their 

mentally defective child. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 64, 839-844. 58 Philp, M., & Duckworth, D. (1982). Children with disabilities and their families: A review of the research. Windsor, U.K.: NFERNelson.
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Children with Disabilities 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 21 of 21 www.fatherhood.gov

59 Quinn, P. (1999). Supporting and encouraging father involvement in families of children who have a disability. Child and 

Adolescent Social Work Journal, 16(6), 439-454. 60 Roesel, R., & Lawlis, G. F. (1983). Divorce in families of genetically handicapped/mentally retarded individuals. American Journal 

of Family Therapy, 11, 45-50. 61 Shannon, L. B. (1978). Interactions of fathers with their handicapped preschoolers. Lexington: University of Kentucky. Available 

from University of Michigan, PO Box 1346, Ann Arbor, MI 48106. 62 Simmerman, S., Blacher, J., & Baker, B. L. (2001). Fathers’ and mothers’ perceptions of father involvement in families with young 

children with a disability. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 26(4), 325-338. 63 Smith, R. (1986). Physically disabled children and parental time use. Journal of Leisure Research, 18, 284-299. 64 Tew, B. J., Payne, E. R., & Lawrence, K. M. (1974). Must a family with a handicapped child be a handicapped family? 

Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 16, 95-98. 65 Turbiville, V. P., Turnbull, A. P., & Turnbull, H. R. (1995). Fathers and family-centered early intervention. Infants and Young 

Children, 7(4), 12-19. 66 Veisson, M. (1999). Depression symptoms and emotional states in parents of disabled and non-disabled children. Social Behavior 

and Personality, 27, 87-98. 67 Waisbren, S. E. (1980). Parents' reactions after the birth of a developmentally disabled child. American Journal of Mental 

Deficiency, 84, 345-351. 68 Warfield, M. E. (2005). Family and work predictors of parenting role stress among two-earner families of children with disabilities. 

Infant and Child Development, 14, 155-176. 69 Wishart, M. C., Bidder, R. T., & Gray, O. P. (1980). Parental responses to their developmentally delayed children and the South

Glamorgan home advisory service. Child: Care, Health and Development, 6, 361-376. 70 Young, D. M., & Roopnarine, J. L. (1994). Fathers’ childcare involvement with children with and without disabilities. Topics in Early 

Childhood Special Education, 14(4), 488-502.