USAMRIID’s 

Pocket Reference Guide to 

Biological Select Agents & Toxins
Emergency Response Numbers

USAMRIID’s Emergency Response Line: 888-872-7443

National Response Center: 800-424-8802

National Domestic Preparedness Consortium: 225-578-8187

CDC’s Emergency Response Line: 770-488-7100

FEMA Center for Domestic Preparedness 866-213-9553

US Army Chemical Materials Agency Operations Center 410-436-4484 or DSN 584-4484

Editors:

Jaspal Ahluwalia, MD, MPH

Matthew Chambers, MD, MPH

Janice Rusnak, MD

Mark Withers, MD, MPH

Visual Design:

Charles Boles

Reviewers:

Fernando Guerena, MD, MPH

Monique Jesionowski, BSN

Brett Purcell, MD, PhD

Robert Rivard, MD

Bryony Soltis, MD, MPH

Richard J. Stevens

Charles Boles

Purpose: This Guide is intended for primary care providers, emergency 

medicine providers, and others likely to be the first to see patients with 

symptoms of bio-agent diseases. Its intent is to serve as a guide to diagnosis, 

treatment, and precautions until infectious disease experts can be consulted. 

Disclaimers: 

1. While we have made our best effort to ensure the accuracy and completeness of 

the material contained in this Guide, no patient care decisions should be made 

based solely on this book without consultation of an authoritative medical text.

2. This Guide is not an official publication of the U.S. Department of the Defense nor 

is it official Doctrine, although every effort has been made to make this information

consistent with official policy and doctrine.

For additional copies, please contact:

US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases 

Division of Medicine

Attention: MCMR-UIM-S

1425 Porter Street

Fort Detrick, Maryland 21702-5011

www.usamriid.army.mil

Quick Bio-Agents: USAMRIID’s Pocket Reference 

Guide to Biological Select Agents & Toxins

First printing: 2012
Table of Contents

 Biosafety Levels

1

 Historical Risk Factors

2-3

Bacterial Diseases

Cutaneous Anthrax

4

Pulmonary Anthrax

5

Gastrointestinal Anthrax

6

Tularemia

7

Bubonic and Septicemic Plague

8

Pneumonic Plague

9

Brucellosis 10

Q Fever 11

Glanders 12

Melioidosis 13

Epidemic Typhus 14

Viral Diseases

Smallpox 15

Ebola and Marburg 16

Rift Valley Fever 17

Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever 18

Lassa Fever 19

Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome 20

Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome 21

Eastern and Western Equine Encephalitis 22

Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis 23

Toxins

Botulism 24

Ricin Intoxication 25

Staphylococcal EnterotoxinB 26

Trichothecene (T-2) Mycotoxins 27

Acronyms 28
Biosafety Levels

BSL-2 BSL-3 BSL-4

Cutaneous Anthrax 1,2

Pulmonary Anthrax 1,2

Gastrointestinal Anthrax 1,2

Tularemia 1,3

Bubonic and Septicemic Plague 1,4

Pneumonic Plague 1,4

Brucellosis 1,5

Q Fever 1,6

Glanders 1,4

Melioidosis 1,4

Epidemic Typhus 1,6

Smallpox

Ebola and Marburg

Rift Valley Fever

Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever

Lassa Fever

Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal 

Syndrome7

Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome7

EEE and WEE

Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis

Botulism 1,2

Ricin Intoxication

Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B 1,2

Trichothecene (T-2) Mycotoxins

1. BSL-2: work involving routine clinical specimens of diagnostic quantities. 

2. BSL-3: work involving large quantities or high concentrations of cultures, screening 

environmental samples, and for activities with a high potential for aerosol or 

droplet production. 

3. BSL-3: manipulations of suspect cultures, animal necropsies and for experimental 

animal studies.

4. BSL-3: work involving large quantities or high concentrations of cultures, screening 

environmental samples, and for activities with a high potential for aerosol or 

droplet production. 

5. BSL-3: manipulations of pathogenic cultures and handling products of conception 

containing pathogenic Brucella.

6. BSL-3: activities involving the inoculation, incubation, and harvesting of embryonated

 eggs or cell cultures, the necropsy of infected animals and the manipulation of 

infected tissues. 

7. BSL-2: handling of sera from persons potentially infected with hantaviruses. Potentially

infected tissue samples should be handled in BSL-2 facilities following BSL-3 

practices and procedures. 

Legend

Most 

commonly

used BSL

Secondary 

or less 

commonly 

used BSL

Adapted from CDC’s Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL) 5th edition

1
Risk Factors

Travel Reservoirs/ 

Vectors Occupation Food

Cutaneous Anthrax

endemic world-wide cattle, sheep, goats, 

and horses

animal husbandry, 

processing of animal 

hides

Pulmonary Anthrax wool-sorter, processing 

of animal hides

Gastrointestinal 

Anthrax uncooked meat

Tularemia northern hemisphere infected ticks, deerflies, 

or mosquitoes hunting

Bubonic & 

Septicemic Plague

Africa, South Asia, 

Central Asia, Middle 

East, Western North 

America, and South 

America

rats, mice, ground 

squirrels, fleas

Pneumonic Plague rats, mice, ground 

squirrels, fleas

Brucellosis endemic world-wide cattle, bison, cervids, 

goat, sheep, pig

animal husbandry, pork 

slaughtering

raw milk and soft 

cheeses

Q Fever endemic world-wide

sheep, cattle, goats, 

cats, dogs, rodents, 

birds, rabbits, reptiles 

and ticks

animal husbandry, 

contact with animal 

birth-products

raw milk and soft 

cheeses

Glanders

Middle East, Asia, 

Africa, and South 

America

horses, donkeys, and 

mules horse handlers horse meat

Melioidosis

Southeast Asia, 

northern Australia, 

Papua New Guinea, 

much of the Indian 

subcontinent, southern 

China, Hong Kong, 

Taiwan and the 

Phillipines

Soil, dust soldiers, farmers contaminated water

Epidemic Typhus

refugees and homeless 

communities; also 

endemic to Andes 

regions of South 

America and in Burundi 

and Ethiopia

infectious feces from 

lice or from fleas on 

flying squirrels

homeless, refugees

Smallpox eradicated in 1980 humans 

Ebola & Marburg

Democratic Republic of 

the Congo, Uganda 

EBOLA: Republic of the 

Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, 

Gabon, Sudan ; 

MARBURG: Kenya, , 

Angola, and possibly 

Zimbabwe

bats(?), infected 

humans (person to 

person contact), 

nonhuman primates

cavers, miners bush meat

2
Risk Factors (continued)

Travel Reservoirs/

Vectors Occupation Food

Rift Valley Fever

Egypt, Madagascar, 

Mauritania, Kenya, 

Somalia, Tanzania, 

Saudi Arabia and 

Yemen

Aedes mosquitos; blood 

from sheep, cattle or goats animal slaughtering

Crimean-Congo 

Hemorrhagic Fever

Africa and Eurasia, 

including South Africa, 

Turkey, the Balkans, the 

Middle East 

(Afghanistan, Iran, 

Pakistan), Russia, and 

western China

ticks animal slaughtering

Lassa Fever West Africa excreta from rodents rodent meat

Hemorrhagic Fever 

with Renal Syndrome

Hantaan and Seoul 

viruses: endemic in 

Southeast Asia and 

Russia (east of Ural 

Mountains); Seoul virus 

also worldwide (mainly 

seaports) Puumala and 

Dobrava viruses: 

Europe and Russia 

(west of Ural Mountains)

Inhalation of infected 

rodent excreta (urine, 

saliva, stool)

mainly rural disease 

except for Seoul virus 

(urban)

Hantavirus 

Pulmonary Syndrome

Sin nombre virus (SNV): 

major cause HPS in 

North America; Andes 

virus: Argentina and 

Chili

Inhalation of infected 

rodent excreta (urine, 

saliva, stool); person-toperson transmission with 

Andes virus only

mainly rural disease

EEE and WEE

North and South 

America; EEE in 

Caribbean

Aedes or Culex mosquitos 

infected by horses or birds

Venezuelan Equine 

Encephalitis

North and South 

America

Psorophora or Aedes 

mosquitos infected by 

horses

Botulism

black-tar heroin users 

(also, “skin-popping” 

with heroin)

home-canned 

vegetables, fruits, and 

fish products

Ricin Intoxication castor bean

Staphylococcal 

Enterotoxin B

Pyrogenic

toxin–producing strains of 

Staphylococcus aureus 

and

group A streptococcus

food poisoning with 

Staph aureus or group A 

streptococcus

Trichothecene (T-2) 

Mycotoxins

Fusarium tricinctum (a 

mold fungus)

moldy whole grains 

which can be 

inadvertently used to 

make bread

3
Agent:Bacillus anthracis ICD-10: A22.0

Incubation Period: 1-12 days Signs & Symptoms

-Local skin involvement after direct contact with spores

-Painless papule (often pruritic) that becomes vesicular with surrounding 

edema; subsequent development of necrotic ulcer with progression to a coalblack scabbed lesion (eschar) often within 7 to 10 days of the initial lesion

-Fever, malaise, headache (systemic symptoms may not be present with early 

lesions)

Labs & Imaging

-Skin lesion: Gram stain, bacterial culture, PCR and IHC of the fluid of an 

unopened vesicle; if no vesicle is present, swab under an eschar or in the base 

of an ulcer

-If gram stain, culture, and PCR are negative, collect a 4 mm punch biopsy of 

the leading margin of the lesion for general histology and IHC

-Blood: Culture, PCR, acute and convalescent sera for antibody studies

-CXR to assess for pulmonary anthrax

Treatment

-Ciprofloxacin (500 mg PO bid) or doxycycline (100 mg PO bid) for 7-10 days

-May switch to amoxicillin (500 mg PO tid) if sensitive

-If severe symptoms, use IV antibiotics (see Pulmonary Anthrax)

-Post-exposure prophylaxis: 10-14 days of ciprofloxacin or doxycycline may 

be considered if no aerosol exposure; if aerosol exposure, see Pulmonary 

Anthrax

Precautions: Standard precautions. A 5% hypochlorite solution will kill spores. 

Autoclaving, steam sterilizing, or burning is required for complete eradication of spores. 

Avoid direct contact with wound or wound drainage. Decontamination of patients using soap 

and water is sufficient. Not communicable person-to-person.

Cutaneous Anthrax

Anthrax Papule Anthrax Eschar

4
Agent:Bacillus anthracis ICD-10: A22.1

Incubation Period: 1-6 days (or up to 43 days; longer in animal studies) Signs & Symptoms

-Initial phase: Non-specific symptoms: low-grade fever, nonproductive cough, 

malaise, headache, fatigue, myalgias, profound sweats, chest discomfort (upper 

respiratory tract symptoms such as rhinorrhea are rare). 1-5 days in duration.

-Subsequent phase: May be preceded by 1–3 days of apparent improvement. 

Abrupt onset of high fever and severe respiratory distress (dyspnea, stridor, 

cyanosis), symptoms of meningitis (may be subclinical). Shock, death within 24–

36 hours of onset of severe symptoms. 

Labs & 

Imaging

-Nasal swab, sputum, and induced sputum: Gram stain, culture, FA, and PCR 

-Blood: Culture, PCR, and acute and convalescent sera for antibody studies

-CSF: Gram stain, culture, and PCR 

-Tissue: Gram stain, culture, IHC and PCR 

-CXR (mediastinal widening, hemorrhagic mediastinitis, pleural effusions, and possible 

infiltrates) and chest CT (if CXR negative and anthrax strongly suspected)

Treatment

-Early initiation of appropriate antibiotics is paramount for patient survival

-Ciprofloxacin (400 mg IV q12hr) or doxycycline (200 mg IV loading dose, 

followed by 100 mg IV q12hr) plus one or two additional antibiotics effective 

against anthrax (e.g. clindamycin, rifampin, vancomycin)

-Drainage of pleural fluid

-Post-exposure prophylaxis: Ciprofloxacin (500 mg PO bid) or doxycycline (100 

mg PO bid) for 60 days. In the U.S., Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed is available under 

IND for post-exposure use in conjunction with above drug therapy (contact 

USAMRIID for details)

Precautions: Standard Precautions. A 5% hypochlorite solution will kill spores. Autoclaving, 

steam sterilizing, or burning is required for complete eradication of spores. Decontamination of patients 

using soap and water is sufficient. Not communicable person-to-person.

Pulmonary Anthrax

Mediastinal widening and pleural effusion

Enlarged, hyperdense subcranial (arrow)

and left hilar (arrowhead) lymph nodes, 

compatible with intranodal hemorrhage 

5
Agent:Bacillus anthracis ICD-10: A22.2

Incubation Period: 2-5 days Signs & Symptoms

-Oropharyngeal anthrax: fever and severe pharyngitis followed by oral ulcers which 

progress from whitish patches to tan or gray pseudomembranes. Other features include 

dysphasia, regional non-purulent lymphadenopahty, and severe neck swelling. Edema can 

lead to airway compromise.

-Intestinal anthrax: fever, nausea, vomiting, mild to severe diarrhea, anorexia, and focal 

abdominal pain (tenderness, guard, and rebound). These symptoms can progress to 

hematemesis, hematochezia or melena, massive serosanguinous or hemorrhagic ascites, 

and sepsis.

Labs & 

Imaging

-Oral lesion tissue: Gram stain, culture, IHC and PCR. 

-Stool: Culture

-Ascitic fluid: Gram stain, culture, IHC, and PCR.

-Blood: Culture, PCR, and acute and convalescent serology

-Abdominal radiographic

Treatment

-Supportive care: includes fluid, shock, and airway management

-For oropharyngeal anthrax, airway compromise is a significant risk; consider corticosteroids 

to reduce development of airway edema

-Ciprofloxacin (400 mg IV q12hr) for adults or doxycycline (200 mg IV loading dose, followed 

by 100 mg IV q12hr) plus one or two additional antibiotics effective against anthrax 

(clindamycin, vancomycin, rifampin)

-Post-exposure prophylaxis: 10-14 days ciprofloxacin or doxycycline may be considered if 

no aerosol exposure; if aerosol exposure, see Pulmonary Anthrax

Precautions: Standard Precautions. A 5% hypochlorite solution will kill spores. 

Autoclaving, steam sterilizing, or burning is required for complete eradication of spores. 

Decontamination of patients using soap and water is sufficient. Not communicable personto-person.

Gastrointestinal Anthrax

White pseudomembranous lesion 9 days after

onset of symptoms

Encapsulated, Gram-positive, nonmotile,

aerobic, spore-forming rod 6
Agent:Francisella tularensis ICD-10: A21

Incubation Period: 3-6 days (up to 21 days) Signs & Symptoms

- Ulceroglandular tularemia: characterized by a sudden onset of fever, chills,

headache, cough, and myalgias, concurent with the appearance of a painful

papule at the site of inoculation. The papule progresses rapidly to pustule then

painful ulcer (generally 0.4-3.0 cm in diameter with heaped-up edges) with 

localized painful regional lymphadenopathy. 

-Typhoidal tularemia: manifests as a nonspecific febrile syndrome consisting 

of abrupt onset of fever, headache, malaise, myalgias, cough, and prostration. 

Occasionally patients will present with nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or abdominal 

pain.

-Pulmonic tularemia: manifests as non-productive cough, chest discomfort, 

and/or dyspnea. 

Labs & 

Imaging

-Skin lesion: Gram stain, culture, PCR, and FA.

-Nasal swab, sputum, induced sputum: Gram stain, culture (culture medium 

containing cystine required), IHC, FA, and PCR. 

-Blood: Culture, PCR, and acute and convalescent serology.

-Pleural fluid: Gram stain, culture, PCR, and FA.

-CXR (hilar adenopathy, peribronchial infiltrates)

Treatment

-Streptomycin (1g IM bid) or gentamicin (5 mg/kg IM/IV qd) for 10 days OR 

doxycycline (100 mg PO/IV bid) or ciprofloxacin (500 mg PO bid) for 14-21 days

-Post-exposure prophylaxis: Ciprofloxacin (500 mg PO bid), doxycycline (100 

mg PO bid), or tetracycline (500 mg PO qid) for 14 days for contact with organism

Precautions: Standard Precautions. Control of ambient ticks, mosquitoes, deer flies, 

and lice is important in disrupting transmission. Not communicable person-to-person.

Tularemia

A methylene blue stain showing F. tularensis Cutaneous ulcer with heaped up edges

as a non-motile, aerobic pleiomorphic coccobacillus

7
Agent:Yersinia pestis ICD-10: A20.0 and A20.7

Incubation Period: 2-8 days Signs & Symptoms

-Bubonic Plague: Acute and fulminant onset of nonspecific symptoms, including 

high fever up to 40°C, severe malaise, headache, myalgias, and nausea and 

vomiting. The characteristic bubo (a swollen, extremely painful, infected lymph 

node) occurs most commonly in femoral or inguinal lymph nodes, is typically 1-10 

cm in diameter, and may become fluctuant or suppurate. A local lesion (i.e., 

papule, vesicle) may or may not be present at the site of inoculation. Secondary 

septicemia is common.

-Septicemic Plague: High fever, chills, malaise, hypotension, tachycardia, 

tachypnea, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Thromboses in blood vessels may 

result in necrosis, gangrene, and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Can 

lead to secondary pneumonic plague. 

Labs & 

Imaging

-Nasal swab, sputum, CSF, and induced sputum: Culture, FA and PCR

-Blood, sputum, and bubo/lymph node tissue aspirate: Gram, Wright, WrjghtGiemsa, or Wayson stains, culture, FA, F-1 Ag assays, IHC, and PCR.

-Sera: Acute and convalescent serology, and PCR

-CXR: to exclude pneumonic involvement

Treatment

- Streptomycin (1g IM bid) or gentamicin (5 mg/kg IM/IV qd or 2mg/kg loading 

dose followed by 1.7mg/kg IM/IV q8hr)

-IV antibiotics can be switched to oral antibiotics as the improvement in the 

clinical course dictates, to complete at least 10-14 total days of therapy. 

-Post-exposure prophylaxis: Ciprofloxacin or doxycycline for 7 days (contact 

with organism). Required only after contact with patients with pneumonic plague

(see Pneumonic Plague)

Precautions: Standard precautions. Person-to-person spread is rare unless pulmonary 

involvement.

Bubonic & Septicemic Plague

Inguinal bubo Distal digital gangrene 8
Agent:Yersinia pestis ICD-10: A20.2

Incubation Period: 1-6 days Signs & Symptoms

-Onset is acute and often fulminant. Initial symptoms of high fever, chills, 

headache, malaise, myalgias; cough and tachypnea within 24 hours, eventually 

producing bloody sputum.

-The pneumonia progresses rapidly, resulting in dyspnea, stridor, and cyanosis 

and terminating with respiratory failure and circulatory collapse.

-GI symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain.

Labs & Imaging

-Nasal swab, sputum, CSF, and induced sputum: Culture, FA and PCR

-Blood, sputum, and tissue: Gram, Wright, Wrjght-Giemsa, or Wayson stains, 

culture, FA, F-1 Antigen assays, IHC, and PCR.

-Serum: Acute and convalescent antibody assays 

-CXR (patchy or consolidated bilateral infiltrates)

Treatment

-Streptomycin (1g IM bid) or gentamicin (5 mg/kg IM/IV qd or 2mg/kg loading 

dose followed by 1.7mg/kg IM/IV q8hr)

-IV antibiotics can be switched to PO as patient improves for a total of 10-14 days 

of antibiotic therapy

-Post-exposure prophylaxis: Doxycycline (100 mg PO bid) or ciprofloxacin (500 

mg PO bid) for 7 days.

Precautions: Respiratory droplet isolation for at least the first 48 hours of therapy 

antibiotic. If plague pneumonia is confirmed, continue respiratory droplet isolation until 

sputum cultures are negative. Conduct terminal disinfection of all items used in the care of 

patients using standard hospital disinfectants. Highly contagious. 

Pneumonic Plague

Wright-Giemsa stain showing non-motile, 

encapsulated, aerobic rod with “safety pin” appearance 

Lobar consolidation 9
Agent: Brucella species (mellitensis, suis, abortus, and canis) ICD-10:A23

Incubation Period: ranges from 1 week to several months Signs & Symptoms

-Fever of unknown origin

-Fever (undulation: hourly and daily fluctuations, night sweats, malaise, anorexia, 

vomiting, diarrhea, ileitis, arthralgias, fatigue, weight loss, depression

-Lymphadenopathy or hepatosplenomegaly and possible involvement of many

other organs: sacroileitis, epididymo-orchitis, meningitis, endocarditis, and 

infiltrative hepatitis

Labs & 

Imaging

-Blood- Culture, PCR, and acute and convalescent serology

-Bone marrow, tissue: Culture, histopathology, and PCR

Treatment

-Doxycycline (100 mg PO bid) for 6 weeks plus 

1) rifampin (600 to 900 mg PO qd) for 6 weeks or 

2) streptomycin (1 g IM qd) for the first 14 to 21 days (gentamicin can be

substituted) 

-Post-exposure prophylaxis: generally for lab exposures only: doxycycline (200 

mg PO qd) or rifampin (600 mg PO qd) for 3 to 6 weeks

Precautions: Standard Precautions. Transmission can occur by direct exposure to 

infected body fluids. Rarely communicable from person-to-person.

Brucellosis

Brucella abortus: Gram negative, non-motile

aerobic coccobacilli

Hepatic and renal abscesses 10
Agent: Coxiella burnetii ICD-10: A78

Incubation Period: 7-21 days (or up to 41 days) Signs & Symptoms

-Abrupt onset of high fever (e.g. 40 C), fatigue, severe headache, chills, 

myalgias, dry cough, and nausea

-Fever plateaus over 2-4 days and ends after 1-2 weeks

-Atypical pneumonia or acute hepatitis can be present

-Untreated disease often becomes chronic disease (such as endocarditis, chronic 

hepatitis, aseptic meningitis, encephalitis, osteomyelitis, etc.) 

Labs & 

Imaging

-Nasal swab, sputum, induced sputum: DFA, PCR 

-Blood: PCR, acute and convalescent serology

-Tissue: Microscopy, IHC, and PCR 

-CXR: mostly commonly non-segmental (multiple oval/rounded opacities) or 

segmental pleural-based opacities. May show perihilar infiltrates, hilar

adenopahty, or small pleural effusions.

Treatment

-Doxycycline (100 mg IV or PO q12h) OR tetracycline (500 mg PO q6h) for 14 to 

21 days (to reduce risk of chronic Q fever) 

-Prolonged antibiotics required for chronic Q fever

-Post-exposure prophylaxis: Doxycycline (100 mg PO bid) OR tetracycline (500 

mg PO qid) for 7 days (start 8 to 12 days post-exposure) 

Precautions: Standard Precautions. Heavy environmental contamination with C. 

burnetti may pose a long-term risk due to persistence. Dust generated from the 

contaminated environment may continue to transmit the disease. Exposed clothing and 

equipment should be decontaminated. Culture of organism from blood, sputum, or urine is 

very difficult and hazardous. Not communicable person-to-person. 

Q Fever

Pleomorphic Gram negative coccobacillus Atypical pneumonia

11
Agent: Burkholderia mallei ICD-10: A24.0

Incubation Period: 1-21 days (cutaneous) or 10-14 days (inhalational) Signs & Symptoms

-Acute localized suppurative infection: acute or subacute onset of local papular or 

pustular lesion with subsequent ulceration, mucopurulent discharge (if mucosal), and 

regional lymphangitis and lymphadenitis. Infected nodes may ulcerate and drain pus. May 

be associated with systemic symptoms.

-Acute pulmonary infection: May occur from inhalation or hematogenous seeding. Fever, 

chills, rigors, myalgia, fatigue, headache, with pleuritic chest pain (purulent nasal discharge 

in naturally occurring cases). 

-Acute septicemia infection: May occur after localized infection or inhalational exposure. 

Generalized papular eruption (may become pustular) with abscess of internal organs (liver, 

spleen, lungs) and intramuscular abscesses (especially legs and arms).

-Chronic suppurative infection: multiple chronic abscess (mainly subcutaneous and IM 

abscesses, but also pulmonic, ocular, skeletal, liver, spleen); 6 weeks to 15 years duration. 

Labs & 

Imaging

-Local lesions: Gram, Wright, or Methylene blue stain and culture of exudate

-Sputum: Gram, Wright, Methylene blue stain; culture

-Blood: Culture (usually negative until patient moribund—requires special media such as 

glycerol potato agar), acute/convalescent serology, PCR, antibiotic sensitivity testing

-Urine: Culture

-CXR: (miliary nodules, lobar pneumonia, or lung abscess) or abdominal ultrasound or CT 

scan (liver/splenic abscesses)

Treatment

Intensive therapy: Ceftazidime (40mg/kg IV q6-8hrs, max 8 g/day), imipenem (15mg/kg IV 

q 6hr, max 4 g/day), OR meropenem (25mg/kg IV q 8hr, max 3g/day) plus TMP/SMX (TMP 8 

mg/kg/day IV every 12 hours). Continue IV therapy for minimum of 10 to 14 days and until 

improved and stable. Surgical drainage of abscess, if possible.

Maintenance therapy: Following intensive therapy. Oral TMP/SMX with or without 

doxycycline for 12-20 weeks if localized to the lungs, but 6-12 months if deep-seated 

infections (severe visceral, CNS, prostate disease).

Precautions: Person-to-person spread of glanders may occur. Standard precautions.

Glanders

Cutaneous ulcer Hepatic and splenic involvement 12
Agent: Burkholderia pseudomallei ICD-10: A24.1

Incubation Period: 1-21 days Signs & Symptoms

-Mucocutaneous exposure: local nodule or abscess formation and regional lymphadenitis 

(less common than with glanders). Most percutaneous exposures initially presented with 

either pneumonia or sepsis. Rarely, will present as a distal, focal abscess with or without 

obvious site of primary inoculation; (e.g. primary purulent parotitis, primary prostatic 

abscess). 

-Inhalational exposure typically results in an acute or subacute pneumonia and septicemia. 

1) Septicemic melioidosis typically presents with fever, rigors, night sweats, myalgia, 

anorexia, and headache. Most patients are bacteremic. 

2) Pneumonic melioidosis can present in many forms, but is most commonly seen as a lobar 

or segmental consolidation. Cavitation is common, sputum is often purulent, and hemoptysis 

may be present. 

Labs & Imaging

-Gram stain and culture of exudate from cutaneous lesions

-Sputum: Gram, Wright, or methylene blue stain, culture; DFA

-Blood: Culture (McConkey and Ashdown agar), PCR, GLC, acute and convalescent 

serology

-Throat: Culture

-Urine: Culture (if prostatis or renal involvement)

-CXR: (miliary nodues, pneumonia) ; abdominal ultrasound or CT scan (hepatic, splenic

abscesses); transrectal ultrasound/MRI/CT (prostatic abscess)

Treatment

-Intensive Therapy: Ceftazidime (40mg/kg IV q8hrs), or imipenem (15mg/kg IV q6hr max 4 

g/day), or meropenem (25mg/kg IV q8hr, max 6g/day), plus, TMP/SMX (TMP 8 mg/kg/day IV 

in four divided doses). Continue IV therapy for at least 14 days and if patient clinically 

improved, switch to oral maintenance therapy for 4-6 months.

-Maintence Therapy: Oral TMP/SMX with or without doxycycline for 12-20 weeks, or 

longer(6-12 months) if deep-seated disease (i.e., severe visceral, CNS, or prostatic 

diseases). 

Precautions: Standard precautions are indicated. Person to person spread is rare. Possible 

transmission sexual fluids. BSL-2 facilities may be used for clinical specimens and cultures, provided 

procedure not associated with production of droplets or aerosol.

Melioidosis

5X magnification of colonies of Burkholderia

pseudomallei on Ashdown's agar after 4 days' incubation Melioid cavitation 13
Agent:Rickettsia prowazekii ICD-10: A75.0

Incubation Period: 7 to 14 days after infected louse bite Signs & Symptoms

-Non-specific: Abrupt fever, severe headache, and malaise. Possibly also cough, 

abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, chills, and muscle tenderness

-Rash begins a few days after onset of above symptoms: red macules on the 

trunk, later spreading to the extremities, sometimes sparing palms and soles.

-Neurological: confusion or drowsiness, rarely seizures or coma.

Labs & 

Imaging

-Blood: Chemistry, CBC, LFT’s (expect jaundice, elevated LFT’s, and 

thrombocytopenia), IHC staining (in conjunction with Weil-Felix test), and culture 

(cannot be grown on cell-free media)

-Serum: PCR (17-kDa gene)

Treatment

-Doxycycline (200 mg po once, followed by 100 mg bid) for at least 7 days or 

chloramphenicol (500 mg po qid) for 7 days

Precautions: Standard precautions; prevention through delousing. Not communicable 

person to person. 

Epidemic Typhus

Flying squirrel flea - Orchopeas howardi Macular rash on trunk 14
Agent: Variola virus ICD-10: B03

Incubation Period: 7-19 days (average 12 days) Signs & Symptoms

-Acute clinical manifestations: fever, malaise, headache, rigors, prostration, 

vomiting, backache.

-Within 2 to 3 days, a rash develops in the oropharynx, followed by (or 

concomitantly with) a rash on the face, then forearms and legs, then trunk, and 

subsequently hands and feet. Lesions progress from macules to papules, then 

vesicles generally at day 3, and pustules at day 5 or 6 (pustules described as 

umbilicated lesions deeply embedded in skin; hard round foreign body sensation 

on palpation of lesion). Lesions remain synchronous in stages of development. 

At day 10-14 , the pustules begin to scab. Considered no longer contagious after 

all scabs have fallen off (generally by 3 weeks after onset of the rash).

-Clinical presentation: Febrile illness with synchronous rash characteristic of 

smallpox should suggest diagnosis

Labs

-Scraping of lesions: PCR, culture, histopathology, electron microscopy, 

- Drainage skin lesions, nasopharynx, respiratory secretions: PCR, culture

-Serum: PCR, Ag-ELISA, viral culture, serology 

-Samples should be sent to international reference labs such as CDC or WHO.

Treatment

-Supportive therapy

-Vaccine given 3-4 days after exposure can decrease disease severity 

-Cidofovir and ST-246 shown to be effective in studies (IND only)

Post-exposure prophylaxis: Vaccinia (Smallpox) vaccine

Precautions: Airborne and contact precautions. Person-to-person spread - most 

commonly by droplets (within 3-6 feet of person) and uncommonly by airborne route; also 

spread by contact with infected fluids or fomites. Airborne/contact precautions until scabs 

separated. Deposit all contaminated wastes in Biohazard bags and autoclave or incinerate. 

Sterilize contaminated equipment and clothing. Decontaminate room (floors, walls, hard 

surfaces) with 5% hypochlorite. Highly contagious.

Smallpox

Umbilicated lesions Pustular lesions appearing on the hands

15
Agents: Viruses in the family Filoviridae ICD-10: A98.3 and A98.4

Incubation Period: Ebola: 4- 6 days (range 2 to 21 days) Marburg 5-7 days (range 2-14 days) Signs & Symptoms

-Onset is abrupt with fever, constitutional symptoms, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, 

abdominal pain, lymphadenopathy, pharyngitis, conjunctival injection, jaundice, 

and pancreatitis.

- Maculopapular rash often occurs at approximately day 5

-Delirium, obtundation, and coma are common

-Hemorrhagic features develop as disease progresses

Labs & 

Imaging

-Routine labs: thrombocytopenia, leucopenia, elevated LFT’s, low albumin

-Blood: PCR, Ag-ELISA, viral culture, and serology

Treatment

-Supportive care (IV fluids, colloids, fresh frozen plasma)

Precautions: Barrier precautions. Caregivers to wear double gloves; face shields, 

goggles or eyeglasses with side shields, gowns, shoe coverings. If resources available, N95 

mask. Isolate in negative-pressure private room. When caring for patients with prominent 

cough, vomiting, diarrhea, or hemorrhage, may consider Tyvek suits and HEPA filter air 

purifying respirator (if available). Sewage, bulk blood, suctioned fluids, secretions, and 

excretions should be autoclaved, processed in a chemical toilet, or treated with a 5% 

chlorine solution for at least 5 minutes in bedpan or commode prior to flushing. Highly 

contagious. 

Ebola and Marburg

Ebola virus Maculopapular rash on day 5 16
Agent:RVF Virus (family Bunyaviridae) ICD-10: A92.4

Incubation Period: 1-6 days Signs & Symptoms

- Initial presentation most commonly as an undifferentiated febrile illness with 

malaise, fever, chill, and headache. Often self-limited.

-Hospitalized patients (moderate and severe disease) with nausea, vomiting, 

abdominal pain, diarrhea, and myalgia.

- 10% cases with retinitis (during acute phase or 4 wks after illness onset ); may 

result in permanent vision loss

- 1% cases: hemorrhagic syndrome, hepatitis, or encephalitis

-Mortality: ~ 1% overall mortality; 50% in severe disease (varies by region 5% to 

80%)

Labs

- Routine Labs: Thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, elevated LFTs.

- Blood: Viral culture, PCR, Ag-ELISA, acute and convalescent serology

Treatment

-Supportive care

Precautions: Standard precautions. No human-to-human transmission yet 

demonstrated. Caregivers to wear gloves; facial and eye protection (i.e. goggles or 

eyeglasses with side shields) and gown in patient care (activities likely to generate 

aerosol/splash). If severe hemorrhage, isolate in private negative air flow room; HEPA filter 

air purifying respirator or Tyvek suits only considered if massive hemorrhage. Sewage, 

contaminated fluids, secretions, and excretions should be autoclaved, processed in a 

chemical toilet, or treated with a 5% chlorine solution for at least 5 minutes in bedpan or 

commode prior to flushing. 

Rift Valley Fever

RVF virus Macular lesion with hemorrhage and edema 

17
Agent: CCHF Virus (Family Bunyaviridae) ICD-10: A98.0

Incubation Period: 1-6 days (range 1-13 days) Signs & Symptoms

–Prehemorrhagic (lasts 3 days): fever, myalgias, vomiting, headache, 

photophobia, dizziness, conjunctivitis, hyperemia of face/neck, congested sclera, 

jaundice

–Hemorrhagic (lasts 2-3 days, starts 3-5 days after onset): petechiae, 

ecchymosis, epistaxis, gingival bleeding, hematemesis, and melena

–Convalescence (day 10-20 after onset): weakness, confusion, labile pulse, poor 

vision/hearing/memory, temporary complete hair loss, polyneuritis, difficulty 

breathing reported

Labs

-Routine labs: Thrombocytopenia, DIC, increased LFTs, proteinuria

-Blood: Ag-ELISA or PCR; viral culture; acute and convalescent serology

Treatment

-Supportive care

-IV Ribavirin (IND in US): 33 mg/kg loading dose (LD), then 16 mg/kg q6h for 4 days, then 8 

mg/kg q8h for 6 days OR 

- Oral ribavirin (off-label use): 2 g LD, then 1 g q6h x 4 days, then 0.5 g q6h x 6 days

-Post-exposure prophylaxis: Ribavirin 500 mg PO qid for 7 days (for those in contact with 

patient within 3 weeks of onset of illness)

Precautions: Contact and Droplet precautions. Nosocomial infection mainly from 

contact with infected body fluids or needles, but may also occur from infected aerosols 

(particularly with severe hemorrhage). Isolate in negative air flow room. Wear gloves, 

gowns, face shields/surgical masks, eye protection (i.e., goggles or glasses with side 

shields), shoe covers, and N-95 mask (if available). If prominent cough/hemoptysis, 

vomiting, diarrhea, or hemorrhage, may wear increased protection (i.e., HEPA filter air 

purifying respirator, Tyvek suit). All contaminated fluids (sewage, suctioned fluids, 

secretions, excretions) should be autoclaved, processed in chemical toilet, or treated with a 

5% chlorine solution for at least 5 min in bedpan or commode prior to flushing. Highly 

contagious.

Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic 

Fever

Diffuse ecchymosis, one week after symptom onset 

Tick of genus Hyalomma, 

known to spread CCHF

18
Agent: Lassa Virus (Family Arenaviridae) ICD-10: A96.2

Incubation Period: 5-18 days Signs & Symptoms

–Prehemorrhagic: Gradual onset fever, weakness, fatigue. Days 3-4 illness: 

arthralgias, back pain, nonproductive cough, sharp or burning retrosternal or 

epigastric pain; Days 4-5 of illness: onset severe headache, sore throat, 

gastrointestinal symptoms (cramping, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea). Diagnosis 

suggested by triad of pharyngitis, retrosternal chest pain, & proteinuria or vomiting 

in endemic area.

-Mild disease: most cases mild; recovery within 8 to 10 days. 

-Moderate-severe disease: rapid disease progression (days 6 to 10); severe 

cases may develop respiratory distress, shock, bleeding, or encephalopathy. 

-Poor prognostic factors: AST ≥150 IU/ml (55% fatality); triad of fever, sore 

throat, & vomiting; high serum viral burden; bleeding. 

-Mortality: 15 to 25% hospitalized cases; estimated 1% mortality all cases. 

Labs

-Routine labs: Thrombocytopenia, increased LFTs, proteinuria

-Blood: Ag-ELISA,RT-PCR, serology (ELISA IgM and IgG), viral culture

Treatment

-Supportive care

-IV Ribavirin (IND in US): 33 mg/kg loading dose (LD), then 16 mg/kg q6h for 4 

days, then 8 mg/kg q8h for 6 days OR 

- Oral ribavirin (off-label use): 2 g LD, then 1 g q6h x 4 days, then 0.5 g q6h x 6 

days

-Post-exposure prophylaxis: Ribavirin 500 mg PO qid for 7-10 days (for those in 

contact with infected body fluids or close contact to patient without adequate 

protective equipment (off-label use).

Precautions: See Precautions of CCHF for severe hemorrhage.

Lassa Fever

Conjunctival injection in Lassa fever Facial edema observed in severe cases 

19
Agent:Hantavirus (family Bunyaviridae) ICD-10: A98.5 

Incubation Period: 2 to 3 weeks (range 4-42 days) Signs & Symptoms

-Febrile illness with renal failure; generally only mild hemorrhage manifestations 

-Initial presentation: undifferentiated febrile illness with acute onset fever, 

headache, malaise, myalgia, and nausea/vomiting. Abdominal, flank, or back 

pain common. Injected conjunctiva, facial edema, facial flushing, petechiae often 

present. Decreased platelet count & proteinuria may help differentiate from 

nonspecific febrile illness.

- Oliguric phase: often associated with renal failure (dialysis in 40% cases of 

Hantaan & Dobrava; 20% of Seoul, and 3-6% of Puumala viruses. 

-Duration of illness: ~3 weeks (improvement during 2nd week)

-Mortality : ~ 5-12% Hantaan & Dobrava; 1% Seoul, <0.5% Puumala

Labs

- Routine Labs: Thrombocytopenia, proteinuria, increases creatinine,normal or 

increased WBC; mild elevation LFTs.

- Blood: IgM and IgG ELISA (IgM positive early in illness); RT-PCR

Treatment

-Supportive care (fluid management, vasopressors, dialysis) 

-IV ribavirin: (IND) 33 mg/kg loading dose, then 16 mg/kg q4hrs X 4 days, then 8 

mg/kg q8hrs X 3 days (associated with decreased mortality, severity of renal 

failure, and hemorrhage in blinded-controlled trial)—not recommended in 

Pulmonary Virus HFRS.

Precautions: Standard precautions (no human-to-human transmission yet 

demonstrated). Nosocomial transmission not reported (lower serum viral burden).

Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome

Striped-field mouse- rodent reservoir of 

Hantan virus

Facial flushing in HRFS 20
Agent:Hantavirus (family Bunyaviridae) ICD-10: B33.4 

Incubation Period: 14 to 17 days (range 9-33 days) Signs & Symptoms

-Febrile illness associated with respiratory failure due to pulmonary edema.

Initial presentation: febrile prodrome with severe myalgia, headache, and 

malaise of 3 to 5 days (range 1-12 days) duration. Cough/dyspnea often not 

present until late in prodrome phase-often precedes onset of pulmonary edema. 

Low platelet count may help differentiate from self-limited febrile illness.

- Cardiopulmonary (CP) phase: often abrupt onset of pulmonary edema and 

shock; pulmonary edema may progress rapidly over 4-24 hrs & require ventilator 

support; lasts ~3 to 6 days in survivors (death in 1-3 days in severe cases). Renal 

failure, hemorrhage, and myopericarditis with Andes virus but uncommon in Sin 

nombre virus.

-Duration of illness: rapid improvement after onset of diuresis (onset generally in 

2

nd week of illness). Mortality : ~ 40% with SNV & Andes virus

Labs

- Routine Labs: Thrombocytopenia, leukocytosis (mean WBC 35,000 cell/mm3), 

elevated LFTs & CPK. CP Phase: CXR-pulmonary edema (central and then 

peripheral lung fields), thrombocytopenia, ≥10% immunoblastic lymphocytes,

myelocytes, metamyelocytes. Andes virus: proteinuria, elevated creatinine.

- Blood: IgM/IgG ELISA (IgM positive early in illness); recombinant immunoblot

test strips (rapid test), Western blot.

Treatment

-Supportive: invasive monitoring cardiac output & wedge, ventilator, vasopressors

Precautions: Standard precautions for SNV. Andes virus-isolate in negative pressure 

room- N95 mask, gloves, face shields, goggles or eyeglasses with side shields, gowns. 

Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS)

Deer mouse-rodent reservoir of SNV Central located alveolar infiltrates

21
Agent: EEE or WEE Viruses (Alphavirus) ICD-10: A83.2

Incubation Period: EEE: 4-10 days and WEE: 2-10 days Context

-EEE virus on eastern coast U.S. and Canada, northern S. America, Caribbean

-WEE virus primarily in Americas (west of Mississippi in the U.S.)

-Causes encephalitis in equids and humans 

Signs & Symptoms

EEE: Prodrome of malaise, followed by fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, and 

diarrhea. Within few days (up to 11 days ) abrupt onset CNS symptoms (stiff 

neck, tremors, muscle twitching, spastic paralysis, confusion, somnolence, coma, 

seizures). Neurological sequelae ~30% cases. Mortality 36-80%.

WEE: Headache, fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, sore throat,

photophobia, myalgias, vertigo. May progress to CNS involvement within few 

days (confusion, somnolence, coma, stiff neck, muscle twitching, tremors, spastic 

paralysis, seizures). Most adults recover in ~10 days without sequelae (30% 

infants with sequelae). Mortality 3-10%.

Labs & 

Imaging

-Blood: culture (generally negative in WEE), RT-PCR or Ag-ELISA, IgM and IgG

ELISA, acute and convalescent serology

-Throat: Culture, PCR

-CSF: Culture, PCR, CSF WBC count, protein & glucose.

-EEG: EEE- generalized slowing and disorganization of the background

-Head MRI or CT: focal lesions in basal ganglia, thalamus, and brainstem (EEE only)

Treatment

Supportive Treatment

Precautions: Standard precautions. Prevention focuses on avoidance of mosquito 

bites and mosquito control. Not communicable person to person.

Eastern & Western Equine 

Encephalitis

EEE virus Culiseta melanura mosquito 22
Agents:VEE virus (an Alphavirus) ICD-10: A92.2

Incubation Period: 1-6 days Context

-Endemic in South and Central America, Mexico, Florida, and Trinidad. 

-Natural infection by bite of infected mosquito.

-Causes severe disease in equids (i.e., horses, mules) but rarely fatal in humans.

Signs & 

Symptoms

-Acute onset of fever, chills, severe headache, generalized malaise, photophobia, 

and myalgias that are prominent in the thighs and lower back; followed by 

nausea, vomiting, cough, sore throat, and diarrhea. 

-Severe symptoms generally subside within 2-5 days, followed by malaise and 

fatigue for 1-2 weeks before full recovery in most adults.

- Encephalitis in ~0.5% adults and 4% children. Mortality <1%.

Labs & 

Imaging

-Blood: viral culture, PCR, Ag ELISA, or ECL; acute and convalescent serology 

(including IgM and IgG ELISA)

-Throat: viral culture, PCR, Ag ELISA

-CSF: viral culture, PCR, Ag ELISA, WBC, protein & glucose (if indicated)

-CT scan & EEG: if indicated

Treatment

- No specific therapy exists, hence treatment is supportive only. Uncomplicated 

VEE infection may be treated with analgesics to relieve headache and myalgia. 

Encephalitis may require anticonvulsants and intensive supportive care.

Precautions: Standard Precautions. Control mosquito vectors and vaccinate horses in 

the vicinity. Not communicable person to person.

Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis

VEE virus Aedes taeniorhynchus mosquito 23
Agent: toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum ICD-10: A05.1 and 

A48.52

Onset: 12-36 hours (range 2 hours to 8 days) Signs & Symptoms

-Acute symmetrical, descending, flaccid paralysis, that begins initially with cranial 

nerve palsies (ocular symptoms of blurred vision, diplopia, and/or ptosis followed 

by dysarthria, dysphonia, and/or dysphagia) in an afebrile with normal sensorium. 

Followed by weakness/paralysis of arms, accessory respiratory muscles, and then 

lower extremities. No sensory nerve involvement.

- Respiratory failure may occur abruptly due to obstruction of the upper airway or 

weakness of accessory respiratory muscles.

- Autonomic symptoms: Dry mouth, ileus, constipation, urinary retention 

Labs & Imaging

-Clinical diagnosis: Decision to given antitoxin based on clinical diagnosis

-Nerve conduction studies: Support diagnosis (normal in up to 40% cases)

-Toxin mouse bioassay or PCR: Serum, stool, wound, vomitus, food (PCR 

quicker results but not fully validated; use in conjunction with mouse bioassay)

-Culture: Stool, wound 

-Acute/convalescent serologies usually negative

-Chemistries, CBC, CXR usually normal

Treatment

-Botulinum heptavalent antitoxin: H-BAT IND product available at CDC; HE-BAT 

IND product in DoD facilties if H-BAT not available.

- Supportive care: Monitor in ICU for respiratory failure; Neurology consult

- Public health notification

Precautions: Standard Precautions. Not communicable person to person. 

Botulism

Paralysis of facial muscles “Floppy baby” syndrome of botulism 24
Agent: toxin derived from castor beans ICD-10: T62.2

Onset: 4-8 hours post-inhalation or injection; 1-2 hours post-ingestion Signs & Symptoms

-Inhalation: Fever, chest tightness, cough, dyspnea, nausea, and/or diaphoresis 

with sublethal doses in humans. Higher doses in NHPs causes labored breathing 

within 18-24 hrs; pulmonary edema due to airway necrosis and capillary leak; 

severe respiratory distress and death in 36-48 hours.

-Ingestion: Onset severe nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps; followed by 

diarrhea, vascular collapse, shock, death (if higher dose). Necrosis of 

gastrointestinal epithelium, local hemorrhage; hepatic, splenic, and renal necrosis. 

Ricin ingestion less toxin due to toxin degradation by enzymes/poor absorption.

-IM or SC injection: Pain, induration, and necrosis of tissue at injection site with 

localized lymphadenopathy; systemic symptoms of weakness, nausea, vomiting, 

fever, diarrhea, headache, chest/abdomen pain; bleeding; end organ failure (liver, 

renal), hypotension/vascular collapse, and death within 72 hrs.

Labs & 

Imaging

- Nasal swabs and induced respiratory secretions: Toxin assays (PCR , Ag 

ELISA) if within 24 hr aerosol exposure

-Blood: toxin assays, acute and convalescent sera antibody assays

-Tissues: Histopathology with immunohistological stain

Treatment

-Supportive care.

- Pulmonary intoxication: May require mechanical ventilation

-Gastrointestinal intoxication: Vigorous gastric lavage, superactivated charcoal, 

followed by cathartics such as magnesium citrate. Volume replacement of 

gastrointestinal fluid losses.

Precautions: Standard Precautions. Not communicable person to person. 

Ricin Intoxication

Castor beans (Ricinus communis)

ARDS developing 36 hours 

after inhalation

25
Agent: toxin produced by Staphylococcus aureus ICD-10: A05

Onset: 2-12 hours (range 1.5-24 hours) post-inhalation; 1-12 hours post-ingestion Signs & Symptoms

-Initial: nonspecific flu-like symptoms such as fever, chills, headache, and 

myalgias. Later symptoms depend upon the route of exposure. 

1) Ingestion: GI symptoms: nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea for 1-2 days.

2) Inhalation: respiratory symptoms of nonproductive cough, retrosternal chest 

pain, dyspnea (may progress to pulmonary edema), shock, and death. URTI 

symptoms (rhinorrhea, sinus congestion, pharyngitis) in ~ one third cases. 

Fever/symptoms may persist up to 5 days and cough up to 4 weeks.

3) Ocular: Conjunctivitis, localized swelling, GI symptoms (from inadvertent 

swallowing of toxin or direct CNS effect). Resolved within 4-5 days. 

Labs & Imaging

-Nasal swabs, induced respiratory secretions: Toxin assays if within 24 hrs of 

aerosol exposure (PCR, Ag ELISA, electrochemiluminescence (ECL) tests). 

-Serum: toxin assays (usually negative at time of symptoms); serology

-Urine: Toxin assays (may be detected several hrs postexposure in animals)

-CXR: may reveal increased interstitial markings, atelectesis, pulmonary edema, 

or ARDS

- Leukocytosis: common (not uncommonly >15,000 cells/mm3)

Treatment

-Supportive Treatment

Precautions: Standard Precautions. Not communicable person to person. 

Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B 

Lung of a rhesus monkey that died from inhaled

SEB showing marked perivascular interstitial edema 

and focal loss of bronchial epithelium

Pulmonary edema 26
Agent: A group of compounds produced by fungi Fusarium ICD-10: T64

Onset: Minutes to hours after exposure Signs & Symptoms

-Cutaneous: burning pain, redness, tenderness, blistering, and progression to 

skin necrosis. 

-Upper respiratory: nasal itching, pain, sneezing, epistaxis, and rhinorrhea. 

Pulmonary and tracheobronchial toxicity produces dyspnea, wheezing, and 

cough. Mouth and throat exposure causes pain and blood-tinged saliva and 

sputum. 

-GI: anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and watery or bloody diarrhea with crampy

abdominal pain 

-Systemic: via any route of exposure, and results in weakness, prostration, 

dizziness, ataxia, and loss of coordination. Tachycardia, hypothermia, and 

hypotension follow in fatal cases. 

Labs & 

Imaging

- Routine labs: For acute management

- Serum and urine: Send to reference labs for antigen detection 

Treatment

No specific antidote. Supportive treatment. Superactivated charcoal should be 

given orally if the toxin is swallowed. Soap and water washing (even 4-6 hours 

after exposure) may significantly reduce dermal toxicity; washing within 1 hour 

may prevent toxicity entirely. 

Precautions: Contact precautions are warranted until decontamination is 

accomplished. Remove outer clothing and decontaminate exposed skin with soap and 

water. Treat eye exposure with copious saline irrigation. Secondary aerosols are not a 

hazard; but, contact with contaminated skin and clothing can produce secondary dermal 

exposures. T-2 mycotoxins are the only BSAT that can penetrate intact skin.

Trichothecene (T-2) Mycotoxins

Microscopic image of a Fusarium species

Vesicles on the back of a hairless guinea pig

after application of toxin 27
Acronyms

Ag antigen

ARDS acute respiratory distress syndrome

AST aspartate transaminase

bid twice per day

BSAT biological select agents and toxins

BSL biosafety level

CBC complete blood count

CCHF Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever

CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CP cardio-pulmonary

CPK creatine protein kinase

CSF cerebrospinal fluid

CNS central nervous system

CT computed tomography

CXR chest x-ray

DFA direct fluorescent antibody

EEG electroencephalogram

ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

FA fluorescent antibody

GI gastrointestinal

GLC gas liquid chromatography

HBAT heptavalent botulinum antitoxin

HEBAT heptavalent, equine, botulinum antitoxin

HEPA high efficiency particulate air

HFRS Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome

HPS Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

ICD International Classification of Diseases

ICU intensive care unit

IgG Immunoglobulin G

IgM Immunoglobulin M

IHC immunohistochemistry

IM intramuscular

IND investigational new drug

IV intravenous

LD loading dose

LDH lactate dehydrogenase

LFT liver function test

MRI magnetic resonance imaging

NHP non-human primate

PCR polymerase chain reaction

PEEP positive end-expiratory pressure

PO by mouth

PPE personal protective equipment

qd once per day

qid four times per day

RT reverse transcriptase

RVF Rift Valley Fever

SEB Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B

SC subcutaneous

SNV Sin Nombre Virus

tid three times per day

TMP/SMX trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole

WBC white blood cell

WHO World Health Organization 28
ISBN (13): 978-0-16-090016-7