2015 ANNUAL REPORT

Seabird Interactions and Mitigation

Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries

Pacific Islands 

Regional Office
2015 ANNUAL REPORT

Seabird Interactions and Mitigation

Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries

January 2017

Pacific Islands Regional Office

NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service

1845 Wasp Blvd.

Honolulu, HI 96818

www.fpir.noaa.gov

Please note: Data in this report are considered to be preliminary, and may be revised as better information becomes available. For the most current data, 

please contact the NMFS Pacific Islands Regional Office.

Cover image: Black-footed albatross, Lisianski Island. 
U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service

Contents

1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Seabird Mitigation Measures for the Hawaii Longline Fisheries............................................................................... 4

1.3 Protected Species Workshops ................................................................................................................................ 6

2. Interactions..................................................................................................................................................................... 7

2.1 Species.................................................................................................................................................................. 7

2.2 Location of Interactions.......................................................................................................................................... 8

2.3 Number of Interactions ........................................................................................................................................ 10

4. Management ............................................................................................................................................................... 13

5. Research ...................................................................................................................................................................... 13

6. Summary...................................................................................................................................................................... 14

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................................... 14

References ........................................................................................................................................................................ 14

Tables

Table 1. Number of observed Hawaii longline vessels that side- and stern-set in 2015......................................................... 4

Table 2. Seabird bycatch mitigation requirements for the Hawaii longline fleet..................................................................... 5

Table 3. Hawaii deep- and shallow-set fisheries effort and observer coverage, 2014 and 2015............................................ 6

Table 4. Summary of collected seabirds from the Hawaii longline fisheries, 2015................................................................. 7

Table 5. Numbers of observed seabird catch levels, fishing effort, and nominal interaction rates in the 

Hawaii longline fisheries, 2004-2015................................................................................................................................. 10

Table 6. Estimated number of total seabird interactions in the Hawaii deep-set longline fishery, 2015................................ 11

Table 7. Capture and release details by species for seabird interactions in the Hawaii longline fisheries, 2015................... 11

Table 8. Seabirds observed with bands from interactions with the shallow-set and deep-set 

Hawaii longline fisheries, 2015. ......................................................................................................................................... 12

Table 9. Comparison of observed interactions in Hawaii longline fisheries, 2014 and 2015................................................. 14

Figures

Figure 1. Spatial distribution of fishing effort by the Hawaii deep-set longline fishery, 2015.................................................. 2

Figure 2. Spatial distribution of fishing effort by the Hawaii shallow-set longline fishery, 2015. ............................................ 3

Figure 3. Locations of seabird interactions observed in Hawaii deep-set longline fishery, 2015. ........................................... 8

Figure 4. Locations of seabird interactions observed in Hawaii shallow-set longline fishery, 2015........................................ 9

Nesting albatross, Midway Island. 
Pacific Islands Regional Office | 2015 Annual Report: Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries

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1. Introduction

Among many management objectives, the National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS) Pacific Islands Regional Office 

(PIRO) attempts to reduce, as practicable, interactions 

between Hawaii pelagic longline fishing operations and 

seabirds. NMFS monitors the fisheries to determine 

the effectiveness of management measures to reduce 

interactions and the severity of interactions that do occur. 

NMFS documents interactions and mitigation efforts aboard 

vessels at sea, and reports annually on fishing effort, seabird 

interactions, and mitigation research.1 You may view this 

report, and similar reports from previous years, at www.fpir.

noaa.gov.

1.1 Background

NMFS and the Western Pacific Fishery Management Council 

(WPFMC) manage two Hawaii pelagic longline fisheries 

under the Fishery Ecosystem Plan for Pelagic Fisheries 

of the Western Pacific Region (FEP) and implementing 

regulations. The deep-set fishery primarily targets bigeye 

tuna at depths to 400 m, and operates over broad areas 

mainly to the north-northeast and southwest of the main 

Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 1). The shallow-set fishery targets 

swordfish at depths to 100 m, and typically operates over 

a large area north and east of the Hawaiian Islands (Fig. 

2). The FEP contains a detailed description of the Hawaii 

longline fisheries (WPFMC 2009).

Since 1994, the Hawaii longline fleet has been limited to 

164 permits. Activity levels in any given year since 2004 

range from 11 to 35 active vessels in the shallow-set 

fishery, and 122 to 139 active vessels in the deep-set 

fishery. Nearly all vessels in the shallow-set fishery also 

participate in the deep-set fishery during the year.

Seabirds that feed around the Hawaiian Islands in areas 

where the longline fisheries operate include Laysan 

albatross, black-footed albatross, shearwaters, fulmars, 

boobies, and the endangered short-tailed albatross. 

During the deployment (setting) and retrieval (hauling) of 

longline fishing gear, hooks and line may occasionally hook 

or entangle seabirds that attempt to take bait or catch. 

Seabirds are more likely to drown when the interaction 

occurs during setting because the weight of the gear may 

pull the seabird underwater. Although some interactions 

are inevitable, fishermen take steps to avoid and minimize 

interactions so that seabird populations remain healthy, 

and fishermen can pursue their livelihood. By using safe 

handling and release techniques, fishermen help many 

seabirds survive their interactions.

Effective management of the fisheries has greatly 

minimized interactions with seabirds. In 2000, NMFS 

estimated 2,433 seabird interactions in the Hawaii longline 

fisheries. By 2004, NMFS had fully implemented safe 

seabird handling and mitigation measures which have 

significantly reduced interactions. In 2015, there were 81 

interactions in the shallow-set fishery. For the deep-set 

fishery, we expanded the observed interactions using the 

observer coverage rate and estimated 687 interactions 

in 2015 (see Tables 5 and 6). Credit for this successful 

reduction in interactions over the years is mostly due to the 

fishermen, who understand and routinely implement the 

seabird mitigation requirements. The requirements include 

training in seabird identification, seabird deterrent fishing 

gear and techniques, and special handling and release of 

incidentally-caught seabirds.

1 This annual report is required in the Terms and Conditions of the 2012 Biological Opinion of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for the operation of Hawaii-based Pelagic Longline Fisheries 

(USFWS 2012). 

Laysan albatross attempting to feed on longline bait. 
Pacific Islands Regional Office | 2015 Annual Report: Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries

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Figure 1. Spatial distribution of fishing effort by the Hawaii deep-set longline fishery, 2015.

Source: NMFS unpublished logbook data, received 12/9/2016.
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Figure 2. Spatial distribution of fishing effort by the Hawaii shallow-set longline fishery, 2015.

Source: NMFS unpublished logbook data, received 12/9/2016.
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1.2 Seabird Mitigation Measures for the 

Hawaii Longline Fisheries

Most of the regulations for the Hawaii longline fisheries 

are identified in Title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations 

Part 600 and Part 665 (50 CFR Parts 600 and 665). NMFS 

also provides a regulation summary and compliance guides

to Hawaii longline fishermen and the general public. 

Regulations specific to the mitigation of seabird interactions 

and safe handling techniques are at 50 CFR 665.815. The 

ways that fishermen implement required seabird mitigation 

measures depend on how and where fishermen fish. 

Mitigation measures to reduce seabird interactions differ 

between the two options of stern-setting and side-setting. 

The following sections describe each of the main gear and 

operation requirements. The Biological Opinion of the U.S. 

Fish and Wildlife Service for the operation of the Hawaiibased pelagic longline fisheries, shallow-set and deep-set, 

Hawaii (USFWS 2012) also describe these measures.

Side-Setting

Side-setting involves deploying the gear from the side of 

the vessel, compared to the conventional method of setting from the stern. In side-setting, crew set baited hooks 

forward and close to the side of the vessel’s hull where 

seabirds are unable or unwilling to pursue them. With 

required branch line weighting (see below), by the time the 

vessel stern passes the location where baited hooks have 

been set, the baited hooks will have sunk to a depth where 

seabirds, such as albatrosses, cannot reach them (Gilman 

and Brothers 2006; Gilman et al. 2005, 2007a, 2007b). 

Additionally, deploying a required bird curtain aft of where 

crew is deploying the gear inhibits the ability of seabirds to 

land on the water along the side of the vessel where baits 

are accessible. 

Table 1 summarizes the number of Hawaii pelagic longline 

deep- and shallow-set vessels observed to set from 

the stern and from the side in 2015, with some vessels 

operating in both deep- and shallow-set fisheries. In 2015, 

the majority of vessels in the deep-set fishery and all of the 

vessels in the shallow-set fishery chose to stern-set. 

Table 1. Number of observed Hawaii longline vessels 

that side- and stern-set in 2015.

Fishery Deck setting position Vessels

Deep-set Stern-setting 97

Deep-set Side-setting 32

Shallow-set Stern-setting 23

Shallow-set Side-setting 0

Source: NMFS unpublished observer data, 10/4/2016.

Weighted Branch Lines

Fishermen place weights close to the hook on branch lines 

so baited hooks sink quickly and help prevent foraging 

seabirds from possibly become hooked or entangled in 

longline gear. When required, Hawaii longline fishermen 

must attach a weight of at least 45 g within 1 m of the hook 

to sink the branch line quickly. Fishermen commonly use 

weights from 45 to 80 g.

Thawed and Blue-dyed Bait

Dyeing bait to a specific blue color is a means to reduce 

visibility by reducing contrast with the sea surface. 

Fishermen thaw the bait to increase sink rates and to allow 

a more effective penetration of the blue dye. Almost all bait 

used in the Hawaii longline fisheries consists of the fusiform 

fishes mackerel (saba), sardines, and saury (sanma). NMFS 

prohibits the use of squid bait in the shallow-set fishery to 

reduce sea turtle interactions. While fishermen may still use 

squid in the deep-set fishery, it costs more than some fish 

bait and is, thus, less preferred.

Strategic Offal Discards

Fishermen developed the technique of strategically 

discarding offal to distract albatrosses from attempting to 

steal baits from hooks before the branch lines are retrieved. 

Fishermen discard swordfish heads and livers on the 

opposite the side of the vessel from fishing operations to 

distract albatrosses away from the baited hooks. NMFS 

observers in the mid-1990s noted that strategically 

discarding offal reduced incidental hooking or entanglement 

of albatrosses, and it is now a requirement. When seabirds 

are present around the vessel, fishermen that are deepsetting north of 23° N., or shallow-setting anywhere, 

are required to use strategic offal discards as a seabird 

mitigation measure when setting from the stern.

Blue-dyed bait.
Pacific Islands Regional Office | 2015 Annual Report: Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries

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Night Setting

Night-setting as a seabird mitigation measure requires shallow-set fishermen, when stern-setting, to start deploying gear 

no earlier than one hour after local sunset and complete the set no later than the following sunrise. The measure also 

requires using the minimum lighting necessary to conform to navigation rules and best safety practices. The requirement to 

night-set is based on the premise that seabirds cannot see baited hooks in the dark and, thus, do not attack them. Nightsetting has been a very effective seabird mitigation measure, reducing seabird interactions as much as 98% (McNamara et 

al. 1999, Boggs 2003). Table 2 summarizes the seabird management measures.

Table 2. Seabird bycatch mitigation requirements for the Hawaii longline fleet.

Stern-setting Side-setting

Shallow-Set

Anywhere

Deep-Set

North of 230

 N

Shallow-Set

Anywhere

Deep-Set

North of 230 What you need to do N

Deploy mainline from port or starboard side at least 1 m forward 

of stern corner Yes Yes

If line shooter is used, mount it at least 1 m forward from 

stern corner Yes Yes

Use a specified bird curtain aft of the setting station during the set Yes Yes

Deploy gear so that hooks do not resurface Yes Yes

Attach 45 g or heavier weights within 1 m of hook of each hook Yes Yes Yes

Use a line shooter to set the mainline Yes

Keep two 1-pound containers of blue-dye on boat Yes Yes

Use completely thawed and blue-dyed bait Yes Yes

Keep fish parts and spent bait with all hooks removed for strategic 

offal discard Yes Yes

Cut all swordfish heads in half, and use heads and livers for 

strategic offal discard Yes Yes

Night Set - begin set 1 hour after local sunset and finish 1 hour 

before next sunrise and keep lighting to a minimum Yes
Pacific Islands Regional Office | 2015 Annual Report: Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries

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1.3 Protected Species Workshops

In addition to gear and operational requirements to reduce 

or deter seabird interactions, owners and operators of 

pelagic longline vessels must complete a protected species 

workshop each year (50 CFR 665.814). The workshop 

includes training in the identification, safe handling, and 

release techniques for sea turtles, marine mammals, 

and seabirds. The workshop also reviews regulatory and 

compliance requirements. In a classroom setting, fishermen 

learn from oral presentations, hands-on demonstrations, 

videos, and printed reference materials. NMFS also offers 

the workshops on line. A valid workshop certificate is 

necessary for owners to obtain and annually renew Federal 

longline fishing permits. Longline vessel operators must also 

have on board the vessel a valid protected species workshop 

certificate issued by NMFS to the operator of the vessel.

In 2015, NMFS PIRO provided protected species workshop 

training for 264 Hawaii-based longline vessel owners and 

operators, and other interested individuals. Another 56 

vessel owners, operators, and crewmembers completed 

protected species workshop training in American Samoa 

with assistance from the PIRO Observer Program.

1.4 Fishing Effort and Observer Coverage 

From 2014 to 2015, fishing effort in the deep-set fishery increased, and effort in the shallow-set fishery decreased (Table 

3). In 2015, NMFS placed observers on 20.6% of deep-set fishing trips and on 100% of shallow-set fishing trips. NMFS 

provides summary reports from mandatory logbook data reported by longline captains. 

Table 3 summarizes effort data for 2015 by haul date. Please note that other summaries throughout this report and 

elsewhere may vary slightly depending upon the data source, including revisions. For example, observers may report 

seabird interactions by date of trip (departure or arrival), set date, or haul date in a given year. NMFS typically bases 

observer coverage levels on the trip departure date. Protected species interactions reported in the observer program 

quarterly, semiannual, and annual reports are typically based on vessel arrival date.

Table 3. Hawaii deep- and shallow-set fisheries effort and observer coverage, 2014 and 2015.

2015

Fishery Number of vessels Trips Sets Hooks Observer coverage

Deep-set 141 1,444 18,433 47,409,044 20.6%

Shallow-set 23 70 1,156 1,274,805 100%

2014

Fishery Number of vessels Trips Sets Hooks Observer coverage

Deep-set 139 1,350 17,702 45,517,150 20.8%

Shallow-set 20 81 1,334 1,466,866 100%

Source: NMFS unpublished observer data, 10/4/2016, and unpublished logbook data, 12/1/2016.

Protected Species Workshop, NOAA Honolulu Service Center at Pier 38.
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2. Interactions

2.1 Species

NMFS observers have recorded the following species being 

hooked or entangled in the longline fisheries since 1994, 

when NMFS began deploying observers: Laysan albatross 

(Phoebastria immutabilis), black-footed albatross (P. 

nigripes), sooty shearwater (Puffinus griseus), unidentified 

shearwaters, brown booby (Sula leucogaster), red-footed 

booby (S. sula), and Northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis). 

These species are not listed under the Endangered Species 

Act (ESA). 

The Laysan albatross population estimate is 656,000 

breeding pairs (ACAP 2016). The low coral islands of the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) have the world’s 

largest colonies, and together support more than 99% 

of the global breeding population (ACAP 2012a). The 

estimated global breeding population of black-footed 

albatross is 69,900 pairs (ACAP 2016), with more than 95% 

breeding in the NWHI (ACAP 2012b). Northern fulmars are 

located throughout the North Atlantic and North Pacific. 

The estimated worldwide population is 15 to 30 million 

individuals (Birdlife 2016a). The red-footed booby winters 

on tropical islands in most oceans, and its total population 

estimate is more than 1 million birds (Birdlife 2016b). 

The brown booby are located throughout the pan-tropical 

oceans, with a population estimate of more than 200,000 

adults (Birdlife 2016c). The estimated total world population 

of sooty shearwaters is more than 20 million adults. These 

birds nest in Australia, New Zealand, and southern South 

America (Birdlife 2016d). Both Hawaii longline fisheries 

have a low level of interactions with these species; and 

based on the population estimates, the fisheries likely have 

very little effect on these populations.

Some seabirds, especially shearwaters, are difficult to 

identify. Table 4 provides a summary of seabird specimens 

that NMFS observers collected for identification and 

biological study after capture in the Hawaii longline 

fisheries in 2015. Most seabird specimens are frozen and 

shipped to the Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research 

Center in Santa Cruz, California. Since 2007, staff with the 

organization Oikonos have been collecting morphometric 

data on shipped specimens.

Table 4. Summary of collected seabirds from the Hawaii 

longline fisheries, 2015.

Species Number retained

Black-footed albatross 77

Laysan albatross 24

Sooty shearwater 4

Note: Not all dead seabirds are collected as specimens. Source: NMFS 

unpublished observer data, 10/4/2016.

Black-footed albatross, Pearl and Hermes Reef. 
Pacific Islands Regional Office | 2015 Annual Report: Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries

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2.2 Location of Interactions

Figs. 3 and 4 show the spatial distribution of observed seabird interactions in deep- and shallow-set fisheries, respectively, 

based on observations of seabirds in 2015. Most of the interactions occur north of 25° N, where seabirds are typically more 

abundant, and where fishing effort is more concentrated.

Figure 3. Locations of seabird interactions observed in Hawaii deep-set longline fishery, 2015.

Note: NMFS deployed observers on 20.6% of deep-set trips in 2015. Source: NMFS unpublished observer data, 11/23/2016.
Pacific Islands Regional Office | 2015 Annual Report: Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries

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Figure 4. Locations of seabird interactions observed in Hawaii shallow-set longline fishery, 2015.

Note: NMFS deployed observers on every shallow-set trip in 2015. Source: NMFS PIRO Observer Program, unpublished data, 11/23/2016.
Pacific Islands Regional Office | 2015 Annual Report: Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries

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2.3 Number of Interactions 

Table 5 summarizes the number of observed seabird interactions, including the condition of seabirds upon release, and 

fishing effort in both longline fisheries from 2004 to 2015. During this period, NMFS deployed observers on 100% of 

shallow-set fishing trips; therefore, the number of interactions shown in Table 5 represents the fishery-wide totals. NMFS 

deployed observers on 20.6% of deep-set trips in 2015, so we expanded the observed interactions using the observer 

coverage rate to estimate total interactions (Table 6). 

Table 5. Numbers of observed seabird catch levels, fishing effort, and nominal interaction rates in the Hawaii 

longline fisheries, 2004-2015. Year Laysan albatross Black-footed 

albatrossSooty shearwaterOther or unidentified bird species caughtTotal birds observed caughtBirds released injured and aliveBirds released deadTotal observed effort (hooks)Seabird interaction rate (birds per 1,000 hooks observed) 

DEEP-SET FISHERY

2004 2 5 2 9 9 7,900,681 0.001

2005 6 11 1* 18 18 9,360,671 0.002

2006 1 17 5 23 23 7,540,286 0.003

2007 7 18 25 25 7,620,083 0.003

2008 14 30 14 2** 60 4 56 8,775,951 0.007

2009 18 23 4 45 45 7,877,861 0.006

2010 39 17 1 57 1 56 8,184,127 0.007

2011 32 13 3 48 2 46 8,260,092 0.006

2012 31 36 7 74 5 67 8,768,728 0.008

2013 48 49 8 105 5 100 9,278,133 0.011

2014 12 38 1 51 6 45 9,608,244 0.005

2015 25 101 4 2*** 132 19 113 9,393,234 0.014

SHALLOW-SET FISHERY

2004 1 1 1 76,750 0.013

2005 62 7 69 47 22 1,328,806 0.052

2006 8 3 11 5 6 745,125 0.015

2007 40 8 48 40 8 1,292,036 0.037

2008 33 6 39 24 15 1,350,127 0.029

2009 81 30 1 112 88 24 1,767,128 0.063

2010 40 38 1**** 79 61 18 1,828,529 0.043

2011 49 19 68 53 15 1,611,395 0.042

2012 62 37 99 77 21 1,418,843 0.070

2013 45 28 2 75 48 27 1,000,084 0.075

2014 39 32 1 72 56 16 1,509,727 0.048

2015 43 38 0 81 65 16 1,286,628 0.063

Note: NMFS unpublished observer data (10/4/2016) are based on the date and time of the beginning of the haul, with the exception of the total observed effort 

(hooks), which is based on departure date from the Observer Program annual reports (NMFS 2016a and NMFS 2016b). Interaction rates are calculated and 

rounded to the nearest thousandths (third decimal) place. Footnote: *brown booby; **red-footed booby and unidentified seabird; ***red-footed booby and 

unidentified shearwater,****Northern fulmar
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Almost all interactions in the deep-set fishery occur when 

fishermen set gear during the day while seabirds are 

actively feeding. Seabirds may be hooked or entangled, 

and then drown while the gear sinks. Because most 

seabirds are inactive at night, very few interactions occur 

when fishermen typically haul deep-set gear. In 2015 in 

the deep-set fishery, observers documented interactions 

with 25 Laysan albatrosses, 101 black-footed albatrosses, 

four sooty shearwaters, one unidentified shearwater, and 

one red-footed booby (Table 5). Nearly all of the seabirds 

observed to interact with the deep-set fishery were dead 

(86%). Table 6 contains the total estimated number of 

interactions with Laysan albatross, black-footed albatross, 

and shearwaters based on observer records for the deepset fishery in 2015. 

Table 6. Estimated number of total seabird interactions 

in the Hawaii deep-set longline fishery, 2015.

Species Total annual 

estimate

95% confidence 

interval

Black-footed 

albatross

541 387-682

Laysan albatross 119 53-177

Shearwater 21 6-49

Red-footed booby 6 1-21

Note: Table lists point estimates of the total number of incidental interactions 

by species, and corresponding 95% confidence intervals, in the Hawaii 

deep-set longline fishery from observed interactions during 2015. The 

estimate for shearwaters represents an estimate for the number of incidental 

interactions by the group of species considered shearwaters. Source: 

McCracken 2016.

The shallow-set fishery typically sets at night and 

hauls the gear during the day; therefore, most of the 

interactions occur when fishermen retrieve the gear and 

birds are actively feeding. In 2015, the shallow-set fishery 

interacted with 43 Laysan albatrosses and 38 black-footed 

albatrosses (Table 5). Fishermen released approximately 

80% of seabirds alive.

Seabirds can be hooked, entangled, or both. Table 7 

provides a summary of capture and release conditions in 

2015. Regulations require fishermen to remove as much 

gear as safely possible from any seabirds captured before 

they are released.

Table 7. Capture and release details by species for seabird interactions in the Hawaii longline fisheries, 2015.

MANNER OF INTERACTION GEAR ATTACHED UPON RELEASE1

Number 

for each 

species/

group

Hooked 

only

Entangled 

only

Both 

hooked 

and 

entangled

Not 

known 

or not 

recorded

Line 

only

Hook 

only

Hook 

and line 

No gear 

attached2

Laysan 

albatross 52 9 7 0 0 0 0 40

Black-footed 

albatross 110 13 14 2 0 0 0 43

Sooty 

Shearwater 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

1

 Released seabirds are those that were released alive. 

2

 This column does not include seabirds with unknown or unrecorded manner of capture.

Source: NMFS unpublished observer data, 10/4/2016.

Hooked Laysan albatross. 
Pacific Islands Regional Office | 2015 Annual Report: Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries

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Recovered Seabird Bands 

State and Federal agencies and other groups attach identification bands to the legs of birds to study bird movement, 

survival, and other characteristics. Table 8 provides a summary of observed seabirds with leg bands from Hawaii longline 

fisheries interactions in 2015. Most of the recovered bands were from albatross banded on French Frigate Shoal in the 

NWHI and incidentally caught in the first half of the year.

Table 8. Seabirds observed with bands from interactions with the shallow-set and deep-set 

Hawaii longline fisheries, 2015.

Species Disposition Date 

banded

Band(s) 

recovery 

date

Location banded

Age at 

banding 

(yr)

Age at 

recovery 

(yr)

Black-footed Albatross Dead 6/9/2008 1/1/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 7

Black-footed Albatross Dead 5/26/2007 1/17/2015 Lehua Island, HI <1 8

Laysan Albatross Dead 5/30/2007 2/14/2015 Kauai (Kilauea Point) >1 19

Laysan Albatross Dead 4/11/2007 2/21/2015 Kauai (Kilauea Point) >1 >/=9

Black-footed Albatross Dead 1/4/2007 2/23/2015 Laysan Island >1 >/=9

Laysan Albatross Dead 5/27/1997 2/18/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 18

Laysan Albatross Dead 1/16/2008 2/28/2015 Kauai (Kilauea Point) >1 >/=8

Black-footed Albatross Dead 6/12/2004 3/25/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 11

Black-footed Albatross Injured 6/21/2001 3/18/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 14

Laysan Albatross Dead 6/5/1989 4/1/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 26

Black-footed Albatross Dead 12/27/2007 4/5/2015 Laysan Island >/=1 >/=8

Laysan Albatross Injured 4/14/2005 4/13/2015 Kauai (Kilauea Point) <1 10

Laysan Albatross Injured 6/8/2005 4/20/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 10

Laysan Albatross Injured 5/30/1991 4/30/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 24

Black-footed Albatross Injured 6/5/1998 5/4/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 17

Black-footed Albatross Injured 6/1/1995 5/4/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 20

Black-footed Albatross Injured 6/7/2015 5/6/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 15

Black-footed Albatross Injured 6/8/2001 5/9/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 14

Laysan Albatross Dead 6/22/2014 5/10/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 11

Black-footed Albatross Dead 12/9/2003 5/7/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 12

Black-footed Albatross Dead 6/7/1999 5/29/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 16

Laysan Albatross Dead 6/5/1996 6/2/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 19

Black-footed Albatross Dead 6/8/2001 6/6/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 13

Black-footed Albatross Dead 6/8/2001 6/6/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 13

Black-footed Albatross Dead 6/3/2005 6/6/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 10

Black-footed Albatross Dead Unknown 6/8/2015 Unknown Unknown Unknown

Black-footed Albatross Injured Unknown 6/8/2015 Unknown Unknown Unknown

Laysan Albatross Dead 6/1/1995 6/14/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 20

Black-footed Albatross Dead 6/4/2003 6/24/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 12

Black-footed Albatross Dead 6/14/2004 5/18/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 11

Black-footed Albatross Dead 5/30/2002 7/15/2015 French Frigate Shoals (Tern Island) <1 13

Source: USGS, USFWS, and NMFS unpublished observer data, 10/4/2016.
Pacific Islands Regional Office | 2015 Annual Report: Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries

13 U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service

3. ESA-Listed Seabirds

The distributions of three seabird species that are protected 

under the ESA overlap with the areas where the Hawaii 

longline fisheries operate: the endangered short-tailed 

albatross and Hawaiian dark-rumped petrel (Pterodroma 

sandwichensis), and the threatened Newell’s shearwater 

(Puffinus auricularis newelli). There have been no observed 

interactions (hooking or entanglement) between the 

fisheries and any ESA-listed seabirds. There were no 

sightings of short-tailed albatross on observed deep-set 

and shallow-set trips in 2015. 

4. Management

In May 2015, under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, the 

USFWS issued a Special Purpose Permit to NMFS for the 

shallow-set fishery. The permit authorizes the incidental 

take of a limited number of migratory birds in the shallowset longline fishery until March 31, 2018, including shorttailed albatross, black-footed albatross, Laysan albatross, 

sooty shearwater, and Northern fulmar. For further 

information, please visit the USFWS website (http://www.

fws.gov/pacific/migratorybirds/nepa.html).

5. Research

Analysis of Seabird Interactions in the Hawaii 

Shallow-set Fishery

Since NMFS introduced seabird regulations in 2001, in 

the Hawaii shallow-set fishery the seabird catch rate has 

declined approximately 91%, primarily through mitigation 

measures required during longline gear setting (gear 

deployment). Since effective implementation of these 

measures, approximately 75% of the remaining seabird 

interactions occur during gear hauling (Gilman et al. 2014). 

As most shallow-set fishermen choose the option to stern 

set at night, they haul their gear primarily during the day 

when seabirds are more likely to be foraging. In a review of 

observer data from 2004 to 2012, Gilman et al. (2014) found 

an increasing temporal trend of albatrosses attending 

vessels during hauling, which may have been one of the 

factors that results in the observed increasing trend in the 

seabird standardized haul catch rate during this time. 

The highest relative standardized catch rates from January 

to March corresponded with brooding and chick rearing 

for mature Laysan and black-footed albatrosses, when the 

albatrosses forage in areas that overlap with the shallowset fishery. The lowest live seabird catch rates occurred 

during the non-breeding season in August and September, 

when albatross foraging areas overlap less with the fishery 

(Gilman et al. 2014). Eric Gilman with the Safina Center is 

currently conducting commercial demonstrations of a bird 

curtain that could reduce haul interactions in the shallowset fishery.

Analysis of Seabird Interactions in the Hawaii 

Deep-set Fishery

Since NMFS introduced seabird regulations in 2001, in the 

Hawaii deep-set fishery the seabird catch rate has declined 

approximately 74% (Gilman et al. 2016). Over the past 

decade, however, seabird catch levels have increased due 

to increasing trends in both effort and nominal seabird 

catch rates. 

Decreasing ocean productivity in recent years may have 

contributed to the increasing trend in the nominal seabird 

catch rate. In a review of observer data from 2004 to 2014, 

Gilman et al. 2016 found the catch rate significantly 

increased as annual mean multivariate El Niño Southern 

Oscillation index values increased. This result suggests that 

the decreasing ocean productivity observed in recent years 

in the central north Pacific may have contributed to the 

increasing catch rate. Higher numbers of albatrosses 

attending vessels, possibly linked to declining regional 

ocean productivity and increasing absolute abundance of 

black-footed albatrosses, may also have contributed to the 

increasing rate. 

Gilman et al. 2016 found the largest opportunities for catch 

reductions are through increased efficacy of seabird 

mitigation north of 23° N where mitigation methods are 

required and during setting instead of during hauling. Both 

options for meeting regulatory requirements, side vs. stern 

setting and blue-dyed vs. untreated bait, significantly 

reduced the seabird catch rate. However, side-setting had a 

significantly lower seabird catch rate than blue-dyed bait. 

There was significant spatio-temporal and seasonal 

variation in the risk of seabird capture with the highest 

catch rates in April and May, and to the northwest of the 

main Hawaiian Islands.

NMFS is working with the WPFMC on investigating seabird 

interactions, in particular black-footed albatross, in the 

deep-set fishery. In Summer 2017, NMFS may also host a 

scholar under the Ernest F. Hollings Scholarship Program to 

study seabird interactions.
Pacific Islands Regional Office | 2015 Annual Report: Seabird Interactions and Mitigation Efforts in Hawaii Longline Fisheries

14 U.S. Department of Commerce | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | National Marine Fisheries Service

6. Summary

Table 9 compares the 2014 and 2015 observed interactions 

in the two fisheries. The observed interactions and 

interaction rate for the shallow-set and deep-set fisheries 

increased from 2014 to 2015. 

In 2014, the shallow-set fishery interacted with 72 seabirds 

— 39 Laysan albatrosses, 32 black-footed albatrosses, 

and one sooty shearwater. In 2015, the shallow-set fishery 

interacted with 81 seabirds — 43 Laysan albatrosses and 

38 black-footed albatrosses. 

In 2014, observers in the deep-set fishery documented 

interactions with 51 seabirds — 12 Laysan albatrosses, 

38 black-footed albatrosses, and one sooty shearwater. 

In 2015, observers documented interactions with 132 

seabirds — 25 Laysan albatross, 101 black-footed 

albatrosses, four sooty shearwaters, one unidentified 

shearwater, and one red-footed booby (see Table 5).

Table 9. Comparison of observed interactions in 

Hawaii longline fisheries, 2014 and 2015.

Observed Interactions 2014 2015

Seabirds observed in deep-set fishery 51 132

Seabirds observed in shallow-set 

fishery

72 81

Deep-set interaction rate (birds per 

1,000 hooks observed)

0.005 0.014

Shallow-set interaction rate (birds per 

1,000 hooks observed)

0.048 0.063

Note: There was 20.8% and 20.6% observer coverage in the deep-set fishery 

in 2014 and 2015, respectively, and 100% coverage in the shallow-set 

fishery.

Acknowledgements

NMFS PIRO Sustainable Fisheries staff prepared this 

report, with contributions from K. Sender, H. Wang, and M. 

McCracken at the NMFS Pacific Islands Fisheries Science 

Center, and J. Peschon, and L. Rassel at the NMFS PIRO 

Observer Program. For more information, please contact 

Sarah Ellgen (Sarah.Ellgen@noaa.gov).

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WPFMC, Honolulu, Hawaii.
U.S. Secretary of Commerce

Penny Pritzker

Administrator of National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration and Undersecretary of Commerce

Dr. Kathryn Sullivan

Assistant Administrator for Fisheries

Eileen Sobeck

January 2017

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