U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 930--H 

International Strategic Minerals Inventory 

Summary Report-Natural Graphite 

Prepared as a cooperative eflort among earthscience and mineral-resource agencies of 

Australia, Canada, the Federal Republic of 

Germany, the Republic of South Africa, the 

United Kingdom, and the United States of 

America 
M a jor geologic age units 

Million years Age before present 

Holocene 

QUATERNARY f-- 0.01 

Pleistocene 

u r- r- 2 

Pliocene 6 

N r- 5 

Miocene 0 

z 

w - 24 

Oligocene TERTIARY u r- 38 

Eocene 

r- r- 55 

Paleocene 

63 

Late Cretaceous 

Cretaceous I >- 96 

u r6 Early Cretaceous 

r- N r- 138 

0 Jurassic en 

w 

~ r- 205 

Triassic 

~240 

Permian 

r- 290 

Pennsylvanian 

Carboniferous r---~330 

Mississippian u r- 360 - i5 

Devonian N 

0 

w r- 410 ...J 

<( Silurian £l.. 

r- 435 

Ordovician 

r- 500 

Cambrian 

~570 

u Late Proterozoic 0 r- 900 N 

0 

Middle Proterozoic a: 

w r- 1600 ..... z 

~ 0 Early Proterozoic a: 

~ 

2500 

a: 

al 

~ 

z <( 

u <( 

w w 

:I: a: 

u £l.. 

a: 

<( 
International Strategic Minerals Inventory 

Summary Report-Natural Graphite 

By Ulrich H. Krauss, Helmut W. Schmidt, 

Harold A. Taylor, Jr., and David M. Sutphin 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR 930-H 

Prepared as a cooperative effort among earthscience and mineral-resource agencies of 

Australia, Canada, the Federal Republic of 

Germany, the Republic of South Africa, the 

United Kingdom, and the United States of 

America 

1988 
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

DONALD PAUL HODEL, Secretary 

U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Dallas L. Peck, Director 

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data 

Natural graphite. 

(U.S. Geological Survey circular; 930-H) 

"Prepared as a cooperative effort among earth-science 

and mineral-resource agencies of Australia, Canada, the 

Federal Republic of Germany, the Republic of South 

Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States of 

America." 

Bibliography: p. 

Supt. of Docs. no.: I 19.4/2:930-H 

1. Graphite. I. Krauss, Ulrich H. II. Series: 

U.S. Geological Survey circular; 930-H. 

TN~45.N34 1989 553.8'6 88-600318 

Free on application to the Books and Open-File Reports Section, 

U.S. Geological Survey Federal Center, Box 25425, Denver CO 80225 
FOREWORD 

Earth-science and mineral-resource agencies from several countries 

started the International Strategic Minerals Inventory in order to gather 

cooperatively information about major sources of strategic mineral raw materials. This circular summarizes inventory information about major deposits of 

graphite, one of the mineral commodities selected for the inventory. 

The report was prepared by Ulrich H. Krauss and Helmut W. Schmidt of 

the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR) of the 

Federal Republic of Germany, Harold A. Taylor, Jr., of the U.S. Bureau of 

Mines, and David M. Sutphin of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). It was 

edited by Richard N. Crockett of the British Geological Survey (BGS). 

Graphite inventory information was compiled by Ulrich H. Krauss (chief 

compiler), Manfried Krusona, and Henning G. Saam (BGR); Y. J. Lepinis and 

Michel Prud'homme of the Canadian Department of Energy, Mines and 

Resources (EMR), Mineral Policy Sector (MPS); Roy R. Towner, Australian 

Bureau of Mineral Resources (BMR); Ian Goldberg, South African Department 

of Mineral and Energy Affairs (MEA), Minerals Bureau; Erik C. I. Hammerbeck, MEA, Geological Survey; and James A. Calkins, USGS. 

Additional contributions to the report were made by Lee C. Ranford, 

BMR; Richard N. Crockett, BGS; Antony B. T. Werner and Jan Zwartendyk, 

EMR, MPS; and James A. Calkins and John H. DeYoung, Jr., USGS. 

Director 

iii 

CONTENTS 

Page 

Foreword - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - iii 

Abstract- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 

Part I -Overview - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 

Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 

Uses and supply aspects - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 

The mineral graphite - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 

Nomenclature, commodity subtypes, and quality criteria----- ------------- 4 

Uses of natural graphite - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6 

Distribution of graphite deposits and districts - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8 

Natural graphite resources- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 11 

Crystalline graphite resources - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13 

Amorphous graphite resources- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13 

Natural graphite production - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13 

Conclusions- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 17 

Part II-Selected inventory information for natural graphite deposits and districts ------ 17 

References cited - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 26 

Additional references on natural graphite resources - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 28 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

FIGURE 1. Diagram showing United Nations resource categories used in this report ---- 3 

2. Arrangement of carbon atoms in the hexagonal and rhombohedral unit cells-- 4 

3. The geochemistry of carbon - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5 

4. Map showing location of major graphite deposits and districts in the world - - 9 

5. Distribution of world graphite production, 1973-78, 1979-84, and 1985-86 

by economic class of country---------------------------------- 16 

TABLES 

Page 

TABLE 1. Physical properties of graphite- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 

2. Varieties of graphite and main processing methods - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 

3. Major chemical, physical, and mineralogical properties that affect the 

suitability of graphite to industrial applications - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6 

4. Properties qualifying natural graphite for industrial applications and 

possibilities for substitution- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6 

5. Demand for natural graphite in the United States by type and use; selected 

years 1960-86 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7 

6. Characteristics of types of graphite ore from metamorphic environments------- 10 

7. Resources of crystalline graphite by country, continent, and economic grouping-- 12 

8. Economically recoverable resources of crystalline graphite by economic class 

of country and resource category - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13 

9. Resources of amorphous graphite by country, continent, and economic grouping----- 14 

10. Mine production of graphite by country, continent, and economic grouping, 

1973-86-- - ---- - -- - - - -- - - - - -- - - - -- - - - - -- - - -- -- - - - -- - -- - - - - -- 15 

11. Average annual production of graphite by economic class of country, 1973-86--- 16 

12. Selected information from ISMI records for graphite deposits and districts----- 18 

v 

INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIC MINERALS INVENTORY 

SUMMARY REPORT 

NATURAL GRAPHITE 

By Ulrich H. Krauss, 1 Helmut W. Schmidt, 1 

Harold A. Taylor, Jr., 2 and David M. Sutphin3 

ABSTRACT 

Nat ural graphite is a crystalline mineral of pure carbon 

which normally occurs in the form of platelet-shaped crystals. 

It has important properties, such as chemical inertness, low 

thermal expansion, and lubricity, that make it almost irreplaceable for certain uses such as refractories and steelmaking. Graphite ore types are crystalline (flake and lump) or 

"amorphous" (cryptocrystalline). Refractory applications use 

the largest total amount of natural graphite, while the most 

important use of crystalline graphite is in crucibles for handling molten metals. 

All graphite deposits being mined today are found in the 

following metamorphic environments: (1) contact metamorphosed coal generally is a source of amorphous graphite; (2) 

disseminated crystalline flake graphite comes from syngenetic 

metasediments; and (3) crystalline lump graphite is found in 

epigenetic veins in high-grade metamorphic regions. Graphite 

may also occur as a trace mineral in ultrabasic rocks and 

pegmatites, but these are economically insignificant. 

The world's identified economically exploitable resources 

of crystalline graphite in major deposits are estimated to be 

about 9. 7 million metric tons of concentrate. In-place resources 

of amorphous graphite are about 11.5 million metric tons. Of 

these, less than 2 percent of the crystalline ore and less than 1 

percent of the amorphous ore are in western industrial countries. World mining production of natural graphite rose from 

347,000 metric tons in 1973 to 659,000 metric tons in 1986, 

while the proportion produced by central economy countries 

increased from about 50 percent for the period from 1973 to 

1Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources of the 

Federal Republic of Germany. 

2U.S. Bureau of Mines. 

3U.S. Geological Survey. 

1978 to more than 64 percent in 1979 to 1986. It is estimated 

that crystalline flake graphite accounts for at least 180,000 

metric tons of total annual world mining production of natural 

graphite, and amorphous graphite makes up the rest. 

PART I - OVERVIEW 

INTRODUCTION 

The reliability of future supplies of so-called 

strategic minerals is of concern to many nations. 

This widespread concern has led to duplication of 

effort in the gathering of information on the 

world's major sources of strategic mineral materials. With the aim of pooling such information, a 

cooperative program named International Strategic Minerals Inventory (ISMI) was started in 1981 

by officials of the governments of the United 

States, Canada, and the Federal Republic of Germany. It was subsequently joined by the Republic 

of South Africa, Australia, and the United Kingdom. 

The objective of ISMI reports is to make 

publicly available, in convenient form, nonproprietary data and characteristics of major 

deposits of strategic mineral commodities for policy considerations in regard to short-term, 

medium-term, and long-term world supply. This 

report provides a summary statement of the data 

compiled and an overview of the supply aspects of 
natural graphite in a format designed to be of 

benefit to policy analysts and geologists. Knowledge of the geologic aspects of mineral resources 

is essential in order to discover and develop mineral deposits. However, technical, financial, and 

political decisions must be made and infrastructure must be constructed before ore can be mined 

and processed and the products transported to 

the consumer; the technical, financial, and political aspects of mineral-resource development are 

not specifically addressed in this report. The 

report addresses the primary stages in the supply 

process for natural graphite and includes only 

peripheral considerations of natural graphite 

demand. 

The term "strategic minerals" is imprecise. 

It generally refers to mineral ore and derivative 

products that come largely or entirely from foreign sources, that are difficult to replace, and that 

are important to a nation's economy, in particular 

to its defense industry. Usually, the term implies a 

nation's perception of vulnerability to supply disruptions and of a need to safeguard its industries 

from the repercussions of a loss of supplies. 

Because a mineral that is strategic to one 

country may not be stnitegic to another, no one 

list of strategic minerals can be prepared. The 

ISMI Working Group decided to commence with 

chromium, manganese, nickel, and phosphate. All 

of these studies, plus the studies of platinumgroup metals, cobalt, and titanium have now been 

published. Additional studies on graphite (this 

report), vanadium, tin, tungsten, lithium, and zirconium have been subsequently undertaken. 

The data in the ISMI natural graphite inventory were collected from April 1984 to August 

1985. The report was submitted for review in 

November 1987. The information used was the 

best available in various agencies of the countries 

that contributed to the preparation of this report. 

Those agencies were the Bureau of Mines and the 

Geological Survey of the U.S. Department of the 

Interior; the Geological Survey of Canada and the 

Mineral Policy Sector of the Canadian Department of Energy, Mines and Resources; the Federal 

Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources 

of the Federal Republic of Germany; the Geological Survey and the Minerals Bureau of the Department of Mineral and Energy Affairs of South 

Africa; the Bureau of Mineral Resources, Geology 

and Geophysics of the Australian Department of 

Primary Industries and Energy; and the British 

2 

Geological Survey, a component of the Natural 

Environment Research Council of the United 

Kingdom. 

Deposits (or districts) are selected for the 

inventory on the basis of their present or expected 

future contribution to world supply. Records for 

all deposits compiled by ISMI participants meet 

this general "major deposit" criterion and are 

included in the inventory. 4 

The ISMI record collection and this report 

on natural graphite have adopted the international classification system for mineral resources 

recommended by the United Nations Group of 

Experts on Definitions and Terminology for Mineral Resources (United Nations Economic and 

Social Council, 1979; Schanz, 1980). The terms, 

definitions, and resource categories of this system 

were established in 1979 to facilitate international 

exchange of mineral-resource data; the Group of 

Experts sought a system that would be compatible with the several systems already in use in 

several countries. Figure 1 shows the U.N. 

resource classification used in this report. This 

report focuses on category R1, which covers reliable estimates of tonnages and grades of known 

deposits. The familiar term "reserves," which 

many would consider to be equivalent to r1E or 

RlE, has been interpreted inconsistently and thus 

has been deliberately avoided in the U.N. classification. 

It should be noted that, generally, until a 

deposit has been extensively explored or mined, 

its size and grade are imperfectly defined. In many 

cases, deposit size will prove to be significantly 

larger, sometimes even several times larger, than 

was established when the decision to mine was 

made. Experts with a sound knowledge of a 

deposit and its geologic setting might infer that 

the deposit extends beyond the bounds reliably 

established up to that time. Tonnage estimates for 

such inferred extensions fall into category R2. For 

major deposits, ISMI records show R2 estimates 

in the few cases for which they are readily available. Category R3, postulated but undiscovered 

resources, is not dealt with in this report. Mining 

recovery from an ore body depends on individual 

conditions and may vary considerably, typically 

in the range of 7 5 to 90 percent for underground 

4 No information is provided on deposits that were once significant but whose resources are now considered to be depleted. 
R* 

IN SITU RESOURCESQuantities of economic interest 

for the next few decades 

R1 R3 

KNOWN DEPOSITS- EXTENSIONS OF KNOWN DEPOSITS UNDISCOVERED DEPOSITSReliable 

~ 

estimates AND NEWLY DISCOVERED DEPOSITS- Tentative estimates 

Preliminary estimates 

R1E/ R1jM ~R15 R~25 Economically Marginally Subeconomic 

exploitable economic 

Economically Subeconomic 

exploitable 

*The capital "R" denotes resources in situ; a lower case "r" expresses the corresponding recoverable resources 

for each category and subcategory. Thus, r1E is the recoverable equivalent of R1E. This report deals only 

with R1 and R2, not with R3. 

FIGURE 1.-United Nations resource categories used in this report (modified from Schanz, 1980, p. 313). 

metal mining; that is, 10 to 25 percent of the 

in-place resources cannot be extracted. 

USES AND SUPPLY ASPECTS 

Graphite is one of two naturally occurring 

crystalline forms of carbon; the other is diamond. 

Graphite occurs as a mineral (natural graphite), 

but it can also be produced synthetically (as synthetic graphite, electrographite, or manufactured 

graphite). Sometimes, for example in melting of 

iron ore or ferroalloys, it is a byproduct. In accordance with the goal of the International Strategic 

Minerals Inventory, this report deals only with 

natural graphite. 

THE MINERAl GRAPHITE 

Graphite usually occurs in the form of 

platelet-shaped crystals, although needle forms 

have been observed in deposits such as those in Sri 

Lanka. The crystal lattice of graphite consists of 

layers of hexagonally arranged carbon atoms. The 

two structural varieties of graphite, 2H and 3R, 

result from the manner in which these layers are 

stacked (fig. 2). Variety 3R is rarer than 2H, but 

the two often occur together. Graphite variety 3R, 

which makes up as much as 30 percent of some 

occurrences, is important in some applications. 

The platelet form and excellent basal cleavage of 

most graphite is due to its structure of layers of 

continuous networks of planar hexagonal rings. 

The physical properties of graphite are listed in 

table 1. 

3 

Only a very small proportion of the carbon in 

the Earth's crust is present in elementary form as 

either graphite or diamond. Most carbon is contained in carbonate rocks, such as limestone, and 

in organic matter, bituminous rock, and fossil 

fuels. A schematic diagram of the geochemical 

cycle of carbon and the processes that can lead to 

the formation of graphite is shown in figure 3. 

Nearly all nonelementary carbon in the 

Earth's crust and probably most graphite is biogenic in origin. Non biogenic carbon, of juvenile 

origin, can be identified in a few cases: examples of 

such carbon are diamond; graphite in basic and 

ultrabasic rocks, in meteorites, and in some pegmatites; some carbon dioxide present in volcanic 

gases; and carbon in certain carbonates found in 

hydrothermal veins and in carbonatites. 

TABLE 1.-Physical properties of graphite 

Color: Dark steel gray to iron black; metallic luster 

Streak: Gray to black 

Hardness (Mobs's scale): Y2 to 1 

Density (g/cm3 ): 2.09 to 2.26 

Melting point: about 3,550 oc 

Lubricity (ratio of force required to induce gliding and com· 

pression force perpendicular to gliding plane): 0.15. 

Thermal conductivity at room temperature (watt/em °C): 

a axis: 4.0 

c axis: 0.8 

Thermal expansion coefficient (temperature range 0 to 800 °C): 

a axis: -1x10-7/°C 

c axis: 140x10-7 /°C 

Electrical resistivity at room temperature (ohm cmxl04 ): 

a axis: 1 to 100 

c axis: 10,000 
A A 

3.354 A 

B 

A 

2H 

3R FIGURE 2.-Arrangement of carbon atoms in the hexagonal (2H) and rhombohedral (3R) unit cells. 

NOMENCLATURE, COMMODITY SUBTYPES, 

AND QUALITY CRITERIA 

Terms used in industry for the ores and concentrates from different types of graphite deposits as well as the main processing methods are 

compiled in table 2. Unfortunately, some expressions are used in more than one sense. The term 

"amorphous" graphite is a misnomer commonly 

used in industry for "cryptocrystalline" or "microcrystalline" graphite that can only be distinguished with the aid of a microscope. Misunderstanding may further result because the terms 

"crystalline" and "amorphous" are used ambiguously. For example, fine-grained graphite concentrates ("dust" or "flying dust" with a crystal size 

of >200 mesh) are defined as "amorphous 

graphite" in some trade statistics. A useful 

boundary between crystalline and amorphous 

graphite is the resolution capability of the unaided 

human eye: 0.04-0.07 mm, or 400 to 200 mesh. The 

4 

crystal size of amorphous graphite (0.0001-0.01 

mm) is normally well below this limit. Therefore, in 

TABLE 2.-Varieties of graphite and main processing methods 

Ore type Finished products 

(other terms ·· Processing Percent 

sometimes used) beneficiation fixed carbon Form 

Disseminated Crushing, 75-90 Flake 

flo,ke screening, concentrates 

!crystalline wet grinding, I >8 to>200 

graphite). flotation, Tyler mesh). 

chemical 

purification. 

Lump Hand sorting, Concentrates: 

!vein graphite, washing 90-98 Lump 

massive ores, screening, 85-90 Chip 

plumbago). winnowing. 55-85 Dust 

50-90 Flying dust. 

Amorphous Handpicking, 45-90 Amorphous 

!black lead). crus~g •. !avg80) graphite. 

screenmg, rur classification. 
Ul 

Graphite 

vein deposits 

(lump-ores) 

f+ --?-- --1 Carbonate rocks 

M-morphism and mineralizations ~ 

• 

Bituminous matter 

in sediments, coal, 

peat, hydrocarbons 

• 

-Sedimentation -• 

Magmatic activity ._ 

Biosphere: C in organic 

compounds and carbonates 

(hydrothermal solutions, carbonatites) • 

Graphite .. 

1 in metamorphic 

Metamorphism rocks 

~-Weathering -Photosynthesis 

Graphite 

in pegmatites 

t 

I 

L -- --

Oxidation 

of organic ma~ 

• .. Atmosphere, Hydrosphere: ... C02 

.. Volcanic exhalations~ 

Juvenile carbon 

(from subcrustal sources) 

FIGURE 3.-The geochemistry of carbon. 

Graphite and 

diamond in basic 

and 

ultrabasic rocks 

• 

Magmatic activity_ 

(extrusive and intrusive) 
TABLE 3.-Major chemica~ physica~ and mineralogical properties that affect the suitability of graphite to industrial applications 

Chemical Physical Mineralogical 

Chemical analysis of ore or concentrate 

• Content of graphitic carbon (fixed 

carbon, percent FC). 

Bulk density of concentrates 

Flakiness 

Grain size. 

Crystal size. 

• Ash content 

• Type and amount of volatile 

matter. 

Toughness, tenacity Crystal form, boundaries. 

• Content of sulphur and 

phosphorus. Gliding properties, lubricity Presence of gangue minerals (especially 

sulfides and abrasive silicates). 

Chemistry of the ash 

such amorphous graphite, individual crystals cannot be distinguished, and the metallic luster typical of crystalline graphite is not present. 

The major physical, chemical, and mineralogical properties given in table 3 provide important criteria for the suitability of a graphite or 

graphite ore for industrial applications. Detailed 

descriptions of the properties and the methods of 

determining them are given in special monographs, such as Mantell (1968) or Reynolds (1968). 

Mineral composition of the ash. 

The applicability of a particular graphite product 

for a specific use is normally investigated in semiindustrial pilot tests. 

USES OF NATURAL GRAPHITE 

Although there are materials that may be 

able to compete with graphite in a few applications, the unique combination of physical and 

chemical properties (table 4) which qualify graphTABLE 4.-Properties qualifying natural graphite for industrial applications and possibilities for substitution 

Use Substitution Competitive materials Remarks 

Batteries--------------------- + + Possible Manufactured graphite 

Brake linings----------·----- + + + 

Carbon products (such as 

electrical brushes)-------- + + + Possible Manufactured graphite 

Crucibles, retorts, 

stoppers, sleeves, and 

nozzles--------------------- + + + + + Quantity of suitable 

graphite is decreasing. 

Foundries----···--------·---- + + + Possible Scrap of manufactured 

graphite, calcined coke, 

olivine, zircon. 

Lubricants------------------- + + + + + Sometimes Greases, molybdenite Major uses in applications 

possible where greases or 

molybdenite would not 

withstand thermal and 

chemical conditions. 

Pencils ---------------------·- + + Manufactured graphite 

Refractories----------------- + + + + + Quantity of suitable 

graphite is decreasing. 

Rubber----------------------- + Possible Talc 

Steelmaking---------------·· + Possible Coal, scrap of 

manufactured graphite. 

6 
ite (especially crystalline flake) for industrial applications generally excludes the possibility of substitution by other materials. 

Demand for natural graphite in the United 

States according to type (crystalline or amorphous) and use in selected years from 1960 to 1986 

is given in table 5. Corresponding figures are not 

available for other countries. It may be assumed, 

however, that aside from steel production, a similar structure exists in the other western industrial 

countries. Graphite consumption appears to be a 

function of level of industrial development within 

individual countries. High-grade graphite is in 

demand for specialized applications, but specifications are less critical for most heavy industrial 

purposes. 

As seen in table 5, the following structure is 

probable for graphite demand in industrial countries for 1986: more amorphous graphite is used 

than crystalline graphite, and the heaviest 

demand for graphite occurs in refractories (31 

percent), followed by foundries, brake linings, and 

lubricants (each with about 11 percent), and steelmaking crucibles, batteries, and pencils (with 

about 6 percent each). Other uses, including carbon products, powdered metals, and rubber, 

account for the remainder. 

Crucibles, retorts, stoppers, sleeves, and nozzles.-In the United States (table 5), the most 

important application for crystalline flake graphite was for crucibles and related products such as 

retorts, stoppers, sleeves, and nozzles; recently, 

however, refractory applications have taken precedence. Use of crucibles has been dropping as metal 

production has declined, as larger crucibles have 

replaced smaller crucibles, and as bulk melting 

has removed the need for a crucible. Also, the 

amount of graphite used in crucibles has been 

reduced with the partial shift from the traditional 

clay-graphite crucible to the silicon carbidegraphite crucible that uses less graphite. Growth 

in production of steel-related continuous-casting 

ware, such as alumina/graphite shrouds, has 

partly offset lack of demand for graphite for crucibles and will probably lead to the crucibles and 

related products regaining some of their market 

share. Western industrial countries are following 

these U.S. trends. However, if crucible-using 

metal production increases, use of graphite in crucibles could also rise. In other countries, use in 

crucibles remains the major application, or one of 

two major applications, for crystalline flake 

graphite. 

Foundry applications.-Graphite's use as a 

facing is by far its most important application in 

the foundry. In this application, graphite and a 

small amount of clay, which serves as a suspension agent, are mixed in a carrier, such as water, 

alcohol, or a chlorinated hydrocarbon, to produce 

a paintlike foundry facing. This facing is applied 

as a thin coating to mold surfaces thus providing a 

clean and easy mold release of the metal casting. 

Both amorphous graphite and low-quality crystalline flake graphite can be used; however, synthetic 

graphite powder, coke, talc, mica, or zircon may be 

substituted. 

Refractories.-In the United States (table 5), 

the major application for amorphous and crystalline flake graphite is now in refractories where it 

increases durability, erosion resistance, thermalshock resistance, and thermal conductivity. The 

growth in refractory-related use of amorphous 

graphite occurred earlier, while the growth in this 

use of crystalline flake graphite was mostly after 

1980. While sizable amounts of amorphous graphite are used in shaped refractories such as bricks, 

TABLE 5.-Demand for natural graphite in the United States by type and use; selected years 1960-86 

[Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines, unpublished data. Figures are in thousand metric tons and may not add to totals due to rounding. *=less than 500 metric tons. 

N.r.=None reported] 

1960 1970 1980 1986 

Use Crystalline Amorphous Total Crystalline Amorphous Total Crystalline Amorphous Total Crystalline Amorphous Total 

Batteries ---------- N.r. 1 1 1 * 1 2 * 2 2 * 2 

Brake linings ------ 1 * 1 * 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 4 

Crucibles, retorts, 

stoppers, sleeves, 

and nozzles------ 3 N.r. 3 5 N.r. 5 5 N.r. 5 2 N.r. 2 

Foundries---------- 2 21 23 3 13 15 1 6 7 1 3 4 

Lubricants--------- 4 2 5 * 5 5 1 2 3 1 3 4 

Pencils-------- ----- 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 * 2 2 * 2 

Refractories ------- N.r. 4 4 * 6 6 5 9 14 6 5 11 

Steelmaking------- N.r. 5 5 1 4 5 * 7 7 * 2 2 

Other-------------- 1 N.r. 1 3 5 7 2 4 6 2 2 4 

Total-------- 11 34 45 13 34 46 18 30 48 17 18 35 

7 
much more is used in plastic and castable 

(unshaped) refractories, principally gunning and 

ramming mixes. Almost all the crystalline flake 

graphite for refractory applications goes into 

carbon-magnesite brick. This trend results from 

the development of new techniques and processes 

in iron and steel production, beginning with the 

commercial appearance of gunning and slinging 

several decades ago and then development of 

carbon-magnesite brick almost a decade ago. 

Since newer plants operate at higher temperatures 

and under more extreme conditions, refractories 

had to be upgraded. Changes will continue, as 

shown by the recent appearance of new alumina/ 

graphite refractories and flame gunning and flame 

spraying. New applications are expected to lead to 

an overall increase in graphite consumption. 

Other advanced industrialized countries are 

believed to have a similar use pattern, although 

western Europe appears to consume a higher proportion of crystalline flake graphite than the 

United States. 

Steel production.-Graphite has several 

uses in steel production. In the United States, 

these applications include recarburizing (increasing the carbon content of steel), use as a material 

around stopper rods or around nozzles when hot 

metal is poured into an ingot mold, and even use in 

the mix for making steel parts by powdered metallurgy. Recarburizing can be accomplished by 

using petroleum coke, synthetic graphite powder 

or scrap, and anthracite, in addition to natural 

graphite. The lowest priced form of pure carbon is 

usually the one used. Thus, usage can shift from 

natural to synthetic graphite or petroleum coke 

and back. In the United States, natural graphite 

presently has only a minor part of the recarburizing market. More than 10 times as much synthetic graphite is used for recarburizing, and very 

large amounts of petroleum coke are also used. 

Practice varies from country to country; Japan is 

said to use large amounts of amorphous graphite 

in recarburizing. A few countries, such as Austria 

and North Korea, use low-grade graphite instead 

of coke in blast furnaces. 

Lubricants.-Graphite's properties allow it 

to be used as an excellent lubricant, either as a dry 

powder or mixed with oil or water. Owing to the 

unique combination of this lubricating effect with 

other physical and chemical properties that persist even at high temperatures (for example, low 

chemical reactivity, low coefficient of thermal 

8 

expansion, high thermal conductivity, and low 

friction coefficient), natural graphite is irreplaceable for applications in which other lubricants 

such as molybdenum disulfide would degrade. 

Graphite used as a lubricant should be of high 

purity (>97 percent carbon) and free from abrasive 

components. Mostly synthetic and natural crystalline flake graphite and some Sri Lankan lump 

graphite are used for this purpose. 

DISTRIBUTION OF GRAPHITE DEPOSITS 

AND DISTRICTS 

The world map in figure 4 shows the location 

of 90 major natural graphite deposits and districts in the ISMI graphite inventory. Names and 

numbers of the individual deposits are listed in 

table 12 of Part II. 

Graphite occurs in two distinctly different 

geologic environments: (1) as a result of metamorphism and (2) in basic or ultrabasic rocks as 

phenocrysts (flakes). All flake, lump and chip, and 

amorphous graphite deposits being mined today 

are the products of metamorphism. Minable occurrences of graphite in basic or ultrabasic rocks are 

unknown. 

Metamorphic environments may produce 

either syngenetic or epigenetic graphite deposits. 

Characteristics of graphite from metamorphic 

rocks are listed in table 6. Syngenetic graphite 

mineralization is known in practically all metasedimentary sequences associated with both regional 

and contact metamorphism. The origin of syngenetic graphite has been generally accepted for at 

least 100 years. Syngenetic deposits are composed 

of graphitized coal beds or other highly carbonaceous sedimentary rocks or graphite in other 

metasediments such as schists, gneisses, and marbles. 

Graphitized coals form when coal is converted to fine-grained (amorphous) graphite by 

contact metamorphism from the emplacement of 

igneous rocks in close proximity to coal-bearing 

rocks (Weis and others, 1981). Such graphite, 

which sometimes shows a gradation from coal to 

graphite along strike and often contains relict 

anthracite, may be composed of 45 percent to over 

90 percent fixed carbon. Examples of graphitized 

coal deposits include deposits of amorphous graphite such as those in Sonora, Mexico; Kureika, 

Siberia; Kaiserberg, Steinmark, Austria; Pinerolo, 

Italy; most of the occurrences in Korea; and the 
60° 

00 

40° 

20° 

oo 

20° 

40° 

160° 

,-" y' 

eJ3 

120° 

.;1 

80° 

"\. 

2.3ttl. 4,5,1,~:·1-~12 -· 

•16 

17;iS• •J-4 

•15 ' 

•19, 

MERCATOR PROJECTION 

7~~-

n O_~_O LATITUDE 

__ 70 

1000 500 0 500 1000 KILOMETERS 

Base from Bundesanstalt fur Geow1ssenschaften und Rohst~fie­ Boundary and names representation not necessarily authontat1ve 

40° 

•20,22 

~21 

oo 40° 

,,' 

,~al' ;~; -

·""'!. 

_, ' 9.'':. 34;2~ ".-..o •42., 34-36~· • .111' •:J..,_., ·~ 

•29 

•,30 

•25 

23,24'• 

80° 

.43 

e47 

.48 

45_. 

120° 160° 

:•46 62 19 

66• 65• -.-6.3,64,~ u·:~5o,51 

. . . .• 13 · . . .. . 68e · ~52,53 14.7s.!-l~·72 69 • . . ~54-57 79-81.:--#: . •" 5B-61 

.44 

•26-28 

'7~ _./0. 

82.;. : l8' ,. 83-.85~~~ '' 

•-9,0 

.89 

•sa •-s6~~7 

FIGURE 4.-Location of major graphite deposits and districts in the world. Numbers refer to site numbers in table 12 of Part II. 
TABLE 6.-Characteristics of types of graphite ore from metamorphic environments 

Ore type 

Characteristic Crystalline graphite "Amorphous" graphite Disseminated flake Lump ore 

Description of ores (crystallinity, 

crystal size). 

Well-developed crystal platelets 

(grain size greater than 

Interlocking aggregrates of coarse graphite crystals. 

Microcrystalline (grain size less 

than 0.004 mm, 400 mesh) 

aggregates, earthy black, 

rarely displaying submetallic or metallic luster of graphite. 

Aggregates may contain 

nongraphitized carbonaceous 

material (such as anthracite). 

0.04 mm disseminated or segregated) displaying metallic 

luster disseminated in 

metamorphic rocks (gneisses, 

quartzites, marbles). 

Grade (percent car- bon). 

5 to 30 percent fixed carbon Up to over 98 percent fixed carbon. 40 to 85 percent fixed carbon; 

dependent on carbon content 

of parent coal. 

Ore body Tabular, rarely lenticular; locally as irregular bodies in hinge zones of folds. 

Veins (comb structure at margins) 

generally crosscutting structures related to 

metamorphism; stockworks, 

vugs, and nests. 

Seams, often folded and faulted. 

Geologic environment 

and setting. 

Syngenetic graphite deposits; 

regionally metamorphosed 

metasediment sequences and 

migmatitic terranes. 

Epigenetic deposits; regionally 

metamorphosed (granulitic, 

charnockitic) rocks. Contact 

metasomatic origin has been 

proposed for some deposits 

(such as Botogol'sk). 

Syngenetic deposits of metamorphosed coal seams near younger igneous rocks 

(contact metamorphism) or in 

regional metamorphic 

terranes. 

Examples 

Madagascar deposits, Skaland 

(Norway), Kropfmiiehl 

(Germany), and Reindeer Lake 

(Canada). 

Sri Lanka deposits, Botogol'sk 

(Soviet Union), and Dillon 

(Montana, United States). 

Sonora deposits (Mexico), Kureika 

(Soviet Union), Pinerolo 

(Italy), Kaiserberg-Trieben 

(Austria), Malonga-Mutale 

and Mtubatuba (South 

Africa), and deposits in North 

Korea. 

occurrences of the metamorphosed Ecca coal in 

South Africa. 

Syngenetic graphite deposits in siliceous 

metasediments and, to a lesser extent marbles, are 

the major commercial sources of crystalline flake 

graphite; these deposits may also contain amorphous graphite. They form when original detrital 

organic material is graphitized during regional 

metamorphism of the host shales, sandstones, and 

limestones (Weis and others, 1981). Syngenetic 

graphite is an accessory or trace mineral in practically all metasedimentary sequences associated 

with both regional and contact metamorphism. 

Examples of syngenetic graphite deposits in siliceous metasediments and marbles are Reindeer 

Lake, Saskatchewan; Burnett, Texas; Ashland, 

Alabama; Kigluiak Range, Alaska; deposits in 

Madagascar; deposits in Kenya; Kropfmiihl, 

Bavaria; and Czeskey Krumlov, Czechoslovakia. 

Epigenetic deposits are rare and are of three 

types: fracture-filling veins, replacements, and 

metamorphic segregations (Weis and others, 

1981). Of these, the vein deposits of Sri Lanka are 

10 

the most important economically. The United 

States has graphite vein deposits of scientific 

interest at Dillon, Montana; Ticonderoga, New 

York; and in New Hampshire. The exhausted 

Borrowdale deposit in Cumberland, United Kingdom, is thought to have been a replacement 

deposit (Strens, 1965). 

In Sri Lanka, the deposits are in high-grade 

metamorphic rocks of Archean age (greater than 

2,500 m.y. old). The graphite commonly occurs as 

fracture fillings, especially in openings related to 

structural disturbances that postdate the highgrade metamorphism. Some of this graphite is 

extremely high grade, having over 99 percent fixed 

carbon. Graphite from these deposits is marketed 

as "lump graphite" (chips, dust, and flying dust). 

The origin of vein graphite deposits has long 

been questioned (Winchell, 1911; and Bastin, 

1910, 1912) and is chronicled briefly by Silva 

(1987). There is no doubt that the carbon in graphite veins has been transported. 

Explanations offered for the origin of vein 

graphite include migration in the solid state into 
rock openings (Erdosh, 1970), formation from the 

release of carbon from the chemical breakdown of 

carbonate rocks during metamorphism (Salotti 

and others, 1971), or mobilization in the semifluid 

state aided by magmatic fluids (Dissanayake, 

1981). The debate about the origin of vein graphite 

continues. Recently, Rumble and Hoering (1986), 

Katz (1987), and Silva (1987) have suggested that 

these deposits formed from hydrothermal fluids, 

as do veins in metallic mineral deposits, but they 

disagree on the source of the carbon. Rumble and 

Hoering propose that metamorphism of biogenic 

material in common sediments produced aqueous 

fluids that transported carbon, in the form of 

methane and carbon dioxide, into fluid-filled 

cracks. Graphite precipitated along vein walls 

when fluids having different ratios of methane 

and carbon dioxide were mixed. 

Katz (1987) and Silva (1987) suggest that Sri 

Lankan vein graphite formed under high-pressure 

and high-temperature metamorphic conditions. 

Katz postulated a deep-seated origin for the carbon with only minor biogenic contributions, while 

Silva suggested the graphite at Bogala mine originated from a mixing of pegmatitic fluids with 

those generated during decarbonation of siliceous 

marbles. Possible problems with these suggestions are (1) it would appear that the reactions 

suggested by Rumble and Hoering would require 

movement of methane and carbon dioxide from 

cooler to hotter environments and (2) the processes proposed by both Katz and Silva appear to 

require high pressure and temperature environments, but the veins are post-high-grade deformation and metamorphism. 

Graphite is not susceptible to weathering. 

As a consequence, the weathering of graphitebearing metamorphic rocks may lead to secondary enrichment because of the gradual separation 

of the graphite from silicate gangue material and 

any sulfides present. Such zones of alteration 

above primary graphite occurrences are especially 

good for mining the crystalline flake variety. As a 

result of weathering, the zones can usually be 

mined in open pits and the ore processed to highgrade graphite concentrate at low cost. 

Apart from the deposits shown in figure 4 

and listed in table 12 of Part II, minor deposits 

and occurrences are known in Argentina, Burma, 

Mongolia, Mozambique, Pakistan, Spain, the 

Sudan, Tanzania, Thailand, Thrkey, and Uruguay. 

It proved impossible to collect information in the 

11 

case of numerous deposits and small mines in 

certain countries, especially China, India, Mozambique, North and South Korea, and Zambia. It is 

believed that the deposits included in the inventory represent more than 90 percent of world production and certainly more than 75 percent of 

known world resources. 

NATURAL GRAPHITE RESOURCES 

The value of graphite, like most industrial 

nonmetallic mineral commodities, depends at least 

as much on accessibility and acquisition, processing and transportation costs, consumer habits, 

perceptions regarding the applicability of various 

forms of graphite and graphite substitutes, and 

current political conditions as it does on such 

things as physical form, purity, nature of hnpurities, and the like. 

World graphite resource figures by country 

have not been published, and it is likely that such 

figures have been calculated for only a few countries. Reliable resource estimates for individual 

occurrences are available only in exceptional 

cases, such as for certain Canadian deposits. 

Often, statements like "the recognized and presumed resources should be sufficient for several 

decades at the present rate of use," are th•~ most 

precise estimates found in published sources. 

Also, recent availability of Soviet and Chinese 

data is responsible for a portion of apparent 

changes in graphite resources, production, and 

consumption over the last several years. 

Tables 7 and 8 contain information on inplace and recoverable resources compiled Jfor the 

ISMI graphite inventory and also includE~ some 

conservative estimates. As with any commodity, 

calculation of recoverable product, by applying 

recovery rates for the appropriate processing technology, gives an insight into the resource and 

supply situation. 

Bearing in mind that the figures for in-place 

resources are often gross approximations and that 

sophisticated statistical calculations thus would 

give only an unjustified appearance of aceuracy, 

the following general points may be made: 

• Mining recovery rates are about 90 percent 

and 65 to 7 5 percent in open-pit and underground operations, respectively. 

• During the beneficiation of amorphous 

graphite ores, recovery rates often exeeed 90 

percent. 
TABLE 7.-Resources of crystalline graphite by country, continent, and economic grouping 

[Resource categories (RlE, RlM, and so on) are defined in figure 1. Figures in boldface type represent values for the entire R2 or r2 categories, respectively, without 

assignment to economic and subeconomic categories. Figures are in thousand metric tons of ore (R) or concentrates (r). • =Western industrial countries; other Western 

World countries are classified as developing countries. N.r.=Not reported) 

Tonnage of identified resources, in place Tonnage of recoverable concentrates! 

R2 Percent of r2 

Country RlE RlM RlS E s rlE* worldrlE rlM rlS E s 

Fixed carbon, grade 4-30 4-20 3-14 3-8, Sometimes 85-90 85-90 85-90 85-90 85-90 range in percent npto 25 

WESTERN WORLD 

North and South America 

*Canada---------- 453 3,800 90 N.r. 2,900 36 0.4 230 5 N.r. 140 

*United States--- N.r. 700 N.r. N.r. 23,804 N.r. 21 N.r. N.r. 528 

Mexico---------- 4,400 N.r. N.r. 13,400 N.r. 106 1.1 N.r. N.r. 322 

Brazil2

- ---------- 6,416 4,500 N.r. 16,000 20,000 500 5.2 500 N.r. 1,000 1,800 

Other 

(Argentina, 

Uruguay)------ N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. 1,000 N.r. N.r. N.r. ( 3) 

Total------- 11,269 9,000 90 77,104 642 6.6 751 5 3,790 

Africa 

Zimbabwe-----·- 5,000 N.r. N.r. N.r. 600 6.2 N.r. N.r. 1,200 N.r. 

Madagascar----- 23,000 N.r. N.r. 2,522,000 980 10.1 N.r. N.r. 180,000 

Kenya----------- N.r. N.r. N.r. 1,200 N.r. N.r. N.r. 95 N.r. 

Other 

(Thnzania) ----- N.r. N.r. ·N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. 

Total------- 28,000 N.r. N.r. 2,523,200 1,580 16.3 N.r. N.r. 181,295 

Europe 

*Norway---------- 720 N.r. N.r. 150 N.r. 200 2.1 N.r. N.r. 40 N.r. 

*West Germany-- 650 N.r. N.r. 1,000 N.r. 130 1.3 90 N.r. 600 

*Austria---------- 1,000 N.r. N.r. N.r. 2704 2.8 N.r. N.r. 800 

Total------- 2,370 N.r. N.r. 1,150 600 6.2 90 N.r. 1,440 

Asia 

1\lrkey----------- 180 300 200 N.r. 10 0.1 12 5 N.r. 

India------------ 6,000 N.r. N.r. 33,000 132,000 736 7.6 N.r. N.r. 4,400 6,000 

Sri Lanka5 ------ 100 N.r. N.r. 300 50 0.5 N.r. N.r. 150 N.r. 

South Korea ---- 2,200 800 1,000 11,600 160 1.7 34 20 620 

Other (Burma, 

Thailand, 

Pakistan)------ N.r. N.r. N.r. 1,000 N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. ( 3) 

Total------- 8,480 1,100 1,200 177,900 956 9.9 46 25 11,170 

Australia 

*Australia-------- 13 N.r. 63 4 45 2 0.0 N.r. 7 3 

WESTERN 

WORLD TOO'AL · 50,132 10,100 1,353 2,779,403 3,780 39.0 1,209 37 197,698 

CENTRAL ECONOMY COUNTRIES 

Czechoslovakia-- 3,900 4,200 4,600 N.r. 900 9.3 840 580 N.r. 

Soviet Union---- 25,600 28,400 N.r. 26,000 1,800 18.6 2,000 N.r. 5,000 

China-----·------ 100,000 127,000 ( 3) N.r. 2,500 25.8 5,000 N.r. 4,000 

North Korea---- 6,000 N.r. ( 3) N.r. 700 7.2 300 N.r. 1,000 

Other (Mongolia, 

Vietnam)------ N.r. N.r. ( 3) N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. 1,000 

Total------- 135,500 159,600 4,600 26,000 5,900 61.0 8,140 580 11,000 

WORLD TarAL · · 185,632 169,700 5,953 2,805,403 9,680 100.0 9,027 617 208,698 

ECONOMIC GROUPING 

Western 

industrial 

countries ·-• ·-- 2,836 4,500 153 26,704 638 6.6 341 12 2,111 

Developing 

countries-·-··· 47,296 5,600 1,200 2,752,699 3,142 32.4 546 25 195,587 

Central economy 

countries --·-• • 135,500 159,600 4,600 26,000 5,900 61.0 8,140 580 11,000 

1 'Thking into account both mining losses and benefication losses. 3 Insufficient data to allow estimation. 2 Resources are tentatively classified; for official Brazilian figures see 4 No concentrate production; ores are used for sinter feed. 

table 12. 5 High-grade ore, 50-60 percent fixed carbon. 

12 
TABLE B.-Economically recoverable resources of crystalline 

graphite by economic class of country and resource category 

[Resource figures are in thousand metric tons of graphite recoverable in concentrate 

form and may not add to totals due to rounding. Figures in parentheses are 

percent of column totals) 

Resource category 

Number of 

Economic class1 countries rlE2 All other rl and r23 

Low-income-------- 6 4,266 (44.1) 200,645 (91.9) 

Lower 

middle-income--- 3 1,310 (13.5) 2,517 (1.2) 

Upper 

middle-income--- 3 766 (7.9) 4,296 (2.0) 

Industrial 

market---------- 6 638 (6.6) 2,464 (1.1) 

Eastern European 

nonmarket------- 2 2,700 (27.9) 8,420 (3.9) 

Totals------- 20 9,680 (100) 218,342 (100) 

1 Classification based principally on GNP per capita and in some instances 

oth~r distinguishing characteristics (World Bank, 1986, p. i80-181). Countrie~ havl_Ilg recoverable resources of crystalline graphite (see table 7) are, by class: 

low-mcome economies-China, India, Kenya, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Vietnam; 

~ower middle-in~ome eco~omies-:-North Korea, 'furkey, Zimbabwe; upper middlemcome econormes-Brazil, MeXIco, South Korea; industrial market economiesAustralia, Austria, Canada, Norway, the United States, West Germany; eastern 

European nonmarket economies-Czechoslovakia, the Soviet Union. A sixth economic class, high-income oil exporters, is not listed because those countries do not 

have identified major crystalline graphite deposits. 2 Reliable estimates of economically recoverable resources in known deposits 

(fig.1). 3 Includes recoverable resource categories r1M, r1S, r2E, and r2S (fig. 1). 

• Recovery rates for the beneficiation of crystalline flake graphite ores containing 15 to 30 

percent fixed carbon are about 90 percent. 

Considerably lower recovery rates may apply 

in the beneficiation of lower grade ores. 

CRYSTALLINE GRAPHITE RESOURCES 

Known world resources of recoverable crystalline graphite considered to warrant economic 

exploitation (rlE) are equivalent to 9.7 million 

metric tons of graphite concentrate (table 7). 

Recoverable resources that have been thoroughly 

investigated but that are at present marginally 

economic (riM) or subeconomic (rlS) are estimated to be equivalent to nearly 10 million metric 

tons of concentrate; while recoverable inferred (r2) 

resources are estimated to be about 209 million 

metric tons of concentrate equivalent, only part of 

which would be economic. 

As seen in table 8, about two-thirds of global 

rlE crystalline graphite resources are concentrated in the 12 countries composing the low- and 

middle-income economy classes. The eastern European nonmarket economy class has over one-fourth 

of these world resources. Only about 7 percent of 

these resources are in industrial market economy 

countries. Large rlE resources in central economy 

countries, such as China and the Soviet Union 

however, are in low-grade (3-5 percent) ore which 

would possibly not be economically workable in 

western industrial market economy countries. 

AMORPHOUS GRAPHITE RESOURCES 

The world's three main sources of amorphous graphite are the metamorphosed coal deposits in Sonora, Mexico; the metamorphosed Thnguska coal deposits in Siberia, Soviet Union; and 

the large graphite province stretching from Inner 

Mongolia, China, into North and South Korea. 

Other deposits, such as those in Austria and 

Czechoslovakia, are small in comparison. Additional, possibly major, resources of amorphous 

graphite exist in the metamorphosed Ecca coal of 

South Africa. World resources of economically 

workable (RlE) amorphous graphite amount to 

about 11.5 million metric tons; while inferred 

resources (R2), most of which are in Siberia, are 

estimated to be about 600 million metric tons 

(table 9). These resources have grades in the range 

of 40 to 90 percent fixed carbon, averaging about 

80 percent. No refining is needed for most uses. 

NATURAL GRAPHITE PRODUCTION 

13 

As seen in table 10, world production of 

graphite increased from about 34 7,000 metric tons 

in 1973 to about 659,000 metric tons in 1986. 

There are, however, considerable uncertainties 

inherent in such figures. Sources such as U.S. 

Bureau of Mines' Minerals Yearbook and British 

Geological Survey's World Mineral Statistics 

often are not clear as to whether the estimated 

figures represent ore or concentrate, which may 

differ by a factor of 10 or more. This uncertainty 

makes it difficult to reach detailed assessments 

concerning the distribution of production in individual countries and of production trends among 

country groups; we do not attempt to make such 

assessments here. Despite these limitations, however, two observations may be made from table 

10: 

( 1) The proportion of world mining production by 

the centrally planned economy countries has 

increased significantly from about 50 percent 

in the period from 1973 to 1978 to more than 

63 percent for 1979 to 1984 and 

(2) the proportion of Western World production 

by western industrial countries and develop-
TABLE 9.-Resources of amorphous graphite by country, continent, and economic grouping 

[Figures are in thousand metric tons and may not add to totals due to rounding. *=Western industrial countries; other Western World countries are classified as developing 

countries. N.r.=Not reported. (e)=estimate] 

Resource category 

Country RlE RlM+RlS R2 

WESTERN WORLD 

North America 

*United States······································· 

Mexico··············································· 

Total---········································· 

N.r. 

3,000 

3,000 

1,000 N.r. 

N.r. 10,000 

1,000 10,000 

Africa 

South Africa---~---································· 

Other (Morocco)--··-···--·····---····-···----·····-

Total----········································ 

50(e) 

N.r. 

50 

N.r. 1,000 

N.r. N.r. 

N.r. 1,000 

Europe 

*Italy-··············-·····--·····-···-···--·-·········-

* Austria------------------------------------------···· 

Total---------------------···-····-···········-·· 

N.r. 

50 

50 

N.r. 

N.r. 

N.r. 

N.r. 

1,000 

1,000 

Asia 

South Korea------····-···-·--···-·······--···-····· 

Other (India, Pakistan) ·····--·····---········-··· Total---------------------------················· 

3,000 

N.r. 

3,000 

17,000 25,000 

N.r. N.r. 

17,000 25,000 

Australia 

*Australia---·-····--····--·······---······-··-······· N.r. N.r. N.r. 

WESTERN WORLD TOTAL···-········-···-·· 6,100 18,000 37,000 

CENTRAL ECONOMY COUNTRIES 

Czechoslovakia····-·····---····················-··· 

Romania------··----------------------------------·--

Soviet Union··························-····-········ 

China················································· 

Korea·--····---····--------···------·-··-----··-------

Total---········································· 

52 

300 

1,000 

3,000(e) 

1,000(e) 

5,352 

224 

N.r. 

20,000 1 300,000 

10,000(e) 

330,224 

740 

N.r. 

540,000 

N.r.North 

20,000(e) 

560,740 

WORLD TOTAL---································ 11,452 348,224 597,740 

ECONOMIC GROUPING 

Western industrial countries········-····-······· 

Developing countries--···----·--------------------

Central economy countries--------···-······-···· 

50 

6,050 

5,352 

1,000 

17,000 

330,224 

1,000 

36,000 

560,740 

1 Recent observations suggest that this may be fine-grained crystalline flake rather than amorphous graphite. 

ing countries has remained constant at about 

27 percent and 73 percent, respectively. 

In 1986, the three leading graphiteproducing countries accounted for 62 percent of 

production. China, the largest producer, 

accounted for about 35 percent of natural graphite production; the Soviet Union, the second largest producer, about 17 percent; and South Korea, 

the third largest producer, about 10 percent. 

Some countries, such as Madagascar, Sri Lanka, 

and Zimbabwe, although accounting for a relatively small proportion of total production, are 

important suppliers of high-grade graphite. 

14 

Annual mine production by economic class 

of country (World Bank, 1986, p. 180-181) for the 

period from 1973 to 1986 is given in table 11 and 

figure 5. The proportion of annual mine production attributed to low-income economy countries 

rose significantly during the period as a consequence of major expansions in production, especially in China and India. For the same period, the 

share contributed by upper middle-income economy countries and industrial market economy 

countries decreased, as did the absolute quantities produced in these countries. The decrease in 

production in the upper middle-income economy 
TABLE 10.-Mine production of graphite by country, continent, and economic grouping, 1973-86 

[Source: [United Kingdom] Institute of Geological Sciences, 1978-83; [United Kingdom] British Geological Survey, 1984-86. Figures are in thousand metric tons and may 

not add to totals shown due to rounding. *=Western industrial countries; other Western World countries are classified as developing countries. p=Preliminary, 

W=Withheld, company proprietary; N.r.=Not reported] 

Country 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985p 1986p 

WESTERN WORLD 

Europe 

*West Germany······· 13.5 16.5 13.6 14.0 13.5 11.9 10.3 11.3 10.4 10.6 12.0 12.4 12.8 13.2 

*Italy-················· 4.2 2.4 1.5 3.8 3.8 4.1 4.1 4.0 3.5 3.2 2.3 N.r. N.r. N.r. 

*Norway---·--········- 6.9 9.7 8.9 9.1 9.1 11.2 11.9 10.4 6.9 7.5 8.1 10.1 2.3 N.r. 

*Austria·-·····-······· 17.2 29.5 30.6 33.1 35.3 40.5 40.5 36.7 23.8 24.5 40.4 43.8 30.8 35.0 

Turkey---·········-··· N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. 0.2 0.2 N.r. 3.4 4.8 4.5 N.r. N.r. 

Total----········ 41.8 58.1 54.6 60.0 61.7 67.7 67.0 62.5 44.7 49.1 67.6 70.8 45.9 48.2 

Asia 

Burma················ 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.4 1.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 

India···---·-····----· 4.3 5.1 5.9 7.8 11.6 14.5 13.9 14.7 20.2 13.1 13.6 13.0 9.4 10.3 

South Korea1 --······ 43.6 104.9 47.2 41.7 66.0 56.3 56.7 60.6 34.9 27.0 33.3 58.6 71.5 67.0 

Sri Lanka---····--··· 7.8 9.4 10.4 8.3 8.9 10.5 9.4 7.8 7.6 8.8 5.8 5.6 7.4 7.3 

Thailand--············ N.r. N.r. N.r. .0 . 0 . 0 N.r . 2.1 1.8 .6 .0 N.r . N.r. N.r. 

Total········---· 55.9 119.8 63.7 58.0 86.6 81.6 80.3 85.6 65.9 49.7 53.0 77.4 88.5 84.5 

Africa 

Madagascar······--·· 14.0 17.3 17.8 17.4 15.7 16.6 14.2 12.3 13.3 15.4 13.5 14.0 14.0 14.0 

*South Africa·····---· 1.0 1.6 . 5 .5 .9 .6 .4 N.r . N.r N.r N.r N.r N.r N.r 

Zimbabwe····-······· N.r. N.r. N.r. 5.0 3.0 5.7 5.7 7.4 11.2 8.2 19.9 12.3 10.0 9.1 

Total······-····· 15.0 18.8 18.3 22.9 19.6 22.9 20.4 19.6 24.6 23.6 33.4 26.3 24.4 23.1 

North America 

Mexico2 -··---······-- 65.4 62.6 60.8 60.3 58.4 52.3 50.9 44.9 42.3 36.2 44.3 41.5 35.4 37.3 

*Canada···-··--······- N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. 1.0 4.0 N.r. 1.2 0.0 N.r. N.r. 

*United States--······ w w w N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. N.r. 

Total······-····· 65.4 62.6 60.8 60.3 58.4 52.3 50.9 45.9 46.3 36.2 45.5 41.5 35.4 37.3 

South America 

Argentina·····-······ 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

BraziP---···-·······-- 2.8 5.5 5.3 6.0 9.2 10.4 10.9 21.3 17.5 15.4 16.5 30.0 27.2 28.8 

Total·····-······ 2.9 5.6 5.3 6.1 9.3 10.4 10.9 21.3 17.5 15.4 16.5 30.0 27.2 28.8 

WESTERN 

WORLDTarAL··· 181.0 264.8 202.7 207.4 235.6 234.8 229.4 234.8 198.9 173.9 216.0 246.8 221.4 221.9 

CENTRAL ECONOMY COUNTRIES 

Romania·······-······ 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 11.3 12.4 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.6 12.4 12.0 12.0 

Czechoslovakia4 -----. 25.0 39.0 45.2 33.8 49.2 46.4 51.0 50.7 54.0 55.0 60.0 60.0 60.0 60.0 

Soviet Union · · · · · ·-· · 85.3 90.7 90.7 95.3 95.3 100.0 100.0 100.0 105.0 105.0 110.0 110.0 110.0 110.0 

China·····---····-·--- 29.9 40.8 49.9 49.9 59.9 79.8 182.3 159.7 184.2 185.1 185.1 185.0 200.0 230.0 

North Korea · · · · · · ·-- 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 

Total------······ 166.2 196.5 211.8 204.9 230.3 257.6 370.7 347.9 380.7 382.6 392.7 392.4 407.0 437.0 

WORLD TarAL ···---· 347.2 461.4 414.4 412.3 465.3 492.3 600.1 582.7 579.6 556.5 608.7 638.4 628.4 658.9 

ECONOMIC GROUPING 

Western industrial 

countries · ·-· · · · · ·-- 42.8 59.6 55.1 60.5 62.6 68.3 67.2 63.3 48.7 45.7 64.0 66.3 45.9 48.2 

Developing 

countries · · · · · · · ·--- 138.2 205.2 147.6 146.9 173.0 166.5 162.2 171.6 150.2 128.2 152.0 179.7 175.5 173.7 

Central economy 

countries--·-····-·- 166.2 196.5 211.8 204.9 230.3 257.6 370.7 347.9 380.7 382.6 392.7 392.4 407.0 437.0 

1 South Korea, amorphous and crystalline graphite. Production of crystalline graphite 1973: 892; 1974: 1,660; 1975: 2,339; 1976: 3,413; 1977: 3,446; 1978: 2,534; 1979: 

2,453; 1980: 1,429; 1981: 842; 1982: 627; 1983: 695. 2 Mexico, amorphous and crystalline graphite since 1980. Production of crystalline graphite 1980: 348; 1981: 1,152; 1982: 1,804; 1983: 1,658. 3 Brazil, figures refer to concentrate produced. In addition to this, a 14-percent fixed carbon ore is mined near Itauna/MG (about 13,000 metric tons in 1984) and shipped 

directly to local consumers. 4 Czechoslovakia, mine output of ores originating from operations in Bohemia (crystalline graphite) and Moravia (microcrystalline, amorphous graphite). Mine output 

in Bohemia 1975: 30,158 and 1980: 37,597. Some figures on concentrate production of Czechoslovakia 1978: 13,630; 1979: 14,600; 1980: 15,700; 1981: 20,317; 1982: 21,977; 

1983: 26,666. 

15 
TABLE 11.-Average annual production of graphite by economic class of country, 1973-86 

[Figures are in thousand metric tons and may not add to totals due to rounding. Figures in parentheses are percent of column totals] 

Average annual production 

No. of 

Economic class1 countries 1973-78 1979-84 1985-86 

Low-income----------------------------------- 5 84.5 (19.7) 216.8 (36.7) 246.3 (38.3) 

Lower middle-income ----------------------- 4 22.3 (5.2) 38.7 (6.6) 34.8 (5.4) U~r middle-income----------------------- 5 125.7 (29.3) 105.5 (17.9) 133.6 (20.8) 

In ustrial market--------------------------- 6 57.3 (13.3) 57.0 (9.7) 47.1- (7.3) 

Eastern European nonmarket------------- 3 139.5 (32.5) 172.6 (29.2) 182.0 (28.3) 

Total------------------------------------ 23 429.4 (100) 590.6 (100) 643.7 (100) 

1 Classification based principally on GNP per capita and, in some instances, other distinguishing characteristics (World Bank, 1986, p. 180-81). Countries having 

annual production of graphite (see table 10) are, by class: low-income econoJilies-Burma, China, India, Madagascar, Sri Lanka; lower middle-income economies-North 

Korea, Thailand, Turkey, Zimbabwe; upper middle-income economies-Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, South Africa, South Korea; industrial market economies-Austria, 

Canada, Italy, Norway, the United States, West Germany; eastern European nonmarket economies-Czechoslovakia, Romania, the Soviet Union. A sixth economic class, 

high-income oil exporters, is not listed because those countries did not have graphite production between 1973 and 1986. 

countries (which includes Mexico and South 

Korea) was partly a consequence of the depressed 

market for amorphous graphite. 

A shortcoming in the production figures is 

that classification by graphite product type, crystalline or amorphous, is available only for a few 

countries. Goosens (1982) estimated that in 1976 

only about 8 percent of world mining production, 

or about 37,000 metric tons, was crystalline flake 

graphite. A rough estimate based on the production figures for each country having deposits of 

crystalline graphite indicates a possible annual 

1973-78 1979-84 1985-86 

429.4 thousand metric tons 590.6 thousand metric tons 643.7 thousand metric tons 

l:ij-jlj.:]j_:·.j]j··:j:,:j_j;·::l low-income economies 

- lower middle-income economies 

[]]]]] Upper middle-income economies 

~ Industrial market economies 

~ East European nonmarket economies 

FIGURE 5.-Distribution of world graphite production, 1973-78, 1979-84, and 1985-86 by economic class of country. Economic 

classes are modified fro,m the World Bank (1986, p. 180-81) classification which is based principally on GNP per capita and, 

in some instances, other distinguishing characteristics. Countries having annual production of graphite (see table 10) are, by 

class: low-income economies-Burma, China, India, Madagascar, Sri Lanka; lower middle-income economies-North Korea, 

Thailand, 'fur key, Zimbabwe; upper middle-income economies-Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, South Africa, South Korea; 

industrial market economies-Austria, Canada, Italy, Norway, the United States, West Germany; eastern European 

nonmarket economies-Czechoslovakia, Romania, the Soviet Union. A sixth economic class, high-income oil exporters, is not 

listed because those countries did not have graphite production between 1973 and 1986. 

16 
world production of flake graphite of at least 

180,000 metric tons. At the present annual rate of 

production, it may be assumed that there will be 

no exhaustion of flake graphite resources in the 

foreseeable future. 

While the information is incomplete, it is 

known that the main producers of crystalline 

graphite concentrates are China, North Korea, 

India, Brazil, and Madagascar, each of which provides more than 10 percent of the total and collectively about 60 percent. Sri Lanka, the Soviet 

Union, Norway, Zimbabwe, and Czechoslovakia 

each account for 5 to 10 percent of world crystalline graphite production and together produce 33 

percent of the total. Annual world production of 

top quality crystalline graphite concentrates 

recently has been about 80,000 metric tons. Such 

high-priced grades are produced by Madagascar, 

Sri Lanka, Brazil, China, and the Federal Republic 

of Germany. 

CONCLUSIONS 

Natural graphite is strategic because of its 

use in crucibles and refractories related to metal 

production and because of the uneven global distribution of economically workable graphite 

resources. The main types of natural graphite are 

crystalline flake, crystalline lump, and amorphous. 

Each type of graphite has its individual set of 

characteristics and uses and originates from a 

specific type of deposit. 

There are no equally suitable substitutes for 

crystalline flake graphite in applications such as 

crucibles and carbon-magnesite bricks. The quantities consumed are fairly large and in several 

applications are growing. In-place world resources 

of recoverable crystalline flake graphite in economically workable deposits are enormous, equivalent 

to 9.7 million metric tons of concentrate, compared with a current consumption of an estimated 

180,000 metric tons of concentrate; only a small 

percentage of these resources, however, is in indus17 

trial market economy countries, but these countries do have sizable uneconomic and inferred 

resources. 

Amorphous graphite competes with other 

materials such as coal or manufactured graphite 

in certain major applications such as steel production. Price determines whether graphite or a competitive material is used. In-place world resources 

of economically minable ore of natural amorphous 

graphite are about 11.5 million metric tons with 

an additional 950 million metric tons of marginal, 

subeconomic, and inferred resources. The main 

economically exploitable resources of amorphous 

graphite are in Mexico, South Korea, and China. 

Together these countries have about 80 percent of 

world economic resources and over one-third of 

the remaining reported uneconomic and inferred 

resources of amorphous graphite. 

PART II-SELECTED INVENTORY 

INFORMATION FOR NATURAL GRAPHITE 

DEPOSITS AND DISTRICTS 

Table 12 contains information from the International Strategic Minerals Inventory record 

forms for natural graphite deposits and districts. 

Only selected items of information about the geology, mineral production, and resources of the 

deposits are listed here; some of this information 

has been abbreviated because of space limitations. 

Summary descriptions and data are presented in the table as closely as possible to the way 

that they were reported in the inventory records. 

Data that were reported in units other than metric 

tons have been converted to metric tons for comparability. Some of the data in the table are more 

aggregated than in the inventory records, such as 

cumulative production totals that for some mines 

have been reported by year or by groups of years. 

Some of the abbreviations used in the inventory 

record forms have been used in this table; they are 

explained in the headnotes. 
TABLE 12.-.c..Selected infonnation from 

Site name: Numbers in parentheses (1 through 90) correspond to deposits shown in figure 4. 

Ore type: Flake= crystalline, disseminated flakes; Lump=crystalline, lump ore. 

Site name (no.) 

Pollon Lake (1) ------------------------

Graphex (2) ----------------------------

Orwell (3) -------------------------------

Todd property (4) ---------------------

Ryerson (5)-----------------------------

North American mine (6)------------

Graphite Lake (7)---------------------

Coronation (8) -------------------------

Cornell property (9) ------------------

Timmins mine (10)--------------------

Globe graphite mine (11) ------------

Kirkham graphite property (12) ---

Kigluaik Mountains, Alaska (13) --

Burnet-Llano district, Texas (14) --

Clay, Coosa, Chilton Counties, 

Alabama (15)---------------------

Raton deposit, New Mexico (16) ---

Lourdes (17) ---------------------------

Tonichi (18) ----------------------------

Telixtlahuaca (19)---------------------

Pedra Azul (20) -----------------------

ltapecerica (21) -----------------------

ltanhem (22)---------------------------

Latitude 

56° 23'N. 

46° 08'N. 

46° 21'N. 

45° 34'N. 

45° 35'N. 

45° 31'N. 

45° 43'N. 

45° 17'N. 

44° 44'N. 

44°44'N. 

44 o 51'N. 

44° 33'N. 

65° 02'N. 

30° 47'N. 

33° 16'N. 

36° 50'N. 

28° 36'N. 

28° 37'N. 

17° 20'N. 

15° 53'S. 

20° 26'S. 

17° 06'S. 

Longitude 

CANADA 

103° 07'W. 

75° 33'W. 

75° 33'W. 

79° 27'W. 

79° 32'W. 

75° 33'W. 

79° 04'W. 

77° 56'W. 

76° 09'W. 

76° 18'W. 

76° 09'W. 

76° 34'W. 

UNITED STATES 

Ore type 

Flake 

----- do.-----------------···-· 

--··-do.·----······------····-

---·· do.·------·-····-·---···· 

----· do.------··········------

---·- do.------·········-------

----- do.----·················· 

----- do.-------------········· 

··· -- do.··············--------

----- do.-----------·-"······--

----- do.--------·············-

····· do.------·---------------

165° 32'W. Flake 

98 o 21 'W. -----do.----------------------

85 o 50'W. ·····do.-----················· 

104° 32'W. Amorphous 

MEXICO 

110° 30'W. Amorphous 

109° 34'W. -----do.----------------------

96° 52'W. Flake, weathering 

BRAZIL 

41 o 08'W. Flake, weathering 

45° 08'W. ----- do.·-----·--·---·-------· 

40° 21'W. Lump 

18 

Mining method 

Surface 

Underground 

Surface 

Surface 

----- do.------------·----------

----- do.-----------------------
ISM! records for graphite deposits and districts 

Resources: includes, for various resource categories, some or all of the following items (separated by semicolons): resource in thousand metric tons; 

U.N. resource classification (United Nation's Economic and Social Council, 1979; Schanz, 1980); grade (FC=fixed carbon). A comment on 

resources may also be included. 

···, not available. 

Status Resources 

CANADA-Continued 

Inactive 

Active 

I,633; RIM; I0.3 percent FC 

453.5; RIE; 10 percent FC 

Planned producer 

Inactive 

I,757; RIM+RIS+R2S; 7.2 percent FC 

3,000; R2S; 3.2 percent FC 

·····do.------------------------

Past producer 

Inactive 

-----do. ------------------------

Large 

-----do. ------------------------ 907; R2S; 10 percent FC 

Past producer 206.2; R1M; 6 percent FC. 

454; RIM+ RIS+ R2S. 

-----do.------------------------ 91; RIS; 8 percent FC 

Inactive I94; R1M; 10.8 percent FC. 

272; R2S; IO percent FC. 

UNITED STATES-Continued 

Past producer 65; R2S; 52 percent FC 

-----do. ------------------------ 400; R2E; 5 percent FC 

-----do. ------------------------ 300; R2E 

Inactive 

MEXICO-Continued 

Active 900; RIE; 75-80 percent FC. 

2,000; R2E; 75-80 percent FC. 

-----do. ------------------------ 2,000; R1E 

-----do. ------------------------ 4,400; RIE; 4 percent FC. 

13,400; RIM. 

BRAZIL-Continued 

Active 26,800; RIE; Il.9 pet:cent FC. 

20,300; R2E. 

-----do.------------------------ 383; R1E; I5.7 percent FC. 

2IO; R2E. 

2. 778; R1E; 40 percent FC 

19 

Reference 

Guliov (1984). 

Lamarche (I976, I98I). 

Northern Miner (1982, 1983). 

Villard (I982), Villard and Garland 1983). 

Do. 

Spence (1920). 

Davidson (I982), Papertzian and Kingston 

(I982). 

Meyn (1982, 1983). 

Hewitt (I965), Stone (I960). 

Kingston and Papertzian (1984), Industrial 

Minerals (I982). 

Papertzian and Kingston (I982), Spence 

(I920). 

Do. 

Sainsbury (I969), Coats (1944). 

Cameron and Weis (1960), Paige (I911). 

Prouty (1923), Clemmer and others (I94I). 

Lee (1913, I924). 

Weis and Salas (1978). 

Do. 

Zamora Montero (1975). 

Guimaraes (I973). 

Do. 

Do. 
Site name (no.) 

Gumbu graphite mine (23) ---------

Malonga graphite mine (24)--------

Lynx mine (25) -----------------------

Vatomandry area (26) ---------------

Ambatomitamba-Sahanovo area (27)--------------------------

Perinet-Ambatovy area (28) -------

Oldoinyo-Nyiro (29) -----------------

Chawia (30) ---------------------------

Skaland-Senja (31) ------------------

Kropfmuehl (32) ---------------------

Pinerolo (33) --------------------------

Doppl-Muehldorf-Zettlitz (34) -----

Kaisersberg (35) ---------------------

Trieben (36)---------------------------

Cesky Krumlov (37) -----------------

Mestsky-Vrch (38)-------------------

Kolledeye (39) ------------------------

Velke Vbrno-Konstantin (40) ------

Baia deFier (41) ---------------------

Latitude 

22° 19'S. 

22° 39'S. 

19° 21'S. 

18° 21'S. 

18° 56'S. 

00° 45'N. 

03° 28'S. 

69° 27'N. 

TABLE 12.-Selected information from ISM! records 

Longitude Ore type Mining method 

SOUTH AFRICA 

30 o 40'E. Flake 

30° 53'E. 

ZIMBABWE 

29° 26'E. 

MADAGASCAR 

49° 01'E. 

49° 06'E. 

48° 27'E. 

KENYA 

Amorphous Surface 

Flake Underground 

Flake, weathering Surface 

----- do.----------------------- ----- do.-----------------------

----- do.----------------------- ----- do.-----------------------

37° OO'E. Flake, weathering 

38° 23'E. ----- do.----------------------- Surface 

NORWAY 

17° 17'E. Flake Underground 

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY · 

44° 53'N. 

48° 23'N. 

47° 21'N. 

47° 29'N. 

48° 48'N. 

48° 51'N. 

49° 13'N. 

45° 14'N. 

ITALY 

07° 19'E. 

AUSTRIA 

15° 27'E. 

15° 04'E. 

14° 30'E. 

Amorphous 

Flake 

Amorphous 

----- do.-----------------------

CZECHOSLOVAKIA 

14 o 18'E. -----do.-----------------------

14 o 27'E. -----do.-----------------------

17° 20' E. Amorphous 

ROMANIA 

23° 45'E. Amorphous 

20 

Underground 

Surface 

Underground 

----- do.-----------------------

Underground 

----- do.-----------------------

Surface and underground 

Surface 

Surface and underground 
for graphite deposits and districts-Continued 

Status 

Past producer 

Active 

Resources (thousand metric tons) 

SOUTH AFRICA-Continued 

ZIMBABWE....:...Continued 

Active 600; r1E; 80-82 percent FC (huge additional 

resources). 

MADAGASCAR-Continued 

Active 2,000; R1 + R2; 7 percent FC 

-----do.------------------------ 2,000; R1E+R1M; 5-10 percent FC 

-----do. ------------------------

Planned producer 

Past producer 

Active 

KENYA-Continued 

1,200; R2; 13 percent FC 

NORWAY -Continued 

180; r1E; 84-88 percent FC 

Reference 

Whiteside (1976), Wilke (1969). 

Do. 

Taupitz (1973), Stagman (1978). 

Rantoanina (1962), Rasoamahenina (1966). 

Chantraine (1968). 

Rantoanina (1962), Rasoamahenina (1966). 

Pohl and Horkel (1980), Pulfrey (1969). 

Pohl and Horkel (1980), Stewart (1963). 

Doughty (1975). 

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY -Continued 

Active 300; R1E; 20-30 percent FC (estimate) Topper (1961), von Guttenberg (1974). 

ITALY -Continued 

Past producer Depleted 

AUSTRIA-Continued 

Active 1,000; R1E 

-----do. ------------------------ 50; R1E; 40-90 percent FC. 

1,000; R2E; 40-90 percent FC. 

-----do. ------------------------

CZECHOSLOVAKIA-Continued 

Active 15-17 percent FC 

Planned producer 50; r1E; 80 percent FC. 

530; R1E; 15 percent FC (estimate). 

-----do. ------------------------ 12 percent FC 

Active 2,000; R1 + R2; 30 percent FC. 

200; r1E; 40-60 percent FC (estimate). 

ROMANIA-Continued 

Active 300; R1E; 32 percent FC. 

58; r1E; 70 percent FC (estimate). 

Kuzvart (1984). 

Klar (1957), Metz (1938, 1940). 

Do. 

Kuzvart (1984), Stutzer (1911), Formanek and 

others (1963). 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Wagner (1977), Panu and others (1967). 
Site name (no.) 

Zaval'e (42) --------------------------

Tayginsk (43) ------------------------

Taskazgan (44) ----------------------

Botogolsk (45)-----------------------

Boyarsk (46) -------------------------

Kureyka (47)-------------------------

Noginskoje (48) ---------------------

Soyusnoye (49) ----------------------

Kanggye deposits (50)-------------

Kaechon (51)·------------------------

Songjin deposits (52)--------------· 

Yonghung deposits (53)-----------

Gun-Ja (54)--------------------------

Shihung (55)-------------------------

Pyongtack (56)----------------------

Yongwon (57)------------------------

Taehung (58)-------------------------

Pongmyong (59) --------------------

Wolmyong (60) ----------------------

Kaerim (61) --------------------------

Heling (62) ---------------------------

Jixi (Liu Mao) (63)------------------

Xing He (64)-------------------------

Panshi (65)---------------------------

Hohot (66) ---------------------------

Shandong Peninsula (67) ----------

Latitude 

48° 12'N. 

55° 38'N. 

40° 49'N. 

52° 28'N. 

51 o 51'N. 

66° 29'N. 

64° 30'N. 

47° 55'N. 

40° 58'N. 

39° 40'N. 

40° 40'N. 

39° 50'N. 

37° 21'N. 

37° 10'N. 

37° 02'N. 

36° 55'N. 

36° 35'N. 

36° 43'N. 

36° 25'N. 

36° 15'N. 

46° 19'N. 

45°17'N. 

40° 53'N. 

43° 07'N. 

40° 49'N. 

36° 50'N. 

TABLE 12.-Selected information from ISMI records 

Longitude Ore type Mining method 

SOVIET UNION 

30° 02'E. 

60° 39'E. 

63° 23'E. 

100° 45'E. 

106° 06'E. 

87° 10'E. 

91 o 15'E. 

130° 56'E. 

Flake, weathering Surface 

Flake -----do.~----------------------

Crystalline (flake or lump?) -----do.-----------------------

Lump, flake Underground 

Flake 

Amorphous Surface and underground 

-----do.--------------------~--- Underground 

Flake Surface 

NORTH KOREA 

126 o 36'E. Crystalline (flake or lump?) Surface 

125° 58'E. 

129° 12'E. 

127° 26'E. 

Amorphous 

Flake 

Amorphous 

-----do.-----------------------

Surface and underground 

SOUTH KOREA 

126 o 49'E. Flake, weathering Surface 

126° 45'E. 

127° 28'E. 

127° 40'E. 

126° 55'E. 

128° 09'E. 

127° 45'E. 

-----do.------------------------ ----- do.----------------•------

----- do.------------------------ -----do.-----------------------

----- do.--~-------------·-------- -----do.-----------------------

Flake 

Amorphous 

-----do.------------------------ Underground 

128° 20'E. -----do.------------------------

CHINA 

129° 33'E. Amorphous 

131 o OO'E. 

113° 53'E. 

125° 59'E. 

111 o 37'E. 

120° 40'E. 

22 

-----do.------------------------ Surface 

Flake 

Amorphous Underground 

Crystalline (flake or lump?) Surface 

Flake -----do.-----------------------
for graphite deposits and districts-Continued 

Status Resources (thousand metric tons) 

SOVIET UNION-Continued 

Active 38,000; R1 + R2; 5-6 percent FC (estimate) 

-----do. ------------------------ 1,116; R1 + R2; 2.4-3 percent FC 

----- do. ------------------------ 7 ,000; R1E; 11 percent FC. 

13,000; R2. 

----- do. ------------------------ Small 

Inactive Huge; 5 percent FC 

Intermittent producer 9,785; R1M. 

87 ,000; R2E; 80-95 percent FC. 

Active 1,000; R1E. 

10,000; R1M; 85 percent FC 

-----do. ------------------------ 8,200; R1E; 15-20 percent FC 

NORTH KOREA-Continued 

Active 

----- do. ------------------------

-----do. ------------------------ 100; r1E (estimate of concentrate) 

-----do. ------------------------

SOUTH KOREA-Continued 

Active 

-----do. ------------------------ 1,300; R1 + R2; 3.5 percent FC 

-----do. ------------------------ 707; R1 + R2; 2.4 percent FC 

-----do.------------------------ 40; R1 + R2; 11.7-14.6 percent FC 

-----do. ------------------------

-----do. ------------------------ 15,000; R1E (estimate). 

10,000; R1M +IUS (estimate). 

12,000; R2E (estimate). 

-----do. ------------------------

Reference 

Korzhinskiy and others (1978), Shpak (1972). 

Kuzakov (1979), Kuzvart (1984). 

Baranov and Kromskaya (1983). 

Conolly (1975), Lobozova and others (1971). 

Kuzakov (1979), Kuzvart (1984). 

Britan and Rubanov (1972). 

Kuzakov (1979), Kuzvart (1984). 

Onikhimovskiy and others (1976). 

Gallagher and others (1962). 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Kim and others (1972). 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Gallagher and others (1962), Kim and others 

(1972). 

Do. 

-----do. ------------------------ 150; R1E; 85 percent FC (1944 estimate) Do. 

CHINA-Continued 

Active Zhaoyang and Yantang (1984), Vei Chow 

(1946). 

Inactive 300,000; R1E; 85 percent FC (suitable for Do. 

surface operation). 

Active Major producer in Inner Mongolia Do. 

-----do. ---------------~-------- 1,000; R1 + R2 (1942 estimate) Do. 

-----do. ------------------------ Do. 

-----do. ------------------------ 2,000; r1E. Do. 

2,000; r1M +r1S. 

5,900; r2 (estimate of run of mill ores is 

4-5 percent FC). 

23 
Site name (no.) 

Honan deposits (68)----------------

Hunan (69) ---------------------------

Haikou (70) --------------------------

Khamdih (71) ------------------------

Sokra (72) ----------------------------

Thmatia mines (73) -----------------

Sargipali area (74) ------------------

Dandatapa area (75) ---------------

Titlagarh area (76)------------------

'lbmdibandh-Phulbani area (77)--

Srikakulam (78) ---------------------

Visakhapatnam (79)----------------

East Godavari (80) -----------------

Khammam (81)----------------------

Madurai (82)-------------------------

Kahatagaha-Kolongaha (83)------

Bogala (84)---------------------------

Rangala (85) -------------------------

Uley mine (86)-----------------------

Koppio (87) --------------------------

Munglinup River (88) --------------

Undercliff (89)-----------------------

Jack's Creek (90) -------------------

Latitude 

32° 36'N. 

26° OO'N. 

20° 05'N. 

23° 58'N. 

23° 58'N. 

23° 37'N. 

20° 54'N. 

20° 48'N. 

20° 12'N. 

19° 50'N. 

18° 20'N. 

17° 23'N. 

17° 23'N. 

10° 04'N. 

07° 34'N. 

07° 08'N. 

07° 07'N. 

34° 48'S. 

34° 25'S. 

33° 30'S. 

28° 39'S. 

20° 40'S. 

TABLE 12.-Selected information from ISMI records 

Longitude Ore type Mining method 

CHINA-Continued 

113° 53'E. 

113° OO'E. 

110° 25'E. 

INDIA 

84° 13'E. 

84° 08'E. 

74° 30'E. 

83° 05'E. 

84° 36'E. 

83° 22'E. 

83° 38'E. 

83° 06'E. 

82° 56'E. 

81 o 51'E. 

81 o 20'E. 

77° 50'E. 

SRI LANKA 

Amorphous Underground 

Surface 

Flake, lump Surface 

-----do.------------------------ -----do.-----------------------

Flake -----do.-----------------------

Flake, lump -----do.-----------------------

-----do.------------------------ -----do.-----------------------

----- do.------------------------ ----- do.-----------------------

----- do.------------------------ -----do.-----------------------

----- do.------------------------

-----do.------------------------ Surface 

-----do.------------------------ -----do.-----------------------

-----do.------------------------ Surface and underground 

-----do.------------------------ Surface 

80 o 32'E. Lump Underground 

80 o 17'E. -----do.------------------------ -----do.-----------------------

800 20'E. -----do.------------------------ -----do.-----------------------

AUSTRALIA 

135 o 42'E. Flake, weathering Surface and underground 

135 o 54'E. Amorphous? -----do.-----------------------

120° 51'E. Flake -----do.-----------------------

152° 12'E. Amorphous Surface 

147° 52'E. -----do.------------------------ Surface and underground 

24 
for graphite deposits and districts-Continued 

Status Resources (thousand metric tons) 

CHINA-Continued 

Active 

-----do.------------------------

-----do. ------------------------

INDIA-Continued 

Active 

-----do.------------------------

-----do.------------------------ 1,120; RIM+ R2E; 14.1 percent FC 

-----do. ------------------------

-----do.------------------------

-----do. ------------------------

----- do. ------------------------

Active 

-----do. ------------------------

-----do. ------------------------

-----do.------------------------ 130; RlE; 19.5 percent FC (estimate) 

SRI LANKA-Continued 

Active 

-----do. ------------------------ 52; RlE 

----- do. ------------------------

AUSTRALIA-Continued 

Past producer 13; RlE; 15.7 percent FC. 

63; RlS 7; rlS. 

-----do. ------------------------ 4; R2E; 12.2 percent FC. 

15; R2S. 

-----do. ------------------------ 30; R2S; 25 percent FC 

-----do. ------------------------ 32 percent FC 

-----do. ------------------------

25 

Reference 

Zhaoyang and Yantang (1984), Vei Chow 

(1946). 

Do. 

Do. 

Geological Survey of India (1974b), Banerjee 

and others (1980). 

Do. 

Geological Survey of India (1977). 

Geological Survey of India (1974a), 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Krishna-Rao and others (1971). 

Geological Survey of India (1975). 

Geological Survey of India (1975), Malleswara 

Rao (1973). 

Geological Survey of India (1975). 

Do. 

Geological Survey of India (1974c), 

Paramasivan and Srinivasan (1973). 

Herath (1975), Fernando (1950). 

Dohner and others (1978), Herath (1975). 

Herath (1975), Fernando (1950). 

Gourlay (1965), Johns (1961). 

Gourlay (1965), Broadhurst and Armstrong 

(1945). 

Carter (1976), Sofoulis and Connolly (1957), 

Ellis (1944). 

Haditsch (1979), Hamilton and others (1971). 

Cribbs (1976). 
REFERENCES CITED 

Banerjee, B., Chatterjee, C.N., and Choudhury, S.S., 1980, 

Graphite deposits in the Precambrian of Palamau, Bihar: 

Metals and Minerals Review, v. 19, no. 8, p. 6-12. 

Baranov, V.V., and Kromskaya, K.M., 1983, Graphite, in 

Kozlovskiy, E.A., ed., Poleznye iskopaemye-Grafit: Moscow, Nedra, Geologija SSSR, v. XXIII, no. 3, Industrial 

Minerals, p. 132-135. 

Bastin, E.S., 1910, The origin·of certain Adirondack graphite 

deposits: Economic Geology, v. 5, p. 134-157. 

---1912, The graphite deposits of Ceylon [Sri Lanka]-A 

review of present knowledge with a description of a similar 

deposit near Dillon, Montana: Economic Geology, v. 7, p. 

410-443. 

Britan, LV., and Rubanov, N.l., 1972, Kureyskoje Mestorozhdenye Grafita [the Kureyka graphite deposit]: Razvedka i Okhrana Nedr, no. 9, p. 10-13. 

Broadhurst, E., and Armstrong, A.T., 1945, Koppio graphite 

mine: South Australia Mining Review, no. 82, p. 93-109. 

Cameron, E.N., and Weis, P.L., 1960, Strategic graphite-A 

survey: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1082-E, p. 

201-321. 

Carter, J.T., 1976, Graphite in Western Australia, in Knight, 

C.L., ed., Economic geology of Australia and Papua New 

Guinea, v. 4. Industrial minerals and rocks: Australasian 

Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, no. 8, p. 198. 

Chantraine, Jean, 1968, Geologic et prospection de la region 

Ambohimahasoa-Fianarantsoa-Ifanadiana: Madagascar, 

Travaux du Bureau Geologique, no. 127, 29 p. 

Clemmer, J.B., Smith, R.W., Clemmons, B.H., and Stacy, R.H., 

1941, Flotation of weathered Alabama graphitic schists 

for crucible flake: Alabama Geological Survey Bulletin 49, 

101 p. 

Coats, R.R., 1944, Graphite deposits on the north side of the 

Kigluaik Mountains, Seward Peninsula, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report, 10 p. 

Conolly, Violet, 1975, Siberia today and tomorrow-A study of 

economic resources, problems, and achievements: London, 

Collins, 248 p. 

Cribbs, H.G.S., 1976, Graphite in Queensland, in Knight, C.L., 

ed., Economic geology of Australia and Papua New 

Guinea, v. 4. Industrial minerals and rocks: Australasian 

Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, no. 8, p. 155. 

Davidson, A., 1982, Graphite occurrences in the Algonquin 

region, Grenville Province, Ontario: Geological Survey of 

Canada Open-File Report 870, 7 p. 

Dissanayake, C.B., 1981, The origin of graphite in Sri Lanka: 

Organic Geochemistry, v. 3, no. 1/2, p. 1-7. 

Dohner, Albert, Graf, Wolfgang, Hahn-Weinheimer, Paula, 

and Hirner, Alfred, 1978, Stable carbon isotopes of graphite from Bogala mine, Sri Lanka: Lithos, v. 11, no. 3, p. 

251-255. 

Doughty, C., 1975, Graphit-Gewinnung in Norwegin: Concentrates, no. 1, p. 5-7. 

Ellis, H.A., 1944, The Munglinup graphite deposits: Western 

Australia, Annual Report of the Geological Survey, p. 

65-66. 

Erdosh, G., 1970, Geology of Bogala mine, Ceylon [Sri Lanka] 

and the origin of vein-type graphite: Mineralium Deposita, 

v.5,no.4,p.375-382. 

Fernando, L.J.D., 1950, The geology and mineral deposits of 

Ceylon [Sri Lanka]: London, Imperial Institute, 25 p. 

26 

[Reprinted from the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 

1948,v.46,no.2-4,p.303-32~ 

Formanek, Josef, Krizek, Jaroslav, and Stephan, Karel, 1963, 

Graphite, mining, beneficiation and usage in industry 

[Original in Czechoslovakian]: Praha, Statni nakl. 

technicke literatury, 131 p. 

Gallagher, David, Klepper, M.R., Overstreet, W.C., and Sample, R.D., 1962, Mineral resources of Korea: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 646, 2239 p. 

Geological Survey of India, 197 4a, Geology and mineral 

resources of the states of India, Part Ill. Orissa: Geological Survey of India, Miscellaneous publication no. 30, 51 p. 

---197 4b, Geology and mineral resources of the states of 

India, Part V. Bihar: Geological Survey of India, Miscellaneous publication no. 30, 34 p. 

---197 4c, Geology and mineral resources of the states of 

India, Part IV. Thmil N adu and Pondicherry: Geological 

Survey of India, Miscellaneous publication no. 30, 28 p. 

---1975, Geology and mineral resources of the states of 

India, Part VIII. Andhra Pradesh: Geological Survey of 

India, Miscellaneous publication no. 30, 51 p. 

---1977, Geology and mineral resources of the states of 

India, Part XII. Rajasthan: Geological Survey of India, 

Miscellaneous publication no. 30, 75 p. 

Goosens, P.J., 1982, Graphite deposits of the Precambrian and 

their mining development, in Natural Resources and 

Energy Division, United Nations Department of Technical Co-operation for Development, The development 

potential of Precambrian mineral deposits: New York, 

Pergamon Press, p. 123-155. 

Gourlay, A.J.C., 1965, Graphite, in McLeod, I.R., ed., The 

Australian mineral industry-The mineral deposits: Australia, Bureau of Mineral Resources and Geophysics Bulletin 72, p. 289-295. 

Guimaraes, M.A., 1973, Perfil analitico da grafita: [Brazil] 

Departmento Nacional da Producao Mineral, no. 16, 22 p. 

Guliov, P., 1984, Saskatchewan-Industrial minerals in Canada, review of recent developments: Industrial Minerals, 

no. 200 (May), p. 93-105. 

Haditsch, J.G., 1979, Lagerstatten fester mineralischer Rohstoffe in Osterreich und ihre Bedeutung, Grundlagen der 

Rohstoffversorgung, v. 2: Vienna, Bundesministerium fur 

Handel, Gewerbe, und Industrie, p. 31-32. 

Hamilton, L.H., Ramsden, A.R., and Stephens, J.F., 1971, 

Fossiliferous graphite from Undercliff, New South Wales: 

Journal of the Geological Society of Australia, v. 17, pt. 2, 

p. 31-38. 

Herath, J.W., 1975, Mineral resources of Sri Lanka: [Republic 

of Sri Lanka] Geological Survey Department, Economic 

Bulletin, no. 2, 72 p. 

Hewitt, D.F., 1965, Graphite in Ontario: Ontario Department 

of Mines, Industrial Mineral Report no. 20, 66 p. 

Industrial Minerals, 1982, Canada-Flake graphite prospects: 

Industrial Minerals, no. 173 (Feb), p. 9-11. 

Johns, R.K,, 1961, Geology and mineral resources of Southern 

Eyre Peninsula: Geological Survey of South Australia 

Bulletin 31, p. 69-74. 

Katz, M.B., 1987, Graphite deposits of Sri Lanka-A consequence of granulite facies metamorphism: Mineralium 

Deposita, v. 22, no. 1, p. 18-25. 

Kim, H.K., John, Y.W., and Kang, W.S., 1972, Mineral requirements for Korea's industrialization-Patterns of require-
ments and availabilities: Korean Institute of Mineral and 

Mining Engineers, 153 p. 

Kingston, P.W., and Papertzian, V.C., 1984: Report of activi· 

ties 1983-Regional and resident geologists, in Kustra, 

C.R., ed., Report of activities 1983, regional and resident 

geologists: Ontario Geological Survey, Miscellaneous 

Paper 117, p. 221-229. 

Klar, Gustav, 1957, Die wichtigsten Graphitvorkommen der 

Welt: Erzmetall, v. 10, no. 6, p. 5. 

Korzhinskiy, A.F., Mamchur, G.P., and Kostin, V.A., 1978, 

K·Ar age of the mineral formation stages of the Zaval'e 

graphite deposit (Ukrainian Shield): Dopovidi Akademiia 

Nauk Ukrainskoi, Seria B, no. 1, p. 14-18. 

Krishna·Rao, M., Chowdhurry, G.S., and Narasimhan, K.S., 

1971, Petrography and beneficiation characteristics of 

graphite deposits of Orissa: India, Journal of Mines, Metals and Fuels, v. 19, no. 3, p. 63-64. 

Kuzakov, M.G., 1979, Der Untertagebau von kleinen Lagerstatten (Glimmer, Graphit, Talk) in der UdSSR [Underground 

working of inextensive deposits of scarce nonmetallic minerals (mica, graphite, talc) in the U.S.S.R.]: World Mining 

Congress, lOth, Istanbul, v. II, no. 2, p. 111-1121. 

Kuzvart, Milos, ed., 1984, Industrial minerals and rocks, in 

Developments in economic geology, no. 18: Amsterdam, 

Elsevier Science Publishing Company, 454 p. 

Lamarche, R.Y., 1976, Rapports des geologues residents 1975, 

Part A: Quebec, Department of Natural Resources, p. 

12-14. 

---1981, Rapports des geologues residents 1981: Quebec, 

Ministere des Richesses Naturelles, DPV 868, p. 97. 

Lee, W.T., 1913, Graphite near Raton, New Mexico: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 530, p. 371-374. 

---1924, Coal resources of the Raton coal field: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 52, p. 47-48, 71-78. 

Lobozova, R.V., Vinogradov, V.I., and Lebedev, V.S., 1971, 

Genesis of Botogolsk graphite from data on isotopic composition of carbon: Geologiia Rudnykh Mestorozhdenii, v. 

13, no. 4, p. 50-55. 

Malleswara Rao, V., 1973, Beneficiation of graphite from 

Visakhapatnam district: Journal of the Indian Academy 

of Geoscience, v. 16, no. 2, p. 77-81. 

Mantell, C.L., 1968, Carbon and graphite handbook: New 

York, Interscience Publishers, 538 p. 

Metz, Karl, 1938, Die Geologie der Grauwackenzone von 

Leoben his Mautern: Austria, Geologische Bundesanstalt,Jahrbuch,v.88,no. 1-2,p. 165-193. 

---1940, Die Geologie der Grauwackenzone von Mautern 

his Trieben: Vienna, Mitteilungen der Reichsstelle fiir 

Bodenforschung, v. 1, no. 3, p. 161-220. 

Meyn, H.D., 1982, 1982 Report of the Bancroft resident geologist, in Kustra, C.R., ed., Report of activities, regional 

and resident geologists 1982: Ontario Geological Survey, 

Miscellaneous Paper 107, p. 169-179. 

---1983, Report of activities 1983-Bancroft resident 

geologist, Algonguin Region, in Kustra, C.R., ed., Report 

of activities 1983, regional and resident geologists: 

Ontario Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 117, p. 

209-217. 

Northern Miner, 1982, Orwell to begin drilling program: 

Northern Miner, v. 68, no. 36 (Nov 11), p. 7. 

---1983, Orwell seeking $12 M financing for big new 

Quebec graphite mine: Northern Miner, v. 69, no. 26 (Sept. 

1), p. 15. 

Onikhimovskiy, V.V., Daatsko, Y.K., and Leontovich, A.A., 

eds., 1976, Khabarovskiy kray i Amurskaya oblastPoleznyye isokopayemyye [The Khabarovsk Territory and 

Amur Province-Mineral resources]: Geologiya SSSR, v. 

19, no. 2, 271 p. 

Paige, Sidney, 1911, Mineral resources of the Llano-Burnet 

region, Texas: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 450, p. 

77-81. 

Panu, I.H., Georgescu, B., and Oprescu, A., 1967, Research 

regarding beneficiation of graphite-bearing rocks in 

Ribari and Ungurelo areas: Romania, Dari de Seama Sedintelor, v. 54, no. 3, p. 492-493. 

Papertzian, V.C., and Kingston, P.W., 1982, Graphite development potential in eastern Ontario: Ontario Geological Survey Open-File Report 5377, p. 27-31. 

Paramasivan, T.S., and Srinivasan, R., 1973, Graphite deposits of Tamil Nadu: Mineral Research, v. 5, p. 20-23. 

Pohl, W., and Horkel, A., 1980, Notes on the geology and 

mineral resources of the Mtito Andei-Taita area (southern 

Kenya): Mitteilungen der Osterreichischen Geologischen 

Gesellschaft, v. 73, p. 135-152. 

Prouty, W.F., 1923, Geology and mineral resources of Clay 

County, with special reference to the graphite industry: 

Alabama Geological Survey, County Report 1, 190 p. 

Pulfrey, William, 1969, The geology and mineral resources of 

Kenya [2d edition by John Walsh]: Geological Survey of 

Kenya, Bulletin no. 9, 34 p. 

Rantoanina, Maurice, 1962, Prospection et geologie des feuilles Moramanga-Lakato: Madagascar, Travaux du Bureau 

Geologique, no. 111, 38 p. 

27 

Rasoamahenina, J .A., 1966, Considerations sur Ia geologie 

generale et les gisements de graphite de Tamatave et 

Moramanga, in Razafiniparany, A., Rapport annuel du 

Service Geologique pour l'annee 1966: Madagascar, Service Geologique, p. 4 7-64. 

Reynolds, W.N., 1968, Physical properties of graphite: London, Elsevier Publishing, 193 p. 

Rumble, Douglas, Ill, and Hoering, T.C., 1986, Carbon isotope 

geochemistry of graphite vein deposits from New Hampshire, U.S.A.: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 50, 

no.6,p. 1239-1247. 

Sainsbury, C.L., 1969, Geology and ore deposits of the Central 

York Mountains, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska: U.S. 

Geological Survey Bulletin 1287, 101 p. 

Salotti, C.A., Heinrich, E.W., and Giardini, A.A., 1971, Abiotic 

carbon and the formation of graphite deposits: Economic 

Geology, v. 66, no. 7, p. 929-932. 

Schanz, J.J., Jr., 1980, The United Nations' endeavor to standardize mineral resource classification: Natural Resources 

Forurn,v.4,no.3,p.307-313. 

Shpak, P.F., 1972, Syr'yevye resursy Ukrainskoy S.S.R [Mineral resources of the Ukrainian S.S.R.]: Sovetskaya Geologiya, no. 8, p. 3-9. 

Silva, K.K.M.W., 1987, Mineralization and wall-rock alteration at the Bogala graphite deposit, Bulathkohupitiya, 

Sri Lanka: Economic Geology, v. 82, no. 7, p. 1710-1722. 

Sofoulis, J., and Connolly, R.R., 1957, Report on Munglinup 

River graphite deposits, Eucla Division, W.A.: Geological 

Survey of Western Australia, Bulletin 112, p. 30-40. 
Spence, H.S., 1920, Graphite: Canada, Department of Mines, 

Mines Branch, Publication no. 511, 202 p. [56 plates]. 

Stagman, J.G., 1978, An outline of the geology of Rhodesia: 

Rhodesia Geological Survey Bulletin, no. 80, 126 p. 

Stewart, A.L., 1963, Graphite in Kenya: [Kenya] Ministry of 

Natural Resources, Geological Survey of Kenya Bulletin, 

no. 6, 72 p. 

Stone, W.J.D., 1960, Concentration of graphite from the Perth 

area of Ontario, Canada: Department of Mines and Technical Surveys, Mines Branch, Investigation Report 60-65, 

7 p. 

Strens, R.J.G., 1965, The graphite deposit at Seathwait in 

Borrowdale, Cumberland, England: Geological Magazine, 

v. 102,no.5,p.393-406. 

Stutzer, Otto, 1911, Die wichtigsten Lagerstatten der "NichtErze," v. I. Graphit, Diamant, Schwefel, Phosphat: Berlin, 

Borntraeger, 474 p. 

Taupitz, K.C., 1973, Der Bergbau Rhodesiens: Ghickauf, v. 

109,no.26,p. 1275-1286. 

Taylor, H.A., Jr., 1988, Graphite, in U.S. Bureau of Mines, 

Mineral commodity summaries 1988: Washington, D.C., 

U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 64-65. 

Topper, Wolfgang, 1961, Beitrag zum Mineralbestand und zur 

Geochemie der der Graphitlagerstatte KropmiihlPfaffenreuth bei Passau, Donau: Ph. D. thesis, Technischen Universitat Berlin, 107 p. 

[United Kingdom] British Geological Survey, 1984-86, World 

mineral statistics [1978-86]-Production, exports, 

imports: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 3 v. 

[United Kingdom] Institute of Geological Sciences, 1978-83, 

World mineral statistics [1970-81]-Production, exports, 

imports: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 8 v. (Continued 

by British Geological Survey, World mineral statistics.) 

United Nations Economic and Social Council, 1979, The international classification of mineral resources-Report of the 

Group of Experts on Definitions and Terminology for 

Mineral Resources: United Nations document E/C 7/104, 

28 p., including annexes. 

U.S. Bureau of Mines and U.S. Geological Survey, 1980, Principles of a resource/reserve classification for minerals: 

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 831, 5 p. 

Vei Chow, Juan, 1946, Mineral resources of China: Economic 

Geology, v. 41, no. 4, pt. 2, p. 399-474. 

Villard, D.J., 1982, 1982 Report of the Huntsville resident 

geologist, in Kustra, C.R., ed., Report of activities 1982, 

Regional and resident geologists: Ontario Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 107, p. 166-167. 

Villard, D.J., and Garland, M., 1983, Report of activities 

1983-Huntsville resident geologist area, Algonguin 

Region, in Kustra, C.R., ed., Report of activities 1983, 

Regional and resident geologists, Ontario Geological Survey, Miscellaneous Paper 117, p. 204-208. 

von Guttenberg, Reinhard, 197 4, Stoffbestand und Metamorphose von Gesteinen der buten Siierie am Sdrand des 

Passauer Waldes: Miinchen, Ph. D. dissertation, Ludwig 

Maximilians Univesitat, 108 p. 

Wagner, Hermann, 1977, Rohstoffwirtschaftliche Landerberichte, XIII. Rumanien [Romania]: Hannover, (Germany, Federal Republic), Bundesanstalt fiir Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, 176 p. 

Weis, P.L., Friedman, I., and Gleason, J.P., 1981, The origin of 

28 

epigenetic graphite-Evidence from isotopes: Geochimica 

et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 45, no. 12, p. 2325-2332. 

Weis, P.L., and Salas, G.A., 1978, Estimating reserves of 

amorphous graphite in Sonora, Mexico: Engineering and 

Mining Journal, v. 179, no. 10, p. 123-128. 

Whiteside, H.C.M., 1976, Graphite, in Coetzee, C.B., ed., Mineral resources of the Republic of South Africa: South 

Africa Geological Survey Handbook no. 7, 5th edition, p. 

365-367. 

Wilke, D.P., 1969, Grafietafsettings noord van die Soutpansberg, Transvaal [Graphite deposits north of the Soutpansberg, Transvaal]: [South Africa] Department of Mines, 

Geological Survey Bulletin 51, 60 p. 

Winchell, A.N., 1911, A theory of granite formation: Economic 

Geology, v. 6, p. 218-230. 

World Bank, 1986, World development report 1986: New York, 

Oxford University Press, 256 p. 

Zamora Montero, Salvador, 1975, Geologia de los yacimientos 

de grafito cristalino en el estado de Oaxaca: Mexico, Consejo de Recursos Naturales Seminario Interno Anual 

sobre Exploracion Geologico-Minera, v. 5 (Dec.), p. 

311-352. 

Zhaoyang, H., and Yantang, Y., 1984, Development and utilization of industrial minerals in China, in Clarke, G .M., ed., 

Proceedings-Industrial Minerals International Congress, no. 6, p. HZ1-HZ13. 

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES ON 

NATURAL GRAPHITE RESOURCES 

Acharya, B.C., and Dash, B., 1980, Distribution of graphite 

deposits in Orissa and its relation with regional geology: 

Metals and Minerals Review, v. 19, no. 7, p. 1-3. 

Ahnert, E.E., 1929, Mineral resources of north Manchuria: 

Geological Survey of China, series A, no. 7, 262 p. 

Bates, R.L., 1969, Geology of the industrial rocks and minerals, 2d ed., New York, Dover Publications, Inc., 459 p. 

Besairie, Henri, 1956, Carte miniere et des indices de Madagascar (scale 1:1,500,000): Tananarive, Service Geologique. 

---1961, Les ressources miner ales de Madagascar: Tananarive, Annales Geologiques de Madagascar, part 30, 116 p. 

---1966, Gites mineraux de Madagascar [chapter on 

graphite p. 187-219]: Tananarive, Annales Geologiques de 

Madagascar, part 34, 437 p. 

---1970, Description geologique du massif ancien de 

Madagascar, v. 5. Le Sud: Tananarive, Documentation 

Bureau Geologique, no. 177e. 

---1973, Precis de geologie Malgache: Tananarive, 

Annales Geologiques de Madagascar, part 36, 141 p. 

Blackman, L.C.F., ed., 1970, Modern aspects of graphite technology: New York, London, Academic Press, 320 p. 

Canada, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Mineral 

Policy Sector: National Mineral Inventory and Resource 

Files. 

de Silva, P.H.D.H., ed., 1967, An introduction to the geology of 

Ceylon [Sri Lanka]: National Museums of Ceylon Publication, 324 p. 

Dickerman, Nelson, 1948, Mineral resources of China: U.S. 

Bureau of Mines, Foreign Minerals Survey, v. 2, no. 7, 266 p. 

Dickson, Ted, 1984, Korean industrial minerals-A brief summary: Industrial Minerals, no. 202 (July), p. 57-61. 
Fogg, C.T., and Boyle, E.H., Jr., 1987, Flake and highcrystalline graphite availability-Market economy countries: U.S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular 9122, 

40p. 

Goosens, P.J., 1979, Graphite deposits of the Precambrian and 

their mining development: Moscow, August, 25 p. 

---1983, Precambrian mineral deposits and their metallogeny: Musee Royal del' Afrique Centrale Tervuren, Belgigue, Annales, 8erie IN 8, Sciences Geologiques, no. 89, 

97 p. 

Harben, P. W., and Bates, R.L., 1984, Geology of the nonmetallies: New York, Metals Bulletin Inc., 392 p. 

Harrington, G.L., 1919, Graphite mining in Seward Peninsula: 

U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 692, p. 363-367. 

Hill, W.B., 1986, China-A source of flake graphite for the 

refractories industry: 7th Industrial Minerals International Congress, p. 181-189. 

Industrial Minerals, 1976, Natural graphite retains traditional 

markets: Industrial Minerals, no. 109 (Oct.), p. 17-37. 

Johnstone, S.J., 1954, Minerals for the chemical and allied 

industries: New York, London, Wiley, 692 p. 

Kanungo, S.C., 1976, Graphite mineralization in TitlagarhGraphite-Belt, Bolangir and Kalahandi districts Orissa: 

Indian Minerals, v. 30, no. 4, p. 1-6. 

Kegler, J., 1981, Potential und Entwicklung des Bergbaus in 

Simbabwe: Erzmetall, v. 34, no. 10, p. 530-535. 

Klar, Gustav, 1964, Steirische graphite: Verlag Styria, 149 p. 

Korea, Republic, 1968, The development of mineral resources 

in Korea (1965-1967): Seoul, United Nations, ECAFE 

Sub-committee on Mineral Resources Development, seventh session, 35 p. 

Krishnaswamy, Subbier, 1979, India's mineral resources, 2d 

edition: New Delhi, Oxford and IBH Publishing, 658 p. 

Larios, J.P., 1965, El Grafito: Mineria y Metalurgia, no. 

33, p. 75-90. 

Larios, J.P., 1965, El grafito: Mineria y Metalurgia, no. 33, p. 

75-90. 

Mason, J.E., and Theuri, F. G., 1980, Industrial development in 

Kenya, in Coope, B.M., ed., Proceedings of the 4th Industrial Minerals International Congress: Surrey [England}, 

Industrial Minerals, Metal Bulletin Group, p. 111-128. 

Minerals and Metals Review, 1983, Kenya advances smallscale mining: Minerals and Metals Review, v. 22, no. 3, p. 

15-16. 

Moffit, F.H., 1913, Geology of the Nome and Grand Central 

quadrangles, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 533, 

p. 135-136. 

Northern Miner, 1976, Saskatchewan Mining Development 

Corp. in joint venture on graphite mine: Northern Miner, 

v. 62, no. 36 (Nov 18), p. 17. 

t. UB. GOVJ:RJlJIJ!lll PBIJITillrG OJI'JI'ICB: l'J88 - 201-933 - 226/80039 

Parkinson, J., 1947, Outlines of the geology of the Mtito 

Andei-Tsavo area: Geological Survey of Kenya, report no. 

13,43 p. 

Pawlowski, K., 1980, Structural investigations of industrial 

graphites: Prace Mineralogiczne, no. 60, 87 p. 

Petrov, V.P., ed., 1984, Non-metallic minerals of the USSR: 

Moscow, Nedra, 405 p. 

Pettifer, L., 1980, Natural graphite, the dawn of tight markets: 

Industrial Minerals, no. 156 (Sept.), p. 19-39. 

Quebec Ministere de L'Energie et des Ressources, Service du 

Potential Mineral, Fiche de Gite Mineral no. 315/5-25. 

Roskill Information Services, 1972, Carbon and graphite: London, Roskill Information Services, 324 p. 

Schanz, J.J., Jr., Werner, A.B.T., and Mroczek, R.J., 1961, 

Final report on graphite market research: University 

Park, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania State University, College of Mineral Industries, 22 p. 

Shackleton, R.M., 1946, Geology of the country between 

Nan yuki and Mar alai: Geologic.al Survey of Kenya, 

Report no. 11, 54 p. 

'furtarinov, P.M., ed., 1934, Kurs nerudnych mestorozhdeniy 

[course on "non-ore" deposits]: Moscow, parts 1 and 2, 

932p. 

---1969, Kurs mestorozhdeniy nemetalicheskikh 

poleznykh iskopayemykh; Moscow, Izd. Nedra, 472 p. 

Thylor, H.A., Jr., 1980, Graphite, in U.S. Bureau of Mines 

Bulletin 671, Mineral facts and problems, 1980 edition: 

Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 

383-394. 

---1985, Graphite (preprint), U.S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin 675, Mineral facts and problems, 1985 edition: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office p. 1-10. 

Tichy, L., and Voda, 0., 1983, Grafit, in Kuzvart, M., ed., 

Loziska nerudnich surovin CSR: Praha, Univerzita 

Karlova, p. 39-58. 

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1948, Foreign minerals survey-Mineral 

resources of China: Washington, D.C., unpublished report. 

Vos, M.A., 1982, Industrial mineral studies: Ontario Geological Survey, Summary of fieldwork 1982, Miscellaneous 

Paper 106, p. 226. 

Weis, P.L., 1973, Graphite, in Brobst, D.A., and Pratt, W.P., 

eds., United States mineral resources: U.S. Geological 

Survey Professional Paper 820, p. 277-283. 

Wijayananda, N.P., and Jayawardena, D.E. deS., 1983, Some 

aspects of the geology of graphite mineralization in Sri 

Lanka: Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, Transactions, Section B, May, p. B93-B97. 

Wijesekera, N alin, 1984, Mineral exploration in Sri Lanka: 

Mining Magazine, v. 150, no. 5, p. 464-467. 

29 

INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIC MINERALS INVENTORY 

PARTICIPATING AGENCIES 

Australia 

Bureau of Mineral Resources, 

Geology and Geophysics 

Canada 

Energy, Mines and Resources Canada 

Mineral Policy Sector 

Geological Survey of Canada 

Federal Republic of Germany 

Bundesanstalt fiir Geowissenschaften 

und Rohstoffe 

South Africa 

Minerals Bureau 

Geological Survey 

United Kingdom 

British Geological Survey 

United States 

Bureau of Mines 

Geological Survey 

SUMMARY REPORTS 

This circular is one of several reports on selected mineral 

commodities to be published in the U.S. Geological Survey 930 

series. The circulars published to date are listed below; year of 

publicati9n is shown in parentheses. Copies are available free on 

application to The Books and Open-File Reports Section, U.S. 

Geological Survey, Federal Center, Box 25425, Denver, CO 

80225-0046 U.S.A. 

930-A. Manganese (1984) 

930-B. Chromium (1984) 

930-C. Phosphate (1984) 

930-D. Nickel (1985) 

930-E. Platinum-Group Metals (1986) 

930-F. Cobalt (1987) 

930-G. Titanium (1988) 

930-H. Natural Graphite (1988) 

Requests for copies of International Strategic Minerals Inventory summary reports and for 

further information may also be addressed to: 

Ian R. McLeod 

Chief Commodity Geologist 

Resource Assessment Division 

Bureau of Mineral Resources 

P.O. Box378 

Canberra City, A.C.T. 2601 

AUSTRALIA 

J. Zwartendyk 

Director, Resource Evaluation Division. 

Mineral Policy Sector 

Energy, Mines & Resources Canada 

580 Booth Street 

Ottawa, Ontario KIA OE4 

CANADA 

Distribution Branch 

Bundesanstalt fiir Geowissenschaften 

und Rohstoffe 

Postfach 51 01 53 

D-3000 Hannover 51 

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY 

Ian Goldberg 

Director, Minerals Bureau 

Private Bag X4 

Braamfontein 2017 

REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA 

Richard N. Crockett 

Head, Mineral Intelligence Programme 

British Geological Survey 

Keyworth 

Nottingham NG12 5GG 

UNITED KINGDOM 
Krauss and others-INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIC MINERALS INVENTORY-NATURAL GRAPHITE-U.S. Geologic