Elements of Promising Practice in Teen Fatherhood Programs: 

Evidence-Based and Evidence-Informed Research Findings on What Works 

Compiled by: 

Jacinta Bronte-Tinkew, Ph.D, Mary Burkhauser, M.A., Allison Metz, Ph.D.

August 21st, 2008 

Opinions or points of view expressed are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official 

position or policies of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Family Assistance 

National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse 

101 Lake Forest Blvd, Suite 360 

Gaithersburg, MD 20877 

(877) 4DAD411 

www.fatherhood.gov 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................2 

 Making the Case for Teen Fatherhood Programs........................................................................2 

 Barriers to Participation in Programs among Teen Fathers............................................................4 

 Identifying Rigorous Research: The Ten Principles..................................................................4 

 Criteria Used in this Review for Considering Teen Fatherhood Programs.. ......................................7 

 Ten Practices from “Model” and “Promising” Teen Fatherhood Programs...........................................9 

 Three Practices from “Emerging” Teen Fatherhood Programs.....................................................12 

 Early Conclusions about the Evidence for Teen Fatherhood Programs..........................................13 

 References.................................................................................................................14 

APPENDIX 1: “Model” Teen Fatherhood Programs.............................................................17

 Young Dads...............................................................................................................18 

APPENDIX 2: “Promising” Teen Fatherhood Programs........................................................22

 A Prenatal Education Intervention.....................................................................................23 

 Respecting and Protecting our Relationships.........................................................................26 

 STEP-UP: Mentoring for Young Fathers...............................................................................30 

APPENDIX 3: “Emerging” Teen Fatherhood Programs........................................................34 

 A Parent Education Program for Young Fathers in Prison.........................................................35 

 Connections: A Program to Assist Young Fathers....................................................................39 

 Maximizing a Life Experience (MALE)..............................................................................42 

 Meeting the Service Needs of Young Fathers.......................................................................46 

 New Mexico Young Fathers Project..................................................................................50 

 No Kidding: Straight Talk from Teen Parents.......................................................................54 

 Parentcraft: Parenting Classes for Young Fathers in Prison.......................................................57 

 Really Awesome Parents (RAP).........................................................................................60 

 Teen Parents and the Law (TPAL)....................................................................................64 

 The Forever Fathers Program............................................................................................67 

 The Responsible Fatherhood Program................................................................................71 

 The Teen Father Collaborative........................................................................................75 

 The Young Unwed Fathers Pilot Project.............................................................................80 

 Wanting to be Good Fathers: Helping Teen Fathers Become Parents.............................................87 

 

 

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Introduction 

 The timing of the onset of fatherhood is a powerful predictor of the paternal role and is likely to 

determine men’s levels of involvement with their partners and children (Parke, 2001). Early entry into 

fatherhood is often viewed as a non-normative event and an accelerated role transition (McCluskey, 

Killarney, & Papini, 1983; Parke, 2000). Teen fathers represent a particularly vulnerable group of 

males whose family backgrounds and life-stressors tend to differ from older men and men who do not 

become fathers during adolescence (Marsiglio, 1995; Pirog-Good, 1993). For many years, teen fathers 

were either overlooked in teen pregnancy or blamed for their role in teen pregnancy. However, interest 

in designing programs to reduce teen pregnancy as well as meet the needs of this vulnerable population 

increased alongside an interest in the development of fatherhood programs (Lowenthal & Lowenthal, 

1997). The current review examines a number of programs for teen fathers that have been evaluated 

and that can begin to answer the following questions: What practices have been found to be successful 

in programs serving teen fathers? What matters? What really works? This review helps to begin 

answering these questions more definitively. 

At the outset, however, it is important to note the limitations of this review. Research on “what 

works” in teen fatherhood programs is still in its earliest stages. To date, few teen fatherhood programs 

have been evaluated and even fewer have undergone rigorous (i.e., experimental) evaluations. Due to 

the qualitative nature of some of the evaluations as well as limitations such as small sample sizes, lack 

of comparison groups, inappropriate statistical analyses, and limited outcome measures, most of the 

programs included in this review have not been rated “model” programs. That said, there is still much 

to be learned from examining program practices across programs that have adhered to specific 

evaluation research criteria as are described below. 

Making The Case For Teen Fatherhood Programs 

Becoming a teen father has negative consequences for teen fathers themselves, for their 

children, and for their partners or spouses (Thornberry, Smith, & Howard, 1997). Teen fathers are 

more likely than men who do not become fathers during adolescence to come from economically 

and/or emotionally disadvantaged backgrounds (Fagot, Pears, Capaldi, Crosby, & Leve, 1998; 

Marsiglio, 1995). They are also more likely to engage in high-risk behavior such as dropping out of 

school, to be unemployed, and/or have lower incomes (Anda et al., 2001; Marsiglio, 1986; Maynard, 

1996). Additionally, teen fathers have unique developmental needs (Montemayor, 1986; Teti & Lamb, 

1986). A number of the key developmental tasks of adolescence may be impeded by teenage 

parenthood, because the demands and responsibilities of parenting have the potential to heighten stress 

and undermine teen parents’ abilities to solidify a sense of identity and autonomy (Chase-Lansdale, 

Wakschlag, & Brooks-Gunn, 1995; McCluskey, Killarney, & Papini, 1983; Parke, 1995). Adolescent 

fathers are faced with struggles at nearly every point in their daily existence. They may be confronted 

with rejection from family and friends, may face barriers to contact with their partners and children, or 

struggle to contribute to the lives of their partners and children (Kahn & Bolton, 1986). Teen fathers 

have to reconcile the contradictory roles of both adolescence and fatherhood as they seek to establish 

their own identity and resolve vocational-educational decisions while dealing with conflictual peer and 

family relationships. This accelerated role transition often results in role conflicts as teen fathers seek 

to make a difference in the lives of children yet may not know how (Kahn & Bolton, 1986).

 Program developers recognize that teen fathers have a variety of needs, and many programs 

designed for teen fathers have both education and employment components as well as components that 

address their developmental needs, parenting skills, sexual health, and support networks. There is 

evidence to suggest that providing teen fathers with parenting information alone is insufficient for 

improving parenting outcomes (Mazza, 2002). Moreover, the majority of teen fathers face multiple 

challenges, so any program focusing on only one challenge is unlikely to be effective (Montemayor, 

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1986). Although most of the programs included in the current review focused exclusively on teen 

fathers (i.e., males who father children before reaching age 20), a few programs included fathers up 

through their mid-twenties. Regardless, all of the programs reviewed were designed to improve the 

lives of teen fathers and their families. As a group, programs for teen fathers tend to focus on a number 

of outcomes: 

• Work Skills, Self-Sufficiency, and Employment: Programs designed for teen fathers 

frequently include both education and employment components such as GED preparation, onthe-job training, and vocational referrals. Although teen fathers may want to be involved in the 

lives of their children (Miller, 1997), they frequently lack the financial resources to do so. The 

risk factors associated with becoming a teen parent, such as low income and poor academic 

achievement, are often exacerbated when teenage males become fathers. Specifically, teenage 

fatherhood is associated with decreased economic stability, income, and occupational 

attainment as well as increased turbulence in relationships and decreased likelihood of marriage 

(Coley & Chase-Lansdale, 1998 ). These negative outcomes can be attributed to the fact that 

teen fathers typically are simply not ready to assume the immediate financial demands 

associated with having and raising a child. These demands can prompt teen fathers, in some 

cases, to forgo schooling in favor of obtaining unskilled work, reducing their chances for 

upward mobility. Fatherhood programs that can successfully improve educational and 

employment outcomes for teen fathers have the potential to improve not only the lives of these 

fathers but also child support compliance (Turner & Sorenson, 1997), father involvement 

(Danziger & Radin, 1990), and child well-being (Argys, Peters, Brooks-Gunn, & Smith, 1998; 

Greene & Moore, 2000). 

• Responsible Fatherhood: Men who become fathers as teenagers tend to have less contact and 

overall involvement with their children than do men who wait to become fathers until later in 

life (Cooksey & Craig, 1998; Furstenberg & Harris, 1993). Father involvement and play with 

infants is predictive of positive mental development (Yogman, 1987), language abilities 

(Magill-Evans & Harrison, 1999), educational attainment (Flouri & Buchanan, 2004), and 

overall cognitive development among children (Cabrera, Tamis-Le Monda, Bradley, Hofferth, 

& Lamb, 2000; Yogman, Kindlon, & Earls, 1995). Accordingly, low levels of father 

involvement among teen fathers may relate to diminished cognitive outcomes among children 

in the short- and long-term. Program that can encourage teen fathers to be involved in the lives 

of their children, as well as teach them strategies to more effectively parent, can positively 

impact their children’s development and overall well-being.

• Risky Behaviors: Teen fathers are more likely than other fathers to engage in high-risk 

behavior such as unsafe sex, substance abuse, and illegal activity (Anda et al., 2001; Lerman, 

1993). As a result, many teen fatherhood programs include components designed to reduce 

other risky behaviors. Some programs address these issues by providing participants with 

referrals for treatment while others offer mentoring and/or information and small group 

discussion around reproductive health and contraceptive use. Programs in prison settings also 

provide incarcerated teen fathers with the skills and knowledge to address the substantial risks 

they face, including those associated with violence and recidivism. These fathers are likely to 

need continued services after being released because teen fathers are more likely than teens 

who are not fathers to return to the juvenile correctional system (Unruh, Bullis, & Yovanoff, 

2003). 

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• Psychological Well-Being/Stress: For teen fathers, the stresses of fatherhood are added to the 

many developmental stresses of adolescence (Lowenthal & Lowenthal, 1997). At a time when 

having a strong social support network is critical, many teen fathers have few people to whom 

they can turn. Often, teen fathers have had negative experiences with their own fathers 

(Lowenthal & Lowenthal, 1997) and lack an extensive support network, especially one that is 

prepared to help them with the responsibilities of becoming a father (Miller, 1997). Young 

fathers who have had a poor relationship with their own parents are less likely to spend time 

living with their own children (Jaffee, Caspi, & Moffitt, 2001). Additionally, by lacking 

positive male role-models, teen fathers may have developed male sex-role stereotypes that 

negatively affect their ability to assume the fathering role (Teti & Lamb, 1986). Programs for 

teen fathers attempt to address these needs through individual and group counseling, support 

groups, mentoring, and referrals. 

• Healthy Couple Relationships and Co-Parenting: Teen fathers are less likely to be married 

or in cohabiting unions, which, in turn, is associated with reduced financial and emotional 

support for their partners (Lerman, 1993), as well as with reduced relationship satisfaction for 

both males and females (Dush & Amato, 2002). Men who become fathers in their teens are also 

significantly more likely to conceive children with multiple women throughout their adult lives 

than are men who wait to have children (Logan, Manlove, Ikramullah, & Cottingham, 2006). 

Increases in multiple partner fertility have considerable implications for teen fathers’ 

relationships with the mothers of their children, since having children with more than one 

woman is a consistent predictor of poor relationship quality, decreased father involvement, 

reduced co-parenting, and increased conflict (Carlson & Furstenberg, 2006). Decreased 

involvement and negative parenting behaviors are two factors that are associated with poorer 

outcomes for children of teen fathers, including diminished academic achievement and lower 

IQ (Moore, Brooks-Gunn, & Bornstein, 2002), poorer mental health (Cookston & Finlay, 

2006), early onset of sexual activity (Ellis et al., 2003), and delinquency (King & Sobolewski, 

2006). Teen fatherhood also has implications for fathers’ parenting styles, support for children, 

and parent-child relationships. Teen fathers are more likely than older fathers to report that 

their partners’ pregnancies were either mistimed or unwanted, sentiments that have been 

associated with more authoritarian parenting styles, reduced financial and emotional support, 

and poorer father-child relationships (Baydar, 1995). Several programs aimed at teen fathers 

attempt to promote and strengthen co-parenting relationships, which in turn have the potential 

to positively impact the lives their children and partners. 

Barriers To Participation In Programs Among Teen Fathers 

 Teen fatherhood programs often have difficulty recruiting fathers and have moderate to high 

attrition rates. Teen fathers are reluctant to start and have difficulty completing fatherhood programs 

for many reasons, including: 

• Scheduling conflicts with work or school (Kost, 1997) or family responsibilities (Lesser et al., 

2005); 

• Lack of transportation, child care, or an unwillingness to attend a program held outside of their 

“territory” (Sander, 1995); 

• Unstable living situations (Kost, 1997; Parra-Cardona, Wampler, & Sharp, 2006); 

• Relationship disruptions (Lesser et al., 2005); 

• Arrests (Parra-Cardona et al., 2006); 

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• Mistrust of authority figures and/or other fathers in the program (Noggle, 1995; Parra-Cardona 

et al., 2006); 

• The large size of staff caseloads (Leitch, Gonzalez, & Ooms, 1995). 

Identifying Rigorous Research: The Ten Principles 

So, what works in teen fatherhood programs? Only rigorous evaluations of programs can 

provide evidence of whether or not programs actually have a desired effect. While several studies have 

examined the effects of programs on outcomes for teen fathers and their families, the evidence-base 

varies widely as does the quality and rigor of research methods. In general however, results that come 

from well-designed programs that have been rigorously evaluated should be taken more seriously than 

results from less-well-designed and evaluated programs. There are several principles of rigorous 

research that have to be considered and that often yield high quality results. The extent to which each 

of these principles is adhered to by the studies used in this review is provided in the individual program 

summary descriptions (see Appendices 1-3). Each of the ten principles of rigorous research is 

discussed below in more detail. 

• Principle 1: Evaluation Design. The evaluation design recognized as the gold standard is a 

random assignment study (Rossi, Lipsey, & Freeman, 2004). This design is used to determine 

causality (i.e., to determine whether the observed outcomes or changes that resulted for teen 

fathers and/or their families were the result of participation in the program). In a random 

assignment study, fathers are assigned to two groups: a treatment group (a group that receives 

services) or a control group (that does not receive program services but may receive other 

instruction or services). This design, if well-implemented, is the only way to create equivalent 

groups. That is, teen fathers with varied characteristics (e.g., age, race, and motivation) will be 

equally (or very close to equally) represented in both the treatment and control groups. This 

design therefore reduces the likelihood of “selection bias” (i.e., more highly motivated teen 

fathers being more likely to choose to attend the program, or more fatherhood programs being 

likely to be implemented in communities with more “at risk” teen fathers). Few of the studies 

in the current review used random assignment designs, while the majority used quasiexperimental or pre/post-test designs. This means that selection bias, or other kinds of biases 

may have affected results. These biases can obscure actual positive program effects or overstate 

positive program effects when they did not actually occur (Rossi et al., 2004). 

• Principle 2: Sampling of Programs. Different program approaches have been used in teen 

fatherhood programs to address the behavior and well-being of teen fathers and their families. 

However, in selecting programs, care must be taken in using the results from a small group of 

studies of fathers to draw inferences across a wide range of programs. For example, this review 

has uncovered more evaluated programs that seek to improve teen fathers’ self-sufficiency than 

those that seek to improve teen fathers’ involvement and co-parenting. The problem with 

generalizing from this small group of programs measuring father involvement and co-parenting 

to a larger group is that findings may work well with some fathers in some contexts, but not as 

well with others, and additional studies are needed with varied samples of fathers in different 

settings. In addition, programs that are well-funded often tend to have more well-trained staff, 

more resources, and are better run programs, yielding positive evaluation results which may not 

yield the same findings when replicated in other settings that do not have access to the same 

resources and may have staff with less training (Kirby, 2007). Newer teen programs may also 

be prematurely evaluated, before elements of implementation have been addressed, 

Page 5 of 93 
yielding less positive evaluation results than programs that have been in the field for a longer 

period of time. 

• Principle 3: Sample Size. It is commonly agreed that rigorous studies require a sufficient 

sample size to detect expected impacts. The necessary sample size varies according to the 

outcome measure, the magnitude of the effect that needs to be detected and the level of 

statistical significance (a measure of how confident one can be in the results) (Kalton, 1983). In 

general, a minimum sample size of 30 in the control group and 30 in the treatment group (after 

attrition) is needed to obtain robust results. Much larger sample sizes, though, are needed if 

sub-group analyses are planned—e.g., analyses of teen fathers in early adolescence (11-14) 

versus teens in late adolescence (15-18) (Kalton, 1983). There are several reasons why larger 

samples are needed. First, in the absence of adequate samples, it is difficult to determine 

statistical significance because of insufficient statistical power. Second, when sample sizes are 

small, the magnitude of the effect is difficult to determine, since such effects may have been a 

result of chance (Rossi et al., 2004).

• Principle 4: Follow-Up. Several programs that have been evaluated suggest that it is important 

to follow-up at least over a six-week period to measure the impact of programs on father 

behaviors, but follow-up for a year or more is necessary to establish whether impacts or effects 

endure. The length of follow-up often varies, and is dependent on the outcomes being 

measured, the curriculum that is being used, and the amount of time that fathers are likely to 

attend. Follow-up is required for several reasons. First, it can provide information about shortterm effects. Second, some program effects are likely to diminish over time and it cannot be 

assumed that short-term results will endure. Third, if programs are trying to influence changes 

in behaviors, such changes are only likely to be detected after a period of time has elapsed. 

• Principle 5: Validity and Reliability of Study Measures. Fatherhood interventions often 

strive to measure changes in behaviors and other outcomes for fathers and their families. 

Typically these behaviors can only be estimated from data that individuals report about 

themselves. Rigorous research often uses instruments (single item measures and scales) that 

have been validated in previous research. In short, measures that have previously been used 

with populations of fathers and that have been assessed for their psychometric properties and 

found to be both valid and reliable are recommended. 

• Principle 6: Appropriate Statistical Analyses. Rigorous evaluation studies conduct 

appropriate statistical analyses of the data that have been collected. This includes the testing of 

hypotheses, using proper statistical tests, and reporting all of the results of the test, in the 

expected and unexpected directions. 

• Principle 7: Dissemination of Results. Evaluation studies that are rigorous and well-designed 

often attempt to publish results, whether they are positive or negative (Kirby, 2007). Studies 

that are large, well-funded, well-designed, and have advisory boards that include experts in the 

field of fatherhood and are widely known while in progress are more likely to have published 

results, regardless of whether they show expected or unexpected results. At the very least, 

results should be reviewed and shared with the field. 

Page 6 of 93 
• Principle 8:Independent External Evaluator. Rigorous evaluation studies are often 

conducted by an independent external evaluator for a number of reasons. First, external 

evaluators are less likely to be biased and more likely to be objective in assessing results. 

Second, external evaluators bring technical expertise that may not exist in program staff such as 

knowledge of appropriate measures, statistical analyses, etc. Third, external evaluators offer a 

new perspective and may bring fresh insights. Finally, external evaluators are often also more 

efficient because of experience with evaluation and often have greater credibility. 

• Principle 9: Replication. The replication of results is a hallmark of good science and an 

important aspect of demonstrating program effectiveness and understanding what works best, 

under what conditions, and for what target populations (Metz, Bowie, & Blaise, 2007). A 

program that achieves positive results in one setting should be replicated in another setting with 

a new target population and re-evaluated to determine the generalizability of the model. For 

example, a program that may have positive effects in one setting may not have the same effects 

in another setting primarily because there may have been unique characteristics of the first 

program setting that may have accounted for positive results. When tried in another setting, the 

results may differ, and may have been a result of chance, or a function of a more motivated 

group of fathers. Effective programs whenever possible should be replicated before being 

widely adopted (Kirby, 2007). 

• Principle 10: Fidelity to the Program Model. Fidelity refers to the extent to which the 

delivery of an intervention adheres to a protocol or program model originally developed 

(Mowbray, Holter, Teague, & Bybee, 2003). Ineffective programs can be implemented well, 

and effective programs can be implemented poorly. Neither is desirable. Desirable outcomes 

are only achieved when effective programs are well implemented. Therefore, it is critical that 

program evaluations include a fidelity assessment to ensure that essential elements of the 

intervention service model or curriculum have been implemented with integrity to the original 

model. 

Summary. These ten principles were used to guide how we derived the criteria to select teen programs 

to be a part of this review. The identification of these principles, however, does not suggest a need to 

incorporate every principle into every evaluation study. Conducting evaluation studies that meet all or 

most of these criteria are often time intensive and costly. 

Page 7 of 93 
Criteria Used In This Review For Considering Teen Fatherhood Programs 

 The ten principles identified above were considered when establishing the criteria used to 

identify the teen fatherhood programs included in this review. Several of the research criteria used to 

select teen fatherhood programs are currently being implemented in other “promising practices” efforts 

such as SAMHSA’s National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices (U.S. Department of 

Health & Human Services, 2007) and the Promising Practices Network (2007). For the current review, 

we selected teen fatherhood programs that met the following criteria: 

• The program/intervention was implemented in 1980 or later. 

• Evaluation data were collected from U.S., Canada, U.K, Australia, and European samples of 

teen fathers and their families. 

• The study used a sample size of at least 15 in both the treatment and control or comparison 

groups. 

• The intervention aimed to impact: teen father involvement and co-parenting, selfsufficiency/employment, risky behaviors/disease prevention, mental health, or a combination of 

these as well as improve child outcomes and other outcomes identified. 

• The study design was an experimental, quasi-experimental, or outcomes study with baseline 

and follow-up data, and follow-up data from intervention and control or comparison groups 

being used to determine “effect” or “impact.” Implementation studies were also included. 

• Involvement of participants in the interventions was known by the researchers and not based on 

participant recall. 

• The study follow-up time was at least one month after the intervention was initiated. 

• Appropriate statistical analyses were used. 

• At least one outcome was statistically significant at the 0.05 level. 

• Program evaluation documentation was available. 

• The evaluation was conducted by an external independent evaluator. 

• The magnitude of change in at least one measured outcome is at least 5%. 

Programs included in the review do/did not: 

• Have to have findings published in a peer-reviewed journal; 

• Have to be replicated; 

• Have to be currently in operation or currently being implemented in some location. 

The following table categorizes teen fatherhood programs into three groups: “model”

programs, “promising” programs, and “emerging” programs on the basis of these criteria and drawing 

on the ten principles of rigorous research identified above. Although emerging programs do not meet 

these criteria, they provide useful information for future research, especially in the area of early 

program development. 

Page 8 of 93 
TABLE 1: CRITERIA FOR RATING TEEN FATHERHOOD PROGRAMS 

Criteria “Model” Programs “Promising” Programs “Emerging” Programs 

Evaluation Method

(experimental, quasiexperimental, outcomes 

monitoring) 

Study uses a randomized control 

trial (experimental design) 

Study has a comparison group, 

but there are some 

weaknesses, such as the 

groups may lack comparability 

on pre-existing variables or the 

analysis does not employ 

appropriate statistical controls 

Study provides descriptive 

data but does not use a 

comparison group. The 

study only includes an 

implementation component 

Effect Size or Outcome 

Magnitude 

At least one outcome is positively 

changed by 10% 

Change in outcome is more 

than 5% 

No outcome is changed 

more than 1%. Outcome 

changes not documented. 

Statistical Significance At least one outcome with a 

substantial effect size is 

statistically significant at the 0.05 

level 

Outcome change is marginally 

significant at the 0.10 level 

No outcome change is 

statistically significant 

Sample Size Sample size of evaluations exceeds 

30 in both the treatment and 

control or comparison groups 

Sample size of evaluations 

exceeds 15 in both the 

treatment and control or 

comparison groups 

Sample size of evaluation 

includes less than 10 in the 

treatment and comparison 

groups 

Attrition Study retains at least 60% of 

original sample 

Study retains at least 50% of 

original sample 

Study loses more than 50% 

of original sample 

Associations with 

Outcomes 

Outcomes for teen fathers, their 

partners/spouses, or fathers and 

families 

Outcomes for teen fathers, 

fathers and partners or fathers 

and families 

Outcomes not 

considered/documented. 

Independent External 

Evaluator 

Yes Yes Internal Evaluator 

Publication of 

Evaluation Results 

Publicly Available Publicly Available Distribution restricted only 

to the sponsor of the 

evaluation 

Table 2 summarizes all programs reviewed according to which category they fell into (i.e., “model,” 

“promising,” or “emerging”), based on the ratings criteria identified in Table 1 above. Programs were 

considered to be “model” if they met the criteria for “model” described in Table 1 (above). 

Page 9 of 93 
TABLE 2: EVIDENCE-BASED TEEN FATHERHOOD PROGRAMS USING RATING 

CRITERIA 

“Model” Program 

(Experimental Evaluation) 

“Promising” Program 

(Quasi-Experimental Evaluation) 

“Emerging” Program 

(Descriptive/Pre-Post Test 

Evaluation/Implementation 

Evaluation) 

Young Dads A Prenatal Education Intervention A Parent Education Program for 

Young Fathers in Prison 

Respecting and Protecting Our 

Relationships 

Connections: A Program to Assist 

Young Fathers 

STEP-UP: Mentoring for Young Fathers Maximizing a Life 

Experience(MALE) 

Meeting the Service Needs of Young 

Fathers 

New Mexico Young Fathers Project 

No Kidding: Straight Talk from Teen 

Parents 

Really Awesome Parents (RAP) 

Teen Parents and the Law (TPAL) 

The Forever Fathers Program 

The Responsible Fatherhood Project 

The Teen Father Collaborative 

The Young Unwed Fathers Pilot 

Project 

Wanting to be Good Fathers: Helping 

Teen Fathers Become Parents 

Ten Practices From “Model” and “Promising: Teen Fatherhood PRograms 

 This review identified four teen fatherhood programs that were considered effective (i.e., fell 

into the “model” or “promising” category). These programs all underwent either experimental or quasiexperimental evaluations, had low attrition rates, were conducted by external evaluators, and had 

publicly available evaluation results. Although the focus of these programs varied, “model” and 

“promising” teen fatherhood programs shared many of the promising practices noted below. The ten 

promising practices outlined below reflect different aspects of teaching and the particular context of 

programs. As yet, there is no evidence to suggest which combination of these characteristics 

contributed to the overall success of the programs. Nor is there evidence that each program had to 

incorporate all of these practices to have a measurable effect on participants. The specific program 

descriptions for these “model” and “promising” programs are in Appendices 1-2 (pp. 17-33). 

• Promising Practice #1: Partner with community organizations to help recruit and engage

teen fathers. Three of the four “model” and “promising” teen fatherhood programs partnered 

with a wide variety of community agencies (e.g., prenatal clinics, support programs for teen 

mothers, schools) in an effort to recruit fathers. For example, the Respecting and Protecting 

Our Relationships program recruited at eleven sites (four community based organizations and 

seven alternative schools) in order to attract eligible couples to the program. Additionally, some 

“model” and “promising” programs partnered with community organizations in order to access 

a specific expertise (e.g., mentoring) or physical resources (e.g., better facilities). STEP-UP 

formally partnered with the Valley Big Brothers/Big Sisters (VBB/BS) because of VBB/BS’s 

expertise in providing mentoring services to young men in the community. 

Page 10 of 93 
• Promising Practice #2: Plan for program staff to develop one-on-one relationships with 

teen fathers. Either through small groups, individual case management, mentoring services, or 

a combination of the above, three of the four “model” and “promising” programs worked 

closely with each teen participant. This one-on-one work often allowed programs to create 

individualized service plans to meet the needs of teen fathers. Each participant in the Young 

Dads program, for example, worked closely with a case worker who helped participants to 

recognize their strengths and talents, find work, and who served as a major source of emotional 

support. Similarly, mentors and case managers in the STEP-UP program were able to overcome 

young fathers’ initial mistrust of authority figures through the development of personal 

relationships. The small size of the groups in Respecting and Protecting Our Relationships 

helped to create a safe environment in which parenting teen couples feel more comfortable 

sharing intimate stories. 

• Promising Practice #3: Offer a comprehensive array of services to teen fathers. There is 

evidence to suggest that providing teen fathers with parenting information alone is insufficient 

to positively impact the lives of teen fathers and their families (Mazza, 2002). Our review 

found that three of the four “model” and “promising” teen fatherhood programs offered a 

comprehensive set of services, including employment, education, and counseling components. 

Additionally, case managers or social workers working for successful programs knew where in 

the community to refer participants for services which the program was unable to provide. 

STEP-UP, for example, offered participants counseling, case management, mentoring, and 

educational services and supports. Although the focus of Respecting and Protecting Our 

Relationships is risky behavior and disease prevention, small group time was also used to 

discuss the development and maintenance of healthy relationships, romantic and otherwise, and 

theories of gender and power.

• Promising Practice #4: Begin with a theoretical program model. Few teen fatherhood 

programs have been replicated. Among those “model” and “promising” programs reporting 

positive outcomes, however, two of the four used theoretical perspectives or theories of change 

and approaches that had been found to be effective in work with adolescent parents. The 

curriculum used in Respecting and Protecting Our Relationships included HIV prevention 

activities from the experimentally evaluated program Be Proud! Be Responsible! (Jemmott, 

Jemmott, & McCaffree, 1996) and program activities were integrated with a theoretical 

framework by Tello (1998). The curriculum used in A Prenatal Education Intervention was 

developed based on the emotional and educational needs of teenage fathers identified in a study 

by Elster and Panzarine (1980). 

• Promising Practice #5: Delivered services in engaging and interactive ways. None of the 

“model” or “promising” programs for teenage fathers relied solely on a traditional lecture-style 

presentation of materials. All four programs delivered services in a variety of engaging and 

interactive ways, including small and large group discussion (Respecting and Protecting Our 

Relationships, A Prenatal Education Intervention), “hands-on” activities such as letter-writing 

to children (Respecting and Protecting Our Relationships) and developing ten-year plans 

(Young Dads), workshops on topics such as avoiding legal hassles and stress management 

(STEP-UP), case management (Young Dads), mentoring (STEP-UP), audiovisuals aids (A 

Prenatal Education Intervention), skill-building activities (Respecting and Protecting Our 

Relationships) and family-oriented activities, for example, STEP-UP’s Family Training Camp.

Page 11 of 93 
• Promising Practice #6: Conduct a needs assessment and/or use participant feedback in 

order to provide teen fathers the services they want. All four “model” and “promising” 

programs incorporated some level of flexibility in their service delivery that enabled them to 

tailor their intervention to meet the individual needs of fathers. For example, Young Dads

utilized individualized case management techniques, through which the program was able to 

identify the specific needs of each father and provide services accordingly. Prospective fathers 

involved with A Prenatal Education Intervention were given time at the end of every sessions 

to discuss individual concerns with the rest of the group. Case managers involved in the STEPUP program worked closely with participants to assess and meet their individual needs, while 

the Respecting and Protecting Our Relationships program held focus groups and interviews 

before solidifying their curriculum in order to assess the needs of adolescent couples in the 

community. 

• Promising Practice #7: Look for staff that are experienced, empathetic, enthusiastic, and 

well-connected in the community. Staff working for all four of the “model” and “promising” 

programs were usually experienced professionals (e.g., a registered nurse-specialist led the 

sessions for A Prenatal Education Intervention, social workers served as case managers for 

Young Dads). Additionally, experienced Big Brothers/Big Sisters staff prepared volunteer 

mentors involved with STEP-UP to work with young fathers, and mentors were carefully 

matched with participants. Staff and mentors in successful programs “understood” or were 

empathetic toward the teen fathers whom they served as well as being excited and enthusiastic 

about the fatherhood program itself. In fatherhood programs with an employment component, it 

was important for at least one staff member to be well-connected in the community in order to 

help participants find jobs. One of the social workers involved with the Young Dads program 

was successfully able to network with local politicians and business owners in order to help 

participants find work. 

• Promising Practice #8: Incorporate teaching methods and materials that are appropriate 

for teen fathers and their culture and age. Three of the four “model” and “promising” teen 

fatherhood programs tailored their materials to meet the needs of teen fathers and their families 

and were culturally sensitive in the provision of the various services and components. For 

example, the Young Dads fatherhood program targeted African-American adolescent fathers 

and used male social workers who were thought to be better equipped to serve young fathers. 

Staff who engaged fathers were often targeted to be within the same cultural group or from a 

similar living environment, so that they could better relate to program participants. The 

conceptual framework used in Respecting and Protecting Our Relationships based its 

curriculum in culturally rooted concepts and indigenous values of the Chicano, Latino, 

Hispanic and Native American peoples.

• Promising Practice #9: Use an incentive with teen fathers and their families. Two of the 

four programs that were found to be “model” or “promising” (e.g., STEP-UP and Respecting 

and Protecting our Relationships) used incentives to motivate teen fathers and partners to 

participate. STEP-UP offered child care and transportation funding to participating fathers. 

Additionally, families were invited to celebratory events, such as the Family Training Camp. In 

addition to holding program sessions close to participants’ homes, Respecting and Protecting 

our Relationships also offered child care to participating couples. 

Page 12 of 93 
• Promising Practice #10: Mentor teen fathers. Teen fathers often lack positive role models 

and have few people to whom they can turn. STEP-UP attempted to address these issues by 

adding a mentoring component to its programming. Mentors were “empathetic adult men with 

successful life experience” (Noggle, 1995) and were either professional case workers or trained 

volunteers. Case workers involved with Young Dads were seen by participating fathers not only 

as someone to turn to in a crisis, but also as role models. 

TEN PRACTICES FROM “MODEL” AND “PROMISING” 

TEEN FATHERHOOD PROGRAMS1

1. Partner with community organizations to help recruit and engage teen fathers. 

2. Plan for program staff to develop one-on-one relationships with teen fathers. 

3. Offer a comprehensive array of services to teen fathers. 

4. Begin with a theoretical program model. 

5. Provide diversity in the delivery of program services. 

6. Conduct a needs assessment and/or use participant feedback in order to provide teen 

fathers the services they want. 

7. Look for staff that are experienced, empathetic, enthusiastic, and well-connected in the 

community. 

8. Incorporate teaching methods and materials that are appropriate for teen fathers and 

their culture and age. 

9. Use an incentive with teen fathers and their families. 

10. Mentor teen fathers. 

Three Emerging Practices From Teen Fatherhood Programs 

 This review also identified fourteen “emerging” teen fatherhood programs. Program 

evaluations that fell into the “emerging” category sometimes included a process/implementation 

component, which provide valuable information as to the effectiveness of program operations and 

whether or not the program is recruiting and retaining its target population (Bronte-Tinkew, Horowitz, 

Redd, Moore, & Valladares, 2007). The three emerging practices outlined below reflect different 

aspects of implementation and the particular context of programs. The specific program descriptions 

for the “emerging” programs that are discussed can be found in Appendix 3 (pp. 34-90). 

• Emerging Practice 1: Target and invest resources into recruitment in the program’s early 

stages. Overall, teen fatherhood programs found recruitment to be difficult, especially in the 

early stages, before the program became known in the community. Process evaluation results 

suggest that programs targeting teen fathers need to be prepared to invest a significant amount 

of resources into recruitment, especially during a program’s early stages. Both The Teen Father 

Collaborative and The Young Unwed Fathers Pilot Project found that recruitment was 

facilitated by aggressive, “street-smart” outreach workers who knew the community well and 

were able to establish a referral network. One program site working with The Young Unwed 

Fathers Pilot Project found success with an African-American father whose “credible voice” 

 

1

 All programs have been experimentally or quasi-experimentally evaluated. 

Page 13 of 93 
and ability to relate to participants was appreciated by potential recruits. Most program sites 

found that “intense, aggressive, and creative outreach strategies” paid off. Outreach workers 

had to be willing to go to the places with young men hang out and “sell” the program. 

• Emerging Practice 2: Take time to develop the full complement of services. Our review of 

“model” and “promising” programs suggests that offering a comprehensive array of services is 

a promising practice for teen fathers programs. Developing such a full complement of services, 

however, can take time. Several program sites participating in The Teen Father Collaborative, 

in order to avoid overwhelming both agency and staff, added services one-at-a-time over the 

course of the first year. As more fathers were recruited and their needs became better 

understood, additional services were added. 

• Emerging Practice 3: Provide staff with training and follow-up training opportunities. It 

was critical to The Teen Fatherhood Collaborative that participating programs have staff 

skilled in counseling, outreach, community networking, and referral; thus, it is not surprising 

that several of the agencies working with them stressed the importance of staff development 

and technical assistance to frontline staff. Additionally, some agencies found that they needed 

to provide additional support and encouragement in the program’s early stages as not all staff 

were excited to work with teenage fathers (as opposed to teenage mothers). The Young Unwed 

Fathers Pilot Project required all staff to attend two days of training with the curriculum 

developers. Staff participated in a series of workshops, and a panel of young fathers provided 

feedback on the lessons and the exercises. Follow-up trainings were held centrally and on-site 

throughout the first year of program implementation.

THREE PRACTICES FROM “EMERGING” TEEN FATHERHOOD PROGRAMS 

1. Target and invest resources into recruitment in the program’s early stages. 

2. Take time to develop the full complement of services. 

3. Provide staff with training and follow-up training opportunities. 

Early Conclusions About Evidence From Teen Fatherhood Programs 

A number of conclusions can be drawn from the many studies reviewed. 

• Few of the studies covered in this review meet all of the criteria required for rigorous research. 

Of the evaluation studies of teen fatherhood programs that are documented, only a few used 

random assignment designs, most had small sample sizes, most did not use a comparison 

group, some used inappropriate statistical tests, and some used psychometrically sound 

measures. Some reported positive results. 

• To date, few teen fatherhood programs have been rigorously evaluated and those that have been 

incorporated process/implementation evaluations rather than outcome evaluations. That is, the 

focus of the evaluation was on program operations rather than on program outcomes (Bowie & 

Bronte-Tinkew, 2008). While process evaluation alone does not make a program evidencebased, such evaluations offer important insight into issues such as participant recruitment, 

service delivery, and staff training.

Page 14 of 93 
• Some of the studies included in this review were designed to answer a specific question about 

the program (e.g., What factors predicted attendance? What was the nature of the involvement 

of young fathers with their children?). Although such studies may provide important insights 

into one aspect of a teen fatherhood program, questions about other aspects of the program 

were left unanswered.

• Almost all of the programs included in this review worked with teenage fathers who voluntarily 

agreed to participate in program services. A subset of teenage fathers who did not voluntarily 

seek out program services were probably those most in need of them. To date, there is little 

research on the effectiveness of mandatory participation in teen fatherhood programs. 

• Few “model” or “promising” teen fatherhood programs have been replicated. This points to the 

issue of making general statements about the effectiveness of some types of program based on 

the results of non-replicated studies. 

• Most of the studies reviewed were hampered by some methodological constraints, including the 

lack of control or even comparison groups or the use of exploratory analyses in the “emerging” 

programs. As such, results may likely be biased. 

Despite the real limitations of the research in this field, we should be encouraged by the progress that 

is currently being made in the number of new programs that are targeting teen fathers and their 

families for intervention efforts and the use of stronger research and evaluation strategies. 

Page 15 of 93 
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Appendix 1: 

“Model” Teen Fatherhood Programs

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YOUNG DADS 

OVERVIEW: The Young Dads program targeted African-American adolescent fathers in New York City and 

was designed to help them become more confident and responsible fathers. Results from an experimental 

evaluation of Young Dads suggest that parenting programs for adolescent fathers which only focus on teaching 

parenting skills are ineffective. Additionally, evaluators found statistically significant positive changes for 

fathers who participated in Young Dads in employment rates, vocational plans, perceptions of current 

relationships with their children, perceptions of the quality of the future relationship with their children, 

frequency of contraceptive use, and the availability of persons with whom a problem can be discussed. Read 

more...

PROGRAM GOALS: The Young Dads parenting program aimed to increase the ability of African-American 

adolescent to: 

o Establish and meet individual goals; 

o Develop stronger support systems; 

o Develop consistent, positive feelings about their relationships with their children now and in the future. 

LOCATION: New York City, New York

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: This program served first-time fathers between the ages of 

16 and 18. Fathers included in the evaluations sample had the following characteristics:

• All participants were African-American and from the same geographical area; 

• The mothers of the participants’ children were either receiving services through a teen mother support 

program or were in a mother-baby group residence; 

• The mean age of their children was 9 months; 

• On average, couples had known each other for almost a year before the women became pregnant. 

EVALUATION DESIGN: EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN (RANDOM ASSIGNMENT) 

• Outcomes:

o Employment 

o Vocational plans 

o Current relationship with child 

o Perception of future relationship with child 

o Establishment of a 10-year plan 

o Use of contraceptives 

o Number of close friends 

o Discussion of problems with others 

• Method: Adolescent fathers were randomly assigned to either the treatment or control group. The 

fathers were interviewed at two time points: at the time of referral and 6 months after referral. The 

treatment group received both individual and group counseling, education and vocational referrals and 

placements, medical care and referrals, housing and legal advocacy, cultural and recreational activities, 

and parenting skills training. Fathers in the control group received weekly group parenting skills 

training and were invited to participate in the child welfare agency’s case planning for their children.

• Sample: Sixty African-American adolescent fathers were included in the sample (30 fathers in the 

treatment group and 30 fathers in the control group).

YOUNG DADS 

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“MODEL” PROGRAM 

• Measures: Fathers were interviewed at the two time points: the time of referral and 6 months after 

referral. 

o Employment: Fathers were asked if they were employed. 

o Vocational plans: Fathers were asked if they had a vocational plan. 

o Current relationship with child: Fathers were asked to rate the quality of their relationship with 

their child as “excellent,” “good,” “fair,” or “poor.” 

o Future relationship with child: Fathers were asked to predict the closeness, quality, and 

consistency of their relationship with their children in the future. Fathers could rate the 

relationships as “excellent,” “good,” “fair,” or “poor.” 

o Establishment of a 10-year plan: Fathers were asked if they had developed a 10-year plan. 

o Use of contraceptives: Fathers were asked if they used birth control “always,” “often,” or 

“sometimes.” 

o Description of being a man: Fathers were asked to provide a description of their views of being 

a man. 

o Number of close friends: Fathers were asked the number of close friends they had.

o Discussion of problems with others: Fathers were asked with whom they discussed problems. 

Fathers had the options of choosing a relative, friend, their child’s mother, a social worker, or 

no one. 

• Statistical Analyses: Data were analyzed using chi-square analysis.

• Attrition: Not currently available.

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: Two male social workers of different races, one parenting instructor, 

and one educational-vocational counselor were assigned to serve 30 fathers. 

o Staff Education: Not currently available.

o Staff Experience: Not currently available.

o Staff Training: Not currently available.

o Planning Time and Coordination: Not currently available.

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

o Staff Satisfaction: Social workers were committed to and enthusiastic about the program and 

the participants. 

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: Fathers were recruited through programs for adolescent mothers attended by their child’s 

mother.

• Space: Not currently available.

• Materials: Not currently available.

• Partnerships and Linkages: Not currently available.

• Community Organizations: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model: The program utilized a comprehensive set of services tailored to meet 

the individual needs of young fathers. Fathers were recruited through programs for adolescent mothers 

attended by their child’s mothers. Once enrolled, fathers were asked to list areas in their lives where 

they needed assistance. The program model assumed that male social workers are better equipped to 

YOUNG DADS 

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“MODEL” PROGRAM 

serve young fathers and used the relationship between adolescent fathers and male social workers as a 

therapeutic (through counseling and regular meetings), mentoring, and supportive male relationship 

throughout the program. Male staff members also served as positive parenting role models, and one 

social worker took on the task of networking for jobs. Fathers received both individual and group 

counseling, education and vocational referrals and placements, medical care and referrals, housing and 

legal advocacy, cultural and recreational activities, and parenting skills training. 

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: Thirty fathers were enrolled in the program.

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): Not currently available.

• Frequency of program offerings: Not currently available.

• Diversity of activities: The fathers received individual and group counseling, education and vocational 

referrals and placements, medical care and referrals, housing and legal advocacy, cultural and 

recreational activities, and parenting skills training. 

• Incentives for participation: Not currently available.

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Employment 

• At the second time point, 97% of the fathers in the treatment group were employed compared to 31% of 

fathers in the control group (p<.01). 

Vocational Plans 

• At the second time point, 87% of treatment group fathers had a vocational plan in comparison to 42% of 

fathers in the control group (p<.01). 

Current Relationship with child 

• At the second time point, 77% of the treatment group reported that their relationship with their child was 

“excellent” or “good” compared with 50% of the control group (p<.02). 

Expectation of Future Relationship with the Child 

• Almost all (96%) of the fathers in the treatment group predicted that their future relationship with their 

child will be excellent in comparison to 73% of the fathers in the control group at the second time point 

(p<.02). 

Use of Contraceptives 

• At the second time point, 90% of fathers in the treatment group reported that they use contraceptives 

“always” or “often” compared to 73% of fathers in the control group (p<.01). 

Discussion of Problems 

• At the second time point, none of the fathers in the treatment group reported that they did not have 

someone to discuss their problems with in comparison to 27% of fathers in the control group. 

SOURCES:

Mazza, C. (2002). Young dads: The effects of a parenting program on urban African-American adolescent 

 fathers. Adolescence, 37(148), 681-693. 

YOUNG DADS 

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“MODEL” PROGRAM 

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Carl Mazza 

Department of Sociology/Social Work 

Lehman College of the City University of New York 

250 Bedford Park Boulevard West 

Bronx, New York 10468 

Email: cmazza@alpha.lehman.cuny.edu

YOUNG DADS 

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Appendix 2: 

“Promising” Teen Fatherhood Programs

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“PROMISING” PROGRAM 

A PRENATAL EDUCATION INTERVENTION 

OVERVIEW: This prenatal education program was designed to educate unwed, prospective, adolescent fathers 

on topics related to human sexuality, pregnancy and prenatal care, labor and delivery, and infant development 

and care. An experimental evaluation of the program found that fathers participating in the program significantly 

increased their knowledge of pregnancy and prenatal care and infant development and care. Findings also 

indicate that an increased knowledge of these topics may translate into more supportive behaviors toward the 

mother and expected infant. Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: This program was intended to 1) increase unwed prospective adolescent fathers’ 

knowledge of human sexuality, prenatal care, labor, delivery, and infant development and care and 2) increase 

the supportive behaviors of the fathers toward the mother and expected infant. 

LOCATION: Not currently available. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: The sample served included 28 black, unmarried, 

prospective adolescent fathers between the ages of 15 and 18.

EVALUATION DESIGN: EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN (RANDOM ASSIGNMENT) 

• Outcomes: Increased knowledge in the following areas:

o Human sexuality 

o Pregnancy and prenatal care 

o Labor and delivery 

o Infant development and care 

o Support toward mother and expected infant 

• Method: Twenty-eight adolescent fathers volunteered to participate in the study. Fathers were randomly 

assigned to either the treatment or control group. The treatment group participated in four prenatal 

classes. The control group received no intervention. Fathers in both groups were tested at 2 time points. 

The treatment group was tested before and after the intervention. The control group was tested before 

the intervention and again 4 weeks later. 

• Sample: Twenty-eight black, unmarried, prospective adolescent fathers were included in the sample (15 

fathers in the treatment group and 13 fathers in the control group).

• Measures: Fathers were tested at 2 time points, 4 weeks apart, using self-administered parallel forms of 

the same 75-item questionnaire. The questionnaires consisted of true/false questions, including items on 

human sexuality, pregnancy and prenatal care, labor and delivery, and infant development and care. 

Additionally, questions about fathers’ antepartum and intended post-partum support were asked. 

• Statistical Analyses: Post-test knowledge scores were compared while controlling for the 

corresponding pre-test scores using analysis of covariance. Post-test knowledge scores and post-test 

support scores were compared using partial correlations, adjusting for the effects of pre-intervention 

knowledge scores. 

• Attrition: Not currently available.

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

A PRENATAL EDUCATION INTERVENTION 

Page 25 of 93 
“PROMISING” PROGRAM 

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: There was one facilitator for the 15 fathers participating in the 

program. 

o Staff Education: Classes were led by a female registered nurse-specialist in maternal and child 

care. 

o Staff Experience: Not currently available.

o Staff Training: Not currently available.

o Planning Time and Coordination: Not currently available.

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

o Staff Satisfaction: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: Not currently available.

• Space: Not currently available.

• Materials: Audiovisual equipment. 

• Partnerships and Linkages: Participants were recruited through assistance from nurses in public 

schools, prenatal clinics visited by pregnant adolescent mothers and their teenage mates, recreation 

centers, and expectant fathers who identified their male friends as also being expectant fathers. 

• Community Organizations: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model: Four prenatal classes were held, each class was 2 hours in length. 

Time at the end of every session was reserved for a discussion of participant concerns. The 4 classes 

covered the following: 

O Session 1: Human sexuality

 Male and female sexuality

 Human sexual response and sexual behavior

 Effects of external factors on the sexual arousal of males and females

 Personal factors influencing sexual behaviors and procreation

O Session 2: Pregnancy and prenatal care

 Common pressures usually experienced during pregnancy

 The developing fetus

 Nutritional needs of the pregnant adolescent

 Why prenatal care is necessary

O Session 3: Labor and delivery

 What happens immediately before birth

 The process of labor and delivery

 Birth of the baby

O Session 4: Infant development and care

 Appearance of the newborn at birth

 Parent-infant attachment

 Care of the infant

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: Fifteen fathers were enrolled in the program.

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): There were 4 prenatal classes, each lasting 2 

hours. 

A PRENATAL EDUCATION INTERVENTION 

Page 26 of 93 
“PROMISING” PROGRAM 

• Frequency of program offerings: Not currently available.

• Diversity of activities: Content was presented through lectures and audiovisuals. Time was left at the 

end of each class for a discussion of participant concerns. 

• Incentives for participation: Not currently available.

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Overall knowledge 

• The treatment group significant increased its overall test score in knowledge of human sexuality, 

pregnancy and prenatal care, labor and delivery, and infant development and care (p<.05). The control 

group did not. 

Knowledge of human sexuality 

• No significant differences were found between the treatment and control groups in knowledge of human 

sexuality. 

Knowledge of pregnancy and prenatal care 

• Relative to the control group, the treatment group significantly increased its mean score on the 

pregnancy and prenatal care subscale (p<.05). Fathers more accurately answered questions about the 

importance of prenatal care, the relationship of a poor diet to prematurity, and the value of prenatal care 

in identifying potential pregnancy complications. 

Knowledge of labor and delivery 

• No significant differences were found between the treatment and control groups in knowledge of labor 

and delivery. 

Knowledge of infant development and care 

• Relative to the control group, the treatment group significantly increased its mean score on the infant 

development and care subscale (p<.01). Adolescent fathers increased their knowledge the most in this 

area. Fathers more accurately answered questions about individuality, emotional needs, and language 

development. 

Support toward mother and expected infant 

• Partial correlation results between knowledge scores and support scores for the total sample revealed a 

significant positive relationship between the total support scores and the total knowledge scores for both 

the treatment and control groups (p<.05) and for both groups combined (p<.01). This finding indicates 

that an adolescent father’s increased knowledge of the above topics may translate into more supportive 

behaviors toward the mother and expected infant. 

SOURCES:

Westney, O.E., Cole, O.J., & Munford, T.L. (1988). The effects of prenatal education intervention on unwed 

 prospective adolescent fathers. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 9(3), 214-218. 

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Ouida E. Westney 

School of Human Ecology, Howard University 

Washington, DC 

A PRENATAL EDUCATION INTERVENTION 

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“PROMISING” PROGRAM 

RESPECTING AND PROTECTING OUR RELATIONSHIPS 

OVERVIEW: Respecting and Protecting our Relationships (Respeto/Proteger in Spanish) is a communitybased HIV prevention program targeting inner-city Latino adolescent parenting couples in Los Angeles, 

California. Couples participating in the program discussed HIV prevention, the theory of gender and power, and 

the development and maintenance of healthy relationships using a culturally-based curriculum. An evaluation of 

the program using a quasi-experimental design found that participating couples demonstrated safer sexual 

behaviors and increased condom use intentions over time. Program participants as well as participants in the 

comparison group demonstrated a better knowledge of HIV/AIDS. Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: To help adolescent parenting couples prevent HIV infection.

LOCATION: Los Angeles, California

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: Forty-nine couples (98 adolescent mothers and fathers) 

were included in the initial sample. Twenty-six couples were assigned to the treatment group, and 23 couples 

were assigned to the control group. In order to be eligible to participate in the study, the woman and the man 

needed to have the following characteristics:

• In a “couple relationship” characterized by romantic/sexual intimacy for at least 3 months;

• Currently expecting a child together as biological parents or co-raising their biological child;

• Between 14 and 23 years old;

• Able to speak either English or Spanish.

Fathers included in the final analysis (n=38) had the following characteristics: 

• An average age of 19.2 years;

• 92% Latino;

• 10.1 school years completed, on average (fathers in the control group had an average difference of 1 

grade level above those in the treatment group);

• 16% had ever been physically abused by an adult;

• 6.9 lifetime sex partners, on average. 

EVALUATION DESIGN: QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 

• Outcomes: 

o Sexual risk behaviors, including the unadjusted proportion of unprotected sex episodes and each 

individual’s probability of unprotected vaginal sex 

o Behavioral intentions to use condoms 

o AIDS knowledge. 

• Method: Assignment to the treatment or control group was done by a community organization. The 

treatment group participated in Respecting and Protecting our Relationships. The control group received 

a 1.5 hour didactic/video presentation that provided “standard” information on HIV/AIDS. HIV/AIDS 

transmission, signs and symptoms, and methods of prevention were covered. Condom use was 

described. Skill-building opportunities were not provided. Participants in both groups completed 

questionnaires at the beginning and end of the intervention as well as 3 and 6 months after its 

completion. Most questionnaires were completed in a group setting, but participants who were unable to 

attend completed them at home. Questions were read aloud in either English or Spanish by a trained 

research assistant. The questionnaires were given to women and men separately and took approximately 

45 to 90 minutes to complete. 

RESPECTING AND PROTECTING OUR RELATIONSHIPS 

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“PROMISING” PROGRAM 

• Sample: Twenty-six couples (n=52) were assigned to the treatment group and 23 couples (n=46) to the 

control group. 

• Measures: The questionnaires measured sexual risk behaviors, behavioral intentions to use condoms, 

AIDS knowledge, and sociodemographic characteristics including age, race/ethnicity, education level, 

and past history of physical and sexual abuse.

• Statistical Analyses: Simple descriptive statistical analyses were performed on baseline 

sociodemographic and key variables. Multiple imputation was used to account for missing data. A 

propensity score regression adjustment was used to reduce potential bias caused by non-random 

assignment (Rosenbaum & Rubin, 1983). Hierarchical modeling, using linear and generalized linear 

mixed model analysis was used to account for the dyadic structure between partners and correlations 

among longitudinally measured outcomes on individuals (Verbeke & Molenberghs, 2000). 

• Attrition: Forty-nine couples were in the initial sample. Participants were included for analysis if they 

and their partners had baseline data and at least one follow-up evaluation. Thirty-eight couples were 

included in the final analyses (22.4% attrition). Seventeen couples (n=34) were included from the 

treatment group and 21 couples (n=42) from the control group. 

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: Two facilitators, one male and one female, co-led each session. 

o Staff Education: Facilitators were health professionals (e.g., nurses, health educators, social 

workers, psychologists). 

o Staff Experience: Not currently available.

o Staff Training: Not currently available.

o Planning Time and Coordination: Not currently available.

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

o Staff Satisfaction: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: There were 11 recruitment sites in the greater Los Angeles area, including the partnering 

community-based organization, four additional community-based organizations, and seven alternative 

schools with pregnant minor and parenting programs. 

• Space: Program series were held in community settings close to participants’ homes (e.g., communitybased organization (CBO) offices, clinics, and libraries). 

• Materials: Not currently available.

• Partnerships and Linkages: This program was funded by the California Collaborative Research 

Initiative as part of the UCLA AIDS Research Program. Respeto/Proteger (Respecting and Protecting 

our Relationships) is a collaborative effort between community organizations and an academic research 

team.

• Community Organizations: This program was a collaboration of the UCLA School of Nursing and the 

Bienvenidos Family Services National Latino Fatherhood and Family Institute (NLFFI). Participants 

were recruited from NLFFI, the partnering CBO, as well as three other CBOs and seven alternative 

schools with pregnant minor and parenting programs. 

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model: 

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RESPECTING AND PROTECTING OUR RELATIONSHIPS 
“PROMISING” PROGRAM 

o The program’s conceptual framework bases its curriculum in culturally rooted concepts and 

indigenous values of the Chicano, Latino, Hispanic and Native American peoples. Cultural 

teachings from the National Latino Fatherhood and Family Institute (NLFFI) program, Con los 

Padres, were incorporated in this program. 

o The curriculum for this program included HIV prevention activities from the program Be 

Proud! Be Responsible! (Jemmott, Jemmott, & McCaffree, 1996). These activities were 

integrated with a theoretical framework by Tello (1998), and findings from preliminary focus 

groups and individual interviews with adolescent parents. The findings from the preliminary 

study led program designers to stress the following aspects of intimate relationships: 

 Trust, 

 Communication, and 

 Mutual respect. 

o Program content focusing on HIV prevention included the following topics: 

 HIV awareness; 

 Understanding vulnerability to HIV infection; 

 Attitudes and beliefs about HIV and safer sex; 

 Building condom use skills, refusal skills, and conflict negotiation; and 

 Contraception and disease prevention. 

o Additionally, the intervention focused on the development and maintenance of healthy 

relationships and drew on the theory of gender and power. 

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: On average, between 2 and 5 couples attended the treatment and control sessions.

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): The 12-hour curriculum was delivered over 6 

sessions. 

• Frequency of program offerings: Not currently available.

• Diversity of activities: Participants were sometimes separated by gender and sometimes together in 

one group during discussions. Activities included identification and delineation of goals and dreams, 

life-planning exercises, and letter-writing to children.

• Incentives for participation: Participants were compensated for completing evaluations and attending 

sessions. Child care was also provided. 

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Sexual risk behavior 

• Couples in the treatment group had a significantly reduced probability of unprotected sex over time 

compared to couples in the control group (p<.001), with an estimated effect size of 0.73 for the observed 

difference. 

Behavioral intentions to use condoms 

• Condom intent significantly improved over time in the treatment group (p<.001) but not in the control 

group (p=.16), with an estimated effect size of 0.64 for the observed difference. 

AIDS knowledge 

• AIDS knowledge in both the treatment and control groups significantly increased over time (p<.001). 

There was no significant difference between the two groups. 

SOURCES:

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RESPECTING AND PROTECTING OUR RELATIONSHIPS 
“PROMISING” PROGRAM 

Jemmott, L.S., Jemmott, J.B., III, & McCaffree, K.A. (1996). Be Proud! Be Responsible! Strategies to empower 

 youth to reduce their risk for HIV infection, curriculum manual. New York: Select Media. 

Koniak-Griffin, D., Lesser, J., Henneman, T., Huang, R., Huang, X., Tello, J., et al. (2008). HIV prevention for 

 Latino adolescent mothers and their partners. Western Journal of Nursing Research. Retrieved May 19, 

 2008, from http://wjn.sagepub.com 

Lesser, J., et al. (2005). Respecting and Protecting our Relationships: A community research HIV 

 prevention program for teen fathers and mothers. AIDS Education and Prevention, 17(4), 347-360. 

Rosenbaum, P.R., & Rubin, D.B. (1983). The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for 

 causal effects. Biometrika, 70, 41-55. 

Tello, J. (1998). El hombre noble buscando balance: The noble man searching for balance. In R. Carillo & J. 

 Tello (Eds.), Family violence and men of color: Healing the wounded male spirit. New York: Springer. 

Verbeke, G., & Molenberghs, G. (2000). Linear mixed models for longitudinal data. New York: Springer. 

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Deborah Koniak-Griffin 

Email: dkoniak@sonnet.ucla.edu 

Janna Lesser 

Department of Family Nursing Care 

University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio 

7703 Floyd Curl Drive 

San Antonio, Texas 76229 

Email: lesser@uthscsa.edu 

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STEP-UP: MENTORING FOR YOUNG FATHERS 

OVERVIEW: The STEP-UP program was launched in 1990 in order to address the challenges faced by young 

fathers in Phoenix, Arizona. Initially, STEP-UP offered counseling and case management services. In 1992, 

however, STEP-UP was awarded a two-year grant by the Demonstration Partnership Program of HHS’s Office 

of Community Services to design and implement a new mentoring and educational support component. An 

experimental evaluation of the impact of this new component found evidence to suggest that being mentored by 

successful men, either professional case workers or volunteers, can have a positive impact on young fathers. 

Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: The STEP-UP program was intended to help young fathers achieve self-sufficiency and 

effectively take responsibility for their families. Program partners and counselors wanted to help young fathers 

“achieve harmonious family relationships,” “healthy minds and bodies,” and “adequate provider incomes.” 

LOCATION: Phoenix, Arizona

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: The STEP-UP program targeted low-income fathers 

between the ages of 16 and 22. Fathers included in the sample had the following characteristics: 

• 86% were minorities;

• All had incomes below 125% of the Phoenix area’s poverty level;

• All had unstable employment status and low incomes;

• Educational backgrounds ranged from completion of grades 6 through 12;

• All demonstrated weak problem-solving skills;

• All had little trust in authority figures;

• 97% had seven or more risk indicators of substance abuse.

EVALUATION DESIGN: EXPERIMENTAL (RANDOM ASSIGNMENT) 

• Outcomes: 

o Employment/occupation improvements 

o Income improvements 

o Educational improvements 

o Family relationship improvements 

o Other relationship improvements 

o Health improvements 

o Motivation 

• Method: Participants recruited by STEP-UP were randomly assigned to one of four experimental 

groups of equal size: 1) services as usual (i.e., case management and counseling), 2) services plus 

mentoring, 3) services plus educational stipends, or 4) services plus mentoring and educational stipends. 

Participants who wanted mentoring but who were randomly assigned to a non-mentored group were 

matched with a mentor and removed from the study. Outcomes achieved by mentored fathers were 

compared to outcomes achieved by non-mentored fathers. Additionally, outcomes experienced by 

fathers with mentoring relationships rated “good” or “fair” were compared to outcomes achieved by 

non-mentored fathers. 

• Sample: 120 young fathers who met specified selection criteria and were stratified by age, education 

level, and ethnicity. 

STEP-UP: MENTORING FOR YOUNG FATHERS 

Page 32 of 93 
“PROMISING” PROGRAM 

• Measures: 

o Researchers used the “A.I.M.” rating of a client’s Appreciation, Interest, and Motivation 

(developed by the evaluator) to measure the inclination to progress in education, income, and 

family relationships. 

o Researchers used the “K.S.C.” rating of a client’s Knowledge, Skills, and Capabilities 

(developed by the evaluator) to measure his ability in each of these goal areas. 

o A pre/post survey measured risk indicators of substance abuse. 

• Statistical Analyses: Descriptive analyses were conducted. Statistical significance was not reported. 

• Attrition: Not currently available. 

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: Three STEP-UP case workers provided counseling and case 

management services. One case manager was responsible for the mentoring component of the 

program. 

o Staff Education: Not currently available. 

o Staff Experience:

 Counselors had had experience with the practice of assessing current needs and problems, 

helping clients develop action plans for growth, making referrals to educational and job 

training/vocational programs, and providing advice about the job search process and 

managing financial affairs. 

 Valley Big Brothers/Big Sisters provided extensive experience in matching mentors with 

young people. 

o Staff Training: Six months of start-up time was required to recruit and train mentors. 

o Planning Time and Coordination: Not currently available.

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

o Staff Satisfaction: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: STEP-UP counselors made numerous introductory presentations to city and private 

agencies where suitable young men might be applying for service while, at the same time, meeting with 

a growing number of young fathers referred to them. STEP-UP’s partner, The Valley Big Brothers/Big 

Sisters agency, assigned a caseworker to the program and began to recruit men considered as suitable 

potential mentors to the young fathers.

• Space: College courses were held at GateWay Community College. Educational workshops were 

provided off-site. 

• Materials: Not currently available.

• Partnerships and Linkages:

o Valley Big Brothers/Big Sisters was responsible for designing and managing the mentoring 

component of the program. 

o GateWay Community College was responsible for planning and delivering the educational 

component of the program. 

o The Parks and Recreation Department of Phoenix was responsible for planning and managing 

group and recognition events.

o The Phoenix Job Training Partnership participated in the project by helping to identify job 

training opportunities and making available appropriate funded training slots. 

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STEP-UP: MENTORING FOR YOUNG FATHERS
“PROMISING” PROGRAM 

o STEP-UP involved evaluation specialists to assist in strengthening program plans.

• Community Organizations: STEP-UP counselors applied to city and private agencies in order to 

recruit young fathers to participate in the program. 

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model: 

o Counseling: Counselors attempted to 1) deal with the client’s immediate problems, 2) help 

stabilize the client’s situation, 3) help the client develop realistic job and career expectations, 

and 4) identify and capitalize on the resources needed for growth and development. Counseling 

was balanced with referrals to other resources. 

o Case Management: Case workers integrated program resources (e.g., counseling, mentoring, 

and educational supports) as well as determined objectives and incentives for participants as 

they took steps toward achieving their goals. Changes in client motivation were tracked. 

o Mentoring: Participating fathers were mentored by empathetic, successful fathers and 

businessmen. Valley Big Brothers/Big Sisters adapted their “well-developed” mentoring model 

to better fit the needs of young, disadvantaged fathers. A Valley Big Brothers/Big Sisters case 

worker recruited, orientated, and matched volunteer mentors with new clients and monitored 

these matches for “fit.” Mentors helped their mentees better understand their new father and 

provider roles and the dynamics of their new family relationships. 

o Educational Support: Financial stipends to subsidize some post-secondary education were made 

available to receptive clients. Over the life course of the project, the focus of this piece shifted 

from post-secondary coursework (e.g., courses at GateWay Community College on moneymanagement and communication) toward topical workshops and job-related training (e.g., offcampus workshops on planning a child’s future, avoiding legal hassles, and anger and stress 

management) because young fathers were not utilizing the college courses. Many of the topical 

workshops had family unity and harmony themes. 

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: Mentors worked one-on-one with young fathers. Some effective mentors mentored more 

than one young father. 

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): Not currently available. 

• Frequency of program offerings: Not currently available.

• Diversity of activities: The STEP-UP program offered counseling, case management, mentoring, and 

educational supports to participants. Additionally, participants and their families were invited to attend 

STEP-UP recreation, recognition, and other group events (e.g., a Family Camp Event). 

• Incentives for participation: Child care was provided during some evening workshops and other 

events. Transportation funding was also provided. 

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Employment/Occupation Improvements 

• 44% of mentored fathers and 32% of non-mentored fathers obtained jobs sometime during the project 

period. Only 9% of the clients in each group lost jobs.

• 73% of successfully mentored fathers were employed at the end of the project period compared with 

48% of the non-mentored control group. 

• Young fathers reported that STEP-UP was helpful to them in obtaining jobs. 

Income Improvements 

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STEP-UP: MENTORING FOR YOUNG FATHERS
“PROMISING” PROGRAM 

• The average hourly income of the mentored fathers rose by $2.67. The average hourly income of the 

non-mentored fathers rose by $2.36. 

Educational Improvements 

• Few young fathers completed job training courses, additional schooling, or GED courses during the 

project period. For this reason, data on attendance, grades, and material learned was not collected. The 

average grade level completed by all young fathers increased by one-tenth of a year. Mentored fathers 

did only marginally better than non-mentored fathers. 

• Successfully mentored fathers gained one-half of a grade level compared with no growth in the nonmentored control group. 

Family Relationship Improvements 

• Case workers and mentors reported that 53% of the mentored fathers and 42% of the non-mentored 

fathers strengthened family relationships with their spouse or significant other. Roughly 11% of 

mentored fathers became engaged or married during the project period as well as 2% of non-mentored 

fathers. 

• Young fathers reported that the mentors were most helpful in resolving family problems. 

SOURCES:

STEP-UP with Mentoring for Young Fathers. Retrieved May 20, 2008, from 

 http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cse/rpt/fth/fth_b.htm 

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Nelson L. Noggle, Ph.D. 

C.A.E.P. 

3217 N. Margate Place 

Chandler, Arizona 85224 

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STEP-UP: MENTORING FOR YOUNG FATHERS
Appendix 3: 

“Emerging” Teen Fatherhood Programs 

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“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

A PARENT EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR YOUNG FATHERS IN PRISON 

OVERVIEW: This program is an intensive parenting class delivered over a single week and designed to 

address the needs of young fathers in prison. The class covered a variety of topics, including childcare issues, 

sexual health, and legal issues. Additionally, participants are invited to pose their own topics. Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: To provide a useful, high-quality parenting class to young fathers in prison.

LOCATION: A young offender institution in the south of England 

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: Young fathers participating in this program had the 

following characteristics: 

• Participants were between 18 and 21 years old, 19.65 years old on average; 

• Participants identified themselves as black (45%), white (41%), and Asian (1.3%) or did not identify 

their ethnic group (12%); 

• 59% of participants reported having a child or children at the beginning of the group; 

• Participants’ children were between 1 and 4 years old, 1.50 years old on average. 

EVALUATION DESIGN: DESCRIPTIVE CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY 

• Outcomes: 

o Most useful aspect of the course 

o Least useful aspect of the course 

o Most important thing learnt 

o What was missing from the course 

o Overall usefulness of the course 

o Parenting support while in prison 

o Support for young fathers after release from prison 

o Further comments and suggestions 

• Method: Participants were recruited through fliers placed on the accommodation, education, and 

resettlement wings of the prison. Many participants heard about the program from others who had 

participated. Participants were self-referred. Preference was given to fathers and prospective fathers. 

Participants provided feedback at the end of each day of the program as well as an anonymous written 

evaluation at the end of the week. 

• Sample: Over 3 years, 75 men completed the prison-based parenting class. 

• Measures: On the written course evaluation, participants were asked to: 

o Complete a series of open-ended questions addressing the course content (e.g., What was 

missing from the course that you would have liked? For you, what was the most important thing 

that you learned?); 

o Rate the overall usefulness of the course on a five point scale (response options ranged from 

“not at all useful” to “very useful”); 

o Report the types of parenting support that they would be willing to access, both from within 

prison and after their return to the community. 

• Statistical Analyses: Thematic analysis was used to explore participant responses (Strauss & Corbin, 

1990). Descriptive statistics and chi-square analysis were also used. 

• Attrition: Not currently available. 

A PARENT EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR YOUNG FATHERS IN PRISON 

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“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: This varied depending on the size of the class. On average, there were 

3 staff members for 8 participants. 

o Staff Education: The program leader had a Ph.D. in psychology and also conducted the 

program evaluation. She was assisted by a member of the prison resettlement staff and a 

classroom assistant. 

o Staff Experience: Not currently available. 

o Staff Training: The classroom assistant was a trained prisoner.

o Planning Time and Coordination: Not currently available. 

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

o Staff Satisfaction: Not currently available. 

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: Participants were recruited through fliers placed on the accommodation, education, and 

resettlement wings of the prison. Many participants heard about the program from others who had 

participated. Participants were self-referred.

• Space: The program was implemented inside a young offender institution that could accommodate 400 

men between the ages of 18 and 21. 

• Materials: Not currently available.

• Partnerships and Linkages: Several of the program sessions were led by guest speakers from the 

community. A female domestic violence officer from the local police force led the session on domestic 

violence, and a regional representative from a local fathers’ support group assisted in leading the session 

on fathers’ legal rights and responsibilities.

• Community Organizations: Not currently available. 

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model: Because of high turnover in the prison setting, this program was 

designed to be an intensive parenting class delivered over a single week. A set list of topics was covered 

as well as any additional topic that the groups wanted to learn more about. The following topics were 

covered: 

 Childcare issues (e.g., child development, nutrition, play, discipline, health and safety); 

 Sexual health; 

 Pregnancy; 

 Domestic Violence; 

 Legal issues; 

 Accessing parenting support; 

 Maintaining contact with children and family members during and after prison. 

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: The size of the group varied. There were between 5 and 11 participants in each group, with 

an average group size of 8. 

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): The program took place over a single week. A 

morning and an afternoon session were held everyday. 

• Frequency of program offerings: The program was offered every 2-4 months, depending on 

availability of staff and the length of the waiting list. Nine groups took place over a 32-month period. 

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A PARENT EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR YOUNG FATHERS IN PRISON 
“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

• Diversity of activities: Participants took part in whole- and small-group exercises, individual work, 

worksheets, discussions, quizzes, and role playing. There was little formal written work. Tutor and peer 

support were made available. 

• Incentives for participation: Not currently available. 

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Most useful aspect of the course: 

• The majority of participants (57%) found childcare-specific issues to be the most useful aspect of the 

course. Of these participants, most of the responses related to physical care (e.g., learning how to 

change a diaper). The rest of the responses were related to general care and issues surrounding child 

development and behavior. 

• Participants also found other related issues useful (22%) (e.g., legal issues, domestic violence, parenting 

self-esteem, pregnancy). 

• Finally, participants found the course format and delivery useful (21%). Some participants mentioned 

specific teaching methods that they liked (e.g., guest speakers, role playing, group discussions). 

Least useful aspect of the course: The aspect most often identified as least useful was course content, 

specifically domestic violence, pregnancy, sexual health, and legal issues. Other participants noted the course 

format or physical childcare issues. 

Most important thing learnt: Participants responded in a variety of ways. The most frequent response related to 

general childcare issues (21%). Participants also noted parenting roles (14%), the relationship with the child 

(14%), and health and safety concerns (14%). 

What was missing from the course: Only 21% of participants responded to this question, indicating that most 

participants felt that there was nothing missing from the course. The remaining participants suggested changes 

to the content of the course (43%) (e.g., if the child falls ill, how to feed my son), contact with the child/partner 

(38%) (e.g., having the partner take the course also), and a longer course. 

Overall usefulness of the course: All participants rated the course as “very useful” or “fairly useful.” There were 

no differences by ethnicity or parental status. 

Parenting support while in prison: 75% of participants wanted more frequent or longer visits, family days, or 

more privacy during visits; 18% wanted additional support with coping; and 7% wanted written contact with 

their family. 

Support for young fathers after release from prison: Over 75% of participants reported that they did not want 

any support; 8% wanted only informal support (e.g., family and friends); 5% wanted agency support (e.g., 

further courses, parenting club); and 9% wanted general support (e.g., help and advice, help to get an 

apartment). 

Further comments and suggestions: All additional comments were positive. Participants commented on the 

usefulness of the course (42%), expressed gratitude (29%), responded emotionally to the course (17%), or 

expressed concern for other parents (12%). 

SOURCES:

Meek, R. (2007). Parenting education for young fathers in prison. Child and Family Social Work 12(3). 

Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. 

Newbury Park, CA: Sage. 

Page 39 of 93 

A PARENT EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR YOUNG FATHERS IN PRISON 
“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Rosie Meek 

Department of Psychology 

University of Sussex 

Falmer, Brighton 

BN19QG 

UK 

Email: r.meek@sussex.ac.uk 

Page 40 of 93 

A PARENT EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR YOUNG FATHERS IN PRISON 
“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

CONNECTIONS: A PROGRAM TO ASSIST YOUNG FATHERS 

OVERVIEW: This program uses case management and peer support groups in an effort to help young fathers 

access services that encourage positive health behaviors, responsible parenting, and enhance their relationship 

with their children. An evaluation focusing on fathers’ relationships with their children found evidence to 

suggest that participation in the program had a positive impact on fathers’ level of involvement with their 

children. Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: This program was designed to help young fathers access services that encourage positive 

health behaviors, responsible parenting, and enhance their relationship with their children. 

LOCATION: This program was implemented in a metropolitan city in the Southwestern United States. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: Fathers included in the sample were between 17 and 25 

years old and had the following characteristics: 

• An average age of 21.39 at intake; 

• An average age of 18.84 when they first became fathers; 

• 81% reported that they were unemployed; 

• 18.4% reported that they had a job. 

EVALUATION DESIGN: OUTCOMES MONITORING (PRE-POST TEST DESIGN) 

• Outcomes: The key outcome measured in this evaluation was the nature of the involvement of young 

fathers with their children. 

• Method: Questionnaires were administered to participants by case managers at intake. Case managers 

were also responsible for collecting follow-up data after 3, 6, and 12 months. 

• Sample: Thirty-eight fathers qualified to participate in the study. 

• Measures: Demographic information as well as information on health behaviors was collected at intake 

using a comprehensive assessment. Measures of the father-child relationship were also included. 

• Statistical Analyses: Thematic analysis was used to organize the data and identify types of paternal 

involvement. Participant responses were typed verbatim, separated into intake and follow-up, examined 

for themes, and examined for changes in thematic categories from intake to follow-up. 

• Attrition: In order to qualify for the study, participants had to have responded to the intake question and 

to at least one corresponding follow-up question. 181 young fathers enrolled in the program, but only 38 

fathers were included in the analytic sample. 

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: Not currently available. 

o Staff Education: Not currently available. 

o Staff Experience: Not currently available. 

o Staff Training: Not currently available. 

o Planning Time and Coordination: Not currently available.

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

CONNECTIONS: A PROGRAM TO ASSIST YOUNG FATHERS 

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“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

o Staff Satisfaction: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: Not currently available.

• Space: Not currently available.

• Materials: Not currently available.

• Partnerships and Linkages: Not currently available. 

• Community Organizations: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONTENT:

Curriculum or Program Model

o Case Management: Each participant was assigned a case manager who provided referrals and 

linkages to community resources. 

o Peer Support Groups: Case managers facilitated weekly peer support groups to provide a setting 

where young fathers could interact and process their experiences. The following topics were 

discussed in peer support groups: parenting, communication skills, masculinity, anger 

management, and risk reduction. 

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: Not currently available. 

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): Not currently available. 

• Frequency of program offerings: Walk-ins and referrals were accepted on a rolling basis. 

• Diversity of activities: Depending on their needs, teen fathers participated in a variety of activities, 

including education classes, life and fatherhood studies, job-skills training, computer literacy training, 

life-skills training, paid internships, and informal counseling. 

• Incentives for participation: Not currently available. 

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

The following three themes emerged from the thematic analysis: Positive Emotionality, Engagement, and 

Accessibility. 

Positive Emotionality 

• Answers “characterized by young fathers’ positive expressions of emotions about their children” were 

put into this category. At intake, 57.9% of fathers were included in this category compared to 34.2% at 

follow-up. 

Engagement 

• Answers “characterized by statements that described interactions between the young fathers and 

children” were put into this category. At intake, 28.9% of fathers were included in this category 

compared to 42.1% at follow-up. 

Accessibility

• Answers “characterized by expressions that demonstrated difficulties young fathers experience in 

accessing their children” were put into this category. At intake, 28.9% of fathers were included in this 

category compared to 23.7% at follow-up. 

Comparison between Intake and Follow-up 

CONNECTIONS: A PROGRAM TO ASSIST YOUNG FATHERS 

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• 55.3% of fathers shifted thematically between intake and follow-up. 

• 31.6% of fathers shifted from Positive Emotionality to Engagement, the most notable shift. This 

suggests that participation in the program had a positive impact on fathers’ level of involvement with 

their child(ren). 

SOURCES:

Saleh, M.F., Buzi, R.S., Weinman, M.L., & Smith, P.B. (2005). The nature of connections: Young fathers and 

 their children. Adolescence, (40)159, 513-523. 

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Mahasin F. Saleh 

College of Health and Human Services 

University of Nevada, Reno 

Email: msaleh@unr.edu 

CONNECTIONS: A PROGRAM TO ASSIST YOUNG FATHERS 

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“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

 “MAXIMIZING A LIFE EXPERIENCE” (MALE) 

OVERVIEW: “Maximizing a Life Experience” (MALE) is a group counseling program that was designed to 

support and assist unwed, teenage fathers in a school-setting. Fathers participated in a variety of activities, 

including goal setting, watching films, group discussions, interacting with relevant guest speakers, and taking a 

fieldtrip to Planned Parenthood. All of the fathers served were in high school, and most sessions were help 

during the school day. Pre/post-test evaluation results suggest that participants found the program helpful and 

that it positively affected their well-being. Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: MALE focuses on the three Rs: Rights, Responsibilities, and Resources. The program 

was designed to help fathers: 

O Learn more about themselves and better understand their feelings about their present situation;

O Understand their legal and emotional rights and responsibilities;

O Recognize that pregnancy cannot be dismissed as an accident;

O Obtain factual information about reproductive biology, contraception, and sexually transmitted diseases;

O Identify and explore their present and future options;

O Learn how to solve problems and make sound decisions;

O Realize what resources are available and how to use them.

LOCATION: A suburban high school. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: This program served young fathers and expectant fathers 

enrolled in a suburban high school with a primarily African-American, low-income population. Fathers 

participating in the program had the following characteristics: 

• They were between 15 and 18 years old; 

• They had academic averages ranging from B to D; 

• 75% were already fathers, and 25% were expectant fathers; 

• Roughly 50% wished to continue their education after high school; 

• Their average age of first sexual activity was 12; 

• All maintained regular contact with their children and 25% were still dating the mothers of their 

children. 

EVALUATION DESIGN: OUTCOMES MONITORING (PRE/POST-TEST) 

• Outcomes:

o Awareness of the potential consequences of sexual relations 

o Knowledge of options available to prospective teenage fathers 

o Use of contraceptives 

• Method: Pre-test data were collected during the first group session. Post-test data were collected during 

the ninth and final session. Additionally, during the final session, participants filled out a satisfaction 

survey. There was follow-up 1 and 2 years after participants completed the program. 

• Sample: The sample consisted of 8 young fathers. 

• Measures: 

o 1) Considering the possibility of pregnancy before having sexual relations, 2) considering 

abortion as an option, 3) sharing contraceptive responsibility, 4) consistent contraceptive use, 5) 

employment/education, 6) marital status, 7) subsequent births, 8) marital status. 

“MAXIMIZING A LIFE EXPERIENCE” (MALE) 

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• Statistical Analyses: Descriptive analyses were conducted. Statistical significance was not reported. 

• Attrition: There was no attrition. All 8 fathers completed the program. No data on attendance was 

presented. 

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: Not currently available. 

o Staff Education: Not currently available. 

o Staff Experience: Not currently available. 

o Staff Training: Not currently available. 

o Planning Time and Coordination: Not currently available.

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

o Staff Satisfaction: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: Not currently available.

• Space: Not currently available.

• Materials: Audiovisual equipment (e.g., age-appropriate films, television).

• Partnerships and Linkages: The MALE program was held in the school building during the school 

day. Because students had to miss scheduled classes in order to participate, they were required to 

coordinate with their teachers about missing work. Additionally, one of the group sessions was attended 

by an attorney from the Legal Aid Society, who came to answer participant questions. Another session 

was led by a speaker from Planned Parenthood, and a third session consisted of a fieldtrip to the Planned 

Parenthood center. 

• Community Organizations: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model:

o Session 1: A program overview followed by a get-acquainted activity, group and individual goal 

setting, and development of ground rules workshop.

o Session 2: A film, “Teenage Father” (Hackford, 1978), followed by a discussion of values and 

attitudes regarding teenage sexual activity.

o Session 3: An audiovisual presentation, “His Baby Too: Problems of Teenage Pregnancy” 

(Vanderslice, 1980), followed by a discussion of options available to the teenage father or 

prospective teenage father. 

o Session 4: At the end of the third session, participants generated questions for an attorney from 

the Legal Aid Society. During the fourth session, this attorney came prepared to discuss these 

questions and responded to any additional questions. 

o Session 5: A speaker from Planned Parenthood presented information on the reproductive 

process and contraception. 

o Session 6: The group took a fieldtrip to the Planned Parenthood center, where they took a tour. 

A speaker reviewed information on reproduction and contraception and presented new 

information on sexually transmitted diseases and services available for their sexual partner. 

o Session 7: Effective problem-solving and decision-making models were reviewed, and 

participants practiced with simulated situations. 

o Session 8: Each participant had a chance to work through a personal problem with the group 

related to being a teenage father. There was an emphasis on personal responsibility. 

 “MAXIMIZING A LIFE EXPERIENCE” (MALE) 

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“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

o Session 9: Reviewing and summarizing the group experience, providing information about the 

availability of resources, and completing a group evaluation and post-test. 

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: There were 8 young fathers in the MALE group. 

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): The MALE group met once a week for 8 weeks 

on a rotating schedule. Each session was 1-hour long. Additionally, the group participated in one 3-hour 

fieldtrip on a teacher workday. 

• Frequency of program offerings: Not currently available. 

• Diversity of activities: Fathers participated in a variety of activities, including goal setting, watching 

films, group discussions, interacting with relevant guest speakers, and taking a fieldtrip to Planned 

Parenthood. 

• Incentives for participation: Not currently available. 

 

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Awareness of the potential consequences of sexual relations: 

• Seven participants said that they would now consider the possibility of pregnancy before having sexual 

relations compared with 5 at pre-test. 

Increased knowledge of options available to prospective teenage fathers: 

• Seven participants said that they would now consider abortion as an option compared with 5 at pre-test. 

Increased knowledge of contraceptives: 

• All eight participants agreed that the man should share contraceptive responsibility compared with 4 at 

pre-test. 

• Seven participants reported using contraceptives regularly compared with 3 at pre-test. 

Program satisfaction: 

• On average, the program was rated a 9.5 out of 10 among participants. 

• Participants liked the supportive atmosphere best and having the opportunity to discuss their situations 

with others facing similar problems. 

• Participants most often suggested having longer and more frequent group sessions. 

Follow-up: 

• One year after the end of the program, 4 fathers were in college or technical school, 2 were in the 

military, and 2 were still in high school. None of the participants had married or had a second child. All 

participants were still supporting their first child. 

• Two years after the end of the program, one of the fathers had dropped out of college and was 

employed. Another father had graduated from high school and was employed. 

SOURCES:

Hackford, T. (Producer and Director) (1978). Teenage father [Film]. Los Angeles: Children’s Home Society of 

 California. 

Huey, W.C. (1991). Counseling teenage fathers: The “Maximizing a Life Experience” (MALE). Retrieved May 

22, 2008, from the ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Personnel Services. 

 “MAXIMIZING A LIFE EXPERIENCE” (MALE) 

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“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

Vanderslice, C. (Ed.). (1980). His baby too: Problems of teenage pregnancy [Filmstrip]. Pleasantville, NY: 

 Sunburst Communications. 

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Wayne C. Huey, Ph.D. 

Director of Counseling at Lakeside High School (retired) 

DeKalb County, Georgia 

 “MAXIMIZING A LIFE EXPERIENCE” (MALE) 

Page 47 of 93 
“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

MEETING THE SERVICE NEEDS OF YOUNG FATHERS 

OVERVIEW: This program was designed to provide parenting support to young fathers in an urban high 

school setting. The program hoped to enhance parenting skills and reduce the incidence of high school dropouts 

and repeat pregnancy among young fathers. Roughly, 47% of participants reported positive outcomes as a result 

of participation in the program. Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: This program was intended to: 

• Enhance skills believed to be necessary for responsive and effective parenting; 

• Reduce the incidence of high school dropouts; 

• Reduce the rate of repeat pregnancies among young fathers. 

LOCATION: This program was implemented in four public high schools in a large urban area. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: Fathers served by the program had the following 

characteristics: 

• 75% African-American, 18% Latino, 2% white, 5% other;

• 88% between 16 and 19, 12% between 14 and 15;

• 35% were not working, 59% had part-time jobs, 6% had full-time jobs;

• 10% had participated in the program for more than two academic years, 19% had participated in the 

previous year, and 71% were new to the program. 

EVALUATION DESIGN: IMPLEMENTATION EVALUATION AND OUTCOMES MONITORING 

• Outcomes: 

o Matching Participants’ Needs with Program Services 

 Type of Service Requests 

 Number of Services Requested 

 Intensity of Services Requested 

o Service Delivery Patterns 

 Length of Program Participation 

 Types of Services Delivered 

 Number of Services Delivered 

o Service Delivery Outcomes 

 Programmatic Expectations About Dropping Out and New Pregnancies 

 Individual Client Outcomes 

 Program Redesign 

• Method: Participants were recruited through referrals by teachers and administrators and through 

school-wide sex education classes. Upon enrollment, case managers helped each teen create a Service 

Plan, detailing his service needs and developing a plan of action. Service Plans were examined to 

determine whether participant needs matched the services offered, the number of different types of 

services requested, and the intensity of services requested. Service Plans and Contact Notes were used 

to determine the level of each participant’s need. Participant needs were compared to services received. 

Additionally, the outcome of each case was coded as either positive, negative, or undetermined/no 

outcome. At the end of the school year, participants with a positive outcome graduated from high school 

or moved to the next grade level or received a GED and/or found a job. Participants with a negative

outcome dropped out of high school and/or fathered a new baby and /or were fired from a job for poor 

performance and/or were charged with a serious criminal offence. Participants with both positive and 

negative outcomes were considered to have negative outcomes. Participants with an undetermined/no 

MEETING THE SERVICE NEEDS OF YOUNG FATHERS 

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“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

outcome were often cases that were closed during the year because the participant stopped coming or 

transferred to another school. 

• Sample: Researchers extracted data from the case files of 53 individual clients who received services 

during one school year; however, only 36 of these men had reported that they were fathers or expectant 

fathers. The program expanded its target population to include all young men, not just young fathers and 

expectant fathers, in response to enrollment concerns. 

• Measures: 

o The study measured the level of client needs regarding: 

 Educational options or employment and not additional assistance; 

 Pregnancy prevention/life skills/advice about relationships; 

 Participants with high levels of needed core program services in addition to other types 

of assistance that were not available; 

 The nature of the relationship between case managers and clients. 

• Statistical Analyses: Descriptive statistics were, including chi-square analyses. 

• Attrition: 31% of participants dropped out of the program or had to stop participating because they 

transferred to another school. 

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: Three part-time adult male African-American and Latino case 

managers provided education, support services, counseling services, and vocational guidance. 

o Staff Education: Not currently available. 

o Staff Experience: One of the counselors specialized in vocational counseling. 

o Staff Training: Not currently available. 

o Planning Time and Coordination: Not currently available.

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

o Staff Satisfaction: Staff reported increased satisfaction after receiving additional training, 

consultation, and supervision. 

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: Participants were recruited through referrals by teachers and administrators and through 

school-wide sex education classes.

• Space: Not currently available.

• Materials: Not currently available.

• Partnerships and Linkages: This program had no formal affiliation with school-based health clinics. 

• Community Organizations: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model: Case managers provided education, support services, counseling 

services, and vocational guidance. Additionally, case managers were expected to serve as mentors and 

role models. Case managers sometimes accompanied participants to court appearances, medical 

appointments, or job interviews. 

o Education Services: The education services offered by the program included materials intended 

to promote safe sexual practices and reduce pregnancy. Additionally, the program encouraged 

MEETING THE SERVICE NEEDS OF YOUNG FATHERS 

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“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

and assisted participants to remain in school, maintain good attendance and grades, and obtain a 

high school diploma or alternative degree. 

o Support Services: Support services included assessment of social service and health care needs, 

referrals for appropriate services, and weekly parenting and life skill classes, which included 

assistance with budgeting. Case managers could make referrals for substance abuse treatment, 

legal representation, psychiatric or psychopharmacological services, and long-term therapy for 

individuals or families. 

o Counseling Services: Counseling services included short-term and ongoing services to 

individual students as well as discussion and support groups for program participants. 

Vocational counseling services such as assistance to find jobs and job retention advice, were 

also offered. 

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: Not currently available.

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): Not currently available. 

• Frequency of program offerings: Not currently available.

• Diversity of activities: Fathers received case management services. They participated in discussions 

and support groups. 

• Incentives for participation: Not currently available. 

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Matching Participants’ Needs with Program Services 

• Type of Service Requests: 

o 94% of participants needed educational services (e.g., information about alternative high 

schools, referrals for GED programs); 

o 80% needed employment services (e.g., assistance finding their next job, job retention advice);

o 57% requested counseling (e.g., 55% life skills, 51% financial, 55% plans to live on own, 45% 

parenting);

o 38% wanted health care (not offered by the program);

o 38% wanted legal representation (not offered by the program).

• Number of Services Requested: 

o 81% of participants asked for four or more different types of services;

o 30% asked for four to seven types;

o 51% asked for eight or more different types. 

• Intensity of Services Requested: 

o 16% of participants had a low level of need, and only 29% of these teens were fathers or 

expectant fathers;

o 49% of participants had a medium level of need , and 74% of these teens were fathers or 

expectant fathers;

o 35% of participants had a high level of need, and 71% of these teens were fathers or expectant 

fathers. 

Service Delivery Patterns 

• Length of Program Participation: The median length of participation was 5 months. 

• Types of Services Delivered: 

o The service delivery pattern was similar to the pattern of service requests outlined above. 

Counseling was the most commonly used service. 

• Number of Services Delivered: 

MEETING THE SERVICE NEEDS OF YOUNG FATHERS 

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“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

o 61% of participants received at least 3 types of services and 20% received 6 or more different 

types; 

o 44% of participants met with their case manager 16 or more times, and only 20% met with their 

case manager 7 or fewer times; 

o Participants who requested more services were more likely to remain in the program for longer 

periods (p<.01); 

o High needs participants met with their case managers more often than either medium or low 

needs participants (p<.01); 

o High needs participants were more likely to receive services for longer periods (more than 9 

months) than either medium or low needs participants (p<.01). 

Service Delivery Outcomes 

• Programmatic Expectations About Dropping Out and New Pregnancies: 

o 20% of participants dropped out of high school during the course of the program. The program 

goal of having no dropouts was not met. The dropout rate, however, was lower than the rate for 

teenage fathers across the country. 

o 37% of participants became expectant fathers during the course of program participation. 

• Individual Client Outcomes: 

o 47% of participants had a “positive” outcome (i.e., graduated from high school or moved to the 

next grade level or received a GED and/or found a job); 

o 22% of participants had a “negative” outcome (i.e., dropped out of high school and/or fathered 

a new baby and /or were fired from a job for poor performance and/or were charged with a 

serious criminal offence) or both a “negative” and a “positive” outcome; 

o Almost half of participants with high needs had a negative outcome compared with 12.5% of 

participants with medium needs and none of participants with low needs (p<.05); 

o Students needing more services at intake were more likely to have a negative outcome (p<.10); 

o Participants with high needs were more likely to become expectant fathers (p<.10). 

• Program Redesign 

o Although the program would continue to focus on meeting the needs of young fathers, all 

young men were invited to participate. 

o The program would supplement case management with services both inside and outside the 

school in order to meet the wide range of participant needs. 

o Ongoing training for program staff was strengthened in order to improve intake, assessment, 

and service delivery skills for high need participant. Additionally, staff received supervision 

and consultations from experts in the juvenile justice system, substance abuse, and mental 

health. 

SOURCES:

Lane, T.S. & Clay, C.M. (2000). Meeting the service needs of young fathers. Child and Adolescent Social Work 

Journal, (17), 1, 35-54. 

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Terry S. Lane, M.S.S. 

School of Social Work 

Boston University 

264 Bay State Road 

Boston, Massachusetts 02215 

MEETING THE SERVICE NEEDS OF YOUNG FATHERS 

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“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

NEW MEXICO YOUNG FATHERS PROJECT 

OVERVIEW: The New Mexico Young Fathers Project has been in operation since 1999 and now operates 11 

teen parenting sites throughout the state. The program is designed to promote social and family stability by 

improving the quality of the father/child relationships in young families and by preventing repeat pregnancies. 

Fathers participated in a variety of activities, including educational and vocational support, guidance and 

referral, parenting skills, life skills training, sexuality and contraceptive education, and peer education training. 

Fathers experienced improvements in terms of the attainment of a high school diploma, increased use of birth 

control, and increased contact with children. Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: The New Mexico Young Fathers Project was designed to promote social and family 

stability by improving the quality of the father/child relationship in young families and by preventing repeat 

pregnancies. 

LOCATION: New Mexico (11 sites) 

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: This program serves young men under the age of 26 who 

are the biological fathers of children born to teen mothers or the partners of teen mothers. The program served 

461 young fathers in 2007, and 225 of these fathers completed the intake process. At intake, these fathers had 

the following characteristics: 

• They were between the ages of 13 and 28, with an average age of 18.8; 

• 82% were Latino; 

• 86% had never been married; 

• 25% were incarcerated; 

• 49% lived with their parents; 

• 44% liven in an urban setting, 32% in a rural setting, and 24% in the suburbs. 

EVALUATION DESIGN: OUTCOMES MONITORING (PRE/POST-TEST) 

• Outcomes:

o Outcomes for Fathers: 

 Education and Career Plan 

 Sexual Behavior 

 Other Issues (e.g., health, substance use) 

o Outcomes for Children: 

 Paternity Establishment 

 Contacts 

 Child Support 

 Court Orders 

• Method: Program participants were assessed at intake and then again every 6 months for as long as they 

participated in the program. Data were collected from young fathers receiving services between March 

1999 and December 2007. 

• Sample: Fathers who received services in 2007 and who completed an intake assessment and at least 2 

follow-up assessments (one in 7/07 and one in 12/07) were included in the first part of the analysis, 

examining changes in outcomes for fathers and children over the 12-month period. (Note: The exact 

number varied depending on the outcome being assessed. The sample size ranged from 20-23.) Fathers 

who ever received services and who completed an intake assessment and at least one follow-up 

assessment were included in the second part of the analysis, examining changes in outcomes for fathers 

NEW MEXICO YOUNG FATHERS PROJECT 

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“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

and children over the life of the program. (Note: The exact number varied depending on the outcome 

being assessed. The sample size ranged from 124-192.) 

• Measures: Participants were assessed at least twice, once at intake and then again every 6 months for as 

long as they participated in the program.

• Statistical Analyses: Descriptive analyses were conducted. 

• Attrition: 461 fathers received services during 2007. Of these fathers, 225 completed an assessment at 

intake. Between 20 and 23 fathers were included in the first part of the analysis. 1,906 fathers have 

received services during the life of the program. Between 124 and 192 fathers were included in the 

second part of the analysis. 

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: Not currently available. 

o Staff Education: Not currently available. 

o Staff Experience: Not currently available. 

o Staff Training: Not currently available. 

o Planning Time and Coordination: Not currently available.

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

o Staff Satisfaction: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: Not currently available.

• Space: Not currently available.

• Materials: Not currently available.

• Partnerships and Linkages: Not currently available.

• Community Organizations: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model: Participants received the following types of services: training, 

education, mentoring, outreach, case management, and support groups. Services received included 

educational and vocational support, guidance and referral, parenting skills, life skills training, 

contraceptive education, and peer education training. 

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: Not currently available. 

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): Not currently available.

• Frequency of program offerings: Not currently available. 

• Diversity of activities: Fathers participated in a variety of activities, including educational and 

vocational support, guidance and referral, parenting skills, life skills training, sexuality and 

contraceptive education, and peer education training.

• Incentives for participation: Not currently available. 

 

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KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Outcomes for Fathers

• Education and Career Plan:

o The percentage of fathers who had attained a high school diploma or higher increased 

significantly from 24% at intake to 43% at follow-up across the life of the program (n=189, 

p≤.001). 

• Sexual Behavior:

o The average number of children reported by participants increased significantly from 1.3 at 

intake to 1.8 at follow-up in 2007 (n=23, p≤.05). 

o The average number of pregnancies caused by fathers increased significantly from 1.4 at intake 

to 1.7 at follow-up across the life of the program (n=181, p≤.001). 

o The average number of children reported by participants increased significantly from 1.2 at 

intake to 1.4 at follow-up across the life of the program (n=185, p≤.001). 

o The percentage of fathers who reported using birth control at last intercourse increased 

significantly from 40% at intake to 58% at follow-up across the life of the program (n=187, 

p≤.001). 

o The average frequency of birth control use in the last six months (scale of 1-4, where 1=seldom 

or never, and 4=every time) increased significantly from 2.2 at intake to 3.0 at follow-up across 

the life of the program (n=124, p≤.001). 

• Other Issues (e.g., health, substance use): 

o The average number of problems reported by participants increased significantly from 1.2 at 

intake to 2.2 at follow-up in 2007 (n=23, p≤.05). The proportion of fathers including “anger” as 

a problem significantly increased from 19% at intake to 48% at follow-up in 2007 (n=23, 

p≤.01). 

Outcomes for Children

• Paternity Establishment: 

o No statistically significant differences in paternity establishment were found between intake and 

follow-up in 2007. 

o The percentage of children with established paternity increased significantly from 52% at intake 

to 66% at follow-up across the life of the program (n=160, p≤.01). 

o The percentage of fathers with established paternity of 1 or more of there children increased 

significantly from 54% to 71% at follow-up across the life of the program (n=160, p≤.001). 

• Contacts:

o The percentage of children having some contact with their fathers increased significantly from 

53% at intake to 62% at follow-up across the life of the program (n=160, p≤.05). 

o The percentage of fathers having some contact with their children increased significantly from 

56% at intake to 73% at follow-up across the life of the program (n=160, p≤.001).

o The percentage of fathers having overnight contact with their children increased significantly 

from 39% at intake to 49% at follow-up across the life of the program (n=160, p≤.05). 

• Child Support: 

o The percentage of fathers providing child support to 1 or more of their children increased 

significantly from 6% at intake to 28% at follow-up in 2007 (p=18, n≤.05). 

o The percentage of children receiving child support increased significantly from 4% at intake to 

31% at follow-up in 2007 (n=18, p<.05). 

o The percentage of fathers providing child support to 1 or more of their children increased 

significantly from 10% at intake to 20% at follow-up across the life of the program (n=160, 

p≤.01). 

o The percentage of children receiving child support increased significantly from 10% at intake to 

22% at follow-up across the life of the program (n=160, p≤.001). 

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• Court Orders: 

o The percentage of fathers with court orders increased significantly from 0% at intake to 28% at 

follow-up in 2007 (n=18, p≤.05). 

o The percentage of fathers with court orders against them increased significantly from 6% at 

intake to 19% at follow-up across the life of the program (n=160, p≤.001). 

SOURCES:

New Mexico Young Fathers Project: A project of the New Mexico Teen Pregnancy Coalition. Retrieved May 30, 

 2008, from http://www.youngfathers.org/ 

Philliber Research Associates. (2008). New Mexico Young Fathers Project—Annual progress report: outcomes 

 for young fathers participating between January and December 2007. Accord, New York. 

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Philliber Research Associates 

16 Main Street 

Accord, NY 12404 

Phone: 845-626-2126 

Fax: 845-626-3206 

NEW MEXICO YOUNG FATHERS PROJECT 

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 NO KIDDING: STRAIGHT TALK FROM TEEN PARENTS 

OVERVIEW: The No Kidding: Straight Talk from Teen Parents program begin as a partnership between the 

Texas Attorney General's Division of Children and Families and YouthLaunch. The program targets children 

and youth in grades 6th through 12th as well as adolescent mothers and fathers. Teen parents are hired as 

“interns” and are trained to deliver presentation on the rights, realities, and responsibilities of young parenting, 

including issues related to child support and paternity. Focus groups conducted with teen fathers participating as 

interns in the No Kidding program indicate that the program positively affected their self-concept as well as 

gave them an opportunity to bond with other fathers. Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: The No Kidding program was designed to influence children and youth by: 

• Increasing participants’ knowledge of paternity and child support; 

• Improving knowledge, attitudes, and presentation skills regarding parenthood and paternity; and 

• Increasing employability and positive social and emotional growth. 

LOCATION: Austin, Texas

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: All participants had fathered a child before the age of 20 

and were hired to serve as interns in the No Kidding program. 

EVALUATION DESIGN: QUALITATIVE STUDY (FOCUS GROUPS) 

• Outcomes: This qualitative study was designed to investigate recruitment and retention of male interns 

in the No Kidding program. 

• Method: Two focus groups were conducted, one with interns relatively new to the program and another 

with interns returning to the program. 

• Sample: Two fathers participated in the first focus group, three in the second. 

• Measures: Fathers were asked the following:

o How they found out about the program;

o Why they joined the program;

o What influences or will influence their decision to remain in the program; and

o How the program meets the needs of participants as fathers and men.

• Statistical Analyses: The data collected during the focus groups were analyzed for themes. 

• Attrition: There was no attrition. 

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: Not currently available. 

o Staff Education: Not currently available.

o Staff Experience: The program included a male program specialist. 

o Staff Training: Not currently available.

o Planning Time and Coordination: Not currently available.

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

o Staff Satisfaction: Not currently available.

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PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: Participants were recruited through Craigslist and through personal contacts (e.g., their 

girlfriends).

• Space: Not currently available.

• Materials: Not currently available.

• Partnerships and Linkages: Not currently available.

• Community Organizations: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model: Interns received formal training in the concepts and skills needed to 

correctly implement No Kidding (e.g., public speaking skills) and ongoing support in the areas where 

additional assistance was needed to effectively present the material. Additionally, participants worked 

closely with the male program specialist, took part in job readiness activities, and bonded with other 

fathers. 

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: Not currently available.

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): Not currently available.

• Frequency of program offerings: Not currently available.

• Diversity of activities: Not currently available. 

• Incentives for participation: Adolescent fathers and mothers hired as interns in the No Kidding project 

were paid to work with youth and share their experiences regarding becoming a teen parent. 

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Initial Recruiting 

• Participants were recruited through Craigslist and through personal contacts (e.g., their girlfriends). 

Participants appreciated the “positive personal interactions” with staff that they experienced while going 

through recruitment. 

Retention 

• For some fathers, monetary compensation was the main reason they joined the program. Other fathers 

emphasized the desire to positively impact youth as a reason for joining the program. 

• Some fathers said that participating in No Kidding allowed them to use their difficult situation as young 

fathers as a resource for the community, increasing their self-concept. 

• Some fathers felt that the provision of childcare during presentations and/or meetings would allow for 

greater flexibility and help them remain in the program. 

• Some fathers suggested that job readiness activities cover a wider variety of topics. 

Meeting Participant Needs 

• Participating fathers felt that the program helped them focus on and grow into the fatherhood role. 

SOURCES:

LaTurner, R. J. (1997). Perspectives of No Kidding fathers on program recruitment and retention. Cedar Park, 

TX: Shore Research, Inc. 

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EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

R. Jason LaTurner, Ph.D. (Statistical Consultant) 

Phone: 512-249-7092 

Email: jason@shoreresearch.net

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PARENTCRAFT: PARENTING CLASSES FOR YOUNG FATHERS IN PRISON 

OVERVIEW: Parentcraft is a parenting education program offered to young offenders at a young offenders 

institute in the United Kingdom. A qualitative evaluation of the content and delivery of the content of the 16-

week program finds that young men are particularly receptive about curricula on child development. They also 

appreciated hands-on learning. Read more... 

PROGRAM GOALS:

• The primary goal of this qualitative evaluation was to provide additional information in the field for 

similar programs;

• To describe the content of program sessions, and the mode of delivery.

• To inform programs about what young inmates respond to from the parenting classes and how they 

respond to various delivery methods. 

LOCATION: Aylesbury Youth Offender Institute, United Kingdom 

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED:

The Aylesbury Young Offender Institute served men between the ages of 17-21. 

EVALUATION DESIGN: QUALITATIVE 

• Outcomes:

o Reception to teaching material, the curriculum, discussions, and teaching styles. 

• Method:

Data for this qualitative study were collected by observing sessions of the Parentcraft parenting program 

at the Aylesbury Young Offender Institute. Six weekly sessions of these classes were observed over a 

period of 18 months. The observer collected information on: 

• Responses to modes of delivery- by noting listening behavior, time on task, engagement with 

the material, and spoken contributions by inmates; 

• Sample:

Six weekly sessions were observed over 18 months. 

• Measures: Not applicable.

• Statistical Analyses: Not applicable. 

• Attrition: Information currently not available. 

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualification and Support

o Staff-participation ratio: Information currently not available. 

o Staff Education: Professors from the local university led some of the class session. Other 

sessions were led by experienced volunteers. 

o Staff Experience: Volunteers with experience working with children augment some of the 

sessions. 

o Staff Training: Information currently not available. 

o Planning Time and Coordination: Information currently not available.

o Staff Wages: Information currently not available. 

o Staff Satisfaction: Information currently not available. 

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

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• Space: Information currently not available. 

• Materials: In addition to interacting with the lecturer, class sessions involved learning age appropriate 

games and toys for children of different ages. Participants were given the opportunity to play with some 

of these games and toys in groups. 

Additionally, participants worked with numerous children’s books, including pop-up books. Participants 

also linked the stories they were using to activities like making puppets. Participants also recorded 

themselves reading some of the books to share with their children. 

• Partnerships and Linkages: The Aylesbury Young Offenders Institute collaborated with the local 

university to provide lecturers for their class sessions. They also looked to the community to provide 

volunteers with specific experiences to participate in some sessions and to act as role models. One 

volunteer had experience working with young children while another was an officer with the St. Johns 

Ambulance Brigade. 

• Community Organizations: Information currently not available. 

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model:

The 16 week Parentcraft program covered the following topics: 

o Contraception and sexual health; 

o Pregnancy and birth; 

o Children’s development between birth and five years; 

o The role of the adult in supporting children’s development; 

o The role of the father; 

o Listening to children; 

o Managing behavior; 

o Safety and first aid; and 

o The responsibilities of parents, including financial responsibilities. 

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group Size: Information currently not available. 

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): There were 16-weekly three hour sessions. 

• Frequency of program offerings: Weekly

• Diversity of activities: In addition to lectures, participants read and recorded children’s storybooks, 

watched videos to enhance course material, played with children’s games and toys and made toys such 

as puppets. 

• Incentives for participation: Information currently not available. 

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Findings about Course Content:

• Participants valued certificates issued at the end of completion of programs highly. They sent these 

certificates to their homes so that they did not get lost in the prison’s systems. These certificates were 

cited as useful when it came to looking for jobs. 

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• Participants seemed most receptive about courses on child development. These were the courses where 

they also displayed limited knowledge. Most importantly, several participants were able to relate child 

development to controlling their feelings of anger. 

• Participants’ sense of masculinity as pertains to sensitivity in taking care of their children was an issue 

that was continuously and cautiously presented throughout the course. When picking video examples of 

men interacting with young children, participants reacted adversely to men they did not perceive as 

good male role models. 

Findings about Program Delivery:

• Participants appreciated hands-on learning about some parenting skills. Use of the actual toys and 

games they were encouraged to share with their children kept most participants actively engaged. 

• Participants were keen about reading books to their children. 

o Observers noted that participants were eager to have books read to them, perhaps because they 

lacked this experience themselves. 

o When participants watched a video of a father reading a book to his child, the participants’ 

subsequent discussions suggested that they valued the quality of the relationship with the child 

that reading enabled the father to develop. 

o Based on participant comments, they learned a lot from exploring the types of books they could 

use with babies and toddlers. They practiced the type of language and activities they could do 

with pop-up books and telling stories from pictures. 

SOURCES:

Jarvis, J., Graham, S., Hamilton, P., & Tyler, D. (2004). The role of parenting classes for young fathers in 

 prison: A case study. The Journal of Community and Criminal Justice, 51(1), 21-33. 

EVALUATORS AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Joy Jarvis 

Education Department 

University of Hertfordshire 

De Havilland Campus 

Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL10 9AB 

Email: j.jarvis@herts.ac.uk

PARENTCRAFT: PARENTING CLASSES FOR YOUNG FATHERS IN PRISON 

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“REALLY AWESOME PARENTS” (RAP) 

OVERVIEW: “Really Awesome Parents” (RAP) was designed to provide education and support to adolescent 

and young adult parents. Parents and their partners participated in a variety of experiential exercises including, 

group discussions, role playing, and the completion of psychosocial inventories. Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: RAP was designed to: 

• Provide education and support to adolescent and young adult parents; 

• Prevent child abuse and neglect; 

• Promote positive parenting and self-sufficiency skills. 

LOCATION: This program was implemented in a major midwestern city. Participants were recruited from 

both suburban and urban areas. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: This program served adolescent and young adults parents 

and their partners. In order to qualify for the program, at least one parent had to be younger than 26 years old. 

Thirty-six males and 125 females participated in the program. Males participating in the program had the 

following characteristics: 

• 75% were parents; 

• 33% were partners of parents who attended the program (e.g., boyfriends or relatives). 

Males and females participating in the program had the following characteristics: 

• 57% were mandated to participate by their alternative high school counselors and received course credit 

for their participation; 

• Participants were between 14 and 32 years old, 19.6 years old on average; 

• 48% Black, 47% White, 4% other; 

• 91% single, 9% married; 

• 76% were involved in a relationship with a partner; 

• 37.1% lived with their parents, 32.7% lived with a partner, and 30.2% lived alone; 

• On averages, participants had 1.2 children; 

• Participants’ children were between 0 and 12 years old; 

• 67% of participants were still in school; 

• Educational backgrounds ranged from completion of grades 7 through 16, 10.9 on average;

• Almost 50% were receiving AFDC;

• Over 33% were unemployed;

• The most commonly endorsed goals were 1) raising their children’s self-esteem (58.1%), 2) learning to 

relax (58.1%), 3) learning about child development (50.6%), and 4) setting limits (46.2%). 

EVALUATION DESIGN: OUTCOMES MONITORING (PRE/POST-TEST) 

• Outcomes: 

o Parenting knowledge 

o Self-esteem

o Depression

o Social support

o Parenting stress 

• Method: During the first and last group session, participants completed a number of forms, which 

measured demographics, parenting knowledge, self-esteem, depression, social support, and parenting 

stress. At the end of each session, participants completed a form measuring program satisfaction. 

Facilitators read the forms aloud to participants due to the difficulty many had in reading them. 

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• Sample: The sample consisted of 36 males and 125 females. 

• Measures: 

o Demographics: Demographic data (e.g., age, ethnicity, goals for attending the RAP group) was 

collected using a demographic form developed by the authors. 

o Parenting knowledge: Participant knowledge of the content areas covered in the RAP group 

was assessed using 25 multiple choice questions developed by the evaluator (internal 

consistency coefficient = .70). 

o Self-esteem: Participant self-esteem was measured using a 25-item, adult version of the 

Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI) (Coopersmith, 1987) (internal consistency for sample 

= .86).

o Depression: Participant depression was measured using the 21-item, self-report Beck 

Depression Inventory (BDI) (Beck, Ward, Mendolsohn, Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961) (coefficient 

alpha for sample = .84). 

o Social support: Participant social support was measure using the 23-item, self report Social 

Support Appraisal Scale (SS-A) (Vaux, et al., 1986), which measures to what extent the 

respondent believes he/she is loved by, esteemed by, and involved with family, friends, and 

others (internal consistency for sample = .92). 

o Parenting stress: Participant parenting stress was measured using the 36-item Parenting Stress 

Index—Short Form (PSI) (Abidin, 1986). Each participant was given a Total Stress Scale score 

(internal consistency for sample = .92).

o Program satisfaction: Participant reactions to each sessions were measured by asking 

participants to score their satisfaction, willingness to return for another session, degree of 

motivation for attending that session, and degree of progressing achieving one’s goals. This 

form was completed at the end of each session. 

o Program attendance: Program attendance was measured as a percentage of sessions attended. 

• Statistical Analyses: Descriptive statistics, multiple regression. 

• Attrition: Twelve cases were excluded from the analysis due to incomplete or missing data. 

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: This varied by group. Two facilitators, one male and one female, coled each session. The smallest group had 2 facilitators for 9 participants. The largest group had 

2 facilitators for 26 participants. 

o Staff Education: One facilitator was a female health education specialist and the other was a 

male advanced doctoral student in counseling psychology. 

o Staff Experience: Both facilitators were experienced. 

o Staff Training: Both facilitators received weekly supervision from a licensed psychologist. 

o Planning Time and Coordination: Not currently available.

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

o Staff Satisfaction: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

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• Recruitment: Approximately 43% of the sample participated voluntarily, while 57% were mandated to 

participate by their alternative high school counselors. Teen parents in alternative high schools were 

required to attend parenting classes and received course credit for their participation. Failure to attend 

resulted in loss of course credit. 

• Space: Group sessions were held in the alternative high schools during school hours and at local 

churches in the evenings. 

• Materials: Not currently available.

• Partnerships and Linkages: Participants were recruited via brochures from junior and senior high 

schools, alternative high schools, youth clinics, pediatrician and gynecologist offices, and mental health 

agencies. 

• Community Organizations: Community human services professionals referred some parents and their 

partners to the programs. 

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model: Each session consisted of a brief overview of the session topic 

followed by experiential exercises (e.g., small/large group discussion, role play, completion of 

psychosocial inventories). The following topics were covered through information, skills training, and 

peer support:

o Positive Parenting: Early childhood education, effective communication skills, parental rights, 

responsibilities, and resources.

o Self-Sufficiency: Planning for the future, continuing education, job interviewing skills, stress 

management.

o Building Peer Support

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: A total of 12 groups were implemented. Groups ranged in size from 9 to 26 participants, 

with 15 participants on average. Voluntary participants were separated from mandatory participants. 

There were 5 groups of voluntary participants and 7 groups of mandatory participants. 

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): Ten of the 12 groups met once per week, while 2 

groups met twice per week. This difference was due to scheduling conflicts. Scheduling conflicts also 

led to one group meeting for 11 sessions, one group meeting for 12 sessions, 2 groups meeting for 14 

sessions, and 8 groups meeting for 15 sessions. Sessions were 90 minutes in length. 

• Frequency of program offerings: Not currently available. 

• Diversity of activities: After listening to a brief overview of the session topic, parents and their partners 

participated in a variety of experiential exercises including, small and large group discussions, role play, 

and the completion of psychosocial inventories. 

• Incentives for participation: Some participants from alternative high schools were required to attend 

and received course credit. Additionally, child care was provided during each group session. 

 

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Participant Scores on Major Study Variables: 

• The mean participant score on the Beck Depression Inventory was 9.25, indicating that participants as a 

group were not depressed. 

• The mean participant score on the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory was 62.86 (SD=22.51), with-in 

one-half standard deviation of the mean for a normative sample of 16-19 year-olds (Coppersmith, 1987). 

• The mean participant score on the Parenting Stress Index—Short Form Total scale was 79.43, indicating 

moderately high levels of perceived support. 

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• The mean participant score on the Knowledge Quiz, which measured participant knowledge of the 

content areas that would be covered in the RAP group, was about 60% correct, indicating that there was 

room for growth. 

• On average, there was 42.5% attendance at group sessions. 

• Satisfaction scores ranged from 5.8 to 7.0, indicating a high rate of satisfaction with the program 

overall. 

Attendance Correlates: 

• The following variables were positive predictors of attendance: endorsing the goal of meeting other 

parents, receiving AFDC, the goal of learning how to relax, and number of children (p<.10). Number of 

total sessions was a negative predictor of attendance (p<.001). These 5 predictors accounted for 18.7% 

of the variance. 

• The results of the discriminant analysis suggest that high attenders could be distinguished from low 

attenders on the following variables: number of sessions, number of children, and having a goal of 

meeting other parents (p<.01). 

• Researchers found that attendance decreased after 5 sessions and again after 10 sessions. Additionally, 

they found that attendance was sporadic. Based on this, they recommend that programs be offered as a 

five-session “series,” and that each session be “self-contained.”

• RAP group facilitators noted that participants frequently missed sessions for the following reasons: 

arguments with a partner prior to the session, bad weather, and illness. 

SOURCES:

Abidin, R.R. (1990). Parenting Stress Index (Short-Form). Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia. 

Beck, A., Ward, C., Mendolsohn, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. 

Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 53-63. 

Coopersmith, S. (1987). Self-esteem inventories. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press. 

McCarthy, P., Sundby, M., Merladet, J., & Luxenberg, M.G. (1997). Identifying attendance correlates for a teen 

 and young adult parenting program. Family Relations, 46(2), 107-112. 

Vaux, A., Phillips, J., Holly, L., Thompson, B., Williams, D., & Stewart, D. (1986). The Social Support 

 Appraisals (SS-A) Scale: Studies of reliability and validity. American Journal of Community 

 Psychology, 14, 195-218. 

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Pat McCarthy 

921 Hawthorn Avenue East 

St. Paul, MN 55106 

Phone: 612.771.4783 

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TEEN PARENTS AND THE LAW (TPAL) 

OVERVIEW: Teen Parents and the Law (TPAL) was established in 1996 by Street Law, Inc. with funding 

from the Department of Justice’s Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) as part of the 

Youth for Justice program. TPAL targets parenting and expecting adolescent mothers and fathers. Its long-term 

goals are to strengthen families and reduce family and community violence. Adolescents participating in TPAL 

take part in role-plays, simulations, problem-solving activities, and analyses of case dilemmas. Pre/post-test 

evaluation results suggest that teens participating in the program improved in their knowledge of legal and social 

issues, resiliency skills, and willingness to use community resources. Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: TPAL is designed to strengthen families and reduce family and community violence by 

helping participants to: 

O Develop a better understanding of the law and legal practices pertaining to families;

O Improve communications, problem solving, cooperation, and empathy (i.e., resiliency skills);

O Improve family management (e.g., recognize non-abusive methods of child discipline); and

O Identify appropriate community resources to meet their needs.

LOCATION: Washington, DC, Metropolitan Area

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: Both adolescent mothers and fathers participated in this 

program. Both parents and expectant parents were invited to join. 

EVALUATION DESIGN: OUTCOMES MONITORING (PRE/POST-TEST) 

• Outcomes:

o Knowledge of legal and social issues 

o Resiliency skills 

o Willingness to use community resources 

• Method: Data were collected from 6 TPAL classes in 5 schools. Teens participating in the evaluation 

completed surveys at 2 time points—prior to participation in the program and after completing at least 

25 hours of the TPAL curriculum. All surveys were administered by teachers and teaching assistants. 

Additionally, teachers and teaching assistants evaluated participants’ problem solving skills before and 

after delivering the TPAL curriculum. Data were checked for consistency and accuracy. 

• Sample: Thirty-six teens were included in the final evaluation. 

• Measures: 

o The Knowledge Assessment Survey was designed to measure knowledge related to course 

content (e.g., laws and the legal system, rights and responsibilities of parents).

o The Skills Rubric was designed to document teachers’ perceptions of participants’ problem 

solving skills (e.g., accurately identifying the problem, generating options).

o The Community Resources Questionnaire was designed to measure participants’ current use of 

community resources.

o Participant and teacher feedback data were also collected. 

• Statistical Analyses: Descriptive analyses were conducted, including crosstabulations and t-tests. Pretest scores were compared to post-test scores. 

• Attrition: Fifty teens submitted consent forms to participate but only 36 were included in the final 

evaluation. 

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STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: One teacher was assigned to each class. In addition, 2 teaching 

assistants were hired to work with the project. 

o Staff Education: An attorney was assigned to each class to assist with lessons. 

o Staff Experience: Not currently available. 

o Staff Training: Not currently available. 

o Planning Time and Coordination: The Deputy Director of Street Law, Inc. as well as the 

TPAL Program Director, a consultant, an administrative assistant, and a school system Program 

Administrator assisted with planning and coordinating the program. 

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

o Staff Satisfaction: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: Not currently available. 

• Space: School classrooms. 

• Materials: The TPAL curriculum and accompanying materials, available in English and Spanish. 

• Partnerships and Linkages: An attorney is required to assist with lessons. Police officers, social 

workers, and other resource person can augment the lessons. Partnerships between the school system 

and TPAL personnel are necessary. 

• Community Organizations: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model: The TPAL curriculum consists of 23 lessons. Teachers participating 

in the TPAL program were encouraged to select lessons that would most effectively meet the needs of 

their class. Teachers were also encouraged to bring in police officers, social workers, guidance 

counselors, and other appropriate resources. Lessons were designed for low-level readers and materials 

were made available in both English and Spanish. Lessons were designed to stand alone or complement 

other programs and covered the following topics:

 Specific laws that impact families and children;

 Information on community resources; and

 Opportunities for resiliency skill development in problem-solving and conflict management. 

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: TPAL class sizes ranged from 4 to 17 teens. 

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): Participating teachers were required to spend at 

least 25 hours on the TPAL curriculum over a period of at least 8 weeksii. Attendance ranged from 76% 

to 85%. 

• Frequency of program offerings: Not currently available. 

• Diversity of activities: Adolescent mothers and fathers participated in a variety of activities, including 

role-plays, simulations, problem-solving activities, and analyses of case dilemmas. 

• Incentives for participation: Not currently available. 

 

 

ii One class received only 20 hours of TPAL instruction. 

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KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Knowledge of legal and social issues: 

• On average, participants significantly improved their overall knowledge score (p<.05). Over one-third 

improved by one or more letter grades. 

• On average, participants significantly improved their scores in the following knowledge areas (p<.05): 

belief in the rule of law, understanding legal information pertaining to families, and understanding legal 

rights and responsibilities of parents. 

Resiliency skillsiii

: 

• On average, participants significantly improved in all five resiliency skills (i.e., accurately identifies the 

problem, communicates, generates options and/or alternatives, evaluates consequences for each option, 

and reaches agreement and selects solutions) (p<.05). 

• The greatest improvements were in communication skills (75% improving) and ability to generate 

options and/or alternatives (71% improving). 

• On average, participants moved from “needs improvement” to “good” in four of the five resiliency skill 

areas. 

Willingness to use community resources: 

• Participants’ willingness to use community resources increased for all but one of the community 

resource problems. 

• Average scores for willingness to use community resources increased significantly for the following 

community resource problems: getting emergency food, stopping domestic violence, getting proper 

nutrition, finding a place to live, getting food stamps, getting child support, stopping child abuse, 

dealing with defective merchandise, reporting major problems with an apartment, and obtaining custody 

of the child (p<.05). 

Teacher and participant feedback: 

• Teachers enjoyed working with the interactive TPAL lessons, felt that the curriculum complimented but 

did not replicate child development lessons already being offered, and that TPAL met teen parents’ 

needs. 

• Teen parents enjoyed the interactive lessons (e.g., role playing, resource people), and 75% of teen 

parents felt that it was the best or one of the best classes they had taken. 

SOURCES:

Clawson, H. & Sheldon, S. (1998). Teen Parents and the Law (TPAL): Program outcome 

evaluation report. Fairfax, VA: Caliber Associates. 

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Heather J. Clawson & Stephanie Sheldon 

Caliber Associates 

10530 Rosehaven Street, Suite 400 

Fairfax, VA 22030

 

iii Pre- and post-test scores were available for 24 of the 34 participants in the sample. 

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THE FOREVER FATHERS PROGRAM

OVERVIEW: The Forever Fathers Program (FFP), a grant-based program administered through the Office of 

Special Programs at Erie Community College—City Campus, was designed to address the educational, 

employment, and psychosocial needs of young, mostly unwed, fathers in Buffalo, New York. Depending on 

their needs, teen fathers in this program participated in a variety of activities, including education classes, life 

and fatherhood studies, job-skills training, computer literacy training, life-skills training, paid internships, and 

informal counseling. The average father successfully completing the program had an 83% probability of either 

working or being in school after 90 days compared to a 30% probability for fathers not completing the program. 

Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: The goals of FFP are: 

O To promote the formation of a two-parent network around the children of enrolled fathers;

O To improve academic preparedness for career development;

O To train young fathers in job search and job retention skills; and

O To assist participants in becoming socialized to the work contract and facilitating permanent part-time 

or full-time placement 

LOCATION: This program was implemented at Erie Community College in Buffalo, New York. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: In order to qualify for this program, fathers had to be: 

• Between 16 and 21 years old; 

• Have a child or be an expectant father; 

• Meet the federal guidelines for poverty. 

Fathers included in the sample had the following characteristics: 

• 19.3 years of age, on average; 

• 88.5% African-American; 

• 92.9% never married; 

• 1.2 children, on average; 

• 28.1% high school graduate of GED; 

• 10.7 school years completed, on average; 

• 7.9% employed; 

• 56% reside in high poverty area. 

EVALUATION DESIGN: OUTCOMES MONITORING (PRE/POST TEST DESIGN) 

• Outcomes:

o Successful completion of the FFP program (i.e., full attainment of individual service plan goal) 

o Employed 

o In school 

• Method: Administrative data were collected and analyzed for all fathers who completed the FFP 

program between September 1990 and June 1995, including fathers who left the program before fully 

achieving the goal(s) laid out in their individual service plans. Such fathers were considered 

“unsuccessful” in completing the program. Fathers were considered to have “successfully” completed 

the program if they achieved the goal(s) laid out in their individual service plans (e.g., attained full-time 

employment). 

• Sample: The sample consisted of the 127 men who completed the FFP program between September 

1990 and June 1995. 

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• Measures: The following administrative data were collected for all participants in the sample: basic 

demographic characteristics, services utilized, successful/unsuccessful completion of the individual 

service plan, and employment and school status at 30, 60, and 90 days after program completion. 

• Statistical Analyses: 

o Descriptive statistics and chi-square analysis were used to assess differences in demographics 

and use of program-components between fathers who successfully completed the program and 

fathers who did not. 

o Logistic regression was used to assess the relationship between demographics and programcomponents and the likelihood of successfully completing the program. 

o Logistic regression was used to assess the relationship between demographics, programcomponents, and successful program completion and the likelihood of working or being in 

school after 90 days. 

o Maximum log likelihood estimates and variable means were used to evaluate probabilities for 

the average participant on his likelihood of completing the program and having a positive 

economic outcome (Aldrich & Nelson, 1984). 

• Attrition: There was no attrition from the program.

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: FFP has one staff member who is both the program director and the 

case manager. There are two educational instructors who also serve as informal counselors to 

participants. 

o Staff Education: Not currently available. 

o Staff Experience: The program director/case manager and both of the educational instructors 

have extensive experience working with and providing counseling, education, and job training 

and placement to this population. 

o Staff Training: The program director/case manager and both of the educational instructors 

have extensive training working with and providing counseling, education, and job training and 

placement to this population. 

o Planning Time and Coordination: Not currently available.

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

o Staff Satisfaction: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: The program accepts walk-ins as well as referrals from agencies outside the Erie 

Community College, including the Erie County Department of Social Services and the state Division of 

Probation. 

• Space: Not currently available.

• Materials: Not currently available.

• Partnerships and Linkages: Some participants were referred to the program through outside agencies 

(e.g., the local department of social services and the state Division of Probation).

• Community Organizations: Not currently available.

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PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model: Each participant completed an intake assessment at enrollment. The 

Test for Adult Basic Education and the Nelson-Denehy test were used to place participants into one of 3 

educational classes: basic skills, GED preparation, or college preparation. Taking into account each 

participant’s educational and service needs (e.g., transportation, child care) as well as his “dreams for 

the future” (e.g., educational and employment goals), an individual service plan was created. Each 

individual plan has a timeline as well as one or multiple goals. In order to be fully enrolled in the 

program, participants had to complete one week of classes. The first 7 weeks of the program are the 

“preinternship phase,” during which fathers participated in the following: 

o Educational Classes

 Basic skills: This class was for men who had neither a high school diploma nor a GED. 

Classes focused on remedial reading and math skills. The goal of this class was to 

complete the GED. 

 GED preparation: This class was for men who had neither a high school diploma nor a 

GED. Classes focused on remedial reading and math skills. The goal of this class was to 

complete the GED.

 College preparation: This class focused on college-level coursework and requirements. 

o Life and Fatherhood Studies

 Course 1: The first course focused on the roles of manhood and self-development.

 Course 2: This second course focused on developing health family-oriented 

relationships, including resolving conflicts over parenting issues such as visitation.

 Course 3: This third course provided instruction on parenting skills and the 

development of a positive relationship with the child through adolescence. 

o Job-Skill Training: Participants received training in interviews, applications, and follow-up 

techniques. 

o Computer Literacy Training: Participants received training in the basics of microcomputer use.

o Life-Skill Training: Participants received training in critical thinking, personal budgeting, 

motivation, self-esteem building, and setting priorities. 

Once participants successfully completed the preinternship phase, they were able to participate in a paid 

internship. 

o Paid Internships: Participants worked with local employers. 

Informal counseling and advocacy were also available to participants. 

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: Not currently available. 

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): The preinternship phase is 7 weeks long. Upon 

successful completion of this phase, participants were placed in a paid internship. 

• Frequency of program offerings: Walk-ins and referrals were accepted on a rolling basis. 

• Diversity of activities: Depending on their needs, teen fathers participated in a variety of activities, 

including education classes, life and fatherhood studies, job-skills training, computer literacy training, 

life-skills training, paid internships, and informal counseling. 

• Incentives for participation: Upon successful completion of the preinternship phase, participants were 

placed in a paid internship. 

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Differences in use of program-components by program outcomes 

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• Fathers who successfully completed FFP were more likely to participate in employment training (p<.05) 

or internship activities (p<.01). These fathers were also more likely to be working or in school after 30, 

60, and 90 days of completing the program (p<.01). Additionally, work and school outcomes tended to 

remain stable across the 90 days. 

Relationship between demographics and program-components and the likelihood of successfully completing the 

program 

• Older fathers with a high school diploma/GED at enrollment who participated in an internship were 

more likely to be successful (i.e., meet their program goals) than younger fathers without a diploma or 

GED who did not have an internship (p<.01). 

Relationship between demographics, program-components, and successful program completion and the 

likelihood of working or being in school after 90 days

• Older fathers who had a internship and successfully completed FFP were more likely to have a positive 

economic outcome (be working or in school) than younger fathers who did not have an internship or 

complete the program (p<.01). 

Probabilities for the average participant on his likelihood of completing the program and having a positive 

economic outcome 

• An average participant had a 47% probability of successfully completing the program. 

• An average participant completing an internship had a 73% probability of successfully completing the 

program. An average participant not completing an internship had a 39% probability of successfully 

completing the program. 

• An average participant who successfully completed the program had an 83% probability of either 

working or being in school 90 days after completion of the program. An average participant who did not 

successfully complete the program had a 30% probability of either working or being in school after 90 

days. 

SOURCES:

Aldrich, J.H., & Nelson, F.D. (1984). Linear probability, logit, and probit models. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage 

 Publications. 

Kost, K. A. (1997). The Effects of Support on the Economic Well-being of Young Fathers. 

 Families in Society 78(4), 370-382. 

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Kathleen A. Kost 

School of Social Work 

685 Baldy Hall 

State University of New York at Buffalo 

Buffalo, New York 14260

Email: kost@buffalo.edu 

THE FOREVER FATHERS PROGRAM 

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THE RESPONSIBLE FATHERHOOD PROGRAM 

OVERVIEW: The Responsible Fatherhood Program is run through the Latin American Youth Center (LAYC) 

and provides multilingual, culturally competent services to Latino and other young immigrant and minority 

fathers. The program is designed to bring essential parenting development skills and other assistance to young 

fathers in need of these services. Fathers can participate in workshops as well as computer and English classes. 

There is also an optional mentoring component. Preliminary evaluation results suggest that participation in the 

program has positive effects. Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: The Responsible Fatherhood Program was designed to bring essential parenting 

development skills and other assistance to young fathers in need of these services. 

LOCATION: Washington, DC 

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: The Responsible Fatherhood Program targets Latino fathers 

between the ages of 15 and 30. All workshops are held in Spanish. The majority of participating fathers are 

originally from El Salvador. 

EVALUATION DESIGN: OUTCOMES MONITORING (PRE/POST TEST DESIGN) 

• Outcomes:

o Knowledge acquisition in the following areas: family communication, sexual and reproductive 

health, substance abuse, computer skills, money management, renter’s rights and 

responsibilities, and job skills; 

o Perception and behavior in the following areas: self-esteem, parenting, stress management, 

community resources, domestic violence, and relationship with mentor; 

o Amount and quality of time parents spent with children and the relationship with the co-parent; 

and 

o Improved proficiency in the English language. 

• Method: Participants completed pre-tests upon enrollment and post-tests during the final workshop. 

• Sample: Pre/post assessments were compared for 25 participating fathers. 

• Measures: 

o Knowledge acquisition was measured using a set of 37 combined true and false questions. 

o Perception and behavior was measured using a series of 31 questions. 

o Amount and quality of time parents spent with children and the relationship with the co-parent 

was measured through 10 questions. There were three versions of this section, one for parents 

with children in their household; one for parents with children not in their households, but in the 

US; and one for parents with children outside the US. 

o Proficiency in the English language was measured through an assessment consisting 51 

questions on vocabulary, sentence completion, and reading comprehension. 

• Statistical Analyses: Descriptive analyses were conducted.

• Attrition: There was no attrition from the study sample. 

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

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o Staff-participant ratio: There is generally one parent educator for ever 10 to 12 participants. 

The case manager is also available to participants during workshops.

o Staff Education: Not currently available. 

o Staff Experience: The Responsible Fatherhood Program looks for Spanish speaking staff with 

workshop facilitation experience, experience working with the target population, and experience 

dealing with diversity.

o Staff Training: The Responsible Fatherhood Program encourages staff to attend curriculum 

trainings and trainings that focus on working with the target population. The program recently 

offered staff an opportunity to participate in gay and lesbian sensitivity training. 

o Planning Time and Coordination: Not currently available. 

o Staff wages: Parent educators and case managers make between 32 and 36 thousand dollars per 

year. The Program Coordinator makes between 37 and 39 thousand dollars per year. 

o Staff Satisfaction: Staff love their job and the program. 

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: The Responsible Fatherhood Programs recruits fathers through street outreach (i.e., staff 

go out on the street and hand out fliers at local hangouts); outreach at local churches; advertisements in 

local, free Hispanic papers; street fairs; and health fairs held in collaboration with local clinics. 

• Space: Program activities are generally held in a community classroom at the Latin American Youth 

Center’s offices.

• Materials: Computers as well as English language textbooks are used in programming.

• Partnerships and Linkages: The Responsible Fatherhood Program works in partnership with the 

Columbia Heights/Shaw Family Support Collaborative. Responsible Fatherhood staff meets with 

different agency representatives in order to share best practices, discuss recruitment strategies, and plan 

collaborative events for the future. 

• Community Organizations: Not currently available. 

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model: The Responsible Fatherhood Program consists of mandatory 

workshops plus several voluntary components. All workshops are conducted in Spanish. 

o Workshops (mandatory): All fathers are required to participate in the workshop component of 

the program. The Responsible Fatherhood Program is currently using an adapted version of the 

fatherhood curriculum Promoting Responsible Fatherhood: A Curriculum for Young Fathers.

o Computer classes (optional): Fathers are encouraged to participate in computer classes geared 

toward parenting, during which parents learn to use the computer to promote the well-being of 

their child(ren).

o English classes (optional): Fathers are encouraged to participate in English classes geared 

toward parenting, during which parents work on vocabulary, sentence completion, and reading 

comprehension in the following categories: greetings, my family, my country, numbers, 

directions, clothes, food, jobs, and the weather. 

o Mentoring (optional): Fathers are encouraged to participate in a mentoring program, in which 

fathers are paired with a mentor father (sometimes a graduate of the program). 

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: There are between 10 and 12 fathers in each group. 

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): Fathers attend workshops once a week for 

approximately 13 weeks for a total of approximately 20 hours of program participation. However, if 

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fathers complete 14 hours of participation, they are considered to have completed the program. 

Additionally, fathers can participate in voluntary English and computer classes. 

• Frequency of program offerings: The program is offered at three different time points throughout the 

year. 

• Diversity of activities: Fathers participate in workshops as well as voluntary computer and English 

classes. There is also a voluntary mentoring component. During workshops, a father participates in 

small group discussion as well as role-plays and visits to community resources.

• Incentives for participation: Child care and meals are provided at workshops. Additionally, 

participating fathers are awarded a $50 gift certificate for every unit test that they pass. Each participant 

can pass a total of three unit tests. 

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

 

Knowledge acquisition and self-reported perception and behavior 

• Overall, participants significantly improved in knowledge acquisition and self-reported perception and 

behavior (p<.05). 

• Overall, participants improved significantly on the following questions (p<.05): 

o I feel like I can find the time to teach my children my culture; 

o I have enough time to spend with my children; 

o I feel like I have time to get involved in my children’s activities; 

o I feel like I can speak to my children about delicate subjects like HIV/AIDS and STD; 

o I feel like I know how HIV/AIDS is contracted from person to person; 

o I know how to manage my financial situation; 

o I feel like I know enough information on STDs to protect myself; 

o I know how to handle my stress; 

o I know how to manage my budget; 

o I know where I can get help with my taxes; 

o I know resources that can help me find a job; 

o I know the advantages and risks of having a credit card; 

o I know how to use a computer; 

o I know my rights as a tenant; 

o I know my residency rights; 

o I know where to get food and clothing in case of an emergency. 

• Statistically significant results were also found with respect to participant answers to questions about 

domestic violence (p<.05). 

Time spent with children and relationship with coparent 

• The amount of time participants spent with their child increased by 9.30 hours per week from pre- to 

post-assessment. Specifically, participants increased the amount of time that they spent playing with 

their child(ren), teaching their child(ren), taking care of their child(ren) when their partners left the 

house, discussing their child(ren)’s problems, and dressing their child(ren). 

• Participants reported that their relationship with their partners improved. 

English proficiency

• Over 80% of participants increased their score on this assessment by an average of 11 points. 

SOURCES:

Personal Communication with Natalie Williams on July 15, 2008. 

Responsible Fatherhood Evaluation Cohort I FY08. 2008 Washington, DC: Latin American Youth Center. 

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Responsible Fatherhood FY07 Evaluation. 2008. Washington, DC: Latin American Youth Center. 

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Natalie Williams, M.P.H. 

Prevention Team Leader 

Latin American Youth Center 

1419 Columbia Rd NW 

Phone: 202.319.2270 

Email: natalie@layc-dc.org

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THE TEEN FATHER COLLABORATIVE 

OVERVIEW: In 1983, the Ford Foundation along with eight community foundations launched the Teen Father 

Collaboration, a two-year national demonstration and research effort designed to encourage agencies working 

with teenage mothers and their children to extend their services to meet the needs of teenage fathers. Each 

agency designed and developed its own program, including services such as vocational training and job 

placement, parenting skills, classes, counseling services, educational programs, and family planning services. 

Over the two years, the Collaborative served 395 teenage fathers. Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: The goals of the Teen Father Collaborative were: 

o To develop effective strategies for reaching young fathers and prospective fathers; 

o To provide these young men with services appropriate to their needs, with particular emphasis on their 

responsibilities as fathers; 

o To document and describe the development of agency services, and the impact these services had on the 

lives of fathers; 

o To draw attention locally and nationally to the need for programs for this previously neglected 

population; and 

o To continue successful Collaboration programs beyond the duration of the demonstration. 

LOCATION: Eight program sites participated in the Teen Fathers Collaborative. Programs were 

implemented in the following cities: Bridgeport, CT; Louisville, KY; Minneapolis, MN; Philadelphia, PA; 

Portland, OR; Poughkeepsie, NY; St. Paul, MN; and San Francisco, CA. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: Teenage fathers and prospective fathers participating in the 

Collaborative had the following characteristics: 

• The majority of participants were between 17 and 19, ranging from 15 to 19.5 years of age; 

• 54.7% of participants were expectant fathers, and 45.3% were fathers already; 

• 35% of participants were employed, and half of those employed were working part-time; 

• 75% of participants were not enrolled in any type of school program; 

• 59% of participants dropped out of school between the ninth and eleventh grade; 

• Participants were Black (37.7%), White (25.2%), Hispanic (24%), Native American, and Asian (5.1%)4

; 

• Participants were from Protestant backgrounds (43.7%), Catholic backgrounds (33%), no religious 

background (12%), and a small percentages were from other religious backgrounds; 

• 50.7% of participants received all of their financial support from their families, 20% relied on public 

assistance, and 10% relied on a combination of family support, personal earnings and public assistance; 

• 10% of participants were married, 75% considered their partner to be their “girlfriend,” and 10% said 

they were “just friends” with their partner; 

• Around 75% of participants said that there relationship with their partner had lasted at least 2 years. 

EVALUATION DESIGN: PROCESS/IMPLEMENTATION EVALUATION AND DESCRIPTIVE 

OUTCOMES MONITORING 

• Outcomes: 

o Characteristics of fathers served 

o Essential components of successful programs for teenage fathers 

o Highlights of program impact 

 

4

 The race/ethnicity of the fathers served varied greatly by program site. Fathers at one program site were primarily Native 

American, while fathers at another site were primarily Hispanic. Several sites served either primarily White or primarily 

Black fathers. 

THE TEEN FATHER COLLABORATIVE 

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• Method:

o With respect to implementation, data on agency characteristics was collected at the beginning of 

the Collaborative. Data on agency services was collected quarterly. Site visits were conducted 

annually, and telephone interviews with administrators and staff were conducted as needed. 

o With respect to participants, background information was collected during the participant’s 

initial visit. Baseline information was collected during a subsequent visit, usually the second 

visit. Ongoing logs on participants were completed on a quarterly basis, and outcome data were 

collected at the participant’s exit from the program. 

• Sample: Background data were collected from 395 fathers who made contact with their local program. 

Baseline data were collected from 204 fathers who made a subsequent visit. 

• Measures: 

o Characteristics, Resources, and Operation of Agency form, documenting the structure, size, 

staffing patterns, range of services, etc.; 

o Agency staff completed a Quarterly Summary of Agency Services form, covering detailed 

activities on the recruitment of teen fathers, client referrals, direct provision of services, and 

community development activities;

o Agency staff administered the Background Information Form (BIF) to all young men who made 

contact with the program, collecting information on age, educational and job status, etc.; 

o Agency staff administered the Baseline Data form to all young men who indicated that they 

wished to participate in the program on a regular basis, including information on support 

networks, knowledge about contraception, methods of birth control, use of contraception;

o Agency staff recorded each participant’s attendance and progress in on Ongoing Log;

o Agency staff completed an Outcome Data form, paralleling the Baseline Data form and the 

Background Information form, with fathers whose participation with the program was ending;

o Additionally, Bank Street staff conducted on-site interviews with key administrators and service 

delivery personnel as well as teenage fathers and prospective fathers.

• Statistical Analyses: Descriptive statistics and chi-square analyses were used. 

• Attrition: There was a high rate of program attrition among participants, and agency staff were rarely 

able to complete the Outcome Data form with participants before they left the program. For this reason, 

program effects were mostly assessed using the other measures (e.g., Quarterly Summary of Agency 

Services forms and Ongoing Logs). 

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: Although a few of the program sites had a large staff, several sites had 

only one or two staff members. Some sites were able to target a large number of fathers, while 

other sites targeted a small number. 

o Staff Education: Not currently available.

o Staff Experience: Frontline staff, program administrators, and participants realized how 

important having a male staff member was to the success of the program, and ensured that staff 

were skilled in counseling, outreach, community networking and referral, dedicated to the 

population being served, able to connect with clients (i.e., young, informal, and committed to 

fathering in his own life), and from a similar background as the fathers being served. 

o Staff Training: Staff provided encouragement and some technical assistance to frontline staff. 

Additionally, several agencies stressed the importance of staff development. 

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o Planning Time and Coordination: It took time for agencies to develop their full complement 

of services. In many cases, services were added on one-at-a-time during the first year of the 

Collaborative. Additionally, a large amount of staff time was spent in data collecting activities. 

Staff sometimes had to work evenings and on Saturdays in order to get everything done, and 

this extra work limited the number of fathers they could work with. 

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

o Staff Satisfaction: Not all staff were excited at first to be working with teenage fathers. 

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: Some agencies for teenage mothers and their children reached young men through their 

female partner who was being served by the agency; others reached their clientele through aggressive 

outreach activities in the community. Still others found that a combination of these strategies worked 

best. 

• Space: Two local agencies held their programs in a school. One agency set its program in a hospital. 

The other 5 programs set their programs in social service agencies. 

• Materials: Not currently available.

• Partnerships and Linkages:

o A collaborative arrangement was formed to:

 Provide technical assistance in program development and implementation to the 

participating agencies;

 Disseminate information on issues related to teen fathers to both the participating 

agencies and other agencies and organizations interested in beginning their own 

programs;

 Coordinate the collection and analysis of research data for use in documentation of the 

Collaboration;

 Develop effective models and guidelines for serving teenage fathers; and

 Convene national conferences for participants.

o Frontline staff recruited participants through teen mothers/prospective mothers as well as 

through contacts at schools, hospitals, pre-natal clinics, churches, and teenage hang-outs 

throughout the community (e.g., recreational centers, bars, basketball courts). Additionally, staff 

recruited through the media and by word-of-mouth. 

o Communication between the eight participating agencies was conducted through regular 

telephone conferences, a newsletter, and an annual conferences. 

• Community Organizations: Community foundations were responsible for funding the service delivery 

component of their chosen agency, while a philanthropic organization was responsible for funding data 

collection and the evaluator. Community foundations also played a public advocacy role in an effort to 

extend the impact of their teen father programs beyond the demonstration. 

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model: Each agency designed and developed its own program, and while 

some agencies offered services on-site, others referred fathers to services offered in the community. An 

assessment of services revealed the following:

 All agencies offered some form of vocational skills training and/or job placement services (e.g., 

resume writing, assessing want ads, role playing interviews with potential employers); 

 All agencies offered some form of parenting skills classes (e.g., feeding, bathing, early 

childhood development); 

 Some form of counseling services were available to all participants (e.g., individual counseling, 

support groups, couples counseling) and dealt with issues such as responsibilities as fathers, 

relationship to partner, and attitudes and behavior toward family planning; 

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 Some agencies offered prospective fathers the opportunity to participate in pre-natal activities 

(e.g., listening to the baby’s heartbeat, participating in labor classes); 

 Some agencies offered participants the opportunity to participate in family planning education, 

assistance in completing high school diploma requirements, and legal advocacy work. 

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: Not currently available.

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): On average, fathers remained in the program for 

6.6 months.

• Frequency of program offerings: Services were offered on a rolling basis. 

• Diversity of activities: Each agency designed and developed its own program, including services such 

as vocational training and job placement, parenting skills, classes, counseling services, educational 

programs, and family planning services. Many agencies were able to increase the number of services 

offered to fathers. 

• Incentives for participation: Transportation money or transportation services were often provided. 

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Characteristics of Fathers Served

• In general, participating fathers were supported by their families and committed to their partners. 

• Although their children typically lived with their mothers and/or their maternal grandparents, the 

majority of participating fathers reported that they maintained daily contact with their children and 75% 

said that they or their parents contributed to the child’s financial support. Staff reported that many 

fathers wanted “something better” for their children. 

• Although recruitment of participants was not easy, most program sites found that their “intense, 

aggressive, and creative outreach strategies” paid off. Fathers wanted to participate, and most sites 

ended up having too few staff members to service participants as they would want to. Flexible styles of 

delivery were also necessary. For example, offering services between 9 and 5 presented difficulties for 

many fathers. 

Essential Components of Successful Programs

• Essential Outreach Strategies: 

o Inform the mother or prospective mother about services available to her partner.

o Establish referral linkages throughout the community with staff at other youth-serving agencies.

o Hire an outreach worker who is comfortable with and willing to actively approach teenage 

males in settings throughout the community. 

o Inform the public-at-large about the availability of services for teen fathers. 

• Essential Components of Successful Programs for Teenage Fathers 

o A top-level commitment by an organization to serving teen fathers and prospective fathers, 

including a commitment to fund raising as well as supervising and supporting staff. 

o At least one full-time staff person, preferably a male, who is hired solely to reach and serve 

teenage fathers and prospective fathers. This person should be skilled in counseling, outreach, 

community networking and referral, dedicated to the population being served, able to connect 

with clients (i.e., young, informal, and committed to fathering in his own life), and from a 

similar background as the fathers being served. 

o An aggressive, “street-smart” outreach worker who knows the community well, can establish a 

referral network for recruitment purposes, and can “sell” the program. 

o A comprehensive array of services, including: counseling, job-related services, educational 

services, parenting skills classes, pre-natal classes, and legal advocacy. 

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o A realistic number of clients, depending on the number of program staff and the range of their 

responsibilities. 

Highlights of Program Impact

• The majority of fathers who participated in the Collaborative were interested in multiple services, and 

85% of participants participated in at least 2 service components. Over 75% participated in 3 or more 

service components. 

• Counseling was the most sought out service (in 382 of 395 cases). Counseling assisted fathers in 1) 

coping with the demands of early parenthood, 2) building stronger ties with their children, 3) working 

on their ongoing relationship to their partner, and 4) reducing their sense of isolation from other young 

men under similar, stressful situations. 

• Almost half of the 155 non-graduates who were also not enrolled in school either returned to high 

school (28 participants) or enrolled in and/or obtained their GED (43 participants).

• Almost two-thirds of participants were unemployed and seeking employment when they entered their 

local program. Of these fathers, 148 had a positive employment outcome (61.2% of those unemployed 

at program entry), obtaining either a part-time job (56 participants) or a full-time job (92 participants). 

• All but one of the original 8 program sites were able to get funding to continue individual programs 

after the end of the demonstration. 

SOURCES:

Bank Street College of Education. (1985). The teen parent collaboration: Reaching and serving the teenage 

father. New York, NY: Klinman, D.G., Sander, J.H., Rosen, J.L., Longo, K.R., & Martinez, L.P.

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Bank Street College of Education 

610 West 112th Street 

Research Division 

New York, NY 10025 

Website: http://www.bnkst.edu/ 

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THE YOUNG UNWED FATHERS PILOT PROJECT 

OVERVIEW: In the early 1990s, Public/Private Ventures (P/PV), with the support of six foundations, 

launched the Young Unwed Fathers Pilot Project in an attempt to compare the service delivery approaches 

of various sites to determine which approaches would produce the best outcomes for young fathers between 

the ages of 16 and 255

. An initial implementation evaluation was conducted, providing important insights 

into recruitment, retention, and service delivery. An outcomes study and an ethnographic study provide 

additional information on the status of the programs as well as the impact of the program on the 

educational, employment, and parenting outcomes for participating fathers. Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: The goals of the Young Unwed Fathers Pilot Project were to: 

o Collect information on the problems of young fathers and their potential as responsible parents; 

o Test the capacity of local agencies to provide these fathers with employment training, basic 

education, more effective parenting skills, and personal counseling; 

o Determine which models and/or program elements appear to be most feasible and produce the 

best outcomes of this population, and whether an impact analysis of any model would be useful. 

o Improve or reinforce the parenting skills of young fathers; 

o Increase the employment and earnings potential of young fathers; and 

o Motivate young father to declare legal paternity for their children and pay child support. 

LOCATION: 

• Cleveland Works in Cleveland, Ohio; 

• Goodwill Industries in Racine, Wisconsin; 

• The Fresno Private Industry Council (PIC) in Fresno, California; 

• The Pinellas County PIC in St. Petersburg, Florida; 

• Friends of the Family and the Department of Social Services in Annapolis, Maryland; 

• And the Philadelphia Children’s Network in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED:

Demographic Characteristics

• Participants were between 16 and 25 years old and 20.9 years old on average; 

• Participants were African-American (73.3%), Hispanic (13.6%), white (9.2%), and other (4.0%)6

; 

• 61.5% of participants were on Welfare, 50.9% were receiving food stamps, and 35.4% were receiving 

AFDC; 

• 55% of participants lived with at least one of their parents or other relatives, 28% lived in households 

with at least one of their children, and 23% lived with their girlfriend and child(ren)7

; 

• 33.5% of participants were either still in high school, in a GED program, in college, or in another 

educational program; 

• 23.7% of participants had a high school diploma and 11.0% had their GED; 

• 23.1% of participants were employed at entry, working an average of 27 hours per week and earning an 

average of $5.36 per hour (employed fathers reported being dissatisfied with their pay, benefits, and 

opportunities for advancement); 

• 39% of participants had been in jail, 50% had been on probation or parole; 

• 52.8% of participants reported incomes below $10,000; 

 

5

 Fathers older than 19 were included in the project because the fathers of teenage mothers are often a few years older. 6

 The race/ethnicity of the fathers served varied somewhat by program site. At the Fresno site, 12.8% of participants were 

African-American, and 71.8% were Hispanic. 7

 White fathers were less likely to report living with their parents, and Latino fathers were more likely to report living with 

at least one of their children. 

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• 63% of participants had only one child, 82% had children by only one mother, 30% were currently in a 

serious relationship with the mother. 

Indicators of Father Involvement

• Fathers reported visiting their child at the hospital (75%) and being listed on the birth certificate (85%), 

taking their child to the doctor (50%), bathing (46%), feeding (81%), dressing (73%), and playing with 

their child (87%); 

• Fathers not living with their child reported seeing their child “almost every day” during the last month 

(39%), 70% reported seeing their child at least once a week; 

Financial Support

• 30% of fathers reported having child support orders, and 71% of these fathers reported being behind in 

their payments; 

• Father reported paying for food (74%), clothing (84%), diapers (68%), and medicine (42%) as well as 

giving additional money (49%) for the child. 

• The median amount of money fathers reported spending on their child each month was $100. 

Sexual Practices

• 65% of participants reported engaging in intercourse at least twice a week, 42% reported using birth 

control every time, 26% reported not using it at all. 

EVALUATION DESIGN: IMPLEMENTATION/PROCESS EVALUATION 

OUTCOMES MONITORING (PRE/POST DESIGN) 

ETHONOGRAPHIC STUDY 

• Outcomes: 

o Recruitment 

o Retention 

o Service Delivery 

o Community Partnerships 

o Father Education 

o Father Employment 

o Father Parenting 

• Method: The following quantitative and qualitative data were collected at various time-points 

throughout the life of the project:

o Quantitative Data: Intake assessment and telephone interviews were used to collect information 

on the characteristics of all enrollees. During the telephone interview, participants answered 

questions about their demographic characteristics, relationships with their children and the 

mothers of their children, receipt of food stamps, knowledge and use of birth control methods, 

neighborhood characteristics, and interactions with the legal system. Baseline telephone 

interviews were conducted with two cohorts. Follow-up interviews were conducted 12 months 

after baseline. Participants were asked the same questions in addition to questions about the 

usefulness of key program components and their current involvement in school and the labor 

market. Finally, a management information system (MIS) was used to track the activities each 

father participated in. 

o Qualitative Data: P/PV staff conducted semi-structured telephone interviews with key staff 

from the leading and collaborating agencies 7 to 10 months after sites became operational. 

Additionally, site visits were conducted every 6 to 8 weeks. Staff observed curriculum sessions 

and other program activities and attended meetings of the agencies collaborating on the project. 

Ethnographers were sent to 3 program sites. Life history interviews were conducted with 47 

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participants before, during, and after participation in the project. Field notes were kept by the 

ethnographers as they attended fatherhood curriculum sessions, peer support meetings, field 

trips, birthday parties, etc. 

• Sample: Each agency was instructed to provide services to at least 50 fathers for at least 18 months. A 

total of 228 young fathers enrolled in the program by the end of February 1992, 10 to 12 months after 

launch. After the project’s second year, a total of 459 fathers had enrolled. Intake, baseline, and followup information were collected from 155 fathers. Forty-seven fathers across 3 program sites were 

included in the ethnographic study. 

• Measures: 

o Intake forms conducted with all men who enrolled in the program by the end of February 1992. 

o Baseline and follow-up telephone interviews conducted by the Social Science Research Center 

at California State University, Fullerton.

o Site project directors or case managers documented fathers’ participation in education, preemployment, and skills training classes, fatherhood development activities, employment and 

counseling in an MIS.

o P/PV staff conducted semi-structured telephone interviews with key staff from the leading and 

collaborating agencies as well as regular site visits. 

o Ethnographers used life history notes to collect information on participants’ motivations, 

attitudes, behaviors and life circumstances. Most of the interviews were between 2 and 3 hours 

in length. In total, 172 interviews were conducted. 

o Ethnographer’s field notes were submitted monthly and coded. 

• Statistical Analyses: Descriptive analyses were used. Significance test were conducted to make 

comparisons between some of the outcomes between baseline and follow-up. Quantitative and 

qualitative data were merged when appropriate.

• Attrition: In its first year, the project had a retention rate of 81%, and 41% of project participants had 

been active for longer than 6 months. After two years, 51% of terminated fathers and at least 68% of 

non-terminated fathers had been enrolled for at least a year. 

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: Programs that were rich in resources, including staff and 

administrative support, had the most success in providing services to participants. 

o Staff Education: Not currently available.

o Staff Experience: The most successful site operators were established in their communities and 

had experience working with high-risk populations as well as with the JTPA (Job Training 

Partnership Act) system. Successful site operators were also frequently African-American men. 

One site hired an African-American father to help with recruitment. His “credible voice” and 

ability to relate to participants was appreciated by the men. 

o Staff Training: All project staff attended two days of training for P/PV’s Fatherhood 

Development Curriculum held by the curriculum developers. Staff participated in a series of 

workshops, and a panel of young fathers provided feedback on the lessons and the exercises. 

Follow-up trainings were held centrally and on-site throughout the first year of program 

implementation. 

o Planning Time and Coordination: Not currently available.

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

o Staff Satisfaction: Staff were uncomfortable asking father to establish paternity and commit to 

paying child support at entry. 

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PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: Participating programs recruited a minimum for 50 young fathers, using one of three 

strategies: 

o mandatory referrals from the Child Support Enforcement (CSE) agency (Racine), 

o voluntary referrals from CSE (Fresno and St. Petersburg), and 

o community outreach (Cleveland, Philadelphia, and Annapolis)

• Space: Not currently available. 

• Materials: Not currently available.

• Partnerships and Linkages: Participating agencies sometimes partnered with the following for 

recruitment purposes as well as in an effort to provide participants with a wide range of services:

o The employer community;

o The local child support enforcement (CSE) agency;

o The local community college;

o Local youth service providers (e.g., the Fresno County Economic Opportunities Commission);

o The JTPA system (JTPA funding supported the majority of project costs in some sites in 

addition to providing employment and education-related services).

• Community Organizations: With the support of 6 foundations, P/PV launched the Young Unwed 

Fathers Pilot Project in 6 sites around the country. Two of the sites were community-based 

organizations (CBOs), 2 were JTPA Private Industry Councils (PICs), and 2 were community managing 

agents. While the CBOs offered most of their services on-site, the other agencies either had contractors 

deliver the services or referred enrollees to established community programs. 

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model: Each local agency designed and delivered its own program, however, 

P/PV required programs to incorporated the following 5 program components, which they felt would be 

most likely to produce positive outcomes for young fathers:

 Use of the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) system (one of the only publicly funded 

employment training programs available at the time) to provide young fathers with training 

services that would lead to good jobs (i.e., jobs with standard fringe benefits and the potential to 

enable fathers to support themselves and their children). Job-readiness or pre-employment 

classes were offered at four of the six sites. On-the-job-training was offered at two sites. 

 The delivery of education services designed to improve the earning capacity of young fathers.

 The delivery of “fatherhood development” activities that encourage parental values, capabilities, 

and behavior in young men, including a Fatherhood Development Curriculum developed by 

P/PV, “leadership” activities, and work with fathers to establish paternity and pay formal child 

support. The fatherhood curriculum was designed to cover issues related to parenting, 

fatherhood values, relationships with significant others, sexuality and heath, and personal 

responsibility. In addition, some sites brought in outside speakers while other sites organized 

activities that included fathers and their families. 

 The provision of counseling (career, personal, and legal) and other ongoing support designed to 

help fathers achieve employment, parenting, and personal goals (e.g., resume writing, telephone 

and interviewing skills, positive work habits, verbal communication skills).

 The establishment of an 18-month connection with fathers so that services and support continue 

after job placement.

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: Not currently available.

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• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): The length of “up-front” program components 

(e.g., assessment, life-skills training, job-skills training, and basic skills/GED preparation) varied by 

site. In 3 sites, services were scheduled everyday during this period. Additionally, all sites were required 

to hold curriculum sessions at least once a week for 60 to 90 minutes. In all sites, staff attempted to 

establish an 18-month connection with all participants. 

• Frequency of program offerings: Services were offered on a rolling basis with the exception of one 

site which stopped enrolling new participants after the first group matriculated. 

• Diversity of activities: Within the guidelines set out by P/PV, each agency designed and delivered its 

own program, including services such assessments, job-search services, placement assistance, job-skills 

training, literacy services, support groups, basic skills/GED preparation, and life-skills training. 

• Incentives for participation: One site offered participants a substantial stipend during training (up to 

$90 per week). Another site gave participants a $6 per day educational incentive. One other site gave 

participants a $15 per week educational incentive. 

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Recruitment

• All six agencies found attracting and enrolling young fathers to be difficult and resource-intensive. Only 

one site reached its enrollment goal of 50 fathers by the end of the first year. 

• Major barriers to attracting and enrolling participants were: 

o Young unwed fathers, who were primarily African-American and poor, distrust of public 

systems, especially the CSE system with whom the some of the agencies worked closely; 

o The program requirement that paternity be legally acknowledged; 

o Strict eligibility requirements to participate in the JTPA system (e.g., income eligibility based 

on household income, reading-level disqualifiers); 

o Lack of financial support during job-training or education classes. 

• The following agency characteristic facilitated recruitment: 

o Establishing “credibility” with the population being served; 

o A reputation for generating good jobs; 

o Well-established and mutually-beneficial partnerships with CSE and JTPA agencies; 

o Organizational resources (e.g., staff). 

• Fathers reported hearing about the program through the following: 

o Referrals by other institutions (e.g., local child support offices, juvenile court, probation officer, 

teacher) (46.3%); 

o Personal contacts (e.g., another fathers, friend, relative) (22.5%); 

o Program staff and fliers (22%); 

o The media (7%); 

o Their girlfriends (2.2%). 

• At one site, fathers were mandated to come by the local CSE agency. 

• Participants reported that jobs were the main incentive for program entry (62.7%), followed by 

parenting skills (45.6%) and improving relationships with children (38.2%). All recruitment messages 

emphasized the job component, but project staff reported that the “fatherhood focus” of the programs 

helped retain participants. 

Retention

• After its first year, the project had an initial retention rate of 81% across sites. Staff attributed this to the 

“fatherhood focus” of the project. 

• After two years, 51% of terminated fathers and at least 68% of non-terminated fathers had been enrolled 

for at least a year. (Because the projects continued to run after the end of the evaluation, it is not known 

how long non-terminated fathers stayed involved with their program.) 

THE YOUNG UNWED FATHERS PILOT PROJECT 

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• 71% of fathers were active in at least one program component for at least 75% of the months in which 

they were enrolled. 

Service Delivery

• Job Placement 

o Agencies that were able to effectively “package” JTPA services for participants had the best 

records in job placement; however, job retention rates were low. 

o Pressure to get a job as quickly as possible (as was the case at the site where fathers were 

mandated to attend by the local child support system) negatively affected the intensity with 

which fathers participated in employment and education services. 

• Fatherhood Development 

o The Fatherhood Development Curriculum was well-received by staff and participants, and 99% 

of participants took part in curriculum sessions during the first year. 

• Paternity Establishment and Paying Child Support 

o Staff did not feel comfortable asking father to establish paternity at entry and commit to child 

support. They agreed to work with fathers to gain their trust and encourage them to take this 

step over time.

• Counseling and Ongoing Support 

o Participation in counseling ranged from 59% to 100%.

Community Partnerships

• Sites were required to use the JTPA system to provide young fathers with training services. The 

usefulness of this systems was limited by the following:

o Local eligibility criteria (e.g., income eligibility based on household income, reading-level 

disqualifiers) that screened out some of the most needy participants;

o Lack of skills training options;

o Lack of in-program financial support during job-training and educational classes (e.g., 

stipends); 

o The CSE agency practice of pressing young men to pay child support which caused them to 

leave the program in order to get a job immediately. 

Education

• 75% of fathers participated in some type of education component while in the program. GED classes 

(53%) and basic skills classes (47%) were the most common.

• At follow-up, 22% of participants were without a high school diploma or GED and not enrolled in 

education classes, compared with 42% of participants at intake; however, 64% of fathers who entered 

the program without a diploma or GED did not earn one. 

• Staff reported that fathers dropped out of education classes because they got frustrated or lost focus in 

the face of other difficulties (e.g., need for income, child care).

• 93% of fathers enrolled in education classes said the services they received were either very useful 

(72%) or somewhat useful (21%).

Employment

• At follow-up, 54% of participants were working compared to 23% of participants at enrollment. 

Additionally, 47% of participants had jobs with health benefits at follow-up compared to 17% at 

enrollment. The average hours worked per week were 40 at follow-up compared to 27 at enrollment, 

and the average hourly wage was $6.21 compared to $5.19 at enrollment. 

• Fathers who enrolled in on-the-job-training were more likely to be employed at follow-up (p≤.01). 

THE YOUNG UNWED FATHERS PILOT PROJECT 

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• Only 29% of fathers who obtained employment while in the program found their jobs through program 

referrals. Job placement was a challenge for all participating agencies. There were difficulties in finding 

job developers and in finding jobs that paid more than $5 an hour. 

• Of fathers who were employed at enrollment and at follow-up, significantly more were satisfied with 

their health benefits, the type of work, and their opportunities for advancement in their current job 

(p≤.05). They were not, however, more satisfied with their wages. 

• 93% of fathers enrolled in job-readiness classes said they found them very useful (64%) or somewhat 

useful (29%). 

Parenting

• The frequency of contact between fathers and their children fell between baseline and follow-up 

(p≤.001). When asked, 75% of non-custodial fathers said that they wanted to see their child more often 

but were not able to because of time constraints (28%), problems in their relationship with the mother 

(21%), and geographical distance (18%). 

• Participants reported that the curriculum sessions (92%), peer support group (91%), and the 

relationships they developed with staff (93%) and other young fathers (92%) were useful. 95% would 

recommend the program to a friend. 

• Thirty-one fathers declared legal paternity for their child while in the program or after. Fathers did this 

because it was the right thing to do (29%), they wanted to (27%), it was their responsibility (16%), and 

the program encouraged it (12%). Only 8% were required to do so by the courts. At follow-up, 52 

fathers had support orders compared to 44 at baseline. 

• At follow-up, fathers answered an average of 7.9 questions about child support laws and procedures 

correctly compared to 6.5 questions at baseline. 

SOURCES:

Achatz, M. & MacAllum, C. A. (1994). Young Unwed Fathers: Report from the Field. Philadelphia, PA: 

Public/Private Ventures. 

Watson, B. H. (1992). Young Unwed Fathers Pilot Project: Initial Implementation Report. Philadelphia, PA: 

Public/Private Ventures. 

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

Public/Private Ventures 

399 Market Street 

Philadelphia, PA 19106 

Phone: 215-592-9099

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"WANTING TO BE GOOD FATHERS: 

HELPING TEEN FATHERS BECOME PARENTS" 

OVERVIEW: This parenting program was designed for adolescent fathers of Mexican descent involved in the 

juvenile justice system. Fathers participated in a series of six small-group sessions that included both therapeutic 

and psychoeducational components and emphasized the role that Latino(a) culture plays in the lives of 

adolescent, Latino fathers. After the completion of the intervention, a series of three in-depth interviews were 

conducted individually with six of the program participants. Read more...

PROGRAM GOALS: This program aimed to: 

O Increase the adolescent father’s understanding of issues regarding becoming a father;

O Offer adolescent fathers resources to cope with issues between himself and the mother of his child;

O Increase the adolescent father’s involvement with children through increased comfort in taking care of a 

young infant/child;

O Teach adolescent fathers fundamental principles of infant care, child development, and parenting skills.

LOCATION: This program was implemented in the Southwest United States.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FATHERS SERVED: The adolescent fathers participating in this program had the 

following characteristics: 

• Participants were all of Mexican descent; 

• Participants were between 13 and 17 years old; 

• Participants had been placed on probation for various offenses such as burglary, possession and use of 

illegal substances, or assault with a deadly weapon; 

• Two participants had 2 children each, and the rest had only one child, usually younger than 2 years old; 

• The educational level of participants ranged from 8th to 11th grade, with one participant having obtained 

his GRE; 

• 86% of participants were living with either their mother or stepmother; 

• 64% of participants were living with either their father or stepfather; 

• 57% of participants were in a romantic relationship with their partner while the rest were interested in 

establishing a co-parenting relationship with their former partner. 

EVALUATION DESIGN: PHENOMENOLOGICAL QUALITATIVE STUDY (DESCRIPTIVE 

INTERVIEW DESIGN) 

• Outcomes: Fathers provided feedback about their experiences as participants in the teen fathers 

parenting groups. During data analysis, this information was organized into the following categories:

o Life-world context data (i.e., ideas and thoughts in which the role of the adolescent was 

primarily receptive); 

o Lived experience data (i.e., ideas and thoughts that related to being a participant in the teen 

parenting program as well as being a teen father); 

o Detailed descriptions of teen fathers’ most relevant fathering experiences. 

• Method: Fourteen adolescent fathers participated in one of four teen fathers’ parenting groups over a 

period of 18 months. Fathers who completed both the therapeutic and psychoeducational components of 

the program and for whom contact information were provided were included in the study (n=6). After 

completion of the program, these 6 participants were interviewed on 3 separate occasions. All but one of 

the interviews was conducted face-to-face over a 2-month period. This method of conducting multiple 

interviews was chosen because it allows participants to reflect on their experiences and to confirm or 

modify their earlier statements. Additionally, during the third interview, participants were asked to 

review the findings from the first and second interviews. 

“WANTING TO BE GOOD FATHERS: HELPING TEEN FATHERS BECOME PARENTS” 

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• Sample: Six adolescent fathers were included in the analytic sample.

• Measures: 

o Perceptions of what it is like to be a participant in a teen fathers’ group.

• Statistical Analyses: In order to participate in data collection, evaluators went through a “bracketing 

process” during which they attempted to set aside preconceived ideas and biases. All of the interviews 

were transcribed and coded using NVivo qualitative data management software (Bazeley & Richards, 

2000). Distinct ideas and thoughts were labeled as either 1) irrelevant data, 2) life-world data, or 3) lived 

experience data. 

• Attrition: Fourteen fathers participated in one of 4 teen fathers’ parenting groups. Six participants were 

rearrested before they could complete the program. Two fathers completed the program but later moved 

away without leaving any contact information. The remaining 6 fathers were included in the study (57% 

attrition). 

STRUCTURAL/INSTITUTIONAL FEATURES:

• Staff Qualifications and Support

o Staff-participant ratio: Two facilitators, one male and one female, co-led each session. 

Having female co-leaders was important because they were able to bring their perspective as 

mothers and Latinas. 

o Staff Education: The groups were led by the program developer, a Mexican male marriage and 

family therapy graduate student, and by one of 2 parent educators. 

o Staff Experience: Not currently available.

o Staff Training: The parent educators were both mature Latinas from the community and had 

received extensive training in the Parent Management Training model (Patterson, 1982). 

o Planning Time and Coordination: Not currently available.

o Staff wages: Not currently available.

o Staff Satisfaction: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONFIGURATION:

• Recruitment: All participants were informed about the Wanting to be Good Fathers program because 

they were required to complete parenting training as a condition of their probation. Thus, while teen 

fathers choose to attend the program over other parenting courses in the community, they were 

supervised by their probation officers to ensure regular attendance.

• Space: Not currently available.

• Materials: Not currently available.

• Partnerships and Linkages: Not currently available.

• Community Organizations: Not currently available.

PROGRAM CONTENT:

• Curriculum or Program Model: This teen fathers’ parenting program included both therapeutic and 

psychoeducation components. Additionally, the role that Latino(a) culture plays in the lives of 

adolescent, Latino fathers was addressed throughout the six sessions. The follow six topics were 

addressed in these sessions:

o Therapeutic Components (Sessions 1-3)

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 Family-of-origin issues: Participants drafted a letter to their father as well as a letter to 

themselves pretending to be their father. Participants were asked to think about how their 

relationship with their father influenced them as fathers. 

 Personal Responsibility: This topic was addressed throughout the six sessions. Participants 

were challenged to take responsibility for their own actions, as opposed to blaming outside 

factors. 

 The meaning of being a father: Each participant shared what being a father meant to them. 

Participants then drafted a third letter to their child. 

o Psychoeducational Components (Sessions 4-6)

 Prevention of abuse and neglect: Abuse and neglect were defined and discussed using 

potential scenarios that their children might face in the future. 

 Child development and child care: Participants were provided with handouts and booklets. 

This information was then discussed in groups. 

 Fundamental parenting and discipline skills: Participants were taught concepts of parenting 

derived from social learning principles. Alternative discipline strategies (e.g., time-out) 

were discussed. 

PROGRAM DESIGN:

• Group size: Group size was limited to 4 fathers in order to ensure that each participant received 

sufficient time and attention. After the first meeting, group membership was closed. 

• Number of program hours (dosage and duration): There were 6 group sessions, each lasting 2 hours. 

(Note: Participants reported wanting to continue attending a support group for teen fathers.) 

• Frequency of program offerings: The groups met once a month for 6 months. 

• Diversity of activities: Fathers participated in group discussions, presentations, and role plays. 

Additionally, letter writing was used as a means for participants to address and process family-of-origin 

experiences. Participants were required to remain attentive and respectful while others shared; however, 

fathers only had to share what they wanted to share. 

• Incentives for participation: Participants received $15 for each session they attended. 

KEY EVALUATION FINDINGS:

Life-world context data

• Participants felt supported by group leaders and group members. They felt cared about because group 

leaders provided encouragement, companionship, and guidance about how to be a better father. 

• Participants felt safe in the group. They felt free to express themselves. 

• Participants appreciated that the group was specifically designed to meet their needs. They did not feel 

that they could get these services anywhere else in the community. 

Lived experience data 

• Entering the group: Although teen fathers were reluctant to participate in the group at first (some of 

them were required to be there by their parole officer), they reported that they came to appreciate the 

value of the program. 

• Liking and trusting: Participants reported that they began to trust each other and their group leaders over 

the course of the 6 sessions. They felt respected and did not feel judged. 

• Realizing group is important in redirecting my life: Participants reported that their feelings about the 

group changed when they began to realize that being a part of the group could help them to be a better 

father. 

• Realizing I am not the only one: Participants appreciated the opportunity to be around other teen fathers 

and realize that others were dealing with the same situations and the same emotions. 

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“EMERGING” PROGRAM 

• Letting feelings out: Participants reported feeling free to express their feelings and knowing that the 

other teen fathers would understand. 

• Valuing the bond: Participants reported a sense of bonding with other teen fathers in the group as they 

realized that there were all experiencing similar feelings. 

• Hearing it from group leaders: Group leaders gave participants challenging feedback, which the 

participants learned to appreciate. 

• Deciding to write about my struggles: Participants commented on the relief they felt in writing letters to 

their fathers.

• Wanting to be a good father: Participants realized that they could not be good fathers and maintain their 

current lifestyle. They recognized the need to take responsibility for their lives and the lives of their 

children. 

Detailed descriptions of teen fathers’ most relevant fathering experiences

• Not giving up and deciding to be a dad: Participants reported struggling with the knowledge that they 

would become fathers. At first they avoided talking about it. As time when on, however, the fathers 

found “a new meaning in life” by becoming fathers. 

• Figuring out my relationships after becoming a father: Participants mentioned challenges they were 

facing in their relationships with their child’s mother, with their child, and with the rest of their family. 

• Wanting to be a good father: Participants reported that they wanted to be good fathers, which they 

understood meant taking responsibility for their actions, battling drug addition, and planning for the 

future. 

• Wanting to be Brown and a father: Participants commented on how their cultural identity and cultural 

values influenced them as fathers and affected their lives. 

SOURCES:

Bazeley, P., & Richards, L. (2000). The NVivo qualitative project book. Thousand, Oaks, CA: Sage. 

Parra-Cardona, J.R., Wampler, R.S., & Sharp, E.A. (2006). “Wanting to be a good father”: Experiences of 

adolescent fathers of Mexican descent in a teen fathers program. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 32(2), 

215-231. 

Parra-Cardona, J.R., Sharp, E.A., & Wampler, R.S. (in press). “Changing for my kid”: Fatherhood experiences 

of Mexican-origin teen fathers involved in the justice system. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy. 

Patterson, G.R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia Press. 

EVALUATOR(S) AND CONTACT INFORMATION:

José Rubén Parra-Cardona, PhD 

Marriage and Family Therapy Program 

3D Human Ecology 

Michigan State University 

East Lansing, Michigan 48824 

Email: parraca1@msu.edu

 

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