Responsible 

Fatherhood 

Spotlight 

February 2010

Take Time to Be a Dad Today 

National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  20410 Observation Drive Suite 107  Germantown, MD 20876  

Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Fathers’ Prenatal Involvement 

Men’s activities and behaviors prior to and around the time of a child’s birth (i.e., prenatal involvement) 

have been found to have important implications for the quantity and quality of fathers’ involvement with 

their children and partners following the birth. 

Definitions 

Prenatal involvement refers to men’s activities with their partners during pregnancy and activities during 

and around the time of the birth of the child. Prenatal activities for fathers may include discussing the 

pregnancy with their partners, visiting the doctor with their partners for prenatal care, attending childbirth 

classes, being present at the child’s birth, and visiting the baby in the hospital.3

Importance and Implications of Fathers’ Prenatal Involvement 

The relatively small body of research on fathers’ prenatal involvement has found that men who are 

involved with their partners during pregnancy and around the time of birth are likely to exhibit higher 

levels and quality of involvement with their children following birth. In addition, prenatal involvement may 

hold benefits for fathers themselves. 

Implications of Prenatal Involvement for Fathers’ Later Involvement With Children 

 Research shows that fathers’ prenatal involvement is significantly related to a higher quantity of 

involvement following the child’s birth.8, 18

o Fathers who exhibit high levels of prenatal involvement show higher levels of 

engagement with their children following birth.5 

o Men who are supportive of their partners’ pregnancies (e.g., by attending doctor visits, 

buying supplies, listening to the baby’s heartbeat) are more likely to be highly involved 

with not only their children but also with their partners following birth.6 

o Prenatal involvement is associated with higher levels of subsequent father involvement in 

several areas, including cognitively stimulating activities (e.g., reading to child), physical 

care (e.g., feeding, diapering child), warmth (e.g., holding child), nurturing activities (e.g., 

soothing child), and caregiving activities (e.g., bathing, dressing child).3, 6 

 Studies also find that prenatal involvement is associated with a higher quality of parenting 

following birth. 

o Men who are involved prenatally (e.g., by attending childbirth classes or being present at 

the birth) exhibit more positive postbirth fathering behaviors, compared with fathers who 

are less involved prior to their child’s birth.1, 4 

o High levels of prenatal involvement are associated with more positive, better-quality 

postbirth parenting behaviors in several areas. Fathers who show such involvement are 

more likely to engage in cognitively stimulating, nurturing, and caregiving activities with 

their children, to act more warmly toward them, and to provide more direct physical care.3

 

 Men who are committed to the pregnancy and to their partners are more likely to be involved 

prenatally than are fathers who exhibit lower levels of commitment.16 
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 Some studies suggest that fathers’ prenatal involvement may be more important for unmarried 

fathers than for married fathers who live with their partners and children, likely because unmarried 

nonresident fathers have a greater risk of becoming uninvolved with their children. 

o Nonresident fathers who were involved with their children before birth are more likely to 

remain involved in their children’s lives, compared with nonresident fathers who were not 

prenatally involved.12

Implications for Fathers 

Men’s prenatal involvement is associated with a number of positive outcomes for fathers themselves, 

including more positive perceptions of their roles and identities as fathers, more stable and positive 

relationships with their partners, better employment outcomes, and less engagement in risky behaviors. 

 Men who are involved with their partners and children prior to the child’s birth may develop more 

positive perceptions of their roles and identities as fathers. 

o Prenatal involvement may lead men to develop a stronger commitment to the father role, 

which, in turn, may lead to a more positive self-identity as a father and perhaps to higher 

levels of motivation to remain involved following the child’s birth.2, 4, 14, 15, 17 

 Prenatal involvement is associated with more stable and positive relationships with one’s partner. 

o Research has found that fathers who are prenatally involved develop higher levels of 

commitment to their partners and are more likely to remain with those partners over 

time.7, 16 

o Unmarried fathers who support the pregnancy and their partners prior to a child’s birth 

may also be more likely to marry their partners than are fathers who are not involved 

prenatally.13 

o Fathers’ early support for the pregnancy and their partners may also be linked to higher 

coparental relationship quality.10 For example, one study found that fathers who attended 

their child’s birth reported increased levels of closeness with their partners.9

 High levels of fathers’ prenatal involvement have been found to be associated with better 

employment outcomes for fathers. 9

 Fathers who are prenatally involved may also decrease their involvement with risky behaviors, 

such as substance use or engagement in criminal activities.11
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Resident Fathers’ Prenatal Involvement 

The following estimates are for fathers of infants (nine-month-old children). 

Figure 1 shows that, overall, resident fathers are highly involved with their partners’ pregnancies in a 

variety of ways, except for attending a childbirth class. 

 More than nine in 10 fathers felt the baby move (97 percent), saw an ultrasound of the baby (95 

percent), listened to the baby’s heartbeat (93 percent), discussed the pregnancy with the mother 

(93 percent), or bought things for the baby (91 percent). 

 Less than one-half of all fathers attended a childbirth class with the baby’s mother (42 percent). 

Figure 1: Most Resident Fathers Were Involved 

With Partners' Pregnancies in Varied Ways

97%

42%

93% 91% 93% 95%

0

20

40

60

80

100

Discussed

pregnancy

Saw ultrasound Listened to

baby's

heartbeat

Felt the baby

move

Attended

birthing class

Bought things

for the baby

Yes

Source: ECLS-B, 9-month resident father survey
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Differences in Fathers’ Prenatal Involvement by Subgroup 

The following estimates are for fathers of infants (nine-month-old children). 

Differences by Father Age 

Figure 2 and Table 1 show that among resident fathers, adolescent fathers and fathers aged 35 and 

older were slightly less likely to be involved in prenatal activities than were fathers in other age groups. 

 Adolescent fathers were less likely to discuss the pregnancy with their child’s mother (88 

percent), to see an ultrasound (93 percent), and to attend a childbirth class (28 percent) than 

were older fathers. 

 Older fathers were slightly less likely to report that they listened to the baby’s heartbeat (91 

percent), felt the baby move (96 percent), and bought things for the baby (85 percent) than were 

fathers in their twenties and early thirties. 

 Compared with older fathers, fewer adolescent fathers (86 percent) were present at the birth of 

their child. Ninety-two percent of fathers aged 20-24, 94 percent of fathers aged 25-34, and 92 

percent of fathers aged 35 and older were present at the birth of their child. Adolescent fathers, 

however, were still highly likely to be present at their child’s birth. 

Figure 2: Resident Teen Fathers and Fathers 35 and 

Over Were Slightly Less Likely to Demonstrate 

Certain Prenatal Behaviors

0

20

40

60

80

100

Discussed

pregnancy

Saw

ultrasound

Listened to

baby's

heartbeat

Felt the

baby move

Attended

birthing

class

Bought

things for

the baby

Behavior

Percent

Less than 20

20-24

24-34

35+

Source: ECLS-B, 9-month resident father survey

Table 1. Resident Fathers’ Prenatal Involvement by Age 

Father 

Age 

Discussed 

Pregnancy 

Saw 

Ultrasound 

Listened 

to 

Heartbeat 

Felt 

Baby 

Move 

Attended 

Birthing 

Class 

Bought 

Things 

for Baby 

<20 88.4% 93.4% 93.3% 98.4% 28.1% 95.0% 

20-24 90.0% 95.8% 95.8% 97.5% 35.4% 95.6% 

24-34 93.4% 95.6% 94.0% 98.0% 43.5% 92.5% 

35+ 93.5% 95.3% 91.2% 96.3% 41.8% 85.5% 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
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Differences by Race/Ethnicity 

Figure 3 and Table 2 show that among resident fathers, Hispanic fathers were slightly less likely than 

were fathers of other racial/ethnic groups to report certain types of prenatal behaviors. 

 Hispanic fathers were the least likely to report that they discussed the pregnancy with the mother 

(76 percent), saw an ultrasound (90 percent), listened to the baby’s heartbeat (89 percent), and 

attended a childbirth class with the mother (32 percent). 

 Non-Hispanic black fathers were less likely to be in the delivery room during the baby’s birth than 

were fathers of other racial/ethnic groups. 

o Eighty-seven percent of non-Hispanic black fathers were present at the time of their 

child’s birth, compared with 91 percent of Hispanic fathers, 95 percent of “other” fathers, 

and 95 percent of non-Hispanic white fathers (analyses not shown here). 

o Black fathers, however, were still highly likely to be present at the time of their child’s 

birth. 

Figure 3: Hispanic Fathers Were Slightly Less Likely 

to Report Certain Types of Prenatal Behaviors

0

20

40

60

80

100

Discussed

pregnancy

Saw

ultrasound

Listened to

baby's

heartbeat

Attended

birthing

class

Bought

things for

the baby

Felt the

baby move

Behavior

Percent

Hispanic

Non-Hispanic

white

Non-Hispanic

black

Other

Source: ECLS-B, 9-month resident father survey

Table 2. Resident Fathers’ Prenatal Involvement by Race/Ethnicity 

Father Age Discussed 

pregnancy 

Saw 

ultra-sound 

Listened to 

heartbeat 

Felt baby 

move 

Attended 

birthing class 

Bought things 

for baby 

Hispanic 75.8% 90.1% 89.5% 96.7% 31.8% 93.6% 

Non-Hispanic 

White 97.4% 97.6% 95.0% 97.9% 45.2% 90.0% 

Non-Hispanic 

Black 93.6% 94.9% 91.0% 97.2% 32.9% 89.3% 

Other 93.5% 95.2% 93.6% 97.1% 44.7% 90.9% 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
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Definitions and Measurement 

Fathers’ prenatal behaviors were measured using a six-item index assessing whether the father 

discussed with the mother how the pregnancy was going, saw a sonogram or ultrasound of the baby, 

listened to the baby’s heartbeat, felt the baby move, attended childbirth classes or Lamaze classes with 

the child’s mother, and bought things for the child. For these items, fathers indicated whether they did or 

did not do these things (yes/no). Additional measures of prenatal behaviors include categorical variables 

that capture whether the father was present in the delivery room at the birth and whether the father saw 

the baby in the hospital. 

Data Sources 

The tables and charts in this brief documenting resident fathers’ prenatal involvement are based on Child 

Trends’ analyses of data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) 9-month 

surveys. The ECLS-B is a nationally representative longitudinal survey of American children born in 2001. 

The ECLS-B includes 10,688 children and their caregivers, and it follows these children from infancy until 

the time that they enter first grade. Data were collected through parent interviews, direct child 

assessments, birth certificate data, and interviews with children’s caregivers and teachers. The National 

Center for Education Statistics collected the data. 

Data Limitations 

Because fathers are asked about their prenatal involvement nine months after their child’s birth, data 

presented here represent fathers’ retrospective reports of prenatal involvement, which may be biased due 

to distortion and recall error. In addition, these questions were asked only of resident fathers and 

therefore may not be representative of the prenatal involvement of fathers who do not live with their 

children. 

Resources 

 The Healthy Marriage Resource Center provides research-based information about marriage in 

the United States and about programs designed to improve relationship quality: 

http://www.healthymarriageinfo.org/ 

 The U. S. Department of Health and Human Services supports programs and research about 

fatherhood development and the importance of fathers for children: http://fatherhood.hhs.gov/ 

 The National Center on Fathers and Families provides research-based information on father 

involvement and child well-being aimed at improving children’s lives through the positive 

participation of their fathers: http://www.ncoff.gse.upenn.edu/ 
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References 

1 Baydar, N. (1995). Consequences for children of their birth planning status. Family Planning Perspectives, 27, 228-235. 2 Berlin, L. J., Cassidy, J., & Belsky, J. (1995). Infant-mother attachment and loneliness in young children: A longitudinal study. 

Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 41, 91-103. 3 Bronte-Tinkew, J., Ryan, S., Carrano, J., & Moore, K. A. (2007). Resident fathers’ pregnancy intentions, prenatal behaviors, and 

links to involvement with infants. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69, 977–990. 4 Brown, S., & Eisenberg, L. (Eds.). (1995). The best intentions: Unintended pregnancy and the wellbeing of children and families. 

Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 

5 Cabrera, N. J., Fagan, J., & Farrie, D. (2008). Explaining the long reach of fathers’ prenatal involvement on later paternal 

engagement. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70, 1094–1107. 6 Cabrera, N., Shannon, J., West, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2006). Parental interactions with Latino infants: Variation by country of 

origin and English proficiency. Child Development, 74, 1190-1207. 7 Cabrera, N. J., Shannon, J. D., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. (2007). Fathers’ influence on their children’s cognitive and emotional 

development: From toddlers to pre-K. Applied Developmental Science, 11, 208-213. 8 Cook, J. L., Jones, R. M., Dick, A. J., & Singh, A. (2005). Men’s role in father involvement: The importance of personal 

expectations. Fathering, 3, 165-178. 9 Cronenwett, L. R., & Newmark, L. L. (1974). Fathers’ responses to childbirth. Nursing Research, 23, 210-217. 10 Cummings, M. E., Goeke-Morey, M. C., & Raymond, J. (2004). Fathers in family context: Effects of marital quality and marital 

conflict. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (4th ed., pp. 196-221). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. 11 Duncan, G., Wilkerson, B., & England, P. (2006). Cleaning up their act: The effects of marriage and cohabitation on licit and illicit 

drug use. Demography, 43, 691-710. 12 Fagan, J., & Palkovitz, R. (2007). Unmarried, nonresident fathers’ involvement with their infants: A risk and resilience perspective. 

Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 479-489. 13 Fagan, J., Schmitz, M., & Lloyd, J. (2007). The relationship between adolescent and young fathers’ capital and marital plans of

couples expecting a baby. Family Relations, 56, 231-243. 14 Ihinger-Tallman, M., & Cooney, T. M. (2005). Families in context. Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing. 15 Mann, T. L. (1995). Transition to fatherhood: A study of first-time African American fathers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 

56(3-B), 1721. 16 Marsiglio, W. (2004). Studying fathering trajectories: In-depth interviewing and sensitizing concepts. In R. Day and M. Lamb, 

(Eds.), Conceptualizing and measuring father involvement. (pp. 61-82). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 17 Nicholson, J., Gist, N. F., Klein, & R. P. (1983). Outcomes of father involvement in pregnancy and birth. Birth: Issues in Perinatal 

Care & Education, 10(1), 5-9. 18 Palkovitz, R. (1985). Fathers’ birth attendance, early contact and extended contact with their newborns: A critical review. Child 

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