Responsible 

Fatherhood 

Spotlight 

November 2008 

Take Time to Be a Dad Today 

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Fathers and Domestic Violence 

Domestic violence affects families, but not all families are affected equally. This troubling pattern varies by 

age, race, socioeconomic status, and marital status. Domestic violence is damaging to relationships 

between men and their partners and to men and women’s health. But the impact of domestic violence 

extends even further. Children who are exposed to domestic violence are more likely to suffer abuse, to 

have poorer relationships with parents, and to have poorer behavioral and academic outcomes. 

Definitions 

Domestic violence refers to the use of physical, sexual, verbal, psychological, or economic abuse or 

coercion by an individual against a current or former partner.i

 Also known as intimate partner violence, it 

can occur between spouses, former spouses, or girlfriends and boyfriends, and it exists in both 

heterosexual and homosexual relationships.ii Though men are more often the perpetrators, domestic 

violence may be committed by men or by women, and both men and women can be victims.iii

 

Domestic violence may take one of several forms. 

• Physical violence occurs when one partner uses physical force – such as hitting, punching, 

kicking, or burning – against the other. 

• Sexual violence occurs when one partner forces the other to participate in some unwanted sexual 

behavior.iv 

• Verbal violence includes threats of harm toward the other partner. 

• Psychological or emotional violence is defined as “trauma to the victim caused by acts, threats of 

acts, or coercive tactics,” and may include degrading a partner, restricting what a partner is 

allowed to do, withholding information from a partner, or isolating a partner.v

 

The severity of domestic violence can range greatly within and across households. Researchers have 

identified three types of domestic violence. Each of these can be perpetrated by partners of either gender 

and may be one-sided or mutual. 

• Situational couple violence, also known as common couple violence, occurs when a 

disagreement or conflict escalates into violence, such as shoving or slapping.vi 

• Patriarchal terrorism or intimate terrorism is a “systematic, intentional” form of violence in which 

one partner – usually the man – terrorizes the 

• other through physical violence, threats, and other tactics in order to control the victim.vii 

• Violent resistance is a victim’s physical response to his or her partner’s intimate terrorism.viii 

Importance and Implications of Domestic Violence 

While further research is needed to untangle cause-and-effect factors, a considerable body of research 

suggests that domestic violence is associated with negative outcomes and behaviors for children and for 

partners. Less research has examined the implications of domestic violence for fathers. Still, the 

research that does exist suggests negative outcomes both for male victims and perpetrators of domestic 

violence. 
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Implications for Fathers 

• Research suggests that fathers who are known to have committed domestic violence are less 

likely than are nonviolent fathers to receive full or joint custody of their children and are more 

likely to have restricted visitation rights.ix Moreover, studies involving mothers who have been 

victims of domestic violence suggest that these women may prevent violent fathers from seeing 

their children.x

 

• Although most victims of domestic violence are women, some men are victims of domestic 

violence as well. Some acts of domestic violence are committed by women in self-defense, and 

some acts are unprovoked.xi Men who experience domestic violence are less likely to report it or 

to seek medical attention than are female victims.xii Moreover, when men are in relationships in 

which women engage in more domestic violence than they do, the couple is often slower to move 

toward marriage than in relationships with no domestic violence.xiii 

Implications for Children 

Children who witness domestic violence are at risk for developmental and behavioral problems. 

• These children are more aggressive, inhibited, antisocial, fearful, and anxious than are children 

who do not witness domestic violence.xiv Moreover, children in violent households tend to have 

lower self-esteem and are more likely to experience post-traumatic stress disorder.xv Domestic 

violence is associated with depression and criminal behavior among children, as well as among 

adults who witnessed domestic violence as children.xvi Finally, domestic violence may also affect 

children’s cognitive development. Indeed, evidence suggests that children who live in households 

with high levels of domestic violence have poorer school performance, poorer verbal abilities, and 

lower IQ scores.xvii 

Implications for Fathers’ Involvement With Children 

Domestic violence has been shown to have negative effects on fathers’ involvement and relationships 

with their children. 

• Fathers who are violent towards their partners are involved in fewer activities with their children 

than are fathers who are not violent.xviii 

• Additionally, violent men report more arguments with their children, more restrictive monitoring of 

children, harsher parenting, and less positive family quality.xix These men are more likely to 

spank and to yell at their children, are less likely to praise them, and are more likely to report their 

children to be unhappy, cruel, impulsive, stubborn, and sullen.xx 

Implications for Fathers’ Partners 

• Women suffering domestic abuse are at risk for both immediate and long-term problems. Women 

who have experienced recent domestic violence report poorer physical health than do other 

women.xxi Recent domestic violence victims are also more likely to report having insomnia, major 

depression, generalized anxiety disorder, alcohol and drug abuse, and post-traumatic stress 

disorder.xxii Also, low-income women who report recent violence are more likely to have been 

homeless, to have faced eviction, or to have had insufficient food in the past year.xxiii 

• Over the long term, experiencing domestic violence is associated with reports of poorer health, 

chronic health problems, and chronic stress after the violence has ended.xxiv As with recent 

domestic violence victims, women who have ever experienced domestic violence are more likely 

to have been diagnosed with depression, generalized anxiety disorder or post-traumatic stress 

disorder than are women who have never experienced domestic violence.xxv These women also 

have lower self-esteem than those who have not experienced domestic violence.xxvi 

• Being a victim of domestic violence may affect a mother’s parenting interactions with her children 

negatively. Mothers who suffer domestic violence have poorer psychological functioningxxvii and 

increased levels of depression;xxviii in turn, these characteristics are associated with poorer 

parenting behaviors.xxix Moreover, mothers experiencing domestic violence have been found to 

be less warm towards their children,xxx as well as to express more anger toward their children.xxxi
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Fathers and Domestic Violence 

This evidence suggests that mothers’ experiences with domestic violence spill over into their 

other relationships. 

• Relationships involving domestic abuse are more likely to end than are relationships without 

domestic violence. Relationships in which men use domestic violence against their partners are 

more likely to end in separation.xxxii In general, evidence suggests a greater likelihood of 

relationship instability in violent households. 

Trends in Domestic Violence Victimization Over Time 

Overall, as shown in Figure 1, domestic violence victimization rates for both men and women have been 

declining over time. However, victimization rates are still higher among women than among men. 

Figure 1. Domestic Violence Victimization Rates (per 1,000) for Males and Females Aged 12 or 

Older, 1993-2004 

Domestic Violence Victimization Rates

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003

Year

Rate per 1,000

Males - All

Races

Females -

All Races

Source: National Crime Victimization Survey, 1993-2004 (Catalano, 2006) 

Differences in Domestic Violence Victimization for Subgroups 

Domestic violence is not limited to specific groups. Individuals of all ages, races, marital statuses, 

education levels, and places of residence experience and commit domestic violence. However, certain 

factors have been found to have special bearing on domestic violence victimization. These include 

gender, age, race, household income, and marital status. 

Differences by Gender 

Table 1 shows that women are more likely than are men to be victims of domestic violence; however, 

men are victims of domestic violence as well. Between 1993 and 2004, men were victims of domestic 

violence at a rate of 1.1 per 1,000, and women were victims of domestic violence at a rate of 6.4 per 

1,000. 

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Table 1. Domestic Violence Victimization Rate (per 1,000) Among Females and Males 

Aged 12 and Older, 1993-2004 

Year Males - 

All Races 

Females - 

All Races 

1993 1.6 9.8 

1994 1.7 9.1 

1995 1.1 8.5 

1996 1.4 7.8 

1997 1.0 7.5 

1998 1.5 7.8 

1999 1.1 5.8 

2000 0.8 4.7 

2001 0.9 5.0 

2002 0.7 4.2 

2003 0.7 4.3 

2004 1.3 3.8 

Average 1.1 6.4 

Source: National Crime Victimization Survey, 1993-2004 (Catalano, 2006) 

Differences by Age 

As shown in Table 2, males aged 20-24 are victims of domestic violence at higher rates than are males of 

other ages.xxxiii Similarly, female victims of domestic violence tend to be young. Domestic violence rates 

are also highest among women aged 20-24.xxxiv

Table 2. Average Domestic Violence Victimization Rates (per 1,000) Among Males and Females by 

Age, 1993-2004 

Age 

Victimization 

Rate Among 

Men 

Victimization 

Rate Among 

Women 

12-15 0.3 1.9 

16-19 1.2 12.4 

20-24 2.3 17.0 

25-34 2.1 12.3 

35-49 1.3 6.3 

50-64 0.5 1.4 

65+ 0.1 0.2 

Source: National Crime Victimization Survey, 1993-2004 (Catalano, 2006) 
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Differences by Race 

Some evidence suggests that African American and American Indian/Native American men and women 

experience slightly higher rates of domestic violence victimization (see Table 3). Evidence also suggests 

that men and women of Asian/Pacific Islander and Hispanic backgrounds have a lower risk of 

experiencing domestic violence.xxxv 

Table 3. Average Domestic Violence Victimization Rates (per 1,000) Among Males and Females 

by Race/Ethnicity, 1993-2004 

Race/Ethnicity 

Victimization 

Rate Among 

Men 

Victimization 

Rate Among 

Women 

White 1.1 6.3 

Hispanic 0.9 6.0 

African American 1.5 8.2 

American Indian 5.0 18.2 

Asian 0.1 1.5 

Source: National Crime Victimization Survey, 1993-2004 (Catalano, 2006) 

Differences by Socioeconomic Status

As shown in Table 4, lower-income couples are more likely to experience domestic violence than are 

higher-income couples.xxxvi Men with household incomes under $7,500 are the most likely to experience 

domestic violence, and their risk for victimization drops as income rises.xxxvii Similarly, women with lower 

incomes report the highest rate of domestic violence. Among both men and women, those with household 

incomes over $50,000 report the lowest rate of intimate partner violence.xxxviii 

Table 4. Average Domestic Violence Victimization Rates (per 1,000) Among Males and Females by 

Annual Household Income, 1993-2004 

Annual 

Household 

Income 

Victimization Rate 

Among Men 

Victimization Rate 

Among Women 

<$7,500 2.2 18.4 

$7,500-$24,999 1.6 9.5 

$25,000-

$49,999 1.1 5.9 

$50,000+ 0.8 2.8 

Source: National Crime Victimization Survey, 1993-2004 (Catalano, 2006) 

Differences by Marital Status 

Table 5 shows that separated, divorced, and single men are more likely to be victims of domestic 

violence than are married or widowed men.xxxix Evidence suggests that married women are less likely to 

experience domestic violence than are women who are divorced, separated, or have never been 

married.xl Overall, married couples report less domestic violence than do cohabiting couples.xli 
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Table 5. Average Domestic Violence Victimization Rates (per 1,000) Among Males and Females 

by Marital Status, 1993-2004 

Marital Status 

Victimization 

Rate Among 

Men 

Victimization 

Rate Among 

Women 

Married 0.4 1.9 

Divorced 3.5 15.0 

Separated 12.4 60.1 

Widowed 0.2 0.6 

Never Married 1.4 8.7 

Source: National Crime Victimization Survey, 1993-2004 (Catalano, 2006) 

Definition of Measures 

Domestic violence victimization rates among men and women over time were calculated based on results 

from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). The data included here show the proportion of men 

and women experiencing physical violence (a rape, sexual assault, robbery, assault, aggravated assault, 

or simple assault) at the hands of an intimate (a spouse, ex-spouse, boyfriend/girlfriend, or exboyfriend/ex-girlfriend) in either heterosexual or homosexual relationships. These rates do not include 

verbal or psychological/emotional violence. The Bureau of Justice Statistics notes that there were too few 

records of domestic violence victimization among Hispanic and African American men to conduct 

analyses of trends in victimization rates over time. 

Data Limitations 

Reliable data on individuals who commit domestic violence do not exist. Instead, studies have examined 

those – both men and women – who suffer domestic violence. Some studies, such as the Uniform Crime 

Reports, calculate the prevalence of crime reported to law enforcement agencies.xlii However, domestic 

violence may often go unreported, and thus self-reported victimization, as is found in the NCVS, may 

better represent actual rates of domestic violence. In addition, data sources generally provide information 

on domestic violence rates among men but do not provide information broken down by fatherhood status. 

Finally, despite evidence showing that children in households marked by domestic violence are more 

likely than other children to suffer child abuse,xliii surveys generally do not provide information on children 

in violent households (including age, gender, and biological status). 

Data Sources 

Tables and charts documenting domestic violence victimization rates among men were gathered from 

reports published by the Bureau of Justice Statistics. These tables were created from analyses using 

data from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), an annual, nationally representative survey of 

criminal victimization in the United States. The survey includes 77,200 households and nearly 134,000 

individuals.xliv 

Resources 

• The United States Department of Justice, Office of Violence Against Women provides 

general information about domestic violence and federal, state, and local information resources 

about the issue: http://www.usdoj.gov/ovw/domviolence.htm 

• The Bureau of Justice Statistics analyzes reports of violence, including domestic violence, 

across the United States: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/ 

• The National Domestic Violence Hotline offers information on domestic violence across the 

United States and options for victims of abuse: http://www.ndvh.org/index.php 
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References 

 

i

 Centers for Disease Control. (2006a). Intimate partner violence: Overview. Retrieved March 1, 2007, from 

http://www.cdc.gov/ncipc/factsheets/ipvoverview.htm; Ooms, T., Boggess, J., Menard, A., Myrick, M., Roberts, P., Tweedie, J., et al. 

(2006). Building bridges between healthy marriage, responsible fatherhood, and domestic violence programs: A preliminary guide. 

Washington, DC: Center for Law and Social Policy and the National Conference of State Legislatures. 

ii Centers for Disease Control (2006a). 

iii Ooms et al. (2006); Centers for Disease Control (2006a). 

iv Centers for Disease Control (2006a). 

v

 Centers for Disease Control (2006a). 

vi Johnson, M. P. (1995). Patriarchal terrorism and common couple violence: Two forms of violence against women. Journal of 

Marriage and the Family, 57(2), 283-294; Ooms et al. (2006). vii Johnson (1995), 284. 

viii Johnson, M. P. (2006). Conflict and control: Gender symmetry and asymmetry in domestic violence. Violence Against Women, 

12(11), 1003-1018. ix Kernic, M. A., Monary-Ernsdorff, D. J., Koepsell, J. K., & Holt, V. L. (2005). Children in the crossfire: Child custody determinations 

among couples with a history of intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 11(8), 991-1021; Morrill, A. C., Dai, J., Dunn, 

S., Sung, I., & Smith, K. (2005). Child custody and visitation decisions when the father has perpetrated violence against the mother. 

Violence Against Women, 11(8), 1076-1107. x

 Waller, M. R., & Swisher, R. (2006). Fathers' risk factors in fragile families: Implications for "healthy" relationships and father 

involvement. Social Problems, 53(3), 392-420. xi Johnson, M. P., & Ferraro, K. J. (2000). Research on domestic violence in the 1990s: Making distinctions. Journal of Marriage and 

the Family, 62(4), 948-963. xii See Mechem, C. C., Shofer, F. S., Reinhard, S. S., Hornig, S., & Datner, E. (1999). History of domestic violence among male 

patients presenting to an urban emergency department. Academic Emergency Medicine, 6(8), 786-791. xiii DeMaris, A. (2001). The influence of intimate violence on transitions out of cohabitation. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 

63(1), 235-246. xiv Edleson (1999); Levendosky, & Graham-Bermann (2001). xv Edleson (1999); Levendosky, & Graham-Bermann (2001). 

xvi Edleson (1999). xvii Koenen, K. C., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., & Purcell, S. (2003). Domestic violence is associated with environmental

suppression of IQ in young children Development and Psychopathology, 15, 297-311. xviii Waller & Swisher (2006). xix Fox, G. L., & Benson, M.L. (2004). Violent men, bad dads? Fathering profiles of men involved in intimate partner violence. In

M.E. Lamb & R.D. Day (Eds.), Conceptualizing and measuring father involvement (pp. 359-384). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum 

Associates. 

xx Fox & Benson (2004). 

xxi Tolman, R. M., & Rosen, D. (2001). Domestic violence in the lives of women receiving welfare: Mental health, substance 

dependence, and economic well-being. Violence Against Women, 7 (2), 141-158. xxii Tolman, R. A., & Raphael, J. (2000). A review of research on welfare and domestic violence. Journal of Social Issues, 56(4), 655-

682; Tolman, & Rosen (2001); Campbell, J. C. (2002). Health consequences of intimate partner violence. The Lancet, 359, 1331-

1336. 

xxiii Tolman & Rosen (2001). xxiv Campbell (2002); Tolman & Rosen (2001). xxv Tolman & Rosen (2001) xxvi See Levendosky & Graham-Bermann (2001) xxvii Levendosky, A. A., & Graham-Bermann, S. A. (2001). Parenting in battered women: The effects of domestic violence on women 

and their children. Journal of Family Violence, 16(2), 171-192. xxviii Zlotnick, C., Johnson, D. M., & Kohn, R. (2006). Intimate partner violence and long-term psychosocial functioning in a national 

sample of American women. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21(2), 262-275. xxix Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O'Hare, E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic

review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(5), 561-592. xxx McCloskey et al. (1995). xxxi Walker, L. E. A. (1984). The battered woman syndrome. New York, NY: Springer. xxxii DeMaris, A. (2000). Till discord do us part: The role of physical and verbal conflict in union disruption. Journal of Marriage and 

the Family, 62(3), 683-692; DeMaris, A. (2001). The influence of intimate violence on transitions out of cohabitation. Journal of 

Marriage and the Family, 63(1), 235-246; Zlotnick et al. (2006). xxxiii Catalano, S. (2006). Intimate partner violence in the United States. Retrieved March 1, 2007, from 

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/intimate/victims.htm 

xxxiv Catalano (2006). xxxv Catalano (2006). xxxvi See Waller & Swisher (2006); Fox & Benson (2004). xxxvii Catalano (2006). xxxviii Zawitz, M. W. (1994). Violence between intimates: Domestic violence (No. NCJ 149259). Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice 

Statistics. 
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xxxix Catalano (2006). xl Wilt, S., & Olson, S. (1996). Prevalence of domestic violence in the United States. Journal of the American Medical Women's 

Association, 51(3), 77-82; McCauley, J., Kern, D. E., Kolodner, K., Dill, L., Schroeder, A. F., DeChant, H. K., et al. (1995). The 

"battering syndrome": Prevalence and clinical characteristics of domestic violence in primary care internal medicine practices. 

Annals of Internal Medicine, 123(10), 737-746; Catalano (2006). xli Brownridge, D. A., & Halli, S. S. (2002). Understanding male partner violence against cohabiting and married women: An 

empirical investigation with a synthesized model. Journal of Family Violence, 17(4), 341-361. xlii U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation (2004). Uniform crime reporting handbook. Accessed March 14, 

2007 from http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/handbook/ucrhandbook04.pdf 

xliii Appel, A. E., & Holden G. W. (1998). The co-occurrence of spouse and physical child abuse: A review and appraisal. Journal of 

Family Psychology, 12(4), 578-599. xliv Bureau of Justice Statistics. (December 10, 2006). Crime and victim statistics. Retrieved March 1, 2007, from

http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/cvict.htm#ncvs