South Africa

Demographic and Health Survey

2016

January 2019
South Africa Demographic and Health Survey 2016: Report, National Department of Health (NDoH), Statistics 

South Africa (Stats SA), South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC), and ICF

Published by National Department of Health, Civitas Building, Corner Struben and Thabo Sehume Streets,

PRETORIA 0001

Financial support for the SADHS 2016 was provided by the government of South Africa through the NDoH and 

SAMRC, the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (Global Fund), the European Union (EU), 

the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). ICF provided 

technical assistance through The DHS Program, which is funded by the United States Agency for International 

Development (USAID), and offers support and technical assistance for the implementation of population and 

health surveys in countries worldwide.

This report is available on the NDoH website: www.health.gov.za; Stats SA website: www.statssa.gov.za; 

SAMRC website: www.samrc.ac.za; and on The DHS Program website: www.DHSprogram.com.

Copies are obtainable from: National Department of Health

Tel.: 012 395 8000

 012 395 8125

E-mail: tshilidzi.muthivhi@health.gov.za

Additional information about the South Africa Demographic and Health Survey 2016 (SADHS 2016) may be 

obtained from the Cluster Manager: Health Information, Research, Monitoring & Evaluation, National 

Department of Health, Civitas Building, Pretoria, South Africa; +27 (012) 395 8411; e-mail: 

thulile.zondi@health.co.za. 

Information about The DHS Program may be obtained from ICF, 530 Gaither Road, Suite 500, Rockville, MD 

20850, USA; telephone: +1-301-407-6500; fax: +1-301-407-6501; e-mail: info@DHSprogram.com; Internet: 

www.DHSprogram.com.

Photo credits: Cover pictures obtained from NDoH photo library. 

Recommended citation:

National Department of Health (NDoH), Statistics South Africa (Stats SA), South African Medical Research 

Council (SAMRC), and ICF. 2019. South Africa Demographic and Health Survey 2016. Pretoria, South Africa, 

and Rockville, Maryland, USA: NDoH, Stats SA, SAMRC, and ICF.
Contents • iii

CONTENTS

TABLES AND FIGURES ...........................................................................................................................ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................................xix

ABBREVIATIONS....................................................................................................................................xxi

READING AND UNDERSTANDING TABLES FROM THE SOUTH AFRICA DHS 

(SADHS) 2016 ......................................................................................................................................... xxiii

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL INDICATORS................................................................xxxi

MAP OF SOUTH AFRICA ...................................................................................................................xxxii

1 INTRODUCTION AND SURVEY METHODOLOGY..............................................................1

1.1 Survey Objectives................................................................................................................1

1.2 Sample Design.....................................................................................................................1

1.3 Questionnaires.....................................................................................................................3

1.4 Measuring Iodine Content of Household Salt .....................................................................4

1.5 Anthropometry, Anaemia Testing, Blood Pressure Measurement, HbA1c Testing, and 

HIV Testing.........................................................................................................................5

1.6 Pretest ..................................................................................................................................7

1.7 Training of Field Staff.........................................................................................................7

1.8 Fieldwork.............................................................................................................................8

1.9 Data Processing and Analysis..............................................................................................8

1.10 Response Rates....................................................................................................................9

2 HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS AND HOUSEHOLD POPULATION .............................11

2.1 Drinking Water Sources and Treatment ............................................................................12

2.2 Sanitation...........................................................................................................................13

2.3 Exposure to Smoke inside the Home.................................................................................13

2.4 Household Wealth .............................................................................................................14

2.5 Handwashing .....................................................................................................................14

2.6 Household Population and Composition ...........................................................................15

2.7 Children’s Living Arrangements and Parental Survival....................................................16

2.8 Education...........................................................................................................................16

2.8.1 Educational Attainment .......................................................................................16

2.8.2 School Attendance ...............................................................................................17

2.9 Disability ...........................................................................................................................18

2.9.1 Disability by Domain and Age ............................................................................18

2.9.2 Disability by Background Characteristics............................................................19

2.10 Social Grants and Food security........................................................................................19

2.10.1 Social Grants by Background Characteristics......................................................19

2.10.2 Food Security by Background Characteristics.....................................................20

3 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS.............................................................................35

3.1 Basic Characteristics of Survey Respondents....................................................................35

3.2 Education and Literacy......................................................................................................36

3.3 Mass Media Exposure and Internet Usage ........................................................................37

3.4 Employment ......................................................................................................................38

3.5 Occupation.........................................................................................................................39

3.6 Adult Health ......................................................................................................................40
iv • Contents

4 MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY ..................................................................................57

4.1 Marital Status.....................................................................................................................57

4.2 Polygyny............................................................................................................................58

4.3 Age at First Union .............................................................................................................59

4.4 Age at First Sexual Intercourse .........................................................................................59

4.5 Recent Sexual Activity ......................................................................................................60

5 FERTILITY...................................................................................................................................69

5.1 Current Fertility .................................................................................................................69

5.2 Children Ever Born and Living .........................................................................................70

5.3 Birth Intervals....................................................................................................................71

5.4 Insusceptibility to Pregnancy.............................................................................................71

5.5 Age at First Birth ...............................................................................................................72

5.6 Teenage Childbearing........................................................................................................73

6 FERTILITY PREFERENCES.....................................................................................................83

6.1 Desire for Another Child ...................................................................................................83

6.2 Ideal Family Size...............................................................................................................84

6.3 Fertility Planning Status ....................................................................................................85

6.4 Wanted Fertility Rates.......................................................................................................86

7 CONTRACEPTION .....................................................................................................................93

7.1 Contraceptive Knowledge and Use ...................................................................................94

7.2 Source of Modern Contraceptive Methods........................................................................96

7.3 Informed Choice................................................................................................................96

7.4 Discontinuation of Contraceptives ....................................................................................96

7.5 Demand for Contraception ................................................................................................97

7.6 Contact of Nonusers with Family Planning Providers.......................................................99

8 INFANT AND CHILD MORTALITY......................................................................................117

8.1 Infant and Child Mortality...............................................................................................118

8.2 Biodemographic Risk Factors .........................................................................................119

8.3 Perinatal Mortality...........................................................................................................120

8.4 High-risk Fertility Behaviour ..........................................................................................120

9 MATERNAL HEALTH CARE.................................................................................................127

9.1 Antenatal Care Coverage and Content ............................................................................128

9.1.1 Skilled Providers................................................................................................128

9.1.2 Timing and Number of ANC Visits...................................................................129

9.2 Components of ANC Visits.............................................................................................129

9.3 Protection against Neonatal Tetanus ...............................................................................129

9.4 Delivery Services.............................................................................................................130

9.4.1 Institutional Deliveries.......................................................................................130

9.4.2 Skilled Assistance during Delivery....................................................................131

9.4.3 Delivery by Caesarean .......................................................................................132

9.5 Postnatal Care..................................................................................................................133

9.5.1 Postnatal Health Check for Mothers..................................................................133

9.5.2 Postnatal Health Check for Newborns...............................................................134

9.5.3 Content of Postnatal Care for Newborns ...........................................................134

9.5.4 Discharge Timing of Newborns and Mothers....................................................135

10 CHILD HEALTH........................................................................................................................149

10.1 Birth Weight ....................................................................................................................150

10.2 Vaccination of Children...................................................................................................150
Contents • v

10.3 Symptoms of Acute Respiratory Infection ......................................................................154

10.4 Fever................................................................................................................................154

10.5 Diarrhoeal Disease...........................................................................................................155

10.5.1 Prevalence of Diarrhoea and Treatment-Seeking Behaviour.............................155

10.5.2 Feeding Practices during an Episode of Diarrhoea ............................................156

10.5.3 Oral Rehydration Therapy and Other Treatments..............................................157

10.5.4 Knowledge of ORS Packets and Clinic-Recommended Homemade Fluids......158

10.6 Prevalence and Treatment of Childhood Illness—Summary...........................................158

11 NUTRITION OF CHILDREN...................................................................................................177

11.1 Nutritional Status of Children..........................................................................................177

11.1.1 Measurement of Nutritional Status among Young Children..............................177

11.1.2 Data Collection ..................................................................................................178

11.1.3 Levels of Child Malnutrition .............................................................................179

11.2 Infant and Young Child Feeding Practices......................................................................180

11.2.1 Initiation of Breastfeeding .................................................................................180

11.2.2 Exclusive and Continued Breastfeeding ............................................................180

11.2.3 Duration of Breastfeeding..................................................................................181

11.2.4 Complementary Feeding....................................................................................182

11.2.5 Minimum Acceptable Diet.................................................................................182

11.3 Anaemia Prevalence in Children .....................................................................................184

11.4 Presence of Iodised Salt in Households...........................................................................185

11.5 Micronutrient Intake, Supplementation, and Deworming among Children.....................186

11.6 Micronutrient Intake among Mothers..............................................................................187

12 HIV/AIDS-RELATED KNOWLEDGE AND BEHAVIOUR.................................................201

12.1 Knowledge about Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV...............................................201

12.2 Multiple Sexual Partners .................................................................................................202

12.3 Paid Sex...........................................................................................................................203

12.4 Coverage of HIV Testing Services..................................................................................203

12.4.1 Awareness of HIV Testing Services and Experience with HIV Testing ...........203

12.4.2 HIV Testing of Pregnant Women ......................................................................204

12.5 Male Circumcision ..........................................................................................................204

12.6 Self-reporting of Sexually Transmitted Infections ..........................................................205

12.7 HIV/AIDS-related Behaviour among Young People ......................................................205

12.7.1 First Sex .............................................................................................................205

12.7.2 Premarital Sex....................................................................................................206

12.7.3 Multiple Sexual Partners....................................................................................206

12.7.4 Coverage of HIV Testing Services ....................................................................207

13 HIV PREVALENCE...................................................................................................................223

13.1 Coverage Rates for HIV Testing .....................................................................................224

13.2 HIV Prevalence ...............................................................................................................225

13.2.1 HIV Prevalence by Age and Sex........................................................................225

13.2.2 HIV Prevalence by Sexual Risk Behaviour .......................................................227

13.2.3 HIV Prevalence among Young People ..............................................................227

13.2.4 HIV Prevalence by Other Characteristics Related to HIV Risk.........................228

13.2.5 HIV Prevalence among Couples........................................................................229

14 ADULT AND PREGNANCY-RELATED MORTALITY ......................................................241

14.1 Data .................................................................................................................................241

14.2 Direct Estimates of Adult Mortality ................................................................................242

14.3 Trends in Adult Mortality................................................................................................242
vi • Contents

14.4 Direct Estimates of Maternal Mortality...........................................................................243

14.5 Direct Estimates and Trends in Pregnancy-related Mortality..........................................243

15 USE OF HEALTH SERVICES AND PRESCRIBED MEDICATIONS ...............................247

15.1 Health Insurance Coverage..............................................................................................247

15.2 Use of Outpatient Health Care Services..........................................................................248

15.3 Women’s Access to Care.................................................................................................249

15.3.1 Experience with a Pap Smear.............................................................................249

15.3.2 Problems in Accessing Health Care among Women .........................................250

15.4 Prescribed Medications....................................................................................................251

15.4.1 Self-reported Use of Prescribed Medications.......................................................251

15.4.2 Payment for Prescribed Medications....................................................................251

15.5 Prescribed Medications for Chronic Conditions..............................................................252

16 ADULT MORBIDITY................................................................................................................263

16.1 Self-assessment of Health................................................................................................264

16.2 Self-reported Prevalence of Common Chronic Conditions.............................................265

16.3 Experience with Pain.......................................................................................................265

16.3.1 Prevalence of Pain..............................................................................................266

16.3.2 Tooth and Mouth Pain .......................................................................................267

16.4 Hypertension....................................................................................................................267

16.5 Chronic Respiratory Disease ...........................................................................................269

16.6 Diabetes...........................................................................................................................271

16.7 Anaemia...........................................................................................................................272

17 ADULT NUTRITION.................................................................................................................297

17.1 Body Mass Index of Adults and Short Stature of Women ..............................................298

17.2 Waist Circumference and Waist-to-Height Ratio............................................................300

17.3 Consumption of Fruit, Vegetables, Sugar-sweetened Beverages, and Fruit Juice ..........301

17.4 Consumption of Fried Foods, Fast Foods, Salty Snacks, and Processed Meats..............302

17.5 Interest in Lowering Salt Consumption...........................................................................302

18 TOBACCO, ALCOHOL, AND CODEINE USE AMONG ADULTS ...................................313

18.1 Tobacco Use among Adults.............................................................................................313

18.1.1 Prevalence of Tobacco Smoking........................................................................313

18.1.2 Smokeless Tobacco Use and E-cigarette Use ....................................................315

18.1.3 Tobacco Use during Pregnancy .........................................................................315

18.2 Alcohol Use among Adults..............................................................................................315

18.2.1 Alcohol Consumption, Risky Drinking, and Problem Drinking........................315

18.2.2 Alcohol Use during Pregnancy ..........................................................................316

18.3 Use and Misuse of Codeine-containing Medications......................................................316

19 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT ................................................................................................329

19.1 In-union Women’s and Men’s Employment ...................................................................330

19.2 Control over Women’s Earnings.....................................................................................330

19.3 Control over Men’s Earnings ..........................................................................................331

19.4 Women’s and Men’s Ownership of Assets .....................................................................332

19.5 Participation in Decision Making ....................................................................................333

19.6 Attitudes toward Wife Beating ........................................................................................334

19.7 Negotiating Sexual Relations ..........................................................................................334

19.8 Child Discipline...............................................................................................................335
Contents • vii

20 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE...........................................................................................................355

20.1 Measurement of Intimate Partner Violence .....................................................................356

20.2 Women’s Experience of Physical, Sexual, or Emotional Violence by Any Partner........356

20.2.1 Age at first experience of sexual violence by any partner .................................357

20.3 Women’s Experience of Violence by Any Partner in the Past 12 Months......................358

20.4 Controlling Behaviours by Most Recent Partner.............................................................358

20.5 Prevalence of Violence by Most Recent Partner .............................................................359

20.6 Injuries to Women due to Partner Violence ....................................................................361

20.7 Violence Initiated by Women against Partners................................................................361

REFERENCES .........................................................................................................................................373

APPENDIX A SAMPLE DESIGN ........................................................................................................377

A.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................377

A.2 Sample Frame..................................................................................................................377

A.3 Sample Design and Implementation................................................................................378

A.4 Sample Probabilities and Sampling Weights...................................................................380

APPENDIX B ESTIMATES OF SAMPLING ERRORS ....................................................................389

APPENDIX C DATA QUALITY TABLES ..........................................................................................419

APPENDIX D PERSONS INVOLVED IN THE SOUTH AFRICA DEMOGRAPHIC AND 

HEALTH SURVEY 2016...............................................................................................427

APPENDIX E QUESTIONNAIRES......................................................................................................431

Tables and Figures • ix

TABLES AND FIGURES

1 INTRODUCTION AND SURVEY METHODOLOGY..............................................................1

Table 1.1 Results of the household and individual interviews...............................................9

Figure 1.1 Subsampling scheme followed in the SADHS 2016..............................................2

Figure 1.2 HIV testing algorithm ............................................................................................7

2 HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS AND HOUSEHOLD POPULATION .............................11

Table 2.1 Household drinking water....................................................................................21

Table 2.2 Availability of water ............................................................................................22

Table 2.3 Household sanitation facilities.............................................................................22

Table 2.4 Household characteristics ....................................................................................23

Table 2.5 Household refuse disposal ...................................................................................24

Table 2.6 Household possessions.........................................................................................24

Table 2.7 Wealth quintiles...................................................................................................25

Table 2.8 Handwashing .......................................................................................................25

Table 2.9 Household population by age, sex, and residence................................................26

Table 2.10 Household composition .......................................................................................27

Table 2.11 Children’s living arrangements and orphanhood .................................................28

Table 2.12.1 Educational attainment of the female household population ...............................29

Table 2.12.2 Educational attainment of the male household population ..................................30

Table 2.13 School attendance ratios ......................................................................................31

Table 2.14 Disability by domain and age ..............................................................................32

Table 2.15 Disability among the household population according to background 

characteristics.......................................................................................................32

Table 2.16 Knowledge of where social grant forms may be obtained ...................................33

Table 2.17 Social grants.........................................................................................................33

Table 2.18 Food security: Adults...........................................................................................34

Table 2.19 Food security: Children........................................................................................34

Figure 2.1 Improved source of drinking water by province ..................................................12

Figure 2.2 Household drinking water by residence...............................................................12

Figure 2.3 Household toilet facilities by residence ...............................................................13

Figure 2.4 Household wealth by residence............................................................................14

Figure 2.5 Population pyramid..............................................................................................15

Figure 2.6 Orphanhood by age ..............................................................................................16

Figure 2.7 Age-specific attendance rates...............................................................................18

Figure 2.8 Receipt of social grants........................................................................................19

3 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS.............................................................................35

Table 3.1 Background characteristics of respondents..........................................................41

Table 3.2.1 Educational attainment: Women..........................................................................42

Table 3.2.2 Educational attainment: Men ...............................................................................43

Table 3.3.1 Literacy: Women .................................................................................................44

Table 3.3.2 Literacy: Men.......................................................................................................45

Table 3.4.1 Exposure to mass media: Women........................................................................46

Table 3.4.2 Exposure to mass media: Men .............................................................................47

Table 3.5.1 Internet usage: Women ........................................................................................48
x • Tables and Figures 

Table 3.5.2 Internet usage: Men..............................................................................................49

Table 3.6.1 Employment status: Women ................................................................................50

Table 3.6.2 Employment status: Men .....................................................................................51

Table 3.7.1 Occupation: Women ............................................................................................52

Table 3.7.2 Occupation: Men..................................................................................................53

Table 3.8 Type of employment: Women .............................................................................54

Table 3.9 Background characteristics of respondents who completed the adult health 

module .................................................................................................................55

Figure 3.1 Education of survey respondents .........................................................................36

Figure 3.2 Secondary education by province ........................................................................36

Figure 3.3 Secondary education by household wealth ..........................................................37

Figure 3.4 Exposure to mass media.......................................................................................37

Figure 3.5 Employment status by residence..........................................................................38

Figure 3.6 Occupation...........................................................................................................39

4 MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY ..................................................................................57

Table 4.1 Current marital status...........................................................................................61

Table 4.2.1 Number of women’s co-wives.............................................................................62

Table 4.2.2 Number of men’s wives.......................................................................................63

Table 4.3 Age at first union .................................................................................................64

Table 4.4 Age at first sexual intercourse..............................................................................65

Table 4.5 Median age at first sexual intercourse by background characteristics.................66

Table 4.6.1 Recent sexual activity: Women............................................................................67

Table 4.6.2 Recent sexual activity: Men.................................................................................68

Figure 4.1 Marital status........................................................................................................58

Figure 4.2 Polygyny by province ..........................................................................................58

Figure 4.3 Women’s median age at first sex by household wealth .......................................60

5 FERTILITY...................................................................................................................................69

Table 5.1 Current fertility ....................................................................................................75

Table 5.2 Fertility by background characteristics................................................................75

Table 5.3.1 Trends in age-specific fertility rates.....................................................................76

Table 5.3.2 Trends in age-specific and total fertility rates......................................................76

Table 5.4 Children ever born and living ..............................................................................77

Table 5.5 Birth intervals ......................................................................................................78

Table 5.6 Postpartum amenorrhoea, abstinence, and insusceptibility..................................79

Table 5.7 Median duration of amenorrhoea, postpartum abstinence, and postpartum 

insusceptibility .....................................................................................................79

Table 5.8 Menopause ...........................................................................................................80

Table 5.9 Age at first birth...................................................................................................80

Table 5.10 Median age at first birth.......................................................................................81

Table 5.11 Teenage pregnancy and motherhood ...................................................................82

Table 5.12 Sexual and reproductive health behaviours before age 15...................................82

Figure 5.1 Age-specific fertility rates....................................................................................70

Figure 5.2 Comparison in fertility between the SADHS 1998 and SADHS 2016 by 

residence ..............................................................................................................70

Figure 5.3 Fertility by household wealth...............................................................................70

Figure 5.4 Birth intervals ......................................................................................................71

Figure 5.5 Median age at first birth by household wealth .....................................................73
Tables and Figures • xi

Figure 5.6 Teenage pregnancy and motherhood by province ...............................................73

Figure 5.7 Teenage pregnancy and motherhood by household wealth .................................74

6 FERTILITY PREFERENCES.....................................................................................................83

Table 6.1 Fertility preferences by number of living children ..............................................88

Table 6.2 Desire to limit childbearing .................................................................................89

Table 6.3 Ideal number of children by number of living children .......................................90

Table 6.4 Mean ideal number of children ............................................................................91

Table 6.5 Fertility planning status........................................................................................91

Table 6.6 Wanted fertility rates............................................................................................92

Figure 6.1 Desire to limit childbearing by number of living children...................................84

Figure 6.2 Ideal family size...................................................................................................85

Figure 6.3 Ideal family size by number of living children ....................................................85

Figure 6.4 Fertility planning status........................................................................................86

Figure 6.5 Comparison in wanted and actual fertility: 1998 and 2016 .................................87

7 CONTRACEPTION .....................................................................................................................93

Table 7.1 Knowledge of contraceptive methods................................................................101

Table 7.2 Current use of contraception by age ..................................................................102

Table 7.3.1 Trends in the current use of contraception.........................................................103

Table 7.3.2 Current use of contraception according to background characteristics..............104

Table 7.4 Timing of sterilisation........................................................................................105

Table 7.5 Knowledge of fertile period ...............................................................................105

Table 7.6 Knowledge of fertile period by age....................................................................105

Table 7.7 Source of modern contraception methods..........................................................106

Table 7.8 Informed choice .................................................................................................107

Table 7.9 Twelve-month contraceptive discontinuation rates ...........................................107

Table 7.10 Reasons for discontinuation...............................................................................108

Table 7.11.1 Need and demand for contraception among in-union women ...........................109

Table 7.11.2 Need and demand for contraception among all women and among sexually 

active women .....................................................................................................110

Table 7.12 Decision making about contraception................................................................112

Table 7.13 Future use of contraception................................................................................113

Table 7.14 Exposure to family planning messages..............................................................113

Table 7.15 Exposure to family planning messages at school...............................................114

Table 7.16 Contact of nonusers with family planning providers.........................................115

Figure 7.1 Contraceptive use.................................................................................................94

Figure 7.2 Comparison in contraceptive use: 1998 and 2016 ...............................................95

Figure 7.3 Modern contraceptive use by province ................................................................95

Figure 7.4 Use of injectables by household wealth...............................................................95

Figure 7.5 Contraceptive discontinuation rates.....................................................................97

Figure 7.6 Demand for contraception....................................................................................98

Figure 7.7 Unmet need by province ......................................................................................98

8 INFANT AND CHILD MORTALITY......................................................................................117

Table 8.1 Early childhood mortality rates..........................................................................122

Table 8.2 Five-year early childhood mortality rates according to background 

characteristics.....................................................................................................122

Table 8.3 Ten-year early childhood mortality rates according to additional 

characteristics.....................................................................................................123
xii • Tables and Figures 

Table 8.4 Perinatal mortality..............................................................................................124

Table 8.5 High-risk fertility behaviour ..............................................................................125

Figure 8.1 Comparison in early childhood mortality rates between the SADHS 1998 

and SADHS 2016...............................................................................................118

Figure 8.2 Childhood mortality by previous birth interval..................................................119

Figure 8.3 Under-5 mortality by province...........................................................................119

Figure 8.4 Under-5 mortality by household wealth.............................................................119

Figure 8.5 Perinatal mortality by household wealth............................................................120

9 MATERNAL HEALTH CARE.................................................................................................127

Table 9.1 Antenatal care ....................................................................................................136

Table 9.2 Number of antenatal care visits and timing of first visit....................................137

Table 9.3 Components of antenatal care ............................................................................138

Table 9.4 Tetanus toxoid injections...................................................................................139

Table 9.5 Place of delivery ................................................................................................140

Table 9.6 Assistance during delivery.................................................................................141

Table 9.7 Caesarean section...............................................................................................142

Table 9.8 Duration of stay in health facility after birth......................................................142

Table 9.9 Timing of first postnatal check for the mother...................................................143

Table 9.10 Type of provider of first postnatal check for the mother ...................................144

Table 9.11 Timing of first postnatal check for the newborn................................................145

Table 9.12 Type of provider of first postnatal check for the newborn.................................146

Table 9.13 Content of postnatal care for newborns .............................................................147

Table 9.14 Discharge timing................................................................................................148

Figure 9.1 Comparison of antenatal care coverage .............................................................129

Figure 9.2 Components of antenatal care ............................................................................129

Figure 9.3 Comparison of place of birth .............................................................................130

Figure 9.4 Health facility births by education.....................................................................131

Figure 9.5 Assistance during delivery.................................................................................131

Figure 9.6 Skilled assistance at delivery by birth order ......................................................132

Figure 9.7 Postnatal care by place of delivery ....................................................................133

10 CHILD HEALTH........................................................................................................................149

Table 10.1 Child’s size and weight at birth..........................................................................160

Table 10.2 Vaccinations by source of information ..............................................................161

Table 10.3 Possession and observation of vaccination cards, according to background 

characteristics.....................................................................................................162

Table 10.4 Vaccinations by background characteristics......................................................163

Table 10.5 Vaccinations by child’s residence with mother or other caregiver ....................165

Table 10.6 Possession and observation of vaccination cards during interview with a 

caregiver.............................................................................................................166

Table 10.7 Reasons vaccinations were missed, late, or not given........................................167

Table 10.8 Prevalence and treatment of symptoms of ARI .................................................168

Table 10.9 Source of advice or treatment for children with symptoms of ARI...................169

Table 10.10 Prevalence and treatment of fever......................................................................170

Table 10.11 Source of advice or treatment for children with fever .......................................171

Table 10.12 Prevalence and treatment of diarrhoea...............................................................172

Table 10.13 Feeding practices during diarrhoea ....................................................................173

Table 10.14 Oral rehydration therapy, zinc, and other treatments for diarrhoea ...................174

Table 10.15 Source of advice or treatment for children with diarrhoea.................................175

Table 10.16 Knowledge of ORS packets and clinic-recommended homemade fluids..........176
Tables and Figures • xiii

Figure 10.1 All age-appropriate childhood vaccinations.......................................................152

Figure 10.2 Vaccination coverage by whether vaccination card was seen............................153

Figure 10.3 Vaccination coverage by province.....................................................................153

Figure 10.4 Diarrhoea prevalence by age..............................................................................156

Figure 10.5 Feeding practices during diarrhoea ....................................................................157

Figure 10.6 Treatment of diarrhoea.......................................................................................157

Figure 10.7 Prevalence and treatment of childhood illness...................................................158

11 NUTRITION OF CHILDREN...................................................................................................177

Table 11.1 Nutritional status of children .............................................................................188

Table 11.2 Initial breastfeeding ...........................................................................................190

Table 11.3 Breastfeeding status by age................................................................................191

Table 11.4 Infant and young child feeding (IYCF) indicators on breastfeeding status .......191

Table 11.5 Median duration of breastfeeding ......................................................................192

Table 11.6 Duration of past breastfeeding ...........................................................................193

Table 11.7 Foods and liquids consumed by children in the day or night preceding the 

interview ............................................................................................................194

Table 11.8 Minimum acceptable diet...................................................................................195

Table 11.9 Consumption of sugary drinks and sugary or salty foods by children in the 

day or night preceding the interview..................................................................196

Table 11.10 Prevalence of anaemia in children .....................................................................197

Table 11.11 Presence of iodised salt in household ................................................................198

Table 11.12 Micronutrient intake and deworming medication among children ....................199

Table 11.13 Consumption of liver .........................................................................................200

Table 11.14 Micronutrient intake among mothers.................................................................200

Figure 11.1 Nutritional status of children .............................................................................179

Figure 11.2 Stunting in children by province........................................................................179

Figure 11.3 Stunting in children by household wealth..........................................................179

Figure 11.4 Breastfeeding practices by age...........................................................................181

Figure 11.5 IYCF indicators on minimum acceptable diet ...................................................183

Figure 11.6 Consumption of unhealthy foods and drinks .....................................................184

12 HIV/AIDS-RELATED KNOWLEDGE AND BEHAVIOUR.................................................201

Table 12.1 Knowledge of prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV...................208

Table 12.2.1 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the past 

12 months: Women............................................................................................209

Table 12.2.2 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the past 

12 months: Men .................................................................................................210

Table 12.3 Payment for sexual intercourse and condom use at last paid sexual 

intercourse..........................................................................................................211

Table 12.4.1 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Women.............................................................212

Table 12.4.2 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Men ..................................................................213

Table 12.5 Pregnant women counselled and tested for HIV................................................214

Table 12.6 Male circumcision..............................................................................................215

Table 12.7 Self-reported prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and STI 

symptoms...........................................................................................................216

Table 12.8 Women and men seeking treatment for STIs.....................................................217

Table 12.9 Age at first sexual intercourse among young people .........................................217

Table 12.10 Premarital sexual intercourse among young people...........................................218

Table 12.11.1 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the past 

12 months among young people: Women..........................................................219
xiv • Tables and Figures 

Table 12.11.2 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the past

12 months among young people: Men...............................................................220

Table 12.12 Recent HIV tests among young people..............................................................221

Figure 12.1 Knowledge of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT).......................................202

Figure 12.2 Multiple sexual partners and condom use..........................................................202

Figure 12.3 HIV testing.........................................................................................................203

Figure 12.4 Male circumcision by age ..................................................................................204

Figure 12.5 STI advice- or treatment-seeking behaviour......................................................205

13 HIV PREVALENCE...................................................................................................................223

Table 13.1 Coverage of HIV testing by residence and province .........................................230

Table 13.2 Coverage of HIV testing according to selected background characteristics......231

Table 13.3 HIV prevalence by age.......................................................................................232

Table 13.4 HIV prevalence by sociodemographic characteristics: Women and men age 

15-49 ..................................................................................................................232

Table 13.5 HIV prevalence by sociodemographic characteristics: Women and men age 

50 and older .......................................................................................................233

Table 13.6 HIV prevalence by demographic characteristics................................................234

Table 13.7 HIV prevalence by sexual behaviour.................................................................235

Table 13.8 HIV prevalence among young people by background characteristics...............236

Table 13.9 HIV prevalence among young people by sexual behaviour...............................237

Table 13.10 HIV prevalence by other characteristics............................................................237

Table 13.11 Prior HIV testing by current HIV status ............................................................237

Table 13.12 HIV prevalence by male circumcision...............................................................238

Table 13.13 HIV prevalence among couples.........................................................................239

Figure 13.1 HIV prevalence by age.......................................................................................225

Figure 13.2 HIV prevalence by province ..............................................................................226

Figure 13.3 HIV prevalence by education.............................................................................226

Figure 13.4 HIV prevalence by marital status.......................................................................226

Figure 13.5 HIV prevalence by number of lifetime partners ................................................227

Figure 13.6 HIV prevalence by circumcision status .............................................................229

Figure 13.7 HIV prevalence among couples.........................................................................229

14 ADULT AND PREGNANCY-RELATED MORTALITY ......................................................241

Table 14.1 Adult mortality rates..........................................................................................245

Table 14.2 Adult mortality probabilities..............................................................................245

Table 14.3 Pregnancy-related mortality...............................................................................246

Table 14.4 Pregnancy-related mortality trends....................................................................246

Figure 14.1 Adult mortality rates by age...............................................................................242

Figure 14.2 Comparison of the pregnancy-related mortality ratio (PRMR) with 

confidence intervals between the SADHS 1998 and the SADHS 2016.............244

15 USE OF HEALTH SERVICES AND PRESCRIBED MEDICATIONS ...............................247

Table 15.1 Health insurance coverage .................................................................................254

Table 15.2 Outpatient health care services received............................................................255

Table 15.3 Source of outpatient health care services received ............................................256

Table 15.4 Experience with a Pap smear exam....................................................................257

Table 15.5 Experience with a Pap smear exam by province................................................258

Table 15.6 Problems in accessing health care......................................................................259

Table 15.7 Prescribed medications ......................................................................................260
Tables and Figures • xv

Table 15.8 Source of payment for prescribed medications..................................................261

Table 15.9 Use of prescribed medication for common chronic conditions..........................262

Figure 15.1 Source of outpatient health care services by household wealth .........................248

Figure 15.2 Experience with a Pap smear by province .........................................................249

Figure 15.3 Problems in accessing health care by province..................................................250

Figure 15.4 Problems in accessing health care by household wealth....................................250

Figure 15.5 Prescribed medication by age ............................................................................251

Figure 15.6 Experience of medication stockouts by age .......................................................252

16 ADULT MORBIDITY................................................................................................................263

Table 16.1.1 Self-assessment of health: Women ....................................................................274

Table 16.1.2 Self-assessment of health: Men..........................................................................275

Table 16.2 Diagnosis and treatment of various health conditions and diseases...................276

Table 16.3 Experience with pain..........................................................................................277

Table 16.4 Experience with pain by age and sex .................................................................278

Table 16.5 Experience with tooth or mouth pain.................................................................279

Table 16.6 Main reason treatment for tooth or mouth pain was not sought.........................280

Table 16.7.1 Blood pressure status: Women...........................................................................281

Table 16.7.2 Blood pressure status: Men................................................................................283

Table 16.8.1 Blood pressure status by health status measures: Women .................................285

Table 16.8.2 Blood pressure status by health status measures: Men ......................................286

Table 16.9.1 Blood pressure status and treatment: Women....................................................287

Table 16.9.2 Blood pressure status and treatment: Men .........................................................288

Table 16.10.1 Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease symptoms: Women..........289

Table 16.10.2 Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease symptoms: Men ...............290

Table 16.11.1 Unadjusted glycated haemoglobin levels: Women ............................................291

Table 16.11.2 Unadjusted glycated haemoglobin levels: Men .................................................292

Table 16.12.1 Adjusted glycated haemoglobin levels: Women................................................293

Table 16.12.2 Adjusted glycated haemoglobin levels: Men .....................................................294

Table 16.13.1 Prevalence of anaemia in women.......................................................................295

Table 16.13.2 Prevalence of anaemia in men ...........................................................................296

Figure 16.1 Self-reported health status..................................................................................264

Figure 16.2 Self-reported poor health by education..............................................................264

Figure 16.3 Chronic conditions based on self-reports...........................................................265

Figure 16.4 Site of chronic pain ............................................................................................266

Figure 16.5 Chronic pain by age ...........................................................................................266

Figure 16.6 Blood pressure status .........................................................................................268

Figure 16.7 Hypertension by age ..........................................................................................269

Figure 16.8 Uncontrolled hypertension by age .....................................................................269

Figure 16.9 Self-reported symptoms of respiratory disease ..................................................270

Figure 16.10 Diabetes by age..................................................................................................272

Figure 16.11 Diabetes by nutritional status.............................................................................272

Figure 16.12 Prevalence of anaemia in adults by age .............................................................273

17 ADULT NUTRITION.................................................................................................................297

Table 17.1.1 Body mass index and short stature of women....................................................304

Table 17.1.2 Body mass index of men....................................................................................305

Table 17.2 Severe obesity among women and men.............................................................306

Table 17.3.1 Waist circumference: Women............................................................................307

Table 17.3.2 Waist circumference: Men.................................................................................308

Table 17.4 Consumption of fruit and vegetables.................................................................309
xvi • Tables and Figures 

Table 17.5 Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and fruit juice..............................310

Table 17.6 Consumption of fried and processed foods........................................................311

Table 17.7 Approach to salt consumption ...........................................................................312

Figure 17.1 Nutritional status of women and men ................................................................298

Figure 17.2 Overweight or obesity by province: Women .....................................................299

Figure 17.3 Overweight or obesity by province: Men ..........................................................299

Figure 17.4 Severe obesity in adults by household wealth....................................................299

Figure 17.5 Waist-to-height ratio (WtHR) among adults by age ..........................................300

Figure 17.6 Consumption of various foods and beverages by household wealth .................302

18 TOBACCO, ALCOHOL, AND CODEINE USE AMONG ADULTS ...................................313

Table 18.1.1 Tobacco smoking: Women ................................................................................318

Table 18.1.2 Tobacco smoking: Men......................................................................................319

Table 18.2.1 Average number of cigarettes smoked daily: Women .......................................320

Table 18.2.2 Average number of cigarettes smoked daily: Men ............................................321

Table 18.3 Smokeless tobacco use and any tobacco use......................................................322

Table 18.4 E-cigarette use....................................................................................................322

Table 18.5 Tobacco use during pregnancy ..........................................................................323

Table 18.6.1 Alcohol consumption and risky drinking: Women ............................................324

Table 18.6.2 Alcohol consumption and risky drinking: Men .................................................325

Table 18.7 Alcohol consumption during pregnancy ............................................................326

Table 18.8.1 Use and misuse of codeine-containing medications: Women............................327

Table 18.8.2 Use and misuse of codeine-containing medications: Men.................................328

Figure 18.1 Comparison of tobacco smoking in the SADHS 1998 and SADHS 2016.........314

Figure 18.2.1 Prevalence of smoking by province: Women ....................................................314

Figure 18.2.2 Prevalence of smoking by province: Men..........................................................314

Figure 18.3.1 Prevalence of risky drinking by province: Women............................................316

Figure 18.3.2 Prevalence of risky drinking by province: Men.................................................316

19 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT ................................................................................................329

Table 19.1 Employment and cash earnings of in-union women and men ...........................337

Table 19.2.1 Control over women’s cash earnings and relative magnitude of women’s cash 

earnings..............................................................................................................338

Table 19.2.2 Control over men’s cash earnings......................................................................339

Table 19.3 Women’s control over their own earnings and over those of their partners ......340

Table 19.4.1 Ownership of assets: Women.............................................................................341

Table 19.4.2 Ownership of assets: Men..................................................................................342

Table 19.5.1 Ownership of title or deed for house: Women ...................................................343

Table 19.5.2 Ownership of title or deed for house: Men ........................................................344

Table 19.6.1 Ownership and use of bank accounts and cellphones: Women .........................345

Table 19.6.2 Ownership and use of bank accounts and cellphones: Men...............................346

Table 19.7 Participation in decision making........................................................................346

Table 19.8.1 Women’s participation in decision making by background characteristics.......347

Table 19.8.2 Men’s participation in decision making by background characteristics ............348

Table 19.9.1 Attitude toward wife beating: Women...............................................................349

Table 19.9.2 Attitude toward wife beating: Men ....................................................................350

Table 19.10 Ability to negotiate sexual relations with partner ..............................................351

Table 19.11.1 Child discipline: Women ...................................................................................352

Table 19.11.2 Child discipline: Men.........................................................................................353
Tables and Figures • xvii

Figure 19.1 Employment by age ...........................................................................................330

Figure 19.2 Control over women’s earnings.........................................................................331

Figure 19.3 Ownership of assets ...........................................................................................332

Figure 19.4 Women’s participation in decision making........................................................333

20 DOMESTIC VIOLENCE...........................................................................................................355

Table 20.1 Experience of physical, sexual, or emotional violence by any partner..............363

Table 20.2 Experience of different forms of violence .........................................................364

Table 20.3 Age at first experience of sexual violence .........................................................364

Table 20.4 Violence by any partner in the last 12 months...................................................365

Table 20.5 Control exercised by partners ............................................................................366

Table 20.6 Forms of partner violence ..................................................................................367

Table 20.7 Partner violence by background characteristics.................................................368

Table 20.8 Spousal violence by husband’s characteristics and empowerment indicators ...369

Table 20.9 Injuries to women due to violence by partner....................................................370

Table 20.10 Violence by women against their partner by women’s background 

characteristics.....................................................................................................371

Table 20.11 Violence by women against their husband/partner by husband’s/partner’s 

characteristics and empowerment indicators .....................................................372

Figure 20.1 Experience of physical, sexual, or emotional violence among ever-partnered 

women age 18+ by marital status.......................................................................357

Figure 20.2 Partner violence by province..............................................................................358

Figure 20.3 Forms of violence ..............................................................................................359

Figure 20.4 Violence by partner’s alcohol consumption.......................................................360

APPENDIX A SAMPLE DESIGN...........................................................................................377

Table A.1 Household distribution.......................................................................................378

Table A.2 PSUs and households.........................................................................................378

Table A.3 Sample allocation of clusters and households....................................................379

Table A.4 Sample allocation of completed interviews with women and men....................380

Table A.5 Sample implementation: Women.......................................................................382

Table A.6 Sample implementation: Men ............................................................................383

Table A.7 Coverage of HIV testing by social and demographic characteristics: Women ..384

Table A.8 Coverage of HIV testing by social and demographic characteristics: Men .......385

Table A.9 Coverage of HIV testing by sexual behaviour characteristics: Women.............386

Table A.10 Coverage of HIV testing by sexual behaviour characteristics: Men..................387

APPENDIX B ESTIMATES OF SAMPLING ERRORS......................................................389

Table B.1 List of selected variables for sampling errors, South Africa DHS 2016............391

Table B.2 Sampling errors: National sample, South Africa DHS 2016 .............................393

Table B.3 Sampling errors: Urban sample, South Africa DHS 2017 .................................395

Table B.4 Sampling errors: Non-urban sample, South Africa DHS 2017..........................397

Table B.5 Sampling errors: Western Cape sample, South Africa DHS 2017.....................399

Table B.6 Sampling errors: Eastern Cape sample, South Africa DHS 2017 ......................401

Table B.7 Sampling errors: Northern Cape sample, South Africa DHS 2017....................403

Table B.8 Sampling errors: Free State sample, South Africa DHS 2017 ...........................405

Table B.9 Sampling errors: KwaZulu-Natal sample, South Africa DHS 2017 ..................407

Table B.10 Sampling errors: North West sample, South Africa DHS 2017.........................409

Table B.11 Sampling errors: Gauteng sample, South Africa DHS 2017..............................411

Table B.12 Sampling errors: Mpumalanga sample, South Africa DHS 2017 ......................413
xviii • Tables and Figures 

Table B.13 Sampling errors: Limpopo sample, South Africa DHS 2017.............................415

Table B.14 Sampling errors for adult and pregnancy-related mortality rates, South Africa 

DHS 2016 ..........................................................................................................417

APPENDIX C DATA QUALITY TABLES............................................................................419

Table C.1 Household age distribution ................................................................................419

Table C.2.1 Age distribution of eligible and interviewed women.........................................420

Table C.2.2 Age distribution of eligible and interviewed men..............................................420

Table C.3 Completeness of reporting .................................................................................421

Table C.4 Births by calendar years.....................................................................................421

Table C.5 Reporting of age at death in days.......................................................................422

Table C.6 Reporting of age at death in months ..................................................................423

Table C.7 Height and weight data completeness and quality for children .........................424

Table C.8 Completeness of information on siblings...........................................................425

Table C.9 Sibship size and sex ratio of siblings.................................................................425
Acknowledgements • xix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

he need to implement a Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) was identified by the National 

Department of Health (NDoH) so as to obtain population-based data as a means of informing 

policy and management of strategic programmes. The survey was conducted as a collaboration 

between Statistics South Africa (Stats SA) and the South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC) 

with technical support from ICF through The DHS Program of the United States Agency for International 

Development (USAID). The DHS surveys are a standard series of national-level surveys focussing on 

demographic and primary health care indicators. By utilising DHS model questionnaires as the basis and 

following a standard implementation approach, internationally comparable national data are collected. 

Such data will contribute towards monitoring progress on the country’s National Development Plan (NDP) 

as well as the global Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Furthermore, the information will assist 

provinces in their planning.

I sincerely acknowledge the efforts of a number of organisations and individuals who contributed 

substantially to the success of the survey. The survey could not have been carried out without the 

dedication of the staff from Stats SA and the SAMRC who planned, participated in, and oversaw the entire 

SADHS. I thank Professor Glenda Gray, the President of the SAMRC, and Mr Risenga Maluleka, the 

Statistician General, for their continued support in this project. The contributions of the sampling, field 

operations, data processing, communications, and content development teams are acknowledged, as well 

as the technical support of the Global Clinical and Viral Laboratory (GCVL). Professor Debbie Bradshaw, 

Director of the SAMRC Burden of Disease Research Unit, is thanked for her leadership of the project 

team.

I would like to thank staff of the NDoH, specifically, Dr Gail Andrews (Chief Operations Officer); Dr 

Yogan Pillay (Deputy Director-General, HIV and AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Maternal, Neonatal, and Child 

Health); Ms Thulile Zondi (Chief Director); Dr Tshilidzi Muthivhi and Mr Jacques van der Westhuizen, in 

providing guidance and leadership. Furthermore, I would like to recognise the NDoH programme 

managers who contributed to the write-up and review of the report. I appreciate the support provided by 

the provincial departments of health in managing the medical waste. Ongoing input and guidance from ICF 

staff have been essential throughout. In addition to financial assistance from the government of South 

Africa through the NDoH and the SAMRC, support from the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis 

and Malaria (Global Fund); the European Union (EU); the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF); the 

United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA); and USAID is appreciated.

Finally, I am grateful to the fieldwork teams who traversed the country to secure interviews with survey 

respondents, as well as the respondents themselves, who generously gave of their time to provide the 

information that forms the basis of this and future reports.

MS. M.P. MATSOSO

DIRECTOR-GENERAL HEALTH

T

Abbreviations • xxi

ABBREVIATIONS

ADA American Diabetes Association

AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome

ANC antenatal care

ARI acute respiratory infection

ASAR age-specific attendance rate

ASFR age-specific fertility rate

BCG Bacille Calmette-Guérin

BMI body mass index

CAGE Concern/Cut-down, Anger, Guilt, and Eye-Opener

CAPI computer-assisted personal interviewing

CARMMA Campaign on Accelerated Reduction of Maternal and Child Mortality in Africa

CBR crude birth rate

CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CHW community health worker

COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

CPR contraceptive prevalence rate

CSPro Censuses and Surveys Processing

DBE Department of Basic Education

DSD Department of Social Development

DBS dried blood spot

DHS Demographic and Health Survey

DTaP diphtheria, tetanus, and acellular pertussis vaccine

DU dwelling unit

DWCPD Department of Women, Children and People with Disabilities; now known as the 

Department of Women

EA enumeration area

ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

EU European Union

GAR gross attendance ratio

GBD global burden of disease

GCVL Global Clinical and Viral Laboratory

GFR general fertility rate

Global Fund Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria

GPI gender parity index

HbA1c glycated haemoglobin

HepB hepatitis B

Hib haemophilus influenzae type b

HIV human immunodeficiency virus

HCT HIV counselling and testing
xxii • Abbreviations

IASP International Association for the Study of Pain

ICCIDD International Council for Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders

ICF ICF (originally, Inner City Fund)

IFSS Internet file streaming system

IPV inactivated polio vaccine

IUD intrauterine contraceptive device

IYCF infant and young child feeding

MMR maternal mortality ratio

MSF master sample frame

MTCT mother-to-child transmission

NAR net attendance ratio

NCCEMD National Committee on Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths

NDoH National Department of Health

NDP National Development Plan

NGO nongovernmental organisation

NHI National Health Insurance

OPV oral polio vaccine

ORS oral rehydration salts

ORT oral rehydration therapy

PCV pneumococcal conjugate vaccine

PNC postnatal care

PPM parts per million

PRMR pregnancy-related mortality ratio

PSU primary sampling unit

RHF recommended homemade fluids

RV rotavirus vaccine

SADHS South Africa Demographic and Health Survey

SAMRC South African Medical Research Council

SASSA South African Social Security Agency

SD standard deviation

SDGs Sustainable Development Goals

SSB sugar-sweetened beverage

Stats SA Statistics South Africa

TFR total fertility rate

UNFPA United Nations Population Fund

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

USAID United States Agency for International Development

VIP ventilated improved pit latrine

VMMC voluntary medical male circumcision

WG Washington Group on Disability Statistics

WHO World Health Organization

WtHR waist-to-height ratio
Reading and Understanding Tables from the South Africa DHS (SADHS) 2016 • xxiii

READING AND UNDERSTANDING TABLES 

FROM THE SOUTH AFRICA DHS (SADHS) 2016

he SADHS 2016 final report is based on 

approximately 250 tables of data. They are 

located for quick reference through links in 

the text (electronic version) and at the end of each 

chapter. Additionally, this reader-friendly report

features about 110 figures that clearly highlight 

background characteristics and changes over time. 

Colourful maps display breakdowns for provinces. 

The text highlights key points in bullets and clearly 

identifies indicator definitions in boxes. 

While the text and figures featured in each chapter 

highlight some of the most important findings from 

the tables, not every finding can be discussed or 

displayed graphically. For this reason, SADHS data 

users should be comfortable reading and interpreting 

tables.

The following pages provide an introduction to the 

organisation of SADHS tables, the presentation of 

background characteristics, and a brief summary of 

sampling and understanding denominators. In 

addition, this section provides some exercises for users as they practise their new skills in interpreting 

SADHS tables.

T
xxiv • Reading and Understanding Tables from the South Africa DHS (SADHS) 2016

Example 1: Women’s Exposure to Mass Media

A Question Asked of All Survey Respondents

Table 3.4.1 Exposure to mass media: Women

Percentage of women age 15-49 who are exposed to specific media on a weekly basis, according to background characteristics, South 

Africa DHS 2016

Background 

characteristic

Reads a 

newspaper at 

least once a 

week

Watches 

television at least 

once a week

Listens to the 

radio at least 

once a week

Accesses all 

three media at 

least once a 

week

Accesses none 

of the three 

media at least 

once a week

Number of 

women

Age

15-19 37.1 71.8 47.3 25.1 20.2 1,427

20-24 40.2 72.1 53.6 27.7 18.0 1,415

25-29 41.3 73.8 55.4 30.2 16.7 1,444

30-34 43.8 75.8 57.8 34.0 16.7 1,333

35-39 40.3 75.1 59.1 31.2 16.4 1,072

40-44 40.4 73.9 55.8 30.6 18.2 941

45-49 38.7 72.9 58.2 28.9 17.7 883

Residence

Urban 49.8 79.4 60.5 37.1 12.5 5,731

Non-urban 20.9 61.6 43.3 14.1 28.4 2,783

Province

Western Cape 74.6 91.9 75.2 57.8 2.4 995

Eastern Cape 21.3 62.8 46.5 14.1 27.4 938

Northern Cape 46.1 80.9 53.4 31.8 12.2 173

Free State 46.7 78.1 68.0 37.3 12.1 442

KwaZulu-Natal 30.8 63.3 47.8 22.1 28.2 1,616

North West 33.2 80.3 59.8 25.2 12.3 570

Gauteng 52.2 77.3 60.1 39.5 13.0 2,284

Mpumalanga 27.0 68.0 42.9 15.1 20.3 671

Limpopo 17.4 69.5 39.5 10.4 23.5 824

Education

No education 11.1 46.7 30.8 8.9 45.2 168

Primary incomplete 11.2 54.1 38.5 9.1 36.0 447

Primary complete 18.4 54.0 40.8 11.1 36.2 327

Secondary incomplete 34.4 71.1 50.6 24.3 20.1 4,195

Secondary complete 52.4 80.9 63.1 39.7 10.8 2,369

More than secondary 61.3 86.1 69.6 45.9 5.7 1,008

Wealth quintile

Lowest 16.1 35.0 31.2 7.8 48.6 1,648

Second 26.2 70.4 48.8 16.7 19.1 1,715

Middle 43.3 83.9 57.2 31.8 9.9 1,805

Fourth 51.1 88.3 66.2 40.1 6.8 1,763

Highest 65.4 89.0 71.1 51.9 5.2 1,583

Total 40.3 73.6 54.9 29.6 17.7 8,514

Step 1: Read the title and subtitle. They tell you the topic and the specific population being described. In 

this case, the table is about women age 15-49 and their access to different types of media. All eligible female 

respondents age 15-49 were asked these questions.

Step 2: Scan the column headings—highlighted in green in Example 1.They describe how the information 

is categorised. In this table, the first three columns of data show different types of media that women access 

at least once a week. The fourth column shows women who access all three media, while the fifth column is 

women who do not access any of the three types of media at least once a week. The last column lists the 

number of women interviewed in the survey.

Step 3: Scan the row headings—the first vertical column highlighted in blue in Example 1. These show the 

different ways the data are divided into categories based on population characteristics. In this case, the table 

presents women’s exposure to media by age, urban/non-urban residence, province, educational level, and 

wealth quintile. Most of the tables in the SADHS report will be divided into these same categories. 

Step 4: Look at the row at the bottom of the table highlighted in pink. These percentages represent the totals 

of all women age 15-49 and their exposure to different types of media. In this case, 73.6%* of women watch 

television weekly and 54.9% listen to the radio weekly. 

1

2

3

4

5
Reading and Understanding Tables from the South Africa DHS (SADHS) 2016 • xxv

Step 5: To find out what percentage of women with more than secondary education access all three media 

at least once a week, draw two imaginary lines, as shown on the table. This shows that 45.9% of women age 

15-49 with more than secondary education access three types of media weekly.

Step 6: By looking at patterns by background characteristics, we can see how women’s access to media

varies across South Africa. Mass media are often used to communicate health messages. Knowing how mass 

media exposure varies among different groups can help program planners and policy makers determine how 

to most effectively reach their target populations. 

*For the purpose of this document, data are presented exactly as they appear in the table including decimal places. However, 

the text in the remainder of this report rounds data to the nearest whole percentage point.

Practice: Use the table in Example 1 to answer the following questions:

a) What percentage of women in South Africa do not access any of the three media at least once a week?

b) What age group of women are most likely to read a newspaper weekly?

c) Compare women in urban and non-urban areas—which group is more likely to listen to the radio weekly?

d) What are the lowest and highest percentages (range) of women who do not access any of the three media 

at least once a week by province?

e) Is there a clear pattern in exposure to television on a weekly basis by education? 

f) Is there a clear pattern in exposure to radio by wealth quintile? 

Answers:

17.7% a)

of women in this age group read the newspaper at least once a week. 43.8% —34 - Women age 30 b) 

urban areas. - 60.5% listen to the radio weekly compared with 43.3% of women in non — Women in urban areas c) 

. Natal - KwaZulu 2.4% of women in Western Cape do not access any of the three media weekly, compared with 28.2% of women in d) 

n a weekly basis increases as a woman’s level of education increases; 46.7% of women with no education Exposure to television o e) 

86.1% of women with more than secondary education. compared with watch television weekly 

wealth increases; 31.2% of women in the lowest wealth quintile listen to Exposure to radio on a weekly basis increases as household f) 

the radio weekly, compared with 71.1% of women in the highest wealth quintile. 
xxvi • Reading and Understanding Tables from the South Africa DHS (SADHS) 2016

Example 2: Prevalence and treatment of diarrhoea 

A Question Asked of a Subgroup of Survey Respondents

Table 10.12 Prevalence and treatment of diarrhoea

Percentage of children under age 5 who had diarrhoea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey; and among 

children with diarrhoea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, percentage for whom advice or treatment 

was sought, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage with 

diarrhoea

Number of 

children

Among children under age 5 with 

diarrhoea:

Background 

characteristic

Percentage for 

whom advice or 

treatment was 

sought1

Number of 

children with 

diarrhoea

Age in months

<6 7.0 363 (36.9) 25

6-11 16.3 325 66.2 53

12-23 16.8 677 62.4 114

24-35 8.2 660 55.9 54

36-47 8.5 688 79.6 58

48-59 7.1 730 (63.0) 52

Sex

Male 11.2 1,783 59.9 200

Female 9.4 1,661 67.1 157

Source of drinking water2

Improved 10.2 3,111 62.9 318

Unimproved 11.4 333 (64.3) 38

Type of toilet facility3

Improved 10.4 2,523 64.3 263

Unimproved sanitation 10.2 920 59.6 94

Shared facility4 10.6 724 60.7 77

Unimproved facility 9.1 73 * 7

Open defecation 8.3 123 * 10

Handwashing place

Observed, fixed place 8.6 1,727 71.2 148

Observed, mobile place 13.5 1,177 52.5 159

Not observed 9.2 539 (72.8) 49

Residence

Urban 9.0 2,204 65.5 199

Non-urban 12.7 1,240 60.0 157

Province

Western Cape 5.4 306 * 16

Eastern Cape 9.4 382 (63.8) 36

Northern Cape 8.1 67 * 5

Free State 5.8 156 * 9

KwaZulu-Natal 13.7 636 56.4 87

North West 16.4 269 57.9 44

Gauteng 8.6 980 (73.2) 85

Mpumalanga 10.7 309 (69.3) 33

Limpopo 12.0 338 57.1 41

Mother’s education

No education 10.6 49 * 5

Primary incomplete 17.4 167 (61.6) 29

Primary complete 13.1 133 * 17

Secondary incomplete 10.3 1,680 58.5 173

Secondary complete 9.6 1,027 76.9 98

More than secondary 8.6 388 (49.1) 34

Wealth quintile

Lowest 11.8 744 55.1 88

Second 13.8 822 53.7 114

Middle 8.7 766 80.3 67

Fourth 8.7 642 (65.6) 56

Highest 6.8 470 (77.8) 32

Total 10.3 3,444 63.0 356

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure 

is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1

Includes advice or treatment from the following sources: public sector, private medical sector, and 

supermarket. Excludes advice or treatment from a traditional health practitioner

2 See Table 2.1 for definition of categories

3 See Table 2.3 for definition of categories

4 Facilities that would be considered improved if they were not shared by two or more households 

1

2

3

4

a b
Reading and Understanding Tables from the South Africa DHS (SADHS) 2016 • xxvii

Step 1: Read the title and subtitle. In this case, the table is about two separate groups of children: children 

under age 5 (a) and children under age 5 with diarrhoea in the two weeks before the survey (b).

Step 2: Identify the two panels. First, identify the columns that refer to all children under age 5 (a), and then 

isolate the columns that refer only to children under age 5 with diarrhoea in the two weeks before the

survey (b).

Step 3: Look at the first panel. What percentage of children under age 5 had diarrhoea in the two weeks 

before the survey? It’s 10.3%. Now look at the second panel. How many children under age 5 had diarrhoea 

in the two weeks before the survey? It’s 356 children or 10.3% of the 3,444 children under age 5 (with 

rounding). The second panel is a subset of the first panel.

Step 4: Only 10.3% of children under age 5 had diarrhoea in the two weeks before the survey. Once these 

children are further divided into the background characteristic categories, there may be too few cases for the 

percentages to be reliable.

 What percentage of children under age 5 with diarrhoea in the two weeks before the survey whose 

mothers have more than secondary education sought advice or treatment? 49.1%. This percentage 

is in parentheses because between 25 and 49 children under age 5 whose mothers have more than 

secondary education had diarrhoea in the two weeks before the survey (unweighted). Readers 

should use this number with caution—it may not be reliable. (For more information on weighted 

and unweighted numbers, see Example 3.) 

 What percentage of children under age 5 with diarrhoea in the two weeks before the survey whose 

mothers have no education sought advice or treatment? There is no number in this cell—only an 

asterisk. This is because fewer than 25 children under age 5 whose mothers have no education 

had diarrhoea in the two weeks before the survey (unweighted). Results for this group are not 

reported. The subgroup is too small, and therefore the data are not reliable. 

Note: When parentheses or asterisks are used in a table, the explanation will be noted under the table. If there 

are no parentheses or asterisks in a table, you can proceed with confidence that enough cases were included 

in all categories, i.e., that the data are reliable.
xxviii • Reading and Understanding Tables from the South Africa DHS (SADHS) 2016

Example 3: Understanding Sampling Weights in SADHS Tables

A sample is a group of people who have been 

selected for a survey. In the SADHS, the 

sample is designed to represent the national 

population age 15-49. In addition to national 

data, most countries want to collect and 

report data on smaller geographical or 

administrative areas. However, doing so 

requires a minimum sample size per area. For 

the SADHS 2016, the survey sample is 

representative at the national and provincial

levels, and for urban and non-urban areas.

To generate statistics that are representative 

of South Africa as a whole and the 9

provinces, the number of women surveyed in each province should contribute to the size of the total 

(national) sample in proportion to size of the province. However, if some provinces have small populations, 

then a sample allocated in proportion to each province’s population may not include sufficient women from 

each province for analysis. To solve this problem, provinces with small populations are oversampled. For 

example, let’s say that you have enough money to interview 8,514 women and want to produce results that 

are representative of South Africa as a whole and its provinces (as in Table 3.1). However, the total 

population of South Africa is not evenly distributed among the provinces: some provinces, such as Gauteng, 

are heavily populated while others, such as Northern Cape are not. Thus, Northern Cape must be 

oversampled.

A sampling statistician determines how many women should be interviewed in each province in order to get 

reliable statistics. The blue column (1) at the right in the table above shows the actual number of women 

interviewed in each province. Within the provinces, the number of women interviewed ranges from 656 in 

Western Cape to 1,360 in KwaZulu-Natal. The number of interviews is sufficient to get reliable results in 

each province.

With this distribution of interviews, some provinces are overrepresented and some provinces are 

underrepresented. For example, the population in Gauteng is about 27% of the population in South Africa, 

while Northern Cape’s population contributes only 2% of the population in South Africa. But as the blue 

column shows, the number of women interviewed in Gauteng accounts for only about 10% of the total 

sample of women interviewed (863/8,514) and the number of women interviewed in Northern Cape accounts 

for almost the same percentage of the total sample of women interviewed (8%, or 718/8,514). This 

unweighted distribution of women does not accurately represent the population.

In order to get statistics that are representative of South Africa, the distribution of the women in the sample 

needs to be weighted (or mathematically adjusted) such that it resembles the true distribution in the South 

Africa. Women from a small province, like Northern Cape, should only contribute a small amount to the 

national total. Women from a large province, like Gauteng, should contribute much more. Therefore, DHS 

statisticians mathematically calculate a “weight” which is used to adjust the number of women from each 

province so that each province’s contribution to the total is proportional to the actual population of the 

province. The numbers in the purple column (2) represent the “weighted” values. The weighted values can 

be smaller or larger than the unweighted values at province level. The total national sample size of 8,514 

women has not changed after weighting, but the distribution of the women in the provinces has been changed 

to represent their contribution to the total population size.

How do statisticians weight each category? They take into account the probability that a woman was selected 

in the sample. If you were to compare the green column (3) to the actual population distribution of South 

Table 3.1 Background characteristics of respondents

Percent distribution of women age 15-49 by selected background characteristics, 

South Africa DHS 2016

Women

Background 

characteristic

Weighted 

percent

Weighted 

number

Unweighted 

number

Province

Western Cape 11.7 995 656

Eastern Cape 11.0 938 1,041

Northern Cape 2.0 173 718

Free State 5.2 442 854

KwaZulu-Natal 19.0 1,616 1,360

North West 6.7 570 863

Gauteng 26.8 2,284 863

Mpumalanga 7.9 671 1,054

Limpopo 9.7 824 1,105

Total 15-49 100.0 8,514 8,514

3 2 1
Reading and Understanding Tables from the South Africa DHS (SADHS) 2016 • xxix

Africa, you would see that women in each province are contributing to the total sample with the same weight 

that they contribute to the population of the South Africa. The weighted number of women in the survey 

now accurately represents the proportion of women who live in Gauteng and the proportion of women who 

live in Northern Cape.

With sampling and weighting, it is possible to interview enough women to provide reliable statistics at 

national and province levels. In general, only the weighted numbers are shown in each of the SADHS tables, 

so don’t be surprised if these numbers seem low: they may actually represent a larger number of women 

interviewed.

Sustainable Development Goal Indicators • xxxi

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOAL INDICATORS

South Africa DHS 2016

Sex

Total

SADHS 

table 

Indicator Male Female number

2. Zero hunger

2.2.1 Prevalence of stunting among children under 5 years of age 29.8 25.0 27.4 11.1

2.2.2 Prevalence of malnutrition among children under 5 years of age 17.6 13.8 15.7a na

a) Prevalence of wasting among children under 5 years of age 2.1 2.8 2.5a 11.1

b) Prevalence of overweight among children under 5 years of age 15.5 11.0 13.3a 11.1

3. Good health and well-being

3.1.2 Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel na na 96.7 9.6

3.2.1 Under-5 mortality rate1 49 35 42 8.2

3.7.1 Proportion of women of reproductive age (aged 15-49 years) who have their need for family planning 

satisfied with modern methods na 79.7 na 7.11.2

3.7.2 Adolescent birth rates per 1,000 women

a) Girls aged 10-14 years2 na 1 na 5.1

b) Women aged 15-19 years3 na 71 na 5.1

3.a.1 Age-standardized prevalence of current tobacco use among persons aged 15 years and older4 37.3 7.8 22.6a

18.1.1 and 

18.2.2

3.b.1 Proportion of the target population covered by all vaccines included in their national programme5 53.2 52.3 52.7 10.4

5. Gender equality

5.2.1 Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls aged 15 years and older subjected to physical, sexual 

or psychological violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months6,7 na 13.0 na 20.4

a) Physical violence na 7.7 na 20.4

b) Sexual violence na 2.3 na 20.4

c) Psychological violence na 9.1 na 20.4

5.3.1 Proportion of women aged 20-24 years who were married or in a union before age 15 and before 

age 18

a) Before age 15 na 0.9 na 4.3

b) Before age 18 na 3.6 na 4.3

5.6.1 Proportion of women aged 15-49 years who make their own informed decisions regarding sexual 

relations, contraceptive use and reproductive health care8 na 60.2 na na

5.b.1 Proportion of individuals who own a mobile telephone9 88.5 91.2 89.9a

19.6.1 and 

19.6.2

Residence SADHS 

table 

Urban Non-urban Total number

7. Affordable and clean energy

7.1.1 Proportion of population with access to electricity 93.6 85.9 90.8 2.4

7.1.2 Proportion of population with primary reliance on clean fuels and technology10 91.3 56.1 78.5 2.4

Sex SADHS 

table 

Male Female Total number

8. Decent work and economic growth

8.10.2 Proportion of adults (15 years and older) with an account at a bank or other financial institution or 

with a mobile-money-service provider11 57.0 53.9 55.4

19.6.1 and 

19.6.2

17. Partnerships for the goals

17.8.1 Proportion of individuals using the Internet12 52.0 47.4 49.7

3.5.1 and 

3.5.2

na = Not applicable

1 Expressed in terms of deaths per 1,000 live births for the 5-year period preceding the survey

2 Equivalent to the age-specific fertility rate for girls age 10-14 for the 3-year period preceding the survey, expressed in terms of births per 1,000 girls age 10-14

3 Equivalent to the age-specific fertility rate for women age 15-19 for the 3-year period preceding the survey, expressed in terms of births per 1,000 women age 15-19

4 Data are not age-standardised

5 Data are presented for children age 12-23 months receiving all vaccines included in their national programme appropriate for their age: BCG, two doses of oral polio 

vaccine, three doses of DTaP-IPV-Hib, three doses of HepB, three doses of pneumococcal vaccine, two doses of rotavirus vaccine, and one dose of measles vaccine.

6 Data are available for women age 18 and older

7

In the DHS, psychological violence is termed emotional violence

8 Data are available only for currently married women who are not pregnant

9 Data are available only for women and men age 15-49

10 Measured as the percentage of the population using clean fuel for cooking

11 Data are available for women and men age 15-49 who have and use and account at bank or other financial institution; information on use of a mobile-money-service 

provider is not available

12 Data are available for women and men age 15-49 who have used the Internet in the past 12 months

a The total is calculated as the simple arithmetic mean of the percentages in the columns for males and females

39
xxxii • Map of South Africa
Introduction and Survey Methodology • 1

INTRODUCTION AND SURVEY METHODOLOGY 1

tastistics South Africa (Stats SA), in partnership with the South African Medical Research Council 

(SAMRC), conducted the South Africa Demographic and Health Survey 2016 (SADHS 2016) at the 

request of the National Department of Health (NDoH). Technical assistance was provided through 

The DHS Program. Timely information about the health of the nation is essential for monitoring and 

evaluation. Survey data collection took place from 27 June 2016 to 4 November 2016.

1.1 SURVEY OBJECTIVES

The primary objective of the SADHS 2016 is to provide up-to-date estimates of basic demographic and 

health indicators. Specifically, the SADHS 2016 collected information on fertility levels; marriage; sexual 

activity; fertility preferences; awareness and use of contraceptives; breastfeeding practices; nutrition;

childhood and maternal mortality; maternal health, including antenatal and postnatal care; key aspects of 

child health, including immunisation coverage and prevalence and treatment of acute respiratory infection 

(ARI), fever, and diarrhoea; potential exposure to the risk of HIV infection; coverage of HIV counselling 

and testing (HCT); and physical and sexual violence against women. Another critical objective of the 

SADHS 2016 is to provide estimates of health and behaviour indicators for adults age 15 and older, 

including use of tobacco, alcohol, and codeine-containing medications. In addition, the SADHS 2016 

provides estimates of the prevalence of anaemia among children age 6-59 months and adults age 15 and 

older, and the prevalence of hypertension, anaemia, high HbA1c levels (an indicator of diabetes), and HIV 

among adults age 15 and older.

The information collected through the SADHS 2016 is intended to assist policymakers and programme

managers in evaluating and designing programmes and strategies for improving the health of the country’s 

population.

1.2 SAMPLE DESIGN

The sampling frame used for the SADHS 2016 is the Statistics South Africa Master Sample Frame (MSF), 

which was created using Census 2011 enumeration areas (EAs). In the MSF, EAs of manageable size were 

treated as primary sampling units (PSUs), whereas small neighbouring EAs were pooled together to form 

new PSUs, and large EAs were split into conceptual PSUs. The frame contains information about the 

geographic type (urban, traditional, or farm) and the estimated number of residential dwelling units (DUs) 

in each PSU. The sampling convention used by Stats SA is DUs. One or more households may be located

in any given DU; recent surveys have found 1.03 households per DU on average.

Administratively, South Africa is divided into nine provinces. The sample for the SADHS 2016 was 

designed to provide estimates of key indicators for the country as a whole, for urban and non-urban areas 

separately, and for each of the nine provinces in South Africa. To ensure that the survey precision is 

comparable across provinces, PSUs were allocated by a power allocation rather than a proportional 

allocation. Each province was stratified into urban, farm, and traditional areas, yielding 26 sampling 

strata.

1

The SADHS 2016 followed a stratified two-stage sample design with a probability proportional to size 

sampling of PSUs at the first stage and systematic sampling of DUs at the second stage. The Census 2011 

DU count was used as the PSU measure of size. A total of 750 PSUs were selected from the 26 sampling 

 

1Western Cape does not have traditional residential geotype PSUs, so only two substrata are applicable.

S
2 • Introduction and Survey Methodology

strata, yielding 468 selected PSUs in urban areas, 224 PSUs in traditional areas, and 58 PSUs in 

farm areas.

2

A listing operation was carried out in all selected PSUs from January to March 2016, and the updated lists 

of DUs served as a sampling frame for the selection of DUs in the second stage. In the second stage of 

selection, a fixed number of 20 DUs per cluster were selected with systematic selection from the created 

listing. All households in a selected DU were eligible for interviews.

Some of the selected PSUs were informal, unstructured settlements with no clear identifications of DUs. 

To ensure listing coverage within each informal, unstructured PSU selected,

3

segmentation was carried 

out, with the PSU divided into multiple segments of about 20 DUs each. Only one segment was selected at 

random for the survey; in segments with 20 DUs or fewer, all DUs in the segment were eligible for the 

survey. In segments with more than 20 DUs, 20 DUs were randomly selected and were eligible for the 

survey. A cluster in the SADHS 2016 is therefore either a PSU or a segment of a PSU.

Figure 1.1 diagrams the subsampling followed in the survey. In half of selected DUs, all households were 

eligible for interviews with the Household Questionnaire, and all women age 15-49 who were either 

permanent residents of the selected households or visitors who stayed in the household the night before the 

survey were eligible for interviews with a standard individual questionnaire. Within this subsample, 

households in every other DU were eligible to have their salt tested for the presence of iodine.

Figure 1.1 Subsampling scheme followed in the SADHS 2016

In the remaining half of DUs, all households were eligible for interviews with the Household 

Questionnaire, and all women and men age 15 and older who were either permanent residents of the 

selected households or visitors who stayed in the household the night before the survey were eligible for 

individual interviews and for biomarker collection. Women age 15-49 and men age 15-59 were eligible for 

the standard individual questionnaire, as well as a South Africa-specific module on adult health; women 

age 50 and older and men age 60 and older were eligible for a few sections of the individual questionnaire 

and the adult health module. In addition, children age 0-59 months were eligible for biomarker collection.

Finally, in all households in selected DUs, one woman age 18 and older was selected for a module on 

domestic violence. In addition, for each child age 0-5 whose biological mother did not live in the 

household, a guardian was eligible to complete the Caregiver’s Questionnaire.

 

2 Four PSUs were dropped from the sample: one was vacant, two were non-accessible due to refusals, and one was an 

industrial area.

3 There were 26 informal, unstructured PSUs in the SADHS sample.
Introduction and Survey Methodology • 3

1.3 QUESTIONNAIRES

Five questionnaires were used in the SADHS 2016: the Household Questionnaire, the individual Woman’s 

Questionnaire, the individual Man’s Questionnaire, the Caregiver’s Questionnaire, and the Biomarker 

Questionnaire. These questionnaires, based on The DHS Program’s standard Demographic and Health 

Survey questionnaires, were adapted to reflect the population and health issues relevant to South Africa. 

Input was solicited from various stakeholders representing government ministries and agencies, 

nongovernmental organisations, and international donors. After the preparation of the questionnaires in 

English, the questionnaires were translated into South Africa’s 10 other official languages. In addition, 

information about the fieldworkers for the survey was collected through a self-administered Fieldworker 

Questionnaire.

The Household Questionnaire was used to list all of the members of, and visitors to, selected households. 

Basic demographic information was collected on the characteristics of each person listed, including his or 

her age, sex, marital status, education, and relationship to the head of the household. For children under 

age 18, parents’ survival status was determined. The data obtained in the Household Questionnaire were 

used to identify women and men eligible to be interviewed with the relevant individual questionnaire, 

children whose caregiver was eligible for the Caregiver’s Questionnaire, and those persons eligible for the 

Biomarker Questionnaire. The Household Questionnaire also collected information on characteristics of 

the household’s dwelling unit, such as source of drinking water; type of sanitation facility; materials used 

for the floor, walls, and roof of the dwelling unit; and ownership of various durable goods. In addition, the 

questionnaire included a module based on questions developed by the Washington Group on Disability 

Statistics to estimate the prevalence of disabilities among individuals age 5 and older.

The Woman’s Questionnaire was used to collect information from all eligible women age 15 and older. In 

all households, eligible women age 15-49 were asked questions on the following topics:

 Background characteristics such as age, education, and media exposure

 Birth history and child mortality

 Knowledge and use of family planning methods

 Antenatal, delivery, and postnatal care

 Breastfeeding and infant feeding practices

 Vaccinations and child illnesses

 Marriage and sexual activity

 Fertility preferences

 Women’s work and partners’ background characteristics

 Knowledge of HIV/AIDS and methods of HIV transmission

 Adult and pregnancy-related mortality

The Man’s Questionnaire was administered to all men age 15-59 in the subsample of households selected 

for the male survey. The Man’s Questionnaire collected much of the same information elicited by the 

Woman’s Questionnaire but was shorter because it did not contain a detailed reproductive history, 

questions on maternal and child health, or questions on adult and maternal mortality.

Both the Woman’s and Man’s Questionnaires also included a module on adult health that captured 

information on use of tobacco, alcohol, and codeine-containing medications; consumption of fat, salt, 

sugar, fruit, and vegetables; health care-seeking behaviours; and self-reported prevalence of a variety of 

noncommunicable diseases. The module was administered to all men age 15 and older and to all women 

age 15 and older in the subsample of households selected for the male survey and biomarker collection.

The Caregiver’s Questionnaire was used to collect information on children age 0-5 whose biological 

mother was deceased or did not live in the household. It gathered information on the child’s 

sociodemographic characteristics, vaccinations, and health in the 2 weeks prior to the survey.
4 • Introduction and Survey Methodology

The Biomarker Questionnaire was used to record data on biomarkers (anthropometry, anaemia testing, 

blood pressure measurement, HbA1c testing, and HIV testing) collected from respondents by nurses. In 

addition, for adults age 15 and older, information on prescribed medications was recorded.

The purpose of the Fieldworker Questionnaire was to collect basic background information on the people 

who were collecting data in the field, including the team supervisor, interviewers, and nurse.

In this survey, interviewers used tablet computers to record responses during interviews. The tablets were 

equipped with Bluetooth technology to enable remote electronic transfer of files (transfer of assignment 

sheets from team supervisors to interviewers and transfer of completed questionnaires from interviewers to 

supervisors). The computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) data collection system employed in the 

SADHS 2016 was developed by The DHS Program using the mobile version of CSPro. The CSPro 

software was developed jointly by the U.S. Census Bureau, The DHS Program, and Serpro S.A.

The survey protocol was reviewed and approved by the SAMRC Ethics Committee and the ICF 

Institutional Review Board.

1.4 MEASURING IODINE CONTENT OF HOUSEHOLD SALT

Salt collected from the subsample of households eligible for iodine testing was stored in 50-ml

polypropylene tubes with screw-tops, away from direct light, and couriered to the SAMRC Iodine 

Laboratory in Cape Town in batches for testing. After the completion of the fieldwork, the iodine content 

of the salt was measured using the iodometric titration method recommended by the World Health 

Organization (WHO), globally recognised as the reference method (WHO/UNICEF/ICCIDD 2007). The 

titration method for salt fortified with potassium iodate (iodated salt) as described by DeMaeyer et al. 

(1979) has been slightly modified (Jooste and Strydom 2010). The principle of the method is that free 

iodine is liberated from the iodate in salt under acidic conditions. Potassium iodide solution is then added 

to keep the iodine in a dissolved state, and the dissolved free iodine (as triiodide) is titrated with 

standardised sodium thiosulfate solution, incorporating starch as an external (indirect) indicator.

Specifically, 10 g salt was dissolved in 45 ml deionised water, followed by adding 2 ml of 2N sulfuric acid 

and 5 ml of 10% potassium iodide. The salt solution was kept in the dark for 10 minutes to reach optimal 

reaction time, and then titrated with sodium thiosulfate (0.005 N) with constant stirring until the reaction 

solution turned pale yellow. Next 2 ml starch solution (1% starch dissolved in 15% sodium chloride) was 

added, forming a blue starch-iodine complex, followed by continued titration with sodium thiosulfate, until 

the blue colour disappeared indicating that the equivalence point had been reached. As the amount of 

sodium thiosulfate used is proportional to the amount of free iodine liberated from the salt, the 

concentration of iodine in the salt sample was calculated based on the titrated volume (burette reading) of 

sodium thiosulfate using the formula below. The results are expressed as milligrams of iodine per kilogram 

(mg/kg) of salt or the equivalent parts of iodine per million parts of salt (ppm).

Formula: 

mg/kg (ppm) iodine = titration volume in ml x normality of sodium thiosulfate (eq/l) x 21.15 

(g/eq I) x 1,000 / salt sample weight in g

The thiosulfate solution was standardised by using 5 ml of 0.005 N potassium iodate and following the 

same procedure for analysing a salt sample. The normality of the sodium thiosulfate solution is based on 

the law of equivalents:

normality of sodium thiosulfate = normality potassium iodate x volume potassium iodate / volume 

sodium thiosulfate 
Introduction and Survey Methodology • 5

1.5 ANTHROPOMETRY, ANAEMIA TESTING, BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT, HBA1C 

TESTING, AND HIV TESTING

In the subsample of households selected for the male survey and the adult health module, the SADHS 2016 

incorporated the following biomarkers: anthropometry, anaemia testing, blood pressure measurement, 

HbA1c testing, and HIV testing. For each biomarker measurement or test for which an individual was 

eligible, the respondent or the child’s parent/guardian was required to provide written consent before the 

measurement or test could proceed. In the case of never-in-union respondents age 15-17, consent was 

required from both the respondent and the parent/guardian.

All households in which children underwent anthropometry and/or were tested for anaemia were given a 

brochure on which the measurements were recorded. The brochure also explained the causes and 

prevention of anaemia. Similarly, each respondent age 15 and older received a different brochure on which 

relevant measurements were recorded. This brochure provided information about body mass index (BMI), 

anaemia, blood pressure, diabetes, and HIV. The brochure also included the national AIDS hotline number 

to enable respondents to locate nearby facilities that provide HIV testing and counselling.

In contrast with the data collection procedure for the household and individual interviews, data related to 

all biomarkers were initially recorded on a paper Biomarker Questionnaire and subsequently entered into 

interviewers’ tablet computers. 

Anthropometry. Height and weight measurements were recorded for children age 0-59 months for whom 

consent was obtained from their parents/guardians and for women and men age 15 and older who 

consented to measurement. Seca 878 digital scales, Seca 417 infantometers (for children under age 2), and 

Seca 213 portable stadiometers (for children age 2 and older and for adults) were used for these 

measurements. In addition, waist circumference was measured for women and men using a Seca 201 

measuring tape.

Anaemia testing. Blood specimens for anaemia testing were collected from women and men age 15 and 

older who consented to be tested and from children age 6-59 months for whom consent was obtained from 

their parents/guardians. Blood samples were drawn from a drop of blood taken from a finger prick (or a 

heel prick in the case of children age 6-11 months) and collected in a microcuvette. Haemoglobin analysis 

was carried out on-site using a battery-operated portable HemoCue 201+ analyser. Results were provided 

verbally and in writing. Parents/guardians of children with a haemoglobin level below 7 g/dl were 

instructed to take the child to a health facility for follow-up care. Likewise, nonpregnant women, pregnant 

women, and men were referred for follow-up care if their haemoglobin levels were below 7 g/dl, 9 g/dl, 

and 9 g/dl, respectively.

Blood pressure. Three blood pressure measurements were taken from consenting women and men age 15 

and older using Omron 1300 digital blood pressure monitors. Measurements were taken at intervals of 3 

minutes or more. For the purpose of returning the result to the respondent, the third measurement was used 

to classify the respondent with respect to hypertension, according to internationally recommended 

categories (WHO 1999). Respondents who were informed that they had high blood pressure were provided 

with a written referral to a health facility for further management.

HbA1c and HIV testing. Nurses collected finger-prick blood specimens for laboratory HbA1c and HIV 

testing of women and men age 15 and older who consented. The protocol for blood specimen collection 

and analysis was based on the anonymous linked protocol developed by The DHS Program. This protocol 

allows for merging of test results with the sociodemographic data collected in the individual questionnaires 

after removal of all information that could potentially identify an individual.

Nurses explained the procedure, the confidentiality of the data, and the fact that the test results would not 

be made available to respondents. Blood for HbA1c and HIV testing was collected on a filter paper card. 

The card was preprinted with five circles, each of which could hold approximately 75 μl of blood and the 
6 • Introduction and Survey Methodology

first of which had been treated with a reagent required for HbA1c testing. If a respondent consented to both 

HbA1c and HIV testing, five blood spots from the finger prick were collected on the filter paper card, to 

which a barcode label unique to the respondent was affixed. Duplicate barcodes were attached to the 

Biomarker Questionnaire, one to indicate that the respondent had consented to HbA1c testing and another 

to indicate that the respondent had consented to HIV testing. A fourth copy of the same barcode was 

affixed to the dried blood spot (DBS) transmittal sheet to track the blood samples from the field to the 

laboratory.

Respondents who consented to HIV testing were asked whether they would consent to having the 

laboratory store their blood sample for future unspecified testing. If respondents did not consent to 

additional testing using their sample, it was indicated on the Biomarker Questionnaire that they refused 

additional tests using their specimen, and the words “no additional testing” were written on the filter 

paper card.

If the respondent consented only to HbA1c testing, a single blood drop was collected on the appropriate 

pretreated circle of the filter paper card to which the barcode label was affixed, and duplicate barcode 

labels were attached to the Biomarker Questionnaire and the DBS transmittal sheet.

Blood samples were dried overnight and packaged for storage the following morning. Samples were 

periodically collected from the field and transported to the Global Clinical and Viral Laboratory (GCVL) 

in Durban. Upon arrival at GCVL, each blood sample was logged into the CSPro HIV Test Tracking 

System database, given a laboratory number, and stored at -20C until tested.

The HbA1c and HIV testing protocols stipulated that blood could be tested only after questionnaire data 

collection had been completed, data had been verified and cleaned, and all unique identifiers other than the 

anonymous barcode number had been removed from the data file. 

To measure HbA1c, a common method was adapted for use with DBS specimens. Specifically, using a 

blood chemistry analyser, total haemoglobin concentration was measured by a colorimetric method 

monitoring the change in absorbance at 410 nm. HbA1c concentration was measured by a turbidimetric 

immunoinhibition method monitoring the change in absorbance at 340 nm. HbA1c concentration is 

expressed as a percentage of total haemoglobin.

The HIV testing algorithm (Figure 1.2) called for testing all samples with an enzyme-linked 

immunosorbent assay (ELISA), the Genscreen HIV 1/2 Combi Assay (Bio-Rad). All samples that tested 

positive on the ELISA 1 were subjected to a second ELISA (ELISA 2), the E411 Cobas HIV 1/2 Combi 

Assay (Roche). Similar to samples that tested positive on the ELISA 1, 5% of the samples that tested 

negative on the ELISA 1 were also subjected to the ELISA 2 for internal quality control, while the other 

95% were recorded as negative.

Concordant negative results on the ELISA 1 and ELISA 2 were recorded as negative. If the results on the 

ELISA 1 and ELISA 2 were discordant, the two ELISAs were repeated. If the results remained discordant, 

the specimen was classified as inconclusive. 

Concordant positive results on the ELISA 1 and ELISA 2 were subjected to a third assay, the GeeniusTM 

HIV1/2 confirmatory rapid test (Bio-Rad). When both the ELISA 1 and ELISA 2 were positive, the sample 

was classified as positive if the confirmatory rapid test was positive, and inconclusive if the confirmatory 

rapid test was negative or indeterminate. 
Introduction and Survey Methodology • 7

Figure 1.2 HIV testing algorithm

1.6 PRETEST

The pretest for the SADHS 2016 consisted of classroom training and field practice. The classroom portion 

of the pretest was conducted 11-29 January 2016 at the Kopanong Hotel & Conference Centre in Benoni, 

Gauteng. The pretest fieldwork took place 1-5 February 2016 in five provinces: Eastern Cape, KwaZuluNatal, Free State, Gauteng, and North West. Stats SA recruited three female interviewers, one male 

interviewer, one nurse, and one logistics officer from each of the five provinces selected for field practice, 

for a total of 30 fieldworkers. Coordinators from Stats SA’s provincial offices were trained as supervisors, 

for a total of five supervisors. Staff from Stats SA’s head office, SAMRC, and The DHS Program 

conducted training sessions. Nurses attended the first week of the main training of interviewers before 

breaking away for separate biomarker training. Following field practice, a daylong debriefing session was 

held with the pretest field staff at the Lakes Hotel & Conference Centre in Benoni. Modifications to the 

questionnaires, translations, and survey protocol were made based on lessons drawn from the exercise.

1.7 TRAINING OF FIELD STAFF

Stats SA recruited and trained nearly 300 fieldworker candidates for the main training of field staff. This 

number made provision for male and female interviewers, supervisors, logistics officers/drivers, and nurses 

for 30 teams. Although only 210 fieldworkers were needed to conduct the survey, the number recruited 

and trained exceeded this figure so that (1) the top performers during the training could be selected for 

fieldwork and (2) there would be back-up fieldworkers in case anything happened to require replacing any 

of the appointed fieldworkers during the main data collection. The main training was conducted from 

16 May 2016 to 17 June 2016 and took place at the Birchwood Hotel & Conference Centre in Kempton 

Park, Gauteng.

For all fieldworker candidates except nurses and logistics officers, the training course consisted of 

instruction regarding interviewing techniques and field procedures, a detailed review of questionnaire 

95%

Inconclusive

Indeterminate

Inconclusive Inconclusive Positive

Negative Positive

Negative Positive Negative

Repeat Negative ELISA 1 & ELISA 2 

NEGATIVE Geenius HIV 1/2 ELISA 1 & ELISA 2 POSITIVE

 ELISA 1 NEGATIVE & ELISA 2 POSITIVE

 ELISA 1 POSITIVE & ELISA 2 NEGATIVE

Positive

 ELISA 1 & ELISA 2

Negative Negative Positive

Internal Quality Control ELISA 2

5%

ELISA 1

Genscreen HIV 1/2 Combi Assay

ELISA 2 E411 Cobas HIV 1/2 Combi Assay

E411 Cobas HIV 1/2 Combi Assay
8 • Introduction and Survey Methodology

content, instruction on how to administer the paper and electronic questionnaires, and mock interviews 

between participants in the classroom. In addition, they were trained on map reading so that they could 

identify the sampled DUs in the field, and they received publicity training to ensure they were comfortable 

introducing themselves and explaining the purpose of the survey to respondents. A 1-day “on-site” field 

practice, held on 6 June 2016, paired trainees, and each had to complete a set of paper questionnaires. This 

provided them with an opportunity to familiarise themselves with the questionnaires in a closed 

environment. The completed questionnaires were later used during the CAPI training, when the data were 

entered into the electronic system.

Nurses were trained to collect biomarker data, including taking height/length, weight, and waist 

measurements; testing for anaemia by measuring haemoglobin level; and preparing DBS specimens for 

subsequent HbA1c and HIV testing. The biomarker training was held 1-17 June 2016 and consisted of 

lectures, demonstrations of biomarker measurement or testing procedures, exercises aimed at 

standardisation of height and weight measurements, and practice with children at a health clinic. The 

logistics officers trained alongside the nurses to ensure that they would be able to support them.

A 2-day field practice was organised on 14 and 15 June 2016 to provide trainees with hands-on practice 

before the actual fieldwork. A total of 30 teams were formed and participated in field practice. On the first 

day of field practice, each team consisted of a supervisor, a minimum of three female interviewers, one 

male interviewer, and one logistics officer (male). On the second day, each team was joined by one or 

more nurses.

Training participants were evaluated through homework, in-class exercises, quizzes, and observations 

made during field practice. Ultimately, 120 (90 females and 30 males) were selected to serve as 

interviewers, 30 as nurses, 30 as field logistics officers/drivers, and 30 as team supervisors. The selection 

of team supervisors was based on their experience in leading survey teams and their performance during 

the main training. Following their selection, team supervisors received additional instruction and practice 

using the CAPI system to perform supervisory activities. These activities included assigning households 

for interviews and receiving completed interviews from interviewers, recognising and dealing with error 

messages, receiving system updates and distributing updates to interviewers, entering biomarker 

questionnaires and DBS transmittal sheets, dealing with duplicated cases, closing clusters, and transferring 

interviews to the Stats SA head office via a secure Internet file streaming system (IFSS).

1.8 FIELDWORK

Data collection was carried out by 30 field teams, each consisting of one team supervisor, three female 

interviewers, one male interviewer, one nurse, and one logistics officer/driver. Electronic data files were 

transferred to the Stats SA head office in Pretoria every day via the secured IFSS. Senior staff from the 

Stats SA head office and provincial offices coordinated fieldwork activities. Stats SA also led fieldwork 

supervision, receiving support from SAMRC on the supervision of biomarker collection and from ICF on 

standard DHS supervision procedures. Field visits made by independent teams from Stats SA’s Survey 

Coordination, Monitoring and Evaluation chief directorate were an important aspect of supervision. At the 

midpoint of fieldwork, monitoring teams visited 84 completed clusters in four provinces (Gauteng, Free 

State, Western Cape, and KwaZulu-Natal) to confirm that the correct DUs had been visited, to ensure 

household members were correctly listed, and to verify nonresponse. Feedback was provided to provincial 

coordinators, and, where necessary, clusters were revisited. The survey data collection took place from 

27 June 2016 to 4 November 2016.

1.9 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

All electronic data files for the SADHS 2016 were transferred via the IFSS to the Stats SA head office in 

Pretoria, where they were stored on a password-protected computer. The data processing operation 

included secondary editing, which required resolution of computer-identified inconsistencies and coding of 
Introduction and Survey Methodology • 9

open-ended questions. The data were processed by a core group of four people; secondary editing was 

completed by 11 people. All persons involved in data processing took part in the main fieldwork training, 

and they were supervised by senior staff from Stats SA with support from ICF. Data editing was 

accomplished using CSPro software. Secondary editing was initiated in October 2016 and completed in 

February 2017. Checking inconsistencies in dates of immunisations was aided by the digital images of the 

immunisation page of the Road-to-Health booklet that had been collected on the tablet by fieldworkers at 

the time of the interview for that purpose.

Appropriate analysis weights were calculated, taking the design probabilities and the response rate into 

account. Standard methods of analysis (Rutstein and Rojas 2006) were applied involving conversion of all 

dates to century month codes to facilitate calculation of ages at the time of different life events. 

1.10 RESPONSE RATES

Table 1.1 shows response rates for the SADHS 2016. A total of 15,292 households were selected for the 

sample, of which 13,288 were occupied. Of the occupied households, 11,083 were successfully 

interviewed, yielding a response rate of 83%.

In the interviewed households, 9,878 eligible women age 15-49 were identified for individual interviews; 

interviews were completed with 8,514 women, yielding a response rate of 86%. In the subsample of 

households selected for the male survey, 4,952 eligible men age 15-59 were identified and 3,618 were 

successfully interviewed, yielding a response rate of 73%. In this same subsample, 12,717 eligible adults 

age 15 and older were identified and 10,336 were successfully interviewed with the adult health module,

4

yielding a response rate of 81%. Response rates were consistently lower in urban areas than in nonurban areas.

Table 1.1 Results of the household and individual interviews

Number of households, number of interviews, and response rates, according to 

residence (unweighted), South Africa DHS 2016 

Residence

Result Urban Non-urban Total

Household interviews

Households selected 9,547 5,745 15,292

Households occupied 8,397 4,891 13,288

Households interviewed 6,556 4,527 11,083

Household response rate1 78.1 92.6 83.4

Interviews with women age 15-49

Number of eligible women 5,858 4,020 9,878

Number of eligible women interviewed 4,805 3,709 8,514

Eligible women response rate2 82.0 92.3 86.2

Household interviews in subsample selected 

for male survey and adult health module

Households selected 4,751 2,872 7,623

Households occupied 4,164 2,426 6,590

Households interviewed 3,240 2,237 5,477

Household response rate1 77.8 92.2 83.1

Interviews with men age 15-59

Number of eligible men 2,996 1,956 4,952

Number of eligible men interviewed 2,021 1,597 3,618

Eligible men response rate2 67.5 81.6 73.1

Interviews with adults age 15+

Number of eligible adults 7,463 5,254 12,717

Number of eligible adults interviewed 5,685 4,651 10,336

Eligible adults response rate2 76.2 88.5 81.3

1 Households interviewed/households occupied

2 Respondents interviewed/eligible respondents

 

4 The subsample of adults interviewed with the adult health module included all men age 15-59 and all women age 

15-49 in those households selected for the male survey.

Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 11

HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS AND 

HOUSEHOLD POPULATION 2

Key Findings

 Drinking water: 92% of households use an improved 

source of water. Nearly all urban households (98%) use an 

improved source of water, as compared with only 80% of 

non-urban households.

 Availability of water: 31% of households in South Africa 

using piped or borehole water reported having a water 

interruption of at least a single day in the last 2 weeks. 

Non-urban households are more likely than urban 

households to report an interruption (51% versus 23%).

 Sanitation: 73% of households use an improved toilet 

facility, and 22% use a shared toilet facility of an otherwise 

acceptable type. Two percent of households use an 

unimproved facility, and 2% have no facility.

 Electricity: Nine out of 10 households (90%) have 

electricity.

 Household population and composition: 37% of the 

household population falls in a dependency age group: 

30% are age 0-14, and 7% are age 65 or older. The 

average household consists of 3.4 members.

 Orphans: Among children under age 18, 16% are orphans 

(one or both parents are dead), and almost one-quarter

(23%) do not live with either biological parent.

 School attendance: The net attendance ratio declines 

sharply from 88% in primary school to 77% in secondary 

school. Girls and boys are about equally likely to attend 

primary and secondary school.

 Disability: Overall, 20% of the population age 5 and older 

was reported to have some level of difficulty in at least one 

functional domain.

nformation on the socioeconomic characteristics of the household population in the SADHS 2016

provides a context to interpret demographic and health indicators and can furnish an approximate 

indication of the representativeness of the survey. In addition, this information sheds light on the living 

conditions of the population. 

This chapter presents information on source of drinking water, sanitation, exposure to smoke inside the 

home, wealth, handwashing, household population composition, educational attainment, school attendance, 

family living arrangements, disabilities, and food security among the household population.

I
12 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

2.1 DRINKING WATER SOURCES AND TREATMENT

Improved sources of drinking water

Include piped water, public taps, boreholes, protected dug wells and springs, 

and rainwater. Households that use bottled water for drinking are classified as 

using an improved source only if the water they use for cooking and hand

washing comes from an improved source.

Sample: Households

Improved sources of water protect against outside 

contamination so that water is more likely to be safe 

to drink. In South Africa, 92% of households use an 

improved source of drinking water; almost all urban

households (98%) report using an improved source of 

drinking water, as compared with only 80% of nonurban households (Table 2.1). By province, the 

proportion of the household population using an 

improved source of drinking water ranges from a low 

of 71% in Eastern Cape to a high of over 99% in 

Northern Cape (Figure 2.1).

The most common source of drinking water for both 

urban and non-urban households is piped water, but 

the source of piped water differs (Figure 2.2). Among 

urban households, 62% use water piped into their 

dwelling, 24% use water piped into their yard/plot, 

and 2% use water piped to a neighbour. In contrast, 

only 9% of non-urban households have water piped 

into their dwelling, 29% have water piped into their 

yard/plot, and 5% use water piped to a neighbour. One 

in 10 (9%) urban households use a public or 

communal tap, as compared with one in four (25%) 

non-urban households. While 0.2% of urban 

households use surface water as their source of 

drinking water, 7% of non-urban households rely 

on it.

Overall, 78% of South African households have water 

on the premises. Eight percent of households travel 30 

minutes or longer to fetch water. Most households 

(92%) report that they do not treat their water prior to 

drinking. 

Table 2.2 presents information on the percentage of 

households using piped water or boreholes that 

reported availability of water in the last 2 weeks.

Thirty-one percent of households in South Africa

using piped or borehole water reported having a water interruption of at least a single day in the last 2 weeks. 

Non-urban households are more likely to report an interruption than urban households (51% versus 23%).

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The percentage of households obtaining water from improved sources 

increased from 85% in 1998 to 92% in 2016. Whereas in 1998 only 39% of households had water piped into 

their dwelling and 23% into their yard or plot, 45% reported having water piped into their dwelling and 26%

Figure 2.1 Improved source of drinking 

water by province

Percentage of the household population using an 

improved source of drinking water

Figure 2.2 Household drinking water 

by residence

45

62

9

26

24

29

3

2

5

14

9

25

3 0.3

8

2

1

3

8

2

20

Total Urban Non-urban

Unimproved

source

Other protected

source

Borehole

Public/communal

tap

Piped to

neighbour

Piped into

yard/plot

Piped water into

dwelling

Percent distribution of households 

by source of drinking water

Note: Percentages do not sum to 100% due to rounding.
Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 13

into their yard or plot in 2016. Most of the observed gains in access to improved water sources came from 

an increase in the proportion of non-urban households using water piped into their yard/plot (17% in 1998 

versus 29% in 2016).

2.2 SANITATION

Improved toilet facilities

Include any non-shared toilet of the following types: flush/pour flush toilets to 

piped sewer systems, septic tanks, and pit latrines; ventilated improved pit (VIP) 

latrines; pit latrines with slabs; composting toilets; and chemical toilets.

Sample: Households

As shown in Figure 2.3, nearly three-quarters (73%) 

of households in South Africa use improved toilet 

facilities, which are non-shared facilities that prevent 

people from coming into contact with human waste

and can reduce the transmission of cholera, typhoid, 

and other diseases. Shared toilet facilities of an 

otherwise acceptable type are also common, 

especially in urban areas; 27% of urban households 

use a shared facility, as compared with 12% of nonurban households. Two percent of households in 

South Africa use unimproved facilities, with an 

additional 2% not using any facility (Table 2.3). 

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The percentage 

of households not using any toilet facility decreased 

from 12% in 1998 to 2% in 2016. Most of this change 

is due to improvements in non-urban areas; 26% of 

non-urban households did not use a toilet facility in 

1998, compared with 5% in 2016.

2.3 EXPOSURE TO SMOKE INSIDE THE HOME

Exposure to smoke inside the home, either from cooking with solid fuels or smoking tobacco, has potentially 

harmful health effects. Thirteen percent of households in South Africa use solid fuels, consisting mostly of 

wood, for cooking (Table 2.4). Use of solid fuels for cooking is much more common in non-urban areas 

(33%) than urban areas (3%). Exposure to smoke from cooking is greater when cooking takes place inside 

the house rather than in a separate building or outdoors. In South Africa, the majority of households (87%) 

cook inside their house. Eight percent of households cook in a separate building, and 4% cook outside.

Exposure to tobacco smoke is common in South Africa. In 20% of households, someone smokes inside the 

house on a daily basis, and in 2% of households, someone smokes inside on a weekly basis.

Other Housing Characteristics

The survey collected data on access to electricity, dwelling type, flooring materials, wall materials, and the 

number of rooms used for sleeping. Overall, 90% of households in South Africa have electricity, and 78% 

live in a formal dwelling type. The most common flooring materials are cement (39% of households) and 

ceramic tiles (33%), while the most common materials used for walls are bricks (32%) and cement (28%).

Thirty-five percent of households use one room for sleeping.

Figure 2.3 Household toilet facilities 

by residence

73 70 81

22 27 12

2 3 1

2 1 5

Total Urban Non-urban

No facility/

bush/field

Unimproved

facility

Shared facility

Improved

facility

Percent distribution of households 

by type of toilet facilities

Note: Percentages do not sum to 100% due to rounding.
14 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Household Refuse Disposal

As shown in Table 2.5, 57% of households in South Africa report that their refuse is removed at least once 

a week, 11% have their own refuse dump, and 20% burn their refuse. Households in non-urban areas are far 

more likely than those in urban areas to use their own refuse dump (25% versus 5%) or burn their refuse 

(54% versus 4%). Refuse burning is especially common in Limpopo and Mpumalanga (48% and 45%,

respectively).

2.4 HOUSEHOLD WEALTH

Household Durable Goods

The survey collected information on household effects, means of transportation, and ownership of farm

animals. As shown in Table 2.6, 96% of households own a cellphone, 84% an electric or gas stove, 77% a 

television, 61% a radio, and 22% a computer. Almost 3 in 10 households own an automobile (29%), and 8% 

own a bicycle. Non-urban households are much more likely to own farm animals than urban households

(38% versus 5%).

Wealth Index

Wealth index

Households are given scores based on the number and kinds of consumer 

goods they own, ranging from a television to a bicycle or car, and housing

characteristics such as source of drinking water, toilet facilities, and flooring 

materials. These scores are derived using principal component analysis. 

National wealth quintiles are compiled by assigning the household score to each 

usual (de jure) household member, ranking each person in the household 

population by her or his score, and then dividing the distribution into five equal 

categories, each comprising 20% of the population.

Sample: Households

Table 2.7 presents the distribution of the de jure 

household population by wealth quintile according to 

residence and province. In South Africa, urban 

households are more likely than non-urban 

households to fall into the higher wealth quintiles, 

while non-urban households are more likely to fall 

into the lower wealth quintiles. Fifty-nine percent of 

the urban population is in the two highest wealth 

quintiles. By contrast, 73% of the non-urban 

population falls in the two lowest wealth quintiles 

(Figure 2.4). Wealth varies widely by province. 

Seventy-eight percent of the population in Western 

Cape is in the two highest wealth quintiles, as

compared with only 14% of the population in 

Limpopo. Forty-two percent of the population in 

Eastern Cape is in the lowest wealth quintile,

compared with only 3% in Western Cape. 

2.5 HANDWASHING

Handwashing is an important step in improving hygiene and preventing the spread of disease. Rather than 

asking direct questions on the practice of handwashing, which can be subject to overreporting, interviewers 

in the SADHS 2016 asked to see the place where members of the household most often wash their hands. A 

Figure 2.4 Household wealth 

by residence

10

38 12

35

20

21

29

5

31

1

Urban Non-urban

Percent distribution of de jure population 

by wealth quintiles

Wealthiest

Fourth

Middle

Second

Poorest

Note: Percentages do not sum to 100% due to rounding.
Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 15

place for washing hands was observed in 85% of households (Table 2.8). In half (50%) of the households

where a place for handwashing was observed, interviewers observed soap and water. One-third of 

handwashing locations (34%) had water but no soap, 1% had soap but no water, and 14% did not have soap, 

water, or any other cleaning agents. The percentage of households with a place for handwashing in which 

no water, soap, or other cleansing agent was observed was markedly higher in non-urban areas than urban 

areas (26% and 9%, respectively).

2.6 HOUSEHOLD POPULATION AND COMPOSITION

Household

A person or group of related or unrelated persons who live together in the same 

dwelling unit(s), who acknowledge one adult male or female as the head of the 

household, who share the same housekeeping arrangements, and who are 

considered a single unit.

De facto population

All persons who stayed in the selected households the night before the interview 

(whether usual residents or visitors).

De jure population

All persons who are usual residents of the selected households, whether or not 

they stayed in the household the night before the interview.

How data are calculated

All tables are based on the de facto population, unless otherwise specified.

A total of 37,128 individuals stayed 

overnight in the 11,083 sample 

households in the SADHS 2016.

Fifty-two percent (19,407) were 

female, and 48% (17,721) were male 

(Table 2.9). The population pyramid 

in Figure 2.5 illustrates the distribution by 5-year age groups and sex. 

Children under age 15 account for 

30% of the population, while 

individuals age 65 and older make 

up only 7%. 

As shown in Table 2.10, the

majority of households in South 

Africa are male-headed (57%). The 

average household consists of 3.4 

usual members. Non-urban households are on average larger than

urban households (3.8 and 3.1

persons per household, respectively). Overall, 22% of households in South Africa are caring for foster or 

orphaned children.

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The percentage of the population below age 15 decreased from 38% 

in 1998 to 30% in 2016, while the percentage of the population age 65 or older held relatively steady, 

increasing from 6% in 1998 to 7% in 2016. Over this same period, the average household size decreased 

from 4.2 persons to 3.4 persons, while there was essentially no change in the percentage of female-headed 

Figure 2.5 Population pyramid

8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8

<5

5-9

10-14

15-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

60-64

65-69

70-74

75-79

80+

Age

Percent distribution of the household population

Male Female

812 6 4 2
16 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

households (42% in 1998 versus 43% in 2016). The percentage of households with foster and/or orphan 

children dropped from 28% in 1998 to 22% in 2016.

2.7 CHILDREN’S LIVING ARRANGEMENTS AND PARENTAL SURVIVAL

Orphan

A child with one or both parents who are dead.

Sample: Children under age 18

Twenty-eight percent of children under age 18 are 

living with both parents, and 23% are not living with 

a biological parent (Table 2.11). Sixteen percent of 

children under age 18 are orphans, meaning that one 

or both parents have died. The percentage of children 

who are orphans rises rapidly with age, from 2% 

among children under age 2 to 13% among children 

age 5-9 and 32% among children age 15-17 (Figure 

2.6). Free State has the highest percentage of children 

who are orphans (25%).

Comparison with the SADHS 2016: The percentage 

of children under age 15 living with both parents 

decreased from 33% in 1998 to 29% in 2016, while

the percentage not living with a biological parent decreased from 25% to 22%. The percentage of children 

under age 15 who are orphans increased from 10% to 14%.

2.8 EDUCATION

2.8.1 Educational Attainment

Median educational attainment

Half of the population has completed less than the median number of years of 

schooling, and half of the population has completed more than the median 

number of years of schooling.

Sample: De facto household population age 6 and older

Tables 2.12.1 and 2.12.2 present information on educational attainment among the household population 

age 6 and over. Overall, 9% of women and girls age 6 and over have never been to school, 22% have attended 

some primary school, 6% have completed primary but advanced no further, 34% have attended some 

secondary school, 19% have completed secondary school but advanced no further, and 9% have attained 

some education after secondary school. Women and girls age 6 and over have completed a median of 8.8 

years of schooling. 

Educational attainment among men and boys is similar to that among women and girls. Eight percent of men 

and boys age 6 and over have never attended school, 25% have attended some primary school, 6% have 

completed primary school, 33% have attended some secondary school, 19% have completed secondary 

school, and 8% have attained some education after secondary school. Men and boys age 6 and over have 

completed a median of 8.5 years of schooling.

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: Educational attainment at the household level has increased since 

1998. Among women and girls age 6 and over, the percentage who have never attended school has decreased 

from 14% to 9%, and the median number of years of schooling has increased from 6.4 to 8.8. Among men 

Figure 2.6 Orphanhood by age

2 6

13

25

32

<2 2-4 5-9 10-14 15-17

Percentage of children with one 

or both parents dead 

Age in years
Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 17

and boys age 6 and over, the percentage who have never attended school has decreased from 11% to 8%, 

and the median number of years of schooling completed has increased from 6.4 to 8.5. 

Patterns by background characteristics

 The median number of years of schooling is higher in urban areas than in non-urban areas among both 

females (9.6 years versus 7.0 years) and males (9.4 years versus 6.7 years).

 The percentage of females and males with no education is higher in non-urban areas than urban areas 

(14% versus 7% for females and 10% versus 6% for males).

 Educational attainment increases with increasing household wealth. Females in the lowest wealth 

quintile have completed a median of 6.3 years of schooling, as compared with a median of 11.2 years 

among females in the highest wealth quintile. The median number of years of schooling increases from 

6.2 years among males in the lowest wealth quintile to 11.1 among those in the highest quintile.

 Among both females and males, the median number of years of schooling is highest in Gauteng (10.1 

years and 9.7 years, respectively) and lowest in Eastern Cape (7.4 years and 7.1 years, respectively). 

2.8.2 School Attendance

Net attendance ratio (NAR)

Percentage of the school-age population that attends primary or secondary 

school

Sample: Children age 7-13 for primary school NAR and children age 14-18 for 

secondary school NAR

Gross attendance ratio (GAR)

The total number of children attending primary school divided by the official 

primary school-age population and the total number of children attending 

secondary school divided by the official secondary school-age population.

Sample: Children age 7-13 for primary school GAR and children age 14-18 for 

secondary school GAR

School attendance ratios are shown in Table 2.13. Eighty-seven percent of girls age 7-13 attend primary 

school, as compared with 90% of boys. The net attendance ratio (NAR) drops in secondary school: 77% of 

boys and 76% of girls attend secondary school.

The gross attendance ratio (GAR) for primary school is 109 for girls and 115 for boys; the GAR for 

secondary school is 110 for girls and 108 for boys. These figures indicate that a number of children outside 

the official school-age population for that level are attending primary or secondary school.

Gender parity indices (GPI)

The ratio of female to male students attending primary school and the ratio of 

female to male students attending secondary school. Each index reflects the 

magnitude of the gender gap.

Sample: Primary school students and secondary school students

The gender parity index (GPI) for the GAR at the primary school level is 0.95, indicating that in primary 

school there are slightly more male students than female students. However, at the secondary school level, 

the GPI for the GAR is 1.01, indicating that there is little disparity in secondary school attendance between 

boys and girls.
18 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Age-specific attendance rate (ASAR)

Children and young people attending school, irrespective of whether they are 

attending the appropriate grade for their age.

Sample: De facto household population age 5-24 attending school

ASARs for the population age 5 to 

24 are presented in Figure 2.7 by 

age and sex. The ASAR indicates 

participation in schooling at any 

level, from primary to higher levels 

of education. The patterns are 

generally the same for males and 

females. By age 6, 7 in 10 children 

attend school. Between age 7 and 

age 16, more than 90% of children 

attend school. The attendance rate 

declines rapidly from age 17 to 24.

Patterns by background 

characteristics

 At the primary school level, there is little difference in the NAR between non-urban and urban areas 

(89% and 88%, respectively). However, at the secondary school level, the NAR is modestly higher in 

non-urban areas than in urban areas (79% versus 75%).

 Among provinces, Limpopo has the highest NAR and GAR at the secondary school level (87% and 

135%, respectively), and Western Cape has the lowest (71% and 92%, respectively).

2.9 DISABILITY

The SADHS 2016 included The DHS Program’s disability module, a series of questions from the 

Washington Group on Disability Statistics (WG) that are based on the framework of the World Health 

Organization’s International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health. The questions address six 

core functional domains—seeing, hearing, communication, cognition, walking, and self-care—and provide 

basic necessary information on disability comparable to that being collected worldwide via the WG disability 

tools.

2.9.1 Disability by Domain and Age

The respondent to the Household Questionnaire provided information for all household members and visitors 

on whether they had no difficulty, some difficulty, a lot of difficulty, or no ability at all in each of the 

functional domains. Results, based on 33,155 persons, are presented in Table 2.14 for the de facto household 

population age 5 and older.

Functional domains

Seeing, hearing, communicating, remembering or concentrating, walking or 

climbing steps, and washing all over or dressing.

Sample: De facto household population age 5 or above

Overall, 20% of the population age 5 and older was reported to have some level of difficulty in at least one 

functional domain. Six percent of the population was reported to either have a lot of difficulty functioning 

Figure 2.7 Age-specific attendance rates

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Percentage of the de facto household population 

age 5-24 attending school

Female Male

Age in years
Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 19

in at least one domain or could not function in a domain at all. Those age 60 or older (23%) were much more 

likely than other age groups to have a lot of difficulty or not be able to function in at least one domain.

The most common disability was having difficulty seeing (12%), followed by having difficulty walking or 

climbing steps (6%) and difficulty remembering or concentrating (6%).

2.9.2 Disability by Background Characteristics

Table 2.15 presents disability data among the de facto household population age 5 and older by background 

characteristics. Women are slightly more likely than men to have difficulties in any functional domain; 22% 

of women have at least some level of disability in any domain, as compared with 18% of men. The percentage 

of the population in non-urban areas with one or more disability is greater than the percentage in urban areas 

(23% versus 19%). Surprisingly, among those receiving a disability grant, 43% are reported to have no 

difficulty in any domain.

2.10 SOCIAL GRANTS AND FOOD SECURITY

2.10.1 Social Grants by Background Characteristics

A social grant is a sum of money typically paid monthly by the government to qualifying citizens. The types 

of grants available range from old age grants to social relief of distress. Seventy-one percent of South African 

households know at least one place where they can obtain social grant forms (Table 2.16). Among these 

households, 97% named the South African Social Security Agency (SASSA), the Department of Social 

Development (DSD), or a social development office as a place where grant forms can be obtained. Post 

offices, banks, magistrate’s courts, and pay points are among the other places where forms can be obtained, 

but less than 3% of households named any of these locations.

The respondent to the Household Questionnaire was asked whether household members and visitors to the 

household received any social grants and, if so, which types. Overall, 35% of the household population 

receives at least one type of grant (Table 2.17). Child support is the most common type of grant, received 

by 24% of the household population.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Non-urban households are more likely to know where to obtain forms for social grants than urban 

households (78% versus 68%) (Table 2.16).

 Children age 0-17 (67%-70%) and adults age 60 

and older (77%) are much more likely than those 

in other age groups to receive a grant (Figure 

2.8). 

 Receipt of grants does not differ by sex; 35% of 

the male and female household population 

receives some type of social grant (Table 2.17).

 Receipt of a social grant is more common among 

persons living in non-urban than urban 

households (48% versus 27%).

 The proportion of the household population that 

receives a social grant is highest in Eastern Cape and Limpopo (45% each) and lowest in Gauteng (23%). 

Figure 2.8 Receipt of social grants

67 70

2 2 4

10

77

<5 5-17 18-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 ≥60

Percentage of household population that 

receives any social grant by age

Age in years
20 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

 Receipt of social grants decreases with increasing household wealth. Forty-seven percent of the 

household population in the lowest wealth quintile receives social grants, as compared with 15% in the 

highest quintile.

2.10.2 Food Security by Background Characteristics

Households were asked two questions related to food security. First, they were asked whether any adults in 

the household had gone hungry in the past 12 months because there was not enough food. Second, they were 

asked whether any child in the household had gone hungry in the past 12 months.

Nearly all households included at least one adult, and among these households 82% had never experienced 

problems satisfying adult food needs in the past 12 months, 4% seldom experienced problems, 11% 

sometimes experienced problems, 2% often experienced problems, and 1% always experienced problems 

(Table 2.18).

Among the households interviewed, only 53% had children age 0-17 as household members. Among these 

households, 80% reported never experiencing problems satisfying child food needs in the past 12 months, 

4% seldom experienced problems, 11% sometimes experienced problems, 2% often experienced problems, 

and 1% always experienced problems (Table 2.19).

LIST OF TABLES 

For more information on household population and housing characteristics, see the following tables:

 Table 2.1 Household drinking water

 Table 2.2 Availability of water

 Table 2.3 Household sanitation facilities

 Table 2.4 Household characteristics

 Table 2.5 Household refuse disposal

 Table 2.6 Household possessions

 Table 2.7 Wealth quintiles

 Table 2.8 Handwashing

 Table 2.9 Household population by age, sex, and residence

 Table 2.10 Household composition

 Table 2.11 Children’s living arrangements and orphanhood

 Table 2.12.1 Educational attainment of the female household population

 Table 2.12.2 Educational attainment of the male household population

 Table 2.13 School attendance ratios

 Table 2.14 Disability by domain and age

 Table 2.15 Disability among the household population according to background 

characteristics

 Table 2.16 Knowledge of where social grant forms may be obtained

 Table 2.17 Social grants

 Table 2.18 Food security: Adults

 Table 2.19 Food security: Children
Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 21

Table 2.1 Household drinking water

Percent distribution of households and de jure population by source of drinking water and by time to obtain drinking water, percentage of 

households and de jure population using various methods to treat drinking water, and percentage using an appropriate treatment method, 

according to residence, South Africa DHS 2016 

Households Population

Characteristic Urban Non-urban Total Urban Non-urban Total

Source of drinking water

Improved source 98.1 79.6 92.2 98.5 76.3 90.4

Piped into dwelling 61.8 9.3 45.1 66.6 8.5 45.5

Piped into yard/plot 24.4 28.5 25.7 22.0 27.5 24.0

Piped to neighbour 1.6 5.4 2.8 1.4 5.2 2.8

Public/communal tap 8.9 25.1 14.1 7.3 24.7 13.6

Borehole 0.3 8.1 2.8 0.2 7.4 2.8

Protected well 0.0 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.5 0.2

Protected spring 0.1 0.8 0.3 0.1 0.9 0.4

Rainwater 0.0 1.6 0.5 0.0 1.3 0.5

Bottled water, improved source for 

cooking/handwashing1 1.1 0.3 0.8 0.9 0.2 0.6

Unimproved source 1.7 19.9 7.5 1.3 23.3 9.3

Unprotected well 0.0 3.9 1.3 0.0 5.0 1.8

Unprotected spring 0.1 2.6 0.9 0.1 3.1 1.2

Water carrier/tanker truck 1.4 3.8 2.1 1.0 3.7 2.0

Cart with small tank/water vendor 0.1 2.4 0.8 0.0 2.3 0.9

Surface water 0.2 7.0 2.3 0.2 9.1 3.4

Bottled water, unimproved source for 

cooking/handwashing1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1

Other source 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.4 0.2

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Time to obtain drinking water 

(round trip)

Water on premises2 90.0 51.8 77.8 91.8 48.7 76.1

Less than 30 minutes 8.3 25.9 13.9 6.6 26.4 13.8

30 minutes or longer 1.6 20.6 7.7 1.5 23.4 9.5

Don’t know 0.1 1.6 0.6 0.1 1.5 0.6

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Water treatment prior to drinking3

Boiled 5.4 3.6 4.8 5.3 3.4 4.6

Bleach/chlorine added 0.5 2.8 1.2 0.4 3.0 1.3

Strained through cloth 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0

Ceramic, sand, or other filter 1.9 0.5 1.4 1.7 0.4 1.2

Solar disinfection 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Let stand and settle 0.4 0.9 0.5 0.4 1.1 0.7

Other 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2

No treatment 91.8 92.1 91.9 92.1 92.3 92.2

Percentage using an appropriate 

treatment method4 7.6 6.6 7.3 7.3 6.2 6.9

Number of households/population 7,542 3,541 11,083 23,656 13,549 37,205

1 Households using bottled water for drinking are classified as using an improved or unimproved source according to their water source for 

cooking and handwashing

2

Includes water piped to a neighbour

3 Respondents may report multiple treatment methods, so the sum of treatment may exceed 100%

4 Appropriate water treatment methods include boiling, bleaching, filtering, and solar disinfecting
22 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.2 Availability of water

Percent distribution of households and de jure population using piped water or water from a borehole, by availability of water in the last 

2 weeks, according to residence, South Africa DHS 2016 

Households Population

Availability of water in last 2 weeks Urban Non-urban Total Urban Non-urban Total

Not available for at least 1 day 22.8 51.4 30.5 24.0 54.9 33.3

Available with no interruption of at 

least 1 day 75.9 47.6 68.3 74.9 44.1 65.6

Don’t know 1.3 1.0 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.1

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number using piped water or water 

from a borehole1 7,392 2,713 10,105 23,287 9,953 33,240

1

Includes households/population reporting piped water or water from a borehole as their main source of drinking water and 

households/population reporting bottled water as their main source of drinking water if their main source of water for cooking and 

handwashing is piped water or water from a borehole 

Table 2.3 Household sanitation facilities

Percent distribution of households and de jure population by type of toilet/latrine facilities and percent distribution of households and de 

jure population with a toilet/latrine facility by location of the facility, according to residence, South Africa DHS 2016

Households Population

Type and location of toilet/latrine facility Urban Non-urban Total Urban Non-urban Total

Improved sanitation 69.5 81.4 73.3 77.8 86.6 81.0

Flush/pour flush to piped sewer system 60.0 7.1 43.1 67.6 6.1 45.2

Flush/pour flush to septic tank 0.9 1.7 1.2 1.0 1.2 1.0

Flush/pour flush to pit latrine 0.9 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.6 0.7

Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine 1.1 14.8 5.5 1.0 16.4 6.6

Pit latrine with ventilation pipe but no gauze 

mesh/netting 1.1 19.5 7.0 1.2 22.4 8.9

Pit latrine with a slab without ventilation pipe 5.2 36.2 15.1 5.9 38.5 17.8

Composting toilet/ecological sanitation system 0.3 1.4 0.6 0.3 1.4 0.7

Unimproved sanitation 30.5 18.6 26.7 22.2 13.4 19.0

Shared facility1 26.9 11.9 22.1 19.4 7.2 14.9

Flush/pour flush to piped sewer system 19.3 1.8 13.7 14.0 0.7 9.1

Flush/pour flush to septic tank 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.3

Flush/pour flush to pit latrine 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2

Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine 0.4 1.1 0.7 0.3 0.7 0.5

Pit latrine with ventilation pipe but no gauze 

mesh/netting 0.5 2.0 1.0 0.6 1.6 1.0

Pit latrine with a slab without ventilation pipe 4.2 6.1 4.8 2.8 3.8 3.2

Composting toilet/ecological sanitation system 0.6 0.0 0.4 0.4 0.0 0.3

Chemical toilet 0.9 0.1 0.6 0.6 0.0 0.4

Unimproved facility 2.5 1.3 2.2 2.1 1.3 1.8

Flush/pour flush not to sewer/septic tank/pit latrine 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.4

Bucket 1.9 0.9 1.6 1.6 0.9 1.4

Open defecation (no facility/bush/field) 1.0 5.4 2.4 0.7 4.9 2.2

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of households/population 7,542 3,541 11,083 23,656 13,549 37,205

Location of toilet facility

In own dwelling 55.9 12.4 42.4 59.0 11.2 42.1

In own yard/plot 37.7 84.6 52.2 36.1 86.5 54.0

Elsewhere 6.5 3.1 5.4 4.9 2.3 4.0

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of households/population 

with a toilet/latrine facility 7,468 3,351 10,819 23,486 12,885 36,371

1 Facilities that would be considered improved if they were not shared by two or more households 
Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 23

Table 2.4 Household characteristics

Percent distribution of households and de jure population by housing characteristics, percentage using solid fuel for cooking, percentage using 

clean fuel for cooking, and percent distribution by frequency of smoking in the home, according to residence, South Africa DHS 2016

Households Population

Housing characteristic Urban Non-urban Total Urban Non-urban Total

Electricity

Yes 91.6 86.6 90.0 93.6 85.9 90.8

No 8.4 13.4 10.0 6.4 14.1 9.2

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Dwelling type

Formal 78.5 76.3 77.8 81.6 75.7 79.5

Traditional 0.3 16.3 5.4 0.3 18.7 7.0

Informal 20.3 6.5 15.9 17.2 5.0 12.8

Other 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.5 0.7

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Flooring material

Earth, sand 0.8 2.0 1.2 0.5 2.3 1.2

Dung 0.4 7.0 2.5 0.3 7.9 3.1

Wood/planks 1.9 0.4 1.4 1.6 0.3 1.2

Laminated or polished wood 2.5 0.7 2.0 2.5 0.4 1.8

Vinyl or asphalt strips 8.6 5.5 7.6 8.2 5.1 7.1

Ceramic tiles 39.5 17.8 32.6 44.5 19.3 35.3

Cement 31.1 54.9 38.7 29.2 54.2 38.3

Carpet 14.6 11.2 13.5 12.6 10.1 11.7

Other 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.4

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Wall material

No walls 1.8 2.0 1.9 1.5 1.9 1.6

Dirt/mud 0.7 9.8 3.6 0.6 11.1 4.4

Plastic 0.7 0.1 0.5 0.6 0.2 0.4

Wattle and daub 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.2

Stone with mud 0.2 1.0 0.4 0.1 1.4 0.6

Mud with cement mix 0.7 4.2 1.8 0.7 4.5 2.1

Cardboard 1.0 0.3 0.8 0.7 0.2 0.5

Reused wood 0.8 0.2 0.6 0.7 0.2 0.5

Cement 23.3 37.0 27.7 24.6 37.2 29.2

Stone with lime/cement 3.4 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.4 3.4

Bricks 36.1 22.0 31.6 37.5 21.1 31.5

Cement block/concrete 13.6 12.8 13.4 14.1 13.1 13.8

Wood planks 1.0 0.2 0.7 1.0 0.2 0.7

Corrugated iron/zinc 15.9 5.6 12.6 13.6 4.2 10.1

Other 0.8 1.1 0.9 0.8 1.1 1.0

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Rooms used for sleeping

One 38.3 28.4 35.2 25.5 16.7 22.3

Two 33.8 27.4 31.7 37.2 26.5 33.3

Three or more 27.9 44.3 33.1 37.3 56.8 44.4

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Place for cooking

In the house 97.3 64.7 86.9 97.1 57.8 82.8

In a separate building 1.6 22.6 8.3 2.0 28.8 11.7

Outdoors 0.7 11.9 4.3 0.8 13.2 5.3

No food cooked in household 0.3 0.7 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.2

Other 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Cooking fuel

Electricity from mains 85.2 58.3 76.6 86.1 52.7 73.9

Electricity from other sources 0.6 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.2 0.4

Gas 4.4 3.6 4.1 4.6 3.3 4.1

Paraffin 6.8 3.8 5.9 5.3 2.4 4.3

Coal 0.7 1.4 0.9 0.7 2.2 1.3

Wood 1.6 31.7 11.2 2.0 38.8 15.4

Agricultural crop 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Animal dung 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.4

Other 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0

No food cooked in household 0.3 0.7 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.2

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Percentage using solid fuel for cooking1 2.6 33.4 12.5 3.2 41.2 17.0

Percentage using clean fuel for cooking2 90.2 62.0 81.2 91.3 56.1 78.5

Frequency of smoking in the home

Daily 22.0 16.8 20.3 22.5 16.2 20.2

Weekly 2.3 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.5 2.3

Monthly 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.3

Less than once a month 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.9

Never 74.6 79.5 76.2 74.2 80.0 76.3

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of households/population 7,542 3,541 11,083 23,656 13,549 37,205

1

Includes coal, wood, straw/shrubs/grass, agricultural crops, and animal dung

2

Includes electricity and gas 
24 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.5 Household refuse disposal

Percent distribution of households by household refuse removal, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Characteristic

Removed 

at least 

once a 

week

Removed 

less than 

once a 

week

Communal 

refuse 

dump

Communal 

container/

central 

collection 

point

Own refuse 

dump

Own refuse 

burned

No rubbish 

disposal Other Total

Number of 

households

Residence

Urban 78.3 4.9 4.6 2.2 4.5 4.4 0.9 0.2 100.0 7,542

Non-urban 12.1 1.1 4.0 0.9 25.1 53.7 2.7 0.4 100.0 3,541

Province

Western Cape 89.0 1.1 2.0 4.8 1.6 1.0 0.4 0.1 100.0 1,206

Eastern Cape 35.5 2.2 3.3 2.3 18.8 34.7 3.1 0.1 100.0 1,301

Northern Cape 61.8 1.6 3.1 0.7 10.6 19.8 2.3 0.0 100.0 210

Free State 76.3 3.1 2.6 0.1 6.5 7.1 3.9 0.4 100.0 579

KwaZulu-Natal 50.5 2.5 1.4 1.5 14.0 28.6 0.9 0.5 100.0 1,968

North West 52.8 1.2 8.4 0.9 11.6 22.4 2.0 0.8 100.0 833

Gauteng 76.5 7.4 7.1 1.7 6.2 1.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 3,047

Mpumalanga 28.8 6.9 3.8 1.3 11.9 45.2 2.1 0.0 100.0 851

Limpopo 19.8 0.5 5.1 1.3 22.1 47.7 3.1 0.4 100.0 1,087

Total 57.1 3.7 4.4 1.8 11.1 20.1 1.4 0.3 100.0 11,083

Table 2.6 Household possessions

Percentage of households possessing various household effects, 

means of transportation, and livestock/farm animals by residence, 

South Africa DHS 2016

Residence

Possession Urban Non-urban Total

Household effects

Radio 63.1 55.9 60.8

Television 81.8 66.2 76.8

Cellphone 95.8 95.4 95.7

Computer 27.7 9.1 21.8

Non-mobile telephone 11.0 1.0 7.8

Refrigerator 77.9 67.8 74.7

Vacuum cleaner/floor polisher 17.4 4.2 13.2

Microwave oven 58.6 33.1 50.5

Electric/gas stove 88.2 74.0 83.7

Washing machine 44.0 17.2 35.4

A watch 52.5 30.2 45.4

Means of transport

Bicycle 8.9 5.4 7.8

Animal-drawn cart 1.0 1.3 1.1

Motorcycle/scooter 3.1 0.9 2.4

Car/bakkie/van/truck 34.3 16.8 28.7

Boat with a motor 0.7 0.3 0.6

Ownership of farm animals1 4.5 38.2 15.2

Number 7,542 3,541 11,083

1 Cattle, horses, donkeys, goats, sheep, pigs, chickens, or other 

poultry 
Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 25

Table 2.7 Wealth quintiles

Percent distribution of the de jure population by wealth quintiles, and the Gini coefficient, according to residence and province, 

South Africa DHS 2016

Wealth quintile

Total

Number of 

persons

Gini 

coefficient Residence/province 1 Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Residence

Urban 9.6 11.5 19.5 28.7 30.7 100.0 23,656 0.14

Non-urban 38.2 34.8 20.9 4.7 1.3 100.0 13,549 0.23

Province

Western Cape 2.7 7.5 11.8 32.1 45.8 100.0 4,071 0.14

Eastern Cape 42.4 16.8 14.8 17.0 9.0 100.0 4,728 0.31

Northern Cape 11.8 18.9 23.7 29.0 16.7 100.0 784 0.18

Free State 8.0 11.5 31.8 32.7 16.1 100.0 1,967 0.17

KwaZulu-Natal 25.5 22.6 20.6 15.8 15.4 100.0 6,939 0.28

North West 14.7 29.1 30.3 18.7 7.3 100.0 2,534 0.16

Gauteng 12.3 12.9 19.0 24.0 31.9 100.0 9,293 0.14

Mpumalanga 23.9 29.3 26.5 12.3 8.0 100.0 3,011 0.22

Limpopo 27.6 40.7 17.8 7.7 6.2 100.0 3,880 0.24

Total 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 20.0 100.0 37,205 0.20

1 The Gini coefficient presented is based on household wealth, not income

Table 2.8 Handwashing

Percentage of households in which the place most often used for washing hands was observed by whether the location was fixed or mobile and total percentage 

of households in which the place for handwashing was observed, and among households in which the place for handwashing was observed, percent distribution 

by availability of water, soap, and other cleansing agents, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Percentage of households in 

which place for washing hands 

was observed:

Number of 

households

Among households in which place for handwashing was observed, 

percentage with:

Number of 

households 

in which a 

place for 

handwashing 

was 

observed

Background 

characteristic

And place 

for handwashing 

was a 

fixed place

And place 

for handwashing 

was 

mobile Total

Soap and 

water1

Water and 

cleansing 

agent 

other than 

soap only2

Water 

only

Soap but 

no water3

Cleansing 

agent 

other than 

soap only2

No water, 

no soap, 

no other 

cleansing 

agent Total

Residence

Urban 67.3 19.7 87.0 7,542 57.0 1.1 31.8 1.3 0.0 8.8 100.0 6,560

Non-urban 27.9 54.2 82.1 3,541 34.5 0.7 37.7 1.3 0.0 25.8 100.0 2,907

Province

Western Cape 81.0 10.4 91.3 1,206 86.1 1.0 12.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 100.0 1,102

Eastern Cape 42.4 39.5 81.9 1,301 45.4 0.7 36.3 0.6 0.0 17.0 100.0 1,065

Northern Cape 67.5 22.9 90.3 210 54.2 0.6 33.5 1.2 0.0 10.6 100.0 190

Free State 64.5 22.1 86.6 579 38.1 0.3 47.9 0.9 0.0 12.7 100.0 502

KwaZulu-Natal 55.2 25.0 80.3 1,968 49.3 1.4 30.7 1.8 0.0 16.8 100.0 1,579

North West 47.3 48.2 95.5 833 35.5 0.1 45.7 1.4 0.1 17.1 100.0 796

Gauteng 61.2 18.6 79.8 3,047 49.2 2.0 36.3 1.6 0.0 10.9 100.0 2,431

Mpumalanga 47.9 42.6 90.5 851 35.2 0.1 39.4 1.8 0.0 23.5 100.0 771

Limpopo 24.6 70.2 94.8 1,087 47.0 0.1 31.4 1.5 0.0 19.9 100.0 1,031

Wealth quintile

Lowest 17.0 51.4 68.4 2,187 23.0 0.7 37.4 2.0 0.0 36.9 100.0 1,495

Second 30.1 51.3 81.4 2,349 30.4 1.0 43.9 1.4 0.0 23.3 100.0 1,912

Middle 53.2 33.9 87.1 2,247 38.0 1.4 46.5 1.4 0.0 12.7 100.0 1,956

Fourth 82.5 11.9 94.4 2,043 61.6 1.1 32.1 1.5 0.0 3.7 100.0 1,929

Highest 93.2 3.1 96.4 2,257 86.7 0.8 11.7 0.4 0.0 0.4 100.0 2,175

Total 54.7 30.7 85.4 11,083 50.1 1.0 33.6 1.3 0.0 14.0 100.0 9,467

1 Soap includes soap or detergent in bar, liquid, powder, or paste form. This column includes households with soap and water only as well as those that had soap 

and water and another cleansing agent.

2 Cleansing agents other than soap include locally available materials such as ash, mud, or sand

3

Includes households with soap only as well as those with soap and another cleansing agent 
26 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.9 Household population by age, sex, and residence

Percent distribution of the de facto household population by various age groups and percentage of the de facto household 

population age 10-19, according to sex and residence, South Africa DHS 2016

Urban Non-urban Total

Age Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

<5 10.3 9.3 9.8 13.5 11.2 12.3 11.5 10.0 10.7

5-9 10.0 8.3 9.1 14.0 11.5 12.7 11.4 9.5 10.4

10-14 8.2 7.9 8.0 12.9 10.3 11.5 9.9 8.8 9.3

15-19 8.0 8.4 8.2 12.3 8.8 10.5 9.6 8.5 9.0

20-24 8.9 8.9 8.9 8.7 7.6 8.1 8.8 8.4 8.6

25-29 9.2 9.8 9.5 6.1 7.1 6.6 8.1 8.8 8.4

30-34 8.9 8.5 8.7 6.1 7.0 6.6 7.9 7.9 7.9

35-39 7.8 7.3 7.5 4.1 4.9 4.5 6.5 6.4 6.4

40-44 7.0 6.5 6.7 4.3 4.6 4.5 6.0 5.8 5.9

45-49 5.4 5.6 5.5 3.2 4.5 3.9 4.6 5.2 4.9

50-54 4.1 4.7 4.4 3.0 4.2 3.7 3.7 4.5 4.1

55-59 3.5 4.3 3.9 2.9 4.0 3.5 3.3 4.2 3.7

60-64 2.9 3.3 3.1 2.8 3.8 3.3 2.9 3.5 3.2

65-69 2.0 2.4 2.2 2.0 3.0 2.5 2.0 2.6 2.3

70-74 1.3 1.9 1.6 1.3 2.2 1.8 1.3 2.0 1.7

75-79 0.7 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.8 1.5 0.8 1.4 1.1

80+ 0.9 1.6 1.3 0.8 2.8 1.9 0.8 2.1 1.5

Don’t know 1.0 0.5 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.7

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Dependency age 

groups

0-14 28.5 25.4 26.9 40.5 33.0 36.5 32.8 28.2 30.4

15-64 65.7 67.1 66.4 53.4 56.7 55.2 61.3 63.2 62.3

65+ 4.9 7.0 6.0 5.1 9.8 7.6 5.0 8.1 6.6

Don’t know 1.0 0.5 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.7

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Child and adult 

populations

0-17 33.2 30.2 31.6 48.1 38.5 43.0 38.5 33.3 35.8

18+ 65.9 69.3 67.6 50.9 61.0 56.3 60.5 66.2 63.5

Don’t know 1.0 0.5 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.7 1.0 0.5 0.7

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Adolescents 10-19 16.2 16.2 16.2 25.2 19.1 22.0 19.5 17.3 18.3

Number of persons 11,354 12,177 23,531 6,367 7,230 13,597 17,721 19,407 37,128
Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 27

Table 2.10 Household composition

Percent distribution of households by sex of head of household and by 

household size, mean size of household, and percentage of households with 

orphans and foster children under age 18, according to residence, South Africa 

DHS 2016

Residence

Characteristic Urban Non-urban Total

Household headship

Male 61.9 47.7 57.4

Female 38.1 52.3 42.6

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of usual members

0 0.2 0.1 0.2

1 24.9 21.5 23.8

2 21.2 16.3 19.6

3 17.1 15.6 16.7

4 15.7 13.2 14.9

5 9.4 10.4 9.7

6 5.0 8.2 6.0

7 2.8 5.4 3.6

8 1.5 3.7 2.2

9+ 2.3 5.6 3.3

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Mean size of households 3.1 3.8 3.4

Percentage of households with orphans 

and foster children under age 18 

Double orphans 2.0 4.2 2.7

Single orphans1 8.5 16.2 10.9

Foster children2 11.3 31.2 17.7

Foster and/or orphan children 15.8 36.2 22.3

Number of households 7,542 3,541 11,083

Note: Table is based on de jure household members, i.e., usual residents.

1

Includes children with one dead parent and an unknown survival status of the 

other parent

2 Foster children are those under age 18 living in households with neither their 

mother nor their father present, and the mother and/or the father are alive 
28 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.11 Children’s living arrangements and orphanhood

Percent distribution of de jure children under age 18 by living arrangements and survival status of parents, percentage of children not living with a biological parent, and 

percentage of children with one or both parents dead, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Living 

with both 

parents

Living with 

mother but 

not with 

father

Living with 

father but not 

with mother Not living with either parent

Missing 

information

on 

father/ 

mother Total

Percentage not 

living with 

a biological 

parent

Percentage with 

one or 

both 

parents 

dead1

Percentage 

maternal 

orphans

Number 

of 

children

Background 

characteristic

Father 

alive

Father 

dead

Mother 

alive

Mother 

dead

Both 

alive

Only 

father 

alive

Only 

mother 

alive

Both 

dead

Age

0-4 33.1 45.1 2.5 2.0 0.1 12.8 0.5 0.7 0.4 2.8 100.0 14.3 4.4 1.2 3,966

<2 33.1 52.9 1.1 1.5 0.0 9.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 2.0 100.0 9.4 1.5 0.2 1,487

2-4 33.1 40.5 3.4 2.3 0.2 15.0 0.7 1.0 0.6 3.3 100.0 17.3 6.2 1.8 2,479

5-9 26.9 35.9 5.8 2.3 0.6 18.5 1.7 2.5 1.8 4.1 100.0 24.4 13.2 4.9 3,869

10-14 26.4 27.3 9.9 3.0 1.0 15.7 3.3 4.5 4.5 4.4 100.0 28.0 24.5 10.0 3,460

15-17 24.7 23.3 12.2 3.2 1.6 14.5 3.1 5.1 8.2 4.2 100.0 30.9 31.9 14.6 2,002

Sex

Male 28.3 34.4 6.8 2.8 0.8 15.4 1.6 2.8 3.1 3.9 100.0 22.9 16.1 6.4 6,834

Female 28.2 34.6 6.9 2.2 0.6 15.6 2.3 2.9 2.9 3.7 100.0 23.7 16.6 6.7 6,463

Residence

Urban 37.6 32.5 7.1 2.8 0.7 10.4 1.5 2.1 2.7 2.6 100.0 16.8 14.7 5.5 7,475

Non-urban 16.4 37.1 6.5 2.2 0.7 22.0 2.5 3.8 3.5 5.4 100.0 31.7 18.4 8.0 5,822

Province

Western Cape 50.8 30.2 4.0 2.8 0.6 6.2 1.6 1.1 1.0 1.8 100.0 9.8 8.3 3.2 1,222

Eastern Cape 17.3 30.8 7.5 2.1 1.0 23.8 3.2 4.1 3.5 6.8 100.0 34.6 20.7 9.1 1,919

Northern Cape 32.0 35.5 5.3 1.7 1.1 14.7 1.7 1.9 2.5 3.8 100.0 20.7 13.6 6.2 291

Free State 25.6 31.7 10.3 2.4 1.2 12.5 3.6 3.4 5.2 4.0 100.0 24.7 25.0 11.1 734

KwaZulu-Natal 17.8 39.1 7.5 2.8 0.3 18.8 2.1 4.4 4.2 2.9 100.0 29.5 19.6 7.6 2,586

North West 26.6 40.2 5.2 2.5 1.7 12.3 1.6 1.6 3.8 4.5 100.0 19.3 15.8 9.1 909

Gauteng 42.5 30.8 7.8 3.0 0.5 8.0 1.0 2.2 2.1 1.9 100.0 13.3 14.1 4.0 2,821

Mpumalanga 27.5 36.1 7.4 3.5 0.3 15.9 2.1 2.3 2.3 2.5 100.0 22.6 15.4 5.6 1,174

Limpopo 18.5 37.8 4.8 1.0 0.8 23.3 1.5 2.5 2.7 7.0 100.0 30.1 13.7 6.3 1,641

Wealth quintile

Lowest 18.5 35.3 8.0 1.8 0.6 19.8 2.7 4.5 3.6 5.2 100.0 30.5 20.4 7.9 3,131

Second 23.6 35.9 6.8 2.4 0.5 18.2 1.4 2.8 2.9 5.4 100.0 25.4 16.3 6.7 2,840

Middle 24.0 37.9 7.5 3.0 0.8 15.2 1.7 2.7 3.7 3.5 100.0 23.3 17.2 7.0 2,797

Fourth 31.8 34.2 6.7 2.7 1.1 13.3 2.2 2.4 3.1 2.5 100.0 21.0 16.0 6.9 2,510

Highest 51.7 27.0 4.5 2.9 0.4 8.0 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.3 100.0 12.2 9.2 3.5 2,020

Total <15 28.9 36.5 5.9 2.4 0.5 15.7 1.7 2.5 2.1 3.7 100.0 22.0 13.6 5.2 11,295

Total <18 28.3 34.5 6.9 2.5 0.7 15.5 1.9 2.9 3.0 3.8 100.0 23.3 16.4 6.6 13,297

Note: Table is based on de jure members, i.e., usual residents.

1

Includes children with father dead, mother dead, both dead, and one parent dead but missing information on survival status of the other parent 
Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 29

Table 2.12.1 Educational attainment of the female household population

Percent distribution of the de facto female household population age 6 and over by highest level of schooling attended or completed and median 

years completed, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Background 

characteristic

No 

education

Some 

primary

Completed 

primary1

Some 

secondary

Completed 

secondary2

More than 

secondary Don’t know Total Number

Median 

years 

completed

Age

6-9 27.6 71.8 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.2 100.0 1,468 0.6

10-14 0.6 74.8 14.9 9.6 0.0 0.0 0.1 100.0 1,701 4.7

15-19 0.5 3.6 6.7 75.7 12.3 0.9 0.3 100.0 1,659 9.0

20-24 0.7 2.6 3.2 42.9 39.7 10.6 0.2 100.0 1,631 11.0

25-29 0.9 3.8 2.3 40.4 35.7 16.7 0.2 100.0 1,699 11.1

30-34 2.0 4.6 3.2 41.7 30.9 16.8 0.9 100.0 1,538 10.9

35-39 1.9 5.6 3.5 42.6 30.3 15.6 0.6 100.0 1,237 10.8

40-44 4.2 7.4 3.8 39.0 27.7 16.1 1.8 100.0 1,131 10.6

45-49 7.7 13.1 8.1 33.4 24.1 12.6 1.0 100.0 1,015 9.6

50-54 13.0 19.3 9.1 32.1 15.0 10.1 1.4 100.0 873 8.1

55-59 15.6 23.0 8.6 29.1 10.8 11.4 1.5 100.0 811 7.2

60-64 22.6 25.7 8.6 25.6 7.1 8.0 2.3 100.0 678 6.1

65+ 33.7 24.7 6.0 19.8 7.3 7.0 1.5 100.0 1,564 4.4

Don’t know 19.8 18.4 3.1 24.0 14.9 3.2 16.7 100.0 92 7.2

Residence

Urban 6.6 17.9 5.4 34.3 23.1 11.9 0.8 100.0 10,837 9.6

Non-urban 13.6 29.5 6.3 32.9 12.1 4.6 1.0 100.0 6,262 7.0

Province

Western Cape 6.1 17.4 4.7 35.4 20.5 14.8 1.1 100.0 1,996 9.5

Eastern Cape 9.9 29.0 8.0 33.3 12.0 7.2 0.7 100.0 2,176 7.4

Northern Cape 10.4 25.7 6.4 35.8 15.6 5.3 0.8 100.0 372 7.9

Free State 7.1 25.9 6.4 35.5 17.8 7.1 0.2 100.0 940 8.4

KwaZulu-Natal 11.0 23.7 5.4 31.2 20.5 7.3 0.9 100.0 3,317 8.7

North West 9.5 24.7 6.9 36.1 16.0 5.8 0.9 100.0 1,104 8.0

Gauteng 5.9 15.8 5.1 33.1 26.8 12.7 0.6 100.0 4,038 10.1

Mpumalanga 12.6 24.6 5.1 36.1 14.5 6.1 1.1 100.0 1,306 8.2

Limpopo 13.9 24.3 5.4 34.6 12.8 7.5 1.6 100.0 1,849 7.9

Wealth quintile

Lowest 16.8 30.7 7.8 34.8 8.3 0.8 0.8 100.0 3,347 6.3

Second 11.0 26.8 5.8 38.3 14.3 2.9 1.0 100.0 3,283 7.9

Middle 8.1 22.6 6.7 36.7 19.9 5.4 0.6 100.0 3,303 8.8

Fourth 6.7 18.7 5.6 35.0 23.4 9.1 1.4 100.0 3,520 9.4

Highest 4.0 12.9 2.9 25.1 28.4 26.2 0.5 100.0 3,646 11.2

Total 9.2 22.1 5.7 33.8 19.1 9.2 0.9 100.0 17,099 8.8

1 Completed 7th grade/standard 5/AET 3 at the primary level

2 Completed 12th grade/standard 10/form 5/matric at the secondary level 
30 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.12.2 Educational attainment of the male household population

Percent distribution of the de facto male household population age 6 and over by highest level of schooling attended or completed and median 

years completed, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Background 

characteristic

No 

education

Some 

primary

Completed 

primary1

Some 

secondary

Completed 

secondary2

More than 

secondary Don’t know Total Number

Median 

years 

completed

Age

6-9 28.5 71.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 100.0 1,633 0.4

10-14 1.0 81.2 11.4 5.9 0.0 0.0 0.5 100.0 1,754 4.2

15-19 0.6 8.1 10.7 72.9 6.2 0.9 0.6 100.0 1,695 8.4

20-24 1.5 4.6 3.1 47.7 34.0 8.7 0.4 100.0 1,560 10.5

25-29 1.8 5.2 3.5 41.3 33.1 13.8 1.2 100.0 1,434 10.8

30-34 2.7 4.2 5.0 43.5 30.4 13.4 0.8 100.0 1,398 10.7

35-39 3.1 7.5 3.8 39.5 30.9 13.5 1.8 100.0 1,143 10.7

40-44 4.3 10.6 5.2 34.1 30.6 13.4 1.9 100.0 1,062 10.6

45-49 5.4 13.7 7.1 30.0 27.8 14.4 1.6 100.0 813 10.4

50-54 9.6 17.5 6.7 33.1 18.4 11.4 3.3 100.0 661 9.0

55-59 11.9 22.4 6.1 25.2 19.3 11.7 3.4 100.0 580 8.1

60-64 15.3 25.0 6.0 27.8 10.8 12.9 2.1 100.0 510 7.2

65+ 27.0 18.9 6.1 21.1 10.5 13.3 3.1 100.0 880 6.4

Don’t know 22.6 19.6 2.4 23.8 15.1 4.1 12.4 100.0 173 6.7

Residence

Urban 6.4 20.1 5.0 33.3 22.6 11.1 1.5 100.0 9,962 9.4

Non-urban 10.4 33.9 7.1 32.9 11.2 3.2 1.2 100.0 5,335 6.7

Province

Western Cape 4.8 19.5 6.6 32.4 19.7 15.7 1.3 100.0 1,683 9.3

Eastern Cape 8.5 34.2 6.1 32.2 12.3 5.6 1.0 100.0 1,906 7.1

Northern Cape 12.0 27.7 6.0 32.1 16.7 3.9 1.7 100.0 312 7.4

Free State 9.0 28.3 5.9 31.8 18.4 5.9 0.7 100.0 755 7.9

KwaZulu-Natal 9.0 26.1 6.1 32.5 19.5 6.0 0.7 100.0 2,719 8.3

North West 10.0 28.1 6.4 31.5 18.0 4.0 2.1 100.0 1,117 7.6

Gauteng 5.7 18.7 4.4 34.6 23.3 11.7 1.7 100.0 4,060 9.7

Mpumalanga 9.0 25.0 5.5 33.0 19.5 6.1 1.9 100.0 1,246 8.3

Limpopo 9.5 29.3 6.7 35.1 11.4 6.5 1.5 100.0 1,499 7.5

Wealth quintile

Lowest 13.6 34.6 7.1 34.3 8.8 0.6 1.1 100.0 2,950 6.2

Second 8.1 28.5 7.2 38.8 13.8 2.0 1.5 100.0 3,129 7.6

Middle 7.7 25.6 5.9 34.4 19.0 5.8 1.6 100.0 3,115 8.4

Fourth 6.1 22.4 4.8 33.9 22.5 8.4 1.9 100.0 3,002 9.1

Highest 3.7 13.9 3.6 24.4 28.7 24.8 0.9 100.0 3,101 11.1

Total 7.8 24.9 5.7 33.2 18.6 8.4 1.4 100.0 15,296 8.5

1 Completed 7th grade/standard 5/AET 3 at the primary level

2 Completed 12th grade/standard 10/form 5/matric at the secondary level 
Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 31

Table 2.13 School attendance ratios

Net attendance ratios (NAR) and gross attendance ratios (GAR) for the de facto household population by sex and level of schooling, and the gender 

parity index (GPI), according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Net attendance ratio1 Gross attendance ratio2

Background 

characteristic Male Female Total

Gender parity 

index3 Male Female Total

Gender parity 

index3

PRIMARY SCHOOL

Residence

Urban 89.5 86.7 88.2 0.97 115.0 108.4 111.8 0.94

Non-urban 89.8 87.1 88.5 0.97 115.8 109.9 113.0 0.95

Province

Western Cape 84.4 88.0 86.2 1.04 102.1 105.8 103.9 1.04

Eastern Cape 91.9 87.8 89.9 0.96 116.3 103.4 109.9 0.89

Northern Cape 90.2 87.6 88.9 0.97 110.9 108.5 109.7 0.98

Free State 93.4 86.8 90.2 0.93 117.5 105.6 111.7 0.90

KwaZulu-Natal 87.6 83.3 85.6 0.95 113.6 111.9 112.8 0.98

North West 91.5 89.7 90.7 0.98 110.6 110.5 110.6 1.00

Gauteng 91.3 87.9 89.7 0.96 119.8 112.1 116.2 0.94

Mpumalanga 87.7 87.1 87.4 0.99 122.4 112.1 117.3 0.92

Limpopo 89.7 86.7 88.2 0.97 118.4 109.8 114.2 0.93

Wealth quintile

Lowest 91.8 87.6 89.7 0.95 122.0 110.1 116.0 0.90

Second 89.3 88.3 88.8 0.99 115.6 111.6 113.7 0.96

Middle 89.9 86.5 88.4 0.96 117.3 111.0 114.4 0.95

Fourth 90.3 86.7 88.7 0.96 112.6 110.4 111.6 0.98

Highest 85.5 84.5 85.0 0.99 105.3 101.0 103.1 0.96

Total 89.6 86.9 88.3 0.97 115.3 109.1 112.3 0.95

SECONDARY SCHOOL

Residence

Urban 76.3 73.7 74.9 0.97 99.6 101.9 100.8 1.02

Non-urban 78.2 79.6 78.8 1.02 118.3 121.5 119.7 1.03

Province

Western Cape 64.8 76.2 70.9 1.18 88.2 94.6 91.6 1.07

Eastern Cape 74.3 75.5 74.9 1.02 97.9 117.9 107.0 1.20

Northern Cape 77.3 77.2 77.3 1.00 105.9 102.9 104.3 0.97

Free State 73.2 75.1 74.1 1.03 102.6 109.3 105.9 1.07

KwaZulu-Natal 80.4 74.2 77.4 0.92 117.6 112.5 115.1 0.96

North West 66.8 78.3 72.3 1.17 100.3 104.9 102.5 1.05

Gauteng 81.7 69.8 75.5 0.86 100.1 96.0 97.9 0.96

Mpumalanga 70.8 80.7 75.7 1.14 111.2 115.1 113.1 1.03

Limpopo 88.4 86.3 87.4 0.98 136.5 133.2 134.9 0.98

Wealth quintile

Lowest 68.6 70.0 69.3 1.02 100.2 101.7 101.0 1.02

Second 80.8 78.3 79.6 0.97 126.5 115.2 121.1 0.91

Middle 77.6 75.1 76.5 0.97 106.9 113.9 110.2 1.07

Fourth 76.1 78.1 77.1 1.03 100.0 106.1 103.1 1.06

Highest 85.0 80.2 82.6 0.94 107.6 113.2 110.4 1.05

Total 77.2 76.0 76.6 0.98 108.1 109.5 108.8 1.01

1 The NAR for primary school is the percentage of the primary school-age (7-13 years) population that is attending primary school. The NAR for 

secondary school is the percentage of the secondary school-age (14-18 years) population that is attending secondary school. By definition, the NAR 

cannot exceed 100.0.

2 The GAR for primary school is the total number of primary school students, expressed as a percentage of the official primary school-age population. 

The GAR for secondary school is the total number of secondary school students, expressed as a percentage of the official secondary school-age 

population. If there are significant numbers of overage and underage students at a given level of schooling, the GAR can exceed 100.0.

3 The gender parity index for primary school is the ratio of the primary school NAR (GAR) for females to the NAR (GAR) for males. The gender parity 

index for secondary school is the ratio of the secondary school NAR (GAR) for females to the NAR (GAR) for males.
32 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.14 Disability by domain and age

Percent distribution of the de facto household population age 5 and over by the degree of difficulty in functioning according to domain, and percent distribution by the 

highest degree of difficulty in functioning in at least one domain by age, South Africa DHS 2016

Degree of difficulty A lot of 

difficulty 

or cannot 

do at all

Number of 

Domain and age No difficulty Some difficulty persons

A lot of 

difficulty

Cannot do 

at all Don’t know Total

Domain

Difficulty seeing 87.9 9.7 2.2 0.2 0.1 100.0 2.3 33,155

Difficulty hearing 95.2 3.7 1.0 0.1 0.1 100.0 1.1 33,155

Difficulty communicating 98.7 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.0 100.0 0.6 33,155

Difficulty remembering or 

concentrating 94.1 4.3 1.3 0.3 0.1 100.0 1.5 33,155

Difficulty walking or climbing 

steps 93.5 4.1 1.9 0.4 0.0 100.0 2.3 33,155

Difficulty washing all over or 

dressing 97.6 1.6 0.4 0.4 0.0 100.0 0.8 33,155

Difficulty in at least one 

domain1

5-9 86.0 10.4 2.5 1.1 0.0 100.0 3.6 3,862

10-14 91.0 6.6 1.9 0.3 0.2 100.0 2.2 3,455

15-19 90.8 6.9 1.9 0.3 0.0 100.0 2.2 3,354

20-29 90.5 7.2 1.9 0.3 0.1 100.0 2.2 6,324

30-39 87.3 9.4 2.4 0.6 0.2 100.0 3.1 5,316

40-49 77.7 17.1 4.2 0.8 0.2 100.0 5.0 4,021

50-59 60.2 30.2 8.1 1.3 0.2 100.0 9.3 2,925

60+ 40.9 35.6 19.4 3.8 0.2 100.0 23.3 3,634

Don’t know 83.8 8.8 4.3 2.1 1.1 100.0 6.3 264

Age 15 and over 77.3 15.9 5.6 1.1 0.2 100.0 6.6 25,573

Total 79.8 14.2 4.8 1.0 0.2 100.0 5.8 33,155

1

If a person was reported to have difficulty in more than one domain, only the highest level of difficulty is shown

Table 2.15 Disability among the household population according to background characteristics

Percentage of the de facto household population age 5 and over who have difficulty in functioning according to domain, and by the highest degree of difficulty in 

functioning in at least one domain, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

No 

difficulty in 

any 

domain

Domain Difficulty in at least one domain1 A lot of 

difficulty 

or cannot 

do at all 

in more 

than one 

domain

Number 

of 

persons

Background 

characteristic Seeing Hearing

Communicating

Remembering or 

concentrating

Walking 

or 

climbing 

steps

Washing 

all over or 

dressing

Some 

difficulty

A lot of 

difficulty

Cannot 

do at all

A lot of 

difficulty 

or cannot 

do at all

Sex

Male 82.2 9.7 4.4 1.4 4.7 4.4 2.4 12.6 4.0 1.0 5.1 1.3 15,687

Female 77.7 14.1 5.1 1.1 6.8 8.2 2.4 15.6 5.5 1.0 6.5 1.9 17,468

Residence

Urban 81.2 12.0 4.2 1.1 5.0 5.5 1.6 13.8 4.1 0.8 4.9 1.4 21,230

Non-urban 77.4 12.1 5.9 1.6 7.3 8.1 3.7 14.9 6.2 1.3 7.5 2.2 11,925

Province

Western Cape 84.1 9.0 3.6 1.3 5.1 5.3 1.8 12.6 2.7 0.4 3.2 0.9 3,744

Eastern Cape 73.6 14.8 7.7 1.8 9.2 8.5 3.7 17.3 7.5 1.5 9.0 2.7 4,196

Northern Cape 74.9 14.3 6.2 1.5 9.7 9.8 2.0 19.1 4.5 1.2 5.7 1.9 699

Free State 77.9 14.0 4.7 1.1 6.6 6.9 1.9 13.2 7.6 1.1 8.8 2.6 1,731

KwaZulu-Natal 77.5 14.2 5.7 1.7 7.3 8.0 3.6 15.4 6.1 1.1 7.1 2.1 6,200

North West 80.6 10.7 4.6 1.5 7.8 6.1 2.9 14.7 3.7 0.8 4.5 1.5 2,269

Gauteng 81.9 12.6 3.8 0.9 3.4 4.0 0.9 13.9 3.3 0.8 4.0 1.0 8,269

Mpumalanga 84.6 8.5 3.1 0.7 4.0 5.6 1.0 10.2 3.7 1.3 5.0 1.4 2,618

Limpopo 79.9 8.9 4.2 1.1 4.7 7.9 3.8 12.9 5.5 1.2 6.8 1.8 3,430

Wealth quintile

Lowest 77.1 11.8 6.2 1.9 7.2 8.0 3.8 14.9 6.4 1.3 7.8 2.1 6,495

Second 79.9 11.2 5.2 1.2 6.3 6.8 2.7 13.8 5.0 1.0 6.1 1.9 6,577

Middle 81.1 11.2 4.2 1.4 5.9 5.9 2.2 13.4 4.3 1.1 5.4 1.6 6,573

Fourth 80.1 12.9 4.0 1.1 5.4 5.8 1.6 14.0 4.7 0.9 5.7 1.5 6,644

Highest 80.9 13.1 4.3 0.8 4.4 5.6 1.5 14.7 3.7 0.6 4.3 1.2 6,865

Disability grant 

recipient2

Yes 42.7 25.4 13.3 10.5 23.8 25.2 9.2 27.2 19.2 10.8 30.0 9.4 763

No 84.2 10.3 2.6 0.6 3.6 3.4 0.4 12.6 2.7 0.2 3.0 0.4 19,176

Total 79.8 12.0 4.8 1.3 5.8 6.4 2.4 14.2 4.8 1.0 5.8 1.7 33,155

1

If a person was reported to have difficulty in more than one domain, only the highest level of difficulty is shown

2 Restricted to the household population age 18-59 
Housing Characteristics and Household Population • 33

Table 2.16 Knowledge of where social grant forms may be obtained

Percentage of households that know where forms to apply for government social grants may be obtained, and among households that know where 

forms may be obtained, percentage that cite specific places, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Percentage of 

households that 

know where forms 

to apply for 

government social 

grants may be 

obtained

Number of 

households

Among households that know where forms can be obtained, 

percentage that cite specific places:

Number of 

households that 

know where 

forms may be 

obtained

Background 

characteristic Post office Bank

Magistrate’s 

court

SASSA/ 

Department 

of Social 

Development/

social 

development 

office Pay point Other

Residence

Urban 67.6 7,542 1.2 0.2 0.8 96.6 3.0 2.1 5,101

Non-urban 78.0 3,541 0.4 0.0 1.0 96.6 2.6 3.3 2,762

Province

Western Cape 69.7 1,206 0.7 0.5 1.6 95.0 7.6 3.7 841

Eastern Cape 73.3 1,301 0.4 0.0 0.5 94.2 2.0 6.2 953

Northern Cape 85.5 210 0.1 0.0 0.3 99.4 2.2 0.6 180

Free State 79.2 579 0.5 0.0 0.6 95.4 8.4 2.7 459

KwaZulu-Natal 79.9 1,968 0.6 0.2 1.0 98.5 2.4 1.3 1,573

North West 78.8 833 0.5 0.1 0.7 96.4 3.6 2.8 656

Gauteng 60.7 3,047 2.3 0.0 0.7 96.0 1.5 1.5 1,850

Mpumalanga 69.6 851 0.5 0.0 1.0 98.2 0.7 2.1 593

Limpopo 69.8 1,087 0.3 0.2 1.2 97.7 1.2 1.9 759

Wealth quintile

Lowest 68.7 2,187 0.2 0.0 0.5 96.6 2.1 3.4 1,503

Second 69.8 2,349 0.9 0.1 0.5 97.2 2.4 2.3 1,638

Middle 75.5 2,247 1.2 0.0 1.3 96.3 3.0 2.4 1,697

Fourth 77.5 2,043 0.9 0.2 1.1 96.5 3.3 2.0 1,583

Highest 63.9 2,257 1.5 0.3 1.1 96.2 3.8 2.5 1,442

Total 70.9 11,083 0.9 0.1 0.9 96.6 2.9 2.5 7,863

SASSA = South African Social Security Agency

Table 2.17 Social grants

Percentage of the de facto household population by whether they are receiving a government social grant or pension, and percentage of the de 

facto population receiving specific grant types, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Percentage 

receiving 

any grant

Percentage receiving specific grant types:

Number of 

persons

Background 

characteristic Old age Disability

Child 

support

Care 

dependency Foster child Other Don’t know

Age

0-4 67.4 0.0 0.1 66.9 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.0 3,973

5-17 69.7 0.0 0.4 66.4 0.3 2.5 0.0 0.1 9,318

18-29 2.2 0.0 1.1 0.2 0.0 0.7 0.1 0.0 7,678

30-39 2.2 0.0 1.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 5,316

40-49 4.4 0.0 4.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 4,021

50-59 10.2 0.7 8.3 0.0 0.1 0.0 1.0 0.1 2,925

60+ 77.1 76.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.1 3,634

Don’t know 23.7 3.4 3.0 16.4 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.3 264

Sex

Male 34.5 5.4 1.9 25.9 0.1 0.8 0.3 0.0 17,721

Female 34.5 9.5 1.6 22.2 0.1 0.8 0.2 0.1 19,407

Residence

Urban 27.0 6.1 1.7 18.2 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.1 23,531

Non-urban 47.5 10.1 1.8 34.0 0.2 1.2 0.2 0.0 13,597

Province

Western Cape 23.8 6.8 2.5 13.5 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.1 4,073

Eastern Cape 44.9 9.8 2.2 30.9 0.2 1.6 0.3 0.0 4,708

Northern Cape 43.4 10.3 3.6 27.7 0.3 0.9 0.4 0.0 774

Free State 38.9 7.3 2.3 26.2 0.3 1.9 0.9 0.0 1,921

KwaZulu-Natal 39.1 8.4 2.0 27.3 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.1 6,955

North West 34.6 7.5 1.3 24.3 0.1 1.1 0.2 0.1 2,563

Gauteng 23.1 5.3 1.0 16.3 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.1 9,235

Mpumalanga 38.0 5.8 1.6 29.8 0.0 0.7 0.1 0.0 2,993

Limpopo 44.9 10.2 1.5 32.3 0.1 0.8 0.1 0.0 3,906

Wealth quintile

Lowest 46.5 8.6 1.8 34.5 0.2 1.1 0.2 0.0 7,424

Second 41.7 7.9 2.0 30.5 0.2 0.8 0.2 0.1 7,469

Middle 37.7 6.7 1.8 27.8 0.1 1.0 0.2 0.1 7,435

Fourth 31.5 7.6 2.0 20.7 0.0 0.8 0.3 0.0 7,377

Highest 14.9 6.7 1.1 6.5 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.0 7,422

Total 34.5 7.5 1.8 24.0 0.1 0.8 0.2 0.1 37,128
34 • Housing Characteristics and Household Population

Table 2.18 Food security: Adults

Percent distribution of households by the frequency of problems satisfying food needs of de jure adults in the past 12 months, according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

In the past 12 months, frequency of problems satisfying food needs of adults

Number of 

households

Background 

characteristic Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always Not applicable Total

Residence

Urban 84.5 3.3 8.7 1.6 0.8 1.1 100.0 7,507

Non-urban 77.0 4.3 14.6 2.8 0.9 0.4 100.0 3,510

Province

Western Cape 87.1 3.3 6.8 0.6 0.4 1.8 100.0 1,204

Eastern Cape 75.3 6.1 13.5 2.7 2.0 0.3 100.0 1,287

Northern Cape 79.7 7.7 7.8 1.6 1.0 2.2 100.0 209

Free State 78.0 6.1 9.1 4.2 2.0 0.6 100.0 578

KwaZulu-Natal 75.5 3.2 16.7 2.8 1.0 0.7 100.0 1,956

North West 81.4 5.0 10.1 2.9 0.2 0.3 100.0 830

Gauteng 88.3 2.8 6.5 0.7 0.6 1.2 100.0 3,035

Mpumalanga 81.8 2.4 12.0 2.4 0.8 0.5 100.0 847

Limpopo 82.6 1.9 12.0 2.3 0.4 0.8 100.0 1,070

Wealth quintile

Lowest 66.8 5.7 20.6 4.2 2.0 0.6 100.0 2,162

Second 79.4 4.6 11.9 2.5 0.8 0.8 100.0 2,329

Middle 81.9 3.4 11.2 1.4 0.7 1.3 100.0 2,234

Fourth 85.7 3.4 8.0 1.3 0.6 1.0 100.0 2,041

Highest 96.6 1.0 1.2 0.2 0.1 0.8 100.0 2,251

Total 82.1 3.6 10.6 2.0 0.9 0.9 100.0 11,016

Table 2.19 Food security: Children

Percent distribution of households by the frequency of problems satisfying food needs of de jure children in the past 12 months, according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

In the past 12 months, frequency of problems satisfying food needs of children

Number of 

households

Background 

characteristic Never Seldom Sometimes Often Always Not applicable Total

Residence

Urban 83.4 3.0 8.5 1.7 0.8 2.7 100.0 3,688

Non-urban 74.4 4.3 15.2 3.2 0.9 2.0 100.0 2,236

Province

Western Cape 85.0 4.0 9.0 0.4 0.3 1.4 100.0 657

Eastern Cape 74.3 6.4 12.1 2.2 1.5 3.5 100.0 777

Northern Cape 83.6 7.1 6.3 1.3 0.0 1.8 100.0 134

Free State 76.5 5.5 8.6 5.0 2.6 1.8 100.0 347

KwaZulu-Natal 68.9 3.2 18.8 4.1 1.1 3.8 100.0 1,011

North West 79.5 2.9 12.2 4.1 0.3 1.0 100.0 388

Gauteng 87.9 2.3 5.9 0.6 0.5 2.8 100.0 1,436

Mpumalanga 80.7 3.0 11.8 2.5 0.6 1.4 100.0 486

Limpopo 82.2 1.9 11.8 2.2 0.6 1.4 100.0 686

Wealth quintile

Lowest 62.3 6.3 21.8 5.1 2.0 2.5 100.0 1,177

Second 77.0 3.4 13.1 3.1 0.9 2.5 100.0 1,208

Middle 81.1 3.8 10.9 1.5 0.7 2.0 100.0 1,230

Fourth 86.3 3.0 7.0 1.3 0.5 1.9 100.0 1,186

Highest 93.8 1.0 1.8 0.0 0.0 3.4 100.0 1,122

Total 80.0 3.5 11.0 2.2 0.8 2.4 100.0 5,923
Characteristics of Respondents • 35

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS 3

Key Findings

 Education: About 1 in 4 respondents (28% of women 

and 24% of men) have completed secondary school, and 

an additional 1 in 10 respondents have attended more 

than secondary school (12% of women and 11% of men).

 Literacy: 96% of women and 95% of men are literate.

 Exposure to media: 30% of women and 27% of men are 

exposed to three specified types of media (newspapers, 

television, and radio) weekly.

 Employment: Men are more likely to be currently 

employed than women (46% versus 34%).

his chapter presents information on the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the 

survey respondents such as age, education, place of residence, marital status, employment, and 

wealth status. This information is useful for understanding the factors that affect use of 

reproductive health services, contraceptive use, and other health behaviours. 

3.1 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SURVEY RESPONDENTS

A total of 8,514 women age 15-49 and 3,618 men age 15-59 were interviewed in the SADHS 2016 with 

the standard individual questionnaires. Among the respondents age 15-49, 33% of women and 39% of men

were in the 15-24 age group, 33% of women and 30% of men were in the 25-34 age group, and 34% of 

women and 32% of men were in the 35-49 age group (Table 3.1). While men up to age 59 were 

interviewed, the body of tables in this report presents data for men age 15-49 so that this information is 

comparable with the data for women; data for men age 50-59 and age 15-59 are presented as separate rows

in the tables.

Black African is the largest self-reported population group, making up 87% of female and 88% of male 

respondents, followed by the Coloured population group, which accounts for 9% of women and 7% of 

men. The next-largest segment is the White population group (3% each of women and men), reflecting 

considerable underrepresentation of this group in the survey. Two percent of women and men each 

reported belonging to the Indian/Asian population group.

Well over half of women (59%) and two-thirds of men (65%) have never been married. Women more 

often are married or living together with a partner (i.e., in a union) than men (36% and 31%, respectively). 

Women and men are equally likely to report that they are divorced or separated (3% and 4%, respectively). 

Two percent of women report that they are widowed, as compared with 1% of men.

The majority of respondents live in urban areas (67% of women and 69% of men). By province, the largest 

percentage of women and men live in Gauteng (27% of women and 31% of men), followed by KwaZuluNatal (19% of women and 16% of men). Only 2% of female and male respondents live in Northern Cape.

T
36 • Characteristics of Respondents

3.2 EDUCATION AND LITERACY

Educational attainment is high in South Africa. About 1 in 4 respondents (28% of women and 24% of 

men) have completed secondary school, and an additional 1 in 10 respondents have attended more than 

secondary school (12% of women and 11% of men) (Tables 3.2.1 and 3.2.2). Forty-nine percent of women 

report that they attended some secondary school but did not complete it, as compared with 51% of men. 

Only 2% of respondents reported having no formal education (Figure 3.1). The median number of years of 

schooling completed by women and men age 15-49 is 10.4 and 10.0, respectively.

Literacy

Respondents who have attended higher than secondary school are assumed 

to be literate. All other respondents, shown a typed sentence to read aloud, 

are considered literate if they could read all or part of the sentence.

Sample: Women and men age 15-49

Ninety-six percent of women and 95% of men are 

literate (Tables 3.3.1 and 3.3.2). Four percent of 

women and 5% of men cannot read at all.

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: Among 

women, the median number of years of school 

completed has increased by 1.7 years, from 8.7 to 

10.4. The percentage of women with no education 

decreased from 7% in 1998 to 2% in 2016.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Respondents from urban areas are more educated 

than their non-urban counterparts. For example, 

14% of women in urban areas have attended 

more than secondary school, as compared with 

only 7% of women in non-urban areas. The 

median number of years of schooling completed 

is 10.8 years for urban women, compared with 

9.7 years for non-urban women.

 Educational attainment varies by province. 

Gauteng has the highest percentage of women 

who have completed secondary school or higher 

and Eastern Cape has the lowest (51% versus 

28%) (Figure 3.2).

 Educational attainment increases with increasing 

household wealth. Seventy-one percent of both 

women and men in the highest wealth quintile 

have completed secondary school or higher, as

compared with 16% of women and 13% of men 

in the lowest wealth quintile (Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.1 Education of survey 

respondents

Figure 3.2 Secondary education 

by province

Percentage of women age 15-49 with secondary 

education complete or higher

5 2 7 2

4 5

49 51

28 24

12 11

Women Men

Percent distribution of women and men 

age 15-49 by highest level of schooling 

attended or completed

More than

secondary

Completed

secondary

Some

secondary

Primary

complete

Primary

incomplete

No education
Characteristics of Respondents • 37

 Literacy generally decreases with age. Among 

women, literacy decreases from 98% among 

those age 15-19 to 93% among those age 40-49. 

Among men, literacy decreases from 97% 

among those age 15-19 to 92% among those age 

40-44 (Tables 3.3.1 and 3.3.2).

 Literacy also increases with increasing wealth, 

rising from 91% among women in the lowest 

wealth quintile to 99% in the fourth quintile and 

from 88% among men in the lowest wealth 

quintile to nearly 100% in the highest quintile.

3.3 MASS MEDIA EXPOSURE AND INTERNET USAGE

Exposure to mass media

Respondents were asked how often they read a newspaper, listened to the 

radio, or watched television. Those who responded at least once a week are 

considered regularly exposed to that form of media. 

Sample: Women and men age 15-49

Data on women’s and men’s

exposure to mass media are 

essential in the development of 

educational programmes and the 

dissemination of all types of 

information, particularly information about family planning, 

HIV/AIDS awareness, and other 

important health topics. Women are 

more likely than men to be exposed 

to newspapers and television, but 

not radio (Figure 3.4). Television is 

the most common form of media 

exposure for both women and men 

across nearly all subgroups (Table 3.4.1 and Table 3.4.2). Thirty percent of women and 27% of men are 

exposed to all three types of media. Eighteen percent of women and 16% of men are not regularly exposed 

to any form of media.

The Internet is also a critical tool through which information is shared. Internet use includes accessing web 

pages, email, and social media. Approximately half of women and men accessed the Internet in the 12 

months before the survey. Among those who had used the Internet in the past 12 months, 71% of women 

and 62% of men accessed it on a daily basis (Tables 3.5.1 and 3.5.2).

Patterns by background characteristics

 Non-urban women are twice as likely as their urban counterparts to have no regular exposure to any

form of mass media (28% versus 13%). A similar pattern holds true for men (22% versus 13%).

Figure 3.3 Secondary education 

by household wealth

Figure 3.4 Exposure to mass media

16

27

39

47

71

13

21

32

44

71

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Women Men

Poorest Wealthiest

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 with 

secondary education complete or higher

40

74

55

30

18

39

71

60

27

16

Reads

newspaper

Watches

television

Listens to

radio

All three mediaNone of

these media

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 who are 

exposed to media on a weekly basis

Women Men
38 • Characteristics of Respondents

 Women in KwaZulu-Natal (28%) and men in Eastern Cape (31%) are most likely to report no regular 

exposure to any of the three media. Women and men in Western Cape are least likely to report that 

they do not access the three media at least weekly (2% of women and 7% of men).

 Better-educated women and men have much greater exposure to mass media. Only 6% of both women 

and men with more than a secondary education lack regular exposure to any media, as compared with 

45% of women and 40% of men with no education.

 Exposure to mass media generally increases with increasing wealth. Fifty-two percent of women and 

38% of men in the highest wealth quintile access all three forms of mass media, compared with 8% 

each of women and men in the lowest quintile.

 Internet usage generally decreases with age among both women and men (Tables 3.5.1 and 3.5.2). For 

example, 61% of women age 20-24 used the Internet in the past 12 months, compared with 24% of 

women age 45-49. 

 Women and men in urban areas (56% and 58%, respectively) are more likely than their non-urban 

counterparts (30% and 39%, respectively) to have used the Internet in the past 12 months.

 Internet usage increases with increasing wealth among both women and men; for example, 19% of 

women in the lowest wealth quintile accessed the Internet in the past 12 months, as compared with 

81% in the highest quintile.

3.4 EMPLOYMENT 

Currently employed

Respondents who were employed in the 7 days before the survey.

Sample: Women and men age 15-49

Among respondents age 15-49, men are more likely to be employed than women; 34% of women are 

currently employed, as compared with 46% of men (Tables 3.6.1 and 3.6.2). An additional 4% of women 

and 6% of men reported that they were not currently employed but had worked in the past 12 months. 

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The percentage of women who report being currently employed has 

remained relatively unchanged since 1998 (32% in 1998 versus 34% in 2016).

Patterns by background characteristics

 Women and men who are in a union (married or 

living together with a partner as though married) 

or divorced/separated/widowed women and men 

are more likely to be employed than those who 

have never been married or lived with a partner 

as though married.

 A greater percentage of urban women and men 

are currently employed than their non-urban 

counterparts (Figure 3.5).

 Employment status varies widely by province.

Women and men in Western Cape were most 

likely to be currently employed at the time of the survey, while women in KwaZulu-Natal and men in 

Free State were least likely to be employed (Tables 3.6.1 and 3.6.2).

Figure 3.5 Employment status 

by residence

34

46 39

51

26

36

Women Men

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 

who are currently employed

Total Urban Non-urban
Characteristics of Respondents • 39

 For women, employment increases with increasing household wealth, rising from 22% in the lowest 

quintile to 53% in the highest quintile. For men, those in the highest quintile (60%) are more likely 

than those in other quintiles (41%-45%) to be currently employed.

3.5 OCCUPATION 

Occupation

Categorised as professional/technical/managerial, clerical, sales and services, 

skilled manual, unskilled manual, domestic service, agriculture, and other

Sample: Women and men age 15-49 who were currently employed or had 

worked in the 12 months before the survey

Among those who are employed, 20% of women 

work in professional, technical, or managerial 

occupations; 19% work in unskilled manual 

occupations; 18% are engaged in sales and services;

and 16% do clerical work (Table 3.7.1 and Figure 

3.6). One-third (33%) of men who are employed are 

engaged in skilled manual occupations; 14% work in 

professional, technical, or managerial occupations;

14% work in sales and services; and 13% are 

engaged in unskilled manual occupations (Table 

3.7.2 and Figure 3.6). Three percent of women and 

5% of men work in agriculture.

The vast majority of women earn only cash for their 

work (94%), are employed by a non-family member 

(85%), and work all year (78%) (Table 3.8). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 Urban women are most likely to be employed in 

the professional, technical, or managerial sector 

(22%), while urban men are most likely to be 

employed in skilled manual occupations (32%). 

In non-urban areas, however, the largest 

percentage of women work in unskilled manual 

occupations (26%), while again the largest percentage of men work in the skilled manual sector (38%)

(Table 3.7.1 and Table 3.7.2). 

 Women and men with more than a secondary education are much more likely to work in professional,

technical, and managerial occupations (49% of women and 44% of men) than other occupations.

Women with no education are most likely to work in domestic service (25%); men with an incomplete 

primary education most often work in skilled manual occupations (48%).

 The proportion of women and men working in professional, technical, and managerial occupations 

increases with increasing wealth. For example, women in the highest quintile are 10 times more likely 

to work in a professional, technical, or managerial occupation than women in the lowest quintile (38% 

versus 3%).

Figure 3.6 Occupation

20

16

18

5

19

12

3

14

4

14

33

13

<1

5

Professional/

technical/ managerial

Clerical

Sales and services

Skilled manual

Unskilled manual

Domestic service

Agriculture

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 

employed in the 12 months before the 

survey by occupation

Women

Men
40 • Characteristics of Respondents

3.6 ADULT HEALTH 

Table 3.9 shows the weighted and unweighted numbers and the weighted percent distributions of women 

and men age 15 and older who were interviewed using the SADHS adult health module. A total of 6,126 

women and 4,210 men age 15 and older were interviewed in the SADHS 2016 with the adult health 

module.

The characteristics of the respondents who completed the adult health module are generally similar to 

those presented in Table 3.1, except the age distribution differs because there was no upper age limit for 

eligibility. In addition, the percentages of women and men age 15 or older who had never been married or 

lived with a partner as though married (50% of women and 53% of men) were lower than the percentages 

for women and men age 15-49 (59% and 65%). Most strikingly, the percentage of respondents age 15 or 

older with no education is larger than for respondents age 15-49; 8% of women and 5% of men age 15 and 

older have no education, as compared with only 2% each of women and men age 15-49.

All women and men who were administered the adult health module were eligible for biomarker collection 

including anthropometry, blood pressure measurement, and testing for anaemia, HIV, and HbA1c. The 

adult health module results are presented in Chapters 15, 16, 17, and 18.

LIST OF TABLES

For more information on the characteristics of survey respondents, see the following tables:

 Table 3.1 Background characteristics of respondents

 Table 3.2.1 Educational attainment: Women

 Table 3.2.2 Educational attainment: Men

 Table 3.3.1 Literacy: Women

 Table 3.3.2 Literacy: Men

 Table 3.4.1 Exposure to mass media: Women

 Table 3.4.2 Exposure to mass media: Men

 Table 3.5.1 Internet usage: Women

 Table 3.5.2 Internet usage: Men

 Table 3.6.1 Employment status: Women

 Table 3.6.2 Employment status: Men

 Table 3.7.1 Occupation: Women

 Table 3.7.2 Occupation: Men

 Table 3.8 Type of employment: Women

 Table 3.9 Background characteristics of respondents who completed the adult health 

module
Characteristics of Respondents • 41

Table 3.1 Background characteristics of respondents

Percent distribution of women and men age 15-49 by selected background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Women Men

Background 

characteristic

Weighted 

percent

Weighted 

number

Unweighted 

number

Weighted 

percent

Weighted 

number

Unweighted 

number

Age

15-19 16.8 1,427 1,505 20.2 647 705

20-24 16.6 1,415 1,408 18.4 588 602

25-29 17.0 1,444 1,397 15.8 506 492

30-34 15.7 1,333 1,295 14.1 450 436

35-39 12.6 1,072 1,032 12.3 395 339

40-44 11.0 941 964 10.8 345 335

45-49 10.4 883 913 8.5 271 270

Population group

Black African 86.8 7,388 7,359 87.9 2,815 2,807

White 3.1 265 214 3.2 104 81

Coloured 8.6 730 848 7.3 232 251

Indian/Asian 1.5 126 88 1.5 48 38

Other 0.1 6 5 0.1 2 2

Marital status

Never married 58.6 4,992 5,134 64.7 2,073 2,161

Married 23.3 1,983 1,825 19.5 624 547

Living together 12.5 1,066 1,016 11.4 364 343

Divorced/separated 3.4 287 337 3.5 113 99

Widowed 2.2 185 202 0.9 28 29

Residence

Urban 67.3 5,731 4,805 68.8 2,203 1,768

Non-urban 32.7 2,783 3,709 31.2 999 1,411

Province

Western Cape 11.7 995 656 10.2 328 186

Eastern Cape 11.0 938 1,041 11.3 362 411

Northern Cape 2.0 173 718 1.9 61 251

Free State 5.2 442 854 5.0 159 295

KwaZulu-Natal 19.0 1,616 1,360 16.3 521 471

North West 6.7 570 863 7.4 237 379

Gauteng 26.8 2,284 863 30.7 984 371

Mpumalanga 7.9 671 1,054 8.2 263 413

Limpopo 9.7 824 1,105 9.0 288 402

Education

No education 2.0 168 190 1.9 62 76

Primary incomplete 5.3 447 524 6.8 219 274

Primary complete 3.8 327 338 5.2 166 189

Secondary incomplete 49.3 4,195 4,409 51.1 1,637 1,628

Secondary complete 27.8 2,369 2,172 24.1 773 722

More than secondary 11.8 1,008 881 10.8 345 290

Wealth quintile

Lowest 19.4 1,648 1,763 19.3 618 664

Second 20.1 1,715 1,865 21.3 682 772

Middle 21.2 1,805 1,956 22.3 715 755

Fourth 20.7 1,763 1,733 20.4 653 597

Highest 18.6 1,583 1,197 16.7 534 391

Total 15-49 100.0 8,514 8,514 100.0 3,202 3,179

50-59 na na na na 416 439

Total 15-59 na na na na 3,618 3,618

Note: Education categories refer to the highest level of education attended, whether or not that level was completed.

na = Not applicable 
42 • Characteristics of Respondents

Table 3.2.1 Educational attainment: Women

Percent distribution of women age 15-49 by highest level of schooling attended or completed, and median years completed, according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Highest level of schooling

Total

Median 

years 

completed

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic

No 

education

Some 

primary

Completed 

primary1

Some 

secondary

Completed 

secondary2

More than 

secondary

Age

15-24 0.3 2.5 4.1 63.1 22.5 7.4 100.0 9.9 2,842

15-19 0.2 2.8 4.9 81.0 9.6 1.4 100.0 9.1 1,427

20-24 0.4 2.3 3.2 45.0 35.6 13.5 100.0 11.0 1,415

25-29 0.4 3.9 2.5 41.6 36.6 14.9 100.0 11.0 1,444

30-34 1.8 3.9 3.0 45.1 31.8 14.4 100.0 10.8 1,333

35-39 2.2 5.7 3.4 44.5 29.9 14.4 100.0 10.7 1,072

40-44 4.3 8.5 3.4 42.3 27.4 14.1 100.0 10.4 941

45-49 7.5 14.2 7.6 36.8 22.4 11.5 100.0 9.4 883

Residence

Urban 1.6 3.7 3.5 45.4 31.5 14.3 100.0 10.8 5,731

Non-urban 2.8 8.4 4.6 57.2 20.2 6.8 100.0 9.7 2,783

Province

Western Cape 1.5 3.2 2.9 48.9 25.1 18.5 100.0 10.6 995

Eastern Cape 1.5 8.6 6.2 55.6 20.3 7.7 100.0 9.6 938

Northern Cape 2.7 7.0 4.5 52.8 24.6 8.4 100.0 9.8 173

Free State 1.1 5.4 3.5 50.6 29.9 9.6 100.0 10.4 442

KwaZulu-Natal 3.1 5.9 3.2 46.7 31.0 10.1 100.0 10.5 1,616

North West 2.7 8.5 4.3 53.3 23.6 7.6 100.0 9.9 570

Gauteng 1.6 3.0 4.2 40.5 36.0 14.7 100.0 11.0 2,284

Mpumalanga 3.0 6.2 4.1 57.0 20.1 9.6 100.0 10.0 671

Limpopo 1.2 5.4 2.1 61.3 19.4 10.6 100.0 10.1 824

Wealth quintile

Lowest 4.7 11.7 7.7 59.6 14.8 1.5 100.0 9.0 1,648

Second 2.0 6.3 4.3 60.9 21.6 4.9 100.0 9.9 1,715

Middle 1.4 4.6 3.7 51.4 30.8 8.1 100.0 10.4 1,805

Fourth 1.1 3.0 3.0 45.8 35.0 12.1 100.0 10.8 1,763

Highest 0.9 0.6 0.3 27.4 36.7 34.1 100.0 11.5 1,583

Total 2.0 5.3 3.8 49.3 27.8 11.8 100.0 10.4 8,514

1 Completed 7th grade/standard 5/AET 3 at the primary level

2 Completed 12th grade/standard 10/form 5/matric at the secondary level 
Characteristics of Respondents • 43

Table 3.2.2 Educational attainment: Men

Percent distribution of men age 15-49 by highest level of schooling attended or completed, and median years completed, according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Highest level of schooling

Total

Median 

years 

completed

Number of 

men

Background 

characteristic No education

Some 

primary

Completed 

primary1

Some 

secondary

Completed 

secondary2

More than 

secondary

Age

15-24 0.5 5.8 4.8 65.4 18.5 5.1 100.0 9.2 1,235

15-19 0.0 6.6 7.8 78.3 7.0 0.3 100.0 8.5 647

20-24 1.0 4.9 1.5 51.1 31.1 10.4 100.0 10.4 588

25-29 0.5 6.1 4.8 42.3 29.1 17.3 100.0 10.8 506

30-34 1.8 5.1 4.8 45.4 26.9 16.0 100.0 10.6 450

35-39 3.0 8.0 5.6 43.5 28.1 11.8 100.0 10.4 395

40-44 6.2 9.9 6.2 41.0 25.3 11.4 100.0 10.2 345

45-49 4.8 10.3 6.2 36.2 28.8 13.6 100.0 10.4 271

Residence

Urban 1.7 4.8 4.2 48.0 27.9 13.4 100.0 10.4 2,203

Non-urban 2.6 11.4 7.4 57.9 15.8 5.0 100.0 9.1 999

Province

Western Cape 0.6 4.5 2.4 48.2 31.9 12.4 100.0 10.5 328

Eastern Cape 1.9 11.1 7.0 58.0 14.2 7.9 100.0 9.0 362

Northern Cape 3.8 9.3 6.4 43.7 31.5 5.3 100.0 9.7 61

Free State 1.2 9.6 5.4 49.8 24.9 9.1 100.0 9.5 159

KwaZulu-Natal 3.4 5.2 8.0 51.7 24.1 7.5 100.0 9.7 521

North West 2.7 11.8 7.4 51.2 23.6 3.4 100.0 9.7 237

Gauteng 1.3 4.7 3.8 47.2 26.9 16.0 100.0 10.6 984

Mpumalanga 4.1 8.4 4.0 51.4 24.8 7.3 100.0 9.7 263

Limpopo 0.7 6.8 4.6 59.9 16.2 11.7 100.0 9.5 288

Wealth quintile

Lowest 5.3 15.4 9.1 57.3 12.2 0.8 100.0 8.3 618

Second 1.8 9.0 8.3 59.6 18.0 3.3 100.0 9.4 682

Middle 1.9 6.0 4.4 56.0 23.8 7.9 100.0 10.0 715

Fourth 0.5 2.6 2.8 49.8 33.2 11.1 100.0 10.6 653

Highest 0.1 0.5 0.8 28.1 35.3 35.3 100.0 11.5 534

Total 15-49 1.9 6.8 5.2 51.1 24.1 10.8 100.0 10.0 3,202

50-59 10.9 27.9 3.2 30.5 14.7 12.9 100.0 7.7 416

Total 15-59 3.0 9.3 5.0 48.7 23.0 11.0 100.0 9.8 3,618

1 Completed 7th grade/standard 5/AET 3 at the primary level

2 Completed 12th grade/standard 10/form 5/matric at the secondary level 
44 • Characteristics of Respondents

Table 3.3.1 Literacy: Women

Percent distribution of women age 15-49 by level of schooling attended and level of literacy, and percentage literate, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Higher than 

secondary 

schooling

No schooling, primary or secondary school

Total

Percentage 

literate1

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic

Can read a 

whole 

sentence

Can read part 

of a sentence

Cannot read 

at all

No card with 

required 

language

Blind/visually 

impaired

Age

15-24 7.4 83.4 6.8 2.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 97.7 2,842

15-19 1.4 90.0 6.7 1.9 0.0 0.0 100.0 98.1 1,427

20-24 13.5 76.8 6.9 2.7 0.1 0.0 100.0 97.2 1,415

25-29 14.9 75.1 7.7 2.1 0.1 0.0 100.0 97.8 1,444

30-34 14.4 75.0 7.3 2.8 0.2 0.3 100.0 96.7 1,333

35-39 14.4 73.6 8.3 3.4 0.0 0.3 100.0 96.2 1,072

40-44 14.1 67.2 11.9 6.7 0.1 0.0 100.0 93.2 941

45-49 11.5 69.6 11.3 7.4 0.0 0.2 100.0 92.5 883

Residence

Urban 14.3 75.4 7.5 2.6 0.1 0.1 100.0 97.2 5,731

Non-urban 6.8 77.9 9.8 5.4 0.1 0.0 100.0 94.5 2,783

Province

Western Cape 18.5 78.5 2.1 0.9 0.0 0.0 100.0 99.1 995

Eastern Cape 7.7 77.0 10.4 4.8 0.0 0.1 100.0 95.1 938

Northern Cape 8.4 77.0 11.0 3.3 0.0 0.3 100.0 96.4 173

Free State 9.6 83.9 5.1 1.4 0.0 0.0 100.0 98.6 442

KwaZulu-Natal 10.1 74.9 11.5 3.4 0.0 0.1 100.0 96.5 1,616

North West 7.6 79.4 6.8 5.7 0.4 0.0 100.0 93.8 570

Gauteng 14.7 72.1 9.2 3.7 0.1 0.2 100.0 96.0 2,284

Mpumalanga 9.6 80.2 5.0 5.0 0.2 0.0 100.0 94.8 671

Limpopo 10.6 77.2 8.9 2.9 0.0 0.3 100.0 96.8 824

Wealth quintile

Lowest 1.5 75.0 14.6 8.9 0.0 0.0 100.0 91.0 1,648

Second 4.9 80.9 10.1 3.9 0.1 0.2 100.0 95.8 1,715

Middle 8.1 81.8 7.4 2.4 0.2 0.1 100.0 97.3 1,805

Fourth 12.1 82.0 5.0 0.8 0.1 0.0 100.0 99.1 1,763

Highest 34.1 59.8 4.3 1.6 0.0 0.3 100.0 98.2 1,583

Total 11.8 76.2 8.2 3.5 0.1 0.1 100.0 96.3 8,514

1 Refers to women who attended schooling higher than the secondary level and women who can read a whole sentence or part of a sentence 
Characteristics of Respondents • 45

Table 3.3.2 Literacy: Men

Percent distribution of men age 15-49 by level of schooling attended and level of literacy, and percentage literate, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Higher than 

secondary 

schooling

No schooling, primary or secondary school

Total

Percentage 

literate1

Number of 

men

Background 

characteristic

Can read a 

whole 

sentence

Can read 

part of a 

sentence

Cannot read 

at all

No card with 

required 

language

Blind/visually 

impaired

Age

15-24 5.1 78.8 11.9 4.1 0.1 0.0 100.0 95.8 1,235

15-19 0.3 84.2 12.9 2.6 0.0 0.0 100.0 97.4 647

20-24 10.4 72.9 10.9 5.7 0.1 0.0 100.0 94.1 588

25-29 17.3 64.9 13.5 4.4 0.0 0.0 100.0 95.6 506

30-34 16.0 63.6 15.1 5.0 0.3 0.0 100.0 94.7 450

35-39 11.8 72.6 10.7 4.4 0.2 0.3 100.0 95.0 395

40-44 11.4 67.9 12.6 8.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 91.9 345

45-49 13.6 64.9 15.2 6.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 93.8 271

Residence

Urban 13.4 71.0 12.0 3.5 0.0 0.1 100.0 96.4 2,203

Non-urban 5.0 72.2 14.5 8.1 0.2 0.0 100.0 91.6 999

Province

Western Cape 12.4 72.2 12.3 2.7 0.0 0.4 100.0 96.9 328

Eastern Cape 7.9 74.9 11.1 5.5 0.6 0.0 100.0 93.9 362

Northern Cape 5.3 76.6 14.3 3.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 96.3 61

Free State 9.1 74.2 12.6 4.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 95.9 159

KwaZulu-Natal 7.5 71.0 18.5 3.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 97.0 521

North West 3.4 82.0 9.1 5.4 0.0 0.0 100.0 94.6 237

Gauteng 16.0 66.4 13.9 3.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 96.3 984

Mpumalanga 7.3 72.6 12.6 7.2 0.3 0.0 100.0 92.5 263

Limpopo 11.7 71.0 4.6 12.6 0.0 0.0 100.0 87.4 288

Wealth quintile

Lowest 0.8 65.0 21.9 11.8 0.3 0.2 100.0 87.7 618

Second 3.3 75.3 14.9 6.3 0.1 0.0 100.0 93.6 682

Middle 7.9 73.7 14.0 4.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 95.7 715

Fourth 11.1 78.4 9.2 1.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 98.7 653

Highest 35.3 62.0 2.4 0.4 0.0 0.0 100.0 99.6 534

Total 15-49 10.8 71.4 12.8 4.9 0.1 0.0 100.0 94.9 3,202

50-59 12.9 48.0 22.3 16.4 0.0 0.4 100.0 83.2 416

Total 15-59 11.0 68.7 13.9 6.2 0.1 0.1 100.0 93.6 3,618

1 Refers to men who attended schooling higher than the secondary level and men who can read a whole sentence or part of a sentence 
46 • Characteristics of Respondents

Table 3.4.1 Exposure to mass media: Women

Percentage of women age 15-49 who are exposed to specific media on a weekly basis, according to background characteristics, South 

Africa DHS 2016

Background 

characteristic

Reads a 

newspaper at 

least once a 

week

Watches 

television at least 

once a week

Listens to the 

radio at least 

once a week

Accesses all 

three media at 

least once a 

week

Accesses none 

of the three 

media at least 

once a week

Number of 

women

Age

15-19 37.1 71.8 47.3 25.1 20.2 1,427

20-24 40.2 72.1 53.6 27.7 18.0 1,415

25-29 41.3 73.8 55.4 30.2 16.7 1,444

30-34 43.8 75.8 57.8 34.0 16.7 1,333

35-39 40.3 75.1 59.1 31.2 16.4 1,072

40-44 40.4 73.9 55.8 30.6 18.2 941

45-49 38.7 72.9 58.2 28.9 17.7 883

Residence

Urban 49.8 79.4 60.5 37.1 12.5 5,731

Non-urban 20.9 61.6 43.3 14.1 28.4 2,783

Province

Western Cape 74.6 91.9 75.2 57.8 2.4 995

Eastern Cape 21.3 62.8 46.5 14.1 27.4 938

Northern Cape 46.1 80.9 53.4 31.8 12.2 173

Free State 46.7 78.1 68.0 37.3 12.1 442

KwaZulu-Natal 30.8 63.3 47.8 22.1 28.2 1,616

North West 33.2 80.3 59.8 25.2 12.3 570

Gauteng 52.2 77.3 60.1 39.5 13.0 2,284

Mpumalanga 27.0 68.0 42.9 15.1 20.3 671

Limpopo 17.4 69.5 39.5 10.4 23.5 824

Education

No education 11.1 46.7 30.8 8.9 45.2 168

Primary incomplete 11.2 54.1 38.5 9.1 36.0 447

Primary complete 18.4 54.0 40.8 11.1 36.2 327

Secondary incomplete 34.4 71.1 50.6 24.3 20.1 4,195

Secondary complete 52.4 80.9 63.1 39.7 10.8 2,369

More than secondary 61.3 86.1 69.6 45.9 5.7 1,008

Wealth quintile

Lowest 16.1 35.0 31.2 7.8 48.6 1,648

Second 26.2 70.4 48.8 16.7 19.1 1,715

Middle 43.3 83.9 57.2 31.8 9.9 1,805

Fourth 51.1 88.3 66.2 40.1 6.8 1,763

Highest 65.4 89.0 71.1 51.9 5.2 1,583

Total 40.3 73.6 54.9 29.6 17.7 8,514
Characteristics of Respondents • 47

Table 3.4.2 Exposure to mass media: Men

Percentage of men age 15-49 who are exposed to specific media on a weekly basis, according to background characteristics, South Africa 

DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Reads a 

newspaper at 

least once a 

week

Watches 

television at least 

once a week

Listens to the 

radio at least 

once a week

Accesses all 

three media at 

least once a 

week

Accesses none 

of the three 

media at least 

once a week

Number of 

men

Age

15-19 27.1 72.8 45.7 17.6 18.9 647

20-24 35.0 69.0 57.2 22.8 15.9 588

25-29 39.3 65.3 62.0 28.8 19.1 506

30-34 39.7 74.3 63.3 29.2 13.9 450

35-39 49.1 70.7 65.2 32.7 13.4 395

40-44 47.4 68.5 68.1 35.9 18.0 345

45-49 46.9 74.4 71.7 34.3 9.7 271

Residence

Urban 43.5 75.1 62.2 31.3 13.4 2,203

Non-urban 28.6 60.6 54.9 18.1 22.2 999

Province

Western Cape 43.3 86.8 64.8 32.0 6.7 328

Eastern Cape 23.8 47.9 35.6 10.0 31.2 362

Northern Cape 40.1 72.1 37.9 19.4 16.5 61

Free State 35.9 71.3 57.9 23.7 15.0 159

KwaZulu-Natal 25.5 67.3 57.8 17.4 18.8 521

North West 33.5 71.2 66.7 24.7 14.7 237

Gauteng 47.9 75.2 64.1 36.2 14.2 984

Mpumalanga 53.9 64.9 70.1 40.2 16.7 263

Limpopo 37.9 74.5 65.1 24.3 10.7 288

Education

No education 6.5 42.9 52.4 2.6 40.1 62

Primary incomplete 16.7 49.8 47.7 8.2 32.4 219

Primary complete 25.0 62.7 56.4 13.3 19.9 166

Secondary incomplete 34.1 69.5 55.5 23.2 17.6 1,637

Secondary complete 53.1 76.9 67.4 38.9 10.0 773

More than secondary 55.7 83.4 74.9 43.3 6.2 345

Wealth quintile

Lowest 23.4 37.3 44.4 8.0 36.4 618

Second 31.1 64.4 57.6 20.5 19.3 682

Middle 42.8 79.3 63.4 31.9 11.2 715

Fourth 50.5 85.8 66.8 38.5 6.8 653

Highest 46.9 86.4 67.6 37.9 6.6 534

Total 15-49 38.8 70.6 59.9 27.2 16.1 3,202

50-59 40.0 71.2 64.9 26.8 13.3 416

Total 15-59 39.0 70.6 60.5 27.2 15.8 3,618
48 • Characteristics of Respondents

Table 3.5.1 Internet usage: Women

Percentage of women age 15-49 who have ever used the Internet, and percentage who have used the Internet in the past 12 months; and among 

women who have used the Internet in the past 12 months, percent distribution by frequency of Internet use in the past month, according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Ever used the 

Internet

Used the 

Internet in 

the past 

12 months

Number of 

women

Among women who have used the Internet in the past 12 months, 

percentage who, in the past month, used the Internet:

Background 

characteristic

Almost 

every day

At least 

once a 

week

Less than 

once a 

week Not at all Total

Number of 

women

Age

15-19 61.0 58.4 1,427 63.6 25.1 9.2 2.1 100.0 833

20-24 63.4 60.7 1,415 73.0 18.4 7.0 1.6 100.0 858

25-29 58.1 55.7 1,444 75.7 15.5 7.7 1.1 100.0 803

30-34 49.9 47.5 1,333 73.4 17.5 8.5 0.6 100.0 634

35-39 40.1 38.0 1,072 71.7 18.2 9.4 0.7 100.0 407

40-44 32.4 31.0 941 71.3 22.7 4.8 1.2 100.0 291

45-49 24.9 24.0 883 70.0 20.6 7.6 1.8 100.0 212

Residence

Urban 57.9 56.0 5,731 74.9 17.6 6.3 1.2 100.0 3,211

Non-urban 32.7 29.8 2,783 57.2 26.7 14.2 1.9 100.0 828

Province

Western Cape 64.9 62.6 995 81.2 12.5 5.5 0.8 100.0 623

Eastern Cape 43.1 40.5 938 62.9 26.0 10.2 0.9 100.0 380

Northern Cape 43.9 40.9 173 61.9 21.5 10.2 6.4 100.0 71

Free State 47.0 45.3 442 61.8 21.8 15.6 0.8 100.0 200

KwaZulu-Natal 43.7 41.5 1,616 64.6 24.7 9.4 1.3 100.0 672

North West 43.5 41.4 570 62.6 19.1 17.8 0.6 100.0 236

Gauteng 59.1 57.1 2,284 79.8 15.9 3.1 1.3 100.0 1,305

Mpumalanga 42.4 39.1 671 62.4 25.9 7.8 3.9 100.0 263

Limpopo 37.1 35.2 824 61.6 22.4 14.8 1.2 100.0 290

Education

No education 9.8 8.6 168 * * * * 100.0 14

Primary incomplete 4.5 4.3 447 (45.2) (36.1) (13.8) (4.9) 100.0 19

Primary complete 14.5 13.8 327 (59.2) (27.9) (8.2) (4.6) 100.0 45

Secondary 

incomplete 39.0 36.4 4,195 62.8 24.4 10.9 1.9 100.0 1,527

Secondary 

complete 67.2 64.8 2,369 74.3 17.9 6.5 1.3 100.0 1,534

More than 

secondary 90.8 89.2 1,008 81.7 12.8 5.2 0.3 100.0 899

Wealth quintile

Lowest 20.3 18.5 1,648 53.7 31.1 13.0 2.2 100.0 304

Second 36.4 33.1 1,715 57.8 27.1 12.8 2.3 100.0 567

Middle 48.4 46.1 1,805 68.8 18.8 11.3 1.1 100.0 832

Fourth 62.1 59.7 1,763 71.7 19.7 7.2 1.4 100.0 1,052

Highest 82.1 81.1 1,583 82.6 13.6 3.0 0.9 100.0 1,284

Total 49.7 47.4 8,514 71.2 19.5 7.9 1.3 100.0 4,040

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed. 
Characteristics of Respondents • 49

Table 3.5.2 Internet usage: Men

Percentage of men age 15-49 who have ever used the Internet, and percentage who have used the Internet in the past 12 months; and among 

men who have used the Internet in the past 12 months, percent distribution by frequency of Internet use in the past month, according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Ever used 

the Internet

Used the 

Internet in 

the past 

12 months

Number of 

men

Among men who have used the Internet in the past 12 months, 

percentage who, in the past month, used the Internet:

Background 

characteristic

Almost 

every day

At least 

once a 

week

Less than 

once a 

week Not at all Total

Number of 

men

Age

15-19 59.3 57.5 647 54.6 27.3 16.1 2.0 100.0 372

20-24 67.9 64.7 588 63.9 25.7 9.4 1.1 100.0 381

25-29 64.8 61.7 506 71.2 19.4 8.7 0.6 100.0 312

30-34 53.4 50.1 450 64.2 26.5 9.0 0.4 100.0 225

35-39 47.3 46.7 395 58.0 31.6 7.4 3.1 100.0 184

40-44 30.8 29.0 345 63.7 24.6 10.7 0.9 100.0 100

45-49 34.7 33.7 271 60.1 33.0 6.9 0.0 100.0 91

Residence

Urban 59.7 58.0 2,203 67.1 23.1 8.8 1.0 100.0 1,279

Non-urban 42.5 38.7 999 46.8 35.5 15.6 2.1 100.0 387

Province

Western Cape 62.8 61.7 328 67.0 25.9 5.4 1.6 100.0 202

Eastern Cape 40.4 37.6 362 65.6 25.2 7.8 1.4 100.0 136

Northern Cape 51.7 50.3 61 50.7 39.3 7.6 2.4 100.0 31

Free State 58.1 55.1 159 73.5 18.2 6.8 1.5 100.0 87

KwaZulu-Natal 44.6 40.8 521 53.7 24.8 19.6 1.9 100.0 213

North West 52.7 50.0 237 45.6 45.1 9.3 0.0 100.0 119

Gauteng 61.7 60.9 984 69.9 21.5 8.4 0.3 100.0 599

Mpumalanga 50.9 47.2 263 55.5 29.1 13.6 1.8 100.0 124

Limpopo 57.1 53.7 288 50.6 30.3 15.4 3.8 100.0 155

Education

No education 2.9 2.9 62 * * * * 100.0 2

Primary incomplete 8.5 5.4 219 * * * * 100.0 12

Primary complete 20.3 19.2 166 (47.1) (35.4) (17.5) (0.0) 100.0 32

Secondary incomplete 47.9 45.4 1,637 48.5 33.3 16.2 2.1 100.0 743

Secondary complete 74.8 72.2 773 68.4 23.9 6.7 1.0 100.0 558

More than secondary 93.4 92.5 345 86.7 11.0 2.3 0.0 100.0 319

Wealth quintile

Lowest 27.0 25.0 618 47.1 41.1 11.0 0.8 100.0 154

Second 43.6 39.6 682 51.4 32.0 13.7 3.0 100.0 270

Middle 54.1 51.9 715 54.6 30.9 12.8 1.8 100.0 371

Fourth 65.6 63.8 653 65.9 22.8 10.6 0.7 100.0 417

Highest 85.9 84.9 534 77.2 16.1 6.2 0.5 100.0 454

Total 15-49 54.3 52.0 3,202 62.4 26.0 10.4 1.3 100.0 1,665

50-59 23.0 21.8 416 74.6 16.7 7.3 1.4 100.0 91

Total 15-59 50.7 48.5 3,618 63.0 25.5 10.2 1.3 100.0 1,756

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed. 
50 • Characteristics of Respondents

Table 3.6.1 Employment status: Women

Percent distribution of women age 15-49 by employment status, according to background characteristics, South 

Africa DHS 2016

Employed in the 12 months 

preceding the survey

Not employed 

in the 

12 months 

preceding the 

survey Total

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic

Currently 

employed1

Not currently 

employed

Age

15-19 2.5 0.9 96.6 100.0 1,427

20-24 19.2 5.3 75.5 100.0 1,415

25-29 37.0 6.2 56.9 100.0 1,444

30-34 45.7 5.2 49.2 100.0 1,333

35-39 47.8 4.7 47.5 100.0 1,072

40-44 52.4 2.2 45.4 100.0 941

45-49 54.0 3.6 42.4 100.0 883

Marital status

Never married 27.2 3.8 69.0 100.0 4,992

Married or living together 42.8 4.4 52.7 100.0 3,050

Divorced/separated/widowed 56.6 4.9 38.5 100.0 472

Number of living children

0 18.1 2.5 79.4 100.0 2,436

1-2 41.0 5.1 53.9 100.0 4,155

3-4 43.3 3.9 52.8 100.0 1,629

5+ 28.6 4.2 67.2 100.0 294

Residence

Urban 38.8 4.3 57.0 100.0 5,731

Non-urban 25.5 3.7 70.7 100.0 2,783

Province

Western Cape 46.1 6.9 46.9 100.0 995

Eastern Cape 32.2 4.3 63.5 100.0 938

Northern Cape 29.2 5.9 64.9 100.0 173

Free State 29.0 4.4 66.6 100.0 442

KwaZulu-Natal 28.6 2.1 69.3 100.0 1,616

North West 34.2 5.1 60.7 100.0 570

Gauteng 39.0 3.6 57.4 100.0 2,284

Mpumalanga 31.4 4.1 64.5 100.0 671

Limpopo 28.3 4.5 67.2 100.0 824

Education

No education 34.8 0.1 65.1 100.0 168

Primary incomplete 28.4 4.1 67.5 100.0 447

Primary complete 28.3 1.9 69.8 100.0 327

Secondary incomplete 23.6 3.4 73.0 100.0 4,195

Secondary complete 43.7 5.7 50.6 100.0 2,369

More than secondary 62.6 4.6 32.7 100.0 1,008

Wealth quintile

Lowest 22.3 3.6 74.2 100.0 1,648

Second 28.4 4.3 67.2 100.0 1,715

Middle 33.6 3.4 63.0 100.0 1,805

Fourth 36.3 4.7 59.0 100.0 1,763

Highest 52.5 4.5 43.0 100.0 1,583

Total 34.4 4.1 61.5 100.0 8,514

1

“Currently employed” is defined as having done work in the past 7 days. Includes persons who did not work in the 

past 7 days but who are regularly employed and were absent from work for leave, illness, vacation, or any other 

such reason. Currently employed is not the same as the official government employment rate. 
Characteristics of Respondents • 51

Table 3.6.2 Employment status: Men

Percent distribution of men age 15-49 by employment status, according to background characteristics, South Africa 

DHS 2016

Employed in the 12 months 

preceding the survey

Not employed 

in the 

12 months 

preceding the 

survey Total

Number of 

men

Background 

characteristic

Currently 

employed1

Not currently 

employed

Age

15-19 3.9 3.3 92.8 100.0 647

20-24 33.0 8.6 58.5 100.0 588

25-29 56.5 8.2 35.3 100.0 506

30-34 69.2 6.2 24.6 100.0 450

35-39 65.7 5.0 29.3 100.0 395

40-44 63.4 5.0 31.7 100.0 345

45-49 64.0 5.4 30.5 100.0 271

Marital status

Never married 31.3 6.7 62.0 100.0 2,073

Married or living together 74.5 4.2 21.3 100.0 988

Divorced/separated/widowed 59.8 8.0 32.2 100.0 141

Number of living children

0 27.5 5.9 66.6 100.0 1,644

1-2 62.1 6.5 31.3 100.0 1,017

3-4 72.6 5.1 22.3 100.0 414

5+ 65.4 6.7 27.9 100.0 127

Residence

Urban 50.5 5.6 44.0 100.0 2,203

Non-urban 35.6 7.0 57.4 100.0 999

Province

Western Cape 59.6 9.2 31.2 100.0 328

Eastern Cape 36.2 8.4 55.5 100.0 362

Northern Cape 43.3 7.8 48.9 100.0 61

Free State 31.0 4.9 64.1 100.0 159

KwaZulu-Natal 41.9 5.5 52.7 100.0 521

North West 58.3 3.8 37.8 100.0 237

Gauteng 46.2 2.6 51.2 100.0 984

Mpumalanga 53.1 9.1 37.8 100.0 263

Limpopo 40.2 11.2 48.6 100.0 288

Education

No education 48.3 6.0 45.6 100.0 62

Primary incomplete 39.4 6.2 54.4 100.0 219

Primary complete 40.3 6.2 53.6 100.0 166

Secondary incomplete 35.9 6.7 57.4 100.0 1,637

Secondary complete 57.5 6.2 36.3 100.0 773

More than secondary 73.3 1.9 24.8 100.0 345

Wealth quintile

Lowest 41.2 6.6 52.2 100.0 618

Second 44.0 9.5 46.5 100.0 682

Middle 44.9 4.6 50.5 100.0 715

Fourth 41.4 6.1 52.5 100.0 653

Highest 60.2 2.7 37.1 100.0 534

Total 15-49 45.8 6.0 48.1 100.0 3,202

50-59 53.5 4.4 42.1 100.0 416

Total 15-59 46.7 5.8 47.4 100.0 3,618

1

“Currently employed” is defined as having done work in the past 7 days. Includes persons who did not work in the 

past 7 days but who are regularly employed and were absent from work for leave, illness, vacation, or any other 

such reason. Currently employed is not the same as the official government employment rate. 
52 • Characteristics of Respondents

Table 3.7.1 Occupation: Women

Percent distribution of women age 15-49 employed in the 12 months preceding the survey by occupation, according to background characteristics, South Africa 

DHS 2016

Background 

characteristic

Professional/ 

technical/ 

managerial Clerical

Sales and 

services

Skilled 

manual

Unskilled 

manual

Domestic 

service Agriculture

Other/

missing Total

Number of 

women

Age

15-19 (27.3) (31.9) (12.1) (3.7) (14.0) (9.4) (0.6) (1.0) 100.0 48

20-24 17.5 28.5 16.8 4.3 15.1 5.1 3.4 9.3 100.0 347

25-29 19.1 17.1 20.4 5.9 17.6 8.4 1.9 9.5 100.0 623

30-34 16.6 15.2 22.6 2.9 18.0 12.9 3.1 8.7 100.0 678

35-39 22.1 13.5 14.1 6.2 18.6 12.6 3.4 9.5 100.0 563

40-44 20.0 12.5 18.8 4.0 19.7 12.8 2.7 9.6 100.0 514

45-49 21.8 9.9 13.4 4.7 22.0 17.5 2.2 8.5 100.0 509

Marital status

Never married 16.6 17.8 17.7 5.1 18.2 11.5 2.4 10.8 100.0 1,549

Married or living together 24.0 15.0 17.9 4.3 18.0 10.9 2.6 7.4 100.0 1,441

Divorced/separated/widowed 13.7 8.4 19.6 3.5 23.2 17.9 5.1 8.3 100.0 291

Number of living children

0 25.9 22.8 18.1 3.3 12.9 6.8 1.9 8.4 100.0 502

1-2 20.3 16.0 19.3 5.5 16.8 10.8 2.0 9.1 100.0 1,914

3-4 15.6 11.4 14.5 3.0 24.8 16.9 4.7 9.1 100.0 768

5+ 4.2 6.7 17.4 6.5 31.5 17.3 5.6 10.8 100.0 96

Residence

Urban 22.1 17.4 18.4 4.7 16.1 11.3 1.5 8.4 100.0 2,466

Non-urban 12.0 10.5 16.4 4.4 25.8 13.4 6.6 10.9 100.0 814

Province

Western Cape 24.0 18.3 15.0 2.8 16.4 11.0 2.1 10.5 100.0 528

Eastern Cape 16.2 13.7 17.0 4.1 25.8 15.4 2.1 5.7 100.0 342

Northern Cape 18.3 12.9 14.7 3.0 18.6 12.0 4.1 16.4 100.0 61

Free State 13.2 16.6 19.8 5.4 24.3 7.7 2.4 10.6 100.0 148

KwaZulu-Natal 24.7 12.8 16.1 6.0 15.5 11.3 3.8 9.8 100.0 496

North West 10.9 13.5 19.8 6.2 24.7 14.7 3.4 6.8 100.0 224

Gauteng 21.2 18.8 20.0 4.6 15.7 11.9 1.5 6.3 100.0 973

Mpumalanga 15.9 13.3 17.6 3.4 19.8 11.9 3.1 15.0 100.0 239

Limpopo 14.3 11.4 19.2 6.4 19.9 9.4 6.0 13.3 100.0 270

Education

No education 9.0 5.6 14.3 1.1 17.3 25.2 18.1 9.4 100.0 59

Primary incomplete 0.9 0.5 14.3 5.6 33.2 24.5 12.5 8.7 100.0 145

Primary complete 2.7 7.2 7.7 5.4 35.8 30.0 3.2 8.0 100.0 99

Secondary incomplete 8.3 6.3 17.6 5.0 30.0 19.8 3.6 9.3 100.0 1,131

Secondary complete 17.6 22.8 23.4 5.4 12.5 6.9 1.3 10.1 100.0 1,170

More than secondary 49.2 24.6 11.6 2.5 4.4 0.5 0.2 7.1 100.0 678

Wealth quintile

Lowest 3.4 3.5 18.2 6.2 28.5 21.8 12.0 6.5 100.0 426

Second 12.3 9.2 20.4 4.5 26.4 15.2 3.1 8.8 100.0 562

Middle 11.9 16.6 17.8 6.0 22.5 12.9 1.0 11.4 100.0 668

Fourth 19.5 18.8 18.3 4.0 18.5 11.4 1.5 7.9 100.0 722

Highest 37.6 22.3 16.0 3.5 6.1 4.6 0.3 9.6 100.0 902

Total 19.6 15.7 17.9 4.6 18.5 11.8 2.7 9.1 100.0 3,281

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. 
Characteristics of Respondents • 53

Table 3.7.2 Occupation: Men

Percent distribution of men age 15-49 employed in the 12 months preceding the survey by occupation, according to background characteristics, South Africa 

DHS 2016

Background 

characteristic

Professional/ 

technical/ 

managerial Clerical

Sales and 

services

Skilled 

manual

Unskilled 

manual

Domestic 

service Agriculture

Other/

missing Total

Number of 

men

Age

15-19 9.3 0.0 4.3 32.0 31.8 0.0 2.7 20.0 100.0 47

20-24 10.2 3.1 14.6 30.3 20.7 0.0 3.7 17.5 100.0 244

25-29 17.2 5.7 12.8 28.0 11.0 1.5 4.4 19.4 100.0 327

30-34 9.7 4.6 13.2 38.1 10.9 0.4 5.7 17.4 100.0 339

35-39 14.1 5.9 13.8 36.7 11.6 0.0 3.6 14.4 100.0 279

40-44 14.1 3.3 13.4 38.6 11.7 0.9 6.1 11.9 100.0 236

45-49 23.3 1.4 15.8 27.7 8.3 0.0 6.7 16.8 100.0 188

Marital status

Never married 12.0 4.5 13.5 30.6 16.4 0.6 5.7 16.8 100.0 787

Married or living together 16.7 4.2 12.7 35.7 9.5 0.5 3.6 17.1 100.0 778

Divorced/separated/widowed 10.6 0.7 20.2 38.8 10.9 0.0 8.6 10.2 100.0 96

Number of living children

0 14.9 3.6 12.9 27.9 16.6 0.7 5.6 17.8 100.0 549

1-2 13.4 5.6 14.9 34.6 10.3 0.5 4.8 15.9 100.0 698

3-4 13.6 2.7 13.5 39.4 11.6 0.2 2.0 17.1 100.0 321

5+ 17.6 1.6 5.8 37.3 14.6 0.5 10.9 11.8 100.0 91

Residence

Urban 16.0 4.5 15.2 31.9 11.9 0.3 3.7 16.4 100.0 1,235

Non-urban 8.7 3.1 8.6 38.1 15.6 1.1 8.1 16.8 100.0 426

Province

Western Cape 17.8 3.7 13.2 26.7 16.2 0.0 4.8 17.6 100.0 226

Eastern Cape 13.3 5.0 8.7 31.1 20.3 2.7 3.4 15.6 100.0 161

Northern Cape 10.4 9.3 11.3 21.6 14.6 0.0 2.6 30.2 100.0 31

Free State 11.9 6.6 16.7 25.2 7.5 0.0 3.7 28.5 100.0 57

KwaZulu-Natal 11.6 5.0 17.9 32.4 14.2 1.2 7.9 9.9 100.0 247

North West 6.6 1.1 13.7 43.9 18.1 0.3 3.9 12.3 100.0 147

Gauteng 19.9 4.7 16.9 32.7 6.3 0.1 4.1 15.4 100.0 480

Mpumalanga 7.7 2.3 8.7 35.5 16.8 0.0 5.6 23.5 100.0 163

Limpopo 11.4 3.8 5.4 43.3 11.3 0.0 5.1 19.8 100.0 148

Education

No education (8.8) (1.0) (11.8) (40.1) (9.4) (2.1) (9.0) (17.9) 100.0 34

Primary incomplete 4.6 0.0 4.0 47.7 16.4 2.5 12.6 12.3 100.0 100

Primary complete 4.7 0.9 9.0 36.8 15.9 1.2 18.2 13.2 100.0 77

Secondary incomplete 5.8 2.3 11.3 38.5 17.7 0.6 5.6 18.3 100.0 698

Secondary complete 14.1 5.8 20.0 30.8 10.2 0.0 2.0 17.2 100.0 492

More than secondary 43.9 9.0 12.4 17.6 3.4 0.0 0.8 12.9 100.0 259

Wealth quintile

Lowest 3.5 2.8 9.4 43.1 17.1 0.7 10.2 13.1 100.0 295

Second 5.6 2.2 12.0 38.8 18.8 1.0 7.4 14.2 100.0 365

Middle 12.4 4.5 11.9 37.9 10.1 0.7 2.8 19.7 100.0 354

Fourth 21.4 6.5 13.4 26.5 10.6 0.2 2.6 18.8 100.0 310

Highest 27.8 4.8 20.5 20.9 7.7 0.0 1.7 16.6 100.0 336

Total 15-49 14.1 4.1 13.5 33.4 12.9 0.5 4.9 16.5 100.0 1,660

50-59 23.6 4.8 9.5 27.9 16.7 0.0 7.4 10.0 100.0 241

Total 15-59 15.3 4.2 13.0 32.8 13.4 0.4 5.2 15.7 100.0 1,901

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. 
54 • Characteristics of Respondents

Table 3.8 Type of employment: Women

Percent distribution of women age 15-49 employed in the 12 months 

preceding the survey by type of earnings, type of employer, and 

continuity of employment, according to residence, South Africa 

DHS 2016

Residence

Total

Employment 

characteristic Urban

Nonurban

Type of earnings

Cash only 94.3 92.3 93.8

Cash and in-kind 3.0 3.7 3.2

In-kind only 0.4 0.8 0.5

Not paid 2.2 3.2 2.5

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Type of employer

Employed by family member 6.3 4.1 5.8

Employed by non-family member 84.5 84.7 84.6

Self-employed 9.2 11.3 9.7

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Continuity of employment

All year 80.6 70.7 78.1

Seasonal 12.1 21.3 14.4

Occasional 7.4 8.0 7.5

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of women employed during the 

last 12 months 2,466 814 3,281
Characteristics of Respondents • 55

Table 3.9 Background characteristics of respondents who completed the adult health module

Percent distribution of women and men age 15 and older by selected background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Women Men

Background 

characteristic

Weighted 

percent

Weighted 

number

Unweighted 

number

Weighted 

percent

Weighted 

number

Unweighted 

number

Age

15-24 23.3 1,429 1,416 29.5 1,241 1,307

 15-19 11.8 721 730 15.5 651 705

 20-24 11.6 708 686 14.0 591 602

25-34 22.7 1,391 1,334 22.9 962 928

35-44 16.7 1,022 989 17.7 744 674

45-54 14.1 866 878 11.7 492 495

55-64 11.4 701 720 9.6 406 413

65+ 11.7 719 789 8.6 364 393

Population group

Black African 84.4 5,170 5,179 83.9 3,534 3,573

White 5.2 320 258 6.1 257 193

Coloured 8.4 516 607 8.0 335 379

Indian/Asian 1.9 114 77 1.9 82 63

Other 0.1 6 5 0.1 2 2

Marital status

Never married 50.4 3,085 3,076 52.5 2,209 2,293

Married 25.8 1,582 1,512 29.8 1,255 1,212

Living together 9.8 599 541 10.5 442 416

Divorced/separated 4.6 281 312 4.7 197 179

Widowed 9.5 580 685 2.5 107 110

Employment (past 12 months)

Not employed 66.1 4,048 4,150 52.0 2,189 2,199

Employed for cash 25.5 1,560 1,448 45.1 1,897 1,884

Employed not for cash 8.5 518 528 2.9 124 127

Residence

Urban 65.2 3,996 3,361 68.3 2,874 2,324

Non-urban 34.8 2,130 2,765 31.7 1,336 1,886

Province

Western Cape 11.5 703 474 11.3 476 280

Eastern Cape 11.9 730 798 11.7 493 554

Northern Cape 2.1 127 529 2.0 84 353

Free State 5.3 325 647 4.9 207 384

KwaZulu-Natal 19.4 1,191 968 16.2 683 603

North West 6.5 398 581 7.4 310 504

Gauteng 25.0 1,534 561 29.6 1,245 470

Mpumalanga 7.7 473 705 7.8 326 515

Limpopo 10.5 646 863 9.2 386 547

Education

No education 8.1 495 586 5.2 217 289

Primary incomplete 10.8 664 743 11.4 481 551

Primary complete 4.8 293 305 5.0 212 240

Secondary incomplete 44.0 2,695 2,718 45.8 1,930 1,913

Secondary complete 21.7 1,328 1,209 21.4 900 828

More than secondary 10.6 652 565 11.2 470 389

Wealth quintile

Lowest 19.0 1,163 1,237 18.7 787 861

Second 18.8 1,152 1,271 19.9 839 956

Middle 20.3 1,242 1,366 21.2 894 971

Fourth 20.5 1,258 1,277 19.6 827 789

Highest 21.4 1,311 975 20.5 864 633

Total 15+ 100.0 6,126 6,126 100.0 4,210 4,210

Total 15-49 na 4,300 4,193 na 3,220 3,179

Note: Education categories refer to the highest level of education attended, whether or not that level was completed. 

na = Not applicable

Marriage and Sexual Activity • 57

MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY 4

Key Findings

 Marital status: Six in 10 women (59%) and two-thirds of 

men (65%) age 15-49 have never been in a union (never 

married or lived together with a partner as though

married).

 Polygyny: 2% of in-union women report that their 

husband or partner has more than one wife. This 

represents a decline in polygyny relative to 1998, when 

7% of in-union women reported their husband or partner

had multiple wives.

 Age at first union: Neither women nor men in South 

Africa marry or live together with a partner early. Among 

women and men age 30-49, only 32% and 23%,

respectively, were in a union by age 25. 

 Sexual initiation: Median ages at first sexual intercourse 

among women and men age 20-49 are 18.1 years and 

17.5 years, respectively. This indicates that, on average,

men begin having sex earlier than women and that age at 

first sex does not correlate with age at first union.

arriage and sexual activity help determine the extent to which women are exposed to the risk of 

pregnancy. Thus, they are important determinants of fertility levels. However, the timing and 

circumstances of marriage and sexual activity also have profound consequences for 

women’s and men’s lives. 

4.1 MARITAL STATUS

In a union

Women and men who report being married or living together with a partner as 

though married at the time of the survey

Sample: Women and men age 15-49

Thirty-six percent of women and 31% of men age 15-49 are in a union; that is, they are either married or

living together with someone as if married (Figure 4.1 and Table 4.1). Six in 10 women (59%) and twothirds of men (65%) have never been in a union. Three percent of women and 4% of men are divorced or 

separated. Very few women (2%) or men (1%) are widowed.

M
58 • Marriage and Sexual Activity

Figure 4.1 Marital status

Percent distribution of women and men age 15-49 

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The percentage of women age 15-49 who are married or living 

together with someone as if married decreased from 43% in 1998 to 36% in 2016. The percentage of 

women who are divorced or separated dropped from 6% to 3%, while there was no change in the 

percentage who are widowed (2% in both 1998 and 2016).

4.2 POLYGYNY

Polygyny

Women who report that their husband or partner has other wives are 

considered to be in a polygynous union.

Sample: In-union women age 15-49

Two percent of women reported that their husbands or partners have other wives, and 4% do not know 

(Table 4.2.1). Among women who reported that their husband or partner had another wife, nearly all 

indicated that their husband had only one additional wife. Two percent of men reported having multiple 

wives (Table 4.2.2). 

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The percentage of women who reported that their husband or partner 

had other wives decreased from 7% in 1998 to 2% in 2016.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Older women are more likely than younger 

women to have co-wives. The percentage of 

women with co-wives peaks among women age 

45-49 (5%) (Table 4.2.1). 

 Women living in non-urban areas are more likely 

to report co-wives (4%) than their counterparts 

living in urban areas (2%). 

 Women from Limpopo are most likely to report 

having co-wives. Six percent of women living in 

Limpopo report having co-wives, as compared 

with 0.4% of women living in Western Cape

(Figure 4.2).

Never in a 

union

59%

Married or 

living 

together

36%

Divorced/ 

separated

3%

Widowed

2%

Women

Never in 

a union

65%

Married or 

living 

together

31%

Divorced/ 

separated

4%

Widowed

1%

Men

Figure 4.2 Polygyny by province

Percentage of in-union women age 15-49 in a 

polygynous union
Marriage and Sexual Activity • 59

4.3 AGE AT FIRST UNION

Median age at first union

Age by which half of respondents have been married or living together with a 

partner as if married. 

Sample: Women age 20-49, 25-49, and 30-49 and men age 20-49, 25-49, 

30-49, 20-59, 25-59, and 30-59

The SADHS 2016 results indicate that early unions (marriage or living together with a partner as though

married) are rare in South Africa. Among women who are currently age 25-49, 2% were in a union by age 

15, 7% by age 18, 13% by age 20, 20% by age 22, and 31% by age 25 (Table 4.3). Forty-four percent of 

women age 25-49 have never been in a union. The proportion of women who have been in a union by age 

25 is so low that it is not possible to calculate a median age at first union for this age group (less than half 

of women began living with their spouse or partner before reaching age 25). Moreover, it is not possible to 

calculate a median age at first union among women age 30-49 because less than 50% of women are in a 

union by age 30. Median age at first union can be calculated only for women age 35-39, 40-44, and 45-49; 

in all cases, the median age at first union exceeds 30 years (30.7-31.9 years).

Early unions are also uncommon among men in South Africa. Among men currently age 25-49, 1% were 

in a union by age 15, 3% by age 18, 6% by age 20, 11% by age 22, and 21% by age 25. Forty-five percent 

of men age 25-49 have never been in a union. As with women, it is not possible to calculate a median age 

at first union for men age 25-49 or 30-49. Among men age 35-39, 40-44, and 45-49, the median age at first 

union ranges from 31.9-33.5 years.

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The percentage of women age 25-49 who have never been in a 

union has increased since 1998, from 26% to 44%. In 1998, the median age at first union among women 

age 25-49 was 24.2 years; in 2016, the median age at first union among women age 30-49 could not be 

determined because it exceeded 30 years.

4.4 AGE AT FIRST SEXUAL INTERCOURSE

Median age at first sexual intercourse

Age by which half of respondents have had sexual intercourse.

Sample: Women age 20-49 and 25-49 and men age 20-49, 25-49, 20-59, and 

25-59

In South Africa, the median age at first sexual intercourse among women age 20-49 is 18.1 years (Table 

4.4). Seven percent of women first have sex before age 15 and 49% before age 18. By age 20, 76% of 

women have had sexual intercourse.

The median age at first intercourse among men age 20-49 is 17.5 years. Thirteen percent of men first have 

sex before age 15 and 58% do so before age 18. By age 20, 81% of men have engaged in sexual 

intercourse.

A comparison of Table 4.3 and Table 4.4 reveals that most women and men in South Africa initiate sexual 

intercourse many years before marrying or living together with a partner as though married.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Across nearly all background characteristics, men in South Africa initiate sexual intercourse at slightly 

younger ages than women (Table 4.5). An exception is that the median age at first sexual intercourse 

is lower among women with no education, a primary incomplete education, or a primary complete 

education than among men in the corresponding groups. For example, the median age at first sex 
60 • Marriage and Sexual Activity

among women age 20-49 with no education is 

17.5 years, as compared with 18.4 years among 

men age 20-59 with no education.

 Median age at first sexual intercourse varies by 

province. Among women age 20-49, the median 

age is lowest in Eastern Cape (17.4 years) and 

highest in KwaZulu-Natal (18.7 years). 

Differences are smaller among men age 20-59, 

with median ages ranging from 17.1 years in 

Eastern Cape, Free State, and Mpumalanga to 

17.9 years in Western Cape and Limpopo.

 The median age at first sex among women age 

20-49 in the lowest wealth quintile is 17.6 years,

compared with 18.8 years among those in the 

highest quintile (Figure 4.3).

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The median age at first sexual intercourse among women age 20-49 

has not changed since 1998 (18.2 years in 1998 versus 18.1 years in 2016).

4.5 RECENT SEXUAL ACTIVITY

The survey also collected data on recent sexual activity. Fifty percent of women and 59% of men age 

15-49 reported having sexual intercourse during the 4 weeks before the survey; an additional 27% of 

women and 23% of men had not had sex recently but had sex in the year before the survey. Twelve percent 

of women and 12% of men have never had sex (Table 4.6.1 and Table 4.6.2).

Patterns by background characteristics

 Women age 30-39 are most likely to have had sex within the 4 weeks before the survey (62%-65%). 

Young women age 15-19 are least likely to have had sex recently (18%). Among men, recent sexual 

intercourse increases with age, from 19% among those age 15-19 to over 70% among those age 30-49. 

 Women and men in urban areas are more likely to report recent sexual intercourse than those in nonurban areas. For example, 63% of men in urban areas reported having recent sexual intercourse, as 

compared with 49% of men in non-urban areas.

 The proportion of women and men who reported that they recently had sexual intercourse varies by 

province. Recent sexual intercourse is highest in Gauteng (62%) and lowest in Limpopo and 

KwaZulu-Natal (41% each) among women and highest in Gauteng (70%) and lowest in Limpopo 

(45%) among men.

LIST OF TABLES

For more information on marriage and sexual activity, see the following tables:

 Table 4.1 Current marital status

 Table 4.2.1 Number of women’s co-wives

 Table 4.2.2 Number of men’s wives

 Table 4.3 Age at first union 

 Table 4.4 Age at first sexual intercourse

 Table 4.5 Median age at first sexual intercourse by background characteristics

 Table 4.6.1 Recent sexual activity: Women

 Table 4.6.2 Recent sexual activity: Men

Figure 4.3 Women’s median age at first 

sex by household wealth

17.6 17.8 17.9 18.1 18.8

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Median age at first sex among women age 

20-49

Poorest Wealthiest
Marriage and Sexual Activity • 61

Table 4.1 Current marital status

Percent distribution of women and men age 15-49 by current marital status, according to age, South Africa DHS 2016 

Marital status

Total

Percentage of 

respondents 

currently in a 

union

Number of 

Age respondents

Never 

married or 

lived with a 

partner Married

Living 

together

with a 

partner Divorced Separated Widowed

WOMEN

15-19 96.7 1.3 1.8 0.0 0.2 0.0 100.0 3.1 1,427

20-24 79.7 7.1 12.1 0.3 0.8 0.1 100.0 19.2 1,415

25-29 61.4 17.9 17.8 0.2 2.4 0.4 100.0 35.6 1,444

30-34 42.5 33.6 18.0 1.5 2.9 1.5 100.0 51.6 1,333

35-39 39.4 38.5 15.2 1.1 2.7 3.0 100.0 53.7 1,072

40-44 35.3 42.0 11.9 2.4 4.6 3.8 100.0 53.9 941

45-49 31.3 39.9 11.1 3.9 3.6 10.2 100.0 51.0 883

Total 15-49 58.6 23.3 12.5 1.1 2.2 2.2 100.0 35.8 8,514

MEN

15-19 99.9 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.1 647

20-24 92.6 1.5 5.7 0.0 0.2 0.0 100.0 7.2 588

25-29 70.8 10.3 14.7 0.0 4.2 0.0 100.0 25.0 506

30-34 45.4 28.8 19.8 1.1 4.7 0.1 100.0 48.6 450

35-39 41.0 35.5 18.1 0.6 4.5 0.3 100.0 53.6 395

40-44 28.3 45.4 17.0 1.1 5.7 2.5 100.0 62.4 345

45-49 22.2 50.2 13.5 0.9 6.6 6.6 100.0 63.6 271

Total 15-49 64.7 19.5 11.4 0.4 3.1 0.9 100.0 30.9 3,202

50-59 16.7 59.1 10.1 6.4 4.3 3.4 100.0 69.2 416

Total 15-59 59.2 24.0 11.2 1.1 3.2 1.2 100.0 35.3 3,618
62 • Marriage and Sexual Activity

Table 4.2.1 Number of women’s co-wives

Percent distribution of in-union women age 15-49 by number of co-wives, and percentage of in-union women with one or more cowives, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Number of co-wives

Total

Percentage 

with one or 

more cowives1Number of 

0 1 2+ Don’t know women

Age

15-19 (93.9) (5.2) (0.0) (0.9) 100.0 (5.2) 44

20-24 94.0 0.6 0.0 5.3 100.0 0.6 271

25-29 93.6 1.4 0.3 4.7 100.0 1.7 514

30-34 95.1 1.5 0.3 3.1 100.0 1.8 688

35-39 93.8 1.7 0.3 4.3 100.0 2.0 575

40-44 93.5 1.9 0.3 4.3 100.0 2.2 507

45-49 93.6 4.0 0.5 1.9 100.0 4.5 450

Residence

Urban 94.9 1.5 0.1 3.5 100.0 1.6 2,259

Non-urban 91.5 3.1 0.9 4.5 100.0 4.0 790

Province

Western Cape 98.0 0.4 0.0 1.6 100.0 0.4 454

Eastern Cape 94.0 0.7 0.9 4.4 100.0 1.5 275

Northern Cape 93.9 1.1 0.6 4.4 100.0 1.7 66

Free State 97.7 1.8 0.0 0.5 100.0 1.8 146

KwaZulu-Natal 96.0 1.6 0.3 2.1 100.0 1.9 361

North West 87.6 3.9 0.3 8.1 100.0 4.2 215

Gauteng 94.5 1.9 0.0 3.6 100.0 1.9 1,035

Mpumalanga 88.8 3.1 0.4 7.7 100.0 3.5 244

Limpopo 90.4 4.3 1.3 4.0 100.0 5.6 254

Education

No education 90.7 6.0 0.0 3.2 100.0 6.0 83

Primary incomplete 87.3 3.2 0.9 8.7 100.0 4.0 185

Primary complete 96.7 0.3 1.5 1.5 100.0 1.8 142

Secondary incomplete 92.7 2.6 0.4 4.3 100.0 3.0 1,297

Secondary complete 96.4 1.0 0.0 2.6 100.0 1.0 875

More than secondary 95.6 1.1 0.0 3.3 100.0 1.1 469

Wealth quintile

Lowest 92.4 2.0 0.7 4.9 100.0 2.7 505

Second 90.9 3.1 0.8 5.2 100.0 3.9 610

Middle 93.5 2.2 0.1 4.2 100.0 2.3 637

Fourth 95.3 1.8 0.0 2.9 100.0 1.8 569

Highest 97.3 0.7 0.0 2.0 100.0 0.7 729

Total 94.0 1.9 0.3 3.8 100.0 2.2 3,050

Notes: In-union women include women who are currently married or living together with a partner as if married. Figures in parentheses 

are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

1 Excludes women who responded “don’t know” when asked if their husband or partner has other wives 
Marriage and Sexual Activity • 63

Table 4.2.2 Number of men’s wives

Percent distribution of in-union men age 15-49 by number of wives/partners, 

according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Number of wives/partners

Total

Number of 

men

Background 

characteristic 1 2+

Not 

asked1

Age

15-19 * * * 100.0 1

20-24 (98.3) (1.7) (0.0) 100.0 42

25-29 98.9 1.1 0.0 100.0 127

30-34 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 219

35-39 97.4 2.6 0.0 100.0 212

40-44 98.3 1.7 0.0 100.0 215

45-49 96.1 2.0 1.9 100.0 172

Residence

Urban 98.4 1.2 0.4 100.0 765

Non-urban 97.5 2.5 0.0 100.0 223

Province

Western Cape 97.6 0.0 2.4 100.0 136

Eastern Cape 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 69

Northern Cape 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 19

Free State 97.9 2.1 0.0 100.0 35

KwaZulu-Natal 94.6 5.4 0.0 100.0 96

North West 98.4 1.6 0.0 100.0 91

Gauteng 99.5 0.5 0.0 100.0 395

Mpumalanga 96.6 3.4 0.0 100.0 84

Limpopo 96.2 3.8 0.0 100.0 62

Education

No education (100.0) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 36

Primary incomplete 98.6 1.4 0.0 100.0 86

Primary complete 95.1 4.9 0.0 100.0 50

Secondary incomplete 97.8 2.2 0.0 100.0 387

Secondary complete 99.7 0.3 0.0 100.0 282

More than secondary 96.7 1.1 2.2 100.0 146

Wealth quintile

Lowest 97.6 2.4 0.0 100.0 175

Second 96.7 3.3 0.0 100.0 204

Middle 99.3 0.7 0.0 100.0 215

Fourth 98.8 1.2 0.0 100.0 177

Highest 98.5 0.0 1.5 100.0 217

Total 15-49 98.2 1.5 0.3 100.0 988

50-59 97.2 1.8 0.9 100.0 288

Total 15-59 98.0 1.6 0.5 100.0 1,276

Notes: In-union men include men who are currently married or living together with a 

partner as if married. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. 

An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and 

has been suppressed.

1 Men who are in a union with a man and were not asked questions about polygyny 
64 • Marriage and Sexual Activity

Table 4.3 Age at first union

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 who were first in a union by specific exact ages, and median age at first union, according to 

current age, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage first in a union by exact age: Percentage 

never in a 

union

Number of 

respondents

Median age 

Current age 15 18 20 22 25 at first union

WOMEN

15-19 0.4 na na na na 96.7 1,427 a

20-24 0.9 3.6 8.4 na na 79.7 1,415 a

25-29 1.1 5.5 10.7 16.8 28.9 61.4 1,444 a

30-34 2.1 7.0 12.0 17.7 31.0 42.5 1,333 a

35-39 1.7 5.4 11.6 20.6 30.1 39.4 1,072 31.1

40-44 2.2 8.9 14.8 22.1 33.2 35.3 941 31.9

45-49 2.2 10.7 17.9 26.0 36.0 31.3 883 30.7

20-49 1.6 6.5 12.1 na na 51.0 7,087 a

25-49 1.8 7.2 13.0 20.0 31.4 43.8 5,672 a

30-49 2.0 7.8 13.8 21.1 32.3 37.8 4,229 a

MEN

15-19 0.0 na na na na 99.9 647 a

20-24 0.4 0.6 3.2 na na 92.6 588 a

25-29 0.6 1.9 5.3 9.9 20.8 70.8 506 a

30-34 1.1 3.1 6.4 10.8 18.7 45.4 450 a

35-39 1.3 1.9 3.3 8.3 22.3 41.0 395 33.5

40-44 0.3 4.9 7.1 12.5 22.6 28.3 345 33.2

45-49 2.7 3.8 8.5 15.5 20.9 22.2 271 31.9

20-49 0.9 2.4 5.3 na na 55.9 2,555 a

25-49 1.1 3.0 5.9 11.0 20.9 44.9 1,967 a

30-49 1.4 3.6 7.0 13.2 23.2 31.6 1,877 a

20-59 1.0 2.7 6.0 na na 50.4 2,971 a

25-59 1.2 3.2 6.6 12.5 22.7 39.9 2,383 a

30-59 1.4 3.6 7.0 13.2 23.2 31.6 1,877 a

Note: The age at first union is defined as the age at which the respondent began living with her/his first spouse/partner.

na = Not applicable due to censoring

a = Omitted because less than 50% of the women or men began living with their spouse or partner for the first time before reaching the 

beginning of the age group 
Marriage and Sexual Activity • 65

Table 4.4 Age at first sexual intercourse

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 who had first sexual intercourse by specific exact ages, percentage who never had sexual 

intercourse, and median age at first sexual intercourse, according to current age, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage who had first sexual intercourse by exact age: Percentage who 

never had 

intercourse

Number of 

respondents

Median age at 

Current age 15 18 20 22 25 first intercourse

WOMEN

15-19 5.7 na na na na 56.7 1,427 a

20-24 6.5 50.5 78.7 na na 9.2 1,415 18.0

25-29 5.7 47.9 77.1 90.8 94.6 2.2 1,444 18.1

30-34 8.3 49.5 75.3 86.3 93.3 1.1 1,333 18.0

35-39 6.4 50.3 78.8 89.8 94.1 0.5 1,072 18.0

40-44 6.1 46.5 73.8 86.6 91.6 1.0 941 18.2

45-49 8.7 47.0 72.2 83.6 90.1 0.9 883 18.2

20-49 6.9 48.8 76.3 na na 2.8 7,087 18.1

25-49 7.0 48.4 75.7 87.7 93.0 1.2 5,672 18.1

15-24 6.1 na na na na 33.0 2,842 a

MEN

15-19 14.5 na na na na 49.1 647 a

20-24 14.7 66.9 87.5 na na 8.2 588 17.0

25-29 14.0 63.1 83.9 90.2 93.6 3.9 506 17.3

30-34 11.5 53.6 75.0 87.7 93.6 0.5 450 17.7

35-39 15.6 59.6 81.5 88.2 94.9 0.6 395 17.4

40-44 9.5 49.5 82.0 91.6 96.0 0.8 345 18.0

45-49 8.0 44.2 73.0 85.7 92.1 1.6 271 18.3

20-49 12.7 57.9 81.4 na na 3.1 2,555 17.5

25-49 12.1 55.2 79.5 88.9 94.1 1.6 1,967 17.6

15-24 14.6 na na na na 29.6 1,235 a

20-59 12.0 55.4 79.4 na na 2.8 2,971 17.6

25-59 11.3 52.6 77.3 87.8 93.3 1.5 2,383 17.8

na = Not applicable due to censoring

a = Omitted because less than 50% of the women or men had sexual intercourse for the first time before reaching the beginning of the 

age group 
66 • Marriage and Sexual Activity

Table 4.5 Median age at first sexual intercourse by 

background characteristics

Median age at first sexual intercourse among women age 20-49 

and age 25-49, and median age at first sexual intercourse among 

men age 20-59 and age 25-59, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Women age Men age

20-49 25-49 20-59 25-59

Residence

Urban 18.1 18.2 17.6 17.8

Non-urban 17.9 17.9 17.7 18.0

Province

Western Cape 18.6 18.8 17.9 17.9

Eastern Cape 17.4 17.5 17.1 17.5

Northern Cape 18.5 18.6 17.8 18.1

Free State 18.2 18.2 17.1 17.2

KwaZulu-Natal 18.7 18.6 17.7 17.8

North West 17.9 18.0 17.6 17.8

Gauteng 17.8 17.8 17.7 17.9

Mpumalanga 17.7 17.7 17.1 17.5

Limpopo 17.9 17.9 17.9 18.2

Education

No education 17.5 17.6 18.4 18.4

Primary incomplete 16.9 17.0 18.0 18.1

Primary complete 17.0 17.0 17.9 18.0

Secondary incomplete 17.6 17.7 17.5 17.7

Secondary complete 18.5 18.5 17.6 17.9

More than secondary 19.2 19.1 17.4 17.7

Wealth quintile

Lowest 17.6 17.7 17.9 18.1

Second 17.8 17.8 17.5 17.7

Middle 17.9 17.9 17.4 17.5

Fourth 18.1 18.2 17.5 17.8

Highest 18.8 18.8 18.0 18.1

Total 18.1 18.1 17.6 17.8
Marriage and Sexual Activity • 67

Table 4.6.1 Recent sexual activity: Women

Percent distribution of women age 15-49 by timing of last sexual intercourse, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Timing of last sexual intercourse Never had 

sexual 

intercourse Total

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic

Within the past 

4 weeks

Within 

1 year1

One or more 

years Missing

Age

15-19 17.5 22.8 3.0 0.0 56.7 100.0 1,427

20-24 48.5 35.0 7.2 0.0 9.2 100.0 1,415

25-29 58.0 31.6 8.0 0.2 2.2 100.0 1,444

30-34 65.2 25.4 8.2 0.1 1.1 100.0 1,333

35-39 62.2 24.8 12.5 0.1 0.5 100.0 1,072

40-44 57.2 24.4 17.2 0.2 1.0 100.0 941

45-49 50.2 20.8 27.5 0.6 0.9 100.0 883

Marital status

Never married 33.5 33.5 12.8 0.2 20.1 100.0 4,992

Married or living together 80.6 15.4 3.8 0.1 0.1 100.0 3,050

Divorced/separated/widowed 34.1 32.8 32.6 0.2 0.3 100.0 472

Marital duration2

0-4 years 84.1 12.4 3.1 0.3 0.1 100.0 819

5-9 years 84.0 13.9 2.0 0.0 0.1 100.0 728

10-14 years 78.8 17.5 3.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 428

15-19 years 81.2 15.5 3.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 445

20-24 years 76.7 17.6 5.4 0.0 0.2 100.0 241

25+ years 65.2 25.3 9.6 0.0 0.0 100.0 220

Married more than once 76.9 15.4 6.3 0.0 1.4 100.0 170

Residence

Urban 53.9 24.1 10.3 0.1 11.6 100.0 5,731

Non-urban 43.1 32.8 11.5 0.1 12.5 100.0 2,783

Province

Western Cape 52.3 20.4 12.9 0.2 14.3 100.0 995

Eastern Cape 43.2 35.5 12.9 0.0 8.3 100.0 938

Northern Cape 46.9 28.1 13.3 0.0 11.7 100.0 173

Free State 44.9 28.1 13.5 0.0 13.5 100.0 442

KwaZulu-Natal 41.1 30.1 11.2 0.5 17.1 100.0 1,616

North West 56.7 24.1 11.9 0.0 7.2 100.0 570

Gauteng 61.5 22.4 7.0 0.0 9.1 100.0 2,284

Mpumalanga 52.7 28.3 9.5 0.1 9.3 100.0 671

Limpopo 41.1 31.7 12.6 0.1 14.5 100.0 824

Education

No education 51.3 27.1 16.0 0.4 5.1 100.0 168

Primary incomplete 52.6 24.7 16.3 0.2 6.2 100.0 447

Primary complete 49.8 20.9 15.3 0.6 13.3 100.0 327

Secondary incomplete 44.6 28.1 9.8 0.1 17.4 100.0 4,195

Secondary complete 56.5 27.6 10.1 0.1 5.8 100.0 2,369

More than secondary 59.1 24.0 10.5 0.1 6.3 100.0 1,008

Wealth quintile

Lowest 45.2 30.1 12.4 0.2 12.2 100.0 1,648

Second 52.0 29.7 9.2 0.1 9.1 100.0 1,715

Middle 52.0 27.3 10.8 0.0 9.8 100.0 1,805

Fourth 49.3 27.1 10.6 0.2 12.9 100.0 1,763

Highest 53.4 20.3 10.4 0.2 15.7 100.0 1,583

Total 50.4 27.0 10.7 0.1 11.8 100.0 8,514

1 Excludes women who had sexual intercourse within the last 4 weeks

2 Excludes women who are not in a union
68 • Marriage and Sexual Activity

Table 4.6.2 Recent sexual activity: Men

Percent distribution of men age 15-49 by timing of last sexual intercourse, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Timing of last sexual intercourse Never had 

sexual 

intercourse Total

Number of 

men

Background 

characteristic

Within the past 

4 weeks

Within 

1 year1

One or more 

years Missing

Age

15-19 18.7 25.8 6.5 0.0 49.1 100.0 647

20-24 52.9 32.1 6.7 0.0 8.2 100.0 588

25-29 67.3 21.4 7.2 0.3 3.9 100.0 506

30-34 74.4 19.1 5.6 0.4 0.5 100.0 450

35-39 79.0 17.9 2.1 0.4 0.6 100.0 395

40-44 74.7 18.7 5.9 0.0 0.8 100.0 345

45-49 74.8 14.0 9.6 0.0 1.6 100.0 271

Marital status

Never married 45.2 27.2 8.4 0.2 19.1 100.0 2,073

Married or living together 86.2 12.8 0.6 0.1 0.2 100.0 988

Divorced/separated/widowed 63.9 23.0 13.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 141

Marital duration2

0-4 years 88.2 10.9 0.4 0.5 0.0 100.0 260

5-9 years 87.0 12.7 0.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 245

10-14 years 88.1 10.1 1.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 143

15-19 years 82.0 17.6 0.4 0.0 0.0 100.0 133

20-24 years 79.0 19.8 1.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 62

25+ years (77.2) (17.3) (0.0) (0.0) (5.5) 100.0 35

Married more than once 89.3 10.2 0.6 0.0 0.0 100.0 111

Residence

Urban 63.1 20.9 5.7 0.2 10.1 100.0 2,203

Non-urban 49.1 26.3 7.2 0.0 17.5 100.0 999

Province

Western Cape 58.1 18.7 8.4 1.4 13.4 100.0 328

Eastern Cape 57.9 24.4 5.3 0.0 12.5 100.0 362

Northern Cape 50.9 25.6 8.0 0.0 15.5 100.0 61

Free State 54.4 22.7 6.6 0.0 16.2 100.0 159

KwaZulu-Natal 47.1 27.6 6.9 0.0 18.4 100.0 521

North West 57.6 26.0 6.3 0.0 10.1 100.0 237

Gauteng 70.2 17.8 4.2 0.0 7.8 100.0 984

Mpumalanga 61.1 22.0 7.7 0.0 9.3 100.0 263

Limpopo 45.2 28.8 8.0 0.0 18.0 100.0 288

Education

No education 59.1 32.8 5.9 0.0 2.2 100.0 62

Primary incomplete 53.7 18.3 10.0 0.7 17.3 100.0 219

Primary complete 52.4 21.2 6.5 0.0 19.9 100.0 166

Secondary incomplete 52.9 23.3 6.7 0.1 17.0 100.0 1,637

Secondary complete 68.0 22.0 4.8 0.0 5.2 100.0 773

More than secondary 71.6 22.1 4.0 0.4 2.0 100.0 345

Wealth quintile

Lowest 56.4 24.4 5.9 0.3 13.0 100.0 618

Second 56.5 24.9 6.8 0.2 11.5 100.0 682

Middle 60.4 21.4 6.8 0.0 11.3 100.0 715

Fourth 58.6 23.3 5.6 0.0 12.5 100.0 653

Highest 61.9 18.2 5.5 0.3 14.1 100.0 534

Total 15-49 58.7 22.6 6.2 0.1 12.4 100.0 3,202

50-59 60.3 19.6 18.5 0.6 1.1 100.0 416

Total 15-59 58.9 22.2 7.6 0.2 11.1 100.0 3,618

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

1 Excludes men who had sexual intercourse within the last 4 weeks

2 Excludes men who are not in a union
Fertility • 69

FERTILITY 5

Key Findings

 Total fertility rate: The total fertility rate (TFR) is 2.6 

children per woman, a decline from 2.9 in 1998.

 Patterns of fertility: The TFR declines with increasing 

household wealth, from 3.1 children among women in the 

lowest wealth quintile to 2.1 children among women in the 

highest wealth quintile.

 Birth intervals: The median birth interval is 55.3 months. 

One in 10 women (11%) had their second- or higher-order 

birth within 24 months of their previous birth. 

 Age at first birth: The median age at first birth among

women age 25-49 is 21.3 years. Eighteen percent of 

women gave birth by age 18.

 Teenage pregnancy: 9% of women age 15-17 and 16% 

of women age 15-19 have begun childbearing.

he number of children that a woman bears depends on many factors, including the age at which she

begins childbearing, the intervals between her births, and her fecundity. Postponing first births and

extending the interval between births have played a role in reducing fertility levels in many Southern 

African countries, including South Africa. These factors also have positive health consequences. In contrast, 

short birth intervals (of less than 24 months) can lead to harmful outcomes for both newborns and their 

mothers, such as preterm birth, low birth weight, and maternal or child death. Childbearing at a very young 

age is associated with an increased risk of complications during pregnancy and childbirth and higher rates 

of neonatal mortality. 

This chapter describes the current level of fertility in South Africa and some of its proximate determinants. 

It presents information on the total fertility rate, birth intervals, insusceptibility to pregnancy (due to 

postpartum amenorrhoea, postpartum abstinence, or menopause), age at first birth, and teenage childbearing.

5.1 CURRENT FERTILITY

Total fertility rate (TFR)

The average number of children a woman would have by the end of her 

childbearing years if she bore children at the current age-specific fertility rates. 

Age-specific fertility rates are calculated for the 3 years before the survey, based 

on detailed birth histories provided by women.

Sample: Women age 15-49

T
70 • Fertility

The total fertility rate (TFR) is 2.4 children per woman 

in urban areas and 3.1 children per woman in nonurban areas, resulting in a national TFR of 2.6 children 

per woman (Table 5.1). Age-specific fertility rates 

(ASFRs) peak at age 25-29 among both urban and 

non-urban women (Figure 5.1). Four percent of 

women reported that they were pregnant at the time of 

the survey (Table 5.2). 

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The TFR

declined from 2.9 children per woman in 1998 to 2.6 

children per woman in 2016. The TFR among women 

in non-urban areas dropped from 3.9 in 1998 to 3.1 in 

2016. In urban areas, the TFR increased marginally 

from 2.3 to 2.4 over the same period (Figure 5.2).

Between 1998 and 2016, ASFRs for the 3-year period 

preceding the survey declined slightly across all age 

groups (Table 5.3.2).

Patterns by background characteristics

 TFRs vary by population group: Black African 

women have the highest TFR (2.7 children per 

woman), followed by Coloured (2.5 children), 

Indian/Asian (1.7 children), and White (1.5 

children) women (Table 5.2).

 By province, the TFR ranges from a low of 2.1 

children per woman in Western Cape to a high of 

3.1 children in North West and Limpopo.

 With the exception of women with no schooling, 

the TFR falls with increasing education, from 3.6 

among those with an incomplete primary 

education to 2.2 among those with more than a 

secondary education.

 The TFR also falls with increasing household 

wealth, from 3.1 children per woman among 

those living in the poorest 20% of households to 

2.1 children per woman among those living in the 

wealthiest households (Figure 5.3).

5.2 CHILDREN EVER BORN AND LIVING

By collecting complete live-birth histories, the SADHS allowed an estimation of the number of children ever 

born to women of reproductive age and living at the time of the survey. On average, women age 15-49 have 

given birth to 1.6 children, nearly all of whom are still alive (Table 5.4). In-union women age 15-49 have 

had an average of 2.4 children, of whom 2.2 were alive at the time of the survey.

Among women overall, the mean number of children ever born increases from 0.1 among those age 15-19

to 3.0 among those age 45-49. Among in-union women, the mean number of children rises from 1.1 among 

those age 20-24 to 3.2 among those age 45-49.

Figure 5.1 Age-specific fertility rates

Figure 5.2 Comparison in fertility 

between the SADHS 1998 and SADHS 

2016 by residence

Figure 5.3 Fertility by household wealth

0

50

100

150

200

15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49

Age group

Births per 1,000 women

Non-urban

Urban

Total

2.9 2.6

2.3 2.4

3.9

3.1

SADHS 1998 SADHS 2016

TFR for the 3 years before each survey

Total Urban Non-urban

3.1 2.9 2.7

2.3 2.1

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

TFR for the 3 years before the survey

Poorest Wealthiest
Fertility • 71

5.3 BIRTH INTERVALS

Median birth interval

Number of months since the preceding birth by which half of children are born

Sample: Non-first births in the 5 years before the survey

Birth intervals of less than 24 months are associated 

with increased health risks for both mothers and 

newborns. The SADHS results showed that the 

median birth interval is 55.3 months. About 1 in 10 

women had their second- or higher-order birth within 

24 months of their previous birth (Table 5.5 and

Figure 5.4).

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The median 

birth interval increased between 1998 and 2016 (from 

47.1 months to 55.3 months). The percentage of 

women who had birth intervals of less than 24 months 

decreased over that period, from 14% to 11%.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Birth intervals are virtually the same among women living in urban and non-urban areas (55.6 months 

versus 54.5 months).

 By province, the median birth interval ranges from a low of 51.4 months in Eastern Cape to a high of

63.6 months in Free State.

 The median birth interval rises with increasing household wealth, from 51.3 months for births to women 

in the lowest wealth quintile to 65.9 months for births to women in the highest quintile.

5.4 INSUSCEPTIBILITY TO PREGNANCY

Postpartum amenorrhoea

The period of time after the birth of a child and before the resumption of 

menstruation.

Postpartum abstinence

The period of time after the birth of a child and before the resumption of sexual 

intercourse.

Postpartum insusceptibility

The period of time during which a woman is considered not at risk of pregnancy 

because she is postpartum amenorrhoeic and/or abstaining from sexual 

intercourse postpartum.

Median duration of postpartum amenorrhoea

Calculated as the number of months after childbirth by which time half of women 

have begun menstruating.

Sample: Women who gave birth in the 3 years before the survey 

Figure 5.4 Birth intervals

7-17

4%

18-23

7%

24-35

15%

36-47

16%

48-59

14%

60+

44%

Percent distribution of non-first births by 

number of months since the preceding birth
72 • Fertility

Median duration of postpartum insusceptibility

Calculated as the number of months after childbirth by which time half of women 

are no longer protected against pregnancy by either postpartum amenorrhoea 

or abstinence from sexual intercourse.

Sample: Women who gave birth in the 3 years before the survey

At the time of the survey, mothers were insusceptible to pregnancy for 37% of births that occurred in the 

preceding 3 years because they were amenorrhoeic or abstaining (Table 5.6). Mothers were postpartum 

amenorrhoeic for 22% of the births and abstaining for 25% of the births. 

The percentage of births for which the mother was insusceptible drops steadily by the number of months 

since birth. Mothers were insusceptible to pregnancy for 90% of births that occurred within 2 months of the 

date of the interview; in contrast, mothers were insusceptible to pregnancy for only 11% of births that 

occurred 32-35 months before the interview.

Since less than half of women were postpartum amenorrhoeic within the first 2 months of birth, a median 

duration of amenorrhoea could not be calculated. The median duration of abstinence for births in the 3 years 

preceding the survey is 4.7 months. Overall, women are insusceptible to pregnancy after childbirth for a 

median duration of 8.1 months.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Postpartum insusceptibility is almost identical among women age 15-29 and women age 30-49 (8.0 

months and 8.4 months, respectively) (Table 5.7).

 The median duration of postpartum insusceptibility is about 4 months shorter among urban women (6.6

months) than among non-urban women (10.7 months).

Menopause

Women are considered to have reached menopause if they are neither pregnant 

nor postpartum amenorrhoeic and have not had a menstrual period in the 6 

months before the survey, if they report being menopausal or having had a 

hysterectomy, or if they have never menstruated.

Sample: Women age 30-49

Sixteen percent of women age 30-49 are menopausal. The percentage of menopausal women increases with 

age, rising from 9% among women age 30-34 to 45% among women age 48-49 (Table 5.8). Note, however, 

that the methodology used in estimating the prevalence of menopause did not take into account the use of 

contraceptive methods that reduce the frequency of menstrual periods. Thus, Table 5.8 may overestimate 

the prevalence of menopause.

5.5 AGE AT FIRST BIRTH

Median age at first birth

Age by which half of women have had their first child.

Sample: Women age 20-49 and 25-49

The median age at first birth among women age 25-49 is 21.3 years (Table 5.9). Two in 10 (18%) women 

age 25-49 have given birth by age 18, 4 in 10 (38%) have given birth by age 20, and three-quarters (74%) 

have given birth by age 25. Nearly 1 in 10 (9%) women age 25-49 have never given birth.
Fertility • 73

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The median age at first birth among women age 25-49 has risen 

slightly since 1998, from 20.8 years to 21.3 years. 

Patterns by background characteristics

 Women age 25-49 living in urban areas have their 

first birth about a year later than women living in 

non-urban areas (21.6 years versus 20.7 years) 

(Table 5.10).

 By province, the median age at first birth among 

women age 25-49 ranges from a low of 20.1 years 

in Mpumalanga to a high of 22.1 years in Western 

Cape. 

 The median age at first birth rises from 20.5 years 

among women in the lowest wealth quintile to 

24.2 years among women in the highest quintile

(Figure 5.5).

5.6 TEENAGE CHILDBEARING

Teenage childbearing

Percentage of women age 15-19 who have given birth or are pregnant with their 

first child

Sample: Women age 15-19

Sixteen percent of women age 15-19 have begun childbearing; 12% have given birth, and additional 3% are 

pregnant with their first child (Table 5.11). Six percent of teenage girls and 15% of teenage boys had sexual 

intercourse before age 15; 0.6% of teenage girls gave birth before age 15, while no teenage boys reported 

having fathered a child before age 15 (Table 5.12).

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: Overall, the 

percentage of women age 15-19 who have begun 

childbearing is unchanged relative to 1998 (16% in 

both 1998 and 2016). However, the proportion of 

women age 19 who have begun childbearing has 

decreased (35% in 1998 and 28% in 2016). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 Urban women (14%) are less likely than nonurban women (19%) to begin childbearing in their 

teen years (Table 15.11).

 The percentage of women age 15-19 who have 

begun childbearing rises rapidly with age, from 

4% among women age 15 to 28% among women 

age 19.

 By province, childbearing among teenagers 

ranges from a low of 8% in Western Cape to a 

high of 20% in both Northern Cape and North 

West (Figure 5.6).

Figure 5.5 Median age at first birth 

by household wealth

Figure 5.6 Teenage pregnancy and 

motherhood by province

Percentage of women age 15-19 who have 

begun childbearing

20.5 20.6 20.7 21.4

24.2

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Median age at first birth among women 

age 25-49

Poorest Wealthiest
74 • Fertility

 Teenage childbearing is most common among 

young women in the two lowest wealth quintiles

(20% and 22%, respectively) and least common 

among young women in the highest wealth 

quintile (7%) (Figure 5.7).

LIST OF TABLES

For more information on fertility levels and some of the determinants of fertility, see the following tables:

 Table 5.1 Current fertility

 Table 5.2 Fertility by background characteristics

 Table 5.3.1 Trends in age-specific fertility rates

 Table 5.3.2 Trends in age-specific and total fertility rates

 Table 5.4 Children ever born and living

 Table 5.5 Birth intervals

 Table 5.6 Postpartum amenorrhoea, abstinence, and insusceptibility

 Table 5.7 Median duration of amenorrhoea, postpartum abstinence, and postpartum 

insusceptibility

 Table 5.8 Menopause

 Table 5.9 Age at first birth

 Table 5.10 Median age at first birth

 Table 5.11 Teenage pregnancy and motherhood

 Table 5.12 Sexual and reproductive health behaviours before age 15

Figure 5.7 Teenage pregnancy and 

motherhood by household wealth

20 22 18

9

7

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Percentage of women age 15-19 who 

have begun childbearing

Poorest Wealthiest
Fertility • 75

Table 5.1 Current fertility

Age-specific and total fertility rates, general fertility rate, 

and crude birth rate for the 3 years preceding the survey, 

by residence, South Africa DHS 2016

Residence

Age group Urban Total

Nonurban

10-14 [0] [3] [1]

15-19 62 86 71

20-24 125 150 133

25-29 131 156 139

30-34 94 107 98

35-39 52 87 62

40-44 21 29 23

45-49 [1] [4] [2]

TFR (15-49) 2.4 3.1 2.6

GFR (15-44) 87 109 94

GFR (15-49) 80 101 87

CBR 21.9 23.1 22.3

Notes: Age-specific fertility rates are per 1,000 women. 

Rates for the 10-14 and 45-49 age groups may be slightly 

biased due to truncation and are therefore displayed in 

brackets. Rates are for the period 1-36 months prior to 

interview. Rates for the 10-14 age group are based on 

retrospective data from women age 15-17.

TFR: Total fertility rate, expressed per woman

GFR: General fertility rate, expressed per 1,000 women 

age 15-44 or per 1,000 women age 15-49

CBR: Crude birth rate, expressed per 1,000 population 

Table 5.2 Fertility by background characteristics

Total fertility rate for the 3 years preceding the survey, percentage of women age 

15-49 currently pregnant, and mean number of children ever born to women age 

40-49, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Background 

characteristic Total fertility rate

Percentage of 

women age 

15-49 currently 

pregnant

Mean number of 

children ever 

born to women 

age 40-49

Population group

Black African 2.7 4.0 3.0

White 1.5 5.4 1.8

Coloured 2.5 2.9 2.8

Indian/Asian 1.7 0.0 (2.1)

Residence

Urban 2.4 4.1 2.6

Non-urban 3.1 3.6 3.4

Province

Western Cape 2.1 3.3 2.6

Eastern Cape 2.9 3.3 3.1

Northern Cape 2.7 3.1 2.6

Free State 2.4 2.5 2.8

KwaZulu-Natal 2.5 3.5 2.8

North West 3.1 3.7 3.0

Gauteng 2.6 5.5 2.6

Mpumalanga 3.0 4.1 3.4

Limpopo 3.1 2.6 3.2

Education

No education 2.8 2.8 3.5

Primary incomplete 3.6 4.1 3.7

Primary complete 3.5 5.9 3.6

Secondary incomplete 2.8 3.8 3.0

Secondary complete 2.4 4.0 2.4

More than secondary 2.2 3.5 2.2

Wealth quintile

Lowest 3.1 4.2 3.4

Second 2.9 5.1 3.4

Middle 2.7 4.3 3.1

Fourth 2.3 3.2 2.6

Highest 2.1 2.6 2.2

Total 2.6 3.9 2.9

Notes: Total fertility rates are for the period 1-36 months prior to the interview. Figures 

in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. 
76 • Fertility

Table 5.3.1 Trends in age-specific fertility rates

Age-specific fertility rates for 5-year periods preceding the survey, 

according to age group, South Africa DHS 2016

Number of years preceding survey

Age group 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19

10-14 [1] 3 2 2

15-19 77 86 76 79

20-24 138 136 134 132

25-29 134 135 130 137

30-34 107 111 104 [109]

35-39 66 68 [83]

40-44 24 [34]

45-49 [3]

Notes: Age-specific fertility rates are per 1,000 women. Estimates 

in brackets are truncated. Rates exclude the month of interview. 

For the 0-4 year period, rates for the 10-14 age group are based 

on retrospective data from women age 15-19. 

Table 5.3.2 Trends in age-specific and total fertility rates

Age-specific and total fertility rates (TFR) for the 3-year period 

preceding the SADHS 1998 and the SADHS 2016, according to 

mother’s age at the time of the birth, South Africa DHS 2016

Mother’s age at birth SADHS 1998 SADHS 2016

15-19 76 71

20-24 139 133

25-29 143 139

30-34 109 98

35-39 74 62

40-44 29 23

45-49 [9] [2]

TFR (15-49) 2.9 2.6

Notes: Age-specific fertility rates are per 1,000 women. Rates for 

the 45-49 age group may be slightly biased due to truncation and 

are therefore displayed in brackets.
Fertility • 77

Table 5.4 Children ever born and living

Percent distribution of all women and in-union women age 15-49 by number of children ever born, mean number of children ever born, and mean 

number of living children, according to age group, South Africa DHS 2016

Number of children ever born

Total

Number 

of 

women

Mean 

number 

of 

children 

ever 

born

Mean 

number 

of living 

Age group 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10+ children

ALL WOMEN

15-19 87.6 11.5 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,427 0.13 0.13

20-24 42.1 40.4 15.0 2.1 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,415 0.78 0.76

25-29 15.3 38.3 31.5 12.3 2.1 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,444 1.49 1.41

30-34 9.6 25.6 35.2 19.7 6.7 2.7 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1,333 1.99 1.89

35-39 5.7 19.1 32.8 23.8 11.9 3.5 2.0 0.4 0.8 0.0 0.1 100.0 1,072 2.43 2.29

40-44 5.4 14.4 27.7 26.3 14.3 6.6 2.9 1.2 0.7 0.5 0.1 100.0 941 2.75 2.60

45-49 6.3 11.2 23.8 25.5 16.2 10.4 3.0 2.2 0.9 0.4 0.3 100.0 883 2.99 2.76

Total 27.7 24.3 23.2 14.1 6.2 2.7 1.0 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.1 100.0 8,514 1.64 1.55

IN-UNION WOMEN

15-19 (53.3) (40.3) (6.4) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 44 (0.53) (0.51)

20-24 20.7 51.6 23.0 4.3 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 271 1.12 1.09

25-29 8.8 31.1 37.1 17.5 4.3 0.7 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 514 1.82 1.73

30-34 7.3 19.1 40.3 20.9 8.3 3.5 0.5 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 688 2.17 2.06

35-39 4.3 15.0 33.5 25.0 14.9 3.5 1.9 0.3 1.4 0.1 0.1 100.0 575 2.61 2.47

40-44 3.3 12.9 27.6 27.4 16.0 6.9 2.6 1.3 1.1 0.7 0.1 100.0 507 2.90 2.74

45-49 4.5 8.1 21.8 30.2 16.0 9.7 4.3 2.9 1.5 0.2 0.6 100.0 450 3.22 2.99

Total 7.8 20.9 31.6 21.8 10.5 4.1 1.6 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.1 100.0 3,050 2.35 2.22

Notes: In-union women include women who are currently married or living together with a partner as if married. Figures in parentheses are based 

on 25-49 unweighted cases. 
78 • Fertility

Table 5.5 Birth intervals

Percent distribution of non-first births in the 5 years preceding the survey by number of months since preceding birth, and median number of months 

since preceding birth, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Background 

characteristic

Months since preceding birth

Total

Number of 

non-first 

births

Median 

number of 

months 

since 

preceding 

7-17 18-23 24-35 36-47 48-59 60+ birth

Mother’s age

15-19 * * * * * * 100.0 11 *

20-29 5.1 10.2 21.2 19.8 16.7 27.0 100.0 920 44.5

30-39 3.4 4.5 11.6 13.7 13.2 53.5 100.0 1,100 63.6

40-49 2.6 2.5 8.7 8.8 11.4 66.0 100.0 260 86.3

Sex of preceding birth

Male 3.6 6.6 15.6 15.9 13.9 44.3 100.0 1,222 55.1

Female 4.5 6.9 14.9 15.2 14.8 43.6 100.0 1,069 55.5

Survival of preceding birth

Living 3.6 6.9 14.7 15.3 14.3 45.2 100.0 2,161 56.2

Dead 11.3 4.6 25.0 20.2 15.4 23.6 100.0 130 40.9

Birth order

2-3 3.6 6.2 14.0 14.8 14.1 47.4 100.0 1,817 58.0

4-6 5.6 8.9 19.1 17.0 15.3 34.1 100.0 421 47.6

7+ 6.0 11.5 27.5 30.4 16.9 7.7 100.0 53 40.9

Residence

Urban 4.2 7.0 15.1 15.7 13.5 44.4 100.0 1,450 55.6

Non-urban 3.8 6.4 15.6 15.2 15.8 43.3 100.0 841 54.5

Province

Western Cape 2.2 8.4 13.8 13.1 19.0 43.5 100.0 202 54.7

Eastern Cape 4.6 6.2 16.3 18.8 15.8 38.3 100.0 259 51.4

Northern Cape 1.7 4.2 11.5 17.3 17.8 47.5 100.0 43 58.1

Free State 4.9 2.0 14.8 13.6 11.1 53.5 100.0 101 63.6

KwaZulu-Natal 4.0 7.1 14.8 18.4 13.3 42.3 100.0 402 52.8

North West 2.5 5.7 12.7 19.1 14.9 45.1 100.0 192 55.0

Gauteng 4.8 8.6 17.5 12.5 10.9 45.8 100.0 651 56.5

Mpumalanga 6.1 5.5 14.3 17.9 18.1 38.1 100.0 213 53.8

Limpopo 2.0 4.9 14.2 13.0 17.2 48.7 100.0 229 59.1

Mother’s education

No education (3.0) (0.0) (10.0) (19.0) (9.4) (58.6) 100.0 46 (75.3)

Primary incomplete 3.0 5.2 25.1 18.7 15.0 33.0 100.0 152 45.7

Primary complete 11.3 3.8 22.1 19.4 11.6 31.8 100.0 102 42.0

Secondary incomplete 3.9 7.3 15.1 15.7 17.4 40.6 100.0 1,131 53.2

Secondary complete 3.8 8.1 13.2 12.0 10.6 52.2 100.0 652 61.9

More than secondary 2.4 4.1 13.3 20.8 11.7 47.7 100.0 208 59.3

Wealth quintile

Lowest 4.2 4.2 18.4 19.0 16.7 37.3 100.0 528 51.3

Second 3.8 6.7 15.4 17.6 13.1 43.3 100.0 554 53.0

Middle 4.2 8.8 14.7 12.3 16.3 43.8 100.0 525 56.3

Fourth 3.3 8.0 12.8 13.0 15.6 47.3 100.0 414 57.8

Highest 4.7 6.1 14.0 14.7 6.6 53.9 100.0 270 65.9

Total 4.0 6.8 15.3 15.6 14.4 44.0 100.0 2,291 55.3

Notes: First-order births are excluded. The interval for multiple births is the number of months since the preceding pregnancy that ended in a live 

birth. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases 

and has been suppressed. 
Fertility • 79

Table 5.6 Postpartum amenorrhoea, abstinence, and insusceptibility

Percentage of births in the 3 years preceding the survey for which mothers are postpartum amenorrhoeic, abstaining, and 

insusceptible, by number of months since birth, and median and mean durations, South Africa DHS 2016

Percentage of births for which the mother is:

Months since birth Amenorrhoeic Abstaining Insusceptible Number of births 1

<2 45.5 87.3 90.1 116

2-3 46.0 65.8 78.5 123

4-5 42.5 44.0 64.7 132

6-7 25.2 31.6 44.7 126

8-9 28.9 31.0 49.6 91

10-11 28.6 24.8 47.0 111

12-13 22.8 17.7 33.3 112

14-15 23.4 20.4 36.3 126

16-17 18.7 17.3 32.0 135

18-19 13.3 10.6 21.5 128

20-21 16.4 24.3 32.4 85

22-23 6.3 10.6 14.7 111

24-25 13.4 8.4 20.4 109

26-27 18.0 11.6 25.9 103

28-29 13.3 17.0 25.0 127

30-31 14.9 9.7 20.8 107

32-33 5.8 6.5 11.3 128

34-35 5.8 5.4 11.1 99

Total 21.9 25.0 37.0 2,068

Median a 4.7 8.1 na

Mean 8.8 9.9 14.2 na

Note: Estimates are based on status at the time of the survey.

na = Not applicable

a = Omitted because less than 50% of women were postpartum amenorrhoeic within the first 2 months of birth

1

Includes births for which mothers are either still amenorrhoeic or still abstaining (or both) following birth 

Table 5.7 Median duration of amenorrhoea, postpartum abstinence, and postpartum insusceptibility

Median number of months of postpartum amenorrhoea, postpartum abstinence, and postpartum insusceptibility 

following births in the 3 years preceding the survey, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 

2016

Background 

characteristic

Postpartum 

amenorrhoea

Postpartum 

abstinence

Postpartum 

insusceptibility1

Mother’s age

15-29 a 5.2 8.0

30-49 a 3.9 8.4

Residence

Urban a 3.9 6.6

Non-urban 1.9 6.2 10.7

Wealth quintile

Lowest 6.3 6.6 11.5

Second (1.7) 5.2 7.3

Middle a 6.1 10.9

Fourth * 3.8 6.2

Highest a * (6.0)

Total a 4.7 8.1

Notes: Medians are based on status at the time of the survey (current status). Figures in parentheses are based 

on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and 

has been suppressed.

a = Omitted because less than 50% of women were postpartum amenorrhoeic within the first 2 months of birth

1

Includes births for which mothers are either still amenorrhoeic or still abstaining (or both) following birth 
80 • Fertility

Table 5.8 Menopause

Percentage of women age 30-49 who are menopausal, 

according to age, South Africa DHS 2016

Age

Percentage 

menopausal1 Number of women

30-34 8.9 1,333

35-39 9.5 1,072

40-41 13.7 403

42-43 16.1 384

44-45 24.7 306

46-47 30.4 383

48-49 44.7 348

Total 16.2 4,229

1 Percentage of women who (1) are not pregnant, and 

(2) have had a birth in the past 5 years and are not 

postpartum amenorrhoeic, and (3) for whom one of the 

following additional conditions applies: (a) their last 

menstrual period occurred 6 or more months preceding the 

survey, (b) they declared that they are in menopause or 

have had a hysterectomy, or (c) they have never 

menstruated 

Table 5.9 Age at first birth

Percentage of women age 15-49 who gave birth by exact ages, percentage who have never given birth, and median age at first 

birth, according to current age, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage who gave birth by exact age

Percentage 

who have 

never given 

birth

Number of 

women

Median age 

Current age 15 18 20 22 25 at first birth

15-19 0.6 na na na na 87.6 1,427 a

20-24 1.7 18.2 38.0 na na 42.1 1,415 a

25-29 1.1 17.8 37.9 57.8 76.0 15.3 1,444 21.2

30-34 1.1 15.4 34.1 53.7 74.1 9.6 1,333 21.6

35-39 1.4 18.8 38.4 54.3 71.9 5.7 1,072 21.4

40-44 1.4 18.6 38.0 56.4 72.6 5.4 941 21.3

45-49 2.8 20.0 42.2 60.9 76.4 6.3 883 20.9

20-49 1.5 18.0 37.8 na na 15.7 7,087 a

25-49 1.5 17.9 37.8 56.4 74.3 9.1 5,672 21.3

na = Not applicable due to censoring

a = Omitted because less than 50% of women had a birth before reaching the beginning of the age group 
Fertility • 81

Table 5.10 Median age at first birth

Median age at first birth among women 

age 25-49, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Women age 

25-49

Residence

Urban 21.6

Non-urban 20.7

Province

Western Cape 22.1

Eastern Cape 21.4

Northern Cape 21.5

Free State 21.9

KwaZulu-Natal 21.3

North West 21.0

Gauteng 21.4

Mpumalanga 20.1

Limpopo 20.7

Education

No education 20.9

Primary incomplete 19.4

Primary complete 19.4

Secondary incomplete 20.4

Secondary complete 22.3

Wealth quintile

Lowest 20.5

Second 20.6

Middle 20.7

Fourth 21.4

Highest 24.2

Total 21.3
82 • Fertility

Table 5.11 Teenage pregnancy and motherhood

Percentage of women age 15-19 who have had a live birth or who are pregnant with their first child, and percentage 

who have begun childbearing, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage of women age 15-19 who: Percentage who 

have begun 

childbearing Number of women

Background 

characteristic

Have had 

a live birth

Are pregnant with 

first child

Age

15-17 5.8 3.2 9.0 857

15 2.4 1.4 3.8 239

16 3.5 3.8 7.3 307

17 10.8 4.0 14.8 311

18 20.0 2.6 22.6 270

19 24.5 3.3 27.8 299

Population group

Black African 12.8 3.2 16.0 1,260

White * * * 25

Coloured 8.7 3.3 11.9 128

Indian/Asian * * * 13

Residence

Urban 10.6 3.0 13.6 874

Non-urban 15.4 3.3 18.6 552

Province

Western Cape 5.0 3.1 8.1 160

Eastern Cape 14.2 3.7 17.9 184

Northern Cape 17.3 3.0 20.3 31

Free State 9.6 2.4 12.1 71

KwaZulu-Natal 16.3 3.0 19.4 303

North West 17.8 2.3 20.1 81

Gauteng 9.8 4.3 14.1 311

Mpumalanga 15.3 2.8 18.2 118

Limpopo 11.1 1.3 12.4 167

Education

No education * * * 3

Primary incomplete 17.1 14.0 31.1 40

Primary complete 8.6 3.4 12.0 70

Secondary incomplete 12.7 2.7 15.4 1,156

Secondary complete 12.6 3.3 15.9 137

More than secondary * * * 20

Wealth quintile

Lowest 14.9 5.1 20.0 343

Second 18.2 3.5 21.7 271

Middle 15.6 2.7 18.3 277

Fourth 8.0 1.4 9.4 310

Highest 4.0 2.5 6.5 226

Total 12.4 3.1 15.6 1,427

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed. 

Table 5.12 Sexual and reproductive health behaviours before age 15

Among women and men age 15-19, percentage who initiated sexual intercourse, were married or living 

together with a partner as if married, and had a live birth/fathered a child before age 15, according to 

sex, South Africa DHS 2016 

Sex

Had sexual 

intercourse before 

age 15

Married or living 

together with a 

partner as if

married before 

age 15

Gave birth/

fathered a child 

before age 15

Number of 

respondents

Women 5.7 0.4 0.6 1,427

Men 14.5 0.0 0.0 647
Fertility Preferences • 83

FERTILITY PREFERENCES 6

Key Findings

 Desire for another child: 19% of in-union women age 

15-49 want to have another child soon, 9% want to wait 

at least 2 years, 6% want another child but are undecided 

on the timing, and 5% are undecided about having more 

children.

 Desire to limit childbearing: Overall, 58% of in-union

women and 45% of in-union men do not want another 

child.

 Ideal family size: Women currently want 2.6 children on 

average, while men want 3.2 children.

 Unwanted births: Of all births in the past 5 years and 

current pregnancies, 46% were wanted at the time of 

conception, 34% were mistimed, and 20% were 

unwanted.

 Wanted fertility rates: The wanted fertility rate in South 

Africa is 2.0 children, as compared with the actual total 

fertility rate of 2.6 children; thus, on average, women are 

having 0.6 more children than they want.

nformation on fertility preferences can help family planning programme planners assess the desire for 

children, the extent of mistimed and unwanted pregnancies, and the demand for contraception to space 

or limit births. This information may suggest the direction that fertility patterns will take in the future.

This chapter presents information on whether and when women and men who are in a union (currently 

married or living together with a partner as if married) want more children, ideal family size, whether the 

last birth was wanted, and the theoretical fertility rate if all unwanted births were prevented. 

6.1 DESIRE FOR ANOTHER CHILD

Desire for another child

Women and men were asked whether they wanted more children and, if so, 

how long they would prefer to wait before the birth of the next child. Women 

and men who are sterilised are assumed not to want any more children. 

Sample: In-union women and men age 15-49

Most in-union women age 15-49 (58%) want no more children. Nineteen percent of in-union women want 

to have another child soon (within the next 2 years), and 9% want to wait at least 2 years before having 

another child. In addition, 6% of in-union women want another child but are undecided on the timing, and 

5% are undecided about having more children (Table 6.1). In comparison, 45% of in-union men age 15-49 

want no more children and 27% want to have another child soon.

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The overall proportion of in-union women who want no more 

children (including women who are sterilised) has decreased slightly since 1998, from 62% to 58%.

I
84 • Fertility Preferences

However, among women with no living children, the percentage who want no more children has nearly 

doubled, from 8% to 15%.

Patterns by background characteristics

 In-union women with no children are much more likely than women who have begun childbearing to 

want a child soon. Fifty percent of women with no children want to have a child within the next 2 

years, as compared with 37% of women with one child and 13% of women with two children. 

 Once they have begun childbearing, in-union men are more likely than women to want another child 

soon at every parity level. For example, 19% of men with four children want to have another child 

soon, compared with only 6% of women with four children.

 Desire to limit childbearing does not differ 

between urban and non-urban areas. Fifty-eight

percent of urban women and 59% of non-urban

women want no more children, while 45% of 

both urban men and non-urban men want no 

more children (Table 6.2). Larger differences, 

however, are seen by province. For example, 

36% of men in Limpopo and North West want 

no more children, as compared with 58% of men 

in Western Cape.

 In-union women in the highest (67%) and lowest 

(62%) wealth quintiles are more likely to want 

no more children than women in the second, 

third, and fourth quintiles (52%-55%).

 The desire to limit childbearing increases as the 

number of living children increases. The percentage of in-union women who want no more children 

increases from 15% among those with no living children to 94% among those with six or more 

children (Figure 6.1). 

6.2 IDEAL FAMILY SIZE

Ideal family size

Respondents with no children were asked, “If you could choose exactly the 

number of children to have in your whole life, how many would that be?”

Respondents who had children were asked, “If you could go back to the time 

when you did not have any children and could choose exactly the number of 

children to have in your whole life, how many would that be?”

Sample: Women and men age 15-49

Figure 6.1 Desire to limit childbearing 

by number of living children

15

24

61

78

88 90 94

0 1 2 3 4 5 6+

Number of living children

Percentage of in-union women age 15-49 

who want no more children

Note: In-union women include those who are currently married or living together with a partner as if married.
Fertility Preferences • 85

If women could choose their family size, they would 

prefer to have 2.6 children on average, while men 

would choose to have 3.2 children. Ideal family size 

is slightly higher among women and men who are in 

a union (Table 6.3 and Figure 6.2). 

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: Ideal family 

size has fallen modestly since 1998, from 2.9 to 2.6

children among all women and from 3.3 to 2.9

children among in-union women.

Patterns by background characteristics

 The more children women and men already

have, the more children they consider ideal. For 

example, women who have only one child 

consider 2.5 children to be ideal on average. In 

contrast, women who have six or more children 

consider 4.1 children to be ideal (Figure 6.3).

 Older women want larger 

families. Women age 45-49 

report an ideal family size of 

3.0 children on average, while 

women age 15-19 report an 

ideal family size of only 2.1 

children (Table 6.4).

 Family size norms vary across 

provinces. Women in Limpopo

want larger families of 3.3 

children, while women in Free 

State want smaller families of 

2.2 children. 

 Women with no education want more children (3.3 on average) than women with any secondary 

education (2.5-2.6 on average). 

 Women in the poorest households want more children. The ideal number of children is 2.8 among 

women in the second wealth quintile, as compared with 2.4 among women in the highest quintile. 

6.3 FERTILITY PLANNING STATUS

Planning status of births/current pregnancies

Women reported whether their births/pregnancies were wanted at the time 

(planned), at a later time (mistimed), or not at all (unwanted).

Sample: Current pregnancies and births in the 5 years before the survey to 

women age 15-49

Figure 6.2 Ideal family size

Figure 6.3 Ideal family size by number 

of living children

2.6 2.9 3.2 3.4

All In-union

Mean ideal number of children among 

women and men age 15-49

Women Men

Note: In-union women and men include those who are 

currently married or living together with a partner as if married.

2.2 2.5 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.5

4.1

2.9 3.1 3.3 3.4 3.8

4.6

5.5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6+

Number of living children

Mean ideal number of children 

Women Men
86 • Fertility Preferences

According to mothers’ reports, half of births were 

wanted at the time of conception (46%) and one-third 

(34%) were mistimed, that is, wanted at a later date. 

Twenty percent of births were not wanted at all 

(Figure 6.4). 

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: There has 

been essentially no change since 1998 in the 

proportion of births that were wanted at the time of 

conception, mistimed, or not wanted at all. In 1998, 

46% of births were wanted, 36% were mistimed, and 

17% were not wanted.

Patterns by background characteristics

 The more children a woman has, the more likely 

it is that her last birth was unwanted. Eleven percent of first births were unwanted, as compared with 

44% of fourth- or higher-order births (Table 6.5).

 Women less than age 20 are most likely to have mistimed births (64%) and least likely to have 

unwanted births (15%). 

6.4 WANTED FERTILITY RATES

Unwanted birth

Any birth in excess of the number of children a woman reported as her ideal 

number.

Wanted birth

Any birth fewer than or equal to the number of children a woman reported as 

her ideal number.

Wanted fertility rate

The average number of children a woman would have by the end of her 

childbearing years if she bore children at the current age-specific fertility rates, 

excluding unwanted births. 

Sample: Women age 15-49 

Wanted fertility rates reflect the level of fertility that would result if all unwanted births were prevented. 

The wanted fertility rate in South Africa is 2.0 children, as compared with the actual total fertility rate of 

2.6 children (Table 6.6). Thus, while they are unlikely to report that their last birth was unwanted, women 

in South Africa are having 0.6 more children than they want on average. 

Figure 6.4 Fertility planning status

Wanted 

then

46%

Mistimed

34%

Unwanted

20%

Percent distribution of births to women 

age 15-49 in the 5 years before the survey 

(including current pregnancies) by 

planning status of births
Fertility Preferences • 87

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The total 

wanted fertility rate in South Africa declined from 

2.3 children in 1998 to 2.0 children in 2016. 

However, the gap between wanted and actual fertility 

(0.6 children) has remained constant over time 

(Figure 6.5).

Patterns by background characteristics

 The total wanted fertility rate is consistently 

lower than the actual total fertility rate, but the 

size of the gap varies by women’s background 

characteristics (Table 6.6). 

 The gap between wanted and actual fertility is 

largest among Black African and Coloured women (0.6 children each) and lowest among Indian/Asian

women (0.1 children).

 The gap between wanted and actual fertility is slightly higher in non-urban areas (0.7 children) than in 

urban areas (0.5 children).

 Women in Eastern Cape have the largest gap between actual and wanted fertility (1.0 children). The 

gap is smallest in Gauteng (0.4 children). 

 The gap between wanted and actual fertility rates generally narrows with increasing education and 

wealth. For example, the gap narrows from 0.8 children among women in the lowest wealth quintile to 

0.3 children among women in the highest wealth quintile.

LIST OF TABLES

For more information on fertility preferences, see the following tables:

 Table 6.1 Fertility preferences by number of living children

 Table 6.2 Desire to limit childbearing

 Table 6.3 Ideal number of children by number of living children

 Table 6.4 Mean ideal number of children

 Table 6.5 Fertility planning status

 Table 6.6 Wanted fertility rates

Figure 6.5 Comparison in wanted and 

actual fertility: 1998 and 2016

2.3 2.0

0.6

0.6

SADHS 1998 SADHS 2016

2.6

Total 

wanted 

fertility

Difference

TFR

2.9

Wanted and actual number of children per woman
88 • Fertility Preferences

Table 6.1 Fertility preferences by number of living children

Percent distribution of in-union women and in-union men age 15-49 by desire for children, according to number of living 

children, South Africa DHS 2016

Number of living children Total 

15-49

Total 

Desire for children 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+ 15-59

WOMEN1

Have another soon2 49.9 37.4 13.1 11.3 6.0 1.4 0.8 19.2 na

Have another later3 14.3 17.3 10.6 3.6 1.8 0.0 0.0 9.2 na

Have another, undecided when 8.9 12.3 6.5 2.5 1.2 0.0 2.3 6.2 na

Undecided 2.5 6.2 6.8 3.1 2.2 6.9 1.5 4.9 na

Want no more 13.3 22.3 54.1 62.5 73.8 78.6 85.5 49.7 na

Sterilised4 2.1 1.7 6.8 15.6 14.5 11.8 8.4 8.3 na

Declared infecund 9.0 2.9 2.2 1.4 0.5 1.2 1.5 2.5 na

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 na

Number of women 221 664 995 673 319 110 68 3,050 na

MEN5

Have another soon2 47.8 44.0 24.0 15.0 19.3 (5.4) 6.6 26.6 22.0

Have another later3 15.8 17.6 10.2 4.3 6.7 (4.8) 11.0 10.6 8.5

Have another, undecided when 5.6 8.1 13.7 4.6 6.2 (2.1) 7.0 8.4 6.7

Undecided 14.1 10.1 11.2 4.9 3.5 (1.4) 7.2 8.5 7.8

Want no more 11.1 18.9 40.1 68.9 63.4 (86.3) 68.1 44.3 52.1

Sterilised4 1.4 0.4 0.8 2.3 0.6 (0.0) 0.0 0.9 1.1

Declared infecund 0.9 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.4 (0.0) 0.0 0.3 1.0

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of men 99 201 296 163 129 46 53 988 1,276

Notes: In-union women and men include those who are currently married or living together with a partner as if married. 

Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

na = Not applicable

1 The number of living children includes the current pregnancy

2 Wants next birth within 2 years

3 Wants to delay next birth for 2 or more years

4

Includes both female and male sterilisation

5 The number of living children includes one additional child if the respondent’s wife is pregnant (or if any wife is pregnant 

for men with more than one current wife)
Fertility Preferences • 89

Table 6.2 Desire to limit childbearing

Percentage of in-union women age 15-49 who want no more children, by number of living children, and total percentage of inunion men age 15-49 who want no more children, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Background 

characteristic

Number of living children1

Total for 

women

Total for 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6+ men

Residence

Urban 18.1 26.2 63.1 79.5 89.1 88.9 * 57.8 45.4

Non-urban 3.2 15.1 52.7 74.3 86.7 92.3 94.6 58.6 44.7

Province

Western Cape * 29.3 73.4 80.4 (95.3) * * 64.2 57.5

Eastern Cape * 16.5 63.4 79.1 (91.8) * * 60.5 52.4

Northern Cape (22.1) (31.7) 74.9 87.0 * * * 68.1 40.4

Free State * 33.0 56.1 98.3 * * * 59.4 44.8

KwaZulu-Natal * 37.8 58.4 70.2 (92.6) * * 60.8 45.4

North West * 18.9 53.6 89.2 (89.4) * * 56.8 36.2

Gauteng (21.7) 22.9 62.3 76.1 (85.6) * * 54.9 43.4

Mpumalanga (8.9) 15.6 56.6 78.1 (88.9) (95.6) * 55.5 45.9

Limpopo * (14.0) 40.1 67.3 76.1 * * 52.4 35.7

Education

No education * * * * * * * 78.6 (50.2)

Primary incomplete * (24.4) (55.6) 71.0 (89.0) * (88.8) 62.8 34.2

Primary complete * * (41.7) (63.9) * * * 54.4 42.1

Secondary incomplete 7.5 26.5 56.8 77.2 90.1 88.9 * 59.5 44.1

Secondary complete 11.4 23.5 63.8 78.2 77.0 * * 54.4 47.1

More than secondary (22.8) 19.6 68.8 85.6 * * * 55.9 50.7

Wealth quintile

Lowest (17.2) 22.8 63.8 71.1 88.9 (93.6) (95.2) 62.1 42.8

Second (1.6) 24.8 48.9 71.9 86.8 (94.3) * 53.4 38.1

Middle 7.2 12.5 51.4 78.3 80.8 (88.0) * 51.5 39.1

Fourth (18.3) 18.0 55.8 75.5 (92.7) * * 54.8 46.3

Highest (25.1) 37.4 77.9 89.6 (100.0) * * 67.0 59.0

Total 15-49 15.4 24.0 60.8 78.1 88.2 90.4 93.9 58.0 45.2

50-59 na na na na na na na na 80.5

Total 15-59 na na na na na na na na 53.2

Notes: Women who have been sterilised are considered to want no more children. In-union women and men include those who 

are currently married or living together with a partner as if married. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. 

An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1 The number of living children includes the current pregnancy
90 • Fertility Preferences

Table 6.3 Ideal number of children by number of living children

Percent distribution of women and men age 15-49 by ideal number of children, and mean ideal number of children for all 

respondents and for in-union respondents, according to number of living children, South Africa DHS 2016

Number of living children

Ideal number of children 0 1 2 3 4 5 6+ Total

WOMEN1

0 10.6 6.6 6.0 5.8 4.6 10.7 6.1 7.4

1 8.4 10.0 7.8 6.0 6.0 3.9 1.7 8.0

2 48.6 39.9 38.7 27.1 24.7 19.9 13.3 38.5

3 18.1 25.0 22.3 24.8 9.5 12.4 12.2 21.1

4 11.0 14.2 20.0 25.2 38.4 22.4 30.5 18.1

5 2.1 2.5 2.9 6.4 6.8 19.0 4.3 3.7

6+ 0.9 1.8 2.1 4.3 9.6 10.6 29.5 3.0

Non-numeric responses 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.4 1.0 2.3 0.3

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of women 2,324 2,168 2,029 1,189 501 196 107 8,514

Mean ideal number of children for:2

All women 2.2 2.5 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.5 4.1 2.6

Number of women 2,317 2,167 2,025 1,186 500 194 104 8,493

In-union women 2.4 2.6 2.7 3.0 3.5 3.7 4.1 2.9

Number of in-union women 220 664 993 670 317 109 66 3,040

MEN3

0 5.1 4.2 4.0 8.8 6.9 7.5 6.2 5.2

1 5.2 5.5 4.2 2.4 1.1 1.3 0.0 4.5

2 36.9 23.9 26.9 14.5 17.0 15.9 12.4 29.5

3 25.2 35.5 18.7 23.5 8.9 12.8 14.6 24.4

4 17.1 16.8 28.2 31.0 33.7 6.1 13.1 20.5

5 5.1 7.2 8.9 10.3 10.0 21.2 2.0 6.9

6+ 4.7 6.3 7.4 8.1 19.4 32.0 44.0 7.8

Non-numeric responses 0.7 0.7 1.7 1.5 2.9 3.3 7.6 1.2

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of men 1,631 517 505 253 167 58 72 3,202

Mean ideal number of children for 

men age 15-49:2

All 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.4 3.8 4.6 5.5 3.2

Number of men 1,619 513 496 249 162 56 66 3,162

In-union men 2.6 3.1 3.3 3.4 3.8 (4.7) 5.8 3.4

Number of in-union men 97 200 292 162 125 44 51 971

Mean ideal number of children for 

men age 15-59:2

All men 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.4 3.9 4.7 5.6 3.2

Number of men 1,665 557 574 325 217 90 129 3,558

In-union men 2.7 3.0 3.2 3.4 4.0 4.8 5.2 3.5

Number of in-union men 115 231 339 225 167 71 99 1,247

Notes: In-union women and men include those who are currently married or living together with a partner as if married. 

Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

1 The number of living children includes the current pregnancy for women

2 Means are calculated excluding respondents who gave non-numeric responses

3 The number of living children includes one additional child if the respondent’s wife is pregnant (or if any wife is pregnant 

for men with more than one current wife)
Fertility Preferences • 91

Table 6.4 Mean ideal number of children

Mean ideal number of children for all women age 

15-49 according to background characteristics, 

South Africa DHS 2016

Background 

characteristic Mean

Number of 

women1

Age

15-19 2.1 1,424

20-24 2.5 1,415

25-29 2.7 1,441

30-34 2.6 1,333

35-39 2.8 1,071

40-44 2.9 932

45-49 3.0 877

Residence

Urban 2.5 5,720

Non-urban 2.8 2,772

Province

Western Cape 2.3 995

Eastern Cape 2.3 934

Northern Cape 2.4 172

Free State 2.2 440

KwaZulu-Natal 2.5 1,612

North West 2.7 567

Gauteng 2.6 2,281

Mpumalanga 2.9 668

Limpopo 3.3 822

Education

No education 3.3 165

Primary incomplete 3.0 445

Primary complete 2.8 326

Secondary incomplete 2.5 4,186

Secondary complete 2.6 2,366

More than secondary 2.6 1,004

Wealth quintile

Lowest 2.7 1,645

Second 2.8 1,711

Middle 2.6 1,800

Fourth 2.5 1,755

Highest 2.4 1,582

Total 2.6 8,493

1 Number of women who gave a numeric response 

Table 6.5 Fertility planning status

Percent distribution of births to women age 15-49 in the 5 years preceding the survey (including current 

pregnancies), by planning status of the birth, according to birth order and mother’s age at birth, South 

Africa DHS 2016

Planning status of birth

Total

Number of 

Birth order and mother’s age at birth births

Wanted 

then

Wanted 

later

Wanted no 

more

Birth order

1 41.3 47.7 11.0 100.0 1,389

2 52.3 30.3 17.4 100.0 1,254

3 49.0 24.2 26.7 100.0 738

4+ 39.3 17.0 43.8 100.0 523

Mother’s age at birth

<20 20.8 64.4 14.8 100.0 595

20-24 42.3 41.4 16.3 100.0 1,071

25-29 53.7 27.7 18.6 100.0 1,002

30-34 56.4 18.7 24.9 100.0 740

35-39 55.1 16.4 28.5 100.0 370

40-44 48.7 5.5 45.8 100.0 121

45-49 * * * 100.0 6

Total 46.0 33.6 20.4 100.0 3,904

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been 

suppressed. 
92 • Fertility Preferences

Table 6.6 Wanted fertility rates

Total wanted fertility rates and total fertility rates for the 3 years 

preceding the survey, according to background characteristics, 

South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Total wanted 

fertility rate

Total fertility 

rate

Population group

Black African 2.1 2.7

White 1.2 1.5

Coloured 1.9 2.5

Indian/Asian 1.6 1.7

Residence

Urban 1.9 2.4

Non-urban 2.4 3.1

Province

Western Cape 1.6 2.1

Eastern Cape 1.9 2.9

Northern Cape 1.9 2.7

Free State 1.7 2.4

KwaZulu-Natal 1.8 2.5

North West 2.5 3.1

Gauteng 2.2 2.6

Mpumalanga 2.2 3.0

Limpopo 2.6 3.1

Education

No education 2.0 2.8

Primary incomplete 2.5 3.6

Primary complete 2.6 3.5

Secondary incomplete 2.1 2.8

Secondary complete 1.9 2.4

More than secondary 2.0 2.2

Wealth quintile

Lowest 2.3 3.1

Second 2.2 2.9

Middle 2.0 2.7

Fourth 1.9 2.3

Highest 1.8 2.1

Total 2.0 2.6

Note: Rates are calculated based on births to women age 15-49 

in the period 1-36 months preceding the survey. The total 

fertility rates are the same as those presented in Table 5.2. 
Contraception • 93

CONTRACEPTION 7

Key Findings

 Contraceptive knowledge: Nearly 100% of women and 

men have heard of at least one modern method of 

contraception.

 Contraceptive prevalence rate: 55% of in-union women 

and 60% of sexually active women are currently using a 

method of contraception. 

 Use of modern contraceptives: Nearly all women 

(99%) who use a contraceptive use a modern method.

Among sexually active women, the most commonly used 

methods are injectables (25%) and male condoms (16%);

18% of sexually active women use 3-month injectables

and 7% use 2-month injectables. 

 Knowledge of the fertile period: One-third (34%) of 

women and 10% of men know that a woman is most 

likely to conceive halfway between two periods.

 Source of modern methods: 80% of all modern 

contraceptive users obtain their methods from the public 

sector.

 Percentage of demand for contraception satisfied: 

Three-quarters (76%) of the demand for contraception

among sexually active women is satisfied by use of 

modern methods.

 Unmet need for contraception: 19% of sexually active 

women have an unmet need for contraception.

ouples can use contraceptive methods to limit or space the number of children they have. This 

chapter presents information on the use and sources of contraceptive methods, informed choice of 

methods, and rates and reasons for discontinuing contraceptives. It also examines the potential

demand for contraception among all women, in-union women, and sexually active women and how much 

contact nonusers have with family planning providers.

The 2001 South African National Contraception Policy Guidelines focused on clients’ right to choose a 

method and placed emphasis on quality of care. These guidelines were updated in 2012 as the National 

Contraception and Fertility Planning Policy and Service Delivery Guidelines and the National 

Contraceptive Clinical Guidelines (NDoH 2013a). The updated guidelines highlight the fact that a range of 

contraceptive methods should be offered in a comprehensive, integrated manner with other relevant sexual 

and reproductive health services in the public sector and that contraceptive clients should have access to 

“accurate, unbiased information about all available methods in order to make an informed choice.” 

Methods available in the public health sector at no cost to clients seeking contraception are progestogenonly injectables (3-month and 2-month), contraceptive pills, male and female condoms, intrauterine 

devices (IUDs), male and female sterilisation, emergency contraceptive pills, and, since 2014, implants. 

C
94 • Contraception

Alongside the launch of the updated policy was a national campaign that promoted the concept of dual 

protection.

7.1 CONTRACEPTIVE KNOWLEDGE AND USE

Knowledge of contraceptives is universal in South Africa (Table 7.1). Nearly 100% of women and men 

age 15-49 have heard of at least one method of contraception. 

On average, women and men have heard of eight and six methods of contraception, respectively. The most 

commonly known methods among both women and men are the male condom (98% of women and 99% of 

men), injectables (96% of women and 79% of men), contraceptive pills (94% of women and 79% of men), 

and the female condom (93% of women and 85% of men). Although not introduced until 2014, 84% of 

women and 50% of men have heard about implants. 

Contraceptive prevalence rate

Percentage of women who use any contraceptive method

Sample: All women age 15-49, in-union women age 15-49, and sexually 

active women age 15-49

Table 7.2 shows the percent distribution of all women, in-union women, and sexually active women in 

South Africa by the contraceptive method they currently use. Overall, the contraceptive prevalence rate 

(CPR) is 60% among sexually active women and 55% among in-union women. The CPR among all 

women age 15-49 is 48%. Nearly all women (99%) who use a contraceptive method use a modern method.

Modern methods

Include male and female sterilisation, injectables, intrauterine devices (IUDs), 

contraceptive pills, implants, male and female condoms, and emergency 

contraception

Among in-union women, the most 

popular methods are injectables 

(24%: 18% 3-month injectables and 

6% 2-month injectables), the male 

condom (9%), contraceptive pills

(8%), and female sterilisation (8%). 

Less than 5% use long-acting 

contraceptive methods (3% use 

implants and 1% use IUDs). 

Similarly, among sexually active 

women, the most commonly used 

methods are injectables (25%: 18% 

3-month injectables and 7% 

2-month injectables), male condoms 

(16%), contraceptive pills (7%), and 

female sterilisation (6%). Longacting contraceptive methods are 

used by 5% (Figure 7.1). Less than 

1% of in-union women or sexually 

active women use any traditional 

method.

Figure 7.1 Contraceptive use

55

54

18

6

9

8

3

1

8

1

60

59

18

7

16

7

4

1

6

<1

Any method

Any modern method

Injectables-3 month

Injectables-2 month

Male condom

Pill

Implants

IUD

Female sterilisation

Traditional method

Percentage of women age 15-49 currently using a 

contraceptive method

In-union women

Sexually active

women

Note: In-union women include women who are currently married or living 

together with a partner as if married. Sexually active women are women who 

had sexual intercourse within the 4 weeks preceding the survey.
Contraception • 95

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: A comparison 

between 1998 and 2016 shows that modern 

contraceptive use among sexually active women has 

remained stable (61% versus 59%) (Figure 7.2). 

There have been, however, differences in the method 

mix. Declines are observed in the use of female 

sterilisation (12% in 1998 versus 6% in 2016), 

contraceptive pills (13% versus 7%), and injectables 

(30% versus 25%). In contrast, use of male condoms 

has increased dramatically (from 2% in 1998 to 16% 

in 2016). Implants, not available in 1998, are now 

used by 4% of sexually active women (Table 7.3.1).

Use of traditional methods has remained extremely 

low (1% in 1998 versus 0.4% in 2016). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 Sexually active non-urban and urban women are 

equally likely to use modern contraceptives 

(60% and 59%, respectively) (Table 7.3.2).

 Use of modern methods of contraception rises 

with increasing education, from 44% among 

sexually active women with no education to 62% 

among women with more than a secondary 

education.

 There is a notable difference in contraceptive use 

across provinces. Among sexually active

women, modern contraceptive use ranges from a 

low of 51% in Free State to a high of 65% in

KwaZulu-Natal (Figure 7.3).

 With the exception of the province of Limpopo, 

3-month injectables are more widely used than 

2-month injectables by sexually active women in 

all background characteristic categories.

 Use of injectables (of either type) decreases with 

increasing household wealth, from 31% among 

sexually active women in the lowest wealth 

quintile to 13% among those in the highest

quintile (Figure 7.4).

 Use of female sterilisation increases with 

increasing household wealth, from 3% in the 

bottom two quintiles to 14% in the highest

quintile. Among women who have been sterilised, the most common age at sterilisation is 30-34 years 

(39%). The median age at sterilisation is 32.5 years (Table 7.4).

Knowledge of the Fertile Period

The survey also collected information on women and men’s knowledge of the fertile period. One-third

(34%) of women and 10% of men know that a woman is most likely to conceive halfway between two 

Figure 7.2 Comparison in contraceptive 

use: 1998 and 2016

Figure 7.3 Modern contraceptive use 

by province

Percentage of sexually active women age 15-49

Figure 7.4 Use of injectables 

by household wealth

61

1

59

<1

Any modern method Any traditional method

Percentage of sexually active women 

age 15-49 currently using 

a contraceptive method

SADHS 1998 SADHS 2016

31 30

26 25

13

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Percentage of sexually active women age 

15-49 

Poorest Wealthiest
96 • Contraception

periods (Table 7.5). Among women, correct knowledge of the fertile period is highest among those age 

35-39 (39%) and lowest among those age 15-19 (27%) (Table 7.6).

7.2 SOURCE OF MODERN CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS

Source of modern contraceptives

The place where the modern method currently being used was obtained the 

last time it was acquired

Sample: Women age 15-49 currently using a modern contraceptive method 

Eighty percent of all modern contraceptive users obtain their methods from the public sector, 11% from the 

private medical sector, and 8% from other sources (Table 7.7). However, the importance of each source 

varies depending on the method.

 Injectables, implants, and pills: the vast majority of women obtain 3-month injectables (94%), 2-month 

injectables (95%), and implants (94%) from the public sector, especially government health 

clinics/community health centres. Over three-quarters of women obtain pills (77%) from the public 

sector.

 Male condoms: the predominant sources for male condoms are government health clinics/community

health centres (51%), shops (26%), and chemists/pharmacies (12%).

 Female sterilisation: government hospitals (63%) and private hospitals (27%) are the most common 

sources for female sterilisation.

7.3 INFORMED CHOICE

Informed choice

Informed choice indicates that women were informed at the time they started 

the current episode of method use about the method’s side effects, about what 

to do if they experience side effects, and about other methods they could use.

Sample: Women age 15-49 who are currently using selected modern 

contraceptive methods and who started the last episode of use within the 5 

years before the survey

Fifty-six percent of women using modern contraceptives report that they were informed about side effects 

or other problems with the method they used, and 49% report that they were informed about what to do if 

they experienced side effects. A higher proportion of women (64%) report being informed of other 

methods they could use. Forty-four percent of women using modern contraceptives made a fully informed

choice, meaning that they received all three pieces of information (Table 7.8). Although the number of 

IUD users is low and therefore the results should be interpreted with caution, women using IUDs (79%) 

were most likely to report that they were informed about all three aspects, followed by women using 

implants (54%) and women who are sterilised (51%). 

7.4 DISCONTINUATION OF CONTRACEPTIVES

Contraceptive discontinuation rate

Percentage of contraceptive use episodes discontinued within 12 months

Sample: Continuous time periods or episodes of contraceptive use in the 5 

years before the survey experienced by women who are currently age 15-49

(one woman may contribute more than one episode)
Contraception • 97

About 3 in 10 (29%) episodes of 

contraceptive use in the 5 years 

before the survey were discontinued 

within 12 months of commencing 

use. In 4% of episodes, women 

switched to another method. While 

discontinuation rates are similar for 

3-month injectables (31%), 2-month 

injectables (28%), pills (33%), and 

male condoms (33%), the rate is 

lower for implants (13%) (Table 

7.9 and Figure 7.5).

Overall, the most common reason 

for discontinuing a method was method-related health concerns or side effects (28%), followed by the 

desire to become pregnant (19%) and the desire for a more effective method (11%). Other reasons reported 

by women were that they became pregnant while using the method (9%) and that they infrequently had sex 

(8%) (Table 7.10). Women were far more likely to cite method-related health concerns and side effects as 

a reason for discontinuing implants (74%) and injectables (40% for 3-month injectables and 39% for 

2-month injectables) than for discontinuing pills (22%) or male condoms (7%).

7.5 DEMAND FOR CONTRACEPTION

Unmet need for contraception

Proportion of women who (1) are not pregnant and not postpartum 

amenorrhoeic and are considered fecund and want to postpone their next birth 

for 2 or more years or stop childbearing altogether but are not using a 

contraceptive method, or (2) have a mistimed or unwanted current pregnancy, 

or (3) are postpartum amenorrhoeic and their most recent birth in the last 2 

years was mistimed or unwanted.

Sample: All women age 15-49, in-union women age 15-49, and sexually 

active women age 15-49

Demand for 

contraception: 

Unmet need for contraception

+ current contraceptive use (any method)

Proportion of 

demand 

satisfied: 

Current contraceptive use (any method)

Unmet need + current contraceptive use (any method)

Proportion of 

demand 

satisfied 

by modern

methods:

Current contraceptive use (any modern method)

Unmet need + current contraceptive use (any method)

Regardless of the population examined, total demand for contraception among women in South Africa is 

high. Seventy percent of in-union women age 15-49 in South Africa have a demand for contraception; 24% 

want to space births, and 46% want to limit births (Table 7.11.1). At present, 79% of the potential demand 

for contraception is being met, almost entirely by modern methods. However, 15% of in-union women 

have an unmet need for contraception: they want to space or limit births but are not currently using 

contraception.

Figure 7.5 Contraceptive discontinuation rates

33 31 28

13

33

29

Pill Injectables

3-month

Injectables

2-month

Implants Male

condom

All methods

Percentage of contraceptive episodes discontinued 

within 12 months by women age 15-49
98 • Contraception

Nearly 8 in 10 (78%) sexually active women have a 

demand for contraception; 35% want to space births 

and 43% want to limit births (Table 7.11.2 and

Figure 7.6). Currently, 60% of sexually active 

women are using a contraceptive method, indicating 

that 76% of the demand is met—almost exclusively 

by modern contraceptive methods. Nineteen percent

of sexually active women have an unmet need for 

contraception (9% for spacing and 9% for limiting). 

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The proportion 

of in-union women with an unmet need for 

contraception has declined slightly since 1998, from 

17% to 15%. Over the same period, the total demand 

for contraceptive methods among in-union women 

has decreased from 73% to 70%. The percentage of the demand for contraception satisfied with modern 

contraceptive methods has increased slightly, from 76% to 78%.

The proportion of sexually active women with an unmet need for contraception has increased slightly, 

from 16% to 19%. While the total demand for planning has not changed (78% in both 1998 and 2016), the 

percentage of demand satisfied with modern contraceptive methods has decreased slightly, from 78% 

to 76%.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Unmet need among sexually active women is 

higher in the 15-19 (31%) and 20-24 (28%) age 

groups than in other age groups (14%-18%).

 Unmet need is modestly higher among sexually 

active women in non-urban areas than among 

those in urban areas (21% versus 18%).

 Unmet need among sexually active women 

varies considerably by province, from 12% in 

Western Cape to 25% in Limpopo (Figure 7.7).

Decision Making about Contraception

Forty-seven percent of in-union women who are 

current users of contraception reported that they usually make the decision to use contraception jointly

with their partner, 41% said that they usually make the decision themselves, and 11% said that their partner 

usually makes the decision. Among in-union women who are not using a contraception method, 42% 

reported that they usually make the decision to not use contraception jointly with their partner, 37%

reported that they usually make the decision, and 18% reported that their partner usually makes the 

decision (Table 7.12).

Future Use of Contraception

The survey also collected information on nonusers’ intent to use contraception in the future. Thirty-six

percent of in-union women age 15-49 who are not currently using contraception intend to use a method at 

some future time, 6% are unsure, and 59% do not intend to use contraceptives. The percentage of in-union 

women who do not intend to use family planning in the future is highest among those with no children 

(71%), followed by those with four or more children (65%) (Table 7.13).

Figure 7.6 Demand for contraception

Figure 7.7 Unmet need by province

Percentage of sexually active women age 15-49 with 

unmet need for contraception

Unmet 

need for 

spacing

9%

Unmet 

need for 

limiting

9%

Met need 

for 

spacing

26%

Met need 

for 

limiting

No need 34%

for contraception

22%

Percent distribution of sexually active 

women age 15-49 by need for 

contraception
Contraception • 99

Exposure to Family Planning Messages

Table 7.14 provides information on exposure to family planning messages among women and men age 

15-49. Thirty-six percent of women reported hearing a family planning message in the past 6 months on 

the radio, while 42% reported hearing a message on television. In addition, 35% of women read a family 

planning message in a newspaper or magazine, and 46% were exposed to a message by a community 

health worker. The proportion of women who were exposed to family planning messages exceeded that 

among men for each source. Overall, 35% of women and 46% of men were not exposed to family planning 

messages through any of these sources.

Life orientation, covering a broad range of life skills from the junior to senior school grades, has been part 

of the Department of Basic Education’s National Curriculum since 2011 (DBE 2011). The National 

Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights (ASRH&R) Framework Strategy (2014-2019), 

established by the Department of Social Development as a call to action, prioritises a comprehensive 

sexuality education curriculum and the need to strengthen school-based programmes (DSD 2015). In the 

SADHS 2016, women and men age 15-24 who were currently attending school were asked whether they 

had heard about family planning at school in the past 6 months. Seven in 10 women (70%) and 6 in 10 

men (61%) reported that they had heard about family planning at school in the preceding 6 months (Table 

7.15). Among young women and young men age 15-19 who were attending school, 70% and 56%,

respectively, reported having heard about family planning at school. 

7.6 CONTACT OF NONUSERS WITH FAMILY PLANNING PROVIDERS

Contact of nonusers with family planning providers

Respondent discussed family planning in the 12 months before the survey 

during a visit to a health facility.

Sample: Women age 15-49 who are not currently using any contraceptive 

methods

All women age 15-49 who were not using contraceptives were asked if they had visited a health facility in 

the 12 months before the survey for their own care or that of their children and, if so, whether they had 

discussed family planning methods with a health care worker. Twenty-five percent of women reported 

discussing family planning with a provider during a health facility visit. However, 31% of nonusers had 

visited a health facility in the past 12 months without discussing family planning (Table 17.16). The 

remaining women did not report visiting a health facility in the 12 months before the survey and therefore

did not have the opportunity to engage with health facility staff on the topic of family planning.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Women age 20-39 are more likely (31-32%) than younger women age 15-19 (11%) and older women 

age 40-49 (22-24%) to have discussed family planning during a health facility visit.

 Women living in North West are most likely to have discussed family planning during a health facility 

visit (34%), while women in Free State are least likely to have done so (19%).
100 • Contraception

LIST OF TABLES

For more information on contraception and family planning, see the following tables:

 Table 7.1 Knowledge of contraceptive methods

 Table 7.2 Current use of contraception by age

 Table 7.3.1 Trends in the current use of contraception

 Table 7.3.2 Current use of contraception according to background characteristics

 Table 7.4 Timing of sterilisation

 Table 7.5 Knowledge of fertile period

 Table 7.6 Knowledge of fertile period by age

 Table 7.7 Source of modern contraception methods

 Table 7.8 Informed choice

 Table 7.9 Twelve-month contraceptive discontinuation rates

 Table 7.10 Reasons for discontinuation

 Table 7.11.1 Need and demand for contraception among in-union women

 Table 7.11.2 Need and demand for contraception among all women and among sexually active 

women

 Table 7.12 Decision making about family planning

 Table 7.13 Future use of contraception

 Table 7.14 Exposure to family planning messages

 Table 7.15 Exposure to family planning messages at school

 Table 7.16 Contact of nonusers with family planning providers
Contraception • 101

Table 7.1 Knowledge of contraceptive methods

Percentage of all respondents, in-union respondents, sexually active respondents, and respondents who have never had sex age 15-49 who 

have heard of any contraceptive method, according to specific method, South Africa DHS 2016 

Women Men

Method All women

In-union

women

Sexually 

active 

women1

Never had 

sex All men

In-union

men

Sexually 

active 

men1

Never had 

sex

Any method 99.7 99.9 99.9 98.0 99.8 99.9 100.0 98.6

Any modern method 99.7 99.9 99.9 98.0 99.8 99.9 100.0 98.6

Female sterilisation 64.1 73.5 70.1 45.1 41.7 51.6 46.0 25.0

Male sterilisation 43.4 51.7 48.1 33.2 32.9 41.5 36.4 21.4

Pill 94.4 96.7 96.4 82.6 78.7 83.4 81.6 64.4

IUD 63.9 71.6 69.0 41.4 24.6 30.6 26.8 15.5

Injectables 96.0 97.1 97.2 84.5 79.2 81.1 81.6 63.1

Implants 84.1 85.2 86.7 69.1 49.7 50.8 51.7 39.8

Male condom 97.7 97.8 98.3 93.3 99.4 99.4 99.5 98.4

Female condom 93.2 94.0 95.0 84.6 85.2 83.3 86.0 80.3

Emergency contraception 62.9 65.0 67.7 49.5 47.3 51.5 51.5 32.2

Other modern method 2.1 1.7 2.0 1.5 0.9 1.1 1.0 1.0

Any traditional method 59.5 65.4 66.2 37.6 58.3 61.4 61.7 37.6

Rhythm 37.9 41.7 42.3 27.5 26.2 30.8 27.9 16.4

Withdrawal 54.2 60.9 61.1 33.2 55.4 57.9 58.7 36.1

Other traditional method 2.3 2.8 2.6 0.9 1.2 1.8 1.5 0.3

Mean number of methods known 

by respondents 15-49 8.0 8.4 8.4 6.5 6.2 6.6 6.5 4.9

Number of respondents 8,514 3,050 4,364 1,009 3,202 988 1,889 397

Mean number of methods known 

by respondents 15-59 na na na na 6.2 6.6 6.5 4.9

Number of respondents na na na na 3,618 1,276 2,140 401

Note: In-union women and men include those who are currently married or living together with a partner as if married.

na = Not applicable

1 Had sexual intercourse within the 4 weeks preceding the survey 
102 • Contraception

Table 7.2 Current use of contraception by age

Percent distribution of all women, in-union women, and sexually active women age 15-49 by contraceptive method currently used, according to age, South Africa DHS 2016

Any 

method

Any 

modern 

method

Modern method

Any 

traditional

method

Traditional method

Not 

currently 

using Total

Number of 

Age women

Female 

sterilisation

Male 

sterilisation Pill IUD

Injectables 

(3 month)

Injectables 

(2 month) Implants

Male 

condom

Female 

condom

Emergency 

contraception Other RhythmWithdrawal

ALL WOMEN

15-19 24.9 24.9 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.1 7.3 7.2 2.2 7.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 75.1 100.0 1,427

20-24 54.4 54.2 0.2 0.1 4.6 1.3 18.3 12.1 4.8 12.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.2 45.6 100.0 1,415

25-29 60.9 60.2 1.0 0.0 7.9 0.8 22.3 9.0 4.0 15.1 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.7 39.1 100.0 1,444

30-34 57.1 56.7 3.9 0.2 6.6 1.2 21.6 6.1 4.1 12.5 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.2 42.9 100.0 1,333

35-39 56.6 56.3 6.7 0.2 6.1 1.7 18.2 4.9 3.3 15.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.0 43.4 100.0 1,072

40-44 46.0 45.9 11.8 1.0 4.9 0.8 13.0 2.9 1.8 9.3 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 54.0 100.0 941

45-49 33.4 33.2 9.8 0.4 3.4 0.4 6.9 1.2 1.3 9.4 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 66.6 100.0 883

Total 48.2 47.9 4.0 0.2 5.0 0.9 15.9 6.7 3.2 11.7 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.2 51.8 100.0 8,514

IN-UNION WOMEN1

15-19 (36.7) (36.7) (0.0) (0.0) (11.0) (0.0) (17.7) (1.1) (2.2) (4.7) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (63.3) 100.0 44

20-24 53.2 52.9 0.2 0.0 8.1 0.3 19.1 12.4 4.6 8.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.3 46.8 100.0 271

25-29 62.3 60.5 1.0 0.0 12.7 0.7 23.3 8.6 4.8 9.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8 0.0 1.8 37.7 100.0 514

30-34 58.0 57.2 5.1 0.4 8.5 1.7 23.5 6.4 3.9 7.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.3 0.5 42.0 100.0 688

35-39 61.2 61.1 8.5 0.4 7.8 2.3 20.0 4.9 3.7 12.9 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.0 38.8 100.0 575

40-44 50.8 50.7 16.5 1.8 6.9 0.5 12.9 3.5 1.2 7.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 49.2 100.0 507

45-49 39.0 38.9 13.8 0.8 5.6 0.7 7.4 1.3 2.0 7.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 61.0 100.0 450

Total 54.6 54.0 7.7 0.6 8.4 1.2 18.2 5.7 3.3 8.8 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.6 0.1 0.5 45.4 100.0 3,050

SEXUALLY ACTIVE WOMEN2

15-19 60.4 60.4 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.0 15.9 11.0 5.1 24.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 39.6 100.0 264

20-24 61.3 61.0 0.3 0.3 6.0 1.8 19.1 12.5 5.7 15.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.3 38.7 100.0 695

25-29 67.5 66.4 1.2 0.0 9.9 0.9 21.3 10.6 4.5 18.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 1.1 32.5 100.0 854

30-34 60.7 60.4 4.2 0.3 8.1 1.3 21.4 6.9 4.7 12.9 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.4 39.3 100.0 879

35-39 63.4 63.3 8.7 0.3 8.4 1.4 18.2 4.3 3.4 18.3 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.0 36.6 100.0 677

40-44 52.1 52.1 15.3 1.7 5.6 1.0 12.5 2.6 2.1 11.0 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 47.9 100.0 548

45-49 42.9 42.9 12.7 0.9 4.7 0.7 6.7 1.3 2.3 13.2 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 57.1 100.0 447

Total 59.6 59.3 5.7 0.4 7.3 1.2 17.5 7.3 4.1 15.6 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.3 40.4 100.0 4,364

Notes: If more than one method is used, only the most effective method is considered in this tabulation. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

1

In-union women include women who are currently married or living together with a partner as if married 

2 Women who have had sexual intercourse within the 4 weeks preceding the survey 
Contraception • 103

Table 7.3.1 Trends in the current use of contraception

Percent distribution of sexually active women age 15-49 by 

contraceptive method currently used, according to the South 

Africa DHS 1998 and the South Africa DHS 2016

Method 1998 2016

Any method 62.1 59.6

Any modern method 61.2 59.3

Female sterilisation 12.0 5.7

Male sterilisation 1.7 0.4

IUD 1.9 1.2

Pill 13.2 7.3

Injectables 30.1 24.8

Implants na 4.1

Male condom 2.3 15.6

Female condom na 0.1

Other modern method 0.0 0.2

Any traditional method 1.0 0.4

Periodic abstinence/rhythm 0.3 0.0

Withdrawal 0.4 0.3

Herbs 0.2 na

Other 0.2 0.0

Not currently using 37.9 40.4

Total 100.0 100.0

Number of women 6,062 4,364

 

na = Not applicable

 
104 • Contraception

Table 7.3.2 Current use of contraception according to background characteristics

Percent distribution of sexually active women age 15-49 by contraceptive method currently used, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Any 

method

Any 

modern 

method

Modern method

Any traditional 

method

Traditional 

method

Not 

currently 

using Total

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic

Female 

sterilisation

Male 

sterilisation Pill IUD

Injectables 

(3 month)

Injectables 

(2 month) Implants

Male 

condom

Female 

condom

Emergency 

contraception Other RhythmWithdrawal

Number of living 

children

0 47.5 47.0 0.6 0.0 4.2 0.8 7.1 6.2 3.2 24.5 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 52.5 100.0 772

1-2 61.1 60.7 2.9 0.6 8.7 1.2 19.7 8.6 4.2 14.4 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.4 38.9 100.0 2,441

3-4 66.2 66.0 15.9 0.4 6.6 1.4 20.8 5.4 3.4 11.9 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.2 33.8 100.0 992

5+ 55.4 55.4 10.2 0.0 4.6 0.6 14.5 2.6 9.6 13.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 44.6 100.0 160

Residence

Urban 59.6 59.1 6.8 0.5 7.8 1.4 16.1 6.7 4.1 15.5 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.4 40.4 100.0 3,137

Non-urban 59.9 59.6 3.0 0.2 6.0 0.6 21.4 8.7 4.0 15.6 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.2 40.1 100.0 1,227

Province

Western Cape 62.7 62.4 11.3 2.4 4.4 2.5 15.4 5.6 7.0 13.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.3 37.3 100.0 525

Eastern Cape 61.0 61.0 6.4 0.5 3.4 1.0 22.8 10.4 4.9 11.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 39.0 100.0 410

Northern Cape 54.9 54.6 5.0 0.2 5.4 0.3 21.7 5.6 4.9 11.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.3 45.1 100.0 82

Free State 51.1 51.1 3.9 0.5 3.2 0.0 24.2 2.7 4.2 11.8 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 48.9 100.0 200

KwaZulu-Natal 65.0 64.7 6.2 0.4 6.3 1.3 19.8 3.4 4.8 22.1 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.3 35.0 100.0 685

North West 58.9 58.8 3.7 0.0 11.9 0.8 16.9 6.4 2.7 16.3 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.2 41.1 100.0 325

Gauteng 58.0 57.5 5.3 0.0 9.7 1.1 16.0 7.1 3.1 14.9 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.5 0.0 0.5 42.0 100.0 1,430

Mpumalanga 62.1 61.9 3.4 0.3 6.1 0.6 17.0 10.5 3.5 19.8 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.2 37.9 100.0 356

Limpopo 53.9 53.0 2.6 0.0 7.6 0.9 12.9 14.7 2.8 11.1 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.2 0.7 46.1 100.0 351

Education

No education 44.0 44.0 8.7 0.0 3.5 1.3 17.6 2.8 0.0 10.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 56.0 100.0 86

Primary incomplete 47.9 47.9 2.8 0.0 4.5 0.4 23.0 2.0 2.2 12.9 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 52.1 100.0 239

Primary complete 54.2 54.2 6.5 0.0 5.5 1.2 17.1 4.7 3.6 15.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 45.8 100.0 169

Secondary 

incomplete 60.5 60.1 4.7 0.3 5.2 0.7 20.4 8.5 5.0 15.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.4 39.5 100.0 1,913

Secondary complete 60.8 60.5 5.4 0.3 8.7 1.5 16.7 7.4 3.4 16.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.2 39.2 100.0 1,354

More than secondary 62.7 62.0 10.1 1.5 12.8 2.0 8.3 6.2 4.0 16.7 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.7 0.0 0.7 37.3 100.0 603

Wealth quintile

Lowest 60.0 59.4 2.7 0.0 5.9 0.3 24.3 6.5 3.2 16.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.6 40.0 100.0 758

Second 59.2 59.2 2.9 0.2 5.3 0.8 20.6 9.4 5.0 14.7 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 40.8 100.0 920

Middle 58.4 58.0 3.9 0.0 6.0 1.3 18.2 7.7 4.2 16.5 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.3 41.6 100.0 952

Fourth 62.3 61.9 5.2 0.4 7.3 1.2 16.2 8.5 4.6 18.3 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 37.7 100.0 882

Highest 58.5 58.0 13.9 1.7 12.0 2.1 8.9 3.8 3.2 11.7 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.0 0.5 41.5 100.0 852

Total 59.6 59.3 5.7 0.4 7.3 1.2 17.5 7.3 4.1 15.6 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.3 40.4 100.0 4,364

Notes: If more than one method is used, only the most effective method is considered in this tabulation. Sexually active women are defined as women who have had sexual intercourse within the 4 weeks preceding the survey. 
Contraception • 105

Table 7.4 Timing of sterilisation

Percent distribution of sterilised women age 15-49 by age at the time of sterilisation and median age at sterilisation, according to 

the number of years since the operation, South Africa DHS 2016

Age at time of sterilisation

Total

Number of 

women

Median 

age1 Years since operation <25 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49

<2 1.9 22.0 40.8 10.6 20.2 4.5 100.0 64 32.6

2-3 (6.0) (16.9) (26.4) (33.0) (16.4) (1.4) 100.0 58 (33.2)

4-5 (1.9) (13.6) (40.7) (35.2) (8.6) (0.0) 100.0 46 (33.4)

6-7 (0.0) (18.6) (36.3) (36.6) (8.6) (0.0) 100.0 37 (33.8)

8-9 (5.2) (14.1) (41.7) (36.3) (2.8) (0.0) 100.0 41 (33.4)

10+ 7.8 29.2 46.2 16.8 0.0 0.0 100.0 92 a

Total 4.4 20.6 39.4 25.5 9.1 1.1 100.0 338 32.5

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

a = Not calculated due to censoring

1 Median age at sterilisation is calculated only for women sterilised before age 40 to avoid problems of censoring 

Table 7.5 Knowledge of fertile period

Percent distribution of women and men age 15-49 by 

knowledge of the fertile period during the ovulatory cycle, 

South Africa DHS 2016

Perceived fertile period

All 

women

All 

men

Just before her menstrual period 

begins 13.4 17.4

During her menstrual period 4.8 4.9

Right after her menstrual period has 

ended 17.6 19.3

Halfway between two menstrual 

periods 34.1 9.7

Other 0.1 0.0

No specific time 13.4 16.9

Don’t know 16.6 31.8

Total 100.0 100.0

Number 8,514 3,202

Table 7.6 Knowledge of fertile period by age

Percentage of women age 15-49 with correct knowledge of 

the fertile period during the ovulatory cycle, according to 

age, South Africa DHS 2016

Age

Percentage with 

correct 

knowledge of the 

fertile period

Number of 

women

15-19 26.5 1,427

20-24 32.0 1,415

25-29 37.6 1,444

30-34 36.5 1,333

35-39 38.7 1,072

40-44 35.7 941

45-49 32.9 883

Total 34.1 8,514

Note: Correct knowledge of the fertile period is defined as 

“halfway between two menstrual periods.”
106 • Contraception

Table 7.7 Source of modern contraception methods

Percent distribution of users of modern contraceptive methods age 15-49 by most recent source of method, according to method, South Africa 

DHS 2016

Source

Female 

sterilisation IUD

Injectables 

(3 month)

Injectables 

(2 month) Implants Pill Male condom Total

Public sector 72.0 65.3 93.9 94.5 94.2 77.1 56.2 80.3

Government hospital 63.0 18.6 11.4 4.5 22.8 4.7 3.8 13.1

Government health clinic/

community health centre 9.1 46.6 79.7 87.0 69.6 70.3 51.2 65.1

Mobile clinic 0.0 0.0 2.9 2.9 1.9 2.1 1.2 2.0

Other public sector 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0

Private medical sector 28.0 34.7 5.0 3.9 5.3 21.0 13.1 11.4

Private hospital/clinic 26.5 8.2 1.4 1.1 1.7 1.0 0.6 3.5

Chemist/pharmacy 0.0 0.9 1.1 1.5 0.8 15.0 12.3 5.4

Private doctor 1.5 25.6 2.6 1.4 2.8 4.9 0.3 2.4

Other private medical sector 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0

Other sources 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.7 0.5 1.1 28.9 7.5

Workplace/workplace clinic 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.6 1.1 0.6

Community centre, library, or 

other public place 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 1.7 0.4

Shop 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 25.9 6.4

Friend/relative 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.1

Other 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.0 0.8 1.8 0.6

Missing 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of women 338 75 1,351 574 277 423 994 4,076

Note: Total includes 20 users of male sterilisation, 17 users of female condoms, 4 users of emergency contraception, and 4 users of other modern 

methods who are too few in number to be shown separately. 
Contraception • 107

Table 7.8 Informed choice

Among current users of modern methods age 15-49 who started the last episode of use within the 5 years preceding the survey, percentage 

who were informed about possible side effects or problems of that method, percentage who were informed about what to do if they 

experienced side effects, percentage who were informed about other methods they could use, and percentage who were informed of all 

three, according to method and initial source, South Africa DHS 2016

Among women who started last episode of modern contraceptive method within 5 years 

preceding the survey:

Method/source

Percentage who 

were informed 

about side effects 

or problems of 

method used

Percentage who 

were informed 

about what to do if 

they experienced 

side effects

Percentage who 

were informed by 

a health or family 

planning worker of 

other methods that 

could be used

Percentage who 

were informed of 

all three (Method 

Information Index)

Number 

of women

Method

Female sterilisation 62.3 57.2 70.6 51.1 145

IUD (85.0) (83.3) (87.6) (79.3) 62

Injectables (3 month) 52.7 44.6 60.8 39.4 1,060

Injectables (2 month) 49.6 41.5 60.8 37.8 494

Implants 69.4 62.9 70.6 53.8 267

Pill 60.0 52.7 63.3 48.3 330

Initial source of method1

Public sector 55.0 47.2 62.9 41.7 2,118

Government hospital 49.4 43.7 64.8 38.7 377

Government health clinic/community 

health centre 56.4 47.9 62.5 42.3 1,690

Mobile clinic 50.3 47.0 58.9 43.1 48

CHW * * * * 1

Private 71.1 67.1 72.6 63.8 215

Private hospital/clinic 84.4 79.7 79.3 74.9 84

Chemist/pharmacy (57.6) (52.7) (60.6) (52.7) 64

Private doctor 66.9 64.8 75.4 60.0 66

Other private medical sector * * * * 1

Other * * * * 18

Total 56.4 49.0 63.6 43.7 2,357

Notes: Table includes users of only the methods listed individually. Total includes 7 users for whom the initial source of the method is 

missing who are not shown separately. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is 

based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

CHW = community health worker

1 Source at start of current episode of use

Table 7.9 Twelve-month contraceptive discontinuation rates

Among episodes of contraceptive use experienced within the 5 years preceding the survey, percentage of episodes discontinued within 12 

months, according to reason for discontinuation and specific method, South Africa DHS 2016

Method

Method 

failure

Desire to 

become 

pregnant

Other 

fertilityrelated 

reasons2

Side 

effects/

health 

concerns

Wanted 

more 

effective 

method

Other 

methodrelated 

reasons3

Other 

reasons

Any 

reason4

Switched 

to another 

method5

Number of 

episodes 

of use6

Injectables (3 month) 3.0 3.4 2.3 12.7 1.9 3.1 4.1 30.5 4.7 1,460

Injectables (2 month) 1.6 4.9 3.2 11.1 0.8 3.5 3.0 28.0 2.8 698

Implants 0.0 0.5 0.0 10.9 0.4 0.6 0.0 12.5 1.5 341

Pill 4.0 3.8 2.6 11.1 3.3 3.2 5.1 33.2 3.8 507

Male condom 4.4 6.9 3.3 2.0 5.6 2.6 7.7 32.5 5.7 1,178

Other1(2.8) (6.4) (1.7) (0.7) (3.0) (2.2) (0.7) (17.4) (2.0) 316

All methods 3.0 4.6 2.5 8.5 2.8 2.8 4.4 28.5 4.1 4,500

Notes: Figures are based on life table calculations using information on episodes of use that occurred 3-62 months preceding the survey. 

Figures in parentheses are based on 125-249 unweighted cases.

1

Includes male sterilisation, IUD, female condom, emergency contraception, rhythm, and withdrawal

2

Includes infrequent sex/husband away, difficult to get pregnant/menopausal, and marital dissolution/separation

3

Includes lack of access/too far, costs too much, and inconvenient to use

4 Reasons for discontinuation are mutually exclusive and add to the total given in this column

5 A woman is considered to have switched to another method if she used a different method in the month following discontinuation or if she gave 

“wanted a more effective method” as the reason for discontinuation and started another method within 2 months of discontinuation

6 All episodes of use occurring within the 5 years preceding the survey are included. Episodes of use include both episodes of use that were 

discontinued during the period of observation and episodes of use that were not discontinued during the period of observation
108 • Contraception

Table 7.10 Reasons for discontinuation

Percent distribution of discontinuations of contraceptive methods in the 5 years preceding the survey by main reason stated for discontinuation, 

according to specific method, South Africa DHS 2016

Reason IUD

Injectables 

(3 month)

Injectables 

(2 month) Implants Pill

Male 

condom Other1 All methods

Became pregnant while using (29.4) 8.5 5.2 0.5 10.2 12.6 (7.8) 9.3

Wanted to become pregnant (42.5) 13.6 18.9 13.7 25.0 22.2 (35.7) 19.3

Husband/partner disapproved (0.0) 1.4 0.3 0.0 2.0 5.1 (0.0) 2.3

Wanted a more effective 

method (1.4) 9.0 7.3 2.6 15.4 13.3 (24.8) 10.7

Side effects/health concerns (16.1) 40.2 39.3 73.9 21.5 7.3 (1.7) 28.4

Lack of access/too far (0.0) 2.8 4.3 0.0 0.5 0.9 (0.0) 2.0

Cost too much (0.0) 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.6 (0.0) 0.4

Inconvenient to use (4.4) 6.2 8.2 2.2 8.3 6.7 (18.1) 7.0

Up to God/fatalistic (0.0) 0.8 0.4 0.0 1.5 1.4 (2.7) 1.0

Difficult to get pregnant/ 

menopausal (0.0) 0.4 0.0 4.2 0.0 0.9 (0.0) 0.6

Infrequent sex/husband away (0.0) 7.5 6.1 1.8 4.4 13.8 (4.9) 8.3

Marital dissolution/separation (0.0) 0.2 1.1 0.0 0.9 1.2 (0.0) 0.7

Other (6.1) 7.8 6.3 1.1 7.9 8.5 (0.0) 7.3

Don’t know (0.0) 1.1 2.5 0.0 2.3 5.6 (4.3) 2.8

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of discontinuations 30 710 366 89 284 625 33 2,136

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

1 Male sterilisation, female condom, emergency contraception, rhythm, and withdrawal are included in the discontinuation rate for other methods 
Contraception • 109

Table 7.11.1 Need and demand for contraception among in-union women

Percentage of in-union women age 15-49 with unmet need for contraception, percentage with met need for contraception, total demand for contraception, 

and percentage of the demand for contraception that is satisfied, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Unmet need for 

contraception

Met need for contraception

(currently using)

Total demand for 

contraception

Number 

of 

women

Percentage 

of demand 

satisfied2

Percentage 

of demand 

satisfied by 

modern 

methods3

Background 

characteristic

For 

spacing

For 

limiting Total

For 

spacing

For 

limiting Total

For 

spacing

For 

limiting Total

Age

15-19 (16.7) (7.0) (23.6) (19.4) (17.3) (36.7) (36.1) (24.3) (60.4) 44 (60.9) (60.9)

20-24 20.5 7.9 28.4 37.5 15.7 53.2 58.0 23.6 81.6 271 65.2 64.9

25-29 7.2 4.6 11.8 32.0 30.3 62.3 39.3 34.8 74.1 514 84.1 81.6

30-34 6.9 9.0 15.9 20.5 37.5 58.0 27.5 46.5 73.9 688 78.5 77.4

35-39 2.8 9.5 12.4 16.2 45.0 61.2 19.0 54.6 73.6 575 83.2 83.0

40-44 3.2 9.9 13.0 5.4 45.4 50.8 8.6 55.3 63.9 507 79.6 79.4

45-49 1.2 11.7 13.0 1.9 37.1 39.0 3.2 48.8 52.0 450 75.0 74.8

Residence

Urban 6.1 8.1 14.2 18.2 37.0 55.2 24.3 45.1 69.4 2,259 79.5 78.6

Non-urban 6.0 10.7 16.7 17.0 35.9 52.9 23.0 46.6 69.6 790 76.0 75.4

Province

Western Cape 4.1 6.0 10.1 18.2 41.1 59.3 22.3 47.1 69.4 454 85.4 84.9

Eastern Cape 6.1 10.1 16.2 14.1 39.8 53.9 20.1 50.0 70.1 275 76.9 76.9

Northern Cape 6.7 9.3 16.0 10.0 42.0 52.0 16.7 51.2 68.0 66 76.5 76.0

Free State 4.0 12.0 16.1 15.0 31.1 46.2 19.0 43.2 62.2 146 74.2 74.2

KwaZulu-Natal 6.4 11.7 18.1 18.1 33.2 51.3 24.5 44.9 69.4 361 73.9 73.1

North West 4.8 9.2 13.9 15.9 38.6 54.5 20.6 47.8 68.4 215 79.6 79.2

Gauteng 7.2 7.1 14.3 19.1 36.4 55.6 26.4 43.5 69.9 1,035 79.5 78.2

Mpumalanga 4.5 8.6 13.1 20.2 38.8 59.0 24.7 47.5 72.1 244 81.8 80.8

Limpopo 8.3 12.5 20.9 19.3 30.0 49.2 27.6 42.5 70.1 254 70.2 69.0

Education

No education 1.9 21.7 23.6 7.5 22.1 29.6 9.4 43.8 53.2 83 55.6 55.6

Primary 

incomplete 6.0 13.5 19.6 7.8 32.0 39.9 13.9 45.6 59.4 185 67.1 67.1

Primary 

complete 9.9 10.7 20.6 12.4 32.4 44.8 22.3 43.2 65.5 142 68.5 68.5

Secondary 

incomplete 6.4 8.5 14.8 16.9 39.5 56.4 23.3 48.0 71.3 1,297 79.2 78.2

Secondary 

complete 5.0 8.1 13.1 20.7 35.2 55.9 25.7 43.3 69.0 875 81.0 80.5

More than 

secondary 6.9 6.1 13.0 22.9 37.6 60.5 29.8 43.7 73.5 469 82.3 80.7

Wealth quintile

Lowest 5.1 10.4 15.4 13.6 40.8 54.4 18.7 51.2 69.9 505 77.9 76.7

Second 9.5 9.4 18.9 18.5 32.0 50.6 28.0 41.4 69.4 610 72.8 72.7

Middle 5.0 7.5 12.5 21.1 32.8 53.9 26.1 40.3 66.4 637 81.2 80.2

Fourth 6.1 7.4 13.6 21.5 36.9 58.4 27.6 44.3 71.9 569 81.1 80.4

Highest 4.9 9.2 14.1 14.7 41.1 55.8 19.6 50.3 70.0 729 79.8 78.7

Total 6.1 8.8 14.9 17.9 36.7 54.6 24.0 45.5 69.5 3,050 78.6 77.8

Notes: Numbers in this table correspond to the revised definition of unmet need described in Bradley et al. 2012. In-union women include women who are 

currently married or living together with a partner as if married. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

1 Total demand is the sum of unmet need and met need

2 Percentage of demand satisfied is met need divided by total demand

3 Modern methods include female sterilisation, male sterilisation, pill, IUD, injectables, implants, male condom, female condom, emergency contraception, 

and other modern methods 
110 • Contraception

Table 7.11.2 Need and demand for contraception among all women and among sexually active women

Percentage of all women and sexually active women age 15-49 with unmet need for contraception, percentage with met need for contraception, total demand for 

contraception, and percentage of the demand for contraception that is satisfied, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Unmet need for contraception

Met need for contraception

(currently using)

Total demand for 

contraception1

Number of 

women

Percentage of 

demand 

satisfied2

Percentage of 

demand 

satisfied by 

modern 

methods3

Background 

characteristic

For 

spacing

For 

limiting Total

For 

spacing

For 

limiting Total

For 

spacing

For 

limiting Total

ALL WOMEN

Age

15-19 6.6 1.4 8.0 19.0 5.9 24.9 25.6 7.3 32.9 1,427 75.7 75.6

20-24 11.7 4.3 16.0 34.7 19.7 54.4 46.4 24.0 70.4 1,415 77.2 76.9

25-29 6.9 3.9 10.8 33.3 27.6 60.9 40.2 31.6 71.8 1,444 84.9 83.9

30-34 6.9 7.9 14.8 22.1 35.0 57.1 29.1 42.9 72.0 1,333 79.4 78.8

35-39 3.2 7.4 10.6 14.4 42.2 56.6 17.6 49.6 67.2 1,072 84.2 83.9

40-44 2.2 9.7 11.9 5.2 40.7 46.0 7.5 50.4 57.9 941 79.4 79.3

45-49 0.7 9.9 10.6 1.3 32.1 33.4 2.0 42.0 44.0 883 75.9 75.6

Residence

Urban 5.9 5.8 11.7 20.9 27.6 48.5 26.8 33.4 60.2 5,731 80.6 80.0

Non-urban 6.3 6.1 12.4 20.0 27.4 47.4 26.3 33.5 59.8 2,783 79.3 79.0

Province

Western Cape 4.3 4.0 8.3 19.8 30.6 50.4 24.1 34.6 58.7 995 85.9 85.3

Eastern Cape 5.7 6.5 12.3 18.6 34.8 53.4 24.4 41.3 65.7 938 81.3 81.3

Northern Cape 6.7 5.6 12.3 15.9 31.2 47.1 22.6 36.8 59.4 173 79.2 79.0

Free State 5.2 6.2 11.4 18.0 23.6 41.6 23.2 29.8 53.0 442 78.4 78.4

KwaZulu-Natal 6.2 5.0 11.2 21.3 25.6 46.9 27.5 30.6 58.1 1,616 80.8 80.4

North West 5.5 6.9 12.3 20.8 30.5 51.4 26.3 37.4 63.7 570 80.6 80.5

Gauteng 6.8 6.6 13.4 21.2 26.7 47.9 28.0 33.3 61.3 2,284 78.1 77.4

Mpumalanga 5.4 5.9 11.3 23.7 28.2 51.9 29.1 34.1 63.2 671 82.1 81.5

Limpopo 7.2 6.5 13.7 20.2 20.7 40.9 27.4 27.2 54.6 824 75.0 74.1

Education

No education 2.0 14.5 16.5 8.8 26.3 35.1 10.9 40.8 51.7 168 68.0 68.0

Primary 

incomplete 5.2 10.5 15.8 9.6 31.4 41.0 14.9 41.9 56.8 447 72.3 72.3

Primary complete 6.8 8.6 15.4 14.7 28.7 43.4 21.5 37.4 58.9 327 73.8 73.8

Secondary 

incomplete 5.6 5.8 11.4 19.2 26.8 46.0 24.8 32.6 57.4 4,195 80.2 79.8

Secondary 

complete 6.6 5.0 11.7 24.5 26.9 51.5 31.2 32.0 63.1 2,369 81.5 81.0

More than 

secondary 7.2 4.0 11.2 25.8 30.5 56.2 33.0 34.5 67.4 1,008 83.4 82.4

Wealth quintile

Lowest 5.7 7.3 13.0 18.4 28.2 46.6 24.0 35.5 59.5 1,648 78.2 77.7

Second 7.2 6.0 13.2 22.2 27.5 49.8 29.4 33.6 63.0 1,715 79.0 78.9

Middle 5.1 6.2 11.4 23.9 26.4 50.3 29.0 32.6 61.7 1,805 81.6 81.1

Fourth 6.5 4.1 10.6 21.2 28.3 49.4 27.7 32.4 60.0 1,763 82.4 81.8

Highest 5.7 5.8 11.5 16.7 27.5 44.2 22.4 33.3 55.7 1,583 79.3 78.6

Total 6.0 5.9 11.9 20.6 27.6 48.2 26.6 33.5 60.1 8,514 80.2 79.7

SEXUALLY ACTIVE WOMEN4

Age

15-19 26.8 4.4 31.2 47.0 13.5 60.4 73.8 17.9 91.7 264 65.9 65.9

20-24 19.9 8.1 27.9 41.7 19.6 61.3 61.6 27.6 89.2 695 68.7 68.3

25-29 8.6 5.4 14.0 38.6 28.9 67.5 47.2 34.3 81.5 854 82.9 81.5

30-34 8.7 9.2 17.9 25.8 35.0 60.7 34.4 44.2 78.6 879 77.3 76.8

35-39 3.7 9.8 13.5 17.6 45.8 63.4 21.3 55.6 76.9 677 82.5 82.3

40-44 3.6 13.2 16.8 6.7 45.5 52.1 10.3 58.7 69.0 548 75.6 75.6

45-49 1.0 16.4 17.4 1.5 41.4 42.9 2.4 57.9 60.3 447 71.2 71.2

Residence

Urban 8.8 8.9 17.7 25.3 34.3 59.6 34.1 43.1 77.3 3,137 77.1 76.5

Non-urban 10.6 10.4 21.0 27.6 32.3 59.9 38.2 42.7 80.9 1,227 74.0 73.7

Province

Western Cape 6.2 5.6 11.8 24.9 37.8 62.7 31.1 43.4 74.5 525 84.2 83.8

Eastern Cape 8.9 11.9 20.8 21.3 39.7 61.0 30.2 51.6 81.8 410 74.6 74.6

Northern Cape 9.9 10.2 20.1 18.9 35.9 54.9 28.8 46.1 75.0 82 73.2 72.8

Free State 7.8 11.6 19.4 22.2 28.9 51.1 30.0 40.5 70.5 200 72.5 72.5

KwaZulu-Natal 12.0 8.7 20.7 32.1 32.8 65.0 44.2 41.5 85.7 685 75.8 75.5

North West 7.1 9.9 16.9 24.5 34.4 58.9 31.6 44.3 75.9 325 77.7 77.4

Gauteng 9.2 9.7 18.9 24.9 33.1 58.0 34.1 42.8 76.9 1,430 75.4 74.7

Mpumalanga 8.0 8.2 16.2 29.4 32.8 62.1 37.4 41.0 78.4 356 79.3 79.0

Limpopo 13.8 10.9 24.7 26.7 27.1 53.9 40.5 38.0 78.5 351 68.6 67.5

(Continued...)
Contraception • 111

Table 7.11.2—Continued

Unmet need for contraception

Met need for contraception

(currently using)

Total demand for 

contraception1

Number of 

women

Percentage of 

demand 

satisfied2

Percentage of 

demand 

satisfied by 

modern 

methods3

Background 

characteristic

For 

spacing

For 

limiting Total

For 

spacing

For 

limiting Total

For 

spacing

For 

limiting Total

SEXUALLY ACTIVE WOMEN4

Education

No education 2.8 19.5 22.3 14.5 29.5 44.0 17.2 49.1 66.3 86 66.4 66.4

Primary 

incomplete 6.2 15.5 21.7 14.5 33.4 47.9 20.7 48.9 69.6 239 68.8 68.8

Primary complete 11.6 10.9 22.5 15.6 38.7 54.2 27.2 49.6 76.8 169 70.6 70.6

Secondary 

incomplete 9.1 10.1 19.3 25.6 35.0 60.5 34.7 45.1 79.8 1,913 75.9 75.3

Secondary 

complete 10.0 7.9 17.9 29.8 31.0 60.8 39.8 38.9 78.7 1,354 77.2 76.9

More than 

secondary 10.0 5.6 15.6 27.5 35.1 62.7 37.5 40.7 78.2 603 80.1 79.2

Wealth quintile

Lowest 9.1 12.9 22.0 25.7 34.3 60.0 34.8 47.2 82.0 758 73.2 72.5

Second 10.1 8.7 18.9 27.4 31.8 59.2 37.5 40.5 78.0 920 75.8 75.8

Middle 7.7 9.6 17.3 27.4 31.0 58.4 35.1 40.6 75.7 952 77.1 76.6

Fourth 11.2 6.5 17.7 27.2 35.1 62.3 38.3 41.6 80.0 882 77.9 77.3

Highest 8.6 9.4 18.0 21.7 36.8 58.5 30.3 46.2 76.4 852 76.5 75.9

Total 9.3 9.3 18.7 25.9 33.7 59.6 35.3 43.0 78.3 4,364 76.2 75.7

Note: Numbers in this table correspond to the revised definition of unmet need described in Bradley et al. 2012.

1 Total demand is the sum of unmet need and met need

2 Percentage of demand satisfied is met need divided by total demand

3 Modern methods include female sterilisation, male sterilisation, pill, IUD, injectables, implants, male condom, female condom, emergency contraception, and 

other modern methods

4 Women who have had sexual intercourse within the 4 weeks preceding the survey 
112 • Contraception

Table 7.12 Decision making about contraception

Among in-union women age 15-49 who are current users of contraception, percent distribution by who makes the decision to use contraception, and 

among in-union women who are not currently using contraception, percent distribution by who makes the decision not to use contraception, according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Among in-union women who are current 

users of contraception

Total

Number of 

women

Among in-union women who are not 

currently using contraception

Total

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic

Mainly 

woman

Woman 

and 

partner 

jointly

Mainly 

partner Other

Mainly 

woman

Woman 

and 

partner 

jointly

Mainly 

partner Other

Age

15-19 * * * * 100.0 16 * * * * 100.0 19

20-24 47.5 40.5 11.9 0.2 100.0 144 34.9 31.3 31.5 2.2 100.0 86

25-29 46.6 44.4 8.8 0.2 100.0 320 36.9 42.1 19.5 1.5 100.0 148

30-34 38.8 48.5 11.3 1.4 100.0 399 38.6 41.3 15.1 5.1 100.0 229

35-39 43.1 47.3 9.4 0.2 100.0 352 34.2 45.5 19.5 0.9 100.0 202

40-44 33.7 51.0 13.6 1.7 100.0 258 41.0 42.4 13.9 2.7 100.0 244

45-49 40.2 48.7 10.8 0.4 100.0 175 35.8 43.4 16.3 4.6 100.0 274

Number of living 

children

0 33.9 53.4 9.4 3.3 100.0 72 31.7 49.4 15.5 3.5 100.0 149

1-2 41.0 47.4 11.1 0.5 100.0 912 37.5 41.1 17.3 4.1 100.0 644

3-4 42.1 46.8 10.2 1.0 100.0 592 37.0 40.7 20.5 1.7 100.0 328

5+ 45.4 41.8 12.8 0.0 100.0 90 43.2 41.7 11.4 3.6 100.0 80

Residence

Urban 42.4 47.6 9.3 0.7 100.0 1,248 35.7 43.0 18.0 3.3 100.0 862

Non-urban 38.1 45.7 15.4 0.8 100.0 418 40.4 39.7 16.4 3.5 100.0 339

Province

Western Cape 42.4 52.7 4.0 0.9 100.0 269 37.1 45.0 13.0 4.9 100.0 163

Eastern Cape 44.6 43.2 10.9 1.3 100.0 148 46.6 42.2 6.9 4.3 100.0 116

Northern Cape 36.3 57.6 3.7 2.4 100.0 34 54.0 39.7 4.5 1.8 100.0 29

Free State 34.2 61.5 4.3 0.0 100.0 67 25.3 58.6 15.5 0.7 100.0 73

KwaZulu-Natal 29.3 59.3 10.6 0.7 100.0 185 26.3 47.5 23.3 2.9 100.0 156

North West 33.0 58.4 8.0 0.6 100.0 117 36.4 43.5 17.6 2.6 100.0 87

Gauteng 49.0 38.1 12.3 0.6 100.0 575 37.7 36.3 22.9 3.1 100.0 365

Mpumalanga 34.9 49.7 14.8 0.6 100.0 144 38.4 41.6 17.5 2.6 100.0 91

Limpopo 38.2 38.9 22.3 0.7 100.0 125 42.2 38.4 14.9 4.6 100.0 121

Education

No education (39.8) (58.1) (2.1) (0.0) 100.0 25 37.3 42.7 16.9 3.2 100.0 54

Primary incomplete 50.0 36.3 11.9 1.8 100.0 74 44.2 33.0 20.2 2.6 100.0 103

Primary complete 46.6 46.4 6.9 0.0 100.0 63 44.1 35.2 19.6 1.0 100.0 68

Secondary 

incomplete 43.5 44.8 11.1 0.5 100.0 731 37.8 43.8 15.0 3.3 100.0 487

Secondary complete 43.1 44.3 11.7 0.9 100.0 489 35.5 43.1 19.2 2.2 100.0 325

More than secondary 29.3 59.8 9.8 1.1 100.0 284 30.2 43.2 19.5 7.0 100.0 163

Wealth quintile

Lowest 42.7 42.3 12.5 2.5 100.0 275 45.8 37.9 10.6 5.7 100.0 197

Second 47.5 41.1 11.4 0.0 100.0 308 39.4 35.9 22.5 2.1 100.0 257

Middle 43.5 43.5 12.7 0.4 100.0 343 33.1 50.5 14.2 2.2 100.0 239

Fourth 41.3 51.0 7.5 0.2 100.0 332 39.7 39.2 19.1 2.0 100.0 209

Highest 34.0 54.8 10.3 0.8 100.0 407 30.6 45.4 19.4 4.7 100.0 298

Total 41.3 47.1 10.8 0.7 100.0 1,666 37.0 42.1 17.5 3.3 100.0 1,201

Notes: Table excludes women who are currently pregnant. In-union women include women who are currently married or living together with a partner as if 

married. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases 

and has been suppressed. 
Contraception • 113

Table 7.13 Future use of contraception

Percent distribution of in-union women age 15-49 who are not using a contraceptive 

method by intention to use in the future, according to number of living children, South 

Africa DHS 2016

Number of living children1

Intention to use in the future 0 1 2 3 4+ Total

Intends to use 26.5 40.0 37.3 39.3 29.3 36.0

Unsure 2.8 7.1 6.1 3.2 6.2 5.5

Does not intend to use 70.6 52.9 56.6 57.6 64.5 58.6

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of women 149 374 373 269 219 1,384

Note: In-union women include women who are currently married or living together with a 

partner as if married.

1

Includes current pregnancy 

Table 7.14 Exposure to family planning messages

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 who heard or saw a family planning message on radio, on television, in a newspaper or magazine, or from a 

community health worker in the past 6 months, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Women Men

Background 

characteristic Radio Television

Newspaper/ 

magazine

Community 

health 

worker

None of 

these 

four 

sources

Number 

of women Radio Television

Newspaper/ 

magazine

Community 

health 

worker

None of 

these 

four 

sources

Number 

of men

Age

15-19 24.5 34.1 27.0 32.2 45.4 1,427 22.0 32.3 19.7 9.5 54.8 647

20-24 34.9 44.4 35.4 47.7 34.4 1,415 30.3 32.9 28.2 16.1 47.0 588

25-29 41.0 47.9 38.9 53.3 29.8 1,444 35.6 35.8 30.5 18.5 45.6 506

30-34 36.6 42.9 33.3 47.7 33.5 1,333 43.3 40.8 33.0 20.4 41.2 450

35-39 39.3 42.6 38.4 47.5 34.2 1,072 40.4 41.9 36.5 11.9 40.8 395

40-44 38.9 41.2 36.0 46.8 35.7 941 42.8 41.9 35.2 16.0 42.0 345

45-49 40.0 43.7 37.0 48.0 32.0 883 41.5 43.8 32.7 18.7 44.0 271

Residence

Urban 39.2 47.3 40.3 44.7 34.8 5,731 36.5 41.0 32.5 16.9 44.3 2,203

Non-urban 29.5 32.4 23.8 48.6 36.1 2,783 31.3 29.3 23.4 12.2 49.6 999

Province

Western Cape 46.3 62.6 57.8 58.2 17.2 995 37.9 50.9 44.2 19.4 29.0 328

Eastern Cape 25.1 26.2 17.6 36.1 45.8 938 29.7 29.3 17.5 16.2 52.4 362

Northern Cape 33.4 40.1 37.2 43.9 37.7 173 21.5 30.5 24.8 14.2 53.3 61

Free State 48.2 49.8 41.7 56.2 23.4 442 36.6 27.7 22.2 9.2 52.7 159

KwaZulu-Natal 27.3 34.1 26.3 40.0 40.5 1,616 23.7 16.1 22.1 13.1 63.1 521

North West 41.8 47.9 37.6 59.8 25.8 570 22.3 26.6 21.4 3.2 60.1 237

Gauteng 38.6 43.8 38.6 37.7 43.4 2,284 37.9 46.8 32.1 15.1 44.5 984

Mpumalanga 36.9 41.0 26.9 42.4 35.6 671 69.6 59.6 48.9 25.8 17.4 263

Limpopo 34.9 42.9 33.7 65.1 23.9 824 28.3 33.5 28.0 19.5 40.1 288

Education

No education 24.2 20.3 12.9 31.4 55.7 168 22.8 27.8 7.7 15.2 59.3 62

Primary incomplete 22.3 24.3 7.9 42.3 44.8 447 31.4 21.3 12.2 8.8 60.9 219

Primary complete 24.6 24.5 16.4 38.2 49.0 327 22.7 29.4 18.4 5.4 60.8 166

Secondary 

incomplete 32.3 38.3 30.2 43.5 38.5 4,195 29.7 32.5 23.7 12.8 51.8 1,637

Secondary 

complete 42.5 50.8 43.2 51.6 28.7 2,369 42.8 46.5 42.1 21.3 34.1 773

More than 

secondary 47.9 57.4 56.3 49.4 24.6 1,008 51.5 56.0 50.9 23.8 25.9 345

Wealth quintile

Lowest 20.6 16.7 14.4 37.1 52.0 1,648 27.7 18.4 16.4 10.0 60.2 618

Second 31.1 36.7 26.5 46.6 37.4 1,715 33.2 34.6 25.4 14.7 48.1 682

Middle 39.1 48.4 37.5 51.2 28.9 1,805 35.1 38.4 30.6 13.6 46.9 715

Fourth 45.8 55.6 45.1 51.0 27.6 1,763 39.2 47.2 37.1 19.3 37.2 653

Highest 42.9 53.8 50.9 42.9 30.9 1,583 39.6 49.3 40.1 20.4 36.1 534

Total 15-49 36.0 42.4 34.9 46.0 35.2 8,514 34.9 37.3 29.7 15.4 46.0 3,202

50-59 na na na na na na 37.1 38.4 30.8 20.6 42.7 416

Total 15-59 na na na na na na 35.1 37.5 29.8 16.0 45.6 3,618

na = Not applicable 
114 • Contraception

Table 7.15 Exposure to family planning messages at school

Percentage of women and men age 15-24 who are currently attending school and 

heard about family planning at school in the past 6 months, according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Women Men

Background 

characteristic

Heard about 

family 

planning at 

school

Number of 

women

Heard about 

family 

planning at 

school

Number of 

men

Age

15-19 70.4 1,169 55.6 111

15 64.2 231 * 25

16 69.3 287 (59.8) 25

17 70.1 270 * 17

18 79.5 193 (63.8) 20

19 70.7 188 * 24

20-24 68.6 431 58.1 186

Residence

Urban 70.8 986 61.4 387

Non-urban 68.4 614 60.8 342

Province

Western Cape 71.3 151 (63.9) 54

Eastern Cape 71.2 206 40.0 111

Northern Cape 70.6 30 (65.2) 11

Free State 63.7 84 43.2 52

KwaZulu-Natal 62.0 349 62.9 150

North West 69.7 79 54.6 40

Gauteng 72.8 353 63.6 146

Mpumalanga 75.5 129 82.6 56

Limpopo 74.8 219 75.0 110

Education

Primary incomplete (53.5) 31 (42.2) 33

Primary complete (56.5) 43 47.2 44

Secondary 

incomplete 70.6 1,191 64.8 552

Secondary complete 66.8 226 51.0 72

More than secondary 78.7 107 (58.3) 28

Wealth quintile

Lowest 65.4 321 51.6 145

Second 69.7 313 66.0 159

Middle 74.1 303 56.7 157

Fourth 68.4 361 66.2 163

Highest 72.6 301 65.6 106

Total 15-24 69.9 1,600 61.1 729

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk 

indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been 

suppressed.
Contraception • 115

Table 7.16 Contact of nonusers with family planning providers

Among women age 15-49 who are not using contraception, percentage who during 

the past 12 months visited a health facility and discussed contraception and 

percentage who visited a health facility but did not discuss contraception, according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Percentage of women who visited 

a health facility in the past 

12 months and who:

Number 

of women

Background 

characteristic

Discussed 

contraception

Did not discuss 

contraception

Age

15-19 10.7 23.3 1,071

20-24 32.2 25.7 646

25-29 32.4 32.7 564

30-34 31.8 35.8 572

35-39 31.1 32.7 466

40-44 24.1 36.6 508

45-49 21.7 36.6 588

Residence

Urban 23.7 31.5 2,951

Non-urban 26.1 29.2 1,463

Province

Western Cape 26.4 29.9 493

Eastern Cape 19.7 45.3 437

Northern Cape 28.8 36.1 92

Free State 19.4 23.8 258

KwaZulu-Natal 23.6 24.1 858

North West 33.8 32.4 277

Gauteng 22.8 30.9 1,190

Mpumalanga 25.3 41.2 323

Limpopo 28.6 24.9 487

Education

No education 18.8 29.8 109

Primary incomplete 26.9 29.3 264

Primary complete 23.7 33.1 185

Secondary incomplete 22.5 29.8 2,265

Secondary complete 27.4 29.5 1,150

More than secondary 27.6 39.2 441

Wealth quintile

Lowest 19.7 31.8 881

Second 28.9 29.2 862

Middle 27.3 31.2 897

Fourth 25.9 30.4 892

Highest 20.9 31.1 883

Total 24.5 30.8 4,414

Infant and Child Mortality • 117

INFANT AND CHILD MORTALITY 8

Key Findings

 Current levels: During the 5-year period preceding the 

survey, the under-5 mortality rate was 42 deaths per 1,000 

live births, and the infant mortality rate was 35 deaths per 

1,000 live births. About 1 in 24 children do not reach their 

fifth birthday, and most (83%) of these children die within 

the first year of life.

 Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The under-5 

mortality rate declined from 59 deaths per 1,000 live births 

in 1998 to 42 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2016, while the 

infant mortality rate declined from 45 deaths per 1,000 live 

births to 35 deaths per 1,000 live births.

 Differences by residence: Non-urban areas have higher 

under-5 mortality than urban areas (49 deaths per 1,000 

live births versus 38 deaths per 1,000 live births).

 Perinatal mortality: The overall perinatal mortality rate is 

29 deaths per 1,000 pregnancies of 7 or more months’

duration. Perinatal mortality ranges from a low of 17 deaths 

per 1,000 pregnancies in KwaZulu-Natal to a high of 56 

deaths per 1,000 pregnancies in Mpumalanga.

 High-risk birth category: 31% of births in the 5-year 

period preceding the survey were in an avoidable high-risk 

category (mother’s age less than 18 years, mother’s age 

more than 34 years, birth interval less than 24 months, and 

birth order greater than three).

nformation on infant and child mortality is relevant to a demographic assessment of a country’s 

population and is an important indicator of the country’s socioeconomic development and quality of 

life. It can also help identify children who may be at higher risk of death and lead to strategies to reduce 

this risk, such as promoting birth spacing.

This chapter presents information on levels, trends, and differentials in perinatal, neonatal, infant, and under5 mortality rates. It also examines biodemographic factors and fertility behaviours that increase mortality 

risks for infants and children. The information was collected as part of a retrospective birth history in which 

female respondents listed all of the children to whom they had given birth along with each child’s date of 

birth, survivorship status, and current age or age at death. 

The quality of mortality estimates calculated from birth histories depends on the mother’s ability to recall 

all of the children she has given birth to, as well as their birth dates and ages at death. Potential data quality 

problems include:

 The selective omission from birth histories of those births that did not survive, which can result in 

underestimation of childhood mortality.

I
118 • Infant and Child Mortality

 The displacement of birth dates, which may distort mortality trends. This can occur if an interviewer 

knowingly records a birth as occurring in a different year than the one in which it occurred. This may 

happen if an interviewer is trying to cut down on his or her overall workload, because live births 

occurring during the 5 years before the interview are the subject of a lengthy set of additional questions. 

 The quality of reporting of age at death. Misreporting the child’s age at death may distort the age pattern 

of mortality, especially if the net effect of the age misreporting is to transfer deaths from one age bracket 

to another.

 Any method of measuring childhood mortality that relies on mothers’ reports (e.g., birth histories) 

assumes that female adult mortality is not high or, if it is high, that there is little or no correlation between 

the mortality of the mother and that of her children. These assumptions may not hold in countries such 

as South Africa with severe HIV epidemics (see Chapter 13), and the resulting childhood mortality rates 

will be underreported to some degree, particularly for the period 10-15 years prior to the survey, before 

the large-scale roll-out of antiretroviral treatment.

Selected indicators of the quality of the mortality data on which the estimates of mortality in this chapter are 

based are presented in Appendix C, Tables C.3-C.6.

8.1 INFANT AND CHILD MORTALITY

Neonatal mortality: The probability of dying within the first month of life.

1

Postneonatal mortality: The probability of dying between the first month of life 

and the first birthday (computed as the difference between infant and neonatal 

mortality).

Infant mortality: The probability of dying between birth and the first birthday.

Child mortality: The probability of dying between the first and the fifth birthday.

Under-5 mortality: The probability of dying between birth and the fifth birthday.

1 This differs from the WHO definition of neonatal death, which is when a death occurs during the 

first 28 days after birth (WHO 2011a).

During the 5 years immediately preceding the survey, 

the infant mortality rate was 35 deaths per 1,000 live 

births (Table 8.1). The child mortality rate was 7 

deaths per 1,000 children who had survived to age 12 

months. The overall under-5 mortality rate was 42 

deaths per 1,000 live births. The neonatal mortality 

rate was 21 deaths per 1,000 live births; this figure is 

much higher than the estimate of 12 deaths per 1,000 

live births for the year 2015 from the Rapid Mortality 

Surveillance Report 2015 (Dorrington et al. 2016) and 

may have resulted from the misclassification of 

stillbirths (see Section 8.3 below). The neonatal 

mortality rate will therefore not be analysed further in 

this report.

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: A comparison 

of childhood mortality between 1998 and 2016 shows

a decrease in three child mortality indicators. Under-5 mortality declined from 59 to 42 deaths per 1,000 live 

births, child mortality declined from 15 to 7 deaths per 1,000 live births, and infant mortality fell from 45 to 

35 deaths per 1,000 live births (Figure 8.1).

Figure 8.1 Comparison in early 

childhood mortality rates between the 

SADHS 1998 and SADHS 2016

59

15

45 42

7

35

Under-5 mortality Child mortality Infant mortality

Deaths per 1,000 live births in the 5-year 

period before the survey

SADHS 1998 SADHS 2016
Infant and Child Mortality • 119

Patterns by background characteristics

 There are male/female differentials across all 

mortality rates. For example, infant mortality 

rates are 41 deaths per 1,000 live births among 

boys and 29 deaths per 1,000 live births among 

girls, and under-5 mortality rates are 49 deaths per 

1,000 live births among boys and 35 deaths per 

1,000 live births among girls (Table 8.2).

 Infant mortality and under-5 mortality are lower 

in urban areas than in non-urban areas. Infant 

mortality rates in urban and non-urban areas are

34 deaths per 1,000 live births and 39 deaths per 

1,000 live births, respectively, while under-5 

mortality rates are 38 deaths per 1,000 live births 

in urban areas and 49 deaths per 1,000 live births

in non-urban areas.

 A total of 151 deaths occurred among the 3,572

children reported to have been born since January 2011; according to mothers, 68% of these children 

died in a health facility, 28% died at home, and 4% died elsewhere (data not shown).

8.2 BIODEMOGRAPHIC RISK FACTORS

Researchers have identified multiple risk factors 

associated with infant/child mortality based on the 

characteristics of the mother and child and the 

circumstances of the birth. Table 8.3 presents data on 

the relationship between some of these risk factors and 

child mortality for the 10-year period preceding the 

survey. A 10-year period was used to increase the 

reliability of the estimates calculated.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Mortality rates are higher among children born 

after short birth intervals (less than 2 years) than 

among children born after longer intervals 

(Figure 8.2). However, the number of births with 

short intervals is low, so these data should be 

interpreted with caution.

 Under-5 mortality varies greatly across provinces, 

from a low of 34 deaths per 1,000 live births in 

Limpopo to a high of 70 deaths per 1,000 live births in Mpumalanga (Figure 8.3).

Figure 8.2 Childhood mortality 

by previous birth interval

Figure 8.3 Under-5 mortality 

by province

Deaths per 1,000 live births for the 

10-year period before the survey

Note: Figures in parenthesis are based on 250-499 unweighted 

person-years of exposure to the risk of death.

(69)

(87)

63

75

27

43 38 43

Infant mortality Under-5 mortality

Previous birth interval:

Deaths per 1,000 live births for the 

10-year period before the survey

<2 years 2 years 3 years 4+ years

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 250-499 

unweighted person-years of exposure to the risk of death.
120 • Infant and Child Mortality

 Under-5 mortality generally declines with 

increasing household wealth. Notably, however, 

the under-5 mortality rate in the highest wealth 

quintile exceeds that in the fourth quintile (Figure

8.4).

8.3 PERINATAL MORTALITY

Perinatal mortality rate

Perinatal deaths comprise stillbirths (pregnancy losses occurring after 7 months 

of gestation) and early neonatal deaths (deaths of live births within the first 7 

days of life). The perinatal mortality rate is calculated as the number of perinatal 

deaths per 1,000 pregnancies of 7 or more months’ duration.

Sample: Number of pregnancies of 7 or more months’ duration to women age 

15-49 in the 5 years before the survey

The causes of stillbirths and early neonatal deaths are closely linked. The perinatal mortality rate 

encompasses both stillbirths and early neonatal deaths and offers some reflection of the level of mortality 

and quality of service around the time of delivery. Thirty-seven stillbirths were recorded in the SADHS

2016, and there were 66 early neonatal deaths during the 5-year period preceding the survey. This yields a 

perinatal mortality rate of 29 deaths per 1,000 pregnancies of 7 or more months’ duration (Table 8.4). 

The perinatal mortality rate calculated in the SADHS 2016 is consistent with the rates reported by the District 

Health Information System (31 deaths per 1,000 deliveries for the period 2012-2016)

1

and the Perinatal 

Problem Identification Programme (24.8 deaths per 1,000 for deliveries weighing more than 500 g and 33.4 

deaths per 1,000 for deliveries weighing more than 1,000 g in 2012-2013) (Pattinson and Rhoda 2014). 

However, it should be noted that both the District Health Information System and the Perinatal Problem 

Identification Programme consistently report a ratio of two stillbirths to every early neonatal death, while 

the SADHS 2016 results show two early neonatal deaths for every stillbirth. This difference may reflect 

misclassification of stillbirths as early neonatal deaths in the SADHS 2016.

Patterns by background characteristics

 By age, the perinatal mortality rate is highest among the oldest mothers, that is, women who gave birth 

in their 40s (52 deaths per 1,000 pregnancies). 

 The perinatal mortality rate is similar in urban and non-urban areas (28 and 29 deaths per 1,000 

pregnancies, respectively).

 Perinatal mortality ranges from a low of 17 deaths per 1,000 pregnancies in KwaZulu-Natal to a high of 

56 deaths per 1,000 pregnancies in Mpumalanga.

 

1 Personal communication from Dr. Lesley Bamford based on the Department of Health District Health Information 

System, accessed on 16 November 2017.

Figure 8.4 Under-5 mortality 

by household wealth

67

52 51

34

41

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Deaths per 1,000 live births for the 

10-year period before the survey

Poorest Wealthiest
Infant and Child Mortality • 121

 Although there is no clear pattern of association 

with mother’s education, perinatal mortality 

generally declines with increasing household 

wealth (Figure 8.5).

8.4 HIGH-RISK FERTILITY BEHAVIOUR

The survival of infants and children depends in part 

on the demographic and biological characteristics of 

their mothers. Typically, the probability of dying in 

infancy is much greater among children born to 

mothers who are too young (under age 18) or too old 

(over age 34), children born after a short birth interval 

(less than 24 months after the preceding birth), and 

children born to mothers of high parity (more than 

three children). Table 8.5 shows the percent 

distribution of children born in the 5 years preceding the survey by category of elevated risk of mortality, 

along with risk ratios. It also shows the percent distributions of in-union women and all women age 15-49 

by their category of risk if they were to conceive a child at the time of the survey.

Forty percent of births in the 5 years preceding the survey were not in any high-risk category. Twenty-nine 

percent of births were in an unavoidable risk category, that is, first-order births to women between age 18 

and age 34. Thirty-one percent of births in the 5 years preceding the survey were in an avoidable high-risk 

category; 24% of births were in a single high-risk category (mother’s age less than 18 years, mother’s age 

more than 34 years, birth interval less than 24 months, and birth order greater than three), and 8% of births 

were in multiple high-risk categories. 

Risk ratios denote the relationship between risk factors and mortality. For example, the risk of dying for a 

child who falls into any of the avoidable high-risk categories is 1.34 times that for a child who does not fall 

in any high-risk category. Among children in a single avoidable high-risk category, those born at an interval 

of less than 24 months have the highest risk ratio (1.69); this means that a child born at an interval of less 

than 24 months is 1.69 times more likely to die than a child not in any high-risk category.

Sixty-two percent of in-union women age 15-49 would have been in an avoidable high-risk category if they 

had conceived at the time of the survey; 34% would have been in a single high-risk category, and 29% would 

have been in a multiple high-risk category. Although this general pattern is to be expected, restricting the 

results to in-union women does not offer a full picture of the situation in countries such as South Africa with 

high levels of non-marital fertility. Among all women age 15-49, 53% would have been in an avoidable 

high-risk category if they had conceived at the time of the survey, with 34% in a single-high risk category 

and 19% in a multiple high-risk category.

LIST OF TABLES

For more information on infant and child mortality, see the following tables:

 Table 8.1 Early childhood mortality rates

 Table 8.2 Five-year early childhood mortality rates according to background characteristics

 Table 8.3 Ten-year early childhood mortality rates according to additional characteristics

 Table 8.4 Perinatal mortality

 Table 8.5 High-risk fertility behaviour

Figure 8.5 Perinatal mortality 

by household wealth

37 43

21 17 17

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Deaths per 1,000 pregnancies of 7 or more months' duration in the 5-year period 

before the survey

Poorest Wealthiest
122 • Infant and Child Mortality

Table 8.1 Early childhood mortality rates

Neonatal, postneonatal, infant, child, and under-5 mortality rates for 5-year periods preceding the survey, South 

Africa DHS 2016 

Years preceding the survey

Neonatal 

mortality

(NN)

Postneonatal 

mortality 

(PNN)1

Infant mortality 

(1q0)

Child mortality 

(4q1)

Under-5 

mortality

(5q0)

0-4 21 14 35 7 42

5-9 29 23 51 9 60

10-14 21 22 44 15 58

1 Computed as the difference between the infant and neonatal mortality rates 

Table 8.2 Five-year early childhood mortality rates according to background characteristics

Neonatal, postneonatal, infant, child, and under-5 mortality rates for the 5-year period preceding the survey, 

according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Background 

characteristic

Neonatal 

mortality

(NN)

Postneonatal 

mortality 

(PNN)1

Infant mortality 

(1q0)

Child mortality 

(4q1)

Under-5 

mortality

(5q0)

Child’s sex

Male 26 15 41 8 49

Female 16 13 29 5 35

Residence

Urban 19 15 34 5 38

Non-urban 25 14 39 11 49

Total 21 14 35 7 42

1 Computed as the difference between the infant and neonatal mortality rates 
Infant and Child Mortality • 123

Table 8.3 Ten-year early childhood mortality rates according 

to additional characteristics

Infant, child, and under-5 mortality rates for the 10-year period 

preceding the survey, according to additional characteristics, 

South Africa DHS 2016

Characteristic

Infant 

mortality 

(1q0)

Child 

mortality 

(4q1)

Under-5 

mortality 

(5q0)

Mother’s age at 

birth

<20 40 8 47

20-29 42 8 49

30-39 48 8 56

40-49 * * *

Birth order

1 40 6 46

2-3 39 8 46

4-6 62 14 75

7+ * * *

Previous birth 

interval1

<2 years (69) (19) (87)

2 years 63 13 75

3 years 27 17 43

4+ years 38 5 43

Birth size2

Small/very small (83) na na

Average or larger 25 na na

Province

Western Cape (39) (4) (43)

Eastern Cape 50 14 64

Northern Cape 43 (8) (51)

Free State 53 11 63

KwaZulu-Natal 40 4 44

North West 55 11 65

Gauteng 42 4 46

Mpumalanga 53 18 70

Limpopo 24 10 34

Mother’s education

No education * * *

Primary incomplete (61) 28 (88)

Primary complete (42) (13) (54)

Secondary 

incomplete 46 9 55

Secondary 

complete 35 3 38

More than 

secondary 43 2 45

Wealth quintile

Lowest 54 14 67

Second 44 9 52

Middle 46 6 51

Fourth 27 8 34

Highest 40 2 41

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 250-499 unweighted 

person-years of exposure to the risk of death. An asterisk 

indicates that a rate is based on fewer than 250 person-years of 

exposure to the risk of death and has been suppressed.

na = Not available

1 Excludes first-order births

2 Rates for the 5-year period before the survey
124 • Infant and Child Mortality

Table 8.4 Perinatal mortality

Number of stillbirths and early neonatal deaths, and the perinatal mortality rate for the 5-year period preceding the 

survey, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016

Background 

characteristic

Number of 

stillbirths1

Number of early 

neonatal deaths2

Perinatal mortality 

rate3

Number of 

pregnancies of 7+ 

months’ duration

Mother’s age at birth

<20 5 7 23 546

20-29 17 39 29 1,924

30-39 11 17 28 993

40-49 3 3 52 115

Previous pregnancy 

interval in months4

First pregnancy 16 13 24 1,219

<15 1 8 38 244

15-26 3 5 24 309

27-38 3 14 53 326

39+ 14 26 27 1,480

Residence

Urban 26 39 28 2,287

Non-urban 11 27 29 1,290

Province

Western Cape 7 2 26 319

Eastern Cape 1 8 23 397

Northern Cape 1 2 47 70

Free State 1 4 36 165

KwaZulu-Natal 3 8 17 651

North West 5 10 51 280

Gauteng 7 18 25 1,011

Mpumalanga 9 10 56 338

Limpopo 2 4 19 346

Mother’s education

No education 1 1 27 50

Primary incomplete 1 10 62 182

Primary complete 0 1 10 138

Secondary incomplete 19 49 39 1,764

Secondary complete 6 3 9 1,040

More than secondary 10 1 28 403

Wealth quintile

Lowest 9 20 37 791

Second 10 27 43 862

Middle 8 9 21 790

Fourth 5 7 17 659

Highest 4 4 17 476

Total 37 66 29 3,577

1 Stillbirths are foetal deaths in pregnancies lasting 7 or more months

2 Early neonatal deaths are deaths at age 0-6 days among live-born children

3 The sum of the number of stillbirths and early neonatal deaths divided by the number of pregnancies of 7 or more 

months’ duration, expressed per 1,000

4 Categories correspond to birth intervals of <24 months, 24-35 months, 36-47 months, and 48+ months 
Infant and Child Mortality • 125

Table 8.5 High-risk fertility behaviour

Percent distribution of children born in the 5 years preceding the survey by category of elevated risk of mortality and 

the risk ratio, percent distribution of in-union women by category of risk if they were to conceive a child at the time 

of the survey, and percent distribution of all women by category of risk if they were to conceive a child at the time 

of the survey, South Africa DHS 2016

Births in the 5 years preceding 

the survey

Percentage of

in-union women1

Percentage of

all women Risk category 1

Percentage of 

births Risk ratio

Not in any high-risk category 40.0 1.00 32.6a 28.8a

Unavoidable risk category

First-order births between age 18 and 

age 34 28.9 0.97 5.4 18.5

In any avoidable high-risk category 31.2 1.34 62.0 52.7

Single high-risk category

Mother’s age <18 only 6.5 1.01 0.2 7.2

Mother’s age >34 only 6.5 0.69 21.7 16.8

Birth interval <24 months only 4.7 1.69 5.4 6.2

Birth order >3 only 6.0 1.49 6.3 4.1

Subtotal 23.6 1.18 33.5 34.2

Multiple high-risk category

Age <18 and birth interval <24 

months2 0.1 * 0.0 0.2

Age >34 and birth interval <24 

months 0.2 * 0.8 0.6

Age >34 and birth order >3 5.3 1.86 23.4 14.8

Age >34 and birth interval <24 

months and birth order >3 0.5 * 1.6 1.0

Birth interval <24 months and birth 

order >3 1.4 (1.59) 2.8 1.9

Subtotal 7.6 1.83 28.5 18.5

Total 100.0 na 100.0 100.0

Subtotals by individual avoidable 

high-risk category

Mother’s age <18 6.6 1.12 0.2 7.4

Mother’s age >34 12.6 1.22 47.4 33.2

Birth interval <24 months 6.9 1.71 10.5 9.9

Birth order >3 13.3 1.66 34.0 21.8

Number of births/women 3,572 na 3,050 8,514

Notes: Risk ratio is the ratio of the proportion dead among births in a specific high-risk category to the proportion 

dead among births not in any high-risk category. In-union women include women who are currently married or living 

together with a partner as if married. Ratios in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk 

indicates that a ratio is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

na = Not applicable

1 Women are assigned to risk categories according to the status they would have at the birth of a child if they were 

to conceive at the time of the survey: current age less than 17 years and 3 months or older than 34 years and 2 

months, latest birth less than 15 months ago, or latest birth being of order 3 or higher

2

Includes the category age <18 and birth order >3

a

Includes sterilised women 

Maternal Health Care • 127

MATERNAL HEALTH CARE 9

Key Findings

 Antenatal care coverage: 94% of women age 15-49 

who had a live birth in the 5 years before the survey 

received antenatal care from a skilled provider during the 

pregnancy of their most recent birth. Three in four women 

(76%) had at least four ANC visits; 47% had their first 

antenatal visit in the first trimester.

 Components of antenatal care: Almost all women who 

received antenatal care had their blood pressure 

measured (99%), a blood sample taken (99%), and a 

urine sample taken (99%). Nine in ten women were 

asked about use of tobacco and use of alcohol.

 Delivery services: Deliveries in a health facility 

increased from 83% in 1998 to 96% in 2016. A skilled 

provider assists in nearly all deliveries (97%); 68% of 

births are delivered by a nurse or midwife and 29% by a 

doctor.

 Caesarean section: Among births in the 5 years before 

the survey, 24% were delivered by caesarean section. In 

1998, by contrast, only 16% of births were delivered by 

caesarean section.

 Postnatal checks: 84% of mothers and 86% of 

newborns had a postnatal check during the first 2 days 

after delivery.

 Content of postnatal care: Among most recent births 

born in the 2 years before the survey, 87% had their 

umbilical cord examined, 87% had their temperature 

measured, and 92% were weighed. However, mothers of 

only 77% of newborns received counselling on danger 

signs to look for in newborns, 82% were counselled about 

breastfeeding, and 78% were observed while 

breastfeeding.

ealth care services during pregnancy and childbirth and after delivery are important for the 

survival and well-being of both the mother and the infant. Antenatal care (ANC) can reduce health 

risks for mothers and their babies by monitoring pregnancies and screening for complications. 

Delivery at a health facility, with skilled medical attention and hygienic conditions, reduces the risk of 

complications and infections during labour and delivery. Timely postnatal care can treat complications 

arising from delivery and teach the mother how to care for herself and her infant.

The first part of this chapter presents information on ANC providers, the number and timing of ANC visits, 

and various components of care. The second focuses on childbirth and provides information on the place of 

delivery, assistance during delivery, and caesarean deliveries. The last section focuses on postnatal care 

and presents information on postnatal health checks for mothers and newborns.

H
128 • Maternal Health Care

The 2015 National Maternity Care Guidelines for South Africa and South Africa’s National Strategic Plan 

for a Campaign on Accelerated Reduction of Maternal and Child Mortality in Africa (CARMMA) provide 

the backdrop to the contents of this chapter (NDoH 2015a; NDoH 2012).

9.1 ANTENATAL CARE COVERAGE AND CONTENT

Basic antenatal care—identification of risk factors, early diagnosis of pregnancy complications and 

appropriate management, and health education—is one of the pillars of safe motherhood in South Africa

(NDoH 2015a).

9.1.1 Skilled Providers

Antenatal care (ANC) from a skilled provider

Pregnancy care received from skilled providers, such as doctors, nurses, or 

midwives.

Sample: Women age 15-49 who had a live birth in the 5 years before the 

survey

The vast majority (94%) of women age 15-49 who had a live birth in the 5 years before the survey received 

antenatal care from a skilled provider during the pregnancy of their most recent birth (Table 9.1). Most 

women (77%) received ANC from a nurse or midwife; 17% received care from a doctor.

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: While the percentage of women in 2016 receiving ANC from a 

skilled provider is unchanged relative to 1998 (94% and 95%, respectively), there have been changes in 

types of ANC providers. In 1998, 30% of women received ANC from a doctor and 65% from a nurse or

midwife; in 2016, 17% of women received ANC from a doctor and 77% from a nurse or midwife.

Patterns by background characteristics

 While the percentage of women receiving ANC from a skilled provider changes little by women’s age 

at birth, the percentage who obtain ANC from a doctor increases with age, ranging from 7% among 

women less than age 20 at the time of birth to 23% among women age 35-49.

 Women with higher-order births are marginally less likely to receive ANC. Ninety-two percent of 

women giving birth to their sixth or later child received ANC from a skilled provider, as compared 

with 95% of women giving birth to their first child.

 ANC coverage from a skilled provider is slightly lower in urban areas than non-urban areas (92% and 

96%, respectively). Urban women are more likely than non-urban women to receive ANC from a 

doctor (20% versus 12%).

 By province, ANC coverage ranges from 90% in Gauteng to 99% in Eastern Cape. Women in Western 

Cape (32%) are more likely than women in other provinces to receive ANC from a doctor (11-19%).

 The higher a woman’s educational level, the more likely it is that she will receive ANC services from 

a doctor. Fifty-one percent of women with more than a secondary education received ANC from a 

doctor, compared with 8% of women with a primary incomplete or primary complete education.

 Women in the highest wealth quintile are six times more likely to receive ANC from a doctor than 

those in the lowest quintile (44% versus 7%). Women in the lowest wealth quintile are almost twice as

likely as those in the highest quintile to receive ANC from a nurse or midwife (87% versus 49%). 
Maternal Health Care • 129

9.1.2 Timing and Number of ANC Visits 

Seventy-six percent of women had at least four ANC 

visits during their last pregnancy resulting in a live 

birth, 13% of women had two to three ANC visits, 

and 2% had one visit (Table 9.2). Six percent of 

women had no ANC visits during their last 

pregnancy. Almost half (47%) of women had their 

first ANC visit during the first trimester. A further

32% first received ANC during the fourth or fifth 

month of pregnancy, and only 2% delayed care until 

the eighth month.

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: There has 

been little change since 1998 in the percentage of 

women with the recommended four or more ANC 

visits (74% in 1998 versus 76% in 2016). However, 

the percentage of women who had ANC in the first 

trimester increased from only 28% in 1998 to 47% in 

2016 (Figure 9.1). The median number of months 

pregnant at the first ANC visit decreased from 5.2 

to 4.0.

9.2 COMPONENTS OF ANC VISITS

In terms of routine antenatal service components,

there were no differences in the percentages of 

pregnant women who had their blood pressure 

measured (99%), a blood sample taken (99%), and a 

urine sample taken (99%). As part of their ANC, 9 in 

10 women were asked about use of tobacco and use 

of alcohol (Figure 9.2).

Other Components of ANC

The SADHS 2016 also collected data on whether or 

not women took iron tablets, another component of 

care important to maternal and newborn health

outcomes. Overall, 90% of women took iron tablets

during the pregnancy of their most recent live birth 

(Table 9.3). 

9.3 PROTECTION AGAINST NEONATAL TETANUS

Protection against neonatal tetanus

The number of tetanus toxoid injections needed to protect a baby from 

neonatal tetanus depends on the mother’s vaccinations. A birth is protected 

against neonatal tetanus if the mother has received any of the following:

 Two tetanus toxoid injections during the pregnancy 

 Two or more injections, the last one within 3 years of the birth

 Three or more injections, the last one within 5 years of the birth

 Four or more injections, the last one within 10 years of the birth 

 Five or more injections at any time prior to the birth

Sample: Last live births in the 5 years before the survey to women age 15-49

Figure 9.1 Comparison of antenatal 

care coverage

Figure 9.2 Components of antenatal care

95

74

28

94

76

47

Received ANC

from a skilled

provider

Had 4+ ANC

visits

Had ANC in first

trimester

Percentage of women age 15-49 who had 

a live birth in the 5 years before the survey 

(for the most recent birth)

SADHS 1998 SADHS 2016

92

92

99

99

99

Asked about

smoking tobacco

Asked about

alcohol use

Blood pressure measured

Urine sample

taken

Blood sample

taken

Among women who received ANC for their most recent birth, percentage with 

selected services
130 • Maternal Health Care

Tetanus toxoid injections are given during pregnancy to prevent neonatal tetanus, a major cause of early 

infant death in many developing countries, often due to failure to observe hygienic procedures during 

delivery. Depending on whether or when a pregnant woman has been vaccinated against tetanus before her 

most recent pregnancy, she may need as many as two tetanus toxoid injections during her pregnancy to 

protect her baby against neonatal tetanus. 

Although the national policy of South Africa is that pregnant women should be vaccinated with tetanus 

toxoid to prevent neonatal tetanus, death from neonatal tetanus in South Africa is rare (Stats SA 2017a). 

Indeed, as reflected in the SADHS 2016 results, the province of Western Cape has not been implementing 

the national policy for years.

Table 9.4 shows that only 35% of women received sufficient doses of tetanus toxoid to protect their last 

birth against neonatal tetanus. 

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: Tetanus toxoid injections during pregnancy were not measured the 

same way in the SADHS 1998 and the SADHS 2016, limiting the scope of comparisons. According to the 

SADHS 1998, 58% of women received at least a single dose of tetanus toxoid during pregnancy; in 2016, 

60% of women received at least a single dose of tetanus toxoid during pregnancy (data not shown).

Patterns by background characteristics

 The percentage of women whose last birth was protected from tetanus is low across all background 

characteristics but shows the greatest degree of variability by province. Only 6% of women in Western 

Cape received the number of tetanus toxoid vaccinations recommended to protect their births from 

tetanus, as compared with 29%-41% in other provinces. This finding is in keeping with Western 

Cape’s policy of not routinely providing tetanus toxoid vaccinations during antenatal care.

9.4 DELIVERY SERVICES

9.4.1 Institutional Deliveries

Institutional deliveries

Deliveries that occur in a health facility.

Sample: All live births in the 5 years before the survey

Almost all of the live births (96%) in the 5 years before the survey took place in a health facility; only 4% 

were delivered at home. The majority of institutional deliveries took place at public sector health facilities) 

(Table 9.5).

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: Deliveries in a 

health facility increased from 83% in 1998 to 96% in 

2016. During the same time period, home deliveries 

decreased from 14% to 4% (Figure 9.3).

Patterns by background characteristics

 Higher-order births are much more likely to be 

home deliveries. Seventeen percent of sixth- or 

higher-order births occurred at home, as

compared with only 2% of first births 

(Table 9.5).

Figure 9.3 Comparison of place of birth

83

14

96

4

Health facility Home

Percentage of live births in the 5 years 

before the survey

SADHS 1998 SADHS 2016
Maternal Health Care • 131

 Antenatal care has a small effect on the likelihood of an institutional delivery. Ninety-two percent of 

mothers with no ANC visits gave birth at a health facility, compared with 97% of mothers with four or 

more ANC visits.

 The percentage of births delivered in a health facility differs little by residence; however, deliveries in 

private facilities are almost three times more common in urban areas than non-urban areas (11% 

versus 4%). 

 Deliveries in a health facility vary from a low of 91% in Eastern Cape to a high of 99% in Western 

Cape. The highest percentage of private sector deliveries takes place in Western Cape (14%), while the 

lowest percentage takes place in Mpumalanga and Limpopo (5% each).

 The percentage of births that 

take place in a health facility 

rises with education of the 

mother. Moreover, private 

institutional deliveries are much 

more common among births to 

women who have completed 

secondary school or higher 

levels of education than among 

births to women with lower 

levels of education (Figure 

9.4). Delivery in private 

facilities also increases 

dramatically with increasing 

wealth.

9.4.2 Skilled Assistance during Delivery 

Skilled assistance during delivery

Births delivered with the assistance of doctors, nurses, or midwives.

Sample: All live births in the 5 years before the survey

In South Africa, nearly all births (97%) are assisted 

by a skilled provider, most often a nurse or midwife 

(68% of all deliveries); 29% of deliveries are assisted 

by a doctor. Two percent of births are assisted by 

unskilled persons such as traditional birth attendants, 

relatives, or friends, while 1% receive no assistance 

during delivery (Figure 9.5).

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The 

percentage of births delivered by a skilled provider 

rose from 84% in 1998 to 97% in 2016. This 

improvement is entirely due to an increase in the 

percentage of births delivered by nurses or midwives 

(54% in 1998 versus 68% in 2016); there was little

change in the percentage delivered by doctors (30% 

in 1998 versus 29% in 2016).

Figure 9.4 Health facility births by education

Figure 9.5 Assistance during delivery

0 0 0 2 12

40

86 90 95 94 86

60

No

education

Primary

incomplete

Primary

complete

Secondary

incomplete

Secondary

complete

More than

secondary

Percentage of live births in the 5 years before the survey 

that were delivered in a health facility

Public

sector

health

facility

Private

sector

health

facility

Note: Percentages may not sum to total due to rounding.

86 90 95 95 97 99

Nurse/midwife

68%

Doctor 

29%

Traditional 

birth 

attendant/ 

relative/friend/

other

2%

No one

1%

Percent distribution of births in the 5 years 

before the survey
132 • Maternal Health Care

Patterns by background characteristics

 The percentage of births delivered by a skilled provider differs little by mother’s age at birth, but there 

are differences in type of provider. Among those who were less than age 20 at birth, 98% of births 

were delivered by a skilled provider, with 24% delivered by a doctor and 74% delivered by a nurse or 

midwife. Among women who were age 35-49, 94% of births were delivered by a skilled provider,

with 40% delivered by a doctor and 54% by a nurse or midwife (Table 9.6).

 Skilled assistance during delivery declines with 

birth order: 98% of first births have skilled 

assistance, as compared with 85% of sixth- or 

higher-order births (Figure 9.6).

 Women with no antenatal visits are less likely to 

be assisted by a skilled provider than women 

with one or more visits (91% versus 96%-97%)

(Table 9.6).

 Skilled providers assist at nearly 100% of 

deliveries in health facilities, compared with 

only 30% of deliveries that take place elsewhere.

 There is little difference between urban areas 

and non-urban areas in the percentage of births 

delivered by a skilled provider (98% versus 95%).

 By province, the percentage of births delivered by skilled providers is uniformly high (93%-99%). 

However, there are variations between provinces with regard to type of skilled provider: births in 

Western Cape are nearly equally likely to be delivered by a doctor (48%) or by a nurse or midwife

(51%). Mpumalanga and Limpopo have the highest percentages of births assisted by a nurse or 

midwife (76% each) and the lowest assisted by a doctor (21% and 22%, respectively).

 The more education a woman has, the more likely it is that she will receive delivery assistance from a 

doctor rather than a nurse or midwife. Fifty-eight percent of births to women with more than a 

secondary education were delivered by a doctor, as compared with 18% of births to women with no 

education. Similar patterns are observed by wealth.

9.4.3 Delivery by Caesarean

Access to caesarean sections can reduce maternal and neonatal mortality and complications such as 

obstetric fistula. However, use of caesarean sections without a medical need can put women at risk of 

short- and long-term health problems. WHO advises that caesarean sections be done only when medically 

necessary but does not recommend a target rate for countries to achieve at the population level. Research 

conducted by WHO has shown that increases in countries’ caesarean section rates up to 10% are associated 

with declines in maternal and neonatal mortality. On the other hand, increases in caesarean section rates 

beyond 10% are not associated with reductions in maternal and newborn mortality rates (WHO 2015). The 

SADHS 2016 results show that almost one in four births in the 5 years before the survey were delivered by 

caesarean section (24%). Two-thirds of these caesarean sections were elective, which includes those that 

were not medically indicated (Table 9.7).

Among women who had their most recent live birth in a health facility, 76% of those who gave birth by 

caesarean section spent 3 or more days at the facility after delivery, compared with 14% of those who had 

a vaginal birth (Table 9.8).

Figure 9.6 Skilled assistance at delivery 

by birth order

98 97 93 85

1 2-3 4-5 6+

Percentage of live births in the 5 years 

before the survey that were delivered by a 

skilled provider

Birth order
Maternal Health Care • 133

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The proportion of births delivered by caesarean section rose from 

16% in 1998 to 24% in 2016, a 50% increase.

Patterns by background characteristics

 More mothers age 35-49 at birth (29%) had caesarean section deliveries than those age 20-34 (23%) or 

less than age 20 (25%). Elective caesarean deliveries are most common among older mothers (21% of 

all deliveries to women age 35-49 at birth) (Table 9.7).

 Caesarean deliveries are more common among first- to third-order births (25%-26%) than among 

higher-order births (11%-14%).

 Six in 10 (61%) births delivered at private health facilities are caesarean births, as compared with 22% 

of births delivered at public health facilities.

 The caesarean delivery rate is modestly higher in urban areas than non-urban areas (26% versus 21%).

 Among provinces, caesarean rates range from a low of 17% in Limpopo a high of 30% in Western

Cape.

 More educated women are more likely to undergo caesarean deliveries. The caesarean rate for births to 

women with more than a secondary education is 40%, compared with 15% for births to women with 

no education.

 The caesarean rate in the highest wealth quintile is more than double the rate in the lowest quintile 

(39% versus 17%).

9.5 POSTNATAL CARE

According to the 2014 WHO Recommendations on the Postnatal Care of the Mother and Newborn, “If 

birth is in a health facility, mothers and newborns should receive postnatal care in the facility for at least 

24 hours after birth” (WHO 2014a).

9.5.1 Postnatal Health Check for Mothers

Safe motherhood programmes recommend that women receive a postnatal health check within 2 days after 

delivery. In South Africa, 87% of mothers received a postnatal check; 84% had this check within the first 2 

days after the birth (Table 9.9). The majority of mothers had their first postnatal check within 4 hours 

(73%) and a further 8% between 4 and 23 hours. Seven percent of mothers did not have any postnatal 

health check, and 6% are unsure whether they had 

one or not.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Women who delivered in a health facility were 

much more likely to receive a postnatal health 

check during the first 2 days after birth than 

those who delivered elsewhere (84% versus 

66%) (Figure 9.7). One in four women who 

delivered elsewhere had no postnatal check 

(25%) (Table 9.9).

Figure 9.7 Postnatal care by place

of delivery

84 88

66

36

84 86

Women Newborns

Percentage of last births in the 2 years 

before the survey for which women and 

newborns received a postnatal check 

during the first 2 days after birth

Health facility Elsewhere Total
134 • Maternal Health Care

 Women who reside in urban areas are slightly more likely than those living in non-urban areas to 

receive a postnatal health check during the 2 days after birth (85% and 81%, respectively).

 By province, Western Cape and Free State have the highest percentage of women receiving a timely 

postnatal health check (91% each), while KwaZulu-Natal has the lowest percentage (80%).

 The percentage of women who received a timely postnatal check generally increases with increasing 

wealth, from 81% among those in the lowest wealth quintile to 87% among those in the highest

quintile. 

Type of Provider

The skills of the provider determine the provider’s ability to diagnose problems and recommend 

appropriate treatment or referral. Twenty-one percent of women received a postnatal health check during 

the first 2 days after delivery from a doctor. Sixty-three percent received a postnatal check from a nurse or 

midwife. Less than 1% of women received a postnatal check from a community health worker or a 

traditional birth attendant (Table 9.10).

9.5.2 Postnatal Health Check for Newborns

Postnatal care services for newborns should start as soon as possible after birth because many neonatal 

deaths occur within the first 48 hours of life. The vast majority of newborns in South Africa (86%) 

received a postnatal check within 2 days after birth; most newborns (79%) received a postnatal check 

within 4 hours. An additional 7% of newborns received a postnatal check between 4 hours and 2 days after 

birth and another 2% within 3-6 days after birth. Six percent of newborns did not receive a postnatal health 

check (Table 9.11).

Patterns by background characteristics

 Newborns delivered in a health facility were much more likely to receive a postnatal health check 

during the first 2 days after birth than those delivered elsewhere (88% versus 36%). Eighty-two 

percent of newborns delivered in a health facility had their first postnatal check less than 4 hours after 

birth, as compared with 20% of those delivered elsewhere.

 There are variations by province in the likelihood of newborns receiving a postnatal health check 

during the first 2 days after birth. The percentage of newborns with a postnatal check was lowest in 

KwaZulu-Natal (82%) and highest in Western Cape (94%).

 There is a clear correlation between a mother’s educational attainment and the likelihood of a timely 

postnatal health check for her newborn; 94% of newborns whose mothers have more than a secondary 

education received a postnatal check during the first 2 days after delivery, compared with 75% of 

newborns whose mothers have a primary incomplete education.

 The percentage of newborns who received a timely postnatal check correlates with household wealth, 

rising from 81% among newborns born to women in the lowest wealth quintile to 92% among those 

born to women in the highest quintile.

Type of Provider 

One in every four (24%) newborns received a postnatal check during the first 2 days after delivery from a 

doctor, while 62% received a postnatal check from a nurse or midwife (Table 9.12).
Maternal Health Care • 135

9.5.3 Content of Postnatal Care for Newborns

Among most recent births born in the 2 years before the survey, 87% had their umbilical cord examined, 

87% had their temperature measured, and 92% were weighed. However, mothers of only about threefourths of newborns (77%) received counselling on danger signs to look for in newborns, 82% were 

counselled about breastfeeding, and 78% were observed while breastfeeding (Table 9.13). Overall, 90% of 

newborns had at least two signal functions performed during the first 2 days after birth and 85% had at 

least four signal functions performed. 

Patterns by background characteristics

 The percentage of newborns for whom at least four signal functions were performed during the first 2 

days after birth was much higher among those delivered in health facilities (85%) than among those 

delivered elsewhere (65%).

 Among provinces, the percentage of newborns with at least four signal functions performed in the first 

2 days after birth ranged from a high of 96% in KwaZulu-Natal to a low of 70% in Mpumalanga.

9.5.4 Discharge Timing of Newborns and Mothers

Among most recent live births in the 5 years preceding the survey that took place in a facility, 94% were 

discharged at the same time as their mother, 1% were discharged before their mother, and 5% were 

discharged after their mother (Table 9.14).

LIST OF TABLES 

For more information on maternal health care, see the following tables:

 Table 9.1 Antenatal care

 Table 9.2 Number of antenatal care visits and timing of first visit

 Table 9.3 Components of antenatal care

 Table 9.4 Tetanus toxoid injections

 Table 9.5 Place of delivery

 Table 9.6 Assistance during delivery

 Table 9.7 Caesarean section

 Table 9.8 Duration of stay in health facility after birth

 Table 9.9 Timing of first postnatal check for the mother

 Table 9.10 Type of provider of first postnatal check for the mother

 Table 9.11 Timing of first postnatal check for the newborn

 Table 9.12 Type of provider of first postnatal check for the newborn

 Table 9.13 Content of postnatal care for newborns

 Table 9.14 Discharge timing
136 • Maternal Health Care

Table 9.1 Antenatal care

Percent distribution of women age 15-49 who had a live birth in the 5 years preceding the survey by antenatal care (ANC) provider during 

pregnancy for the most recent birth and percentage receiving antenatal care from a skilled provider for the most recent birth, according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Antenatal care provider

No ANC Total

Percentage 

receiving 

antenatal care 

from a skilled 

provider1

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic Doctor

Nurse/ 

midwife

Community 

health 

worker

Traditional 

birth 

attendant Other

Age at birth

<20 7.0 87.7 0.7 0.0 0.0 4.6 100.0 94.7 432

20-34 18.0 75.5 0.6 0.0 0.0 5.9 100.0 93.5 2,200

35-49 22.5 70.9 0.5 0.0 0.2 5.9 100.0 93.4 404

Birth order

1 16.0 79.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 4.5 100.0 95.0 1,040

2-3 18.7 74.1 0.7 0.0 0.0 6.5 100.0 92.8 1,586

4-5 14.1 80.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.8 100.0 94.2 326

6+ 10.6 80.9 2.5 0.0 1.0 5.0 100.0 91.5 84

Residence

Urban 20.1 72.4 0.8 0.0 0.0 6.8 100.0 92.4 1,942

Non-urban 11.8 84.1 0.2 0.0 0.1 3.8 100.0 95.9 1,094

Province

Western Cape 32.3 62.0 0.9 0.0 0.0 4.8 100.0 94.3 276

Eastern Cape 12.0 86.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 100.0 98.5 335

Northern Cape 16.8 76.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.2 100.0 92.8 61

Free State 18.5 75.6 1.2 0.0 0.0 4.8 100.0 94.0 145

KwaZulu-Natal 14.9 79.5 2.2 0.0 0.0 3.3 100.0 94.5 555

North West 16.9 80.4 0.7 0.0 0.3 1.7 100.0 97.2 244

Gauteng 18.8 71.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.1 100.0 89.9 842

Mpumalanga 10.9 80.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 8.3 100.0 91.7 278

Limpopo 13.1 82.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.2 100.0 95.8 301

Education

No education (1.2) (96.1) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (2.7) 100.0 (97.3) 42

Primary 

incomplete 8.0 85.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.3 100.0 93.7 141

Primary complete 8.1 82.3 1.0 0.0 0.0 8.6 100.0 90.4 108

Secondary 

incomplete 9.8 83.6 0.8 0.0 0.1 5.8 100.0 93.4 1,486

Secondary 

complete 18.9 74.6 0.5 0.0 0.0 6.0 100.0 93.5 908

More than 

secondary 51.3 44.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 3.9 100.0 95.8 351

Wealth quintile

Lowest 6.9 86.7 0.2 0.0 0.1 6.0 100.0 93.7 650

Second 7.8 85.1 1.0 0.0 0.0 6.2 100.0 92.8 739

Middle 16.2 77.9 0.6 0.0 0.0 5.3 100.0 94.1 671

Fourth 22.2 73.1 0.6 0.0 0.0 4.2 100.0 95.3 557

Highest 43.8 48.5 0.6 0.0 0.0 7.0 100.0 92.4 418

Total 17.1 76.6 0.6 0.0 0.0 5.7 100.0 93.7 3,036

Notes: If more than one source of ANC was mentioned, only the provider with the highest qualifications is considered in this tabulation. Figures in 

parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

1 Skilled provider includes doctor and nurse/midwife 
Maternal Health Care • 137

Table 9.2 Number of antenatal care visits and timing of first visit

Percent distribution of women age 15-49 who had a live birth in the 5 years 

preceding the survey by number of antenatal care (ANC) visits for the most 

recent live birth and by the timing of the first visit, and among women with 

ANC, median months pregnant at first visit, according to residence, South 

Africa DHS 2016 

Residence

Total

Number of ANC visits and

timing of first visit Urban

Nonurban

Number of ANC visits

None 6.8 3.8 5.7

1 2.1 2.0 2.1

2-3 14.4 11.7 13.4

4+ 73.1 79.7 75.5

Don’t know 3.6 2.8 3.3

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of months pregnant at time of 

first ANC visit

No antenatal care 6.8 3.8 5.7

<4 48.6 44.9 47.3

4-5 28.6 36.6 31.5

6-7 13.4 12.5 13.1

8+ 2.0 1.6 1.9

Don’t know 0.6 0.6 0.6

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of women 1,942 1,094 3,036

Median months pregnant at first visit (for 

those with ANC) 3.9 4.1 4.0

Number of women with ANC 1,811 1,052 2,863
138 • Maternal Health Care

Table 9.3 Components of antenatal care

Among women age 15-49 with a live birth in the 5 years preceding the survey, percentage who took iron tablets during the pregnancy of the most 

recent live birth, and among women receiving antenatal care (ANC) for the most recent live birth in the 5 years preceding the survey, percentage 

receiving specific antenatal services, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage 

of women 

who took 

iron tablets 

during the 

pregnancy 

of their most 

recent live 

birth

Number of 

women with a 

live birth in 

the past 5 

years

Among women who received antenatal care for their most recent birth in the 

past 5 years, percentage with selected services

Background 

characteristic

Blood 

pressure 

measured

Urine sample 

taken

Blood sample 

taken

Asked about 

use of alcohol

Asked about 

smoking 

tobacco

Number of 

women with 

ANC for their 

most recent 

birth

Age at birth

<20 90.3 432 98.6 99.0 98.4 89.2 88.8 412

20-34 90.1 2,200 99.1 99.4 99.0 92.3 92.1 2,071

35-49 88.9 404 99.2 99.0 98.8 92.4 92.9 380

Birth order

1 89.5 1,040 99.1 99.4 99.4 89.6 89.0 993

2-3 91.1 1,586 99.3 99.6 98.9 93.2 93.1 1,483

4-5 86.2 326 97.5 97.8 97.0 92.2 93.9 307

6+ 90.3 84 99.3 99.3 99.3 92.6 93.2 80

Residence

Urban 89.8 1,942 99.2 99.5 98.9 93.0 93.1 1,811

Non-urban 90.3 1,094 98.7 99.1 98.9 89.8 89.4 1,052

Province

Western Cape 90.6 276 98.5 99.5 96.9 96.5 97.8 263

Eastern Cape 95.9 335 99.2 99.2 98.6 91.8 91.1 330

Northern Cape 92.6 61 98.9 100.0 97.9 89.1 89.3 56

Free State 86.8 145 99.3 99.3 98.9 92.0 91.6 138

KwaZulu-Natal 90.9 555 99.7 99.8 99.6 89.1 87.9 536

North West 92.7 244 99.8 99.0 97.8 92.0 91.7 240

Gauteng 87.7 842 99.0 99.4 99.4 91.7 92.2 757

Mpumalanga 91.3 278 100.0 99.5 99.5 93.3 92.9 255

Limpopo 85.3 301 96.9 98.1 98.8 92.1 92.5 288

Education

No education (84.1) 42 (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (94.7) (94.7) 41

Primary incomplete 84.2 141 99.0 99.6 99.6 88.5 90.9 132

Primary complete 92.3 108 97.7 99.4 98.6 88.5 87.7 99

Secondary incomplete 90.2 1,486 99.1 99.5 98.9 91.3 91.1 1,400

Secondary complete 90.9 908 99.1 98.8 98.5 92.2 92.1 854

More than secondary 89.2 351 99.3 99.8 99.5 95.1 94.9 337

Wealth quintile

Lowest 87.7 650 98.9 99.4 99.4 89.9 89.0 611

Second 90.9 739 98.3 98.5 97.7 89.6 91.1 694

Middle 90.5 671 99.4 99.5 99.1 91.3 89.8 635

Fourth 92.6 557 99.5 99.6 99.3 95.8 95.9 534

Highest 87.8 418 99.4 100.0 99.3 94.4 94.8 388

Total 90.0 3,036 99.1 99.3 98.9 91.8 91.7 2,863

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. 
Maternal Health Care • 139

Table 9.4 Tetanus toxoid injections

Among mothers age 15-49 with a live birth in the 5 years preceding the survey, 

percentage receiving two or more tetanus toxoid injections during the 

pregnancy for the most recent live birth and percentage whose last live birth 

was protected against neonatal tetanus, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Percentage 

receiving two or 

more injections 

during the 

pregnancy for 

the last live birth

Percentage 

whose most 

recent live birth 

was protected 

against neonatal 

tetanus1

Number of 

mothers

Age at birth

<20 31.3 39.8 432

20-34 29.0 34.3 2,200

35-49 25.5 35.0 404

Birth order

1 29.6 35.4 1,040

2-3 28.3 34.5 1,586

4-5 27.2 34.5 326

6+ 36.7 47.7 84

Residence

Urban 29.1 34.6 1,942

Non-urban 28.4 36.2 1,094

Province

Western Cape 4.9 6.1 276

Eastern Cape 23.4 29.2 335

Northern Cape 29.1 30.3 61

Free State 34.6 40.7 145

KwaZulu-Natal 28.2 41.1 555

North West 36.1 40.6 244

Gauteng 36.1 40.5 842

Mpumalanga 32.6 40.4 278

Limpopo 26.0 31.5 301

Education

No education (39.6) (42.0) 42

Primary incomplete 28.4 35.8 141

Primary complete 23.7 31.8 108

Secondary incomplete 30.3 36.2 1,486

Secondary complete 28.5 35.1 908

More than secondary 24.4 30.8 351

Wealth quintile

Lowest 27.5 35.4 650

Second 28.6 34.7 739

Middle 30.7 35.8 671

Fourth 33.5 37.3 557

Highest 22.4 31.7 418

Total 28.9 35.2 3,036

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

1

Includes mothers with two injections during the pregnancy of their most recent 

live birth, or two or more injections (the last within 3 years of the most recent 

live birth), or three or more injections (the last within 5 years of the most recent 

live birth), or four or more injections (the last within 10 years of the most recent 

live birth), or five or more injections at any time prior to the most recent birth 
140 • Maternal Health Care

Table 9.5 Place of delivery

Percent distribution of live births in the 5 years preceding the survey by place of delivery and percentage delivered in a health facility, according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Health facility

Home Other Total

Percentage 

delivered in a 

health facility

Number of 

Public sector Private sector births

Mother’s age at birth

<20 96.3 1.2 2.4 0.1 100.0 97.5 549

20-34 87.4 8.7 3.6 0.4 100.0 96.0 2,574

35-49 77.1 16.5 5.7 0.7 100.0 93.6 449

Birth order

1 90.8 7.5 1.7 0.1 100.0 98.3 1,281

2-3 85.7 10.4 3.3 0.6 100.0 96.1 1,817

4-5 86.8 4.1 8.8 0.3 100.0 90.9 370

6+ 78.5 3.2 16.7 1.6 100.0 81.7 104

Antenatal care visits1

None 83.9 8.3 7.8 0.0 100.0 92.2 173

1-3 88.3 5.6 5.9 0.2 100.0 93.9 470

4+ 87.4 9.5 2.6 0.4 100.0 96.9 2,292

Don’t know number of 

visits 85.8 8.4 5.8 0.0 100.0 94.2 101

Residence

Urban 85.9 11.1 2.7 0.2 100.0 97.1 2,281

Non-urban 90.1 3.8 5.3 0.8 100.0 93.9 1,291

Province

Western Cape 84.6 14.3 1.2 0.0 100.0 98.8 313

Eastern Cape 83.6 7.7 7.0 1.7 100.0 91.3 398

Northern Cape 91.8 5.6 2.7 0.0 100.0 97.3 69

Free State 88.7 7.3 4.0 0.0 100.0 96.0 164

KwaZulu-Natal 87.8 7.6 4.3 0.2 100.0 95.4 654

North West 86.7 8.7 3.6 1.0 100.0 95.4 282

Gauteng 86.7 10.2 2.9 0.2 100.0 96.9 1,013

Mpumalanga 90.3 5.0 4.5 0.2 100.0 95.3 332

Limpopo 92.4 5.1 2.5 0.0 100.0 97.5 347

Mother’s education

No education 85.9 0.0 10.5 3.6 100.0 85.9 50

Primary incomplete 89.5 0.3 9.0 1.2 100.0 89.8 182

Primary complete 94.6 0.0 4.8 0.5 100.0 94.6 138

Secondary incomplete 94.0 1.5 4.3 0.3 100.0 95.4 1,762

Secondary complete 85.8 11.5 2.4 0.4 100.0 97.2 1,043

More than secondary 59.6 39.8 0.5 0.2 100.0 99.4 397

Wealth quintile

Lowest 91.4 0.2 7.4 1.0 100.0 91.6 787

Second 94.3 0.9 4.6 0.2 100.0 95.2 865

Middle 94.8 3.4 1.5 0.3 100.0 98.2 788

Fourth 86.7 10.3 2.8 0.3 100.0 96.9 657

Highest 57.4 42.0 0.6 0.0 100.0 99.4 476

Total 87.4 8.5 3.7 0.4 100.0 95.9 3,572

1

Includes only the most recent birth in the 5 years preceding the survey 
Maternal Health Care • 141

Table 9.6 Assistance during delivery

Percent distribution of live births in the 5 years preceding the survey by person providing assistance during delivery, and percentage of births

assisted by a skilled provider, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Person providing assistance during delivery Percentage 

delivered by 

a skilled 

provider1

Number of 

births

Background 

characteristic Doctor 

Nurse/ 

midwife

Traditional 

birth 

attendant

Relative/ 

friend/other No one Total

Mother’s age at birth

<20 24.2 73.6 0.1 0.8 1.3 100.0 97.8 549

20-34 27.7 69.2 0.1 2.0 1.0 100.0 96.9 2,574

35-49 40.4 54.0 0.2 2.8 2.6 100.0 94.4 449

Birth order

1 29.7 68.5 0.2 1.0 0.6 100.0 98.2 1,281

2-3 29.9 67.2 0.1 2.0 0.8 100.0 97.1 1,817

4-5 23.0 69.9 0.1 3.5 3.5 100.0 92.9 370

6+ 15.8 68.7 0.0 7.2 8.3 100.0 84.5 104

Antenatal care visits2

None 28.1 62.9 0.0 4.4 4.6 100.0 91.0 173

1-3 20.4 75.1 0.2 2.7 1.6 100.0 95.5 470

4+ 31.1 66.3 0.2 1.5 0.9 100.0 97.4 2,292

Don’t know number of 

visits 30.9 66.2 0.0 2.9 0.0 100.0 97.1 101

Place of delivery

Health facility 29.9 69.7 0.1 0.1 0.3 100.0 99.5 3,427

Public facility 24.3 75.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 100.0 99.5 3,123

Private facility 87.6 12.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 100.0 99.7 304

Elsewhere 2.1 28.2 1.7 44.5 23.6 100.0 30.2 145

Residence

Urban 31.5 66.4 0.0 0.8 1.3 100.0 97.9 2,281

Non-urban 23.9 70.8 0.3 3.8 1.2 100.0 94.6 1,291

Province

Western Cape 48.0 51.2 0.0 0.5 0.3 100.0 99.2 313

Eastern Cape 28.6 64.2 0.0 5.3 2.0 100.0 92.7 398

Northern Cape 41.1 56.5 0.0 2.4 0.0 100.0 97.6 69

Free State 41.4 54.8 0.6 2.5 0.6 100.0 96.3 164

KwaZulu-Natal 31.7 64.7 0.3 2.1 1.1 100.0 96.4 654

North West 29.0 67.0 0.0 3.3 0.7 100.0 96.0 282

Gauteng 23.0 74.6 0.0 0.7 1.7 100.0 97.6 1,013

Mpumalanga 20.7 75.8 0.0 1.4 2.1 100.0 96.4 332

Limpopo 21.7 76.1 0.6 1.5 0.2 100.0 97.8 347

Mother’s education

No education 18.2 70.3 0.0 8.3 3.2 100.0 88.5 50

Primary incomplete 19.1 71.2 0.3 6.4 2.9 100.0 90.4 182

Primary complete 22.5 72.6 0.7 2.8 1.4 100.0 95.1 138

Secondary incomplete 21.9 74.2 0.2 2.2 1.5 100.0 96.1 1,762

Secondary complete 32.3 66.5 0.1 0.7 0.4 100.0 98.8 1,043

More than secondary 57.7 40.7 0.0 0.7 0.9 100.0 98.4 397

Wealth quintile

Lowest 18.1 74.5 0.5 4.2 2.7 100.0 92.6 787

Second 22.5 73.9 0.0 2.1 1.6 100.0 96.3 865

Middle 23.8 74.6 0.1 0.6 0.8 100.0 98.4 788

Fourth 36.0 62.5 0.0 1.5 0.0 100.0 98.5 657

Highest 55.9 43.0 0.0 0.5 0.6 100.0 98.9 476

Total 28.7 68.0 0.1 1.9 1.2 100.0 96.7 3,572

Note: If the respondent mentioned more than one person attending during delivery, only the most qualified person is considered in this 

tabulation.

1 Skilled provider includes doctor and nurse/midwife

2

Includes only the most recent birth in the 5 years preceding the survey 
142 • Maternal Health Care

Table 9.7 Caesarean section

Percentage of live births in the 5 years preceding the survey delivered by caesarean section (C-section), 

percentage delivered by C-section planned before the onset of labour pains, and percentage delivered by 

C-section decided on after the onset of labour pains, according to background characteristics, South 

Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage 

delivered by 

C-section

Timing of decision to conduct 

C-section

Number of 

births

Background 

characteristic

Planned before 

onset of labour 

pains

Decided on after 

onset of labour 

pains

Mother’s age at birth

<20 24.8 13.0 11.8 549

20-34 23.3 15.7 7.6 2,574

35-49 28.8 21.0 7.8 449

Birth order

1 25.1 14.1 11.0 1,281

2-3 26.4 19.0 7.5 1,817

4-5 14.2 9.8 4.4 370

6+ 10.5 7.7 2.8 104

Antenatal care visits1

None 22.3 16.6 5.7 173

1-3 20.5 12.2 8.3 470

4+ 25.4 16.4 9.0 2,292

Don’t know number of visits 27.5 16.3 11.2 101

Place of delivery

Health facility 25.2 16.6 8.6 3,427

Public facility 21.7 13.1 8.7 3,123

Private facility 61.3 52.9 8.3 304

Residence

Urban 25.9 17.8 8.1 2,281

Non-urban 21.2 12.6 8.5 1,291

Province

Western Cape 29.5 17.7 11.8 313

Eastern Cape 22.7 13.1 9.6 398

Northern Cape 24.0 12.6 11.4 69

Free State 26.5 20.9 5.6 164

KwaZulu-Natal 29.1 22.3 6.8 654

North West 22.7 13.6 9.1 282

Gauteng 22.5 14.4 8.1 1,013

Mpumalanga 24.7 16.0 8.7 332

Limpopo 16.8 10.2 6.6 347

Mother’s education

No education 15.2 8.2 7.0 50

Primary incomplete 21.5 15.9 5.6 182

Primary complete 19.4 12.4 7.0 138

Secondary incomplete 20.7 12.2 8.5 1,762

Secondary complete 25.6 17.2 8.4 1,043

More than secondary 40.0 31.2 8.8 397

Wealth quintile

Lowest 17.2 10.1 7.1 787

Second 19.7 11.3 8.4 865

Middle 20.8 13.8 7.0 788

Fourth 31.7 20.4 11.3 657

Highest 39.1 31.3 7.9 476

Total 24.2 15.9 8.3 3,572

Note: The question on C-section was asked only of women who delivered in a health facility. In this table, 

it is assumed that women who did not give birth in health facility did not receive a C-section.

1

Includes only the most recent birth in the 5 years preceding the survey 

Table 9.8 Duration of stay in health facility after birth

Among women with a birth in the 5 years preceding the survey who delivered their most recent live birth in a health 

facility, percent distribution by duration of stay in the health facility following their most recent live birth, according to 

type of delivery, South Africa DHS 2016 

Type of delivery <6 hours

6-11 

hours

12-23 

hours 1-2 days 3+ days

Don’t 

know Total

Number of 

women

Vaginal birth 12.3 13.3 10.5 49.6 14.0 0.3 100.0 2,172

Caesarean section 4.5 1.1 0.6 17.0 75.8 1.0 100.0 745
Maternal Health Care • 143

Table 9.9 Timing of first postnatal check for the mother

Among women age 15-49 giving birth in the 2 years preceding the survey, percent distribution of the mother’s first postnatal check for the most recent live 

birth by time after delivery, and percentage of women with a live birth during the 2 years preceding the survey who received a postnatal check in the first 2 

days after giving birth, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Time after delivery of mother’s first postnatal check1

No 

postnatal 

check2 Total

Percentage of 

women with a 

postnatal check 

during the first 2 

days after birth1

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic

Less than

4 hours 4-23 hours 1-2 days 3-6 days 7-41 days

Don’t 

know

Age at birth

<20 71.2 8.8 2.6 3.7 1.2 5.0 7.6 100.0 82.6 202

20-34 73.3 7.3 2.2 2.7 0.9 6.5 7.2 100.0 82.7 1,002

35-49 72.7 13.1 3.5 0.6 0.4 4.7 5.0 100.0 89.3 182

Birth order

1 72.6 8.4 1.2 3.9 1.3 4.4 8.1 100.0 82.3 488

2-3 75.2 7.0 2.4 2.2 0.7 6.5 6.1 100.0 84.5 716

4-5 64.9 12.9 5.5 0.7 0.5 9.0 6.4 100.0 83.3 149

6+ (64.1) (11.6) (7.0) (0.0) (0.0) (6.4) (10.9) 100.0 (82.7) 33

Place of delivery

Health facility 73.9 8.1 2.3 2.7 0.9 6.0 6.2 100.0 84.3 1,332

Elsewhere 47.5 12.2 6.4 0.0 1.5 7.8 24.6 100.0 66.0 54

Residence

Urban 75.6 7.1 2.5 2.5 0.5 5.6 6.2 100.0 85.2 872

Non-urban 68.3 10.2 2.3 2.6 1.5 6.8 8.2 100.0 80.8 514

Province

Western Cape 83.5 5.3 1.9 0.0 1.0 5.8 2.5 100.0 90.8 118

Eastern Cape 72.7 12.3 1.7 0.0 1.1 2.9 9.3 100.0 86.7 163

Northern Cape 69.3 9.4 3.6 3.3 1.0 2.7 10.7 100.0 82.3 27

Free State 81.3 5.5 4.1 5.7 0.0 1.8 1.7 100.0 90.8 60

KwaZulu-Natal 71.0 6.5 2.6 2.4 2.5 9.2 5.8 100.0 80.1 258

North West 74.3 7.8 2.4 4.3 1.0 7.3 2.9 100.0 84.5 106

Gauteng 73.6 5.3 1.9 2.9 0.3 5.8 10.2 100.0 80.8 385

Mpumalanga 65.4 10.7 4.4 3.3 0.6 8.2 7.5 100.0 80.5 127

Limpopo 68.8 16.1 2.2 3.5 0.0 4.3 5.1 100.0 87.1 144

Education

No education * * * * * * * 100.0 * 18

Primary incomplete 56.4 12.3 7.1 0.0 0.0 3.6 20.6 100.0 75.8 60

Primary complete 58.0 6.5 1.0 1.6 0.0 17.0 15.9 100.0 65.5 50

Secondary incomplete 74.4 8.5 2.3 2.7 0.7 5.6 5.8 100.0 85.2 706

Secondary complete 72.8 8.3 0.9 2.1 1.9 6.6 7.3 100.0 82.0 397

More than secondary 78.6 5.9 3.8 4.5 0.0 4.2 2.9 100.0 88.3 155

Wealth quintile

Lowest 64.3 13.6 2.7 1.3 0.6 4.8 12.7 100.0 80.6 312

Second 71.3 6.5 2.6 2.9 0.4 8.4 7.9 100.0 80.4 326

Middle 78.4 6.5 2.2 2.3 2.4 6.2 2.1 100.0 87.1 291

Fourth 76.9 6.5 1.4 2.7 0.5 6.4 5.5 100.0 84.8 269

Highest 75.8 7.7 3.4 4.4 0.4 3.2 5.2 100.0 86.8 189

Total 72.9 8.2 2.4 2.6 0.9 6.0 6.9 100.0 83.6 1,386

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and 

has been suppressed.

1

Includes women who received a check from a doctor, nurse/midwife, community health worker, or traditional birth attendant

2

Includes women who received a check after 41 days 
144 • Maternal Health Care

Table 9.10 Type of provider of first postnatal check for the mother

Among women age 15-49 giving birth in the 2 years preceding the survey, percent distribution by type of provider of the mother’s first postnatal 

health check during the 2 days after the most recent live birth, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Type of health provider of mother’s first postnatal check No postnatal 

check during 

the first 2 days 

after birth Total

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic Doctor Nurse/midwife

Community 

health worker

Traditional birth 

attendant

Age at birth

<20 15.8 66.8 0.0 0.0 17.4 100.0 202

20-34 19.7 62.9 0.2 0.0 17.3 100.0 1,002

35-49 31.8 55.6 0.0 1.9 10.7 100.0 182

Birth order

1 17.6 64.7 0.0 0.0 17.7 100.0 488

2-3 22.6 61.2 0.3 0.5 15.5 100.0 716

4-5 19.2 63.9 0.3 0.0 16.7 100.0 149

6+ (30.9) (51.8) (0.0) (0.0) (17.3) 100.0 33

Place of delivery

Health facility 20.9 63.1 0.0 0.3 15.7 100.0 1,332

Elsewhere 16.5 46.5 3.1 0.0 34.0 100.0 54

Residence

Urban 21.4 63.2 0.2 0.4 14.8 100.0 872

Non-urban 19.5 61.2 0.1 0.0 19.2 100.0 514

Province

Western Cape 23.8 67.0 0.0 0.0 9.2 100.0 118

Eastern Cape 16.2 70.4 0.0 0.0 13.3 100.0 163

Northern Cape 23.0 59.4 0.0 0.0 17.7 100.0 27

Free State 38.7 51.4 0.8 0.0 9.2 100.0 60

KwaZulu-Natal 18.3 61.3 0.5 0.0 19.9 100.0 258

North West 22.6 61.9 0.0 0.0 15.5 100.0 106

Gauteng 19.7 60.2 0.0 0.9 19.2 100.0 385

Mpumalanga 15.8 64.7 0.0 0.0 19.5 100.0 127

Limpopo 25.0 61.6 0.5 0.0 12.9 100.0 144

Education

No education * * * * * 100.0 18

Primary incomplete 12.3 62.7 0.8 0.0 24.2 100.0 60

Primary complete 20.4 45.1 0.0 0.0 34.5 100.0 50

Secondary incomplete 17.1 67.5 0.1 0.5 14.8 100.0 706

Secondary complete 21.2 60.5 0.3 0.0 18.0 100.0 397

More than secondary 35.8 52.5 0.0 0.0 11.7 100.0 155

Wealth quintile

Lowest 15.1 65.3 0.1 0.0 19.4 100.0 312

Second 18.6 61.6 0.2 0.0 19.6 100.0 326

Middle 16.3 70.3 0.4 0.0 12.9 100.0 291

Fourth 23.6 60.0 0.0 1.3 15.2 100.0 269

Highest 36.1 50.8 0.0 0.0 13.2 100.0 189

Total 20.7 62.5 0.2 0.2 16.4 100.0 1,386

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed.
Maternal Health Care • 145

Table 9.11 Timing of first postnatal check for the newborn

Percent distribution of most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey by time after birth of first postnatal check, and percentage of births 

with a postnatal check during the first 2 days after birth, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Time after delivery of newborn’s first postnatal check1

No 

postnatal 

check2 Total

Percentage of 

births with a 

postnatal 

check during 

the first 2 days 

after birth1

Number 

of births

Background 

characteristic

Less than 

1 hour 1-3 hours 4-23 hours 1-2 days 3-6 days

Don’t 

know

Mother’s age at birth

<20 54.1 23.4 7.8 1.6 3.8 5.1 4.2 100.0 86.8 202

20-34 46.7 32.7 4.5 1.7 2.2 6.1 6.0 100.0 85.6 1,002

35-49 53.2 28.4 4.2 3.2 0.9 5.2 4.9 100.0 88.9 182

Birth order

1 50.0 29.6 5.8 1.6 3.4 5.8 3.9 100.0 86.9 488

2-3 49.6 32.3 3.8 1.4 1.1 5.3 6.4 100.0 87.1 716

4-5 42.5 27.6 7.0 4.1 4.0 8.1 6.7 100.0 81.2 149

6+ (32.8) (33.1) (8.0) (6.3) (4.1) (7.2) (8.5) 100.0 (80.2) 33

Place of delivery

Health facility 50.5 31.4 4.9 1.6 1.7 5.8 4.2 100.0 88.3 1,332

Elsewhere 3.1 16.9 6.3 9.5 17.5 6.3 40.5 100.0 35.8 54

Residence

Urban 51.6 31.7 3.5 1.4 2.3 5.5 4.0 100.0 88.2 872

Non-urban 43.5 29.3 7.5 2.6 2.3 6.4 8.3 100.0 83.0 514

Province

Western Cape 42.5 43.7 3.4 4.3 1.4 3.3 1.4 100.0 93.8 118

Eastern Cape 49.4 29.1 7.4 2.0 2.1 1.6 8.5 100.0 87.8 163

Northern Cape 67.5 19.1 0.9 0.8 2.8 1.8 7.1 100.0 88.3 27

Free State 61.0 24.1 3.6 1.1 3.1 5.5 1.6 100.0 89.8 60

KwaZulu-Natal 40.2 34.0 5.2 2.5 0.5 10.0 7.6 100.0 81.9 258

North West 41.7 37.8 4.7 0.0 3.5 6.5 5.9 100.0 84.2 106

Gauteng 52.7 31.3 0.9 1.2 2.1 6.7 5.0 100.0 86.2 385

Mpumalanga 62.3 14.6 6.8 0.4 4.5 4.6 6.7 100.0 84.1 127

Limpopo 41.0 29.5 13.7 3.6 3.8 4.4 4.0 100.0 87.8 144

Mother’s education

No education * * * * * * * 100.0 * 18

Primary incomplete 41.8 25.4 4.4 3.3 0.0 2.4 22.6 100.0 74.9 60

Primary complete 30.2 40.8 6.5 0.0 1.4 18.2 3.0 100.0 77.4 50

Secondary incomplete 49.5 29.4 6.3 1.4 2.0 6.2 5.1 100.0 86.6 706

Secondary complete 49.5 31.6 3.3 1.4 3.5 5.5 5.3 100.0 85.7 397

More than secondary 49.7 37.0 2.5 4.4 1.6 2.6 2.3 100.0 93.6 155

Wealth quintile

Lowest 43.2 25.9 10.2 2.0 2.8 5.7 10.1 100.0 81.4 312

Second 52.3 25.9 4.6 2.2 1.0 8.1 5.8 100.0 85.1 326

Middle 44.9 35.6 3.4 1.5 3.7 5.6 5.4 100.0 85.3 291

Fourth 52.2 33.1 3.3 1.9 2.2 4.0 3.3 100.0 90.5 269

Highest 51.6 36.9 1.5 1.7 1.7 5.1 1.5 100.0 91.7 189

Total 48.6 30.8 5.0 1.9 2.3 5.8 5.6 100.0 86.2 1,386

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases 

and has been suppressed.

1

Includes newborns who received a check from a doctor, nurse/midwife, community health worker, or traditional birth attendant

2

Includes newborns who received a check after the first week of life 
146 • Maternal Health Care

Table 9.12 Type of provider of first postnatal check for the newborn

Percent distribution of most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey by type of provider of the newborn’s first postnatal health check 

during the 2 days after the most recent live birth, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Type of health provider of newborn’s first postnatal check No postnatal 

check during 

the first 2 days 

after birth Total

Number of 

births

Background 

characteristic

Doctor/ 

paediatrician Nurse/midwife

Community 

health worker

Traditional birth 

attendant

Mother’s age at birth

<20 21.1 65.8 0.0 0.0 13.2 100.0 202

20-34 22.2 63.4 0.0 0.0 14.4 100.0 1,002

35-49 35.9 53.0 0.0 0.0 11.1 100.0 182

Birth order

1 22.2 64.8 0.0 0.0 13.1 100.0 488

2-3 25.3 61.8 0.0 0.0 12.9 100.0 716

4-5 23.3 57.6 0.3 0.0 18.8 100.0 149

6+ (18.8) (61.4) (0.0) (0.0) (19.8) 100.0 33

Place of delivery

Health facility 24.6 63.7 0.0 0.0 11.7 100.0 1,332

Elsewhere 4.6 30.3 0.9 0.0 64.2 100.0 54

Residence

Urban 26.2 61.9 0.1 0.0 11.8 100.0 872

Non-urban 19.8 63.2 0.0 0.0 17.0 100.0 514

Province

Western Cape 36.7 57.1 0.0 0.0 6.2 100.0 118

Eastern Cape 18.9 68.9 0.0 0.0 12.2 100.0 163

Northern Cape 30.5 57.8 0.0 0.0 11.7 100.0 27

Free State 35.0 54.0 0.8 0.0 10.2 100.0 60

KwaZulu-Natal 20.7 61.2 0.0 0.0 18.1 100.0 258

North West 26.8 57.3 0.0 0.0 15.8 100.0 106

Gauteng 22.5 63.7 0.0 0.0 13.8 100.0 385

Mpumalanga 23.3 60.8 0.0 0.0 15.9 100.0 127

Limpopo 20.2 67.6 0.0 0.0 12.2 100.0 144

Mother’s education

No education * * * * * 100.0 18

Primary incomplete 12.0 62.2 0.8 0.0 25.1 100.0 60

Primary complete 16.5 60.9 0.0 0.0 22.6 100.0 50

Secondary incomplete 20.6 66.0 0.0 0.0 13.4 100.0 706

Secondary complete 24.3 61.4 0.0 0.0 14.3 100.0 397

More than secondary 41.6 52.0 0.0 0.0 6.4 100.0 155

Wealth quintile

Lowest 13.7 67.5 0.1 0.0 18.6 100.0 312

Second 17.6 67.5 0.0 0.0 14.9 100.0 326

Middle 19.7 65.6 0.0 0.0 14.7 100.0 291

Fourth 32.7 57.8 0.0 0.0 9.5 100.0 269

Highest 44.9 46.8 0.0 0.0 8.3 100.0 189

Total 23.8 62.4 0.0 0.0 13.8 100.0 1,386

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed. 
Maternal Health Care • 147

Table 9.13 Content of postnatal care for newborns

Among most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage for whom selected functions were performed during the first 2 days 

after the birth and percentages with at least two or at least four signal functions performed during the first 2 days after the birth, according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Among most recent live births in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage for 

whom the selected function was performed during the first 2 days after the birth:

Percentage 

with at least 

two signal 

functions 

performed 

during the 

first 2 days 

after birth

Percentage 

with at least 

four signal 

functions 

performed 

during the 

first 2 days 

after birth

Number of 

births

Background

characteristic

Cord 

examined

Temperature 

measured

Counselling 

on danger 

signs

Counselling 

on breastfeeding

Observation 

of breastfeeding Weighed1

Mother’s age at birth

<20 90.5 88.6 75.6 82.9 78.9 88.1 92.3 85.5 202

20-34 86.3 86.8 76.4 81.1 77.2 92.2 89.6 83.6 1,002

35-49 85.5 85.8 79.8 86.9 77.1 93.1 91.4 88.1 182

Birth order

1 89.6 89.5 76.0 82.7 77.9 90.7 92.6 85.0 488

2-3 86.6 86.5 78.1 83.0 78.3 93.0 89.8 85.5 716

4-5 80.3 81.1 72.1 76.0 71.4 90.6 84.6 78.7 149

6+ (80.7) (86.1) (79.1) (83.3) (79.3) (82.3) (87.9) (83.3) 33

Place of delivery

Health facility 87.6 87.8 77.5 83.0 78.1 92.3 91.0 85.3 1,332

Elsewhere 68.2 67.5 58.2 62.6 62.7 77.7 71.1 64.5 54

Residence

Urban 85.8 85.5 75.6 79.7 75.4 91.6 88.5 82.8 872

Non-urban 88.6 89.5 78.7 86.3 81.0 91.8 93.0 87.4 514

Province

Western Cape 91.6 91.6 78.5 85.5 86.9 95.9 96.2 84.9 118

Eastern Cape 84.8 86.2 66.4 85.6 81.8 95.3 93.0 85.1 163

Northern Cape 88.0 86.7 75.4 87.7 82.1 85.6 90.9 86.5 27

Free State 93.2 94.0 74.3 88.3 80.6 95.4 95.6 92.0 60

KwaZulu-Natal 95.4 95.2 93.1 91.7 87.6 92.6 98.7 95.6 258

North West 88.1 91.3 77.2 78.9 74.4 94.1 92.7 85.2 106

Gauteng 77.4 76.8 70.0 72.4 67.2 89.2 78.5 76.1 385

Mpumalanga 79.8 81.6 64.3 69.9 62.2 85.0 85.8 70.4 127

Limpopo 97.5 95.3 87.4 94.1 87.6 93.1 97.8 94.6 144

Mother’s education

No education * * * * * * * * 18

Primary incomplete 76.2 78.8 68.6 79.4 78.5 80.5 82.0 77.0 60

Primary complete 94.5 95.1 94.6 96.1 94.1 82.2 97.1 96.1 50

Secondary 

incomplete 87.4 87.2 76.3 82.0 77.6 89.5 90.3 84.3 706

Secondary complete 88.7 88.8 77.7 84.2 79.9 96.8 92.6 87.2 397

More than 

secondary 84.7 84.9 75.8 77.2 67.0 96.5 87.1 81.3 155

Wealth quintile

Lowest 86.7 88.4 76.7 83.8 83.2 89.3 92.0 84.5 312

Second 85.8 86.0 76.7 82.4 77.6 89.0 88.9 84.2 326

Middle 87.0 86.4 80.1 79.2 74.9 92.2 89.5 85.6 291

Fourth 87.4 86.9 75.6 83.4 77.1 94.0 89.0 84.1 269

Highest 87.8 87.1 73.3 81.7 72.2 96.3 92.2 83.9 189

Total 86.8 87.0 76.7 82.2 77.5 91.7 90.2 84.5 1,386

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed.

1 Captures newborns who were weighed “at birth.” May exclude some newborns who were weighed during the 2 days after birth
148 • Maternal Health Care

Table 9.14 Discharge timing

Percentage of most recent live births in the 5 years preceding the survey that took place in a health 

facility in which the child and mother were discharged at the same time, percentage in which the 

child was discharged before the mother, and percentage in which the child was discharged after the 

mother, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Percentage 

discharged at 

same time as 

mother

Percentage 

discharged 

before the 

mother

Percentage 

discharged after

the mother

Number of births 

in a health facility

Age at birth

<20 95.9 1.3 2.8 421

20-34 94.5 0.6 4.9 2,119

35-49 89.6 1.6 8.3 377

Birth order

1 93.5 0.6 5.8 1,025

2-3 94.3 0.6 4.9 1,525

4-5 94.0 2.7 3.3 300

6+ 97.6 0.0 2.4 67

Residence

Urban 92.0 0.7 7.1 1,888

Non-urban 97.7 0.9 1.2 1,029

Province

Western Cape 91.3 3.2 5.6 272

Eastern Cape 95.5 0.9 3.7 305

Northern Cape 95.5 1.0 3.0 59

Free State 93.5 0.5 4.6 139

KwaZulu-Natal 97.5 0.9 1.5 532

North West 95.9 0.4 3.3 232

Gauteng 89.8 0.0 10.2 818

Mpumalanga 94.3 1.2 4.2 265

Limpopo 99.0 0.8 0.3 295

Education

No education (100.0) (0.0) (0.0) 36

Primary incomplete 94.5 0.7 4.8 126

Primary complete 99.7 0.0 0.3 103

Secondary incomplete 94.8 1.0 4.1 1,423

Secondary complete 94.1 0.8 5.0 881

More than secondary 88.5 0.7 10.8 349

Wealth quintile

Lowest 96.5 0.8 2.7 599

Second 95.8 1.2 3.0 703

Middle 95.0 0.9 4.0 661

Fourth 94.5 0.4 4.8 540

Highest 85.4 0.8 13.7 415

Total 94.0 0.8 5.0 2,917

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.
Child Health • 149

CHILD HEALTH 10

Key Findings

 Birth weight: Among births in the last 5 years with a 

reported birth weight, 15% had a low birth weight (less than 

2.5 kg).

 Vaccinations: Overall, 61% of children age 12-23 months 

received all basic vaccinations, and 53% received all ageappropriate vaccinations. However, among the 66% of 

children in this age group whose vaccination card was 

seen, 89% received all basic vaccinations and 79% 

received all age-appropriate vaccinations.

 Symptoms of acute respiratory infection (ARI): 3% of 

children under age 5 had symptoms of ARI during the 2 

weeks before the survey. Advice or treatment was sought 

for 88% of children with ARI symptoms; advice or 

treatment was sought for 31% of children the same day or 

the day after symptoms appeared.

 Fever: 20% of children under age 5 had a fever in the 2 

weeks before the survey. Sixty-eight percent of these 

children were taken for advice or treatment; for 31% of 

children with a fever, advice or treatment was sought the 

same day or the day after the fever appeared.

 Diarrhoea: 10% of children under age 5 had diarrhoea in 

the 2 weeks before the survey, and advice or treatment 

was sought for 63% of these children. Eighty-three percent 

of children with diarrhoea received ORT. However, only

24% received ORT, continued feeding, and zinc, as 

recommended.

nformation on child health and survival can help policymakers and programme managers assess the 

efficacy of current strategies, formulate appropriate interventions to prevent deaths from childhood 

illnesses, and improve the health of children in South Africa.

This chapter presents information on birth weight and vaccination status for young children. It also looks at 

the prevalence of, and treatment practices for, three common childhood illnesses: acute respiratory infection 

(ARI), fever, and diarrhoea. 

I
150 • Child Health 

10.1 BIRTH WEIGHT

Low birth weight

Percentage of births with a reported birth weight below 2.5 kilograms regardless 

of gestational age

Sample: Live births in the 5 years before the survey that have a reported birth 

weight, from either a written record or a mother’s report

Birth weight is a major determinant of infant and child health and mortality. Children who weigh less than 

2.5 kilograms (kg) at birth or who are reported to be very small or smaller than average are considered to 

have a higher than average risk of early childhood death. For births in the 5 years preceding the survey, birth 

weight was recorded in the questionnaire if available from either a written record or the mother’s recall. 

Because birth weight may not be known for many babies, mothers’ estimates of their baby’s size at birth 

were also obtained. Although these estimates are subjective, they can be a useful proxy for birth weight.

Eighty-four percent of births were reported as average or larger than average, 8% as small, and 7% as very 

small. Of the 88% of births with a reported birth weight, 15% had a birth weight of less than 2.5 kg 

(Table 10.1). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 Nineteen percent of births to older mothers (age 35-49) weighed less than 2.5 kg, as compared with 14% 

of births to mothers younger than age 35. 

 Twenty-seven percent of births to women who smoke cigarettes or tobacco weighed less than 2.5 kg,

compared with 14% of births to women who do not smoke. 

 By province, the proportion of infants with a low birth weight was highest in Northern Cape (20%) and 

lowest in Limpopo (11%).

 Although infants born to wealthier and better educated mothers were generally more likely to have a 

reported birth weight, the prevalence of low birth weight did not appear to be correlated with household 

wealth or mother’s education.

10.2 VACCINATION OF CHILDREN

Universal immunisation of children against common vaccine-preventable diseases is crucial to reducing 

infant and child morbidity and mortality. In South Africa, routine childhood vaccines protect against 

tuberculosis (BCG vaccine); diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTaP vaccine); polio (oral polio vaccine 

[OPV] or inactivated polio vaccine [IPV]); Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib vaccine); hepatitis B (HepB 

vaccine); Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcal conjugate vaccine [PCV]); rotavirus (rotavirus vaccine 

[RV]); and measles (measles vaccine). The SADHS 2016 collected information on coverage of all of these 

vaccines among children born in the 3 years preceding the survey. 

Historically, an important measure of vaccination coverage has been the proportion of children receiving all 

“basic” vaccinations. Children are considered to have received all basic vaccinations if they have received 

the BCG vaccine, three doses each of the DTaP and polio vaccines, and a single dose of the measles vaccine. 

In South Africa, the BCG vaccine is usually given at birth or at first clinic contact, while the DTaP and polio 
Child Health • 151

vaccines are given in combination with Hib (DTaP-IPV-Hib) at approximately age 6, 10, and 14 weeks.1 A 

first measles vaccination should be given at or soon after age 9 months.2

All basic vaccinations coverage

Percentage of children who received specific vaccines at any time before the 

survey (according to a vaccination card or the mother’s report). To have 

received all basic vaccinations, a child must receive at least:

 One dose of BCG vaccine, which protects against tuberculosis

 Three doses of DTaP vaccine, which protects against diphtheria, tetanus, 

and pertussis (whooping cough)

 Three doses of polio vaccine 

 One dose of measles vaccine

Sample: Living children age 12-23 months or age 24-35 months

Information on vaccination coverage was obtained in two ways in the SADHS 2016: from written 

vaccination records, including the Road-to-Health booklet and other vaccination or health cards, and from 

verbal reports. For each child born in the 3 years before the survey, mothers were asked to show the 

interviewer the Road-to-Health booklet or other document used for recording the child’s immunisations. If 

the Road-to-Health booklet or other document was available, the interviewer copied the dates of each 

vaccination received. If a vaccination was not recorded in the Road-to-Health booklet or on the document as 

having been administered, the mother was asked to recall whether that particular vaccination had been given. 

If the mother was not able to present the Road-to-Health booklet or other document for a child, she was 

asked to recall whether the child had received the BCG, polio, DTaP-IPV-Hib, hepatitis B, pneumococcal, 

rotavirus, and measles vaccines. If she indicated that the child had received any of the multi-dose vaccines, 

she was asked the number of doses the child received.

Sixty-one percent of children age 12-23 months and 63% of children age 24-35 months received all basic 

vaccinations, with 58% of those age 12-23 months and 56% of those age 24-35 months having received all 

basic vaccinations by age 12 months (Table 10.2). 

A second, more critical measure of vaccination coverage is the proportion of children age 12-23 months and 

24-35 months who have received all age-appropriate vaccinations. The South African immunisation 

programme considers a child age 12-23 months to have received all age-appropriate vaccinations if the child 

has received all basic vaccinations, doses of OPV at birth and at 6 weeks, three doses of the HepB vaccine 

(given at age 6, 10, and 14 weeks), three doses of PCV (given at age 6 weeks, 14 weeks, and 9 months), and 

two doses of RV (given at age 6 and 14 weeks). Children age 24-35 months have received all age-appropriate 

vaccinations if they have received a fourth dose of DTaP-IPV-Hib and a second dose of the measles vaccine 

(both given at 18 months) in addition to all of the age-appropriate vaccinations relevant for a child age 12-

23 months. Fifty-three percent of children age 12-23 months and 42% of children age 24-35 months have 

received all of the vaccines appropriate for their age. Forty-eight percent of children age 12-23 months and 

35% of those age 24-35 months received the vaccines appropriate for their age by age 12 months and by age 

24 months, respectively, as recommended.

 

1 Effective 1 December 2015, DTaP-IPV-Hib was replaced with DTaP-IPV-Hib-HepB.

2 Effective 1 December 2015, the recommended schedule of childhood vaccinations changed, and children born after 

that date should receive the first dose of the measles vaccine at 6 months and the second dose at 12 months. However, 

given the timing of the SADHS fieldwork, children eligible for the new vaccination schedule would be too young to be 

part of the 12-23 or 24-35 month age cohorts for whom data are presented in this chapter.
152 • Child Health 

Figure 10.1 shows coverage of all age-appropriate

vaccinations among children age 12-23 months. 

Coverage was highest for the BCG vaccine (93%) and

the birth dose of polio vaccine (92%). In the case of 

multi-dose vaccines such as DTaP-IPV-Hib, HepB, 

PCV, and RV, coverage is highest for the first dose 

and falls in subsequent doses. Coverage rates for the 

first doses of DTaP-IPV-Hib, HepB, PCV, and RV

were 91%, 90%, 89%, and 88%, respectively. Sixtyfive percent of children age 12-23 months received the 

third dose of DTaP-IPV-Hib, 65% received the third 

dose of HepB, 62% received the third dose of PCV, 

and 70% received the second dose of RV. The 

difference between the percentages of children 

receiving the first and third doses is 26 percentage 

points for DTaP-IPV-Hib, 25 percentage points for 

HepB, and 27 percentage points for PCV; the 

difference between the percentages of children 

receiving the first and second doses of RV is 18 

percentage points.

A similar pattern is observed among children age 

24-35 months, although coverage for first doses isslightly lower than that reported among children age 12-23 

months. Coverage rates for the two vaccine doses given at age 18 months, namely, the fourth dose of DTaPIPV-Hib and the second measles dose, are 48% and 59%, respectively (Table 10.2). 

Overall, 5% of children age 12-23 months and 8% of those age 24-35 months were reported not to have 

received any vaccinations. No child whose vaccination card was seen was unimmunised.

Vaccination Card Ownership and Availability

Vaccination cards are a critical tool in ensuring that a child receives all recommended vaccinations on 

schedule. Among children age 12-23 months and 24-35 months whose mothers were interviewed, 98% and 

99%, respectively, ever had a Road-to-Health card or other document on which their vaccinations were 

recorded. However, not all mothers were able to produce their child’s vaccination card at the time of the 

interview. Only 66% of children age 12-23 months and 61% of children age 24-35 months had vaccination 

cards available at the time of the interview (Table 10.3). A majority of the cards that were not seen were 

reported to be with a relative, which was expected given that there were many instances in which the child 

was not a resident in the household; others were misplaced, lost, or destroyed (data not shown). Mothers’

recall may not be as reliable as written vaccination records and, therefore, may result in an underestimate of 

vaccinations (Miles et al. 2013).

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The percentage of children age 12-23 months in South Africa who 

had received all basic vaccinations decreased slightly from 63% in 1998 to 61% in 2016. The percentage 

who received all basic vaccinations by age 12 months increased slightly from 55% to 58%. In 1998, 2% of 

children were reported to have received no vaccinations, as compared with 5% in 2016. The percentages of 

children who had a vaccination card seen at the time of the interview were 75% in 1998 and 66% in 2016.

Figure 10.1 All age-appropriate 

childhood vaccinations

93

92

78

91

75

65

90

73

65

89

73

62

88

70

86

61

53

5

BCG

0

1

1

2

3

1

2

3

1

2

3

1

2

Measles

All basic

All age-appropriate

None

Percentage of children age 12-23 months 

vaccinated at any time before the survey

Rotavirus (RV)

DPT-IPV-Hib

Polio (oral)

HepB

Pneumococcal

(PCV)
Child Health • 153

Patterns by background 

characteristics

 Eighty-nine percent of children 

age 12-23 months whose 

vaccination card was seen 

received all basic vaccinations,

as compared with 7% of 

children whose vaccination card 

was not seen and whose

information was based entirely 

on their mother’s recall. 

Seventy-nine percent of 

children age 12-23 months with 

a vaccination card received all age-appropriate vaccinations, compared with less than 1% of children 

without a card or without a card seen (Figure 10.2).

 A similar pattern was apparent among children age 24-35 months; 69% of children with a vaccination 

card received all age-appropriate vaccines, compared with 0.2% whose immunisation history was based

entirely on their mother’s recall (Table 10.4).

 Children age 12-23 months who reside in non-urban areas are somewhat more likely to receive all basic 

vaccinations than children residing in urban areas (65% versus 59%).

 Coverage rates for basic vaccinations among 

children age 12-23 months residing in North West 

(56%), Gauteng (52%), and Mpumalanga (56%) 

are lower than the national average (Figure 10.3).

Vaccination Coverage according to Child’s 

Residence and Caregiver’s Questionnaire

The information on vaccination status presented in 

Table 10.2, Table 10.3, and Table 10.4 was collected 

by interviewing the mother, even in those instances 

where the child did not reside with her. Table 10.5

presents vaccination coverage according to children’s 

residence with their mother. Coverage of each vaccine 

for which information was collected is higher among 

children who live with their mother than among those 

who live elsewhere. Among children age 12-23 

months, 59% of those residing with their mother have 

received all age-appropriate vaccinations, as

compared with only 8% of those who do not reside 

with their mother. Among children age 24-35 months, 49% of those residing with their mother have received 

all age-appropriate vaccinations, compared with only 3% of those living elsewhere. These findings may be

explained by the fact that mothers whose children did not reside with them were much less likely to have a 

vaccination card that was seen, and therefore the vaccination data were collected via recall.

In an effort to collect higher quality information about vaccination coverage among children who do not 

reside with their mother, data on childhood vaccinations were captured by interviewing caregivers of 

children whose mothers are deceased or who do not live in the same household as their mother. Among 

children age 12-23 months whose vaccination information was collected through a caregiver, 72% ever had 

a vaccination card and 65% had a vaccination card that was seen at the time of the interview; similarly, 70% 

Figure 10.2 Vaccination coverage by whether 

vaccination card was seen

Figure 10.3 Vaccination coverage 

by province

Percentage of children age 12-23 months who 

received all basic vaccines at any time before 

the survey

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 

unweighted cases

61 53

89 79

7

1

All basic vaccinations All age-appropriate vaccinations

Percentage of children age 12-23 months 

Total Vaccination card seen No vaccination card or card not seen
154 • Child Health 

of children age 24-35 months ever had a vaccination card and 62% had a vaccination card that was seen 

(Table 10.6). Thus, while the percentage of children who ever had a vaccination card was lower among 

those whose information was collected through interviews with caregivers than those whose information 

was collected through interviews with mothers, the percentage of vaccination cards seen was similar.

Table 10.5 also presents comparisons of vaccination coverage among children who reside with their mother 

and children whose vaccination information was collected through an interview with a caregiver. Among 

children age 12-23 months, 59% of those living with their mother and 51% of those living with a caregiver 

other than their mother received all age-appropriate vaccines; 4% of children living with their mother 

received no vaccinations, as compared with 14% of children living with a caregiver. Among children age 

24-35 months, 49% of those living with their mother and 51% of those living with a caregiver received all 

age-appropriate vaccines.

Reasons Vaccinations Were Missed, Late, or Not Given

Among children age 12-35 months whose vaccination information was collected by interviewing their 

mother, 23% ever missed a vaccination, received a vaccination late, or did not receive any vaccinations at 

all (Table 10.7). For such children, mothers were asked why the child missed a vaccination, received it late, 

or did not get any vaccinations. The most commonly reported reason was that vaccines were out of stock at 

clinics (49%). Other reasons reported by mothers included that they were too busy (11%) or that the child 

was ill (10%). Less than 1% of mothers reported fear of a vaccine’s side effects as a reason for delaying or 

skipping a vaccination.

10.3 SYMPTOMS OF ACUTE RESPIRATORY INFECTION

Acute respiratory infection (predominantly pneumonia) is a common cause of death in young children. 

Caregivers are advised that a young child with a cough and/or difficult breathing should be taken to a health 

facility promptly. Current guidelines advise a syndromic approach to the treatment of ARI whereby children 

with fast breathing and/or chest indrawing are treated with an antibiotic (WHO 2014b). However, in cases 

where the health professional is confident that the symptoms are related to a viral infection, it is reasonable 

not to prescribe antibiotics.

Treatment of symptoms of acute respiratory infection (ARI)

Children with symptoms of ARI for whom advice or treatment was sought. ARI 

symptoms consist of (1) short, rapid breathing that is chest-related and/or (2) 

difficult breathing that is chest-related.

Sample: Children under age 5 with symptoms of ARI in the 2 weeks before the 

survey

Mothers reported that 3% of children under age 5 had ARI symptoms in the 2 weeks before the survey (Table 

10.8). Advice or treatment was sought for 88% of children with ARI symptoms; among approximately onethird (31%) of children with ARI symptoms, advice or treatment was sought the same day or the day after 

their symptoms appeared.

Advice or treatment was most commonly sought from public sector health facilities: half (50%) of all 

children with ARI symptoms were taken to a government clinic or health centre, and a further 6% were taken 

to a government hospital. In 34% of cases, advice or treatment was sought from the private sector, including 

a private doctor (9%), a private hospital/clinic (3%), or a chemist or pharmacy (23%) (Table 10.9). This 

latter finding is of concern, as children for whom advice or treatment is sought from a chemist or pharmacy

are unlikely to receive antibiotics if they are indicated. 
Child Health • 155

10.4 FEVER

Fever is a common symptom of a variety of illnesses in young children. In areas where malaria is prevalent, 

all children with fever should access health services as it is essential to exclude malaria as the cause of the 

fever. However, in non-malaria areas, home treatment of fever not associated with other symptoms (e.g., fast 

breathing) may be appropriate. 

Treatment of fever

Children with fever for whom advice or treatment was sought.

Sample: Children under age 5 with a fever in the 2 weeks before the survey

Among children under age 5, 20% were reported to have had a fever in the 2 weeks before the survey. Sixtyeight percent of children with a fever were taken for advice or treatment, and 31% were taken for advice or 

treatment the same day as or the day after the fever’s onset (Table 10.10). Thirty percent of children under 

age 5 with a fever received antibiotics; this proportion seems very high given that most episodes of fever in 

young children do not require antibiotics.

Patterns by background characteristics

 The prevalence of fever was lowest among children age 0-5 months (12%), peaked among children age 

6-11 months (26%), and then gradually fell with increasing age.

 Although fever was common across all wealth quintiles, children in wealthier households were more 

likely than those in poorer households to access advice or treatment (73% of children in the highest 

wealth quintile versus 64% in the lowest quintile).

 Children from wealthier households were also the most likely to receive antibiotic drugs; 44% of 

children in the highest wealth quintile were given antibiotics. This means that about 1 in 11 children in 

this wealth quintile received antibiotics for fever in the preceding 2 weeks.

As shown in Table 10.11, for 41% of children with a fever, advice or treatment was sought from public 

sector health facilities; for 27%, advice or treatment was sought from the private medical sector. Among 

children with a fever for whom advice or treatment was sought, the most common provider of advice or 

treatment was a government clinic or health centre (54%), followed by a chemist or pharmacy (22%).

10.5 DIARRHOEAL DISEASE

Diarrhoeal disease remains an important cause of mortality and morbidity among young children in South 

Africa. Treatment of diarrhoea in children should include increased fluids, continued feeding, and a 5-day 

course of zinc. The increased fluids can be provided as increased feeds (especially increased breastfeeding), 

as clinic-recommended homemade fluids (RHF) consisting of a sugar-salt solution, or as fluid prepared from

a packet of oral rehydration salts (ORS).

Provision of increased fluids reduces the risk of the child becoming dehydrated, and widespread use of oral 

rehydration therapy (ORT) has resulted in a decline in deaths of young children associated with dehydration

and shock. Continued feeding is important, as repeated episodes or prolonged diarrhoea place a child at risk 

of developing acute malnutrition. As deaths from dehydration and shock have declined, a higher proportion 

of deaths associated with diarrhoea are now due to complications of acute malnutrition.

Zinc has been shown to reduce the severity and duration of diarrhoea, and it is recommended that all children 

with diarrhoea receive a 5-day course of zinc. This means that, unlike previously when home treatment of 

mild cases of diarrhoea with RHF and continued feeding was appropriate, all children with diarrhoea should 

now access care in order to receive zinc.
156 • Child Health 

10.5.1 Prevalence of Diarrhoea and Treatment-Seeking Behaviour

Mothers reported that 10% of children under age 5 had a diarrhoeal episode in the 2 weeks before the survey 

(Table 10.12). Advice or treatment was sought for 63% of these children. It is important to note that 

treatment of diarrhoea in young children includes provision of zinc; thus, advice or treatment should be 

sought in all cases of diarrhoea in young children.

Patterns by background characteristics

 The prevalence of diarrhoea peaks among

children age 6-23 months (16%-17%) (Figure 

10.4). This corresponds to the time when children

start losing protection from maternal antibodies 

through breastfeeding, begin to walk, and are at 

increased risk of contamination from the 

environment. Treatment was most commonly 

sought for children age 36-47 months (80%).

 Urban children with diarrhoea were more likely 

to be taken for advice or treatment than non-urban 

children (66% versus 60%).

 Advice or treatment was more likely to be sought for female children with diarrhoea than male children 

(67% versus 60%).

 The percentage of children under age 5 who had diarrhoea in the 2 weeks before the survey was highest

in North West (16%) and KwaZulu-Natal (14%) and lowest in Western Cape (5%) and Free State (6%). 

However, because of the dearth of cases, it is not possible to compare treatment-seeking behaviour.

 Children from the lowest two wealth quintiles are more likely to have diarrhoea than those from higher 

wealth quintiles but are less likely to be taken for advice or treatment.

10.5.2 Feeding Practices during an Episode of Diarrhoea

Appropriate feeding practices

Children with diarrhoea are given more liquids than usual and as much food or 

more than usual. 

Sample: Children under age 5 with diarrhoea in the 2 weeks before the survey

To reduce dehydration and minimise the effects of diarrhoea on nutritional status, mothers are encouraged 

to continue normal feeding of children with diarrhoea and to increase the amount of fluids given.

Figure 10.4 Diarrhoea prevalence by age

7

16 17

8 9 7

10

<6 6-11 12-23 24-35 36-47 48-59 Total

Percentage of children under age 5 

who had diarrhoea in the 2 weeks 

before the survey

Age in months
Child Health • 157

Only 15% of children under age 5 

with diarrhoea in the 2 weeks before 

the survey were given more liquids 

than usual, as recommended. Fortyfour percent received the same 

amount of liquids. It is of concern 

that 35% of children were given a 

somewhat less or much less fluids

than usual, and 6% were given no 

fluids at all (Figure 10.5). Children 

who were breastfeeding were more 

likely than nonbreastfeeding 

children to receive more or the same 

amount of fluid as usual (72% versus 

55%) (Table 10.13).

Just over half (51%) of children with diarrhoea were fed according to the recommended practice of giving 

the same or more food than usual. Forty-three percent of children were given much less or somewhat less 

food than usual, while 2% received no food during diarrhoea (Figure 10.5).

10.5.3 Oral Rehydration Therapy and Other Treatments

Oral rehydration therapy (ORT)

Children with diarrhoea are given increased fluids, a fluid made from a special 

packet of oral rehydration salts (ORS), or clinic-recommended homemade fluids 

(RHF).

Sample: Children under age 5 with diarrhoea in the 2 weeks before the survey

As noted previously, all children 

with diarrhoea should receive 

increased fluids, continued feeding,

and oral zinc. Eighty-three percent 

of children received ORT, either as

increased fluids (15%), ORS packets 

(51%), or recommended home fluids 

(73%) (Table 10.13 and Table 

10.14). Fifty-seven percent of 

children received ORT and 

continued feeding, and 37% of 

children received zinc. Overall, only 

24% of children received all three 

interventions (i.e., ORT, continued 

feeding, and zinc) (Figure 10.6). It 

appears that while there is good 

awareness and use of ORT, more 

attention needs to be paid to ensuring 

that mothers and other caregivers are 

aware of the importance of 

continued feeding and provision of 

zinc during episodes of diarrhoea. 

Figure 10.5 Feeding practices during diarrhoea

Figure 10.6 Treatment of diarrhoea

6

15

45

44

43

35

2

6

Food given 4

Liquids

given

Percentage of children under age 5 with diarrhoea in the 

2 weeks before the survey

More Same Less None Never gave

(compared to 

usual)

(compared to 

usual)

63

51

73

15

81

37

28

83

57

24

11

11

12

Sought advice or treatment

Fluid from ORS packet

Recommended homemade fluid

Increased fluids

ORS or RHF

Zinc

ORS and zinc

ORT

Continued feeding and ORT

Continued feeding, ORT, and zinc

Antibiotics

Home remedy/other

No treatment

Percentage of children under age 5 with diarrhoea in the 

2 weeks before the survey
158 • Child Health 

Eleven percent of children with diarrhoea received antibiotics, and 2% received antimotility drugs. 

Antibiotics are generally not indicated for diarrhoea but may be prescribed in certain cases and for 

concomitant illnesses. Antimotility drugs are contraindicated in children and should not be given.

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: There has been little change since 1998 in the percentage of children 

with diarrhoea who received ORT (81% in 1998 and 83% in 2016).

Patterns by background characteristics

 Boys and girls with diarrhoea are equally likely to be given continued feeding, ORT, and zinc (24% and 

25%, respectively).

 Overall, differences in the treatment of children from urban and non-urban areas are small. However, 

urban children are more likely than non-urban children to be given zinc (41% versus 32%), ORS and 

zinc (33% versus 22%), and continued feeding, ORT, and zinc (29% versus 18%).

Among children with diarrhoea for whom advice or treatment was sought, the most common source of advice 

or treatment was a government clinic or health centre (60%), followed by a private doctor (11%) and a 

chemist or pharmacy (9%) (Table 10.15). 

10.5.4 Knowledge of ORS Packets and Clinic-Recommended Homemade Fluids

Among all women age 15-49, regardless of whether or not they have children, 62% know about ORS packets 

and 90% know about clinic-recommended homemade fluids (RHF) for the treatment of diarrhoea (Table

10.16). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 Knowledge of both ORS packets and RHF increases with age. 

 Slightly more women in non-urban than urban areas know about RHF (93% versus 88%); in contrast, 

women in urban areas are more likely than women in non-urban areas to know about ORS packets (64% 

versus 58%).

 Only 83% of women in Gauteng know about RHF, as compared with more than 90% of women in the 

other provinces. Women in KwaZulu-Natal (79%) and Western Cape (72%) are most knowledgeable 

about ORS packets, while women in Limpopo (42%) and Mpumalanga (46%) are least knowledgeable.

10.6 PREVALENCE AND TREATMENT OF CHILDHOOD ILLNESS—SUMMARY

Fever and diarrhoea were more 

common than ARI symptoms, but 

children with ARI symptoms were 

more likely to be taken for advice or 

treatment. Advice or treatment was 

sought for 88% of children with ARI

symptoms, 68% of children with a 

fever, and 63% of children with 

diarrhoea (Figure 10.7).

Figure 10.7 Prevalence and treatment 

of childhood illness

3

20

10

88

68 63

ARI Fever Diarrhoea ARI Fever Diarrhoea

Percentage of children under 

age 5 with symptoms in the 2 

weeks before the survey

Among those with illness, 

percentage for whom advice or 

treatment was sought 
Child Health • 159

LIST OF TABLES

For more information on child health, see the following tables:

 Table 10.1 Child’s size and weight at birth

 Table 10.2 Vaccinations by source of information

 Table 10.3 Possession and observation of vaccination cards, according to background 

characteristics

 Table 10.4 Vaccinations by background characteristics

 Table 10.5 Vaccinations by child’s residence with mother or other caregiver

 Table 10.6 Possession and observation of vaccination cards during interview with a 

caregiver

 Table 10.7 Reasons vaccinations were missed, late, or not given

 Table 10.8 Prevalence and treatment of symptoms of ARI

 Table 10.9 Source of advice or treatment for children with symptoms of ARI

 Table 10.10 Prevalence and treatment of fever

 Table 10.11 Source of advice or treatment for children with fever

 Table 10.12 Prevalence and treatment of diarrhoea

 Table 10.13 Feeding practices during diarrhoea

 Table 10.14 Oral rehydration therapy, zinc, and other treatments for diarrhoea

 Table 10.15 Source of advice or treatment for children with diarrhoea

 Table 10.16 Knowledge of ORS packets and clinic-recommended homemade fluids
160 • Child Health 

Table 10.1 Child’s size and weight at birth

Percent distribution of live births in the 5 years preceding the survey by mother’s estimate of baby’s size at birth, percentage of live births in the 5 

years preceding the survey that have a reported birth weight, and among live births in the 5 years preceding the survey with a reported birth weight, 

percentage less than 2.5 kg, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percent distribution of births by size of baby at birth

Percentage 

of births 

that have a 

reported 

birth 

weight1

Number of 

births

Among births with a 

reported birth weight1

Background 

characteristic Very small

Smaller 

than 

average

Average or 

larger Don’t know Total

Percentage 

less than 

2.5 kg

Number of 

births

Mother’s age at birth

<20 5.1 7.4 86.2 1.3 100.0 85.5 549 13.8 470

20-34 6.1 8.2 84.9 0.8 100.0 89.3 2,574 13.9 2,299

35-49 12.6 9.4 77.3 0.7 100.0 86.8 449 18.8 389

Birth order

1 6.2 7.8 85.3 0.7 100.0 88.3 1,281 16.0 1,132

2-3 7.1 8.2 84.0 0.6 100.0 90.3 1,817 13.4 1,640

4-5 7.7 9.1 81.5 1.6 100.0 82.1 370 15.4 304

6+ 3.8 8.1 82.1 6.0 100.0 79.3 104 12.8 82

Mother’s smoking status2

Smokes cigarettes/ 

tobacco 11.9 11.2 76.3 0.6 100.0 93.6 70 27.1 65

Does not smoke 6.1 8.7 84.4 0.9 100.0 87.6 1,738 14.2 1,523

Residence

Urban 6.9 7.5 84.7 1.0 100.0 89.4 2,281 14.4 2,039

Non-urban 6.5 9.5 83.3 0.8 100.0 86.7 1,291 14.8 1,120

Province

Western Cape 11.4 8.0 80.6 0.0 100.0 97.1 313 17.9 304

Eastern Cape 6.1 7.2 86.0 0.7 100.0 89.2 398 14.3 355

Northern Cape 4.1 7.0 85.7 3.1 100.0 85.3 69 19.8 59

Free State 6.4 11.5 81.2 0.9 100.0 89.2 164 17.0 146

KwaZulu-Natal 5.8 7.4 86.0 0.7 100.0 89.8 654 16.9 587

North West 7.6 13.7 78.7 0.0 100.0 87.7 282 15.6 248

Gauteng 6.4 5.0 87.1 1.6 100.0 86.0 1,013 12.0 871

Mpumalanga 7.2 9.2 82.5 1.1 100.0 82.6 332 14.2 275

Limpopo 5.8 13.5 80.3 0.4 100.0 90.5 347 11.4 314

Mother’s education

No education 4.3 10.6 83.7 1.4 100.0 67.5 50 (14.7) 34

Primary incomplete 8.4 9.9 80.3 1.4 100.0 75.4 182 13.8 137

Primary complete 3.5 7.3 85.6 3.5 100.0 81.2 138 17.1 112

Secondary incomplete 7.4 8.9 83.0 0.7 100.0 86.7 1,762 15.0 1,527

Secondary complete 6.0 7.1 86.2 0.7 100.0 92.5 1,043 13.6 965

More than secondary 6.6 7.3 85.3 0.8 100.0 96.4 397 14.6 383

Wealth quintile

Lowest 6.3 9.8 82.6 1.2 100.0 86.2 787 14.9 678

Second 7.6 8.7 83.2 0.4 100.0 83.9 865 16.0 726

Middle 5.1 6.9 86.7 1.4 100.0 89.0 788 12.3 702

Fourth 7.9 8.5 83.0 0.6 100.0 92.4 657 14.1 607

Highest 7.2 6.2 85.8 0.8 100.0 93.9 476 15.6 447

Total 6.8 8.2 84.2 0.9 100.0 88.4 3,572 14.5 3,158

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

1 Based on either a written record or the mother’s recall

2 Questions on smoking were asked in a subset of households 
Child Health • 161

Table 10.2 Vaccinations by source of information

Percentage of children age 12-23 months and children age 24-35 months who received specific vaccines at any time before the survey, by source 

of information (vaccination card or mother’s report), and percentage who received specific vaccines by the appropriate age, South Africa DHS 2016 

Children age 12-23 months Children age 24-35 months

Vaccine

Vaccination 

card1

Mother’s 

report

Either 

source

Vaccinated 

by appropriate age2,3Vaccination 

card1

Mother’s 

report

Either 

source

Vaccinated 

by appropriate age3,4

BCG 64.6 27.9 92.5 92.2 60.7 30.8 91.5 90.7

Polio (OPV)

0 (birth dose) 65.5 26.8 92.3 92.3 58.9 29.4 88.3 87.5

1 65.8 11.8 77.6 77.5 58.1 13.4 71.5 70.3

DTaP-IPV-Hib

1 66.3 24.8 91.2 90.1 60.9 26.6 87.5 86.8

2 64.8 10.6 75.4 75.0 60.9 10.9 71.8 69.9

3 62.2 2.8 65.0 64.6 59.0 5.9 64.9 62.4

4 na na na na 47.7 0.4 48.1 42.9

HepB

1 65.8 24.4 90.2 90.0 60.9 26.2 87.0 86.3

2 64.2 9.1 73.4 72.7 60.9 10.8 71.6 71.0

3 61.7 3.3 65.0 64.8 60.0 5.9 65.8 63.6

Pneumococcal (PCV)

1 65.9 22.8 88.7 88.6 60.5 24.9 85.5 84.8

2 64.3 8.3 72.7 72.4 59.8 9.3 69.1 66.7

3 59.1 2.8 61.9 58.5 55.4 4.8 60.2 54.5

Rotavirus (RV)

1 66.1 22.2 88.3 87.9 59.8 25.4 85.2 84.5

2 63.3 6.8 70.1 69.8 57.2 10.3 67.5 65.3

Measles

1 62.3 23.9 86.1 82.0 58.6 25.8 84.4 77.4

2 na na na na 48.5 10.7 59.2 56.7

All basic vaccinations5 58.8 2.4 61.3 57.7 57.3 5.4 62.7 56.3

All age-appropriate 

vaccinations6 52.5 0.2 52.7 47.9 41.8 0.1 41.8 34.7

No vaccinations 0.0 5.3 5.3 na 0.0 7.8 7.8 na

Number of children 449 228 677 677 402 258 660 660

na = Not applicable

BCG = Bacille Calmette-Guerin; OPV = Oral polio vaccine; DTaP = Diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis; IPV = Inactivated polio vaccine; Hib = Haemophilus 

influenzae type b; HepB = Hepatitis B; PCV = Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine; RV = Rotavirus vaccine 

1 Vaccination card, booklet, or other home-based record

2 Received by age 12 months

3 For children whose vaccination information is based on the mother’s report, date of vaccination is not collected. The proportions of vaccinations 

given during the first and second years of life are assumed to be the same as for children with a written record of vaccination.

4 Received by age 12 months for all vaccines except DTaP-IPV-Hib 4 and measles 2, which should be received by age 24 months

5 BCG, three doses of DTaP-IPV-Hib, and one dose of measles vaccine

6 For children age 12-23 months: BCG, two doses of oral polio vaccine, three doses of DTaP-IPV-Hib, three doses of HepB, three doses of 

pneumococcal vaccine, two doses of rotavirus vaccine, and one dose of measles vaccine. For children age 24-35 months: BCG, two doses of oral 

polio vaccine, four doses of DTaP-IPV-Hib, three doses of HepB, three doses of pneumococcal vaccine, two doses of rotavirus vaccine, and two 

doses of measles vaccine. 
162 • Child Health 

Table 10.3 Possession and observation of vaccination cards, according to background characteristics

Percentage of children age 12-23 months and children age 24-35 months who ever had a vaccination card, and percentage with a vaccination 

card seen, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Children age 12-23 months Children age 24-35 months

Background 

characteristic

Percentage who 

ever had a 

vaccination card1

Percentage with a 

vaccination card 

seen1

Number of 

children

Percentage who 

ever had a 

vaccination card1

Percentage with a 

vaccination card 

seen1

Number of 

children

Sex

Male 98.1 67.2 358 98.7 62.9 346

Female 98.0 65.4 319 98.3 58.7 314

Birth order

1 99.0 66.4 247 98.4 58.9 256

2-3 97.9 66.5 333 99.2 62.2 319

4-5 98.4 67.7 82 95.5 61.9 62

6+ * * 15 (98.0) (63.2) 24

Residence

Urban 99.1 63.9 416 99.2 57.9 414

Non-urban 96.3 70.2 261 97.3 66.0 246

Province

Western Cape (100.0) (76.0) 54 (100.0) (56.2) 57

Eastern Cape 100.0 79.8 81 96.9 68.3 74

Northern Cape 100.0 75.4 12 100.0 64.0 12

Free State (98.9) (81.3) 25 97.7 65.5 30

KwaZulu-Natal 94.7 63.8 135 98.2 54.7 106

North West 100.0 65.7 59 100.0 65.1 58

Gauteng 99.5 55.1 180 99.7 56.9 185

Mpumalanga 98.1 63.5 61 100.0 69.6 63

Limpopo 94.5 73.2 69 94.1 63.2 74

Mother’s education

No education * * 3 * * 7

Primary incomplete (87.8) (65.5) 29 (96.4) (71.3) 36

Primary complete (100.0) (55.4) 23 (97.4) (37.9) 31

Secondary incomplete 98.3 66.6 364 98.6 62.2 306

Secondary complete 98.6 69.7 183 99.2 66.6 193

More than secondary 98.9 58.9 75 98.0 47.5 88

Wealth quintile

Lowest 96.1 73.0 162 98.1 66.8 130

Second 99.7 58.4 167 97.3 57.9 157

Middle 97.0 64.8 138 99.6 60.4 171

Fourth 98.2 74.0 121 98.5 67.8 98

Highest 100.0 61.2 88 99.0 52.7 104

Total 98.1 66.3 677 98.5 60.9 660

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed.

1 Vaccination card, booklet, or other home-based record 
Child Health • 163

Table 10.4 Vaccinations by background characteristics

Percentage of children age 12-23 months and children age 24-35 months who received specific vaccines at any time before the survey (according to a vaccination card or the mother’s report), percentage with all basic vaccinations, and percentage 

with all age-appropriate vaccinations, by background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Children age 12-23 months Children age 24-35 months

BCG

Polio1(OPV) DTaP-IPV-Hib HepB Pneumococcal (PCV) Rotavirus (RV) Measles 

1

All basic 

vaccinations2

All ageappropriate 

vaccinations3

No 

vaccinations

Number 

of 

children

DTaPIPVHib 4

Measles

2

All ageappropriate 

vaccinations4

Number 

of 

0 1 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 children

Sex

Male 93.9 93.4 78.7 93.1 78.6 67.1 91.9 75.3 68.0 90.7 74.7 63.1 89.1 71.3 88.0 63.5 53.2 3.8 358 49.4 61.7 43.8 346

Female 90.9 91.0 76.4 89.0 71.7 62.6 88.3 71.2 61.6 86.4 70.4 60.6 87.4 68.8 84.1 58.7 52.3 6.9 319 46.6 56.5 39.7 314

Birth order

1 90.2 91.0 74.8 90.2 72.0 63.6 89.1 69.4 63.3 87.8 68.8 62.4 87.1 67.8 84.6 59.9 52.8 6.1 247 46.6 58.2 40.3 256

2-3 94.5 93.1 79.8 93.6 77.6 67.0 92.0 77.2 67.3 89.7 74.3 62.3 89.0 71.5 87.5 63.8 54.2 4.8 333 49.7 59.4 42.4 319

4-5 93.1 94.6 78.7 85.7 78.3 63.9 87.2 71.4 64.0 88.5 79.0 64.2 90.7 72.5 89.6 60.0 50.0 2.3 82 59.3 70.7 56.3 62

6+ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 15 (13.6) (38.0) (13.6) 24

Vaccination 

card

Seen 97.4 98.7 99.2 100.0 97.7 93.8 99.1 96.8 92.9 99.3 97.0 89.1 99.6 95.4 93.9 88.7 79.1 0.0 449 78.3 79.6 68.6 402

Not seen/none 82.9 79.6 35.0 73.7 31.4 8.3 72.6 27.1 9.9 67.8 24.7 8.3 65.9 20.2 70.9 7.2 0.7 15.6 228 1.1 27.4 0.2 258

Residence

Urban 92.7 93.3 76.9 90.4 75.2 62.9 89.7 71.6 62.9 88.2 72.0 60.5 88.7 68.9 86.1 59.1 51.7 5.3 416 45.5 57.7 39.3 414

Non-urban 92.1 90.6 78.7 92.4 75.6 68.4 91.0 76.3 68.4 89.5 73.7 64.2 87.6 72.1 86.1 64.6 54.4 5.2 261 52.5 61.7 46.0 246

Province

Western Cape (91.4) (88.1) (91.4) (89.6) (78.7) (70.0) (86.4) (73.0) (64.3) (84.0) (70.0) (60.4) (91.9) (66.6) (77.6) (67.7) (49.0) (6.2) 54 (54.4) (70.5) (43.5) 57

Eastern Cape 96.2 94.2 91.0 95.0 85.4 74.3 94.0 86.6 72.2 92.8 84.8 68.7 91.6 83.7 88.6 70.9 57.3 3.1 81 46.8 56.2 44.7 74

Northern Cape 95.8 90.3 84.5 95.8 87.3 80.6 91.6 81.1 78.3 90.8 83.5 75.7 84.1 77.0 84.9 75.4 64.9 4.2 12 56.1 62.8 46.4 12

Free State (97.8) (97.8) (95.8) (97.8) (95.7) (84.8) (97.8) (91.6) (87.6) (95.7) (91.0) (77.2) (94.7) (89.3) (90.7) (79.5) (71.3) (2.2) 25 57.8 73.4 54.5 30

KwaZulu-Natal 91.3 92.2 71.6 91.6 73.5 65.3 91.6 67.4 62.5 90.9 66.2 63.8 91.3 68.6 89.4 62.4 60.1 6.2 135 47.2 59.1 46.0 106

North West 94.5 98.6 74.4 99.2 72.4 65.0 97.0 81.3 64.0 89.7 70.1 51.7 90.6 65.4 85.0 55.7 43.7 0.0 59 46.1 68.1 31.9 58

Gauteng 92.6 91.5 68.5 87.9 69.5 53.6 87.9 68.6 58.7 86.5 71.4 57.4 84.8 67.1 87.7 51.9 45.7 6.6 180 44.8 50.1 36.3 185

Mpumalanga 85.7 87.1 79.7 80.9 74.0 62.9 80.0 69.6 67.6 80.0 68.7 58.8 78.0 65.6 75.0 56.4 50.5 10.4 61 47.4 57.9 42.5 63

Limpopo 92.9 93.4 79.5 94.7 74.0 71.1 92.1 70.9 66.3 93.1 73.3 66.9 90.2 67.7 88.7 66.7 54.9 2.9 69 51.0 64.1 46.5 74

Mother’s 

education

No education * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 3 * * * 7

Primary 

incomplete (87.2) (87.2) (72.0) (87.2) (66.6) (60.2) (87.2) (72.1) (59.2) (77.9) (62.8) (47.1) (75.2) (62.8) (70.3) (46.0) (37.8) (12.8) 29 (43.5) (43.6) (34.1) 36

Primary 

complete (97.6) (100.0) (71.7) (83.7) (51.2) (51.2) (83.7) (52.5) (50.1) (83.7) (50.1) (40.5) (83.7) (51.2) (73.1) (45.9) (40.5) (0.0) 23 (32.5) (47.9) (29.9) 31

Secondary 

incomplete 91.9 90.7 79.7 90.2 76.9 65.5 89.1 73.3 66.1 87.3 73.5 63.5 87.2 69.5 85.2 61.4 52.4 5.5 364 48.6 60.3 44.3 306

Secondary 

complete 94.7 95.3 79.9 94.2 78.3 67.9 93.2 78.5 67.8 92.8 77.5 64.2 93.0 76.0 90.6 66.0 56.3 3.0 183 55.3 68.3 46.8 193

More than 

secondary 90.1 91.7 64.8 91.7 70.2 59.8 90.9 66.7 57.9 90.9 66.0 59.1 87.9 65.8 89.3 57.6 52.7 8.3 75 37.0 44.6 28.2 88

(Continued...)
164 • Child Health

Table 10.4—Continued

Children age 12-23 months Children age 24-35 months

Background 

characteristic BCG

Polio1(OPV) DTaP-IPV-Hib HepB Pneumococcal (PCV) Rotavirus (RV) Measles

1

All basic 

vaccinations2

All ageappropriate 

vaccinations3

No 

vaccinations

Number 

of 

children

DTaPIPVHib 4

Measles

2

All ageappropriate 

vaccinations4

Number 

of 

0 1 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 children

Wealth quintile

Lowest 89.1 87.6 83.6 90.1 80.4 72.0 89.1 76.7 71.0 88.2 76.6 68.2 89.0 74.1 85.1 66.5 57.0 6.5 162 42.7 53.7 37.4 130

Second 94.3 93.8 69.0 89.3 64.7 54.8 89.5 68.6 58.7 84.9 67.9 54.5 82.5 64.0 84.6 52.2 45.1 4.2 167 45.4 54.2 41.1 157

Middle 92.5 92.7 79.0 93.7 79.9 68.4 92.8 74.8 65.9 90.7 72.2 65.3 88.7 70.4 87.5 63.5 55.8 5.0 138 47.1 61.3 40.0 171

Fourth 96.6 96.3 88.2 93.2 84.2 67.8 90.4 78.9 67.0 92.2 79.3 61.1 94.7 76.6 87.0 64.9 51.8 3.0 121 66.4 75.3 60.7 98

Highest 89.7 91.6 66.2 89.9 67.0 62.2 89.0 66.5 61.5 89.0 65.9 60.3 88.4 65.0 87.6 60.2 55.9 8.4 88 43.4 55.0 33.7 104

Total 92.5 92.3 77.6 91.2 75.4 65.0 90.2 73.4 65.0 88.7 72.7 61.9 88.3 70.1 86.1 61.3 52.7 5.3 677 48.1 59.2 41.8 660

Notes: Children are considered to have received the vaccine if it was either written on the child’s vaccination card or reported by the mother. For children whose vaccination information is based on the mother’s report, date of vaccination is not 

collected. The proportions of vaccinations given during the first and second years of life are assumed to be the same as for children with a written record of vaccination. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk 

indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

BCG = Bacille Calmette-Guerin; OPV = Oral polio vaccine; DTaP = Diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis; IPV = Inactivated polio vaccine; Hib = Haemophilus influenzae type b; HepB = Hepatitis B; PCV = Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine; RV = Rotavirus 

vaccine 

1 Polio 0 is the polio vaccination given at birth

2 BCG, three doses of DTaP-IPV-Hib, and one dose of measles vaccine

3 BCG, two doses of oral polio vaccine, three doses of DTaP-IPV-Hib, three doses of HepB, three doses of pneumococcal vaccine, two doses of rotavirus vaccine, and one dose of measles vaccine

4 BCG, two doses of oral polio vaccine, four doses of DTaP-IPV-Hib, three doses of HepB, three doses of pneumococcal vaccine, two doses of rotavirus vaccine, and two doses of measles vaccine 
Child Health • 165

Table 10.5 Vaccinations by child’s residence with mother or other caregiver

Among children whose information was collected through the Woman’s Questionnaire, percentage age 12-23 months and age 24-35 months who received specific vaccines at any time before the survey (according to a vaccination card 

or the mother’s report), percentage with all basic vaccinations, and percentage with all age-appropriate vaccinations, by whether or not they live with their mother, and among children whose information was collected through the Caregiver’s

Questionnaire, percentage age 12-23 months and age 24-35 months who received specific vaccines at any time before the survey (according to a vaccination card or the caregiver’s report), percentage with all basic vaccinations, and 

percentage with all age-appropriate vaccinations, South Africa DHS 2016 

Children’s 

residence

Children age 12-23 months Children age 24-35 months

BCG

Polio1(OPV) DTaP-IPV-Hib HepB Pneumococcal (PCV) Rotavirus (RV) Measles

1

All basic 

vaccinations2

All ageappropriate 

vaccinations3

No 

vaccinations

Number 

of 

children

DTaPIPVHib 4

Measles

2

All ageappropriate 

vaccinations4

Number 

of 

0 1 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 children

CHILDREN WHOSE VACCINATION INFORMATION WAS COLLECTED BY INTERVIEW WITH MOTHER

Lives with 

mother 94.3 94.4 81.6 94.1 81.0 72.1 93.0 79.2 72.3 91.4 77.9 67.6 91.6 75.8 88.9 68.0 59.1 3.7 593 56.5 63.9 49.3 554

Doesn’t live 

with mother 79.9 77.0 49.7 70.2 35.1 14.4 70.2 32.3 13.1 69.9 35.3 21.4 65.1 30.2 66.8 13.6 7.6 16.2 84 4.2 34.8 2.6 106

CHILDREN WHOSE VACCINATION INFORMATION WAS COLLECTED BY INTERVIEW WITH CAREGIVER

Lives with 

caregiver 85.1 84.4 72.5 78.5 67.4 60.5 82.5 69.6 65.2 78.4 66.4 59.4 81.5 66.1 77.0 53.9 51.1 14.0 126 55.8 59.3 51.1 129

Notes: Children are considered to have received the vaccine if it was either written on the child’s vaccination card or reported by the mother or the caregiver. For children whose vaccination information is based on the mother’s or caregiver’s 

report, date of vaccination is not collected. The proportions of vaccinations given during the first and second years of life are assumed to be the same as for children with a written record of vaccination. 

BCG = Bacille Calmette-Guerin; OPV = Oral polio vaccine; DTaP = Diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis; IPV = Inactivated polio vaccine; Hib = Haemophilus influenzae type b; HepB = Hepatitis B; PCV = Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine; 

RV = Rotavirus vaccine 

1 Polio 0 is the polio vaccination given at birth

2 BCG, three doses of DTaP-IPV-Hib, and one dose of measles vaccine

3 BCG, two doses of oral polio vaccine, three doses of DTaP-IPV-Hib, three doses of HepB, three doses of pneumococcal vaccine, two doses of rotavirus vaccine, and one dose of measles vaccine

4 BCG, two doses of oral polio vaccine, four doses of DTaP-IPV-Hib, three doses of HepB, three doses of pneumococcal vaccine, two doses of rotavirus vaccine, and two doses of measles vaccine 
166 • Child Health 

Table 10.6 Possession and observation of vaccination cards during interview with a caregiver

Among children whose information was collected through the Caregiver’s Questionnaire, percentage age 12-23 months and age 24-35 

months who ever had a vaccination card and percentage with a vaccination card seen, South Africa DHS 2016 

Children age 12-23 months Children age 24-35 months

Percentage who 

ever had a 

vaccination card1

Percentage with a 

vaccination card 

seen1

Number of 

children

Percentage who 

ever had a 

vaccination card1

Percentage with a 

vaccination card 

seen1

Number of 

children

Total 71.8 64.6 126 70.4 61.7 129

1 Vaccination card, booklet, or other home-based record 
Child Health • 167

Table 10.7 Reasons vaccinations were missed, late, or not given 

Among all children age 12-35 months, percentage who ever missed a vaccination, received a vaccination late, or did not get any vaccinations, and among children age 12-35 months who ever missed a vaccination, 

received a vaccination late, or did not receive any vaccinations, reasons the vaccinations were missed, late, or not given, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage of children 

who ever missed a 

vaccination, received one 

late, or never received 

any vaccinations

Number of 

children

Among children who ever missed a vaccination, received a vaccination late, or did not receive any vaccinations, 

the reasons vaccinations were missed, late, or not given:

Background 

characteristic

Clinic out of 

stock

Not aware of 

need for a 

vaccination

Fear of side 

effects

Did not know 

where to go

Too busy to 

take the child

No money 

for transport Child was ill

Respondent 

was ill Other Don’t know

Number of 

children

Age in months

12-23 22.2 677 50.6 9.4 0.9 1.4 13.4 5.9 6.3 5.6 10.0 0.7 151

24-35 23.7 660 47.6 8.9 0.3 3.7 8.7 4.7 12.7 5.4 14.6 0.3 156

Sex

Male 22.7 704 47.0 10.4 1.2 1.2 12.1 6.7 12.8 2.6 14.4 0.6 160

Female 23.2 633 51.3 7.8 0.0 4.0 9.9 3.7 6.0 8.7 10.2 0.4 147

Residence

Urban 21.0 830 46.9 8.0 0.0 2.3 9.2 1.9 15.4 7.4 11.7 0.3 174

Non-urban 26.2 507 51.8 10.7 1.4 2.9 13.3 9.7 1.9 3.1 13.2 0.7 133

Province

Western Cape 32.4 111 * * * * * * * * * * 36

Eastern Cape 28.8 155 53.9 8.7 0.0 2.2 16.6 8.3 2.0 8.4 17.7 0.0 45

Northern Cape 19.1 24 * * * * * * * * * * 5

Free State 12.5 56 * * * * * * * * * * 7

KwaZulu-Natal 29.3 241 53.5 11.2 2.0 4.2 13.0 6.8 9.9 4.0 2.5 0.0 71

North West 26.6 117 (45.6) (15.9) (0.0) (1.8) (1.5) (4.5) (2.9) (1.7) (22.8) (3.1) 31

Gauteng 15.1 365 * * * * * * * * * * 55

Mpumalanga 19.5 124 (22.7) (2.1) (0.0) (4.9) (16.3) (7.0) (0.5) (13.7) (35.1) (2.4) 24

Limpopo 23.1 143 (71.8) (6.0) (0.0) (0.0) (8.5) (6.5) (0.0) (5.6) (3.6) (0.0) 33

Wealth quintile

Lowest 29.0 292 49.5 13.6 0.0 0.0 10.0 13.7 1.0 10.7 10.7 0.5 85

Second 22.5 324 51.3 13.6 0.6 5.0 10.6 2.1 9.4 3.1 14.5 0.0 73

Middle 22.3 309 51.2 3.7 2.0 0.9 14.8 1.0 7.8 1.4 18.0 1.6 69

Fourth 16.9 220 (55.7) (3.8) (0.0) (1.5) (16.2) (0.5) (5.7) (8.8) (7.8) (0.0) 37

Highest 22.3 192 (35.1) (6.2) (0.0) (7.0) (3.2) (5.1) (33.1) (3.4) (6.8) (0.0) 43

Total 22.9 1,337 49.0 9.2 0.6 2.6 11.0 5.3 9.6 5.5 12.4 0.5 307

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
168 • Child Health 

Table 10.8 Prevalence and treatment of symptoms of ARI

Among children under age 5, percentage who had symptoms of acute respiratory infection (ARI) in the 2 weeks preceding 

the survey, and among children with symptoms of ARI in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, percentage for whom advice or 

treatment was sought, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Among children under age 5: Among children under age 5 with symptoms of ARI:

Background 

characteristic

Percentage with 

symptoms of 

ARI1

Number of 

children

Percentage for 

whom advice or 

treatment was 

sought2

Percentage for 

whom advice or 

treatment was 

sought same or 

next day

Number of 

children

Age in months

<6 1.1 363 * * 4

6-11 3.8 325 * * 12

12-23 4.2 677 * * 29

24-35 3.5 660 * * 23

36-47 3.1 688 * * 21

48-59 2.4 730 * * 17

Sex

Male 3.6 1,783 87.2 34.0 63

Female 2.6 1,661 (88.3) (25.9) 44

Mother’s smoking status3

Smokes cigarettes/tobacco 4.8 67 * * 3

Does not smoke 3.3 1,671 (87.1) (31.2) 55

Residence

Urban 3.3 2,204 87.6 28.8 73

Non-urban 2.7 1,240 (87.7) (34.7) 34

Province

Western Cape 3.9 306 * * 12

Eastern Cape 4.1 382 * * 16

Northern Cape 1.3 67 * * 1

Free State 2.6 156 * * 4

KwaZulu-Natal 3.2 636 * * 20

North West 1.5 269 * * 4

Gauteng 4.0 980 * * 39

Mpumalanga 2.7 309 * * 8

Limpopo 0.7 338 * * 2

Mother’s education

No education 1.4 49 * * 1

Primary incomplete 3.2 167 * * 5

Primary complete 0.5 133 * * 1

Secondary incomplete 3.6 1,680 91.6 32.5 61

Secondary complete 2.4 1,027 * * 25

More than secondary 3.8 388 * * 15

Wealth quintile

Lowest 2.9 744 (81.2) (37.5) 22

Second 2.5 822 * * 20

Middle 2.4 766 * * 19

Fourth 5.0 642 * * 32

Highest 3.0 470 * * 14

Total 3.1 3,444 87.6 30.7 107

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer 

than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1 Symptoms of ARI consist of short, rapid breathing that is chest-related and/or difficult breathing that is chest-related

2

Includes advice or treatment from the following sources: public sector, private medical sector, and supermarket. Excludes 

advice or treatment from a traditional health practitioner.

3 Questions on smoking were asked of a subsample of women 
Child Health • 169

Table 10.9 Source of advice or treatment for children with symptoms of ARI

Percentage of children under age 5 with symptoms of ARI in the 2 weeks preceding 

the survey for whom advice or treatment was sought from specific sources, and 

among children under age 5 with symptoms of ARI in the 2 weeks preceding the 

survey for whom advice or treatment was sought, percentage for whom advice or 

treatment was sought from specific sources, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage for whom advice or 

treatment was sought from 

each source:

Source

Among children 

with symptoms 

of ARI1

Among children 

with symptoms of 

ARI for whom 

advice or treatment 

was sought

Public sector 55.7 63.5

Government hospital 5.8 6.6

Government clinic/government health 

centre 50.4 57.5

CHW 0.8 0.9

Private medical sector 34.0 38.8

Private hospital/clinic 2.5 2.9

Chemist/pharmacy 22.8 26.0

Private doctor 9.3 10.7

Other private sector 3.3 3.7

Supermarket/shop 3.3 3.7

Number of children 107 94

CHW = Community health worker

1 Symptoms of ARI consist of short, rapid breathing that is chest-related and/or 

difficult breathing that is chest-related 
170 • Child Health 

Table 10.10 Prevalence and treatment of fever

Among children under age 5, percentage who had a fever in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, and among children with a fever in the 2 

weeks preceding the survey, percentage for whom advice or treatment was sought and percentage who received antibiotics as treatment, 

according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Among children under age 5: Among children under age 5 with fever:

Background 

characteristic

Percentage with 

fever

Number of 

children

Percentage for 

whom advice or 

treatment was 

sought1

Percentage for 

whom treatment 

was sought 

same or next day

Percentage who 

took antibiotic 

drugs

Number of 

children with 

fever

Age in months

<6 12.0 363 (66.3) (23.8) (25.0) 43

6-11 25.7 325 66.2 38.4 24.6 83

12-23 23.3 677 62.2 27.2 32.7 158

24-35 20.8 660 72.4 28.1 29.4 137

36-47 18.9 688 77.3 39.0 32.5 130

48-59 17.4 730 64.9 26.3 31.6 127

Sex

Male 20.3 1,783 69.0 30.3 29.6 363

Female 19.0 1,661 67.7 31.0 31.2 316

Residence

Urban 20.3 2,204 70.8 31.1 33.1 447

Non-urban 18.7 1,240 63.7 29.7 25.0 232

Province

Western Cape 16.1 306 (76.6) (38.4) (44.0) 49

Eastern Cape 25.4 382 69.7 36.2 27.1 97

Northern Cape 10.8 67 (54.3) (26.1) (51.5) 7

Free State 14.7 156 (57.5) (25.1) (32.9) 23

KwaZulu-Natal 16.0 636 55.0 10.8 34.2 102

North West 25.7 269 58.6 31.9 17.4 69

Gauteng 21.3 980 76.4 33.0 26.5 209

Mpumalanga 20.3 309 73.3 26.1 37.3 63

Limpopo 17.5 338 66.7 46.8 35.1 59

Mother’s education

No education 22.5 49 * * * 11

Primary incomplete 16.0 167 (68.3) (42.1) (21.8) 27

Primary complete 10.1 133 * * * 13

Secondary incomplete 19.3 1,680 68.6 28.6 30.5 325

Secondary complete 20.9 1,027 68.2 32.4 29.3 215

More than secondary 22.7 388 67.2 29.9 34.9 88

Wealth quintile

Lowest 13.3 744 64.0 22.8 25.5 99

Second 21.8 822 67.3 29.1 23.0 179

Middle 20.7 766 68.6 37.6 33.3 159

Fourth 22.7 642 69.3 24.2 30.6 146

Highest 20.4 470 73.3 39.7 43.6 96

Total 19.7 3,444 68.4 30.6 30.3 679

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 

unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1

Includes advice or treatment from the following sources: public sector, private medical sector, and supermarket. Excludes advice or 

treatment from a traditional health practitioner.
Child Health • 171

Table 10.11 Source of advice or treatment for children with fever

Percentage of children under age 5 with a fever in the 2 weeks preceding the 

survey for whom advice or treatment was sought from specific sources, and 

among children under age 5 with a fever in the 2 weeks preceding the survey 

for whom advice or treatment was sought, percentage for whom advice or 

treatment was sought from specific sources, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage for whom advice 

or treatment was sought from 

each source:

Source

Among children 

with fever

Among children 

with fever for 

whom advice

or treatment 

was sought

Public sector 40.9 59.7

Government hospital 2.5 3.6

Government clinic/government health 

centre 36.7 53.6

Mobile clinic 1.7 2.4

CHW 0.3 0.4

Other public sector 0.1 0.1

Private medical sector 27.0 39.5

Private hospital/clinic 2.8 4.0

Chemist/pharmacy 15.3 22.3

Private doctor 9.7 14.2

Other private sector 1.4 2.0

Supermarket/shop 1.3 1.9

Traditional health practitioner 0.1 0.1

Other 0.2 0.2

Number of children 679 465

CHW = Community health worker 
172 • Child Health 

Table 10.12 Prevalence and treatment of diarrhoea

Percentage of children under age 5 who had diarrhoea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, and among 

children with diarrhoea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, percentage for whom advice or treatment 

was sought, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage with 

diarrhoea

Number of 

children

Among children under age 5 

with diarrhoea:

Background 

characteristic

Percentage for 

whom advice or 

treatment was 

sought1

Number of 

children with 

diarrhoea

Age in months

<6 7.0 363 (36.9) 25

6-11 16.3 325 66.2 53

12-23 16.8 677 62.4 114

24-35 8.2 660 55.9 54

36-47 8.5 688 79.6 58

48-59 7.1 730 (63.0) 52

Sex

Male 11.2 1,783 59.9 200

Female 9.4 1,661 67.1 157

Source of drinking water2

Improved 10.2 3,111 62.9 318

Unimproved 11.4 333 (64.3) 38

Type of toilet facility3

Improved sanitation 10.4 2,523 64.3 263

Unimproved sanitation 10.2 920 59.6 94

Shared facility4 10.6 724 60.7 77

Unimproved facility 9.1 73 * 7

Open defecation 8.3 123 * 10

Handwashing place

Observed, fixed place 8.6 1,727 71.2 148

Observed, mobile place 13.5 1,177 52.5 159

Not observed 9.2 539 (72.8) 49

Residence

Urban 9.0 2,204 65.5 199

Non-urban 12.7 1,240 60.0 157

Province

Western Cape 5.4 306 * 16

Eastern Cape 9.4 382 (63.8) 36

Northern Cape 8.1 67 * 5

Free State 5.8 156 * 9

KwaZulu-Natal 13.7 636 56.4 87

North West 16.4 269 57.9 44

Gauteng 8.6 980 (73.2) 85

Mpumalanga 10.7 309 (69.3) 33

Limpopo 12.0 338 57.1 41

Mother’s education

No education 10.6 49 * 5

Primary incomplete 17.4 167 (61.6) 29

Primary complete 13.1 133 * 17

Secondary incomplete 10.3 1,680 58.5 173

Secondary complete 9.6 1,027 76.9 98

More than secondary 8.6 388 (49.1) 34

Wealth quintile

Lowest 11.8 744 55.1 88

Second 13.8 822 53.7 114

Middle 8.7 766 80.3 67

Fourth 8.7 642 (65.6) 56

Highest 6.8 470 (77.8) 32

Total 10.3 3,444 63.0 356

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure 

is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1

Includes advice or treatment from the following sources: public sector, private medical sector, and 

supermarket. Excludes advice or treatment from a traditional health practitioner.

2 See Table 2.1 for definition of categories

3 See Table 2.3 for definition of categories

4 Facilities that would be considered improved if they were not shared by two or more households 
Child Health • 173

Table 10.13 Feeding practices during diarrhoea

Percent distribution of children under age 5 who had diarrhoea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey by amount of liquids and food offered compared with 

normal practice, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Amount of liquids given Amount of food given Number 

of 

children 

with 

diarrhoea

Background 

characteristic More

Same 

as 

usual

Somewhat 

less

Much 

less None

Don’t 

know Total More

Same 

as 

usual

Somewhat 

less

Much 

less None

Never 

gave 

food

Don’t 

know Total

Age in months

<6 (6.3) (67.9) (6.7) (15.8) (3.2) (0.0) 100.0 (1.7) (54.0) (11.7) (4.6) (2.5) (25.4) (0.0) 100.0 25

6-11 19.7 50.5 12.1 14.5 3.2 0.0 100.0 12.3 50.3 9.6 21.4 0.0 6.5 0.0 100.0 53

12-23 15.1 43.4 18.9 17.2 4.7 0.7 100.0 6.8 46.3 21.9 21.6 1.3 2.1 0.0 100.0 114

24-35 12.7 38.7 11.0 28.0 7.2 2.4 100.0 3.8 48.5 14.8 26.5 3.2 0.8 2.4 100.0 54

36-47 28.1 31.9 10.3 26.0 2.4 1.3 100.0 6.2 39.7 20.3 29.7 4.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 58

48-59 (2.1) (45.3) (6.3) (31.9) (12.5) (1.9) 100.0 (1.1) (36.0) (12.9) (47.8) (1.5) (0.0) (0.8) 100.0 52

Sex

Male 14.4 44.1 13.6 23.2 3.1 1.5 100.0 5.1 44.4 15.2 28.5 2.3 3.7 0.9 100.0 200

Female 15.8 43.6 11.3 20.3 8.5 0.5 100.0 6.9 46.2 18.6 23.3 1.5 3.4 0.0 100.0 157

Breastfeeding status

Breastfeeding 20.5 51.1 6.4 15.3 6.8 0.0 100.0 9.2 48.8 10.3 23.1 0.2 8.4 0.0 100.0 92

Not breastfeeding 13.2 41.4 14.7 24.2 5.1 1.4 100.0 4.7 44.0 18.9 27.3 2.6 1.9 0.6 100.0 265

Residence

Urban 17.6 43.2 13.9 21.5 3.7 0.1 100.0 5.5 46.9 18.6 26.4 1.0 1.6 0.1 100.0 199

Non-urban 11.7 44.7 11.0 22.5 7.8 2.3 100.0 6.4 43.1 14.3 26.0 3.2 6.1 1.0 100.0 157

Wealth quintile

Lowest 24.9 32.5 10.7 23.6 7.9 0.4 100.0 8.7 36.4 15.3 35.0 1.0 3.1 0.4 100.0 88

Second 5.1 55.2 7.4 23.0 7.0 2.3 100.0 2.2 47.7 10.3 30.4 3.1 5.9 0.5 100.0 114

Middle 13.0 40.0 16.2 27.6 2.4 0.9 100.0 6.1 45.0 26.3 15.0 2.5 4.3 0.9 100.0 67

Fourth (23.4) (43.6) (11.6) (15.7) (5.3) (0.3) 100.0 (8.3) (53.1) (16.4) (19.4) (1.6) (0.8) (0.3) 100.0 56

Highest (12.9) (43.5) (30.8) (12.8) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 (6.7) (47.2) (24.0) (22.1) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 32

Total 15.0 43.9 12.6 21.9 5.5 1.1 100.0 5.9 45.2 16.7 26.2 2.0 3.6 0.5 100.0 356

Notes: It is recommended that children be given more liquids to drink during diarrhoea and that food not be reduced. Figures in parentheses are based on 

25-49 unweighted cases. 
174 • Child Health 

Table 10.14 Oral rehydration therapy, zinc, and other treatments for diarrhoea

Among children under age 5 who had diarrhoea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey, percentage given fluid from an ORS packet; clinic-recommended homemade fluids (RHF);

ORS or RHF; zinc; ORS and zinc; ORS or increased fluids; oral rehydration therapy (ORT); continued feeding and ORT; continued feeding, ORT, and zinc; and other treatments,

and percentage given no treatment, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage of children with diarrhoea who were given:

Percentage 

given no 

treatment

Number 

of 

children 

with 

diarrhoea

Background 

characteristic

Fluid 

from 

ORS 

packets 

Clinicrecommended 

homemade

fluids 

(RHF)

Either 

ORS or 

RHF Zinc

ORS 

and zinc

ORS or 

increased 

fluids

ORT 

(ORS,

RHF, or 

increased 

fluids)

Continued 

feeding 

and 

ORT1

Continued 

feeding, 

ORT, 

and zinc 

Other treatments

Antibiotic 

drugs

Antimotility 

drugs

Intravenous 

solution

Home 

remedy/ 

other

Age in 

months

<6 (27.3) (24.4) (43.7) (15.9) (12.6) (33.6) (50.0) (35.6) (14.3) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.9) (49.1) 25

6-11 45.8 65.0 74.9 35.2 21.3 52.5 81.6 68.3 29.0 1.5 3.8 0.0 9.1 13.3 53

12-23 49.9 82.1 87.8 36.7 26.4 58.2 89.5 66.6 24.6 10.1 2.9 0.0 10.2 7.4 114

24-35 49.0 58.1 64.7 34.0 29.6 55.3 68.8 44.9 25.1 9.9 0.9 0.9 13.4 21.8 54

36-47 54.4 85.1 91.7 48.9 34.0 75.8 91.7 59.5 34.3 18.4 0.0 3.1 12.8 4.5 58

48-59 (71.6) (83.8) (92.2) (37.9) (36.8) (73.7) (93.3) (43.3) (11.4) (18.5) (1.2) (0.0) (14.1) (0.9) 52

Sex

Male 52.2 73.5 82.7 38.5 30.5 59.8 85.6 54.8 23.6 11.1 2.4 0.2 8.0 11.8 200

Female 50.5 71.4 77.7 34.6 24.6 60.9 80.4 59.4 25.1 10.0 1.0 1.2 14.5 12.4 157

Residence

Urban 53.4 73.0 81.0 40.6 32.6 63.7 82.6 57.8 29.1 12.4 2.8 1.2 11.9 12.0 199

Non-urban 48.9 72.0 79.8 31.9 21.9 55.9 84.1 55.4 18.1 8.4 0.6 0.0 9.5 12.2 157

Wealth 

quintile

Lowest 39.6 67.5 79.9 20.6 14.2 59.2 83.7 53.3 15.3 10.1 1.0 0.0 10.2 12.4 88

Second 48.9 80.3 83.4 35.7 25.8 52.4 85.1 50.9 15.9 8.9 0.0 0.4 4.7 11.7 114

Middle 54.8 73.9 78.2 46.9 38.8 61.2 81.6 64.8 37.4 15.2 3.3 0.0 11.7 13.6 67

Fourth (63.3) (78.3) (83.4) (50.9) (37.8) (69.8) (83.4) (64.1) (37.3) (8.6) (0.0) (3.2) (17.0) (8.3) 56

Highest (65.3) (45.8) (71.3) (39.2) (33.1) (72.8) (78.9) (57.7) (28.5) (12.6) (10.5) (0.0) (21.7) (16.1) 32

Total 51.4 72.5 80.5 36.8 27.9 60.3 83.3 56.8 24.3 10.6 1.8 0.6 10.8 12.1 356

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. 

ORS = Oral rehydration salts

1 Continued feeding includes children who were given more, the same as usual, or somewhat less food during the diarrhoea episode 
Child Health • 175

Table 10.15 Source of advice or treatment for children with diarrhoea

Percentage of children under age 5 with diarrhoea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey for whom advice or treatment 

was sought from specific sources; among children under age 5 with diarrhoea in the 2 weeks preceding the survey 

for whom advice or treatment was sought, percentage for whom advice or treatment was sought from specific 

sources; among children with diarrhoea who received ORS, percentage for whom advice or treatment was sought 

from specific sources; and among children with diarrhoea who received clinic-recommended homemade fluids, 

percentage for whom advice or treatment was sought from specific sources, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage for whom advice or treatment was sought from each source:

Source

Among children 

with diarrhoea

Among children 

with diarrhoea for 

whom advice or 

treatment was 

sought

Among children 

with diarrhoea who 

received ORS1

Among children 

with diarrhoea who 

received clinicrecommended 

homemade fluids

Public sector 46.4 72.9 63.6 54.9

Government hospital 4.5 7.1 5.3 6.0

Government clinic/government 

health centre 38.5 60.4 55.2 44.5

Mobile clinic 1.9 2.9 0.4 2.3

CHW 2.8 4.4 5.0 3.8

Private medical sector 16.1 25.3 19.9 14.0

Private hospital/clinic 3.6 5.7 4.7 2.9

Chemist/pharmacy 6.0 9.4 7.1 4.0

Private doctor 7.2 11.2 8.1 7.2

Other private sector 2.0 3.2 0.3 1.4

Supermarket/shop 1.4 2.3 0.3 0.8

Traditional health practitioner 0.6 0.9 0.0 0.6

Other 0.6 1.0 0.4 0.8

Number of children 356 227 183 258

ORS = Oral rehydration salts

CHW = Community health worker

1 Fluids from ORS packet 
176 • Child Health

Table 10.16 Knowledge of ORS packets and clinic-recommended homemade fluids

Percentage of women age 15-49 with a live birth in the 5 years preceding the survey who 

know about ORS packets and percentage who know about clinic-recommended homemade 

fluids for treatment of diarrhoea, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 

2016 

Background 

characteristic

Percentage of 

women who know 

about ORS 

packets

Percentage of 

women who know 

about clinicrecommended 

homemade fluids

Number of 

women

Age

15-19 50.8 84.2 176

20-24 58.8 88.3 699

25-34 63.2 89.5 1,504

35-49 64.1 92.2 656

Residence

Urban 63.7 87.8 1,942

Non-urban 58.0 92.6 1,094

Province

Western Cape 71.8 94.4 276

Eastern Cape 54.1 91.0 335

Northern Cape 63.1 90.1 61

Free State 67.9 92.2 145

KwaZulu-Natal 79.4 92.1 555

North West 55.0 92.1 244

Gauteng 62.5 82.9 842

Mpumalanga 46.1 91.7 278

Limpopo 42.3 91.7 301

Education

No education (53.5) (82.2) 42

Primary incomplete 53.2 90.8 141

Primary complete 49.1 82.2 108

Secondary incomplete 59.1 90.3 1,486

Secondary complete 65.3 90.7 908

More than secondary 71.2 85.8 351

Wealth quintile

Lowest 56.5 88.6 650

Second 54.6 90.0 739

Middle 62.8 90.2 671

Fourth 67.2 92.3 557

Highest 72.9 85.3 418

Total 61.7 89.5 3,036

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

ORS = Oral rehydration salts 
Nutrition of Children • 177

NUTRITION OF CHILDREN 11

Key Findings

 Nutritional status: 27% of children under age 5 are 

stunted (short for their age), 3% are wasted (thin for their 

height), 6% are underweight (low weight for their age), and 

13% are overweight (heavy for their height).

 Breastfeeding: Breastfeeding is initiated among twothirds of children within 1 hour of birth. Thirty-two percent 

of infants under age 6 months are exclusively breastfed. 

 Minimum acceptable diet: Only 23% of children age 6-23 

months are fed a minimum acceptable diet.

 Consumption of unhealthy foods: 18% of children age 

6-23 months consumed sugary drinks, 35% consumed 

sugary foods, and 44% consumed salty snacks during the 

day or night preceding the survey.

 Salt iodisation: Nearly all households tested have iodised 

salt (98%); 11% have inadequately iodised salt (<15 ppm)

and 89% have adequately iodised salt (≥15 ppm) of which 

11% (10% of all households tested) have excessively 

iodised salt (>80 ppm).

his chapter reports on the nutritional status and prevalence of anaemia among children. It also 

describes infant and young child feeding practices, including breastfeeding and feeding with 

solid/semisolid foods, dietary diversity, and frequency of feeding. In addition, information on 

supplementation, deworming, and household fortification of salt with iodine is presented. Relevant

aspects of nutrition among women and men age 15 and older are addressed in Chapter 17.

11.1 NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF CHILDREN

Nutrition is foundational to both individual and national development. In 2012, the World Health Assembly 

set nutrition targets for reduction of stunting, wasting, and overweight in children. Nutritional status can be

described by various means, such as clinical examination, dietary assessment, biochemical tests, and 

anthropometry (measurement of the body). 

As stated in the WHO technical report on the use and interpretation of anthropometry, anthropometry is the 

most portable, universally applicable, inexpensive, and non-invasive technique for assessing the size, 

proportions, and composition of the human body. It reflects both health and nutritional status and predicts 

performance, health, and survival. As such, it is a valuable tool for guiding public health policy and clinical 

decisions (WHO 1995).

11.1.1 Measurement of Nutritional Status among Young Children

Children’s height/length, weight, and age data were used to calculate three indices: height-for-age, weightfor-height, and weight-for-age. 

T
178 • Nutrition of Children

As indicated in the box below, stunting, or low height-for-age, is a sign of chronic undernutrition that reflects 

failure to receive adequate nutrition over a long period. Stunting can also be affected by recurrent and chronic 

illness. Wasting, or low weight-for-height, is a measure of acute undernutrition and represents the failure to 

receive adequate nutrition in the period immediately before the survey. Wasting may result from inadequate 

food intake or from a recent episode of illness causing weight loss. The opposite of wasting is overweight

(high weight-for-height), a measure of overnutrition. Underweight, or low weight-for-age, is a composite 

index of weight-for-height and height-for-age. Thus, it includes both acute (wasting) and chronic (stunting)

undernutrition. 

Stunting (assessed via height-for-age)

Height-for-age is a measure of linear growth retardation and cumulative growth 

deficits. Children whose height-for-age Z-score is below minus two standard 

deviations (-2 SD) from the median of the reference population are considered 

short for their age (stunted), or chronically undernourished. Children whose Zscore is below minus three standard deviations (-3 SD) from the median are 

considered severely stunted.

Sample: Children under age 5

Wasting (assessed via weight-for-height)

The weight-for-height index measures body mass in relation to body height or 

length and describes acute nutritional status. Children whose weight-for-height 

Z-score is below minus two standard deviations (-2 SD) from the median of the 

reference population are considered thin (wasted), or acutely undernourished. 

Children whose Z-score is below minus three standard deviations (-3 SD) from 

the median are considered severely wasted.

Sample: Children under age 5

Underweight (assessed via weight-for-age)

Weight-for-age is a composite index of height-for-age and weight-for-height. It 

takes into account both acute and chronic undernutrition. Children whose 

weight-for-age Z-score is below minus two standard deviations (-2 SD) from the 

median of the reference population are classified as underweight. Children 

whose Z-score is below minus three standard deviations (-3 SD) from the 

median are considered severely underweight.

Sample: Children under age 5

Overweight (assessed via weight-for-height)

Children whose weight-for-height Z-score is more than two standard deviations 

(+2 SD) above the median of the reference population are considered 

overweight.

Sample: Children under age 5

The means of the Z-scores for height-for-age, weight-for-height, and weight-for-age are also calculated as 

summary statistics representing the nutritional status of children in a population. These mean scores describe 

the nutritional status of the entire population of children without the use of a cutoff point. A mean Z-score 

of less than 0 (i.e., a negative mean value for stunting, wasting, or underweight) suggests a downward shift 

in the entire sample population’s nutritional status relative to the reference population. The farther away 

mean Z-scores are from 0, the higher the prevalence of undernutrition.

11.1.2 Data Collection

A total of 2,024 children under age 5 were eligible for height and weight measurements to assess their 

nutritional status. Children for whom data are missing, incomplete, or out of range to such a degree as to not 

be plausible, are not included in the analysis. Out-of-range data are defined in the WHO growth standards 
Nutrition of Children • 179

(WHO 2006). Valid height-for-age data are available for 73% of children, valid weight-for-height data are 

available for 72% of children, and valid weight-for-age data are available for 73% of children. The low 

percentages of valid data were mainly the result of missing or incomplete data; only 1%-2% of the data were 

out of range. Table C.7 in Appendix C provides additional information on data completeness and quality 

for assessments of height, weight, and age among children. Based on this information, the anthropometry 

data should be interpreted with caution, especially among children in the provinces of Western Cape and 

Gauteng.

11.1.3 Levels of Child Malnutrition 

The SADHS 2016 results show that 27% of children 

under age 5 are stunted, 3% are wasted, and 6% are 

underweight. Disconcertingly, 13% of children are 

overweight (Figure 11.1).

Patterns by background characteristics

 The prevalence of stunting generally increases 

with age from 8 months to 23 months before 

declining by the end of the third year of life (35 

months). The proportions of stunting (43%) and 

severe stunting (20%) are highest among children 

age 18-23 months. Also, children in this age 

group are most likely to be underweight (10%)

(Table 11.1).

 Stunting is higher among male children (30%) than among female children (25%).

 As shown in Figure 11.2, Gauteng and Free State have the highest stunting prevalence (34% each).

However, the percentage of children with valid anthropometry data varies widely by province, 

potentially affecting the results (Table C.7 in Appendix C).

 Stunting generally declines with increasing mother’s education and household wealth. For example, 

36% of children in the lowest wealth quintile are stunted, as compared with 13% of children in the 

highest wealth quintile (Figure 11.3).

Figure 11.2 Stunting in children 

by province

Percentage of children under age 5 who 

are stunted

Figure 11.3 Stunting in children 

by household wealth

Figure 11.1 Nutritional status of children

10

1 1

18

2

5 13

Stunting Wasting Underweight Overweight

Percentage of children under age 5 

classified as malnourished

Severe

Moderate

3

6

27

Note: Numbers may not sum to total due to rounding.

36

29 24 25

13

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Percentage of children under age 5 who 

are stunted

Poorest Wealthiest
180 • Nutrition of Children

11.2 INFANT AND YOUNG CHILD FEEDING PRACTICES

Appropriate infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices include early initiation of breastfeeding within 

the first hour of life, exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months of life, continued breastfeeding up to age 

2 or beyond, introduction of a range of safe solid and semisolid foods at age 6 months, and gradual increases 

in the amount of food given and frequency of feeding as the child gets older. It is also important for children 

to receive a diverse diet (i.e., eating foods from different food groups to ensure that macro- and micronutrient requirements are met) (WHO 2008).

11.2.1 Initiation of Breastfeeding

Early initiation of breastfeeding within the first hour of life is important for both the mother and the child. 

The first breast milk contains colostrum, which is highly nutritious and has antibodies that protect the 

newborn. Early initiation of breastfeeding also encourages bonding between the mother and her newborn,

facilitating the production of regular breast milk.

Early breastfeeding

Initiation of breastfeeding within 1 hour of birth

Sample: Last-born children who were born in the 2 years before the survey

Table 11.2 shows that 84% of last-born children who were born in the 2 years before the survey were 

breastfed at some point in their life. Two-thirds (67%) of infants were breastfed within 1 hour of birth and 

80% within 1 day of birth. However, 16% of breastfed infants received a prelacteal feed.

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The percentage of last-born children under age 2 who were ever 

breastfed decreased slightly from 87% in 1998 to 84% in 2016. However, over the same period, the 

percentage of children who received breast milk within 1 hour of birth increased from 39% to 67%.

Patterns by background characteristics

 While differences in breastfeeding practices according to urban and non-urban residence were minor, 

there were considerable variations by province. The percentage of children who had ever been breastfed 

was highest in Limpopo (94%) and lowest in KwaZulu-Natal (71%). 

 Only 49% of children in North West were breastfed within 1 hour of birth, as compared with 56%-85% 

of children in other provinces.

 The percentage of children receiving a prelacteal feed was highest in Mpumalanga (32%) and Eastern 

Cape (21%) and lowest in North West (7%) and Northern Cape (10%). 

 Children whose mothers had not completed a primary education (7%) were less likely than children 

whose mothers had completed higher levels of education (14%-19%) to receive a prelacteal feed.

11.2.2 Exclusive and Continued Breastfeeding

Breast milk contains all of the nutrients needed by children in the first 6 months of life and is the best source

of nutrition. It is recommended that children be exclusively breastfed in the first 6 months of their life; that 

is, they should be given nothing but breast milk. Exclusive breastfeeding to age 6 months prevents infections,

such as diarrhoea and respiratory illnesses, and provides the nutrients and liquid an infant requires for optimal 

growth and development. Early initiation of complementary feeding reduces breast milk output because the 

production and release of breast milk is modulated by the frequency and intensity of suckling. 
Nutrition of Children • 181

Tables 11.3 and 11.4 and Figure 11.4 show breastfeeding practices by age. Thirty-two percent of infants 

under age 6 months are exclusively breastfed. Exclusive breastfeeding declines with age: 44% of infants age 

0-1 month are exclusively breastfed, as compared with 24% of infants age 4-5 months.

Figure 11.4 Breastfeeding practices by age

Contrary to the recommendation that infants under age 6 months be exclusively breastfed, many infants in 

South Africa consume other liquids in addition to breast milk, such as plain water (14%) and other types of 

milk (11%); 18% consume breast milk and complementary foods. One in four (25%) children under age 6 

months are not breastfeeding at all.

Half of infants age 0-3 months and 45% of infants under age 6 months feed from a bottle with a nipple, a 

practice that is discouraged. More than half of children age 6-17 months feed from a bottle with a nipple. 

WHO recommends that children continue breastfeeding until at least age 2. Continued breastfeeding drops

from 51% at 1 year to 13% at 2 years. 

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The proportion of infants under age 6 months who are exclusively 

breastfed increased from 7% in 1998 to 32% in 2016. The proportion of infants under age 6 months who are 

predominantly breastfed (those who receive only plain water or other non-milk liquids in addition to breast

milk) increased from 23% to 46%. However, the proportion of children who are not breastfeeding has also 

increased since 1998, from 17% to 25% among those under age 6 months, from 29% to 40% among those 

age 6-9 months, and from 48% to 66% among those age 12-23 months.

11.2.3 Duration of Breastfeeding

Among children born in the 3 years preceding the survey, the median duration of any breastfeeding is 10.7

months, and the median duration of predominant breastfeeding is 1.9 months. The median duration of

exclusive breastfeeding could not be determined because less than 50% of children were exclusively 

breastfeeding. The mean duration of any breastfeeding is 12.2 months, the mean duration of predominant 

breastfeeding is 3.8 months, and the mean duration of exclusive breastfeeding is 2.9 months (Table 11.5).

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The mean duration of any breastfeeding decreased from 15.6 months 

in 1998 to 12.2 months in 2016. However, the mean duration of exclusive breastfeeding more than doubled,

from 1.2 months to 2.9 months.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Girls were breastfed longer than boys (median durations of 12.2 months and 8.6 months, respectively).

 Children in non-urban areas were breastfed for 3 months longer than those in urban areas (median 

duration of 13.5 months versus 10.3 months). 

0

20

40

60

80

100

<2 2-3 4-5 6-7 8-9 10-11 12-13 14-15 16-17 18-19 20-21 22-23

Age in months

Percentage of children under age 2

Breastfeeding and receiving 

complementary foods

Not breastfeeding

Exclusive 

breastfeeding
182 • Nutrition of Children

Information on the duration of breastfeeding among children under age 5 who were breastfed in the past but 

have been weaned is presented in Table 11.6. The mean and median durations of breastfeeding for such 

children were 10.4 and 9.2 months, respectively. 

11.2.4 Complementary Feeding

After the first 6 months, breast milk alone is no longer sufficient to meet the nutritional needs of the infant; 

at this time, appropriate complementary foods should be introduced. This transition from exclusive 

breastfeeding to family foods is the time at which children are most vulnerable to becoming undernourished. 

Complementary feeding should be timely (children should start receiving foods in addition to breast milk 

from 6 months onwards), adequate (with respect to amount, frequency, consistency, and variety), and 

appropriate (in terms of texture). Foods should include animal-source foods, fruits, and vegetables (WHO 

1998).

In the SADHS 2016, women who had at least one child living with them who was born in 2014 or a later 

year were asked questions about the types of liquids and foods the child had consumed during the day or 

night before the interview. Mothers who had more than one child born in 2014 or a later year were asked 

questions about the youngest child living with them.

Eighty-three percent of children age 6-8 months received solid, semisolid, or soft foods (Table 11.4). Table 

11.7 shows that the types of foods and liquids received by children during the day and night preceding the 

survey depend on the child’s age and breastfeeding status. Eighty percent of breastfeeding children and 87% 

of nonbreastfeeding children age 6-8 months received complementary foods. Regardless of breastfeeding 

status, more than 9 in 10 children age 6-23 months consumed complementary foods (any solid or semisolid 

food). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 Eighty-five percent of breastfeeding children age 6-23 months consumed foods made from grains; 50% 

consumed fortified baby foods; 47% consumed fruits or vegetables rich in vitamin A; 46% consumed 

cheese, yoghurt, and other milk products; 41% consumed meat, fish, or poultry; 39% consumed food 

made from roots and tubers; and 38% consumed eggs.

 Eighty-four percent of nonbreastfeeding children age 6-23 months consumed foods made from grains;

45% consumed fortified baby foods; 56% consumed fruits or vegetables rich in vitamin A; 55% 

consumed cheese, yoghurt, and other milk products; 51% consumed meat, fish, or poultry; 45% 

consumed food made from roots and tubers; and 46% consumed eggs.

11.2.5 Minimum Acceptable Diet

Infants and young children should be fed a minimum acceptable diet to ensure appropriate growth and 

development. Without adequate diversity and meal frequency, infants and young children are vulnerable to 

undernutrition, especially stunting and micronutrient deficiencies, and to increased morbidity and mortality.

Dietary diversity is a proxy for adequate micronutrient density of foods. Minimum dietary diversity means 

feeding the child food from at least four food groups out of a standard seven groups. By consuming food 

from at least four food groups, the child has a high likelihood of consuming at least one animal source of 

food and at least one fruit or vegetable in addition to a staple food, such as grains, roots, or tubers (WHO 

2008). The four groups should come from a list of seven food groups: grains, roots, and tubers; legumes and 

nuts; dairy products (milk, yoghurt, and cheese); flesh foods (meat, fish, poultry, and liver/organ meat); eggs; 

vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables; and other fruits and vegetables.

Minimum meal frequency is a proxy for a child reaching her or his energy requirements. For infants and 

young children, the indicator is based on how much energy the child needs and, if the child is breastfed, the 
Nutrition of Children • 183

amount of energy needs not met by breast milk. Breastfed children are considered to be fed with a minimum 

meal frequency if they receive solid, semisolid, or soft foods at least twice a day (for infants age 6-8 months)

or at least three times a day (for children age 9-23 months). Nonbreastfed children age 6-23 months are 

considered to be fed with a minimum meal frequency if they receive solid, semisolid, or soft foods at least 

four times a day.

Minimum acceptable diet

Proportion of children age 6-23 months who receive a minimum acceptable diet. 

This indicator is a composite of the following two groups:

Breastfed children age 6-23 months who had at least the minimum dietary 

diversity and the minimum meal frequency during the previous day

Breastfed children age 6-23 months

and

Nonbreastfed children age 6-23 months who received at least two milk 

feedings and had at least the minimum dietary diversity (not including milk 

feeds) and the minimum meal frequency during the previous day

Nonbreastfed children age 6-23 months

Sample: Youngest children age 6-23 months living with their mother

Minimum dietary diversity, minimum meal frequency, and appropriate milk feeds together constitute a 

child’s minimum acceptable diet. Forty-nine percent of children age 6-23 months met the criteria for 

minimum dietary diversity and 52% met the criteria for minimum meal frequency. Only 23% of children 

age 6-23 months were fed a minimum acceptable diet (Table 11.8).

More nonbreastfed children (31%) 

than breastfed children (11%) were 

fed a minimum acceptable diet. 

Nonbreastfed children were more 

likely than breastfed children to 

meet the criteria for both minimum 

dietary diversity (55% versus 42%) 

and minimum meal frequency (68% 

versus 30%) (Figure 11.5).

Patterns by background 

characteristics

 The percentage of children 

consuming a minimum 

acceptable diet increased with 

increasing age, from 17% among those age 6-11 months to 31% among those age 18-23 months. This 

change was due to improvements with age in dietary diversity; 23% of children age 6-8 months met the 

criteria for minimum dietary diversity, as compared with 64% of children age 18-24 months. 

 Twenty-six percent of children in urban areas were fed a minimum acceptable diet, compared with 19% 

of children in non-urban areas.

 High inter-provincial variability was observed. The percentage of children age 6-23 months with a 

minimum acceptable diet ranged from a low of 7% in Limpopo to a high of 42% in Free State.

Figure 11.5 IYCF indicators on minimum 

acceptable diet 

42

30

11

55

68

31

49 52

23

Minimum dietary

diversity

(IYCF Indicator 5)

Minimum meal

frequency

(IYCF Indicator 6)

Minimum acceptable

diet

(IYCF Indicator 7)

Percentage of children age 6-23 months

Breastfed Nonbreastfed All children 6-23 months
184 • Nutrition of Children

 The proportion of children consuming a minimum acceptable diet generally increased with increasing 

mother’s education.

 The percentage of children with a minimum acceptable diet increased with increasing household wealth,

from 16% among children in the second wealth quintile to 39% among those in the highest quintile.

Notably, differences in minimum acceptable diet were more apparent among nonbreastfed than breastfed 

children.

Consumption of Unhealthy Foods and Drinks

As part of mothers’ recall of foods and liquids consumed by their youngest child under age 2, they were 

asked about the child’s consumption of liquids and foods that can be unhealthy, including sugary drinks and 

foods, and salty snacks. Overall, 18% of children age 6-23 months consumed sugary drinks, 35% consumed 

sugary foods, and 44% consumed salty snacks during the day or night preceding the survey (Table 11.9).

Patterns by background characteristics

 Consumption of unhealthy 

foods and drinks increases with 

age. For example, 18% of 

children age 6-8 months 

consumed salty snacks and 4% 

consumed sugary drinks, as

compared with 64% and 33%,

respectively, of children age 18-

23 months. 

 Nonbreastfeeding children were 

much more likely than 

breastfeeding children to 

consume unhealthy foods and 

drinks (Figure 11.6).

11.3 ANAEMIA PREVALENCE IN CHILDREN 

Anaemia in children

Anaemia status Haemoglobin level in grams/decilitre*

Anaemic <11.0

Mildly anaemic 10.0-10.9

Moderately anaemic 7.0-9.9

Severely anaemic <7.0

Not anaemic 11.0 or higher

*Haemoglobin levels are adjusted for altitude in enumeration areas that are above 

1,000 metres.

Sample: Children age 6-59 months

Anaemia is a condition that is marked by low levels of haemoglobin in the blood. Iron is a key component 

of haemoglobin, and iron deficiency is estimated to be responsible for approximately half of all anaemia

globally. Other potential causes of anaemia include malaria, hookworm and other helminth infections, other 

nutritional deficiencies, chronic and acute infections, and genetic conditions. Anaemia is a serious concern 

for children because it can impair cognitive development, stunt growth, and increase morbidity from 

infectious diseases. 

Figure 11.6 Consumption of unhealthy foods 

and drinks

14

28

39

21

40

48

18

35

44

Sugary drinks Sugary snacks Salty snacks

Percentage of children age 6-23 months

Breastfeeding Nonbreastfeeding All children 6-23 months
Nutrition of Children • 185

Haemoglobin testing was carried out among children age 6-59 months. Haemoglobin levels were measured 

for 62% of the children eligible for testing. The methodology used to measure haemoglobin is described in 

Chapter 1. Given the low response rates, the results should be interpreted with caution.

Overall, the prevalence of anaemia among children age 6-59 months is 61%, with 24% classified as mildly 

anaemic, 35% as moderately anaemic, and 2% as severely anaemic (Table 11.10).

The SADHS 2016 is the first DHS in South Africa to measure the prevalence of anaemia in children age 6-

59 months. The anaemia prevalence observed in the SADHS 2016 is much higher than expected considering 

the results of other national studies (Shisana et al. 2014; Labadarios et al. 2007). Thus, as noted, the results 

should be interpreted with caution until they are further reviewed and analysed.

11.4 PRESENCE OF IODISED SALT IN HOUSEHOLDS

Iodine is an essential micronutrient that is necessary for the synthesis of thyroid hormones. A wide range of 

physiological activities require thyroid hormones, which are critical for metabolism, initial growth, and 

organ development, specifically brain development. Even a mild iodine deficiency may seriously affect a 

child’s intelligence and cognitive functioning. Ensuring adequate iodine nutrition is key to preventing iodine 

deficiency disorders, and iodisation of salt is the primary strategy used to achieve this aim in most 

populations.

In South Africa, iodisation of all food-grade salt with potassium iodate has been mandatory since 1995. 

Quantitative measurements of iodine in salt allow calculation of the percentage of households using iodised 

salt (>0 ppm iodine), adequately iodised salt (≥15 ppm iodine), or excessively iodised salt (>80 ppm iodine). 

Excess iodine can also result in poor health outcomes, such as iodine-induced thyroid dysfunction.

In the SADHS 2016, salt samples were taken and laboratory-based titration for iodine was performed in 88% 

of eligible households. The titration method is used worldwide as the preferred method for quantitatively 

determining the iodine content of iodised salt. It is also the method of choice for quality control and for 

managing national salt iodisation programmes (WHO/UNICEF/ICCIDD 2007). The SADHS results showed 

that nearly all of the households in which salt was tested had iodised salt (98%); 11% had inadequately 

iodised salt (<15 ppm), and 89% had adequately iodised salt (≥15 ppm) (Table 11.11).

Adequately iodised salt can be characterised as optimally iodised (≥15 to ≤40 ppm), highly iodised (>65 

ppm), or excessively iodised (>80 ppm). Among South African households, 30% have optimally iodised 

salt, 18% have highly iodised salt, and 10% have excessively iodised salt.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Non-urban households are twice as likely as urban households to have inadequately iodised salt (18% 

versus 8%).

 By province, the proportion of households with inadequately iodised salt ranges from a low of 6% in 

Gauteng to a high of 31% in Limpopo.

 The percentage of households with inadequately iodised salt generally decreases with increasing 

household wealth.

 The proportion of households with excessively iodised salt is highest in Eastern Cape (14%) and lowest 

in Western Cape (7%).

11.5 MICRONUTRIENT INTAKE, SUPPLEMENTATION, AND DEWORMING AMONG CHILDREN

Micronutrient deficiencies are major contributors to childhood morbidity and mortality. Micronutrients are 

available in foods and can also be provided through food fortification and direct supplementation. 
186 • Nutrition of Children

The information collected on food consumption among children age 6-23 months is useful in assessing the 

extent to which children are consuming foods rich in two key micronutrients—vitamin A and iron—in their 

daily diet. Iron is an essential micronutrient that plays an important role in numerous biological systems, and 

iron deficiency is one of the primary causes of anaemia. Iron deficiency anaemia leads to impaired motor 

and cognitive functioning, slower emotional development, and poor academic performance among children. 

Vitamin A is an essential micronutrient for the immune system and plays an important role in maintaining 

the epithelial tissue in the body. Severe vitamin A deficiency (VAD) can cause eye damage and is the leading 

cause of childhood blindness. VAD also increases the severity of infections, such as measles and diarrhoeal 

disease, in children and slows recovery from illness. Fruits and vegetables rich in vitamin A should be part 

of the daily diet. Studies have shown that plant-based complementary foods by themselves are insufficient 

to meet the needs for certain micronutrients, especially iron. Therefore, WHO recommends that meat, 

poultry, fish, or eggs be part of the daily diet as well or eaten as often as possible (WHO 1998).

South Africa has a national food fortification programme, introduced in 2003, that supplies additional 

vitamin A and iron (and other nutrients) to children’s diets. The national vitamin A supplementation 

programme was implemented in 2002.

Table 11.12 presents results on dietary intake of foods rich in vitamin A and iron (based on a single 24-hour

recall), as well as vitamin A supplementation (VAS) and deworming medication received in the past 6 

months. In the 24 hours before the survey, about 7 in 10 (73%) children age 6-23 months received foods rich 

in vitamin A, and 6 in 10 (61%) received foods rich in iron. Among all children age 6-59 months, 72% 

received VAS and 63% received deworming medication in the 6 months before the survey. One in four 

children age 6-11 months received deworming medication. This finding needs further review and analysis 

since preventive deworming is not recommended for this age group.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Consumption of vitamin A-rich and iron-rich foods increases with age.

 Vitamin A-rich and iron-rich food intakes are higher among urban children than non-urban children.

 Consumption of vitamin A-rich foods generally increases with increasing mother’s education and 

increasing household wealth, but consumption of iron-rich foods generally does not differ according to 

education or wealth.

 Children whose mothers are age 15-19 (48%) are less likely than children of older mothers (63%-68%)

to have been given deworming medication in the past 6 months.

Consumption of Liver

Consuming natural sources of vitamin A rarely results in vitamin A toxicity unless excessive amounts of 

liver are consumed. In the SADHS 2016, as part of the dietary recall, mothers were asked if their child age 

12-23 months had ever eaten liver and, if so, how many times in the past 4 weeks. Liver consumption was 

assessed only among children age 12-23 months, which did not allow for meaningful evaluations by 

background characteristics. Overall, 41% of children age 12-23 months have ever eaten liver (Table 11.13). 

Among these children, 70% ate liver at least once during the past 4 weeks. The contribution of liver in the 

diet needs to be taken into account when designing micronutrient programs.

11.6 MICRONUTRIENT INTAKE AMONG MOTHERS

During pregnancy, women are at a higher risk of anaemia due to an increase in blood volume. Severe anaemia 

can place both the mother and the baby in danger through increased risk of blood loss during labour, preterm 

delivery, low birth weight, and perinatal mortality. In order to prevent anaemia, pregnant women are advised 

to take iron-folate supplements and to eat iron-rich foods.
Nutrition of Children • 187

Among women with a child born in the 5 years preceding the survey, only 51% took iron tablets for 90 days 

or more during their most recent pregnancy. Nine percent of women did not take any iron tablets during their 

most recent pregnancy, 19% took iron tablets for less than 60 days, and 5% took iron tables for 60-89 days. 

An additional 17% took iron tablets but were uncertain as to the number of days (Table 11.14).

LIST OF TABLES

For more information on nutrition of children, see the following tables:

 Table 11.1 Nutritional status of children

 Table 11.2 Initial breastfeeding

 Table 11.3 Breastfeeding status by age

 Table 11.4 Infant and young child feeding (IYCF) indicators on breastfeeding status

 Table 11.5 Median duration of breastfeeding

 Table 11.6 Duration of past breastfeeding

 Table 11.7 Foods and liquids consumed by children in the day or night preceding the interview

 Table 11.8 Minimum acceptable diet

 Table 11.9 Consumption of sugary drinks and sugary or salty foods by children in the day or 

night preceding the interview

 Table 11.10 Prevalence of anaemia in children

 Table 11.11 Presence of iodised salt in household

 Table 11.12 Micronutrient intake and deworming medication among children

 Table 11.13 Consumption of liver

 Table 11.14 Micronutrient intake among mothers
188 • Nutrition of Children

Table 11.1 Nutritional status of children

Percentage of children under age 5 classified as malnourished according to three anthropometric indices of nutritional status: height-for-age, weight-for-height, and weight-for-age, according to background characteristics, South Africa 

DHS 2016 

Height-for-age1 Weight-for-height Weight-for-age

Background 

characteristic

Percentage 

below -3 SD

Percentage 

below -2 SD2

Mean

Z-score (SD)

Number of 

children

Percentage 

below -3 SD

Percentage 

below -2 SD2

Percentage 

above +2 SD

Mean 

Z-score (SD)

Number of 

children

Percentage 

below -3 SD

Percentage 

below -2 SD2

Percentage 

above +2 SD

Mean 

Z-score (SD)

Number of 

children

Age in months

<6 18.3 32.3 -1.1 127 0.6 3.3 28.9 1.0 121 2.2 6.7 6.5 -0.1 131

6-8 2.0 16.9 -0.9 50 1.7 1.7 28.6 1.1 52 2.4 4.5 7.0 0.2 53

9-11 8.4 18.3 -0.3 66 1.1 1.8 13.9 0.5 66 0.5 6.0 10.2 0.1 68

12-17 13.5 31.4 -1.0 165 1.5 2.8 12.6 0.5 154 0.7 3.1 7.8 0.1 163

18-23 19.9 42.6 -1.6 133 0.4 1.9 13.8 0.9 130 0.4 10.1 6.7 -0.0 132

24-35 10.4 32.9 -1.4 260 0.4 1.8 12.5 0.7 258 0.7 4.9 3.3 -0.2 265

36-47 6.4 27.5 -1.3 298 0.3 1.9 9.4 0.5 301 1.3 5.2 3.4 -0.4 298

48-59 4.4 15.6 -0.9 306 0.2 3.5 8.8 0.4 302 1.5 6.9 1.5 -0.4 306

Sex

Male 12.6 29.8 -1.2 714 0.7 2.1 15.5 0.7 701 1.2 6.7 5.8 -0.1 721

Female 7.0 25.0 -1.1 691 0.4 2.8 11.0 0.5 683 1.0 5.1 3.3 -0.2 695

Birth interval in 

months3

First birth4 6.5 24.0 -1.0 400 0.7 2.4 14.9 0.6 394 0.2 3.2 4.0 -0.1 406

<24 13.3 27.1 -1.2 70 0.0 1.2 3.1 0.5 69 0.0 2.3 0.2 -0.3 72

24-47 13.9 31.0 -1.3 217 0.3 2.2 12.6 0.7 207 0.8 4.4 4.5 -0.2 215

48+ 10.9 26.6 -1.2 388 0.6 3.2 15.4 0.6 380 2.2 9.1 4.6 -0.2 390

Size at birth3

Very small 9.7 29.1 -1.3 58 1.9 10.2 5.4 0.1 54 4.0 14.9 6.7 -0.5 60

Small 21.6 49.2 -1.8 94 0.8 7.5 7.0 0.2 91 1.2 23.5 1.5 -0.9 95

Average or larger 8.9 23.7 -1.1 917 0.4 1.6 15.1 0.7 899 0.8 2.9 4.2 -0.1 922

Don’t know * * * 6 * * * * 6 * * * * 6

Mother’s interview 

status

Interviewed 10.0 26.5 -1.2 1,075 0.6 2.6 13.8 0.6 1,050 1.1 5.5 4.1 -0.2 1,083

Not interviewed but 

in household 6.9 33.6 -1.3 81 2.5 5.7 5.7 0.3 77 4.8 14.0 5.1 -0.4 83

Not interviewed and 

not in the 

household5 9.9 29.3 -1.1 249 0.0 0.9 13.2 0.7 256 0.3 4.9 6.4 -0.1 250

Mother’s nutritional 

status6

Underweight (BMI 

<18.5) (16.1) (27.2) (-1.5) 18 * * * * 18 (0.0) (10.9) (0.0) (-1.1) 19

Normal 

(BMI 18.5-24.9) 10.4 29.2 -1.2 306 0.8 3.0 12.0 0.5 307 1.2 7.4 1.5 -0.4 313

Overweight/obese 

(BMI ≥25) 8.9 25.4 -1.1 629 0.5 2.7 14.9 0.7 621 1.0 4.6 4.7 -0.0 635

Residence

Urban 8.9 25.7 -1.1 713 0.6 2.4 13.2 0.6 698 1.2 5.8 4.3 -0.2 721

Non-urban 10.8 29.2 -1.2 691 0.6 2.5 13.4 0.7 686 1.1 6.0 4.8 -0.2 695
Nutrition of Children • 189

(Continued...)

Table 11.1—Continued

Height-for-age1 Weight-for-height Weight-for-age

Background 

characteristic

Percentage 

below -3 SD

Percentage 

below -2 SD2

Mean

Z-score (SD)

Number of 

children

Percentage 

below -3 SD

Percentage 

below -2 SD2

Percentage 

above +2 SD

Mean 

Z-score (SD)

Number of 

children

Percentage 

below -3 SD

Percentage 

below -2 SD2

Percentage 

above +2 SD

Mean 

Z-score (SD)

Number of 

children

Province

Western Cape 6.6 22.9 -1.0 64 (1.7) (1.7) (14.3) (0.6) 63 3.7 11.9 1.8 -0.2 64

Eastern Cape 8.9 24.8 -1.0 210 0.4 1.5 20.4 0.9 210 0.7 3.4 8.6 0.0 211

Northern Cape 7.3 21.4 -1.0 25 2.1 2.1 4.6 0.1 24 3.9 8.4 6.5 -0.3 25

Free State 10.3 33.5 -1.5 72 1.5 4.6 17.0 0.7 70 2.9 8.0 3.5 -0.2 74

KwaZulu-Natal 13.3 28.5 -1.1 283 0.5 2.5 18.3 0.9 266 1.5 3.8 7.6 0.1 281

North West 5.6 27.4 -1.2 128 0.4 5.9 7.9 0.3 128 1.7 12.6 3.1 -0.5 130

Gauteng 14.4 34.2 -1.4 303 0.2 1.3 11.2 0.5 297 0.2 5.8 2.8 -0.4 304

Mpumalanga 4.6 21.5 -1.1 151 0.5 0.5 8.5 0.6 152 1.3 4.7 2.2 -0.2 154

Limpopo 6.2 21.9 -1.0 168 0.7 4.1 7.9 0.4 173 0.0 4.9 2.1 -0.3 173

Mother’s education7

No education (5.4) (49.5) (-1.4) 22 (3.0) (5.3) (0.0) (0.0) 24 (5.7) (8.7) (0.0) (-0.9) 22

Primary incomplete 15.7 36.5 -1.5 72 2.3 3.9 22.5 0.9 70 4.9 5.9 3.6 -0.3 71

Primary complete 10.9 42.3 -1.9 38 (0.0) (0.0) (11.2) (0.7) 36 0.0 5.7 1.3 -0.4 38

Secondary 

incomplete 11.8 31.7 -1.4 586 0.7 3.5 13.5 0.6 575 1.5 7.9 3.7 -0.3 594

Secondary complete 7.6 19.0 -0.8 326 0.4 2.2 13.4 0.6 313 0.6 4.6 5.8 0.1 328

More than 

secondary 2.6 9.8 -0.7 112 0.0 0.7 9.5 0.4 110 0.0 0.7 4.1 -0.0 112

Wealth quintile

Lowest 14.5 36.3 -1.5 359 0.7 2.0 15.6 0.8 353 1.5 4.7 3.6 -0.3 358

Second 8.7 29.4 -1.2 340 0.5 4.1 13.3 0.5 337 1.2 8.5 5.4 -0.3 348

Middle 8.0 23.9 -1.1 341 0.8 2.6 11.3 0.5 339 1.2 5.6 2.9 -0.2 344

Fourth 11.1 24.5 -0.8 230 0.4 1.8 14.9 0.6 221 0.5 5.8 9.2 0.1 229

Highest 2.4 12.5 -0.7 135 0.1 0.1 9.3 0.5 133 0.9 3.2 1.3 -0.1 137

Total 9.8 27.4 -1.1 1,404 0.6 2.5 13.3 0.6 1,384 1.1 5.9 4.5 -0.2 1,416

Notes: Each of the indices is expressed in standard deviation units (SD) from the median of the WHO Child Growth Standards. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on 

fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1 Recumbent length is measured for children under age 2; standing height is measured for all other children

2

Includes children who are below -3 standard deviations (SD) from the WHO Child Growth standards population median

3 Excludes children whose mothers were not interviewed

4 First-born twins (triplets, etc.) are counted as first births because they do not have a previous birth interval

5

Includes children whose mothers are deceased

6 Excludes children whose mothers were not weighed and measured, children whose mothers were not interviewed, and children whose mothers are pregnant or gave birth within the preceding 2 months. Mother’s nutritional status in 

terms of BMI (body mass index) is presented in Table 17.1.1.

7 For women who are not interviewed, information is taken from the Household Questionnaire. Excludes children whose mothers are not listed in the Household Questionnaire
190 • Nutrition of Children

Table 11.2 Initial breastfeeding

Among last-born children who were born in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage who were ever breastfed and percentages who started 

breastfeeding within 1 hour and within 1 day of birth, and among last-born children born in the 2 years preceding the survey who were ever 

breastfed, percentage who received a prelacteal feed, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Among last-born children born in the past 2 years:

Among last-born children born 

in the past 2 years who were

ever breastfed:

Background 

characteristic

Percentage ever 

breastfed

Percentage who 

started 

breastfeeding 

within 1 hour 

of birth

Percentage who 

started 

breastfeeding 

within 1 day 

of birth1

Number of lastborn children

Percentage who 

received a 

prelacteal feed2

Number of lastborn children 

ever breastfed

Sex

Male 84.3 68.4 79.7 714 15.5 602

Female 83.7 66.1 80.7 672 15.9 563

Assistance at delivery

Health personnel3 83.9 67.6 80.2 1,347 15.9 1,130

Traditional birth attendant * * * 2 * 1

Other (89.4) (56.5) (76.1) 24 (8.9) 22

No one * * * 13 * 12

Place of delivery

Health facility 83.9 67.5 80.1 1,332 16.0 1,117

At home (87.2) (64.8) (81.9) 47 (9.7) 41

Other * * * 7 * 6

Residence

Urban 84.0 69.6 80.8 872 16.2 733

Non-urban 84.0 63.4 79.1 514 14.8 432

Province

Western Cape 92.1 84.7 92.1 118 13.9 108

Eastern Cape 85.7 60.9 79.7 163 20.8 140

Northern Cape 89.8 65.8 84.6 27 9.9 25

Free State 79.9 66.2 78.3 60 17.1 48

KwaZulu-Natal 71.0 58.9 70.1 258 16.2 183

North West 82.4 48.6 72.5 106 7.4 87

Gauteng 89.1 75.1 85.5 385 12.2 343

Mpumalanga 75.9 55.6 66.6 127 32.2 96

Limpopo 94.2 79.2 92.3 144 14.0 136

Mother’s education

No education * * * 18 * 16

Primary incomplete 81.9 66.6 80.6 60 6.7 49

Primary complete 93.8 79.3 90.2 50 14.3 47

Secondary incomplete 83.4 67.5 79.7 706 15.0 589

Secondary complete 84.5 65.9 79.7 397 18.7 335

More than secondary 82.4 65.7 79.8 155 16.1 128

Wealth quintile

Lowest 88.2 67.4 85.2 312 11.4 275

Second 84.2 67.2 80.2 326 17.0 274

Middle 80.5 69.2 76.9 291 13.0 234

Fourth 80.5 64.2 77.6 269 15.8 216

Highest 87.1 68.8 80.7 189 24.4 164

Total 84.0 67.3 80.2 1,386 15.7 1,165

Notes: Table is based on last-born children born in the 2 years preceding the survey regardless of whether the children are living or dead at the 

time of the interview. Children who received breast milk are considered to have been breastfed regardless of the source of the breast milk. Figures 

in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has 

been suppressed.

1

Includes children who started breastfeeding within 1 hour of birth

2 Children given something other than breast milk during the first 3 days of life

3 Doctor or nurse/midwife 
Nutrition of Children • 191

Table 11.3 Breastfeeding status by age

Percent distribution of youngest children under age 2 who are living with their mother by breastfeeding status and the percentage currently breastfeeding, and the 

percentage of all children under age 2 using a bottle with a nipple, according to age in months, South Africa DHS 2016 

Breastfeeding status

Total

Percentage 

currently 

breastfeeding

Number of 

youngest 

children 

under age 2 

living with 

their mother

Percentage 

using a bottle 

with a nipple

Number of all 

children 

under age 2

Age in 

months

Not

breastfeeding

Exclusively 

breastfed

Breastfeeding and 

consuming 

plain water 

only

Breastfeeding and 

consuming 

non-milk 

liquids1

Breastfeeding and 

consuming 

other milk

Breastfeeding and 

consuming 

complementary 

foods

0-1 19.2 44.0 14.0 1.2 14.9 6.7 100.0 80.8 110 47.3 115

2-3 28.9 28.2 6.7 0.4 11.0 24.9 100.0 71.1 110 52.2 120

4-5 27.2 23.7 19.5 0.4 8.5 20.8 100.0 72.8 125 35.4 128

6-8 40.8 4.9 0.7 1.3 5.1 47.2 100.0 59.2 146 55.0 165

9-11 42.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.1 55.4 100.0 57.5 143 52.2 160

12-17 53.3 0.4 0.3 0.0 0.1 46.0 100.0 46.7 311 50.0 360

18-23 81.5 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.4 100.0 18.5 267 38.5 317

0-3 24.0 36.1 10.3 0.8 13.0 15.8 100.0 76.0 221 49.8 235

0-5 25.2 31.6 13.6 0.6 11.4 17.6 100.0 74.8 345 44.7 363

6-9 40.4 3.7 0.6 0.9 5.3 49.1 100.0 59.6 194 55.3 215

12-15 48.6 0.6 0.4 0.0 0.2 50.3 100.0 51.4 201 55.7 231

12-23 66.4 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 33.2 100.0 33.6 578 44.6 677

20-23 87.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 13.0 100.0 13.0 161 43.4 189

Note: Breastfeeding status refers to a “24-hour” period (yesterday and last night). Children who are classified as breastfeeding and consuming plain water only 

consumed no liquid or solid supplements. The categories of not breastfeeding, exclusively breastfed, breastfeeding and consuming plain water, non-milk liquids, 

other milk, and complementary foods (solids and semisolids) are hierarchical and mutually exclusive, and their percentages add to 100%. Thus, children who 

receive breast milk and non-milk liquids and who do not receive other milk and who do not receive complementary foods are classified in the non-milk liquid category 

even though they may also get plain water. Any children who get complementary food are classified in that category as long as they are breastfeeding as well.

1 Non-milk liquids include juice, juice drinks, or other liquids

Table 11.4 Infant and young child feeding (IYCF) indicators on breastfeeding status

Percentage of children fed according to various IYCF practices, South Africa DHS 2016 

Indicator Percentage

Number of 

children

Exclusive breastfeeding under 6 months 31.6 345

Exclusive breastfeeding at 4-5 months 23.7 125

Continued breastfeeding at 1 year 51.4 201

Introduction of solid, semi-solid or soft foods 

(6-8 months) 82.5 146

Continued breastfeeding at 2 years 13.0 161

Age-appropriate breastfeeding (0-23 months)1 37.1 1,213

Predominant breastfeeding2(0-5 months) 45.9 345

Bottle feeding (0-23 months) 46.8 1,365

1 For children age 0-5 months: exclusively breastfed, for children age 6-23 months: receive breast

milk and complementary foods

2 Either exclusively breastfed or received breast milk and plain water and/or non-milk liquids only
192 • Nutrition of Children

Table 11.5 Median duration of breastfeeding

Median duration of any breastfeeding, exclusive breastfeeding, and 

predominant breastfeeding among children born in the 3 years preceding the 

survey, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Median duration (months) of breastfeeding 

among children born in the past 3 years1

Background 

characteristic

Any breastfeedingExclusive 

breastfeeding

Predominant 

breastfeeding2

Sex

Male 8.6 a a

Female 12.2 a 2.6

Residence

Urban 10.3 a 1.9

Non-urban 13.5 a 1.8

Wealth quintile

Lowest 16.5 a a

Second 7.9 (2.3) (2.8)

Middle 11.7 a (2.2)

Fourth 8.3 a 3.9

Highest (4.3) a a

Total 10.7 a 1.9

Mean for all children 12.2 2.9 3.8

Notes: Median and mean durations are based on the breastfeeding status of 

the child at the time of the survey (current status). Includes living and deceased 

children. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

a = Omitted because less than 50% of the children in this group were 

exclusively or predominantly breastfeeding 

1 For last-born children under age 24 months who live with their mother and 

are breastfeeding, information to determine exclusive and predominant 

breastfeeding comes from a 24-hour dietary recall. Tabulations assume that 

last-born children age 24 months or older who live with their mother and are 

breastfeeding are neither exclusively nor predominantly breastfed. It is 

assumed that last-born children not currently living with their mother and all 

non-last-born children are not currently breastfeeding.

2 Either exclusively breastfed or received breast milk and plain water and/or 

non-milk liquids only 
Nutrition of Children • 193

Table 11.6 Duration of past breastfeeding

Among youngest children born in the 5 years before the survey who were ever breastfed but are 

not currently breastfeeding, the mean number of months breastfed and the median number of 

months breastfed, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Mean duration of 

breastfeeding in 

months

Median duration of 

breastfeeding in 

months

Number of last-born 

children ever 

breastfed who are no 

longer breastfeeding

Age in months

<6 (2.6) (3.0) 52

6-8 (2.9) (3.3) 44

9-11 (4.1) (3.9) 55

12-17 7.0 6.8 153

18-23 9.5 8.7 208

24-35 11.5 12.3 446

36-47 11.5 11.7 434

48-59 12.3 12.5 423

Sex

Male 10.2 9.1 929

Female 10.6 9.2 886

Residence

Urban 9.9 8.2 1,154

Non-urban 11.2 12.2 661

Province

Western Cape 7.0 5.9 162

Eastern Cape 9.6 6.7 203

Northern Cape 13.4 12.6 33

Free State 9.7 7.7 79

KwaZulu-Natal 9.6 8.7 311

North West 10.5 8.8 150

Gauteng 10.9 10.7 522

Mpumalanga 11.1 12.3 168

Limpopo 13.3 14.8 186

Mother’s education

No education (9.6) (6.7) 23

Primary incomplete 11.9 12.4 91

Primary complete 10.7 9.0 70

Secondary incomplete 11.5 12.2 827

Secondary complete 9.6 8.1 567

More than secondary 8.0 6.1 237

Wealth quintile

Lowest 12.0 12.4 384

Second 11.4 12.4 476

Middle 10.4 9.9 380

Fourth 9.8 7.1 304

Highest 7.0 5.2 271

Total 10.4 9.2 1,815

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. 
194 • Nutrition of Children

Table 11.7 Foods and liquids consumed by children in the day or night preceding the interview

Percentage of youngest children under age 2 who are living with their mother by type of foods consumed in the day or night preceding the interview, according to breastfeeding status and age, South Africa DHS 2016 

Liquids Solid or semisolid foods

Any solid or 

semisolid 

food

Number of 

children 

under age 2

Age in 

months

Infant 

formula Other milk1

Other 

liquids2

Fortified baby 

foods

Food made 

from grains3

Fruits and 

vegetables 

rich in 

vitamin A

4

Other fruits 

and vegetables

Food made 

from roots and 

tubers

Food made 

from legumes 

and nuts

Meat, fish, 

poultry

Food made 

with oil, fat, or 

butter Eggs

Cheese, 

yoghurt, other 

milk products

BREASTFEEDING CHILDREN

0-1 15.7 5.4 1.8 3.3 7.3 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 8.3 89

2-3 26.9 2.7 2.4 28.8 30.8 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9 35.0 78

4-5 16.8 8.8 5.5 21.7 26.5 4.2 2.4 1.8 0.0 1.4 2.2 3.4 2.4 28.6 91

6-8 44.6 22.9 27.8 62.4 75.7 32.4 18.0 31.3 1.5 15.0 6.5 21.0 32.1 79.7 86

9-11 32.6 16.9 41.3 62.9 84.1 60.1 34.9 35.1 6.8 32.6 25.2 40.3 50.4 96.4 82

12-17 19.7 27.7 46.2 37.6 86.3 52.0 45.0 48.5 17.5 52.4 26.1 47.5 49.0 98.5 145

18-23 25.3 20.6 56.8 43.8 97.1 33.5 44.4 34.4 12.6 68.9 20.2 38.4 50.8 99.6 49

6-23 29.3 23.1 42.1 50.1 84.7 46.7 36.2 39.4 10.6 41.2 20.4 38.3 45.5 93.7 363

Total 25.2 15.9 26.0 36.5 58.3 27.9 21.5 23.4 6.2 24.3 12.3 22.9 27.2 64.5 622

NONBREASTFEEDING CHILDREN

0-1 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 21

2-3 (53.6) (26.0) (16.3) (45.6) (47.3) (15.0) (1.7) (13.3) (1.7) (1.7) (13.3) (1.7) (15.0) (47.3) 32

4-5 (84.7) (36.6) (3.4) (60.4) (60.4) (5.9) (6.0) (13.2) (2.6) (0.0) (1.4) (4.3) (11.1) (67.3) 34

6-8 78.5 32.1 37.8 58.3 71.8 43.4 30.0 29.9 3.9 21.7 13.8 24.0 29.7 86.5 60

9-11 74.9 55.0 46.1 62.1 83.4 62.3 41.3 40.7 15.0 41.3 24.1 38.1 55.6 95.8 61

12-17 51.1 46.7 56.9 52.4 82.1 54.6 39.9 47.9 19.2 48.4 32.0 47.9 53.1 93.4 166

18-23 29.8 26.9 54.3 32.0 89.2 58.6 60.6 48.6 17.8 63.9 42.2 52.7 63.8 97.5 218

6-23 48.0 37.4 52.2 45.4 84.1 55.9 47.9 45.2 16.3 51.1 33.3 46.0 55.2 94.7 504

Total 50.8 35.6 46.0 44.7 77.9 48.9 41.3 40.0 14.1 43.7 29.2 39.5 48.6 87.2 591

Notes: Breastfeeding status and food consumed refer to a “24-hour” period (yesterday and last night). Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed.

1 Other milk includes fresh, tinned, and powdered animal milk

2 Does not include plain water. Includes juice, juice drinks, or other non-milk liquids

3

Includes fortified baby food

4

Includes pumpkin, carrots, squash, sweet potatoes that are yellow or orange inside, dark green leafy vegetables, ripe mangoes, ripe papayas, orange melons, and other locally grown fruits and vegetables that are rich in vitamin A 
Nutrition of Children • 195

Table 11.8 Minimum acceptable diet

Percentage of youngest children age 6-23 months living with their mother who are fed a minimum acceptable diet based on breastfeeding status, number of food groups, and times they are fed during the day or night preceding the 

survey, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Among breastfed children 6-23 months, percentage fed:

Among nonbreastfed children 6-23 months, 

percentage fed:

Among all children 6-23 months, 

percentage fed:

Background 

characteristic

Minimum 

dietary 

diversity1

Minimum meal 

frequency2

Minimum 

acceptable 

diet3

Number of 

breastfed 

children age

6-23 months

Milk or milk 

products4

Minimum 

dietary 

diversity1

Minimum 

meal 

frequency5

Minimum 

acceptable 

diet6

Number 

of nonbreastfed 

children 

6-23 months

Breast milk, 

milk, or milk 

products7

Minimum 

dietary 

diversity1

Minimum 

meal 

frequency8

Minimum 

acceptable 

diet9

Number of 

all children 

age 6-23 

months

Age in months

6-8 20.5 46.2 14.9 86 80.2 27.3 73.5 19.5 60 91.9 23.3 57.3 16.8 146

9-11 46.9 25.8 7.4 82 80.0 49.3 78.9 29.3 61 91.5 47.9 48.3 16.7 143

12-17 50.1 21.4 9.5 145 75.9 49.7 73.8 32.4 166 87.2 49.9 49.3 21.7 311

18-23 46.6 31.2 16.4 49 56.2 67.5 59.1 34.4 218 64.3 63.7 53.9 31.1 267

Sex

Male 35.1 26.4 10.5 181 67.0 56.9 66.7 32.7 271 80.2 48.2 50.6 23.8 452

Female 48.6 32.8 11.9 182 70.0 52.2 69.5 29.9 233 83.2 50.6 53.4 22.0 415

Residence

Urban 46.8 28.1 11.5 224 77.0 57.4 75.3 36.5 298 86.9 52.9 55.1 25.8 522

Non-urban 33.9 32.1 10.9 139 55.9 50.9 57.4 24.0 206 73.7 44.0 47.2 18.7 345

Province

Western Cape (52.0) (10.9) (6.6) 38 * * * * 36 100.0 65.9 54.5 40.2 74

Eastern Cape 30.2 20.8 9.2 45 67.3 56.7 67.6 26.3 62 81.1 45.5 47.8 19.1 107

Northern Cape (34.4) (28.4) (14.2) 10 (68.1) (57.9) (67.4) (25.2) 7 87.1 43.9 44.2 18.7 17

Free State (59.4) (46.2) (33.7) 19 (75.3) (63.2) (80.3) (52.0) 17 88.3 61.2 62.3 42.3 36

KwaZulu-Natal (54.6) (31.5) (22.2) 46 71.0 47.7 65.6 28.9 118 79.1 49.7 56.1 27.0 164

North West (23.1) (35.2) (13.9) 23 49.9 61.3 49.6 26.0 52 65.3 49.6 45.2 22.3 75

Gauteng (46.2) (29.5) (7.4) 103 (75.8) (49.1) (72.6) (30.0) 117 87.2 47.7 52.4 19.4 220

Mpumalanga (53.0) (26.1) (10.4) 27 64.5 67.5 69.1 34.2 50 76.9 62.4 54.1 25.9 77

Limpopo 22.4 43.2 4.7 52 40.9 38.3 52.2 9.1 44 72.8 29.7 47.3 6.7 96

Mother’s education

No education * * * 3 * * * * 4 * * * * 7

Primary incomplete (34.0) (11.4) (0.0) 18 (54.6) (33.7) (57.9) (26.1) 22 75.1 33.8 37.0 14.4 41

Primary complete * * * 14 * * * * 10 (78.6) (34.7) (39.3) (17.0) 24

Secondary incomplete 37.8 30.4 10.1 192 60.9 49.8 60.8 23.0 261 77.5 44.7 47.9 17.5 453

Secondary complete 53.3 32.3 16.1 114 79.8 61.9 82.2 39.6 136 89.0 57.9 59.4 28.9 250

More than secondary * * * 22 80.7 69.2 70.8 49.4 71 85.2 58.4 61.1 38.0 93

Wealth quintile

Lowest 42.4 28.7 11.4 110 53.8 51.7 57.7 24.8 94 78.7 46.7 42.1 17.6 205

Second 36.8 34.5 9.7 67 57.0 47.1 57.7 19.3 132 71.5 43.6 49.9 16.0 199

Middle 41.8 25.1 10.4 79 73.0 47.3 68.8 33.4 103 84.7 44.9 49.8 23.4 182

Fourth 47.0 24.7 14.9 72 79.7 62.0 82.5 35.3 99 88.2 55.7 58.3 26.7 171

Highest (39.6) (43.4) (8.0) 35 85.3 72.5 78.6 52.9 75 90.0 62.0 67.4 38.5 111

Total 41.9 29.6 11.2 363 68.4 54.7 68.0 31.4 504 81.6 49.3 51.9 22.9 867

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed. 

1 Children receive foods from four or more of the following food groups: a. infant formula, milk other than breast milk, cheese or yoghurt or other milk products; b. foods made from grains, roots, and tubers, including porridge and 

fortified baby food from grains; c. vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables; d. other fruits and vegetables; e. eggs; f. meat, poultry, fish, and shellfish (and organ meats); g. legumes and nuts

2 For breastfed children, minimum meal frequency is receiving solid or semisolid food at least twice a day for infants 6-8 months and at least three times a day for children 9-23 months

3 Breastfed children age 6-23 months are considered to be fed a minimum acceptable diet if they are fed the minimum dietary diversity as described in footnote 1 and the minimum meal frequency as defined in footnote 2

4

Includes two or more feedings of commercial infant formula; fresh, tinned, and powdered animal milk; and yoghurt

5 For nonbreastfed children age 6-23 months, minimum meal frequency is receiving solid or semisolid food or milk feeds at least four times a day

6 Nonbreastfed children age 6-23 months are considered to be fed a minimum acceptable diet if they receive other milk or milk products at least twice a day, receive the minimum meal frequency as defined in footnote 5, and receive 

solid or semisolid foods from at least four food groups not including the milk or milk products food group

7 Breastfeeding, or not breastfeeding and receiving two or more feedings of commercial infant formula; fresh, tinned, and powdered animal milk; and yoghurt

8 Children are fed the minimum recommended number of times per day according to their age and breastfeeding status as described in footnotes 2 and 5

9 Children age 6-23 months are considered to be fed a minimum acceptable diet if they receive breast milk, other milk, or milk products as described in footnote 7; are fed the minimum dietary diversity as described in footnote 1; and 

are fed the minimum meal frequency as described in footnotes 2 and 5
196 • Nutrition of Children

Table 11.9 Consumption of sugary drinks and sugary or salty foods by 

children in the day or night preceding the interview

Percentage of youngest children under age 2 who are living with their mother by 

specific foods consumed in the day or night preceding the interview, according 

to breastfeeding status and age, South Africa DHS 2016 

Liquids Solid or semisolid foods Number of all 

children 

Age in months under age 2

Sugary 

drinks1

Sugary 

foods2 Salty snacks3

BREASTFEEDING CHILDREN

0-1 0.0 0.0 0.0 89

2-3 0.0 0.0 0.0 78

4-5 0.0 0.5 0.5 91

6-8 5.9 10.3 14.8 86

9-11 10.4 25.0 29.2 82

12-17 15.3 40.0 53.2 145

18-23 30.9 29.7 53.9 49

6-23 14.1 28.1 38.7 363

Total 8.2 16.5 22.7 622

NONBREASTFEEDING CHILDREN

0-1 * * * 21

2-3 (13.3) (13.3) (15.0) 32

4-5 (10.3) (0.0) (0.0) 34

6-8 1.4 17.7 21.4 60

9-11 9.4 28.2 42.3 61

12-17 15.0 36.5 34.0 166

18-23 33.2 52.8 66.5 218

6-23 20.6 40.3 47.6 504

Total 18.9 35.1 41.4 591

TOTAL

0-1 0.0 0.0 0.0 110

2-3 3.8 3.8 4.3 110

4-5 2.8 0.4 0.4 125

6-8 4.0 13.3 17.5 146

9-11 10.0 26.3 34.8 143

12-17 15.1 38.1 43.0 311

18-23 32.8 48.6 64.2 267

6-23 17.9 35.2 43.9 867

Total 13.4 25.6 31.8 1,213

Notes: Breastfeeding status refers to a “24-hour” period (yesterday and last 

night). Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An 

asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and 

has been suppressed.

1 Sugary drinks such as Coke, Stoney, Dixi cola, or Jive

2 Sugary foods include chocolates, sweets, candies, pastries, cakes, or biscuits

3 Salty snacks include Nik Naks, Simba, Flings, or Spookies 
Nutrition of Children • 197

Table 11.10 Prevalence of anaemia in children

Percentage of children age 6-59 months classified as having anaemia, according to background characteristics, South Africa 

DHS 2016 

Anaemia status by haemoglobin level

Number of 

children age 

6-59 months

Background 

characteristic

Any anaemia 

(<11.0 g/dl)

Mild anaemia 

(10.0-10.9 g/dl)

Moderate 

anaemia 

(7.0-9.9 g/dl)

Severe anaemia 

(<7.0 g/dl)

Age in months

6-8 (45.9) (12.2) (30.6) (3.1) 38

9-11 68.5 29.5 39.0 0.0 54

12-17 77.3 31.9 37.4 8.0 136

18-23 63.1 19.9 41.0 2.3 117

24-35 69.6 26.5 41.3 1.8 218

36-47 58.7 23.6 33.3 1.7 268

48-59 48.7 22.0 25.6 1.1 263

Sex

Male 63.9 25.5 37.0 1.4 542

Female 58.7 23.1 32.3 3.3 552

Mother’s interview status

Interviewed 62.3 23.7 35.8 2.9 810

Not interviewed but in household 59.6 29.7 29.8 0.0 61

Not interviewed and not in the 

household1 58.0 25.3 31.6 1.2 223

Residence

Urban 62.2 21.0 37.9 3.2 539

Non-urban 60.4 27.5 31.3 1.5 555

Province

Western Cape (61.3) (31.4) (27.4) (2.4) 53

Eastern Cape 59.1 23.3 35.8 0.0 168

Northern Cape 48.4 32.1 16.3 0.0 13

Free State 53.6 25.2 25.0 3.4 66

KwaZulu-Natal 41.7 18.2 22.8 0.6 189

North West 68.4 30.6 34.0 3.7 114

Gauteng 74.0 19.0 50.3 4.8 249

Mpumalanga 70.1 25.7 40.6 3.8 115

Limpopo 59.4 34.1 24.6 0.7 128

Wealth quintile

Lowest 63.6 25.1 35.2 3.4 307

Second 62.2 22.3 38.3 1.5 265

Middle 59.6 25.2 33.3 1.1 270

Fourth 60.3 18.9 38.3 3.0 168

Highest 57.6 35.6 17.7 4.2 85

Total 61.3 24.3 34.6 2.4 1,094

Notes: Table is based on children who stayed in the household on the night before the interview and who were tested for 

anaemia. Prevalence of anaemia, based on haemoglobin levels, is adjusted for altitude using formulas in CDC 1998. 

Haemoglobin is in grams per decilitre (g/dl). Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

1

Includes children whose mothers are deceased 
198 • Nutrition of Children

Table 11.11 Presence of iodised salt in household

Among all eligible households, percentage with salt tested for iodine content, percentage with salt in the household but the salt was not tested, and percentage 

with no salt in the household; and among households with salt tested, percentages with salt with any iodisation, inadequately iodised salt, adequately iodised

salt, optimally iodised salt, highly iodised salt, and excessively iodised salt, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Among all eligible households, percentage Among households in which salt was tested, percentage with

Background 

characteristic

With salt 

tested

With salt, 

but salt not 

tested1

With no salt 

in the 

household

Number of 

households

Salt with 

any 

iodisation 

(>0 ppm)

Inadequately 

iodised salt 

(<15 ppm)

Adequately 

iodised salt 

(≥15 ppm)

Optimally 

iodised salt 

(≥15 to ≤40 

ppm)

Highly 

iodised salt 

(>65 ppm)

Excessively 

iodised salt 

(>80 ppm)

Number of 

households

Residence

Urban 87.0 5.9 7.1 1,877 98.5 8.3 91.7 30.4 17.4 9.5 1,633

Non-urban 91.0 3.7 5.3 889 96.4 17.9 82.1 28.7 18.2 10.5 809

Province

Western Cape 86.7 6.3 6.9 294 98.1 20.6 79.4 32.5 10.5 6.7 255

Eastern Cape 92.5 3.2 4.3 334 98.1 9.4 90.6 25.6 21.9 13.5 309

Northern Cape 77.1 13.1 9.8 55 95.9 14.5 85.5 31.7 16.6 8.9 42

Free State 86.0 6.9 7.1 149 99.2 9.4 90.6 35.4 19.1 10.7 128

KwaZulu-Natal 88.0 4.8 7.1 509 96.7 8.3 91.7 29.1 18.2 8.9 448

North West 94.0 2.1 4.0 206 99.7 8.1 91.9 32.9 19.2 10.3 194

Gauteng 87.2 6.6 6.2 748 98.6 6.1 93.9 31.0 18.6 10.3 652

Mpumalanga 80.0 5.6 14.4 206 98.6 6.5 93.5 37.5 18.6 11.0 165

Limpopo 94.0 2.8 3.2 265 94.6 30.8 69.2 20.0 14.2 7.6 250

Wealth quintile

Lowest 86.3 4.7 9.0 561 95.6 20.2 79.8 32.9 16.3 8.7 484

Second 88.3 5.1 6.7 592 97.1 12.8 87.2 28.4 19.1 12.1 523

Middle 89.6 2.1 8.3 541 99.5 9.4 90.6 34.4 17.8 8.7 485

Fourth 90.2 5.6 4.2 520 99.6 6.8 93.2 26.8 18.5 9.4 469

Highest 87.3 8.7 4.0 552 97.4 7.8 92.2 26.6 16.7 10.1 482

Total 88.3 5.2 6.5 2,766 97.8 11.4 88.6 29.8 17.7 9.8 2,443

1

Includes households in which salt could not be tested for technical or logistical reasons 
Nutrition of Children • 199

Table 11.12 Micronutrient intake and deworming medication among children

Among youngest children age 6-23 months who are living with their mother, percentages who consumed vitamin A-rich and iron-rich foods 

in the 24 hours preceding the survey, and among all children age 6-59 months, percentages who were given vitamin A supplements and 

deworming medication in the 6 months preceding the survey, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Among youngest children age 6-23 months living 

with their mother: Among all children age 6-59 months:

Background 

characteristic

Percentage who 

consumed foods 

rich in vitamin A 

in last 24 hours1

Percentage who 

consumed foods 

rich in iron in last 

24 hours2

Number of 

children

Percentage 

given vitamin A 

supplements in 

past 6 months3

Percentage 

given deworming 

medication in 

past 6 months4,5

Number of 

children

Age in months

6-8 45.8 26.7 146 66.5 19.1 165

9-11 72.7 53.9 143 74.4 34.2 160

12-17 77.2 66.3 311 80.0 63.1 360

18-23 83.9 77.7 267 77.1 70.6 317

24-35 na na na 75.2 66.9 660

36-47 na na na 69.2 69.8 688

48-59 na na na 67.5 63.6 730

Sex

Male 70.0 59.2 452 71.5 59.8 1,596

Female 76.8 63.1 415 73.2 65.4 1,484

Breastfeeding status

Breastfeeding 67.1 53.6 363 82.1 53.4 439

Not breastfeeding 77.7 66.5 504 70.6 64.0 2,642

Mother’s age

15-19 74.6 63.3 81 72.6 48.4 140

20-29 74.0 59.9 483 72.8 62.7 1,606

30-39 71.3 62.9 261 71.8 62.7 1,098

40-49 (74.1) (59.7) 43 70.3 67.9 237

Residence

Urban 78.6 64.1 522 71.9 63.9 1,970

Non-urban 65.2 56.6 345 72.9 59.9 1,110

Province

Western Cape 81.6 65.7 74 78.6 71.5 277

Eastern Cape 67.7 57.3 107 78.5 70.9 341

Northern Cape 77.2 70.5 17 76.6 66.3 59

Free State 78.8 67.8 36 78.4 71.1 137

KwaZulu-Natal 70.8 64.3 164 78.1 66.7 560

North West 68.3 59.2 75 74.8 62.1 249

Gauteng 78.4 58.6 220 63.4 55.6 878

Mpumalanga 84.6 74.5 77 74.7 63.6 281

Limpopo 57.8 48.6 96 66.3 51.3 298

Mother’s education

No education * * 7 (74.3) (58.0) 37

Primary incomplete 63.9 52.3 41 61.6 52.4 153

Primary complete (69.6) (54.7) 24 72.0 65.4 118

Secondary incomplete 71.3 61.7 453 73.5 62.3 1,499

Secondary complete 77.6 63.6 250 73.5 63.9 928

More than secondary 74.9 55.9 93 68.4 63.0 344

Wealth quintile

Lowest 67.8 60.4 205 70.3 55.6 669

Second 69.0 60.2 199 73.3 62.9 745

Middle 70.8 59.8 182 73.3 65.7 682

Fourth 81.6 60.6 171 70.6 61.9 572

Highest 82.3 66.8 111 74.3 68.4 412

Total 73.3 61.1 867 72.3 62.5 3,080

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 

unweighted cases and has been suppressed. 

na = Not applicable 

1

Includes meat (and organ meat), fish, poultry, eggs, pumpkin, carrots, squash or sweet potatoes that are yellow or orange inside, dark 

green leafy vegetables, ripe mango, ripe papaya, orange melons, and other locally grown fruits and vegetables that are rich in vitamin A 

2

Includes meat (and organ meat), fish, poultry, and eggs 

3 Based on both mother’s recall and the vaccination card (where available)

4 Based on mother’s recall

5 Deworming for intestinal parasites is commonly done for helminths and schistosomiasis
200 • Nutrition of Children

Table 11.13 Consumption of liver

Percentage of youngest children age 12-23 months who are living with their mother by whether they have ever eaten liver, and among children who 

have ever eaten liver, percentage who ate liver in the past 4 weeks by number of times liver was consumed, according to background characteristics, 

South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage of

children who 

have ever eaten 

liver

Number of 

children age 

12-23 months

Among children who have ever eaten liver, percentage who ate liver 

in the past 4 weeks by number of times consumed

Background 

characteristic 0 1 2-3 4+

Number of children 

age 12-23 months 

who ever ate liver

Age in months

12-17 35.1 311 24.2 38.8 20.0 15.0 109

18-23 46.8 267 32.5 25.1 38.0 3.5 125

Residence

Urban 42.1 343 24.9 36.9 25.7 12.2 145

Non-urban 38.2 235 34.7 22.8 35.9 3.4 90

Wealth quintile

Lowest 37.1 143 25.8 24.3 34.2 10.8 53

Second 44.1 131 28.7 29.3 41.2 0.0 58

Middle 39.6 119 (33.9) (32.1) (25.5) (8.5) 47

Fourth 48.7 108 (33.3) (31.3) (18.4) (16.6) 53

Highest 30.7 76 * * * * 23

Total 40.5 578 28.6 31.5 29.6 8.8 234

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases 

and has been suppressed. 

Table 11.14 Micronutrient intake among mothers

Among women age 15-49 with a child born in the 5 years preceding the survey, percent distribution by number 

of days they took iron tablets during the pregnancy of the last child, according to background characteristics, 

South Africa DHS 2016 

Among women with a child born in the past 5 years, number of 

days they took iron tablets during pregnancy of last birth

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic None <60 60-89 90+

Don’t 

know Total

Age

15-19 8.8 16.8 5.2 53.1 16.1 100.0 176

20-29 8.6 20.5 4.8 50.1 16.1 100.0 1,555

30-39 9.2 16.3 5.1 51.4 17.9 100.0 1,063

40-49 9.1 18.8 9.3 48.0 14.8 100.0 242

Residence

Urban 9.0 20.1 5.5 49.9 15.4 100.0 1,942

Non-urban 8.6 16.1 4.8 51.7 18.7 100.0 1,094

Province

Western Cape 9.4 30.1 3.7 43.8 12.9 100.0 276

Eastern Cape 3.7 14.5 5.3 50.8 25.8 100.0 335

Northern Cape 7.0 8.7 4.3 74.5 5.5 100.0 61

Free State 11.5 27.0 4.0 50.8 6.7 100.0 145

KwaZulu-Natal 7.3 18.0 4.1 43.1 27.5 100.0 555

North West 6.1 3.1 3.5 80.7 6.5 100.0 244

Gauteng 10.7 20.7 7.9 42.3 18.4 100.0 842

Mpumalanga 7.5 13.0 4.2 62.7 12.7 100.0 278

Limpopo 14.4 24.7 4.9 52.4 3.5 100.0 301

Education

No education (5.7) (7.2) (9.0) (53.3) (24.8) 100.0 42

Primary incomplete 14.1 14.6 3.6 44.0 23.7 100.0 141

Primary complete 2.8 12.4 5.1 41.9 37.7 100.0 108

Secondary incomplete 8.9 19.7 5.2 50.1 16.2 100.0 1,486

Secondary complete 8.5 18.3 6.0 51.3 15.9 100.0 908

More than secondary 9.8 20.5 4.0 55.6 10.2 100.0 351

Wealth quintile

Lowest 11.1 18.2 5.9 44.4 20.4 100.0 650

Second 7.9 17.7 5.6 51.7 17.0 100.0 739

Middle 8.2 20.4 5.3 49.5 16.7 100.0 671

Fourth 6.5 15.5 2.8 60.3 14.9 100.0 557

Highest 11.4 22.7 7.0 46.6 12.3 100.0 418

Total 8.9 18.7 5.3 50.5 16.6 100.0 3,036

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.
HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behaviour • 201

HIV/AIDS-RELATED KNOWLEDGE 

AND BEHAVIOUR 12

Key Findings

 Knowledge of prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV: Women are more aware than men that 

HIV can be transmitted during pregnancy (83% versus 

68%), during delivery (78% versus 58%), and through 

breastfeeding (77% versus 60%).

 Sexual partners: 5% of women and 17% of men had 

two or more sexual partners in the year before the 

survey. Among these respondents, 58% of women and 

65% of men reported that they used a condom during 

their most recent sexual intercourse. On average, 

women have had 3.9 lifetime sexual partners, while men 

have had 14.7.

 HIV tests: The vast majority of respondents (93% of 

women and 94% of men) know where to obtain an HIV 

test. Fifty-nine percent of women and 45% of men were 

tested for HIV in the past 12 months and received the 

results of their last test.

 Male circumcision: 57% of South African men age

15-49 are circumcised; 30% were circumcised by a

health worker or professional, and 27% were circumcised 

by a traditional practitioner, family member, or friend.

 Sexually transmitted infections: Overall, 12% of 

women and 7% of men either had an STI or symptoms of 

an STI during the 12 months before the survey.

he prevention of HIV has been prioritised in the 4th National Strategic Plan for HIV, TB and STIs 

(SANAC 2017). Adopting the 90-90-90 strategy to end the spread of the epidemic, the plan has the 

target of 90% of all people living with HIV knowing their HIV status. Thereafter, 90% of all 

people with diagnosed HIV infection should receive sustained antiretroviral therapy, and 90% of people 

receiving antiretroviral therapy should be virally suppressed. This initiative is critically important, as South 

Africa continues to have the largest number of people living with HIV of any country in the world. In 

September 2016, the Universal Test and Treat guideline was implemented. Prevention of mother-to-child 

transmission (MTCT) of HIV continues to be a critical component of the HIV strategy as the country 

enters the “last mile” to achieve elimination of MTCT.

To facilitate comparisons between the sexes, findings in this chapter refer to the 15-49 age group unless 

otherwise noted. The chapter concludes with a discussion of findings among young people age 15-24.

12.1 KNOWLEDGE ABOUT MOTHER-TO-CHILD TRANSMISSION OF HIV

Increasing the level of general knowledge about transmission of HIV from mother to child and reducing 

the risk of transmission using antiretroviral drugs are critical in reducing mother-to-child transmission 

(MTCT) of HIV. To assess MTCT knowledge, respondents were asked whether HIV can be transmitted 

T
202 • HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behavior

from mother to child during pregnancy, during delivery, or through breastfeeding and whether a mother 

with HIV can reduce the risk of transmission to her baby by taking certain drugs.

Women are more aware than men that HIV can be 

transmitted during pregnancy (83% versus 68%), 

during delivery (78% versus 58%), and through 

breastfeeding (77% versus 60%). Overall, 69% of

women and 49% of men know about all three modes 

of MTCT. Women are also more likely than men to 

be aware that a mother infected with HIV can reduce 

the risk of transmission to her baby by taking certain 

drugs (82% versus 62%) (Figure 12.1 and

Table 12.1).

12.2 MULTIPLE SEXUAL PARTNERS 

Given that most HIV infections in South Africa are 

contracted through heterosexual intercourse, 

information on sexual behaviour is important in 

designing and monitoring intervention programmes 

to control the spread of the epidemic. Survey 

respondents were asked questions on the number of

sexual partners they had during the 12 months before 

the survey and over their lifetime. Information was 

also collected on use of condoms during 

respondents’ most recent sexual intercourse with 

each of up to three partners.

Five percent of women and 17% of men reported that 

they had two or more sexual partners in the 12 

months before the survey; among these individuals, 

58% of women and 65% of men reported using a 

condom during their most recent sexual intercourse 

(Figure 12.2). 

The proportion of women and men who had sexual 

intercourse in the 12 months before the survey with a 

person who neither was their spouse nor lived with 

them (45% of women and 55% of men) was much 

higher than the proportion who had two or more 

partners in the past 12 months; however, use of 

condoms at last sex with such a person was similar to 

use of condoms at most recent sex among those with 

two or more sexual partners in the 12 months before 

the survey (60% of women and 69% of men) (Table 12.2.1 and Table 12.2.2). On average, women who 

have ever had sexual intercourse have had 3.9 lifetime sexual partners, while men have had 14.7.

Patterns by background characteristics

 The percentage of women and men with two or more partners in the 12 months before the survey who 

reported using a condom during their most recent sexual intercourse was higher among those in urban 

areas (61% and 67%, respectively) than among those in non-urban areas (50% and 62%, respectively).

Figure 12.1 Knowledge of mother-tochild transmission (MTCT)

Figure 12.2 Multiple sexual partners and 

condom use

83

78

77

82

68

58

60

62

During pregnancy

During delivery

By breastfeeding

Know that the risk of MTCT can be reduced

by mother taking special

drugs

Percentage of women and men age 15-49

Women

Know that HIV can be Men

transmitted from mother 

to child:

5

58

17

65

Had sex in the past

12 months with

2+ partners

Among those who had

sex with 2+ partners,

percentage who used a

condom during last sex

Women Men

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 
HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behaviour • 203

 Among women who had ever had sexual intercourse, those who were divorced, separated, or widowed 

reported more lifetime partners on average (5.4 partners) than those who had never been married (4.1 

partners) and those who were currently married or living together with someone as if married (3.4 

partners). Similarly, divorced, separated, or widowed men reported more lifetime partners on average 

(24.7 partners) than men who were currently married or living together with someone (15.6 partners) 

and those who had never been married (13.3 partners).

 While women living in urban and non-urban areas reported comparable numbers of lifetime partners 

(4.0 and 3.5, respectively), men living in urban areas reported a much higher number of partners than 

those living in non-urban areas (17.0 and 9.2, respectively).

12.3 PAID SEX

The act of paying for sex introduces an uneven negotiating ground for safer sexual intercourse. 

Transactional sex is the exchange of money, favours, or gifts for sexual intercourse. This type of sexual

intercourse is associated with a greater risk of contracting HIV and other sexually transmitted infections

(STIs) because of compromised power relations and the likelihood of having multiple partners.

In the SADHS 2016, men were asked about payment for sexual intercourse and condom use at last paid 

sexual intercourse. Five percent of men have ever paid for sex and 3% have paid for sex in the last 12 

months. Among men who paid for sex in the last 12 months, 83% reported using condoms during their 

most recent sexual intercourse (Table 12.3).

12.4 COVERAGE OF HIV TESTING SERVICES

Knowledge of HIV status helps HIV-negative individuals make specific decisions to reduce risk and 

increase safer sex practices so that they can remain disease free. Among those who are living with HIV, 

knowledge of their status allows them to take action to protect their sexual partners, to access care, and to 

receive treatment.

In South Africa, a national campaign was launched in 2010 to provide HIV counselling and testing (HCT)

and boost the number of people who know their HIV status. Testing continues to be freely available in the 

public sector and through nongovernmental organisations (NGOs). 

12.4.1 Awareness of HIV Testing Services and Experience with HIV Testing

To assess awareness and coverage of HIV testing services, survey respondents were asked whether they 

had ever been tested for HIV. If they said that they had, they were asked whether they had received the 

results of their last test and where they had been tested. If they had never been tested, they were asked 

whether they knew a place where they could go to be tested.

The vast majority of respondents (93% of women 

and 94% of men) know where to obtain an HIV test

(Tables 12.4.1 and 12.4.2). Women are more likely 

than men to have ever been tested for HIV and to 

have received the results of their last test (82% and 

69%, respectively). Similarly, a greater percentage of 

women than men had been tested for HIV in the 12 

months before the survey and received the results of 

the last test (59% of women versus 45% of men) 

(Figure 12.3).

Figure 12.3 HIV testing

82

59

69

45

Ever tested for HIV and

received the result

Tested in 12 months

before the survey and

received the result

Women Men

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 
204 • HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behavior

Patterns by background characteristics

 The proportion of women and men who have never been tested for HIV is greatest among those age 

15-19 (50% and 54%, respectively) and those who have never had sex (65% for both women 

and men).

 By province, the percentage of women who have been recently tested for HIV and received the results 

of their last test is relatively uniform, ranging from 52% in Northern Cape to 63% in Limpopo. There 

is greater variation among men; the percentage of men recently tested is highest in Western Cape 

(56%) and lowest in Limpopo (35%).

12.4.2 HIV Testing of Pregnant Women

According to current guidelines for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV, women should be 

tested for HIV at their first antenatal care (ANC) visit and thereafter provided with HCT every 3 months 

(NDoH 2015b). 

Table 12.5 presents information on self-reported HIV testing during pregnancy and delivery among all 

women age 15-49 who gave birth in the 2 years before the survey. Seventy-eight percent of women 

received HIV counselling during ANC. Seventy-seven percent of women received counselling on HIV and 

were offered, accepted, and received the results of an HIV test during ANC. Overall, 95% of women had 

an HIV test during ANC or labour and received the results of the test. Across all provinces, more than 90% 

of women had an HIV test during either ANC or labour and received the results.

12.5 MALE CIRCUMCISION

Voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) has been shown to be partially effective in reducing HIV 

infections among males. The government of South Africa introduced its policy and programme on VMMC 

in 2010. As recommended in the 2012-2016 National Strategic Plan on HIV, STIs, and TB (SANAC 

2011), the government set a target of reaching 80% of HIV-negative men age 15-49 with VMMC by 2015 

(1.6 million men).

In the SADHS 2016, men were asked whether or not they were circumcised and, if they were circumcised, 

who performed the circumcision. Overall, 57% of men are circumcised; 30% were circumcised by a health 

worker or professional, and 27% were circumcised by a traditional practitioner, family member, or friend

(Table 12.6). In the context of this survey, circumcision by a health worker is considered a proxy for 

VMMC.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Younger men age 15-19 (41%) are twice as 

likely to be circumcised by a health worker or 

professional as older men age 40-49 (21%)

(Figure 12.4).

 While the percentage of men who are 

circumcised does not vary by residence (57% of 

both urban and non-urban men), the percentage 

circumcised by a health worker is higher among 

urban men (32%) than non-urban men (25%).

 The prevalence of male circumcision varies

markedly by province, from 35% in Northern 

Cape to 86% in Limpopo. The percentage of men circumcised by a health worker also varies, from 7% 

in Eastern Cape to 41% in Free State. 

Figure 12.4 Male circumcision by age

41 36 34

22 21

15-19 20-24 25-29 30-39 40-49

Percentage of men circumcised by a 

health professional

Age
HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behaviour • 205

 Men with no education are less likely to be circumcised than others. Thirty-eight percent of men with 

no education are circumcised compared with 49% of men with an incomplete primary education and

66% with more than a secondary education.

12.6 SELF-REPORTING OF SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and symptoms

Respondents who had ever had sex were asked whether they had an STI or 

symptoms of an STI (a bad-smelling, abnormal discharge from the 

vagina/penis or a genital sore or ulcer) in the 12 months before the survey.

Sample: Women and men age 15-49 who have ever had sex

In the SADHS 2016, respondents who had ever had sex were asked whether they had had a sexually 

transmitted infection (STI) or symptoms of an STI in the 12 months before the survey. Women were more 

likely than men to report having had an STI or having experienced STI symptoms (Table 12.7). Among 

women age 15-49, 5% reported that they had an STI in the 12 months before the survey; 9% had a badsmelling, abnormal discharge, and 4% had a genital sore or ulcer. Four percent of men reported that they 

had an STI; 4% reported a bad-smelling, abnormal discharge; and 2% reported a genital sore or ulcer.

Overall, 12% of women and 7% of 

men either had an STI or symptoms 

of an STI during the 12 months 

before the survey. Sixty-six percent 

of women and 55% of men who had 

an STI or STI symptoms sought 

advice or treatment from a clinic, 

hospital, private doctor, or other 

health professional (Table 12.8 and 

Figure 12.5). Five percent of 

women and 9% of men sought 

advice or treatment from a shop or 

pharmacy. Thirty percent of women 

and 36% of men did not seek any 

treatment.

12.7 HIV/AIDS-RELATED BEHAVIOUR AMONG YOUNG PEOPLE

This section assesses the extent to which young people age 15-24 are engaged in behaviour that may place 

them at risk of contracting HIV.

12.7.1 First Sex 

Young people who initiate sex at an early age are typically at higher risk of becoming pregnant or 

contracting an STI than young people who initiate sex later. Consistent condom use can reduce such risks. 

Table 12.9 provides information on the percentage of young women and men who have had sexual 

intercourse before age 15 and age 18. Overall, a higher percentage of young men than young women age 

15-24 reported having sex before age 15 (15% and 6%, respectively). A similar trend is observed among 

young people age 18-24 who have had sex before age 18. Fifty percent of young women reported having 

sex before age 18, as compared with 66% of young men.

Figure 12.5 STI advice- or treatment-seeking 

behaviour

66

5

30

55

9

36

Sought advice or

treatment from a

clinic/hospital/

private doctor/other

health professional

Sought advice or medicine from a

shop/pharmacy

No advice or treatment

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 with an STI 

or STI symptoms

Women Men
206 • HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behavior

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The percentage of young women age 15-24 who have had sex 

before age 15 decreased slightly from 8% in 1998 to 6% in 2016. Similarly, the proportion of young 

women age 18-24 who have had sex before age 18 decreased modestly, from 55% to 50%. Although 

sexual debut data among young women may be more consistent than marriage and first birth data, Neal 

and Hosegood (2015) call for caution when inferring changes in sexual health trends based on self-reported

sexual behaviours among young women in DHS surveys.

Patterns by background characteristics 

 Young men in urban areas are slightly more likely to have initiated sex by age 15 or 18 than their nonurban counterparts. There is no clear pattern by residence among young women. 

 The percentage of young women age 15-24 who had sexual intercourse before age 15 declines with 

increasing education, from 18% among those who did not complete a primary education to 4% among 

those who studied beyond the secondary level. A similar pattern is observed among young women age 

18-24 who had sexual intercourse before age 18. In contrast, no such pattern is observed among 

young men.

12.7.2 Premarital Sex 

The SADHS 2016 also collected information on patterns of sexual activity among women and men age 

15-24 who had never been in a union (i.e., those who had never been married or lived with a partner as if 

married). Among those who have never been in a union, 37% women and 31% of men have never had 

sexual intercourse (Table 12.10).

Patterns by background characteristics 

 The percentage of never-in-union women who have never had sexual intercourse decreases sharply 

with age, from 72% among those age 15-17 to 37% among those age 18-19 and 6% among those age 

23-24. Similarly, the percentage of never-in-union men who have never had sexual intercourse 

decreases from 63% among those age 15-17 to 28% among those age 18-19 and 7% among those 

age 23-24.

 The percentage of women who have never had sexual intercourse is slightly higher in urban areas than 

in non-urban areas (38% versus 36%). The opposite pattern is observed among men; 34% of nonurban men and 28% of urban men have never had sexual intercourse.

 The percentage of women and men who have never had sex generally decreases with increasing 

education. For example, 59% of men with a primary incomplete education have never had sex, as

compared with 2% of men with more than a secondary education.

12.7.3 Multiple Sexual Partners 

Young men age 15-24 are more likely than their female counterparts to have had more than one sexual 

partner in the previous 12 months (21% versus 5%) (Tables 12.11.1 and 12.11.2). In addition, condom use 

is more common among young men; 73% of young men with more than one partner in the past 12 months 

reported using a condom during their most recent sexual intercourse, as compared with 61% of young 

women.

Young men are also more likely than young women to have had intercourse with a non-marital, noncohabitating partner in the last 12 months (62% versus 52%). Sixty-two percent of young women and 76% 

of young men used a condom during their most recent sexual intercourse with a non-marital, noncohabiting partner. However, underreporting of non-marital partners by single women (Nnko et al. 2004) 

or overreporting of sexual partners by men in certain circumstances (Houle et al. 2016) may have been a 

factor in these results.
HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behaviour • 207

Condom use at last sex with a non-marital, non-cohabitating partner is higher in urban areas than in nonurban areas among women but not men; 67% of women in urban areas used a condom during their last 

sexual intercourse with such a partner, as compared with 54% of women in non-urban areas.

12.7.4 Coverage of HIV Testing Services 

Seeking an HIV test may be more difficult for young people than adults because many young people lack 

experience in accessing health services for themselves and because there are often barriers to young people 

obtaining services. Table 12.12 provides information on sexually active young people age 15-24 who have 

been tested for HIV and received the results of the last test. Overall, 68% of young women and 49% of 

young men who have had sexual intercourse in the past 12 months have been tested for HIV and received 

the results of the last test.

Patterns by background characteristics

 The proportion of young people tested for HIV in the last 12 months increases with age, rising from 

58% among women age 15-17 to 71% among those age 23-24 and from 27% among men age 15-17 to 

55% among those age 23-24.

 Women who have ever been married or have lived together with a partner as if married are slightly

more likely than women who have never been married to have been tested for HIV in the past 12 

months and to have received the results of the last test (70% and 67%, respectively). Although a 

similar pattern is observed among men, the results should be interpreted with caution because of the 

small number of men age 15-24 who have ever been married or have lived together with a partner as if 

married.

LIST OF TABLES

For more information on HIV/AIDS-related knowledge and behaviour, see the following tables:

 Table 12.1 Knowledge of prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV

 Table 12.2.1 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the past 12 

months: Women

 Table 12.2.2 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the past 12 

months: Men

 Table 12.3 Payment for sexual intercourse and condom use at last paid sexual intercourse

 Table 12.4.1 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Women

 Table 12.4.2 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Men

 Table 12.5 Pregnant women counselled and tested for HIV

 Table 12.6 Male circumcision

 Table 12.7 Self-reported prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and STI 

symptoms

 Table 12.8 Women and men seeking treatment for STIs

 Table 12.9 Age at first sexual intercourse among young people

 Table 12.10 Premarital sexual intercourse among young people

 Table 12.11.1 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the past 12 

months among young people: Women

 Table 12.11.2 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the past 12 

months among young people: Men

 Table 12.12 Recent HIV tests among young people
208 • HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behavior

Table 12.1 Knowledge of prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 who know that HIV can be transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy, during delivery, 

by breastfeeding, and by all three means, and percentage who know that the risk of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV can be 

reduced by the mother taking special drugs, according to age, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage who know that HIV can be transmitted from mother to child:

Percentage who 

know that the risk 

of MTCT can be 

reduced by mother 

taking special 

drugs

Number of 

Age During pregnancy During delivery By breastfeeding By all three means respondents

WOMEN

15-24 79.3 69.8 72.5 62.3 76.2 2,842

15-19 75.9 64.1 68.3 56.8 70.2 1,427

20-24 82.6 75.6 76.8 67.8 82.3 1,415

25-29 86.8 82.3 79.8 72.9 86.6 1,444

30-39 85.1 82.4 79.4 73.3 86.4 2,406

40-49 84.3 80.0 77.2 71.2 83.3 1,823

Total 15-49 83.3 77.7 76.7 69.1 82.4 8,514

MEN

15-24 63.9 50.0 55.1 39.4 55.4 1,235

15-19 62.1 46.4 51.7 37.1 50.8 647

20-24 65.8 54.0 58.7 42.0 60.4 588

25-29 72.8 59.6 61.9 50.0 68.3 506

30-39 68.9 65.1 62.2 56.2 63.3 845

40-49 70.5 64.3 64.0 55.9 66.5 616

Total 15-49 67.9 58.3 59.7 48.7 61.6 3,202

50-59 58.9 49.2 47.9 40.7 51.4 416

Total 15-59 66.8 57.2 58.4 47.8 60.5 3,618
HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behaviour • 209

Table 12.2.1 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the past 12 months: Women

Among all women age 15-49, percentage who had sexual intercourse with more than one sexual partner in the past 12 months and percentage who had 

intercourse in the past 12 months with a person who neither was their spouse nor lived with them; among women having more than one partner in the past 

12 months, percentage reporting that a condom was used during last intercourse; among women who had sexual intercourse in the past 12 months with a 

person who neither was their spouse nor lived with them, percentage who used a condom during last sexual intercourse with such a partner; and among 

women who ever had sexual intercourse, mean number of sexual partners during their lifetime, according to background characteristics, South Africa 

DHS 2016 

All women

Women who had 2+ 

partners in the past 

12 months

Women who had 

intercourse in the past 

12 months with a person 

who neither was their 

spouse nor lived 

with them

Women who ever had 

sexual intercourse1

Background 

characteristic

Percentage 

who had 2+ 

partners in 

the past 

12 months

Percentage 

who had 

intercourse in 

the past 12 

months with 

a person who 

neither was 

their spouse 

nor lived with 

them

Number of 

women

Percentage 

who 

reported 

using a 

condom 

during last 

sexual intercourse

Number of 

women

Percentage 

who 

reported 

using a 

condom 

during last 

sexual 

intercourse 

with such a 

partner

Number of 

women

Mean 

number of 

sexual 

partners in 

lifetime

Number of 

women

Age

15-24 4.6 52.1 2,842 61.4 132 62.3 1,479 2.9 1,874

15-19 2.7 37.9 1,427 54.8 38 63.8 541 1.9 618

20-24 6.6 66.3 1,415 64.0 94 61.5 938 3.4 1,256

25-29 6.9 58.4 1,444 63.3 99 58.1 843 4.0 1,360

30-39 4.9 40.5 2,406 51.5 118 58.5 975 4.8 2,276

40-49 2.0 27.2 1,823 (48.5) 37 59.7 496 3.7 1,696

Marital status

Never married 5.5 66.8 4,992 62.9 276 60.4 3,333 4.1 3,826

Married or living together 2.6 6.0 3,050 37.0 80 48.1 182 3.4 2,948

Divorced/separated/

widowed 6.6 58.9 472 (63.9) 31 63.3 278 5.4 432

Residence

Urban 4.6 42.1 5,731 61.2 263 63.5 2,411 4.0 4,847

Non-urban 4.4 49.7 2,783 50.1 123 54.0 1,382 3.5 2,359

Province

Western Cape 2.5 30.7 995 * 25 49.8 306 3.2 829

Eastern Cape 6.2 51.6 938 54.6 58 54.2 484 3.8 843

Northern Cape 1.8 39.9 173 * 3 56.9 69 4.0 144

Free State 4.2 41.5 442 (47.4) 18 70.2 183 4.3 372

KwaZulu-Natal 5.2 50.8 1,616 57.8 84 60.2 822 3.0 1,289

North West 7.7 48.2 570 57.0 44 61.0 275 5.7 515

Gauteng 3.6 42.6 2,284 (61.6) 83 65.7 974 4.5 1,961

Mpumalanga 6.6 46.5 671 53.0 44 58.5 312 4.1 569

Limpopo 3.3 44.8 824 (60.8) 27 57.1 369 2.8 683

Education

No education 3.6 34.9 168 * 6 42.6 59 4.5 152

Primary incomplete 3.0 37.7 447 * 13 50.4 168 3.6 394

Primary complete 4.2 34.4 327 * 14 50.7 113 3.8 268

Secondary incomplete 4.7 44.6 4,195 58.5 195 59.7 1,870 4.1 3,334

Secondary complete 4.6 49.6 2,369 69.7 108 62.5 1,175 3.5 2,155

More than secondary 4.9 40.5 1,008 33.5 50 63.7 408 3.9 902

Wealth quintile

Lowest 4.2 46.9 1,648 47.5 69 49.4 773 3.7 1,407

Second 5.5 48.6 1,715 59.9 94 59.8 834 3.7 1,493

Middle 5.1 49.1 1,805 54.0 93 60.7 885 4.1 1,546

Fourth 5.3 46.9 1,763 65.4 93 67.1 828 4.3 1,483

Highest 2.4 29.9 1,583 (60.1) 38 64.5 473 3.5 1,276

Total 4.5 44.6 8,514 57.6 387 60.0 3,793 3.9 7,205

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and 

has been suppressed.

1 Means are calculated excluding respondents who gave non-numeric responses 
210 • HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behavior

Table 12.2.2 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the past 12 months: Men

Among all men age 15-49, percentage who had sexual intercourse with more than one sexual partner in the past 12 months and percentage who had 

intercourse in the past 12 months with a person who neither was their spouse nor lived with them; among men having more than one partner in the past 

12 months, percentage reporting that a condom was used during last intercourse; among men who had sexual intercourse in the past 12 months with a 

person who neither was their spouse nor lived with them, percentage who used a condom during last sexual intercourse with such a partner; and among 

men who ever had sexual intercourse, mean number of sexual partners during their lifetime, according to background characteristics, South Africa 

DHS 2016 

All men

Men who had 2+ 

partners in the past 

12 months

Men who had 

intercourse in the past 

12 months with a person 

who neither was their 

spouse nor lived 

with them

Men who ever had 

sexual intercourse1

Background 

characteristic

Percentage 

who had 2+ 

partners in 

the past 

12 months

Percentage 

who had 

intercourse 

in the past 

12 months 

with a person 

who neither 

was their 

spouse nor 

lived with 

them

Number of 

men

Percentage who 

reported 

using a 

condom 

during last 

sexual intercourseNumber of 

men

Percentage 

who 

reported 

using a 

condom 

during last 

sexual 

intercourse 

with such a 

partner

Number of 

men

Mean 

number of 

sexual 

partners in 

lifetime

Number of 

men

Age

15-24 20.7 62.4 1,235 72.9 256 75.9 770 8.9 824

15-19 15.7 44.4 647 87.9 101 80.8 287 5.7 322

20-24 26.2 82.1 588 63.0 154 73.0 483 11.0 502

25-29 19.8 67.9 506 66.0 100 69.5 343 15.0 429

30-39 17.0 53.6 845 55.5 144 61.7 453 19.3 743

40-49 7.2 33.1 616 (51.4) 44 54.2 204 17.1 492

Marital status

Never married 19.5 72.3 2,073 71.6 404 69.9 1,499 13.3 1,510

Married or living together 10.7 16.1 988 42.0 106 60.6 159 15.6 850

Divorced/separated/

widowed 23.9 79.6 141 (62.9) 34 61.3 112 24.7 128

Type of union

In polygynous union * * 15 * 9 * 5 * 14

In non-polygynous union 10.0 16.0 970 41.6 97 61.9 155 15.4 835

Not currently in union 19.8 72.8 2,214 70.9 438 69.3 1,611 14.2 1,638

Not asked * * 3 nc 0 nc 0 * 2

Residence

Urban 16.0 54.0 2,203 67.0 353 68.3 1,189 17.0 1,751

Non-urban 19.1 58.2 999 62.1 190 69.1 581 9.2 737

Province

Western Cape 11.3 36.2 328 * 37 73.6 119 8.3 257

Eastern Cape 18.0 65.8 362 60.4 65 60.5 238 9.8 286

Northern Cape 8.5 51.4 61 * 5 71.8 31 9.8 42

Free State 22.6 59.2 159 71.4 36 74.0 94 16.5 115

KwaZulu-Natal 13.6 58.8 521 73.5 71 63.5 306 10.0 347

North West 18.4 54.0 237 52.9 44 83.4 128 12.1 199

Gauteng 17.3 54.6 984 67.8 170 66.7 537 23.5 794

Mpumalanga 18.1 57.1 263 67.8 48 72.3 150 12.9 236

Limpopo 23.7 57.9 288 57.4 68 73.1 167 8.2 212

Education

No education 8.9 38.6 62 * 6 (66.5) 24 13.1 54

Primary incomplete 8.6 37.5 219 * 19 58.6 82 13.1 156

Primary complete 10.8 46.0 166 * 18 51.4 76 11.1 120

Secondary incomplete 18.6 58.3 1,637 65.9 305 70.2 954 14.8 1,236

Secondary complete 15.4 55.9 773 71.1 119 70.5 432 14.5 635

More than secondary 22.4 58.5 345 62.8 77 67.5 202 17.2 287

Wealth quintile

Lowest 13.1 55.5 618 65.9 81 63.9 343 12.8 486

Second 18.3 57.6 682 62.0 125 66.0 393 12.4 532

Middle 19.4 58.7 715 64.5 138 68.4 420 18.5 565

Fourth 20.0 59.5 653 68.9 130 72.3 388 15.6 509

Highest 13.0 42.4 534 (65.3) 69 73.8 226 13.5 396

Total 15-49 17.0 55.3 3,202 65.3 544 68.5 1,770 14.7 2,488

50-59 4.6 20.2 416 (50.2) 19 56.2 84 12.9 312

Total 15-59 15.5 51.3 3,618 64.8 563 68.0 1,855 14.5 2,800

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and 

has been suppressed.

nc = No cases

1 Means are calculated excluding respondents who gave non-numeric responses
HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behaviour • 211

Table 12.3 Payment for sexual intercourse and condom use at last paid sexual intercourse

Percentage of men age 15-49 who ever paid for sexual intercourse and percentage reporting payment for sexual 

intercourse in the past 12 months, and among them, percentage reporting that a condom was used the last time 

they paid for sexual intercourse, according to age, South Africa DHS 2016 

Among all men:

Among men who paid for sex in the 

past 12 months:

Age

Percentage who 

ever paid for 

sexual intercourse

Percentage who 

paid for sexual 

intercourse in the 

past 12 months Number of men

Percentage 

reporting condom 

use at last paid 

sexual intercourse Number of men

15-24 2.0 1.0 1,235 * 13

15-19 0.1 0.1 647 * 1

20-24 4.1 2.0 588 * 12

25-29 6.8 4.2 506 * 21

30-39 7.8 4.6 845 (85.1) 39

40-49 3.9 3.2 616 * 19

Total 15-49 4.7 2.9 3,202 83.1 92

50-59 2.1 1.1 416 * 5

Total 15-59 4.4 2.7 3,618 83.9 97

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on 

fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed. 
212 • HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behavior

Table 12.4.1 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Women

Percentage of women age 15-49 who know where to get an HIV test, percent distribution of women by testing status and by whether they 

received the results of the last test, percentage of women ever tested, and percentage of women who were tested in the past 12 months 

and received the results of the last test, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage 

who know 

where to get 

an HIV test

Percent distribution of women by testing 

status and by whether they received the 

results of the last test

Total

Percentage 

ever tested

Percentage 

who have 

been tested 

for HIV in the 

past 12 

months and 

received the 

results of the 

last test

Number of 

women

Background

characteristic

Ever tested 

and received 

results

Ever tested, 

did not 

receive 

results

Never 

tested1

Age

15-24 89.2 66.7 1.5 31.9 100.0 68.1 52.5 2,842

15-19 85.6 49.1 1.4 49.5 100.0 50.5 38.4 1,427

20-24 92.9 84.3 1.5 14.2 100.0 85.8 66.7 1,415

25-29 96.0 90.8 2.0 7.2 100.0 92.8 68.4 1,444

30-39 95.8 91.0 1.9 7.1 100.0 92.9 63.2 2,406

40-49 94.2 86.4 1.6 12.0 100.0 88.0 54.0 1,823

Marital status

Never married 91.9 76.3 1.5 22.2 100.0 77.8 56.1 4,992

Ever had sex 94.9 86.9 1.8 11.4 100.0 88.6 64.3 3,989

Never had sex 80.3 34.1 0.7 65.2 100.0 34.8 23.4 1,003

Married or living 

together 95.0 89.7 1.9 8.4 100.0 91.6 62.2 3,050

Divorced/separated/

widowed 96.6 90.1 2.3 7.7 100.0 92.3 61.0 472

Residence

Urban 93.5 82.2 1.7 16.1 100.0 83.9 57.1 5,731

Non-urban 92.9 81.1 1.7 17.1 100.0 82.9 61.5 2,783

Province

Western Cape 93.3 82.4 2.3 15.3 100.0 84.7 62.0 995

Eastern Cape 97.4 86.4 1.6 12.1 100.0 87.9 59.3 938

Northern Cape 92.8 81.0 1.6 17.4 100.0 82.6 52.3 173

Free State 96.1 83.9 1.4 14.7 100.0 85.3 58.3 442

KwaZulu-Natal 91.0 80.8 0.7 18.5 100.0 81.5 58.3 1,616

North West 97.9 84.0 3.6 12.4 100.0 87.6 61.4 570

Gauteng 91.2 79.9 1.6 18.5 100.0 81.5 54.1 2,284

Mpumalanga 97.4 85.7 2.6 11.7 100.0 88.3 61.6 671

Limpopo 91.3 77.8 1.6 20.6 100.0 79.4 63.2 824

Education

No education 91.2 77.6 0.3 22.1 100.0 77.9 52.5 168

Primary incomplete 89.6 76.3 3.2 20.5 100.0 79.5 53.9 447

Primary complete 90.4 76.0 1.8 22.2 100.0 77.8 50.9 327

Secondary 

incomplete 92.5 77.7 1.7 20.6 100.0 79.4 56.3 4,195

Secondary complete 94.8 87.6 1.6 10.8 100.0 89.2 63.2 2,369

More than 

secondary 96.4 90.5 1.6 7.9 100.0 92.1 62.3 1,008

Wealth quintile

Lowest 90.8 78.9 1.6 19.4 100.0 80.6 60.7 1,648

Second 92.7 82.0 2.1 15.9 100.0 84.1 59.3 1,715

Middle 94.0 84.5 1.2 14.3 100.0 85.7 61.2 1,805

Fourth 95.2 84.0 1.9 14.1 100.0 85.9 58.3 1,763

Highest 93.7 79.3 1.8 19.0 100.0 81.0 52.7 1,583

Total 93.3 81.8 1.7 16.5 100.0 83.5 58.5 8,514

1

Includes “don’t know”
HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behaviour • 213

Table 12.4.2 Coverage of prior HIV testing: Men

Percentage of men age 15-49 who know where to get an HIV test, percent distribution of men by testing status and by whether they received 

the results of the last test, percentage of men ever tested, and percentage of men who were tested in the past 12 months and received the 

results of the last test, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage 

who know 

where to get 

an HIV test

Percent distribution of men by testing 

status and by whether they received the 

results of the last test

Total

Percentage 

ever tested

Percentage 

who have 

been tested 

for HIV in the 

past 12 

months and 

received the 

results of the 

last test

Number of 

men

Background 

characteristic

Ever tested 

and received 

results

Ever tested, 

did not 

receive 

results

Never

tested1

Age

15-24 90.9 56.2 1.8 42.0 100.0 58.0 38.5 1,235

15-19 87.8 44.7 1.8 53.5 100.0 46.5 28.7 647

20-24 94.4 68.8 1.8 29.4 100.0 70.6 49.3 588

25-29 95.9 77.7 0.8 21.5 100.0 78.5 52.8 506

30-39 95.7 75.4 2.4 22.2 100.0 77.8 48.0 845

40-49 96.8 79.0 3.0 18.0 100.0 82.0 45.3 616

Marital status

Never married 92.6 62.2 2.0 35.8 100.0 64.2 41.7 2,073

Ever had sex 94.9 69.1 2.1 28.9 100.0 71.1 47.3 1,678

Never had sex 82.6 33.1 1.8 65.1 100.0 34.9 18.1 395

Married or living together 96.7 80.9 2.3 16.8 100.0 83.2 49.9 988

Divorced/separated/

widowed 98.5 86.4 0.4 13.2 100.0 86.8 49.1 141

Residence

Urban 95.2 72.0 1.8 26.3 100.0 73.7 46.6 2,203

Non-urban 91.8 62.6 2.6 34.8 100.0 65.2 40.2 999

Province

Western Cape 92.5 73.7 1.6 24.6 100.0 75.4 55.7 328

Eastern Cape 96.1 62.5 2.4 35.0 100.0 65.0 45.6 362

Northern Cape 86.0 62.1 1.3 36.5 100.0 63.5 37.6 61

Free State 95.7 73.6 3.6 22.7 100.0 77.3 52.1 159

KwaZulu-Natal 92.6 72.8 1.8 25.4 100.0 74.6 44.9 521

North West 96.5 73.8 3.8 22.4 100.0 77.6 44.3 237

Gauteng 96.2 69.8 1.6 28.6 100.0 71.4 41.0 984

Mpumalanga 93.6 71.9 1.0 27.1 100.0 72.9 49.7 263

Limpopo 88.3 54.6 2.7 42.7 100.0 57.3 35.0 288

Education

No education 92.9 77.4 1.2 21.4 100.0 78.6 47.7 62

Primary incomplete 84.8 52.1 7.0 40.9 100.0 59.1 30.7 219

Primary complete 89.4 55.9 3.4 40.7 100.0 59.3 34.4 166

Secondary incomplete 93.7 64.8 1.5 33.7 100.0 66.3 41.1 1,637

Secondary complete 96.3 79.7 1.1 19.3 100.0 80.7 52.5 773

More than secondary 99.3 80.9 3.0 16.1 100.0 83.9 56.5 345

Wealth quintile

Lowest 91.6 61.2 1.4 37.4 100.0 62.6 40.1 618

Second 92.1 65.5 3.6 30.9 100.0 69.1 42.6 682

Middle 95.1 72.6 1.5 26.0 100.0 74.0 48.1 715

Fourth 96.1 73.7 2.4 23.9 100.0 76.1 50.4 653

Highest 95.7 72.2 1.1 26.7 100.0 73.3 40.4 534

Total 15-49 94.1 69.0 2.0 28.9 100.0 71.1 44.6 3,202

50-59 91.2 72.3 3.6 24.1 100.0 75.9 40.9 416

Total 15-59 93.8 69.4 2.2 28.4 100.0 71.6 44.1 3,618

1

Includes “don’t know”
214 • HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behavior

Table 12.5 Pregnant women counselled and tested for HIV

Among all women age 15-49 who gave birth in the 2 years preceding the survey, percentage who received counselling on HIV during antenatal 

care, percentage who received an HIV test during antenatal care for their most recent birth by whether they received their results and post-test 

counselling, and percentage who received an HIV test during ANC or labour for their most recent birth by whether they received their test 

results, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage 

who received 

counselling 

on HIV 

during 

antenatal 

care1

Percentage who were tested for HIV 

during antenatal care and who:

Percentage 

who received 

counselling 

on HIV and 

an HIV test 

during ANC, 

and received 

the results

Percentage who had an 

HIV test during ANC or 

labour and who:2 Number 

of women 

who gave 

birth in 

the past 

2 years3

Received results and:

Did not 

receive 

results

Background 

characteristic

Received 

post-test 

counselling

Did not 

receive 

post-test 

counselling

Received 

results

Did not 

receive 

results

Age

15-24 77.4 71.8 17.2 1.0 76.1 95.5 0.3 502

15-19 81.1 71.6 21.2 0.5 80.7 95.9 0.5 144

20-24 75.9 71.9 15.6 1.2 74.2 95.3 0.2 359

25-29 79.6 72.8 16.1 0.6 77.7 95.2 0.2 410

30-39 77.8 73.9 15.0 0.2 76.4 92.2 0.3 404

40-49 77.7 64.8 17.5 0.0 76.8 96.3 0.0 70

Marital status

Never married 77.8 73.0 15.8 1.0 76.4 94.6 0.4 768

Married or living together 78.5 70.2 17.7 0.0 76.9 94.3 0.0 580

Divorced/separated/widowed (81.6) (90.9) (4.5) (2.1) (79.5) (95.4) (2.5) 39

Residence

Urban 75.1 70.1 16.4 0.7 73.7 94.2 0.3 872

Non-urban 83.4 76.2 15.9 0.5 81.8 95.0 0.2 514

Province

Western Cape 72.0 74.5 19.9 0.0 72.0 97.8 0.0 118

Eastern Cape 83.8 77.2 19.3 0.0 83.8 98.4 0.0 163

Northern Cape 78.0 70.9 17.2 0.8 75.6 94.4 1.5 27

Free State 85.8 81.9 10.9 0.0 84.9 96.6 0.8 60

KwaZulu-Natal 80.9 77.6 14.7 0.3 79.7 94.2 0.1 258

North West 85.9 73.5 16.3 3.2 79.7 95.3 2.4 106

Gauteng 68.5 67.2 12.0 0.8 66.4 90.8 0.0 385

Mpumalanga 85.8 65.6 23.2 0.0 85.0 98.6 0.0 127

Limpopo 82.4 70.9 19.8 0.6 81.8 92.5 0.0 144

Education

No education * * * * * * * 18

Primary incomplete 65.7 67.0 4.8 2.1 64.3 91.8 2.1 60

Primary complete 72.5 60.8 11.6 0.0 72.5 79.8 0.4 50

Secondary incomplete 79.0 74.8 15.5 0.7 78.1 94.7 0.3 706

Secondary complete 79.9 73.0 15.6 0.1 77.2 95.1 0.1 397

More than secondary 75.3 64.7 27.6 1.1 73.5 98.0 0.0 155

Wealth quintile

Lowest 76.6 72.9 14.4 0.3 76.3 92.8 0.1 312

Second 77.1 71.0 14.7 0.6 75.7 91.5 0.8 326

Middle 81.4 73.7 17.9 1.5 79.1 98.0 0.2 291

Fourth 80.3 77.7 14.9 0.1 78.6 96.5 0.1 269

Highest 74.6 64.1 21.4 0.5 72.7 94.1 0.0 189

Total 78.2 72.4 16.2 0.6 76.7 94.5 0.3 1,386

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed.

1

In this context, “counselling on HIV” means that someone talked with the respondent about all three of the following topics: (1) babies getting 

HIV from their mother, (2) preventing the virus, and (3) getting tested for HIV

2 Women were asked whether they received an HIV test during labour only if they gave birth in a facility

3 Denominator for percentages includes women who did not receive antenatal care for their last birth in the past 2 years 
HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behaviour • 215

Table 12.6 Male circumcision

Percent distribution of men age 15-49 by circumcision status and provider of circumcision, and percentage of men circumcised, according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Circumcised by:

Not 

circumcised

Don’t know 

circumcision 

status Total

Percentage 

of men 

circumcised1

Number of 

men

Background 

characteristic

Health worker/ 

professional

Traditional 

practitioner/ 

family/friend

Other/

don’t know

Age

15-24 38.6 21.1 0.1 40.0 0.2 100.0 59.8 1,235

 15-19 41.2 16.0 0.1 42.3 0.3 100.0 57.4 647

 20-24 35.8 26.7 0.0 37.5 0.0 100.0 62.5 588

25-29 34.4 28.2 0.2 37.0 0.2 100.0 62.8 506

30-39 21.5 30.2 0.1 47.8 0.4 100.0 51.8 845

40-49 20.5 33.0 0.0 46.4 0.0 100.0 53.6 616

Residence

Urban 32.4 24.7 0.1 42.7 0.2 100.0 57.1 2,203

Non-urban 24.6 31.9 0.2 43.1 0.2 100.0 56.7 999

Province

Western Cape 15.5 28.8 0.0 55.3 0.5 100.0 44.2 328

Eastern Cape 6.6 66.1 0.0 27.0 0.3 100.0 72.7 362

Northern Cape 23.6 11.3 0.0 65.1 0.0 100.0 34.9 61

Free State 41.0 14.5 0.3 44.2 0.0 100.0 55.8 159

KwaZulu-Natal 37.2 5.3 0.4 56.7 0.5 100.0 42.8 521

North West 27.0 21.6 0.2 51.1 0.0 100.0 48.9 237

Gauteng 37.9 21.9 0.0 40.2 0.0 100.0 59.8 984

Mpumalanga 31.8 18.2 0.0 49.6 0.5 100.0 49.9 263

Limpopo 31.4 54.5 0.0 14.2 0.0 100.0 85.8 288

Education

No education 9.5 28.0 0.0 62.5 0.0 100.0 37.5 62

Primary incomplete 11.7 36.9 0.0 50.4 1.0 100.0 48.6 219

Primary complete 29.9 26.0 0.7 43.5 0.0 100.0 56.5 166

Secondary incomplete 29.9 26.3 0.0 43.5 0.3 100.0 56.2 1,637

Secondary complete 32.5 26.0 0.1 41.4 0.0 100.0 58.6 773

More than secondary 39.9 25.7 0.0 34.5 0.0 100.0 65.5 345

Population group

Black African 30.8 30.3 0.1 38.7 0.2 100.0 61.1 2,815

White 33.8 0.0 0.0 66.2 0.0 100.0 33.8 104

Coloured 23.0 2.5 0.0 74.5 0.0 100.0 25.5 232

Indian/Asian (7.4) (3.3) (0.0) (86.5) (2.9) 100.0 (10.6) 48

Other * * * * * 100.0 * 2

Total 15-49 29.9 26.9 0.1 42.8 0.2 100.0 57.0 3,202

50-59 16.0 29.1 0.2 53.7 1.0 100.0 45.3 416

Total 15-59 28.3 27.2 0.1 44.1 0.3 100.0 55.6 3,618

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases 

and has been suppressed.

1

Includes all men who report they are circumcised, regardless of provider 
216 • HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behavior

Table 12.7 Self-reported prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and STI symptoms

Among women and men age 15-49 who ever had sexual intercourse, percentage reporting having an STI and/or symptoms of an STI in the past 12 months, 

according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage of women who reported having in the past 

12 months:

Percentage of men who reported having in the past 

12 months:

Background 

characteristic STI

Badsmelling/ 

abnormal 

genital 

discharge

Genital sore 

or ulcer

STI/

genital 

discharge/

sore or ulcer

Number of 

women who 

ever had 

sexual 

intercourse STI

Badsmelling/ 

abnormal 

discharge 

from penis

Genital sore 

or ulcer

STI/ 

abnormal 

discharge 

from penis/ 

sore or ulcer

Number of 

men who 

ever had 

sexual 

intercourse

Age

15-24 5.0 10.7 4.0 13.7 1,903 5.3 4.9 3.7 9.0 869

 15-19 4.5 9.7 3.5 12.6 618 2.2 2.9 1.7 5.0 329

 20-24 5.3 11.3 4.2 14.3 1,285 7.2 6.1 4.9 11.4 540

25-29 7.9 9.4 4.9 13.6 1,412 3.7 4.5 2.3 7.0 486

30-39 5.3 8.2 4.4 11.4 2,385 3.5 2.2 2.0 5.1 840

40-49 3.5 6.4 3.9 8.9 1,805 2.4 2.8 0.9 4.5 609

Marital status

Never married 5.5 9.1 4.4 12.1 3,989 4.5 4.1 2.6 7.0 1,678

Married or living 

together 4.7 8.1 3.8 11.0 3,045 2.3 2.6 1.3 5.0 986

Divorced/separated/

widowed 7.1 7.9 6.1 14.7 471 7.0 3.4 6.2 10.7 141

Circumcised

Yes1 na na na na na 3.8 4.0 2.1 6.7 1,661

No na na na na na 3.9 2.9 2.6 6.3 1,141

Don’t know na na na na na * * * * 4

Residence

Urban 5.1 7.9 3.4 10.7 5,069 2.9 2.8 1.9 5.1 1,980

Non-urban 5.8 10.1 6.1 14.0 2,437 6.2 5.4 3.2 9.8 825

Province

Western Cape 2.9 7.3 2.2 8.6 853 4.0 5.6 5.3 10.8 284

Eastern Cape 9.9 12.8 3.7 16.3 860 6.7 8.0 2.0 9.9 317

Northern Cape 3.3 6.5 1.6 9.3 153 1.8 2.5 3.6 6.1 51

Free State 6.1 7.1 6.3 12.3 382 6.3 5.4 4.1 10.2 133

KwaZulu-Natal 5.8 9.1 4.1 10.9 1,340 5.0 3.2 3.3 6.0 425

North West 3.8 12.5 9.7 18.3 529 5.4 2.7 1.0 6.8 213

Gauteng 4.5 6.0 2.4 8.6 2,076 1.6 1.5 0.5 2.8 907

Mpumalanga 5.9 12.7 7.1 17.6 609 4.2 3.2 1.9 7.1 239

Limpopo 4.5 7.2 6.3 11.7 704 3.6 4.3 4.4 9.0 236

Education

No education 3.2 8.3 3.6 10.0 160 0.6 0.4 2.2 3.2 61

Primary incomplete 8.3 11.4 7.4 15.2 419 5.4 6.1 3.3 9.3 181

Primary complete 4.9 9.4 4.5 10.8 284 5.8 3.9 5.2 9.6 133

Secondary incomplete 4.8 9.5 4.9 12.7 3,466 4.7 4.2 2.3 7.3 1,359

Secondary complete 6.1 7.5 3.4 10.8 2,232 2.8 2.6 1.9 4.6 733

More than secondary 4.2 6.7 2.8 10.1 945 1.8 2.2 1.3 5.1 338

Wealth quintile

Lowest 6.2 9.7 5.1 13.1 1,448 4.4 5.8 2.4 7.2 538

Second 5.8 10.5 5.6 13.9 1,559 4.3 3.5 2.8 7.2 603

Middle 5.5 8.6 4.4 12.7 1,627 5.4 4.2 2.8 8.4 634

Fourth 6.0 8.8 3.9 11.1 1,537 3.9 2.5 2.4 6.2 572

Highest 2.6 5.1 2.2 7.6 1,335 0.3 1.6 0.8 2.4 459

Total 15-49 5.3 8.6 4.3 11.8 7,505 3.8 3.6 2.3 6.5 2,805

50-59 na na na na na 3.0 3.9 2.4 6.6 412

Total 15-59 na na na na na 3.7 3.6 2.3 6.5 3,217

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

na = Not applicable

1

Includes all men who report they are circumcised, regardless of provider 
HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behaviour • 217

Table 12.8 Women and men seeking treatment for STIs

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 reporting an STI or symptoms 

of an STI in the past 12 months who sought advice or treatment, South 

Africa DHS 2016 

Source of advice or treatment Women Men

Clinic/hospital/private doctor/other health 

professional 65.5 55.1

Advice or medicine from shop/pharmacy 4.8 8.8

Advice or treatment from any other source 0.1 0.2

No advice or treatment 29.9 36.3

Number with STI or symptoms of STI 885 182

Table 12.9 Age at first sexual intercourse among young people

Percentage of young women and young men age 15-24 who had sexual intercourse before age 15 and percentage of young women and young men 

age 18-24 who had sexual intercourse before age 18, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Women age 15-24 Women age 18-24 Men age 15-24 Men age 18-24

Background 

characteristic

Percentage 

who had 

sexual 

intercourse 

before age 15

Number of 

women

Percentage 

who had 

sexual 

intercourse 

before age 18

Number of 

women

Percentage 

who had 

sexual 

intercourse 

before age 15

Number of 

men

Percentage 

who had 

sexual 

intercourse 

before age 18

Number of 

men

Age

15-19 5.7 1,427 na na 14.5 647 na na

 15-17 6.6 857 na na 13.9 387 na na

 18-19 4.4 569 49.7 569 15.4 259 64.6 259

20-24 6.5 1,415 50.5 1,415 14.7 588 66.9 588

 20-22 6.5 836 50.9 836 13.7 367 68.0 367

 23-24 6.4 579 50.0 579 16.5 222 65.2 222

Residence

Urban 6.2 1,826 49.0 1,314 17.1 724 68.4 510

Non-urban 5.9 1,016 52.7 670 11.1 511 63.0 338

Education

No education * 9 * 7 * 6 * 6

Primary incomplete 18.2 72 (76.8) 36 13.2 72 (62.4) 36

Primary complete 14.5 116 70.2 64 17.9 60 (58.1) 19

Secondary 

incomplete 6.3 1,793 57.0 1,033 14.8 807 64.7 495

Secondary complete 3.6 640 43.1 634 12.7 228 67.8 228

More than secondary 3.5 211 27.7 210 15.7 63 77.5 63

Total 6.1 2,842 50.3 1,984 14.6 1,235 66.2 848

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases 

and has been suppressed.

na = Not applicable
218 • HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behavior

Table 12.10 Premarital sexual intercourse among young people

Among never-in-union women and men age 15-24, percentage who have never had sexual intercourse, 

according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Women age 15-24 Men age 15-24

Background 

characteristic

Percentage who 

have never had 

sexual intercourse

Number of neverin-union women

Percentage who 

have never had 

sexual intercourse

Number of neverin-union men

Age

15-19 58.5 1,380 49.2 646

 15-17 72.0 847 63.4 387

 18-19 37.1 533 27.8 258

20-24 11.5 1,128 8.8 545

 20-22 14.7 702 10.1 347

 23-24 6.3 426 6.7 198

Residence

Urban 38.4 1,579 28.2 694

Non-urban 35.6 929 34.2 497

Education

No education * 5 * 4

Primary incomplete 44.8 56 59.1 62

Primary complete 53.1 82 55.5 59

Secondary incomplete 44.4 1,620 33.2 787

Secondary complete 18.5 565 15.2 220

More than secondary 23.5 179 1.5 59

Total 15-24 37.4 2,508 30.7 1,191

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been 

suppressed. 
HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behaviour • 219

Table 12.11.1 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the past 12 months among young people: Women

Among all young women age 15-24, percentage who had sexual intercourse with more than one sexual partner in the past 12 months and 

percentage who had intercourse in the past 12 months with a person who neither was their spouse nor lived with them; among young women 

having more than one partner in the past 12 months, percentage reporting that a condom was used during last intercourse; and among young 

women who had sexual intercourse in the past 12 months with a person who neither was their spouse nor lived with them, percentage who used 

a condom during last sexual intercourse with such a partner, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Women age 15-24

Women age 15-24 who had 

2+ partners in the past 

12 months

Women age 15-24 who had 

intercourse in the past 

12 months with a person who 

neither was their spouse nor 

lived with them

Background 

characteristic

Percentage 

who had 2+ 

partners in 

the past 

12 months

Percentage 

who had 

intercourse in 

the past 12 

months with a 

person who 

neither was 

their spouse 

nor lived with 

them

Number of 

women

Percentage 

who reported 

using a 

condom during 

last sexual 

intercourse

Number of 

women

Percentage 

who reported 

using a 

condom during 

last sexual 

intercourse 

with such a 

partner

Number of 

women

Age

15-19 2.7 37.9 1,427 54.8 38 63.8 541

15-17 1.9 25.8 857 * 17 61.6 221

18-19 3.8 56.1 569 (59.5) 21 65.3 320

20-24 6.6 66.3 1,415 64.0 94 61.5 938

20-22 6.6 67.1 836 60.6 55 62.2 561

23-24 6.7 65.2 579 (69.0) 39 60.3 377

Marital status

Never married 4.9 57.0 2,508 63.6 122 62.7 1,429

Ever married or living together 3.0 15.0 334 * 10 (49.9) 50

Residence

Urban 4.2 51.1 1,826 62.2 77 67.2 932

Non-urban 5.4 53.8 1,016 60.3 55 53.9 547

Education

No education * * 9 * 0 * 2

Primary incomplete 6.6 42.8 72 * 5 (32.7) 31

Primary complete 1.9 32.1 116 * 2 (52.6) 37

Secondary incomplete 3.9 46.6 1,793 62.8 71 60.8 835

Secondary complete 6.3 69.1 640 (61.1) 40 67.2 442

More than secondary 6.5 62.0 211 * 14 65.0 131

Total 15-24 4.6 52.1 2,842 61.4 132 62.3 1,479

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed. 
220 • HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behavior

Table 12.11.2 Multiple sexual partners and higher-risk sexual intercourse in the past 12 months among young people: Men

Among all young men age 15-24, percentage who had sexual intercourse with more than one sexual partner in the past 12 months and 

percentage who had intercourse in the past 12 months with a person who neither was their spouse nor lived with them; among young men 

having more than one partner in the past 12 months, percentage reporting that a condom was used during last intercourse; and among young 

men who had sexual intercourse in the past 12 months with a person who neither was their spouse nor lived with them, percentage who used a 

condom during last sexual intercourse with such a partner, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Men age 15-24

Men age 15-24 who had 2+ 

partners in the past 

12 months

Men age 15-24 who had 

intercourse in the past 

12 months with a person who 

neither was their spouse nor 

lived with them

Background 

characteristic

Percentage 

who had 2+ 

partners in 

the past 

12 months

Percentage 

who had 

intercourse in 

the past 12 

months with a 

person who 

neither was 

their spouse 

nor lived with 

them

Number of 

men

Percentage 

who reported 

using a 

condom during 

last sexual 

intercourse

Number of 

men

Percentage 

who reported 

using a 

condom during 

last sexual 

intercourse 

with such a 

partner

Number of 

men

Age

15-19 15.7 44.4 647 87.9 101 80.8 287

 15-17 10.1 31.2 387 (88.3) 39 83.4 121

 18-19 24.0 64.2 259 87.6 62 79.0 166

20-24 26.2 82.1 588 63.0 154 73.0 483

 20-22 26.6 79.8 367 59.3 97 73.9 293

 23-24 25.6 85.7 222 69.3 57 71.7 190

Marital status

Never married 20.1 62.5 1,191 74.8 240 76.2 744

Ever married or living together (36.1) (58.8) 44 * 16 * 26

Residence

Urban 22.3 65.5 724 76.0 161 76.8 474

Non-urban 18.4 57.9 511 67.6 94 74.5 296

Education

No education * * 6 * 1 * 3

Primary incomplete 9.8 40.1 72 * 7 (74.7) 29

Primary complete 14.3 39.6 60 * 9 (41.9) 24

Secondary incomplete 19.9 58.7 807 77.2 161 78.8 474

Secondary complete 24.8 79.5 228 73.7 57 77.1 181

More than secondary 34.1 94.2 63 * 21 66.7 59

Total 15-24 20.7 62.4 1,235 72.9 256 75.9 770

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed. 
HIV/AIDS-related Knowledge and Behaviour • 221

Table 12.12 Recent HIV tests among young people

Among young women and young men age 15-24 who have had sexual intercourse in the past 12 

months, percentage who were tested for HIV in the past 12 months and received the results of the last 

test, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Women age 15-24 who have had 

sexual intercourse in the past 

12 months:

Men age 15-24 who have had sexual 

intercourse in the past 

12 months:

Background 

characteristic

Percentage who 

have been tested 

for HIV in the past 

12 months and 

received the 

results of the 

last test

Number of 

women

Percentage who 

have been tested 

for HIV in the past 

12 months and 

received the 

results of the 

last test

Number of 

men

Age

15-19 62.6 575 40.5 287

 15-17 57.6 230 26.9 121

 18-19 65.8 346 50.5 166

20-24 70.2 1,182 53.6 500

 20-22 69.6 672 52.5 301

 23-24 71.1 510 55.2 200

Marital status

Never married 67.1 1,431 48.4 744

Ever married or living 

together 70.4 326 (56.2) 44

Total 15-24 67.7 1,757 48.8 788

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. 

HIV Prevalence • 223

HIV PREVALENCE 13

Key Findings

 HIV testing coverage rate: Overall, only 52% of women 

and men age 15 and older who were eligible for HIV 

testing were both interviewed and tested. The

generalisability of the prevalence estimates is therefore 

unclear and these results should be interpreted with 

caution.

 HIV prevalence among adults age 15 and older: 19% 

of adults are HIV positive. HIV prevalence is higher 

among women (23%) than men (13%).

 HIV prevalence by province: Among women and men 

age 15-49 combined, HIV prevalence ranges from a low 

of 10% in Limpopo to a high of 30% in KwaZulu-Natal.

 HIV prevalence among young people: Overall, 7% of 

young women and men age 15-24 are HIV positive. HIV 

prevalence is four times higher among young women 

than young men (12% versus 3%).

 HIV prevalence among couples: Overall, 30% of 

couples have at least one partner infected with HIV. In 

15% of couples, both partners are HIV positive. Sixteen 

percent of couples are discordant (that is, one partner is 

HIV positive and the other is HIV negative).

He SADHS 2016 included HIV testing among survey respondents. In households selected for 

biomarkers, all women and men age 15 and older were eligible for testing. The methodology used 

to conduct HIV testing is described in detail in Chapter 1. 

Although the inclusion of HIV testing in the survey allows an estimate of HIV prevalence to be generated 

for adults age 15 and older, the primary rationale for including HIV testing in the SADHS 2016 was to 

examine associations between HIV status and noncommunicable diseases. Such links are presented in 

Chapters 15 and 16.

This chapter provides information on HIV testing coverage rates among eligible survey respondents and 

the results of the testing by demographic and behavioural characteristics. Because women age 50 and older 

and men age 60 and older were not interviewed with the full individual questionnaires, many tables are 

restricted to women and men age 15-49 or men age 15-59. In addition, several tables focus on young 

people age 15-24.

T
224 • HIV Prevalence

13.1 COVERAGE RATES FOR HIV TESTING

HIV testing coverage rate

Percentage of women and men who are tested for HIV as part of the SADHS 

Sample: Women and men who are in households selected for HIV testing and 

are within the eligible age range for HIV testing based on information collected 

in the Household Questionnaire

The HIV testing response rate is calculated as follows:

Women and men age 15+ who were interviewed and whose blood 

sample underwent the complete HIV testing algorithm with a final result 

of positive, negative, or inconclusive

All women and men age 15+ in households included 

in the subsample for HIV testing

Overall, only 52% of women and men age 15 and older who were eligible for HIV testing were both 

interviewed and successfully tested (Table 13.1). Nineteen percent of women and men who were eligible 

for an interview and HIV testing were not interviewed, 19% were interviewed and refused to provide a 

blood specimen for HIV testing, and 7% were interviewed and were unavailable for blood collection after 

repeated attempts to contact them. The coverage rate for HIV testing was greater among women than men 

(58% versus 44%).

Patterns by background characteristics

 Coverage of HIV testing is higher among respondents in non-urban areas than urban areas (62% and 

44%, respectively). Seven in 10 women (68%) in non-urban areas were interviewed and tested, as

compared with 5 in 10 women (50%) from urban areas. Over half of men (55%) in non-urban areas 

were interviewed and tested, compared with only 38% of men from urban areas. 

 By province, coverage of HIV testing is highest among women and men in North West (72%) and 

lowest among women and men in Western Cape (31%), Gauteng (36%), and Northern Cape (39%).

 Coverage of HIV testing differs by age. Among women, coverage rates are modestly higher among 

those age 50 or older (60%-64%) than among those age 15-49 (53%-57%). Among men, coverage 

rates are highest among those in the youngest and oldest age groups; 55% of men age 15-19 and 56% 

of men age 65 or older were interviewed and tested, as compared with 35%-50% of men age 20-64 

(Table 13.2).

 Among both women and men, coverage levels are highest among those with a primary incomplete 

education (69% and 55%, respectively) and lowest among those with more than a secondary education

(43% and 34%, respectively).

 Coverage of HIV testing generally decreases with increasing household wealth among both women 

and men. Sixty-nine percent of women and 56% of men in the lowest wealth quintile were interviewed 

and tested, compared with 39% of women and 29% of men in the highest wealth quintile. 

The remainder of the tables presented in this chapter are based on those individuals who were interviewed 

and successfully tested for HIV. While the sample of adults eligible for testing was designed to be 

representative for women and men in South Africa nationally, by urban and non-urban residence, and by 

province, the low coverage rates for HIV testing may mean this has not been achieved. This concern is 

especially true at the provincial level, for which coverage rates showed enormous variability but were as 

low as 23% (among men in Western Cape). The sample weighting procedures used in the SADHS correct 

for differential non-response, taking into account province, place of residence (urban or non-urban), and 

sex (the cross-classifications of these three variables form the non-response adjustment groups). This 
HIV Prevalence • 225

procedure ensures that all of these adjustment groups are represented in the HIV prevalence estimate in 

their proper proportions despite differing levels of participation. Details on the calculation of the sample 

weights are provided in Appendix A. However, the non-response adjustment to the sample weights 

assumes that non-response to the HIV test is missing at random—that is, within each adjustment group, 

people who participated in the survey HIV test have the same probability of having HIV as those who did 

not participate—and this may not be the case. Therefore, with the high level of non-response to the HIV 

test in this survey, the generalisability of the prevalence estimates produced in the SADHS is unclear. All 

of the results presented in this chapter should be interpreted with extreme caution.

13.2 HIV PREVALENCE 

13.2.1 HIV Prevalence by Age and Sex

HIV prevalence

Percentage of women and men testing positive for HIV as part of the SADHS 

(see testing methodology in Chapter 1).

Sample: Women and men age 15-49 and women and men age 15+ tested for 

HIV as part of the survey

According to the SADHS 2016, 19% of adults age 15

and older in South Africa are HIV positive (Table 

13.3). HIV prevalence is higher among women 

(23%) than men (13%). Among both women and 

men, HIV prevalence initially increases with age and 

then declines. Women have a higher HIV prevalence 

than men across all age groups. Among both women

(40%) and men (27%), HIV prevalence peaks in the 

35-44 age group (Figure 13.1).

The HIV prevalence among respondents age 15-49 is 

21%, and the prevalence is higher among women 

(27%) than men (14%).

Patterns by socioeconomic characteristics among 

women and men age 15-49

 HIV prevalence is higher among those who are employed (30% of employed women and 17% of 

employed men) than those who are not employed (26% of women and 12% of men) (Table 13.4). 

Figure 13.1 HIV prevalence by age

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

Percentage of women and men who are 

HIV positive

Men

Women

Age in years
226 • HIV Prevalence

 Among women and men combined, differences 

in HIV prevalence by residence are small (22% 

in urban areas and 20% in non-urban areas). 

However, the combined prevalence varies 

widely by province, from a low of 10% in 

Limpopo to a high of 30% in KwaZulu-Natal

(Figure 13.2).

 Among women and men combined, HIV 

prevalence decreases with increasing education, 

from 28% among those with no education to 

12% among those with more than a secondary 

education (Figure 13.3).

The overall HIV prevalence among respondents age 

50 and older is 13%, and the prevalence is slightly 

higher among women than men 

(14% and 10%, respectively). 

Patterns by sociodemographic 

characteristics are presented in 

Table 13.5.

Patterns by demographic characteristics among women and men 

age 15-49

 HIV prevalence varies by 

marital status and is highest 

among those who are widowed 

(44% of women and men 

combined) (Figure 13.4).

 Five percent of respondents 

who had never been married or 

lived with a partner and never 

had sexual intercourse were 

HIV positive, indicating that 

some women and men failed to 

report sexual activity or that 

there is some degree of 

nonsexual transmission of HIV,

including mother-to-child 

transmission (Table 13.6).

 Women age 15-49 who slept 

away from home one or more 

times in the past 12 months had 

a higher HIV prevalence than 

those who did not (30-32% and 

24%, respectively). This pattern 

was not observed among men.

 There was essentially no difference in HIV prevalence between women who were pregnant at the time 

of the survey (28%) and those who were not pregnant or not sure (27%). As a point of comparison,

Figure 13.2 HIV prevalence by province

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 

who are HIV positive

Figure 13.3 HIV prevalence by education

Figure 13.4 HIV prevalence by marital status

28 26 24 23 19

12

No

education

Primary

incomplete

Primary

complete

Secondary

incomplete

Secondary

complete

More than

secondary

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 

who are HIV positive

18

25

32

44

27 27

35 32

9

22

29

*

Never married

or lived with a

partner

Married/living

together

Divorced/

separated

Widowed

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 

who are HIV positive

Total Women Men

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed.
HIV Prevalence • 227

HIV prevalence among antenatal care (ANC) clients in the public sector was estimated to be 30.8% in 

2015 (NDoH 2017).

13.2.2 HIV Prevalence by Sexual Risk Behaviour

Table 13.7 presents information on HIV prevalence among respondents age 15-49 by sexual behaviour 

characteristics. In reviewing these results, it is important to keep in mind that social desirability or other 

biases may affect reports of sexual behaviour. Overall, among those who have ever had sex, HIV 

prevalence is almost twice as high among women as among men (30% versus 16%).

Patterns by sexual behaviour characteristics

 Among women, HIV prevalence is higher among those who reported first having sexual intercourse 

before age 16 (36%-37%) than those who first had sex at age 16 or older (27%-30%). Men who 

reported that they first had sexual intercourse at age 20 or older were more likely to be HIV positive 

(22%) than men who first had sexual intercourse at younger ages (12%-19%).

 Respondents were asked how many different 

partners they have had sexual intercourse with in 

their lifetime. HIV prevalence among women

increases with number of lifetime partners, from 

14% among those with one lifetime partner to 

50% among those with 10 or more partners 

(Figure 13.5). The pattern among men is 

generally similar. 

 Table 13.7 also presents information on the 

relationship between condom use at last sexual 

intercourse and HIV status, although it is worth 

noting that, in reports on condom use, it is not 

possible to know the sequence of events (e.g., 

whether any reported condom use occurred 

before or after HIV transmission). No 

differences in HIV prevalence according to condom use at last sexual intercourse were observed 

among men. However, women who used a condom during their most recent sexual intercourse in the 

12-month period before the survey were more likely to be HIV positive than those who did not use a 

condom (39% and 22%, respectively). One possible explanation for this finding is that HIV-positive 

respondents were more likely to use condoms because they either knew or suspected that they were 

infected with HIV and used condoms to prevent transmission. 

In summary, the results presented in Table 13.7 do not demonstrate consistent relationships between 

sexual behaviour and HIV prevalence. A more detailed analysis is necessary to understand these 

relationships because they are often confounded by other factors associated with both behavioural 

measures and HIV prevalence, such as age and residence. 

13.2.3 HIV Prevalence among Young People

Table 13.8 presents HIV prevalence among young people age 15-24 according to background 

characteristics. Overall, 7% of young women and men age 15-24 are HIV positive. HIV prevalence is four

times higher among young women than young men (12% versus 3%). 

Figure 13.5 HIV prevalence by number 

of lifetime partners

14

7

26

14

36

11

41

16

50

21

Women age 15-49

who ever had sex

Men age 15-49

who ever had sex

Percentage of women and men who are 

HIV positive

1 2 3-4 5-9 10+
228 • HIV Prevalence

Patterns by background characteristics

 Among young women, HIV prevalence increases with age, rising steadily from 4% among those age 

15-17 to 19% among those age 23-24. Among young men, HIV prevalence decreases from 5% among 

those age 15-17 to 2% among those age 20-22 before increasing slightly to 4% among those 

age 23-24.

 HIV prevalence is higher among young men in urban areas (5%) than young men in non-urban areas 

(2%). HIV prevalence among young women is identical in urban and non-urban areas (12% each).

 Overall, HIV prevalence among young women and men combined is lowest in Limpopo (2%) and 

highest in KwaZulu-Natal (13%).

 Among young women and men combined, HIV prevalence decreases with increasing household 

wealth, from 11% among those in the lowest wealth quintile to 4% among those in the highest quintile.

Table 13.9 shows HIV prevalence among young people age 15-24 according to sexual behaviour. HIV 

prevalence is 8% among young people who have ever had sex; 15% of young women and 3% of young 

men who have ever had sex are HIV positive.

Patterns by sexual behaviour characteristics

 Among both young women and young men, HIV prevalence increases with the number of sexual 

partners in the past 12 months; the trend is much more extreme among young women. Twelve percent 

of young women with no sexual partners in the past 12 months are HIV positive, 14% of those with 

one partner are HIV positive, and 21% with two or more partners are HIV positive.

 Among young men, HIV prevalence is lower among those who used a condom during their most 

recent sexual intercourse in the past 12 months (2%) or who did not have sexual intercourse in the past 

12 months (2%) than among those who had sexual intercourse but did not use a condom (5%). Among 

young women, differences according to condom use at last sexual intercourse are minor. 

13.2.4 HIV Prevalence by Other Characteristics Related to HIV Risk

The SADHS 2016 also explored HIV prevalence by other characteristics related to HIV risk among 

women and men age 15-49 who have ever had sex. As expected, HIV prevalence is higher among women 

and men who reported having a sexually transmitted infection (STI) or symptoms of an STI in the 12 

months before the survey than among those who had neither an STI nor symptoms (31% versus 22%). 

Individuals who had been tested for HIV previously were twice as likely to be HIV positive as those who 

had never been tested (25% versus 13%) (Table 13.10).

Information on the relationship between prior HIV testing and the current HIV status of respondents age 

15-49 is presented in Table 13.11. The results show that the majority of individuals who are HIV positive 

have been tested previously and received the result of their last test. Among respondents age 15-49 living 

with HIV, 87% reported that they had been tested for HIV and received the results of their most recent test, 

including 90% of HIV-positive women and 81% of HIV-positive men. Fifty-four percent of HIV-positive 

women and men received the results of their most recent test in the past 12 months. Thirteen percent of 

HIV-positive respondents have never been tested for HIV or were tested but did not receive the results of 

their last test and, therefore, cannot be aware of their status.
HIV Prevalence • 229

Male circumcision has been shown 

to reduce the risk of HIV infection. 

In the SADHS 2016, men were 

asked whether or not they had been 

circumcised and by whom. HIV 

prevalence is lower among men age 

15-49 who have been circumcised 

than those who have not been 

circumcised (11% versus 19%) 

(Figure 13.6). HIV prevalence is

slightly higher among men who 

were circumcised by a traditional 

practitioner, family member, or 

friend than by a health worker or 

health professional (12% versus 

10%). Information on HIV 

prevalence and male circumcision by background characteristics is presented in Table 13.12.

13.2.5 HIV Prevalence among Couples

Among the women and men interviewed and tested 

for HIV in the SADHS 2016, there were 419 

cohabitating couples. In 70% of cohabiting couples, 

both partners tested negative for HIV (Table 13.13). 

Both partners are HIV positive in 15% of 

cohabitating couples, while an additional 16% of 

couples are discordant; that is, one partner is HIV 

positive and the other is HIV negative. In 5% of 

couples the man is HIV positive and the woman is 

HIV negative, and in 11% of couples the woman is

HIV positive and the man is not (Figure 13.7).

LIST OF TABLES

For more information on HIV prevalence, see the following tables:

 Table 13.1 Coverage of HIV testing by residence and province

 Table 13.2 Coverage of HIV testing according to selected background characteristics

 Table 13.3 HIV prevalence by age

 Table 13.4 HIV prevalence by sociodemographic characteristics: Women and men age 15-49

 Table 13.5 HIV prevalence by sociodemographic characteristics: Women and men age 50 and 

older

 Table 13.6 HIV prevalence by demographic characteristics

 Table 13.7 HIV prevalence by sexual behaviour

 Table 13.8 HIV prevalence among young people by background characteristics

 Table 13.9 HIV prevalence among young people by sexual behaviour

 Table 13.10 HIV prevalence by other characteristics

 Table 13.11 Prior HIV testing by current HIV status

 Table 13.12 HIV prevalence by male circumcision

 Table 13.13 HIV prevalence among couples

Figure 13.6 HIV prevalence by circumcision status

Figure 13.7 HIV prevalence among

couples

Note: Percentages do not sum to 100% due to rounding.

10 12 11

19

Circumcised by

health worker/

professional

Circumcised by

traditional

practitioner/

family/friend

All circumcised Uncircumcised

Percentage of men age 15-49 who are HIV positive

Both HIV positive

15%

Man HIV positive, 

woman HIV 

negative

5%

Woman HIV 

positive, man HIV 

negative

11%

Both HIV 

negative

70%

Percent distribution of couples by HIV 

status
230 • HIV Prevalence

Table 13.1 Coverage of HIV testing by residence and province

Percent distribution of women and men age 15 and older eligible for HIV testing by testing status, according to residence and province 

(unweighted), South Africa DHS 2016 

Testing status

Total Number

DBS tested1

Refused to provide 

blood

Absent at the time of 

blood collection Other/missing2

Residence and province

InterviewedNot interviewedInterviewedNot interviewedInterviewedNot interviewedInterviewedNot interviewed

WOMEN 15+

Residence

Urban 49.8 1.5 22.4 7.2 7.1 7.3 3.2 1.4 100.0 4,075

Non-urban 68.4 1.4 15.6 1.7 5.3 3.5 3.6 0.5 100.0 2,979

Province

Western Cape 38.3 1.5 23.5 13.4 8.2 10.5 2.9 1.7 100.0 650

Eastern Cape 69.3 1.2 11.4 3.3 5.7 5.4 2.7 1.0 100.0 896

Northern Cape 44.7 1.4 28.5 6.8 3.9 5.3 8.0 1.4 100.0 622

Free State 67.8 1.5 11.3 1.8 8.3 7.3 1.9 0.0 100.0 724

KwaZulu-Natal 57.8 1.2 20.2 2.6 9.8 5.0 3.2 0.2 100.0 1,064

North West 77.9 2.2 8.0 3.1 3.1 3.6 0.8 1.4 100.0 647

Gauteng 40.2 1.0 26.3 9.6 6.7 8.3 4.0 3.9 100.0 726

Mpumalanga 64.2 2.7 15.4 4.5 3.5 4.6 4.5 0.6 100.0 805

Limpopo 54.3 0.8 30.7 2.2 6.2 3.0 2.6 0.2 100.0 920

Total 15+ 57.7 1.5 19.5 4.9 6.3 5.7 3.3 1.1 100.0 7,054

MEN 15+

Residence

Urban 37.7 2.4 20.6 11.4 7.0 14.6 3.4 3.0 100.0 3,388

Non-urban 54.5 1.4 17.2 4.1 6.8 9.9 4.3 1.6 100.0 2,275

Province

Western Cape 22.9 2.7 20.8 16.1 7.4 24.6 1.9 3.6 100.0 528

Eastern Cape 53.0 1.6 13.1 6.3 5.2 14.4 4.2 2.2 100.0 734

Northern Cape 31.1 1.0 27.4 13.5 5.5 10.8 8.2 2.5 100.0 489

Free State 52.5 5.4 8.9 6.7 7.1 15.8 1.1 2.5 100.0 552

KwaZulu-Natal 48.3 1.3 18.6 5.4 11.3 11.2 3.0 0.9 100.0 743

North West 65.5 1.4 12.1 3.4 5.5 6.5 3.1 2.6 100.0 585

Gauteng 31.8 0.7 27.0 12.6 5.2 12.9 4.2 5.4 100.0 688

Mpumalanga 48.7 3.0 19.2 9.0 3.6 10.0 5.7 0.9 100.0 668

Limpopo 41.3 1.6 26.2 5.9 10.7 9.8 2.8 1.8 100.0 676

Total 15+ 44.4 2.0 19.2 8.5 6.9 12.7 3.8 2.4 100.0 5,663

TOTAL (WOMEN AND MEN 15+)

Residence

Urban 44.3 1.9 21.6 9.1 7.0 10.6 3.3 2.1 100.0 7,463

Non-urban 62.4 1.4 16.3 2.8 5.9 6.3 3.9 1.0 100.0 5,254

Province

Western Cape 31.4 2.0 22.3 14.6 7.8 16.8 2.5 2.5 100.0 1,178

Eastern Cape 62.0 1.4 12.1 4.7 5.5 9.4 3.4 1.5 100.0 1,630

Northern Cape 38.7 1.3 28.0 9.7 4.6 7.7 8.1 1.9 100.0 1,111

Free State 61.2 3.2 10.3 3.9 7.8 11.0 1.6 1.1 100.0 1,276

KwaZulu-Natal 53.9 1.3 19.5 3.8 10.4 7.5 3.1 0.5 100.0 1,807

North West 72.0 1.8 10.0 3.2 4.2 5.0 1.9 1.9 100.0 1,232

Gauteng 36.1 0.8 26.7 11.1 6.0 10.5 4.1 4.6 100.0 1,414

Mpumalanga 57.2 2.9 17.1 6.5 3.5 7.1 5.0 0.7 100.0 1,473

Limpopo 48.8 1.1 28.8 3.8 8.1 5.9 2.7 0.9 100.0 1,596

Total 15+ 51.8 1.7 19.4 6.5 6.6 8.8 3.5 1.7 100.0 12,717

1

Includes all dried blood spot (DBS) specimens tested at the lab and for which there is a final result, i.e., positive, negative, or inconclusive

2

Includes (1) other results of blood collection (e.g., technical problem in the field), (2) lost specimens, (3) non-corresponding bar codes, and (4) 

lab results such as blood not tested for technical reason, not enough blood to complete the algorithm, etc. 
HIV Prevalence • 231

Table 13.2 Coverage of HIV testing according to selected background characteristics

Percent distribution of women and men age 15 and older eligible for HIV testing by testing status, according to selected background 

characteristics (unweighted), South Africa DHS 2016 

Testing status

Total Number

DBS tested1

Refused to provide 

blood

Absent at the time of 

blood collection Other/missing2

Background 

characteristic

InterviewedNot interviewedInterviewedNot interviewedInterviewedNot interviewedInterviewedNot interviewed

WOMEN 15+

Age

15-19 55.8 2.1 18.7 4.6 8.9 6.3 2.8 0.8 100.0 846

20-24 57.0 1.1 19.7 5.3 5.7 7.6 2.1 1.5 100.0 811

25-29 57.3 1.6 17.8 5.1 8.5 7.2 1.7 1.0 100.0 838

30-34 55.8 1.2 18.4 5.1 7.9 6.9 3.7 1.0 100.0 724

35-39 52.7 0.8 22.2 6.4 5.9 7.4 3.4 1.1 100.0 622

40-44 53.1 1.8 22.2 6.5 5.1 7.2 3.8 0.4 100.0 554

45-49 55.3 2.1 20.1 4.8 8.3 4.3 4.1 1.0 100.0 517

50-54 62.0 1.3 18.5 4.6 4.4 4.4 3.8 1.1 100.0 476

55-59 62.3 0.9 17.3 3.9 8.0 4.8 2.0 0.9 100.0 440

60-64 60.4 1.6 19.9 5.4 4.0 4.0 3.8 0.8 100.0 371

65+ 64.1 1.5 20.5 2.8 2.1 1.5 5.7 1.8 100.0 855

Education

No education 62.4 2.8 17.8 3.7 3.7 1.8 6.0 1.8 100.0 652

Primary incomplete 68.9 1.5 15.0 2.2 3.8 3.2 4.2 1.1 100.0 808

Primary complete 67.7 2.3 15.1 4.7 2.9 3.8 2.9 0.6 100.0 344

Secondary incomplete 60.3 1.3 19.2 3.7 7.1 4.8 3.1 0.6 100.0 3,030

Secondary complete 50.1 1.1 23.0 6.2 7.7 8.3 2.2 1.5 100.0 1,458

More than secondary 42.5 1.2 23.5 10.1 7.2 10.7 3.5 1.2 100.0 736

Missing 0.0 7.7 0.0 50.0 0.0 30.8 0.0 11.5 100.0 26

Wealth quintile

Lowest 69.2 1.5 13.9 1.9 5.9 4.0 3.1 0.4 100.0 1,343

Second 61.6 1.4 19.6 2.8 6.2 4.0 3.7 0.7 100.0 1,395

Middle 63.5 1.7 17.4 3.1 5.9 4.0 3.6 0.9 100.0 1,511

Fourth 54.3 1.5 21.1 5.9 5.9 6.7 3.0 1.7 100.0 1,516

Highest 38.5 1.4 25.9 11.2 7.9 10.2 3.3 1.6 100.0 1,289

Total 15+ 57.7 1.5 19.5 4.9 6.3 5.7 3.3 1.1 100.0 7,054

Total 15-49 55.5 1.5 19.6 5.4 7.3 6.8 3.0 1.0 100.0 4,912

MEN 15+

Age

15-19 54.5 2.0 15.8 6.2 7.1 9.3 3.3 1.7 100.0 871

20-24 47.6 2.3 18.4 6.3 9.0 13.4 1.3 1.8 100.0 790

25-29 39.6 2.3 20.9 9.1 7.9 15.6 2.6 2.0 100.0 694

30-34 35.1 2.0 21.8 9.9 7.1 18.0 3.4 2.6 100.0 646

35-39 36.9 1.6 20.2 10.9 6.9 14.3 4.4 4.8 100.0 496

40-44 38.1 2.1 21.6 8.7 5.7 14.2 5.5 4.0 100.0 472

45-49 39.0 1.1 20.9 12.0 6.1 12.0 5.9 2.9 100.0 374

50-54 41.3 3.5 20.0 8.9 6.7 13.0 3.8 2.9 100.0 315

55-59 48.8 1.7 15.4 10.9 5.5 12.3 3.1 2.4 100.0 293

60-64 49.8 1.6 17.8 6.7 5.1 10.7 6.3 2.0 100.0 253

65+ 55.8 2.0 19.0 7.2 5.0 4.6 5.9 0.7 100.0 459

Education

No education 51.7 2.5 15.8 6.9 4.2 6.1 8.6 4.2 100.0 360

Primary incomplete 55.0 2.4 17.6 4.3 4.7 10.2 4.1 1.6 100.0 676

Primary complete 48.9 1.3 16.5 8.7 7.4 11.0 4.9 1.3 100.0 309

Secondary incomplete 46.3 1.8 19.5 7.7 7.1 11.6 3.9 2.2 100.0 2,493

Secondary complete 37.9 2.3 20.5 9.3 8.0 16.5 2.7 2.7 100.0 1,198

More than secondary 34.4 1.9 22.2 12.9 8.4 15.1 1.9 3.3 100.0 582

Missing 0.0 6.7 0.0 44.4 0.0 44.4 0.0 4.4 100.0 45

Wealth quintile

Lowest 55.5 1.0 17.2 5.1 5.1 9.7 5.0 1.3 100.0 1,039

Second 47.9 2.5 20.7 6.1 7.3 10.7 3.2 1.7 100.0 1,210

Middle 49.3 2.0 19.1 6.0 7.2 10.3 4.1 2.1 100.0 1,218

Fourth 39.6 2.4 17.9 10.2 7.1 15.1 4.0 3.7 100.0 1,150

Highest 29.3 2.2 21.1 15.7 7.6 18.2 2.5 3.4 100.0 1,046

Total 15+ 44.4 2.0 19.2 8.5 6.9 12.7 3.8 2.4 100.0 5,663

Total 15-49 42.9 2.0 19.5 8.5 7.3 13.7 3.4 2.6 100.0 4,343

1

Includes all dried blood spot (DBS) specimens tested at the lab and for which there is a final result, i.e., positive, negative, or inconclusive

2

Includes (1) other results of blood collection (e.g., technical problem in the field), (2) lost specimens, (3) non-corresponding bar codes, and (4) 

other lab results such as blood not tested for technical reason, not enough blood to complete the algorithm, etc. 
232 • HIV Prevalence

Table 13.3 HIV prevalence by age

Among de facto women and men age 15 and older who were interviewed and tested, percentage HIV positive, according to age, 

South Africa DHS 2016 

Women Men Total

Age

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

15-24 11.6 832 3.4 924 7.3 1,755

 15-19 5.9 393 4.1 516 4.9 909

 20-24 16.7 439 2.6 407 9.9 846

25-34 36.0 813 17.7 618 28.1 1,431

35-44 40.3 598 26.6 486 34.2 1,084

45-54 19.9 487 19.4 331 19.7 818

55-64 20.0 433 16.3 340 18.4 773

65+ 5.3 438 2.0 285 4.0 722

Total 15+ 23.3 3,600 13.3 2,984 18.7 6,584

Total 15-49 27.3 2,485 14.4 2,199 21.2 4,685

Table 13.4 HIV prevalence by sociodemographic characteristics: Women and men age 15-49

Percentage HIV positive among women and men age 15-49 who were tested, according to sociodemographic characteristics, South Africa 

DHS 2016 

Women Men Total

Background 

characteristic

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Population group

Black African 29.9 2,229 16.0 1,938 23.4 4,167

White (<0.1) 61 (2.9) 92 1.7 154

Coloured 6.2 169 3.2 140 4.8 309

Indian/Asian * 26 * 28 (3.0) 54

Other nc 0 nc 0 nc 0

Employment (past 12 months)

Not employed 25.7 1,588 12.2 1,140 20.0 2,727

Employed 30.3 898 16.7 1,060 22.9 1,957

Residence

Urban 27.4 1,667 15.4 1,508 21.7 3,176

Non-urban 27.2 818 12.3 691 20.4 1,509

Province

Western Cape 18.2 249 17.3 206 17.8 454

Eastern Cape 30.2 264 8.2 247 19.6 512

Northern Cape 13.5 49 10.4 42 12.1 92

Free State 28.1 123 17.2 109 23.0 232

KwaZulu-Natal 37.3 486 19.2 363 29.6 850

North West 29.6 161 15.5 165 22.5 326

Gauteng 25.3 690 14.9 675 20.2 1,365

Mpumalanga 34.0 211 15.7 193 25.3 404

Limpopo 14.5 250 5.3 199 10.4 450

Education

No education 37.4 48 (17.3) 40 28.3 88

Primary incomplete 37.4 150 14.6 163 25.6 313

Primary complete 34.7 105 15.5 128 24.2 233

Secondary incomplete 30.1 1,281 14.8 1,149 22.9 2,430

Secondary complete 22.4 652 15.0 487 19.2 1,139

More than secondary 14.6 249 9.7 233 12.2 482

Wealth quintile

Lowest 30.4 563 16.3 447 24.1 1,010

Second 32.2 478 17.4 457 24.9 935

Middle 29.0 564 16.3 476 23.2 1,040

Fourth 26.9 484 9.2 467 18.2 951

Highest 15.1 395 12.3 353 13.8 748

Total 15-49 27.3 2,485 14.4 2,199 21.2 4,685

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed.

nc = No cases 
HIV Prevalence • 233

Table 13.5 HIV prevalence by sociodemographic characteristics: Women and men age 50 and older

Percentage HIV positive among women and men age 50 and older who were tested, according to sociodemographic characteristics, South Africa 

DHS 2016 

Women Men Total

Background 

characteristic

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Population group

Black African 17.9 877 14.1 553 16.5 1,430

White <0.1 97 <0.1 119 <0.1 216

Coloured 0.8 114 2.2 96 1.4 210

Indian/Asian * 24 * 17 * 41

Other nc 0 nc 0 nc 0

Marital status

Never married 22.8 308 6.6 92 19.1 400

Married or living together 8.2 430 9.3 572 8.8 1,002

Divorced/separated/widowed 14.0 377 17.6 121 14.9 497

Employment (past 12 months)

Not employed 11.8 831 11.7 510 11.7 1,341

Employed 21.3 284 7.5 275 14.5 559

Residence

Urban 15.0 686 9.9 533 12.8 1,219

Non-urban 12.9 429 11.0 252 12.2 680

Province

Western Cape 5.4 165 (1.9) 135 3.9 299

Eastern Cape 10.3 165 9.9 103 10.1 268

Northern Cape 10.8 26 (8.5) 17 9.9 43

Free State 16.7 68 17.2 38 16.9 106

KwaZulu-Natal 17.9 214 12.2 122 15.8 336

North West 14.7 67 15.5 48 15.0 114

Gauteng 21.3 215 12.0 208 16.7 423

Mpumalanga 17.2 67 20.4 39 18.4 106

Limpopo 9.8 129 5.7 75 8.3 204

Education

No education 13.1 261 10.9 123 12.4 384

Primary incomplete 17.9 276 12.9 232 15.6 508

Primary complete 21.1 91 (15.6) 36 19.5 127

Secondary incomplete 13.8 332 11.4 212 12.9 544

Secondary complete 9.4 68 6.5 87 7.8 155

More than secondary 3.7 87 1.5 95 2.6 182

Wealth quintile

Lowest 17.3 196 20.8 125 18.7 320

Second 17.0 193 8.4 108 13.9 300

Middle 20.5 196 9.2 139 15.8 335

Fourth 10.6 246 16.0 153 12.7 399

Highest 8.9 284 3.1 261 6.1 545

Total 50+ 14.2 1,115 10.2 785 12.6 1,899

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed.

nc = No cases 
234 • HIV Prevalence

Table 13.6 HIV prevalence by demographic characteristics

Percentage HIV positive among women and men age 15-49 who were tested, according to demographic characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Women Men Total

Demographic 

characteristic

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Marital status

Never married 27.0 1,508 9.2 1,451 18.2 2,958

 Ever had sexual intercourse 31.3 1,263 10.2 1,163 21.2 2,426

 Never had sexual intercourse 4.7 245 5.2 288 5.0 532

Married or living together 26.9 844 22.4 640 25.0 1,484

Divorced or separated 34.9 89 29.4 93 32.1 182

Widowed 31.9 44 * 16 43.7 60

Type of union

In polygynous union (53.9) 19 * 11 (56.8) 30

In non-polygynous union 25.9 796 21.1 624 23.8 1,420

Not currently in union 27.5 1,641 11.1 1,559 19.5 3,200

Don’t know or not asked1(35.7) 29 * 5 (45.6) 34

Times slept away from home in past 

12 months

None 24.3 1,331 14.6 1,294 19.5 2,625

1-2 29.5 550 12.4 310 23.4 860

3-4 31.6 263 20.4 224 26.4 487

5+ 32.2 341 11.7 371 21.5 712

Time away in past 12 months

Away for more than 1 month at a time 30.1 283 17.1 255 23.9 538

Away only for less than 1 month at a 

time 31.0 871 12.9 651 23.3 1,522

Not away 24.3 1,331 14.6 1,294 19.5 2,625

Currently pregnant

Pregnant 28.0 97 na na na na

Not pregnant or not sure 27.3 2,389 na na na na

ANC for last birth in the last 3 years

ANC provided by the public sector 27.0 533 na na na na

ANC provided by other than the public 

sector (10.5) 33 na na na na

No ANC/no birth in last 3 years 27.7 1,919 na na na na

Total 15-49 27.3 2,485 14.4 2,199 21.2 4,685

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases 

and has been suppressed.

na = Not applicable

1 Respondents in same-sex unions were not asked the question on polygyny 
HIV Prevalence • 235

Table 13.7 HIV prevalence by sexual behaviour

Percentage HIV positive among women and men age 15-49 who ever had sex and were tested for HIV, according to sexual behaviour characteristics, 

South Africa DHS 2016 

Women Men Total

Sexual behaviour 

characteristic

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Age at first sexual intercourse

<14 36.9 66 12.2 146 20.0 212

14-15 35.7 352 15.5 428 24.6 780

16-17 29.8 796 11.6 625 21.8 1,421

18-19 26.7 576 18.6 425 23.2 1,000

20+ 26.9 392 22.0 276 24.9 668

Number of lifetime partners

1 13.7 567 6.5 169 12.1 737

2 25.8 446 13.8 172 22.5 618

3-4 36.1 731 10.8 413 27.0 1,144

5-9 40.7 327 15.6 432 26.4 759

10+ 50.1 93 20.9 556 25.1 649

Don’t know 41.2 75 23.0 165 28.6 240

Multiple sexual partners in past 

12 months

0 31.6 252 15.4 160 25.3 413

1 29.2 1,880 17.2 1,336 24.3 3,216

2+ 35.4 106 11.3 412 16.3 519

Non-marital, non-cohabiting partners 

in past 12 months1

0 28.0 1,023 21.8 708 25.4 1,730

1 30.9 1,138 14.4 849 23.8 1,987

2+ 38.5 79 7.0 352 12.8 430

Condom use at last sexual 

intercourse in past 12 months

Used condom 38.5 903 15.9 933 27.0 1,837

Did not use condom 22.1 1,083 15.7 815 19.4 1,898

No sexual intercourse in past 

12 months 31.6 252 15.4 160 25.3 413

Condom use at last sexual 

intercourse with a non-marital, 

non-cohabiting partner in past 

12 months1

Used condom 35.9 705 10.3 838 22.0 1,543

Did not use condom 25.1 512 16.8 362 21.6 874

No sexual intercourse with any nonmarital, non-cohabiting partners in 

past 12 months1 28.0 1,023 21.8 708 25.4 1,730

Total 15-49 29.8 2,239 15.8 1,908 23.4 4,147

Note: Total includes 57 women and 9 men whose information on age at first sexual intercourse is missing and who are not shown separately.

1 Any partner who was not a spouse and did not live with the respondent 
236 • HIV Prevalence

Table 13.8 HIV prevalence among young people by background characteristics

Percentage HIV positive among women and men age 15-24 who were tested for HIV, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Women Men Total

Background 

characteristic

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Age

15-19 5.9 393 4.1 516 4.9 909

 15-17 4.3 218 4.8 301 4.6 519

 18-19 7.9 175 3.2 215 5.3 390

20-24 16.7 439 2.6 407 9.9 846

 20-22 15.0 271 1.7 266 8.4 537

 23-24 19.4 168 4.2 142 12.4 310

Marital status

Never married 10.0 718 3.4 888 6.4 1,606

 Ever had sex 12.8 486 2.5 622 7.0 1,107

 Never had sex 4.2 232 5.6 267 4.9 499

Married or living together 22.2 109 (2.7) 34 17.6 143

Divorced/separated/widowed * 4 * 1 * 6

Currently pregnant

Pregnant (15.9) 43 na na na na

Not pregnant or not sure 11.4 788 na na na na

Residence

Urban 11.6 530 4.7 530 8.1 1,060

Non-urban 11.6 301 1.8 394 6.1 696

Province

Western Cape (6.7) 51 (<0.1) 86 2.5 137

Eastern Cape 15.6 96 3.7 130 8.8 226

Northern Cape 5.7 17 (1.8) 18 3.6 35

Free State 13.3 42 5.9 51 9.2 92

KwaZulu-Natal 21.9 181 3.7 191 12.6 372

North West 8.9 48 1.1 61 4.5 109

Gauteng 4.2 222 (6.3) 188 5.2 410

Mpumalanga 19.9 79 3.6 79 11.7 158

Limpopo 2.8 96 0.9 120 1.8 216

Education

No education * 4 * 5 * 8

Primary incomplete (26.1) 27 <0.1 62 7.8 88

Primary complete (13.7) 34 1.0 47 6.3 82

Secondary incomplete 11.5 536 4.6 620 7.8 1,156

Secondary complete 10.8 165 1.7 149 6.5 314

More than secondary 8.7 66 (<0.1) 42 5.4 108

Wealth quintile

Lowest 15.1 226 6.3 215 10.8 441

Second 14.7 166 1.1 174 7.8 340

Middle 9.3 181 5.8 198 7.5 379

Fourth 8.6 151 1.8 226 4.5 377

Highest 7.8 108 0.8 111 4.3 219

Total 15-24 11.6 832 3.4 924 7.3 1,755

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases 

and has been suppressed.

na = Not applicable 
HIV Prevalence • 237

Table 13.9 HIV prevalence among young people by sexual behaviour

Percentage HIV positive among women and men age 15-24 who have ever had sex and were tested for HIV, according to sexual behaviour, South 

Africa DHS 2016 

Women Men Total

Sexual behaviour 

characteristic

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Multiple sexual partners in past 

12 months

0 12.3 42 1.7 72 5.6 113

1 14.2 515 2.6 394 9.1 909

2+ 20.9 43 2.9 191 6.2 234

Non-marital, non-cohabiting partners 

in past 12 months1

0 21.3 135 1.3 90 13.4 225

1 11.6 427 2.6 383 7.4 810

2+ 22.8 37 3.0 184 6.3 221

Condom use at last sexual 

intercourse in past 12 months

Used condom at last sex 15.1 280 1.8 439 7.0 718

Did not use condom 14.2 278 5.3 146 11.1 424

No sexual intercourse in past 

12 months 12.3 42 1.7 72 5.6 113

Total 15-24 14.5 599 2.6 657 8.3 1,256

1 Any partner who was not a spouse and did not live with the respondent 

Table 13.10 HIV prevalence by other characteristics

Percentage HIV positive among women and men age 15-49 who have ever had sex and were tested for HIV, according to whether they had an STI in 

the past 12 months and prior testing for HIV, South Africa DHS 2016 

Women Men Total

Characteristic

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Percentage HIV 

positive Number

Sexually transmitted infection in past 

12 months

Had STI or STI symptoms 37.7 258 19.2 136 31.3 393

No STI, no symptoms 28.4 1,971 15.5 1,761 22.3 3,732

Don’t know * 10 * 12 * 22

Prior HIV testing

Ever tested 30.6 2,023 18.0 1,479 25.3 3,502

Received results 30.7 1,989 17.8 1,434 25.3 3,423

Did not receive results (22.7) 34 (26.8) 45 25.1 79

Never tested 22.8 216 8.1 429 13.0 645

Total 15-49 29.8 2,239 15.8 1,908 23.4 4,147

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases 

and has been suppressed.

Table 13.11 Prior HIV testing by current HIV status

Percent distribution of women and men age 15-49 who tested HIV positive and who tested HIV negative according to HIV testing 

status prior to the survey, South Africa DHS 2016 

Women Men Total

HIV testing prior to the survey HIV positive HIV negative HIV positive HIV negative HIV positive HIV negative

Ever tested for HIV and received the 

result of the most recent test 89.8 80.5 81.0 67.6 87.0 73.9

Tested in the past 12 months and 

received the result1 59.2 59.2 44.1 45.0 54.4 51.9

Tested 12 or more months ago and 

received the result1 30.7 21.3 36.9 22.6 32.7 22.0

Ever tested for HIV and did not receive 

the result of the most recent test 2.0 1.8 3.9 2.0 2.6 1.9

Not previously tested 8.2 17.6 15.1 30.5 10.4 24.2

Total 15-49 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number 679 1,806 316 1,883 995 3,689

1 Of the most recent HIV test 
238 • HIV Prevalence

Table 13.12 HIV prevalence by male circumcision

Among men age 15-49 who were tested for HIV, percentage HIV positive by circumcision status, according to background characteristics, South 

Africa DHS 2016 

Circumcised by health 

worker/professional

Circumcised by traditional 

practitioner/family/friend All circumcised1 Uncircumcised

Background 

characteristic

Percentage 

HIV positive Number

Percentage 

HIV positive Number

Percentage 

HIV positive Number

Percentage 

HIV positive Number

Age

15-19 6.8 209 1.4 87 5.2 295 2.7 218

20-24 0.4 154 1.1 111 0.7 265 6.0 142

25-29 1.3 112 15.6 110 8.3 223 12.9 113

30-34 (37.2) 68 14.3 78 25.0 146 28.7 135

35-39 (39.7) 42 14.4 88 22.5 130 22.2 137

40-44 (9.2) 53 23.9 68 17.5 121 49.6 98

45-49 * 25 (25.2) 58 24.1 84 28.6 88

Residence

Urban 12.8 485 14.1 381 13.4 866 18.1 640

Non-urban 3.5 178 9.5 218 6.8 398 19.4 291

Province

Western Cape * 24 * 48 (36.2) 72 (7.2) 134

Eastern Cape * 11 8.9 165 8.3 177 6.4 69

Northern Cape (3.9) 10 * 5 (10.5) 16 10.3 27

Free State 5.5 44 (32.6) 17 12.9 61 22.6 48

KwaZulu-Natal 6.8 126 * 17 8.1 144 26.8 218

North West 7.6 43 25.4 36 15.7 79 15.3 86

Gauteng 16.5 268 (2.7) 171 11.1 439 22.1 236

Mpumalanga 6.7 67 (15.3) 37 9.8 104 22.7 88

Limpopo 3.6 70 7.0 103 5.6 173 (3.5) 26

Education

No education * 0 * 11 * 12 (20.3) 28

Primary incomplete * 15 6.3 67 6.7 82 22.9 80

Primary complete (2.1) 44 (19.9) 35 9.9 80 24.9 48

Secondary incomplete 12.2 341 13.1 306 12.6 647 17.5 499

Secondary complete 9.3 159 12.6 131 10.7 291 21.2 195

More than secondary 9.5 103 (11.1) 49 10.0 152 (9.0) 81

Wealth quintile

Lowest 10.9 70 12.7 192 12.2 262 22.0 185

Second 11.0 117 11.0 170 10.9 288 28.5 168

Middle 14.1 159 13.3 101 13.8 259 19.1 214

Fourth 6.6 186 9.9 81 7.6 267 11.3 199

Highest 10.2 132 * 55 12.4 187 12.3 166

Total 15-49 10.3 663 12.4 600 11.3 1,264 18.5 932

50-59 (5.6) 50 13.8 96 11.0 146 17.8 193

Total 15-59 10.0 712 12.6 695 11.3 1,410 18.4 1,125

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed.

1

Includes all men who report they are circumcised, including men circumcised by medical or traditional practitioners. Also includes those 

circumcised by other practitioners, those who don’t know what type of practitioner performed their circumcision, and those who did not report a 

practitioner (not shown separately). 
HIV Prevalence • 239

Table 13.13 HIV prevalence among couples

Percent distribution of couples living in the same household, both of whom were tested for HIV, by HIV status, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic Both HIV positive

Man HIV 

positive, woman 

HIV negative

Woman HIV 

positive, man 

HIV negative

Both HIV 

negative Total Number

Woman’s age

15-19 * * * * 100.0 12

20-29 11.2 11.3 13.6 64.0 100.0 113

30-39 13.8 2.9 13.0 70.4 100.0 180

40-49 20.9 2.8 5.0 71.2 100.0 115

Man’s age

15-19 nc nc nc nc nc 0

20-29 (1.0) (6.9) (12.2) (79.8) 100.0 64

30-39 17.9 5.8 14.4 61.9 100.0 158

40-49 16.6 4.6 6.5 72.2 100.0 134

50-59 16.2 2.3 8.0 73.5 100.0 63

Age difference between 

partners

Woman older (12.7) (1.9) (23.9) (61.4) 100.0 46

Same age/man older by 0-4 

years 9.4 9.5 8.1 73.0 100.0 157

Man older by 5-9 years 17.5 1.4 7.3 73.9 100.0 153

Man older by 10-14 years (13.5) (5.6) (8.3) (72.6) 100.0 41

Man older by 15+ years * * * * 100.0 22

Multiple partners in past 

12 months1

Both no 15.8 4.4 10.9 68.9 100.0 369

Man yes, woman no (5.8) (12.0) (2.5) (79.7) 100.0 42

Woman yes, man no * * * * 100.0 5

Both yes * * * * 100.0 4

Residence

Urban 13.4 5.3 10.1 71.2 100.0 316

Non-urban 18.4 4.4 12.1 65.2 100.0 103

Wealth quintile

Lowest 11.0 5.7 21.0 62.3 100.0 75

Second 15.6 16.1 13.0 55.3 100.0 79

Middle 19.4 4.2 14.6 61.8 100.0 89

Fourth 17.9 0.8 6.0 75.3 100.0 66

Highest 10.7 <0.1 1.4 88.0 100.0 110

Total couples 14.6 5.1 10.6 69.7 100.0 419

Notes: The table is based on heterosexual couples for which a valid test result (positive or negative) is available for both partners. Figures in 

parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has 

been suppressed.

nc = No cases

1 A respondent is considered to have had multiple sexual partners in the past 12 months if he or she had sexual intercourse with two or more 

people during this time period. (Respondents with multiple partners include polygynous men who had sexual intercourse with two or more 

wives.)

Adult and Pregnancy-related Mortality • 241

ADULT AND PREGNANCY-RELATED MORTALITY 14

Key Findings

 Adult mortality: The probability of a 15-year-old dying 

before age 50 (35q15) is 21% among females and 23% 

among males. Thus, 213 of every 1,000 women age 15 

would be expected to die before age 50, and 234 of every 

1,000 men age 15 would be expected to die before age 50.

 Pregnancy-related mortality ratio: The pregnancyrelated mortality ratio during the 7-year period before the 

SADHS 2016 was 536 pregnancy-related deaths per 

100,000 live births.

dult and maternal mortality indicators are useful for assessing the health status of adult populations. 

The maternal mortality ratio is one of 26 indicators used to assess progress towards SDG 3: ensuring

healthy lives and promoting well-being for all at all ages. Reducing maternal mortality is one of the 

government’s targets. The 2030 vision of the National Development Plan is to reduce the maternal mortality 

ratio to less than 100 per 100,000 live births (South African Government 2011). In 1998, the National 

Committee on Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths (NCCEMD) was established, and the committee 

set up a system to monitor deaths that occur in health facilities during pregnancy, birth, or the puerperium

(Theron 2000). The Campaign on Accelerated Reduction of Maternal and Child Mortality in Africa 

(CARMMA), launched in South Africa in 2012, has highlighted the components of a comprehensive strategy 

to reduce maternal and child mortality (NDoH 2012). The Rapid Mortality Surveillance Report (Bradshaw 

et al. 2012) introduced a measure of maternal mortality for monitoring trends that was based on an adjustment 

to the number of deaths caused by direct and indirect maternal causes from vital statistics. This approach has 

been used in the country’s SDG Indicator Baseline Report (Stats SA 2017b).

Two methods are generally used to estimate maternal mortality in developing countries from household 

surveys: the indirect sisterhood method (Graham et al. 1989) and a direct variant of the sisterhood method 

(Rutenberg and Sullivan 1991; Stanton et al. 1997). In the SADHS 2016, the direct variant of the sisterhood 

method was employed to estimate both adult and maternal mortality from the reports of adult women on the 

survival status of their siblings.

14.1 DATA

To obtain a sibling history, each female respondent age 15-49 was first asked to provide the total number of 

her mother’s live births. The respondent was then asked to provide a list of all brothers and sisters born to 

her mother, beginning with the first born, and to identify whether each sibling was alive at the time of the 

survey. The current age was reported for living siblings. For deceased siblings, the age at death and number 

of years since death were recorded. Approximate quantitative answers were acceptable if precise information 

on age, age at death, or years since death was not known.

Data capture via CAPI may have aided the completeness of data on siblings because in the CAPI system, 

interviewers are required to populate all relevant fields in order to progress through the interview, whereas 

interviewers may skip over asking questions or recording responses and still continue the interview when 

data capture is done on paper questionnaires. Completeness of data on survival status, current age, age at 

death, and years since death is reported for all siblings in Table C.8 in Appendix C. Current age is unreported 

A
242 • Adult and Pregnancy-related Mortality

for 0% of siblings, as compared with 5% of siblings in the 1998 survey. Similarly but more markedly, both 

age at death and years since death among deceased siblings are unreported for 0% of siblings in the current 

survey, while each measure was missing for 16% of deceased siblings in the 1998 survey.

For sisters who had died and were age 12 or older at the time of death, questions were asked to determine 

whether the death was maternity-related: “Was [NAME OF SISTER] pregnant when she died?” and, if not, 

“Did she die during childbirth?” and, if not, “Did she die within 2 months after the end of a pregnancy or 

childbirth?” For every sister and brother who had died, the respondent was asked “Was [NAME]’s death due 

to an accident or violence?” Estimates of maternal mortality are refined by excluding deaths due to accidents

or violence; however, other incidental deaths, such as HIV-related deaths, are not identified and are therefore 

not excluded.

14.2 DIRECT ESTIMATES OF ADULT MORTALITY

Adult mortality rate

The number of adult deaths per 1,000 population age 15-49. Adult mortality 

rates by 5-year age groups are calculated by dividing the number of deaths to 

siblings of respondents in each age group by the number of person-years of 

exposure to the risk of dying in that age group during the 7 years preceding the 

survey and then multiplying by 1,000. The number of deaths is the number of

siblings (brothers or sisters) reported as having died within the 7 years 

preceding the survey. The person-years of exposure in each age group are 

calculated for both surviving and dead siblings based on their current age (living 

siblings) or age at death and years since death (dead siblings).

Age-adjusted rate: The rate for the 15-49 age group has been standardised so 

that siblings reflect the SADHS population structure.

Sample: Siblings (both living and dead) who were age 15-49 in the 7 years 

preceding the survey, by sex and 5-year age groups

Estimates of mortality for the 7 years preceding the 

survey among women and men age 15-49 are shown 

in Table 14.1. Mortality is slightly lower among 

women (6.3 deaths per 1,000 population) than among 

men (6.9 deaths per 1,000 population). Mortality rates 

generally rise with increasing age from age 15-19 to 

age 40-44 (Figure 14.1). 

14.3 TRENDS IN ADULT MORTALITY

Table 14.2 shows the probability of a woman or man 

age 15 dying by age 50 (35q15) if the person 

experienced the age-specific death rates shown in 

Table 14.1—that is, the death rates observed in 2009-

2016 (the 7 years preceding the survey). Probabilities are expressed per 1,000 persons at age 15. Thus, 213 

of every 1,000 women age 15 would be expected to die before age 50, and 234 of every 1,000 men age 15 

would be expected to die before age 50. If women and men experienced probabilities of dying that were 

estimated as existing in 1991-1998 (the 7 years preceding the SADHS 1998), 103 of every 1,000 women 

and 213 of every 1,000 men age 15 would be expected to die before age 50. The probability of dying doubled 

among women from the period 1991-1998 to the period 2009-2016, while the probability increased only 

marginally among men. Comparisons with estimates from other sources of mortality data in the country and 

analyses of the cause of death data available in the country’s vital registration system may shed more light 

on the pattern shown here.

Figure 14.1 Adult mortality rates by age

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49

Age

Deaths per 1,000 population

Women

Men
Adult and Pregnancy-related Mortality • 243

14.4 DIRECT ESTIMATES OF MATERNAL MORTALITY

Maternal mortality rate

The number of maternal deaths per 1,000 women age 15-49. Maternal mortality 

rates by 5-year age groups are calculated by dividing the number of maternal 

deaths to female siblings of respondents in each age group by the total personyears of exposure of the sisters to the risk of dying in that age group during the 

7 years preceding the survey and then multiplying by 1,000. The number of 

deaths is the number of sisters reported as having died in the 7 years preceding 

the survey during pregnancy or delivery, or in the 2 months following the delivery

or end of pregnancy, by their age group at the time of death; deaths due to 

accidents or violence are excluded.

* The person-years of exposure in each age 

group are calculated for both surviving and dead sisters based on their reported 

current age (living sisters) or age at death and years since death (dead sisters). 

Sample: Sisters (both living and dead) age 15-49 in the 7 years preceding the 

survey, by 5-year age groups

*This differs from the WHO definition of a maternal death, which is “the death of a woman 

while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration 

and the site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy 

or its management, but not from accidental or incidental causes” (WHO 2012:98).

Maternal mortality ratio

The number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live births. The maternal mortality 

ratio (MMR) is calculated by dividing the age-standardised maternal mortality 

rate for women age 15-49 in the 7 years preceding the survey by the general 

fertility rate (GFR) for the same time period times 100,000.

Out of the 394 deaths of female siblings reported for the 7 years preceding the survey, 27 were reported to 

have occurred during pregnancy or within 2 months of delivery or termination of the pregnancy from any 

cause other than accidents or violence (data not shown). These deaths accounted for 7% of all deaths among 

women age 15-49 and are considered too imprecise for estimating maternal mortality indictors, which require 

the distinction between maternal causes and incidental causes of death that happened to occur during 

pregnancy. The remainder of this chapter will focus on estimates of pregnancy-related mortality indicators.

14.5 DIRECT ESTIMATES AND TRENDS IN PREGNANCY-RELATED MORTALITY

Pregnancy-related mortality rate

The number of pregnancy-related deaths per 1,000 women age 15-49. 

Pregnancy-related mortality rates by 5-year age groups are calculated by 

dividing the number of pregnancy-related deaths to female siblings of 

respondents in each age group by the total person-years of exposure of the 

sisters to the risk of dying in that age group during the 7 years preceding the 

survey and then multiplying by 1,000. The number of deaths is the number of 

sisters reported as having died in the 7 years preceding the survey during 

pregnancy or delivery, or in the 2 months following the delivery or end of 

pregnancy, by their age group at the time of death. The person-years of 

exposure in each age group are calculated for both surviving and dead sisters 

based on their reported current age (living sisters) or age at death and years 

since death (dead sisters). 

Sample: Sisters (both living and dead) age 15-49 in the 7 years preceding the 

survey, by 5-year age groups
244 • Adult and Pregnancy-related Mortality

Pregnancy-related mortality ratio (PRMR)

The number of pregnancy-related deaths per 100,000 live births. The 

pregnancy-related mortality ratio is calculated by dividing the age-standardised 

pregnancy-related mortality rate for women age 15-49 in the 7 years preceding 

the survey by the general fertility rate (GFR) for the same time period times 

100,000.

Lifetime risk of pregnancy-related death

This is calculated as 1-(1-PRMR)TFR, where PRMR represents the pregnancyrelated mortality ratio and TFR represents the total fertility rate for the 7 years 

preceding the survey.

The SADHS 2016 defines a pregnancy-related death as the death of a woman while pregnant or within 2 

months of delivery or termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the cause of death. Estimates of pregnancyrelated mortality are therefore based solely on the timing of the death in relationship to the pregnancy, which 

differs from the WHO definition of a pregnancy-related death (which limits the window to 42 days). 

 The pregnancy-related mortality rate among women age 15-49 is 0.47 pregnancy-related deaths per 

1,000 woman-years of exposure (Table 14.3). 

 The pregnancy-related mortality rate is highest among women age 40-44 (1.22). Any patterns in agespecific pregnancy-related mortality should be interpreted with caution, as there were only 31

pregnancy-related deaths in the 7 years preceding the survey.

 Pregnancy-related deaths accounted for 8% of all deaths among women age 15-49.

 The pregnancy-related mortality ratio (PRMR) during the 7 years preceding the SADHS 2016 is 

estimated as 536 deaths per 100,000 live births (Table 14.4). For every 1,000 live births, about five 

women died during pregnancy or within 2 months after childbirth.

 At the fertility and mortality rates prevailing in 2009-2016, 1.5% of women would be expected to die 

from pregnancy-related causes during their reproductive lifetime (i.e., a lifetime risk of 1 in 67).

What the SADHS 2016 defines as a pregnancy-related 

death was labelled a maternal death in the SADHS 

1998. It should be noted that although the SADHS 

1998 included a question asking whether female 

deaths were due to complications of pregnancy or 

childbirth, responses were not used to identify 

whether a death was or was not a maternal death. 

Thus, it is possible to compare the PRMR estimates 

from the SADHS 2016 and SADHS 1998.

The SADHS 2016 PRMR estimate for the period 

2009-2016 (536 deaths per 100,000 live births) is

significantly higher than the SADHS 1998 estimate of 

150 deaths per 100,000 live births in 1991-1998 

(Figure 14.2 and Table 14.4). As shown in Figure 

14.2, there is no overlap between the confidence 

intervals surrounding the SADHS 2016 and SADHS 

1998 PRMR estimates. The difference between the 

2016 and 1998 estimates is statistically significant and not likely to be due to sampling error. Therefore, it 

can be concluded that the PRMR increased between the 1998 and 2016 surveys.

Figure 14.2 Comparison of the 

pregnancy-related mortality ratio (PRMR) 

with confidence intervals between the 

SADHS 1998 and the SADHS 2016

223 270

77

802

150

536

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

1991-1998 2009-2016

Pregnancy-related deaths per 

100,000 live births

(7 years preceding 

the SADHS 2016)

(7 years preceding 

the SADHS 1998)
Adult and Pregnancy-related Mortality • 245

The SADHS 2016 PRMR estimate of 536 deaths per 100,000 live births for the period approximately centred 

at 2013 is slightly lower than the figure of 580 deaths derived from household deaths in the 2011 Population 

Census (Stats SA 2012), which referred to the year preceding the census (i.e., 10 October 2010 to 9 October 

2011). However, the decline is not statistically significant (data not shown).

LIST OF TABLES

For more information on adult and maternal mortality, see the following tables:

 Table 14.1 Adult mortality rates

 Table 14.2 Adult mortality probabilities

 Table 14.3 Pregnancy-related mortality

 Table 14.4 Pregnancy-related mortality trends 

 Table C.8 Completeness of information on siblings (see Appendix C)

 Table C.9 Sibship size and sex ratio of siblings (see Appendix C)

Table 14.1 Adult mortality rates

Direct estimates of female and male mortality rates for the 7 years preceding the survey, by 

5-year age groups, South Africa DHS 2016 

Age Deaths Exposure years Mortality rate1

FEMALE

15-19 9 9,179 1.02

20-24 43 11,875 3.65

25-29 55 12,297 4.48

30-34 108 11,034 9.82

35-39 78 8,555 9.13

40-44 68 5,930 11.39

45-49 32 3,899 8.32

Total 15-49 394a 62,768a 6.34b

MALE

15-19 14 8,774 1.60

20-24 28 11,306 2.46

25-29 74 11,814 6.24

30-34 78 10,305 7.60

35-39 79 8,277 9.49

40-44 77 5,616 13.64

45-49 44 3,580 12.23

Total 15-49 393a 59,673a 6.90b

1 Expressed per 1,000 population

a Small discrepancies in totals can result from rounding

b Age-adjusted rate 

Table 14.2 Adult mortality probabilities

The probability of dying between age 15 and age 50 among 

women and men during the 7 years preceding the survey, South 

Africa 

Women Men

Survey 35q151

35q151

SADHS 2016 213 234

SADHS 1998 103 213

1 The probability of dying between exact ages 15 and 50, 

expressed per 1,000 persons at age 15 
246 • Adult and Pregnancy-related Mortality

Table 14.3 Pregnancy-related mortality

Direct estimates of pregnancy-related mortality rates for the 7 years preceding the survey, by 5-year 

age groups, South Africa DHS 2016 

Age

Percentage of 

female deaths 

that are 

pregnancyrelatedPregnancyrelated deaths1Exposure 

years

Pregnancyrelated mortality 

rate2

15-19 0.0 0 9,179 0.00

20-24 9.8 4 11,875 0.36

25-29 13.0 7 12,297 0.58

30-34 4.7 5 11,034 0.46

35-39 8.3 6 8,555 0.76

40-44 10.7 7 5,930 1.22

45-49 1.3 0 3,899 0.11

Total 15-49 7.8 31a 62,768a 0.47b

1 Pregnancy-related mortality is defined as the death of a woman while pregnant or within 2 months 

of termination of pregnancy from any cause, including accidents or violence

2 Expressed per 1,000 woman-years of exposure

a Small discrepancies in totals can result from rounding

b Age-adjusted rate 

Table 14.4 Pregnancy-related mortality trends

Direct estimates of pregnancy-related mortality rates for the 7 years preceding each 

survey, by 5-year age groups, South Africa DHS 2016 

Pregnancy-related mortality rates1,2

Age 2009-2016 1991-1998

15-19 0.00 0.09

20-24 0.36 0.25

25-29 0.58 0.21

30-34 0.46 0.19

35-39 0.76 0.11

40-44 1.22 0.07

45-49 0.11 0.00

Total 15-49a 0.47 0.15

Total fertility rate (TFR) 2.8 3.1

General fertility rate (GFR)3 88 97

Pregnancy-related mortality ratio (PRMR)4 536 150

Confidence interval 270-802 77-223

.

Lifetime risk of pregnancy-related death5 0.015 0.005

1 Pregnancy-related mortality is defined as the death of a woman while pregnant or within 

2 months of termination of pregnancy from any cause, including accidents or violence

2 Expressed per 1,000 woman-years of exposure

3 Age-adjusted rate expressed per 1,000 women age 15-49

4 Expressed per 100,000 live births; calculated as the age-adjusted pregnancy-related 

mortality rate times 100 divided by the age-adjusted general fertility rate

5 Calculated as 1-(1-PRMR)TFR where TFR represents the total fertility rate for the 7 years 

preceding the survey

a Age-adjusted rate 
Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication • 247

USE OF HEALTH SERVICES AND PRESCRIBED

MEDICATIONS 15

Key Findings

 Health insurance coverage: 16% of women and 17% of 

men age 15 and older have health insurance coverage.

 Utilisation of outpatient health care services: In the 

month before the survey, 12% of women and 11% of men 

age 15 and older received health, medical, or dental care 

as an outpatient. Overall, 55% of respondents who had 

an outpatient visit received care from a government clinic 

or community health centre, 15% received care from a 

government hospital, and 26% received care from a 

private hospital or clinic.

 Pap smear: 37% of women age 15 and older have had a 

Pap smear exam; among those who have ever had a Pap 

smear, 64% had one within the 3 years before the 

survey.

 Problems in accessing health care: 38% of women 

age 15 and older have at least one problem in accessing 

health care.

 Prescribed medications: Overall, 31% of women and 

19% of men age 15 and older reported that they are 

taking prescribed medications daily or regularly. Seventyone percent of adults age 15 and older have their 

prescribed medications paid for by the public sector. 

ealth service utilisation provides information that reflects a combination of need for care and 

access to care. This chapter describes access to health insurance and utilisation of ambulatory 

health services among respondents to the adult health module. In addition, women were asked 

about their experience with Pap smear exams and about barriers they face when seeking health care. The 

chapter also includes information about prescribed medications used daily or regularly by adults for 

chronic conditions. Such information will contribute towards monitoring the performance of the health 

system and planning for the implementation of National Health Insurance (NHI). 

15.1 HEALTH INSURANCE COVERAGE 

Sixteen percent of women and 17% of men age 15 and older have access to some form of medical aid, 

medical benefit scheme, provident scheme, or hospital plan that helps them pay for health care or drug 

services (Table 15.1). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 As expected, health insurance coverage is associated with age. Among women, health insurance 

coverage is lower among those age 15-34 (10%-13%) than among older women age 35 or older 

(18%-20%). Among men, health insurance coverage rises from a low of 10% among those age 15-24

to a high of 27% among those age 65 or older.

H
248 • Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication 

 There is a large disparity in health insurance coverage by population group. Seventy-four percent of

women and 77% of men who are White have health insurance coverage, whereas only 10% of women

and 11% of men who are Black African have coverage.

 Women and men in urban areas are more than twice as likely as those in non-urban areas to have 

health insurance coverage. 

 The proportion of adults with health insurance coverage is markedly higher in Western Cape than 

other provinces. Thirty percent of women and 36% of men in Western Cape have health insurance 

coverage, as compared with 9%-17% of women and 11%-17% of men in other provinces. 

 Among both women and men, health insurance coverage is positively associated with increasing 

education and household wealth.

15.2 USE OF OUTPATIENT HEALTH CARE SERVICES 

Respondents were asked about outpatient health care services they had received in the month before the 

survey. Five percent of women and 1% of men age 15 and older had at least one visit by a home- or 

community-based caregiver in the month before the survey, and 12% of women and 11% of men received 

health, medical, or dental care as an outpatient (Table 15.2). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 The percentage of women and men who received outpatient health services during the month before 

the survey generally increases with age. Nine percent of women and 6% of men age 15-24 received 

outpatient services, as compared with 18% of women and 22% of men age 65 or older.

 HIV-positive men (16%) were slightly more likely to receive outpatient health care services than those 

who were HIV negative (11%) or whose status was not known because they were not tested in the 

SADHS (10%). Among women, 12%-13% received outpatient health care services regardless of their 

HIV status.

 Both women and men were more likely to 

receive outpatient health care services if they had

health insurance. Among those who received 

outpatient services, women and men with health 

insurance were much more likely than those 

without insurance to use private sector sources. 

Still, 10% of those without health insurance 

visited a private hospital, clinic, or private doctor 

(Table 15.3).

 Respondents from non-urban areas were less 

likely than those from urban areas to have visited

a private hospital, clinic, or private doctor (17% 

versus 32%).

 Use of public sector health services decreases

with increasing household wealth (Figure 15.1).

Figure 15.1 Source of outpatient health

care services by household wealth

98

85 78 71

37

4

16 22 30

68

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Percentage of respondents age 15+ who 

received outpatient services 

Public sector Private medical sector

Poorest Wealthiest
Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication • 249

15.3 WOMEN’S ACCESS TO CARE 

15.3.1 Experience with a Pap Smear 

The SADHS 2016 included questions on cervical cancer screening. The Pap smear exam checks for 

changes in the cells of the cervix that indicate cervical cancer or conditions that may develop into cervical 

cancer. The South African Policy on Cervical Cancer and Control recommends cytology-based screening, 

particularly via Pap smear, as the method of choice in the short term. The policy further recommends 

screening all women age 30-50 at 10-year intervals. 

Women age 15 and older were asked whether they ever had a Pap smear and, if so, how long ago they had

their most recent Pap smear and whether they received the result. Overall, 37% of women age 15 and older

have ever had a Pap smear (Table 15.4). Among those who ever had a Pap smear, 64% reported having 

had a Pap smear within the 3 years before the survey, 15% had the exam 4-5 years ago, 8% had the exam 

6-10 years ago, and 10% had the exam more than 10 years ago. The vast majority of women who have 

ever had a Pap smear received the result of their most recent test (86%). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 Women age 30-59 (52%) were more likely than younger women age 15-29 (16%) and older women 

age 60 or older (41%) to have ever had a Pap smear. Two-thirds (67%) of women age 30-59 who have 

ever had a Pap smear had the exam within the 3 years before the survey.

 By population group, women who are White (78%), Coloured (62%), or Indian/Asian (60%) were 

more likely than Black African women (32%) to have ever had a Pap smear. 

 HIV-positive women (43%) were more likely to have ever had a Pap smear than HIV-negative women 

(33%) or women whose status is unknown because they were not tested in the SADHS (40%). Among 

those who ever had a Pap smear, women who are HIV positive were also more likely to have had one 

in the 3 years before the survey (78%) than HIV-negative women (59%) and women who were not 

tested in the survey (65%). However, HIV-positive women (77%) were somewhat less likely than 

other women (86%-89%) to have received the results of their last Pap smear.

 Six in 10 women (63%) with health insurance 

have ever had a Pap smear, as compared with 3 

in 10 women (33%) without insurance.

 Women’s likelihood of ever having had a Pap 

smear generally increases with increasing 

education and household wealth.

 The proportion of women age 30-59 who had a 

Pap smear is higher in Western Cape (83%) than 

other provinces (43%-56%) (Table 15.5 and 

Figure 15.2).

Figure 15.2 Experience with a Pap smear 

by province

Percentage of women age 30-59 who ever had 

a Pap smear
250 • Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication 

15.3.2 Problems in Accessing Health Care among Women

Problems in accessing health care

Women were asked whether each of the following factors is a big problem in 

seeking medical advice or treatment for themselves when they are sick: 

 Getting permission to go to the doctor 

 Getting money for advice or treatment 

 Distance to a health facility 

 Not wanting to go alone

Sample: Women age 15+

Thirty-eight percent of women age 15 and older report at least one problem accessing health care for 

themselves when they are sick (Table 15.6). The most commonly reported problem is getting money for 

treatment (28%), followed by distance from the health service (25%). Fifteen percent of women reported

not wanting to go alone and needing permission to go as problems.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Women age 65 and older are more likely than 

women in all of the other age groups to 

experience each of the four specified problems 

in accessing health care. Overall, 49% of women 

age 65 and older reported at least one problem in 

accessing care.

 White women (8%) are less likely than Black

African (41%), Coloured (29%), or Indian/Asian 

(33%) women to report at least one problem in 

accessing health care.

 Women who are divorced, separated, or 

widowed (48%) are more likely than women 

who are married or living together with a partner 

(35%) and women who have never been married 

or lived with a partner (38%) to have at least one 

problem in accessing health care.

 The proportion of women who report at least one 

problem in accessing health care is much higher 

in non-urban areas (53%) than urban areas

(30%).

 Women in Western Cape (23%) are least likely 

to report any problems in accessing health care, 

while women in Eastern Cape (49%) are most 

likely to report problems (Figure 15.3). In all 

provinces except KwaZulu-Natal and 

Mpumalanga, the most common problem in 

accessing health care is getting money for 

treatment. 

 The percentage of women who report having a 

problem in accessing health care steadily 

decreases with increasing household wealth (Figure 15.4).

Figure 15.3 Problems in accessing 

health care by province

Percentage of women age 15-49 reporting at 

least one problem

Figure 15.4 Problems in accessing 

health care by household wealth

57

50

40

29

20

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Percentage of women age 15+ with at 

least one problem

Poorest Wealthiest
Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication • 251

15.4 PRESCRIBED MEDICATIONS

15.4.1 Self-reported Use of Prescribed Medications

Table 15.7 presents data on women’s and men’s self-reported use of prescribed medications. Overall, 26% 

of respondents age 15 and older reported that they are taking prescribed medication daily or regularly. 

More women report taking prescribed medications than men (31% versus 19%). Among respondents who 

are taking prescribed medications, 44% are taking a single medication, 39% are taking two to three 

medications, and 17% are taking four or more medications.

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The percentage of women age 15 and older taking prescribed 

medications increased from 18% in 1998 to 31% in 2016; the percentage among men increased from 13% 

to 19%.

Patterns by background characteristics

 The percentage of respondents daily or regularly 

taking at least one prescribed medication 

increases with age, from 7% among those age 

15-24 to 59% among those age 65 and older 

(Figure 15.5). Older respondents also take a 

greater number of medications than younger 

respondents.

 White respondents were more likely to report 

taking prescribed medications (55%) than 

respondents from other population groups, 

especially Black African respondents (23%).

 The proportion of respondents taking at least one 

medication declines from 45% among those with 

no education to 20% among those who have 

completed a secondary education before increasing to 29% among those with more than a secondary 

education.

 The percentage of women and men taking at least one prescribed medication increases with increasing 

household wealth, from 20% among those in the lowest wealth quintile to 36% among those in the 

highest quintile.

15.4.2 Payment for Prescribed Medications

Respondents who take prescribed medications on a regular basis were asked about their source of payment. 

Overall, 71% of adults age 15 and older report that most of their medications are provided by the public 

sector. Sixteen percent of adults report that their prescribed medications are paid for through medical aid, 

and 11% pay for their medications out of pocket (Table 15.8). 

Among respondents whose medications are provided by a public clinic or hospital, 20% report that they 

were sent away from the clinic at least once in the past 12 months without medication because of 

stockouts.

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: Provision of prescribed medications by the public sector increased 

from 39% in 1998 to 75% in 2016 among women and from 34% to 61% among men. Medical aid

provision of prescribed medications decreased among both women (from 26% to 14%) and men (from 

29% to 20%). The proportion of respondents who pay out of pocket for their daily or regularly prescribed 

Figure 15.5 Prescribed medication 

by age

7

14

25

38

51

59

15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

Percentage of women and men 

taking prescribed medication daily 

or regularly

Age
252 • Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication 

medications has also decreased since 1998, from 28% to 9% among women and from 31% to 16%

among men.

Patterns by background characteristics

 While use of medical aid to pay for prescribed medications increases with age, the proportion of 

respondents relying on public sector payments is similar across age groups. 

 Among respondents whose prescribed 

medications are paid for by the public sector, the 

percentage who have been sent away from a 

clinic in the past 12 months because a 

medication was not in stock rises from 11% 

among those age 15-24 to 28% among those age 

65 and older (Figure 15.6).

 A majority of Black African (82%) and Coloured 

(67%) respondents have their prescribed 

medications paid for by the public sector,

whereas most White respondents have their 

medications paid for by medical aid (64%).

 Those who are employed, whether for cash 

(18%) or not (13%), are more likely than those 

who are not employed (8%) to pay for their prescribed medications out of pocket. Those who are not 

employed (78%) are more likely than those who are employed for cash (59%) or employed but not for 

cash (55%) to have their prescribed medications paid for by the public sector.

 In general, the percentage of respondents whose prescribed medications are paid for by medical aid

increases with increasing education; only 4% of respondents with no education have their prescribed 

medications paid for by medical aid, as compared with 53% of those with more than a secondary 

education. Out-of-pocket payments also generally increase with increasing education, while public 

sector payments decrease.

 Ninety-four percent of respondents in the lowest wealth quintile had their prescribed medications paid 

for by the public sector, compared with 31% of respondents in the highest wealth quintile.

15.5 PRESCRIBED MEDICATIONS FOR CHRONIC CONDITIONS

Of the 10,336 respondents age 15 and older who completed the adult health module, 8,067 consented to be 

interviewed with the Biomarker Questionnaire by a nurse. As part of this interview, respondents who use 

prescribed medications daily or regularly were requested to show the medications to the nurse, who then 

recorded the names of the medications. 

Overall, 18% of respondents age 15 and older reported taking a prescribed medication for at least one 

chronic condition. The most frequently treated condition is hypertension (13%), followed by HIV (5%), 

heart and stroke-related conditions (2%), diabetes (2%), and high cholesterol or triglycerides (2%). Three 

percent of respondents did not disclose their medications (Table 15.9).

Women are more likely than men to be using prescribed medications for a chronic condition (21% versus

14%). However, differences in the use of medications for specific conditions between women and men are 

generally small. Use of anti-hypertensive medications is somewhat more common among women (14%) 

than men (9%), as is use of medications for HIV (6% of women and 3% of men).

Figure 15.6 Experience of medication 

stockouts by age

11 12 13

23 24

28

15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

Percentage of women and men age 

who are taking prescribed medications 

and experienced a stockout in the 

past 12 months

Age
Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication • 253

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: Use of anti-hypertensive medications increased from 6% in 1998 to 

13% in 2016. 

LIST OF TABLES 

For more information on use of health services and prescribed medication, see the following tables:

 Table 15.1 Health insurance coverage

 Table 15.2 Outpatient health care services received

 Table 15.3 Source of outpatient health care services received

 Table 15.4 Experience with a Pap smear exam

 Table 15.5 Experience with a Pap smear exam by province

 Table 15.6 Problems in accessing health care

 Table 15.7 Prescribed medications

 Table 15.8 Source of payment of prescribed medications

 Table 15.9 Use of prescribed medication for common chronic conditions
254 • Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication 

Table 15.1 Health insurance coverage

Percentage of women and men age 15 and older covered by medical aid, a medical benefit scheme, a 

provident scheme, or a hospital plan, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Women Men

Background 

characteristic

Percentage 

covered by 

medical aid or 

other scheme 

or plan

Number of 

women

Percentage 

covered by 

medical aid or 

other scheme 

or plan

Number of 

men

Age

15-24 10.1 1,429 10.3 1,241

25-34 13.3 1,391 12.8 962

35-44 19.6 1,022 16.1 744

45-54 18.9 866 25.9 492

55-64 17.8 701 24.8 406

65+ 18.6 719 27.1 364

Population group

Black African 10.3 5,170 10.5 3,534

White 73.8 320 76.8 257

Coloured 25.2 516 26.9 335

Indian/Asian 43.7 114 46.5 82

Other * 6 * 2

Marital status

Never married 11.4 3,085 9.6 2,209

Married 27.8 1,582 29.8 1,255

Living together 8.6 599 14.0 442

Divorced/separated 15.7 281 14.5 197

Widowed 11.3 580 18.4 107

Residence

Urban 19.8 3,996 20.7 2,874

Non-urban 7.6 2,130 7.7 1,336

Province

Western Cape 30.1 703 36.3 476

Eastern Cape 12.8 730 11.9 493

Northern Cape 12.5 127 12.5 84

Free State 12.6 325 12.1 207

KwaZulu-Natal 12.8 1,191 11.3 683

North West 14.9 398 15.7 310

Gauteng 17.4 1,534 17.4 1,245

Mpumalanga 9.3 473 11.2 326

Limpopo 10.5 646 13.4 386

Education

No education 4.7 495 4.8 217

Primary incomplete 3.7 664 4.3 481

Primary complete 2.6 293 6.6 212

Secondary incomplete 8.9 2,695 9.3 1,930

Secondary complete 23.7 1,328 26.5 900

More than secondary 52.7 652 49.9 470

Wealth quintile

Lowest 2.2 1,163 2.0 787

Second 2.8 1,152 4.6 839

Middle 6.9 1,242 8.7 894

Fourth 15.2 1,258 16.4 827

Highest 47.1 1,311 49.8 864

Total 15+ 15.5 6,126 16.6 4,210

Total 15-49 14.5 4,300 13.5 3,220

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been 

suppressed. 
Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication • 255

Table 15.2 Outpatient health care services received 

Percentage of women and men age 15 and older who have had any visits by a home- or community-based caregiver during the past month, and 

percentage who have received health, medical, or dental care without staying overnight during the past month, according to background characteristics, 

South Africa DHS 2016 

Women Men

Background 

characteristic

Percentage who 

had any visits by 

a home- or 

community-based 

caregiver during 

the past month

Percentage who 

received health, 

medical, or dental 

care without 

staying overnight 

during the past 

month

Number of 

women

Percentage who 

had any visits by 

a home- or 

community-based 

caregiver during 

the past month

Percentage who 

received health, 

medical, or dental 

care without 

staying overnight 

during the past 

month

Number of 

men

Age

15-24 2.7 9.4 1,429 1.6 5.8 1,241

25-34 5.8 10.6 1,391 0.7 8.6 962

35-44 4.4 12.4 1,022 0.3 9.8 744

45-54 4.4 14.5 866 2.3 13.2 492

55-64 6.1 14.3 701 1.7 20.0 406

65+ 7.6 17.8 719 1.4 22.4 364

Population group

Black African 5.3 12.0 5,170 1.2 10.3 3,534

White 1.4 15.1 320 1.4 19.1 257

Coloured 3.6 13.4 516 1.4 8.8 335

Indian/Asian 1.8 21.7 114 0.0 14.5 82

Other * * 6 * * 2

HIV status

HIV positive 5.7 12.3 898 1.3 15.6 311

HIV negative1 5.1 13.1 2,894 1.1 10.5 2,017

Not tested in survey 4.2 11.6 2,334 1.3 10.3 1,882

Health insurance2

Has insurance 2.7 19.4 952 1.1 19.5 698

Does not have insurance 5.3 11.2 5,174 1.3 9.1 3,512

Residence

Urban 3.7 11.6 3,996 1.1 9.5 2,874

Non-urban 7.0 13.9 2,130 1.6 13.6 1,336

Province

Western Cape 3.1 13.8 703 1.3 10.5 476

Eastern Cape 2.8 18.2 730 2.0 6.4 493

Northern Cape 5.9 19.2 127 2.6 8.6 84

Free State 7.1 7.0 325 1.2 2.6 207

KwaZulu-Natal 5.8 9.4 1,191 0.6 13.2 683

North West 10.5 16.0 398 0.8 12.4 310

Gauteng 2.3 8.7 1,534 0.8 9.4 1,245

Mpumalanga 5.1 10.8 473 1.9 16.4 326

Limpopo 8.5 19.5 646 2.5 16.0 386

Education

No education 7.1 14.0 495 1.7 14.6 217

Primary incomplete 6.3 13.1 664 1.6 11.1 481

Primary complete 6.4 14.9 293 1.3 11.1 212

Secondary incomplete 4.4 10.9 2,695 1.6 9.5 1,930

Secondary complete 5.2 11.9 1,328 0.8 9.6 900

More than secondary 2.5 16.9 652 0.0 16.2 470

Wealth quintile

Lowest 4.8 13.2 1,163 1.8 8.4 787

Second 5.8 11.6 1,152 1.9 10.3 839

Middle 6.2 10.4 1,242 0.9 10.9 894

Fourth 6.4 11.6 1,258 1.3 9.6 827

Highest 1.3 15.2 1,311 0.5 14.5 864

Total 4.9 12.4 6,126 1.2 10.8 4,210

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1

Includes a few cases with inconclusive results as per the SADHS HIV testing algorithm shown in Chapter 1, Figure 1.2

2 Health insurance includes medical aid, a medical benefit scheme, a provident scheme, or a hospital plan that helps pay for health care or drug services
256 • Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication 

Table 15.3 Source of outpatient health care services received

Among respondents age 15 and older who have received outpatient health care services during the past month, percentage who received care from 

specific sources, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Public sector Private sector

Other 

source

Number of 

respondents

Background 

characteristic

Government 

hospital

Government 

clinic/ 

community 

health centre

Other public 

sector

Private 

hospital/

clinic/private 

doctor

Chemist/ 

pharmacy

Dentist/oral 

hygienist/ 

dental 

therapist

Other private 

medical 

sector

Age

15-24 12.9 61.2 0.0 20.1 2.3 4.2 0.0 0.8 206

25-34 11.3 51.2 2.3 32.9 0.6 2.8 0.0 0.8 230

35-44 17.7 53.0 0.0 27.0 0.7 3.1 0.0 0.5 200

45-54 12.9 55.4 0.0 24.2 3.7 5.5 0.0 1.5 191

55-64 24.0 50.0 0.0 27.6 2.2 2.5 0.8 0.9 181

65+ 14.0 58.9 0.4 23.6 1.3 3.1 0.6 0.3 209

Population group

Black African 14.3 63.3 0.6 19.7 1.1 1.8 0.1 0.8 985

White 10.1 5.9 0.0 73.6 6.3 10.8 0.4 0.0 98

Coloured 27.6 36.1 0.0 33.8 4.5 7.2 0.0 2.0 99

Indian/Asian (19.9) (11.5) (0.0) (48.4) (0.0) (21.0) (4.2) (0.0) 36

Other nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc 0

Sex

Male 21.4 45.1 0.0 30.8 2.7 2.2 0.1 1.9 455

Female 11.6 60.9 0.8 23.1 1.2 4.3 0.3 0.1 762

Health insurance1

Has insurance 6.6 11.5 0.0 71.4 4.9 7.5 0.8 1.8 321

Does not have 

insurance 18.3 70.5 0.7 9.8 0.6 2.1 0.0 0.4 897

Residence

Urban 16.2 46.3 0.6 32.2 2.2 4.6 0.3 1.0 739

Non-urban 13.7 68.4 0.3 16.5 0.9 1.9 0.2 0.4 478

Province

Western Cape 29.9 19.7 0.0 43.6 5.9 6.3 1.0 1.1 147

Eastern Cape 11.2 66.8 0.4 19.2 1.1 4.9 0.0 0.0 164

Northern Cape 15.0 66.3 0.0 13.8 0.0 4.1 0.0 1.7 32

Free State 16.7 41.9 0.0 32.2 5.8 3.4 1.4 1.9 28

KwaZulu-Natal 17.7 62.8 0.0 17.6 0.0 3.8 0.0 0.0 202

North West 9.9 51.0 0.0 35.7 0.0 3.2 0.0 1.3 102

Gauteng 11.9 51.7 1.8 31.4 1.8 3.6 0.0 0.8 250

Mpumalanga 8.8 69.5 0.0 20.3 0.7 2.7 0.0 1.0 105

Limpopo 15.3 62.4 0.4 19.0 2.0 0.2 0.4 1.3 187

Education

No education 18.5 76.3 0.8 4.6 0.0 2.0 0.0 0.7 101

Primary incomplete 17.7 78.8 0.0 4.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.2 140

Primary complete 10.4 78.6 0.0 10.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.8 67

Secondary 

incomplete 17.7 63.4 0.2 17.6 1.7 0.7 0.5 0.2 478

Secondary 

complete 15.9 37.3 1.9 36.9 2.5 7.6 0.2 0.5 245

More than 

secondary 6.2 18.7 0.0 66.6 3.4 10.3 0.0 2.4 186

Wealth quintile

Lowest 12.4 85.3 0.3 3.7 0.4 0.0 0.0 1.0 220

Second 13.7 69.0 2.4 12.6 1.6 1.4 0.0 0.3 220

Middle 20.6 57.4 0.0 18.3 0.5 2.9 0.0 1.0 226

Fourth 17.2 53.7 0.0 27.3 1.0 1.7 0.3 0.3 225

Highest 13.1 24.2 0.0 54.6 4.0 9.0 0.6 1.1 325

Total 15+ 15.2 55.0 0.5 26.0 1.7 3.5 0.2 0.8 1,217

Notes: Percentages may add to more than 100.0 because multiple responses were allowed. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted 

cases.

nc = No cases

1 Health insurance includes medical aid, a medical benefit scheme, a provident scheme, or a hospital plan that helps pay for health care or drug 

services 
Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication • 257

Table 15.4 Experience with a Pap smear exam

Percentage of women age 15 and older who have ever had a Pap smear, and among women who have had a Pap smear, the timing of the last Pap 

smear and percentage who got the results of their last exam, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage 

who have 

ever had a 

Pap smear

Number of 

women

Among women who have ever had a Pap smear exam, 

percentage who had the exam: Percentage 

who got the 

results of 

their last 

exam

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic

Within the 

last 3 years

4-5 years 

ago

6-10 years 

ago

More than 

10 years 

ago

Don’t 

know/don’t 

remember

Age

15-29 15.6 2,183 83.2 10.4 2.5 1.3 2.7 79.8 340

30-59 52.2 2,918 67.1 16.8 8.5 5.8 1.8 85.8 1,524

60+ 40.8 1,025 39.3 13.7 11.5 31.6 4.0 89.1 418

Population group

Black African 31.7 5,170 69.6 15.7 7.0 5.7 2.1 82.9 1,640

White 77.7 320 52.3 12.7 9.4 23.4 2.3 94.0 249

Coloured 62.0 516 51.3 13.7 12.4 20.4 2.2 90.7 320

Indian/Asian 60.0 114 (48.1) (22.2) (12.6) (8.5) (8.6) (92.1) 68

Other * 6 * * * * * * 4

Employment (past 12 

months)

Not employed 30.4 4,048 60.1 15.0 8.0 13.6 3.2 84.5 1,230

Employed for cash 47.7 1,560 73.3 15.3 7.6 2.7 1.1 86.7 744

Employed not for cash 59.4 518 60.1 16.2 10.0 12.2 1.5 86.3 308

HIV status

HIV positive 42.7 898 77.9 14.0 5.3 1.9 0.9 77.4 384

HIV negative1 33.1 2,894 58.6 16.9 9.7 11.8 3.0 85.6 959

Not tested in survey 40.2 2,334 64.9 14.1 7.8 11.1 2.1 88.7 939

Health insurance2

Has insurance 63.2 952 65.4 15.2 8.0 10.3 1.1 94.0 601

Does not have insurance 32.5 5,174 64.1 15.3 8.2 9.7 2.8 82.4 1,680

Residence

Urban 42.9 3,996 63.2 14.8 8.5 11.0 2.5 87.4 1,716

Non-urban 26.6 2,130 68.0 16.8 7.0 6.3 1.9 79.8 566

Province

Western Cape 66.7 703 57.0 12.8 9.1 19.1 2.0 91.8 469

Eastern Cape 37.0 730 59.5 14.1 8.8 14.6 2.9 81.8 270

Northern Cape 36.7 127 59.3 8.3 15.1 10.4 6.9 88.2 47

Free State 37.3 325 59.8 17.9 9.2 8.8 4.3 82.7 121

KwaZulu-Natal 32.7 1,191 62.4 14.6 10.8 8.2 4.0 87.8 390

North West 38.8 398 70.2 19.6 5.2 5.0 0.0 76.2 154

Gauteng 32.7 1,534 70.7 16.0 6.6 5.6 1.1 86.5 501

Mpumalanga 34.1 473 67.7 19.8 5.5 4.1 2.9 77.7 161

Limpopo 26.0 646 75.3 15.3 5.4 3.6 0.5 82.8 168

Education

No education 24.6 495 57.1 8.1 11.7 17.5 5.7 81.8 122

Primary incomplete 32.4 664 58.2 14.5 7.5 17.5 2.3 78.2 215

Primary complete 37.7 293 53.7 18.0 12.9 13.9 1.5 77.5 110

Secondary incomplete 33.1 2,695 65.8 14.6 8.7 9.1 1.9 82.0 891

Secondary complete 41.7 1,328 65.8 16.7 7.6 7.6 2.3 91.7 554

More than secondary 59.8 652 68.0 16.7 5.6 7.1 2.5 92.2 390

Wealth quintile

Lowest 22.4 1,163 76.0 11.3 5.0 5.3 2.3 74.6 261

Second 26.5 1,152 70.0 18.2 5.1 5.1 1.7 75.7 305

Middle 32.5 1,242 66.7 16.8 7.9 7.2 1.3 84.3 404

Fourth 42.7 1,258 60.0 13.5 10.5 12.7 3.3 87.6 537

Highest 59.1 1,311 60.2 15.9 8.9 12.7 2.4 92.2 775

Total 15+ 37.2 6,126 64.4 15.3 8.1 9.9 2.3 85.5 2,282

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases 

and has been suppressed. 

1

Includes a few cases with inconclusive results as per the SADHS HIV testing algorithm shown in Chapter 1, Figure 1.2

2 Health insurance includes medical aid, a medical benefit scheme, a provident scheme, or a hospital plan that helps pay for health care or drug 

services
258 • Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication 

Table 15.5 Experience with a Pap smear exam by province

Percentage of women age 30-59 who have ever had a Pap smear, 

according to province, South Africa DHS 2016 

Province

Percentage who 

have ever had a 

Pap smear

Number of 

women

Western Cape 82.8 359

Eastern Cape 52.2 333

Northern Cape 53.9 62

Free State 51.1 161

KwaZulu-Natal 47.7 565

North West 50.7 198

Gauteng 43.8 748

Mpumalanga 56.0 212

Limpopo 43.3 279

Total 30-59 52.2 2,918
Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication • 259

Table 15.6 Problems in accessing health care

Percentage of women age 15 and older who reported that they have serious problems in accessing health care for themselves when they are 

sick, by type of problem, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Problems in accessing health care

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic

Getting 

permission to go 

for treatment

Getting money 

for treatment

Distance to 

health facility

Not wanting to 

go alone

At least one 

problem 

accessing

health care

Age

15-24 12.3 24.0 22.4 14.1 35.4 1,429

 15-19 13.0 24.8 24.8 16.4 37.2 721

 20-24 11.6 23.1 19.9 11.8 33.6 708

25-34 13.6 26.8 21.9 12.5 36.5 1,391

35-44 13.3 26.7 23.7 11.8 37.0 1,022

45-54 13.8 27.9 23.1 10.5 35.1 866

55-64 16.9 33.0 25.7 14.1 44.0 701

65+ 23.6 37.0 35.1 28.2 48.7 719

Population group

Black African 16.2 30.5 26.9 15.4 41.3 5,170

White 2.6 5.5 3.2 2.6 8.4 320

Coloured 9.8 21.4 14.9 11.2 29.4 516

Indian/Asian 11.5 21.3 20.0 21.9 33.4 114

Other * * * * * 6

Number of living children1

0 12.5 21.3 21.9 14.1 34.5 1,179

1-2 13.6 25.9 21.7 12.6 35.4 2,123

3-4 11.0 30.0 23.7 9.9 37.8 831

5+ 12.5 33.4 30.3 12.6 46.5 166

Marital status

Never married 16.2 27.8 24.4 15.3 38.0 3,085

Married or living together 11.9 25.5 21.5 12.3 35.3 2,180

Divorced/separated/widowed 17.3 36.2 32.2 17.5 47.8 860

Employed last 12 months

Not employed 16.8 31.3 26.9 16.5 41.3 4,512

Employed for cash 8.8 18.7 17.8 9.1 29.5 1,560

Employed not for cash 20.1 40.2 12.2 7.4 51.4 54

Residence

Urban 9.9 22.0 15.6 9.3 30.4 3,996

Non-urban 24.1 39.8 41.1 24.4 53.4 2,130

Province

Western Cape 7.2 16.0 11.3 8.6 23.3 703

Eastern Cape 14.2 37.0 34.2 19.7 49.4 730

Northern Cape 15.8 28.0 23.7 10.0 38.0 127

Free State 10.9 25.5 16.8 9.8 31.4 325

KwaZulu-Natal 23.9 27.8 29.7 24.6 39.6 1,191

North West 10.6 32.9 31.8 17.4 46.3 398

Gauteng 10.1 26.1 16.2 6.6 34.4 1,534

Mpumalanga 14.6 25.7 30.1 11.6 38.9 473

Limpopo 22.8 37.5 33.1 18.8 48.1 646

Education

No education 28.0 43.8 43.6 31.3 57.3 495

Primary incomplete 19.3 39.7 31.9 19.5 50.0 664

Primary complete 21.5 38.8 32.3 17.8 46.3 293

Secondary incomplete 14.9 30.4 25.6 14.5 40.7 2,695

Secondary complete 9.9 19.3 16.0 8.7 28.1 1,328

More than secondary 7.0 9.0 11.5 7.1 20.0 652

Wealth quintile

Lowest 25.6 46.9 42.9 24.9 57.2 1,163

Second 18.8 37.1 33.0 18.3 50.1 1,152

Middle 12.5 28.5 23.1 11.0 39.5 1,242

Fourth 11.2 19.5 15.4 10.3 28.7 1,258

Highest 7.4 11.8 10.7 9.3 19.8 1,311

Total 15+ 14.8 28.2 24.5 14.5 38.4 6,126

Total 15-49 12.8 25.8 22.5 12.5 36.1 4,300

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1 Restricted to women age 15-49 
260 • Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication 

Table 15.7 Prescribed medications

Percentage of respondents age 15 and older who report taking prescribed medications daily or regularly, and among women and men who are taking 

prescribed medications regularly, the number of medications taken, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage who 

report taking 

prescribed 

medications daily 

or regularly

Number of 

respondents

Among respondents who report taking prescribed medications daily 

or regularly, the number of medications taken

Background 

characteristic 1 2-3 4 or more

Number of 

respondents

Age

15-24 7.3 2,670 58.5 32.0 9.5 194

25-34 14.0 2,353 67.1 26.4 6.5 330

35-44 25.1 1,766 57.2 33.9 8.9 443

45-54 38.3 1,358 43.8 39.6 16.6 519

55-64 50.6 1,106 36.6 41.1 22.4 560

65+ 58.9 1,083 27.1 47.5 25.4 638

Population group

Black African 23.0 8,704 47.9 38.5 13.6 1,999

White 54.5 577 34.4 39.0 26.6 315

Coloured 34.6 851 35.3 37.9 26.8 295

Indian/Asian 35.7 196 (27.3) (47.5) (25.2) 70

Other * 9 * * * 5

Sex

Male 19.0 4,210 38.9 38.8 22.3 800

Female 30.7 6,126 46.8 38.6 14.6 1,883

Employment (past 12 months)

Not employed 27.1 6,237 41.1 39.1 19.8 1,688

Employed for cash 19.1 3,457 57.2 32.8 10.0 662

Employed not for cash 51.9 642 35.9 48.4 15.7 333

Health insurance1

Has insurance 36.4 1,650 36.0 42.3 21.6 601

Does not have insurance 24.0 8,686 46.9 37.6 15.5 2,083

Residence

Urban 27.0 6,870 41.6 39.4 19.0 1,852

Non-urban 24.0 3,466 50.7 37.2 12.1 831

Province

Western Cape 37.7 1,178 33.9 40.9 25.2 445

Eastern Cape 25.9 1,223 50.3 36.8 12.9 317

Northern Cape 29.6 212 49.1 41.1 9.7 63

Free State 30.2 532 42.8 39.5 17.8 160

KwaZulu-Natal 26.9 1,874 46.3 37.5 16.2 503

North West 20.3 708 53.4 37.5 9.1 143

Gauteng 22.9 2,779 38.9 40.4 20.8 635

Mpumalanga 26.8 799 57.2 34.0 8.8 214

Limpopo 19.7 1,032 51.3 38.9 9.8 203

Education

No education 44.5 712 40.7 45.4 13.9 317

Primary incomplete 36.9 1,145 40.1 39.4 20.5 422

Primary complete 30.0 504 43.9 39.6 16.5 151

Secondary incomplete 22.2 4,625 47.7 36.7 15.6 1,026

Secondary complete 20.0 2,228 44.3 36.7 19.0 445

More than secondary 28.7 1,122 43.9 39.9 16.2 322

Wealth quintile

Lowest 20.0 1,950 52.4 37.4 10.2 389

Second 22.4 1,991 54.4 36.3 9.3 446

Middle 23.4 2,136 48.9 31.6 19.4 499

Fourth 27.5 2,085 43.6 41.3 15.1 574

Highest 35.6 2,175 32.5 43.4 24.2 775

Total 15+ 26.0 10,336 44.4 38.7 16.9 2,684

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and 

has been suppressed.

1 Health insurance includes medical aid, a medical benefit scheme, a provident scheme, or a hospital plan that helps pay for health care or drug services 
Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication • 261

Table 15.8 Source of payment for prescribed medications

Among respondents age 15 and older who take prescribed medications regularly, the source of payment for most medications that are 

prescribed, and among respondents whose medications are paid for by a public clinic or hospital, percentage sent away from the clinic in the 

past 12 months because a medication was not in stock, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Source of payment for most medications that are prescribed

Among respondents whose 

medications are paid for by 

a public clinic or hospital

Background 

characteristic Respondent

Family/

friend Medical Aid

Public clinic 

or hospital Other

Number of 

respondents

Percentage sent 

away from the clinic 

in the last 12 months 

because medication 

was not in stock

Number of 

respondents

Age

15-24 7.4 18.8 7.0 66.8 0.0 194 10.8 129

25-34 11.6 2.9 7.4 77.8 0.2 330 11.9 257

35-44 9.9 0.8 14.9 74.4 0.0 443 13.1 329

45-54 13.9 0.6 16.9 67.5 1.1 519 22.6 351

55-64 10.5 0.4 17.3 71.1 0.7 560 23.6 398

65+ 9.8 1.9 21.3 66.9 0.0 638 28.0 427

Population group

Black African 7.9 2.1 7.3 82.3 0.5 1,999 20.1 1,645

White 26.2 3.2 64.1 6.6 0.0 315 * 21

Coloured 10.3 2.7 20.0 66.7 0.4 295 18.3 196

Indian/Asian (26.4) (7.6) (27.1) (38.8) (0.0) 70 * 27

Other * * * * * 5 * 2

Sex

Male 15.5 3.5 19.8 60.7 0.4 800 20.0 486

Female 8.8 2.1 14.1 74.6 0.4 1,883 20.2 1,405

Employment (past 12 

months)

Not employed 7.7 2.9 11.3 78.0 0.1 1,688 21.6 1,317

Employed for cash 17.9 2.4 19.8 59.1 0.8 662 12.0 391

Employed not for cash 12.5 0.7 31.0 54.8 1.1 333 26.6 183

Health insurance1

Has insurance 16.4 2.3 69.0 11.2 1.1 601 22.3 67

Does not have insurance 9.2 2.5 0.5 87.5 0.2 2,083 20.0 1,823

Residence

Urban 12.6 2.6 20.5 63.9 0.4 1,852 19.1 1,183

Non-urban 6.9 2.4 5.3 85.1 0.2 831 21.8 708

Province

Western Cape 13.7 3.4 26.9 55.8 0.2 445 15.9 248

Eastern Cape 13.2 1.3 15.1 70.4 0.0 317 19.5 223

Northern Cape 4.0 1.5 7.9 86.2 0.3 63 14.7 54

Free State 11.7 0.5 10.9 76.6 0.3 160 23.7 123

KwaZulu-Natal 7.0 2.1 11.1 79.1 0.6 503 17.4 398

North West 12.9 9.2 7.4 69.4 1.0 143 28.1 100

Gauteng 12.6 2.5 20.4 63.9 0.6 635 24.1 406

Mpumalanga 5.6 1.2 7.8 85.5 0.0 214 16.2 183

Limpopo 10.4 1.8 11.0 76.8 0.0 203 22.9 156

Education

No education 7.5 1.7 3.9 86.8 0.2 317 21.1 275

Primary incomplete 4.4 0.3 1.7 93.5 0.1 422 22.5 394

Primary complete 5.6 2.0 4.2 87.6 0.6 151 20.3 133

Secondary incomplete 7.4 2.2 8.9 81.4 0.0 1,026 19.4 835

Secondary complete 20.1 3.3 30.8 44.4 1.4 445 19.3 198

More than secondary 23.1 6.0 53.0 17.3 0.6 322 11.5 56

Wealth quintile

Lowest 4.7 0.4 0.9 94.0 0.0 389 16.7 366

Second 4.7 3.0 1.2 91.0 0.2 446 17.4 406

Middle 8.1 1.7 2.9 87.2 0.1 499 22.1 435

Fourth 9.5 3.8 9.3 76.9 0.6 574 18.2 442

Highest 20.2 2.9 45.0 31.2 0.7 775 29.8 242

Total 15+ 10.8 2.5 15.8 70.5 0.4 2,684 20.1 1,891

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed.

1 Health insurance includes medical aid, a medical benefit scheme, a provident scheme, or a hospital plan that helps pay for health care or drug 

services 
262 • Use of Health Services and Prescribed Medication 

Table 15.9 Use of prescribed medication for common chronic conditions

The number and percentage of men and women using prescribed medication regularly and the number and percentage of all regularly used 

prescribed medications for tuberculosis, asthma and chronic bronchitis, diabetes, high cholesterol or triglycerides, hypertension, heart or strokerelated conditions, arthritis, osteoporosis, epilepsy, HIV, pain, and psychiatric conditions, using Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification (ATC) 

codes, South Africa DHS 2016 

ATC code

Women Men Total

Chronic condition Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage

Tuberculosis J04A 14 0.3 7 0.2 21 0.3

Asthma and chronic 

bronchitis R03/R05 45 0.9 23 0.7 68 0.8

Diabetes A10 107 2.2 65 2.0 172 2.1

High cholesterol or 

triglycerides C10A 85 1.7 62 2.0 147 1.8

Hypertension C02/C03/C07/C08/C09 706 14.4 298 9.4 1,004 12.5

Heart and stroke-related

conditions B01AC/C01A/C01B/C01DA 122 2.5 48 1.5 170 2.1

Arthritis M01A/M01B/M01C, M04 56 1.2 28 0.9 84 1.0

Osteoporosis A12, M05B 14 0.3 4 0.1 17 0.2

Epilepsy N03 29 0.6 18 0.6 47 0.6

HIV J05AE/J05AF/J05AG/J05AR 272 5.6 105 3.3 377 4.7

Pain M03, NO2 53 1.1 30 1.0 84 1.0

Psychiatric conditions N04AB/N05/N06 42 0.9 23 0.7 64 0.8

Other chronic conditions 60 1.2 16 0.5 75 0.9

Undisclosed/refused 144 2.9 116 3.7 260 3.2

Any condition 1,023 20.9 456 14.4 1,480 18.3

Number of respondents 4,899 3,168 8,067
Adult Morbidity • 263

ADULT MORBIDITY 16

Key Findings

 Self-reported health status: 12% of women and 8% of

men reported that they are in “poor” health. The 

proportion of respondents self-reporting poor health 

increases with age, from 4% among women and 3% 

among men age 15-24 to 28% among women and 21% 

among men age 65 and older.

 Self-reported prevalence of common chronic 

conditions: High blood pressure was the most common 

condition reported among both women (23%) and men 

(13%).

 Pain: Over a quarter of adults (29% of women and 26% 

of men) report being troubled by pain either all of the time 

or on and off; 20% of women and 16% of men report 

experiencing chronic pain. Chronic pain is most 

commonly experienced in either the arms, hands, hips, 

legs, or feet (46% of women and 40% of men) or the back 

(31% of women and 30% of men).

 Hypertension: The prevalence of hypertension 

(measured) has nearly doubled since 1998, from 25% to 

46% among women and from 23% to 44% among men.

 Breathing difficulties: 22% of women and 27% of men

report that they woke up with breathing difficulties and/or 

a coughing attack in the previous 12 months.

 Symptoms of asthma: The prevalence of asthma 

symptoms is 3%-4% among adults.

 Symptoms of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 

(COPD): The prevalence of COPD symptoms among 

women and men is less than 2%.

 Diabetes: 13% of women and 8% of men age 15 and 

older have an adjusted HbA1c level of 6.5% or above, 

indicating that they are diabetic. Very high proportions of 

women (64%) and men (66%) are pre-diabetic (adjusted 

HbA1c level of 5.7%-6.4%). 

 Anaemia: Prevalence of anaemia is 31% among women 

and 17% among men. 

opulation-based information on nonfatal health outcomes such as disease prevalence estimates is 

scarce. The SADHS 1998 introduced an adult health module to fill this gap, particularly for 

noncommunicable diseases. These chronic conditions, including cardiovascular diseases, chronic 

respiratory diseases, cancers, and diabetes, are major contributors to mortality in South Africa, as well as 

ongoing morbidity.

P
264 • Adult Morbidity

This chapter presents prevalence estimates for common chronic conditions, respiratory conditions, and 

pain based on self-reported information among respondents age 15 and older who completed the adult 

health module. In addition, data on hypertension, anaemia, and diabetes prevalence are presented.

16.1 SELF-ASSESSMENT OF HEALTH 

Self-reported health status is considered to be a 

useful index of overall health. Respondents were 

asked to assess their health in broad categories: 

excellent, good, average, or poor. A majority of 

women reported that they were in excellent (15%), 

good (39%), or average (34%) health; 12% reported 

that they were in poor health (Figure 16.1 and Table 

16.1.1). Most men also self-reported excellent (15%),

good (50%), or average (27%) health; 8% reported 

that they were in poor health (Figure 16.1 and 

Table 16.1.2). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 The proportion of respondents self-reporting poor health increases with age, from 4% among women 

and 3% among men age 15-24 to 28% among women and 21% among men age 65 and older. 

Conversely, the proportion who report excellent health declines steadily with increasing age.

 Black African women (13%) and men (9%) are more likely to report poor health than women 

(3%-8%) and men (2%-7%) from other population groups.

 The percentage of women who report poor health varies from a low of 8% in Gauteng, North West, 

Northern Cape, and Western Cape to a high of 20% in Mpumalanga. The percentage of men who 

report poor health ranges from 3% in Western Cape to 14% in Eastern Cape.

 Self-reported poor health 

decreases with increasing

education and wealth among 

both women and men, and the 

pattern according to education 

is especially striking (Figure

16.2). 

Figure 16.1 Self-reported health status

 Reports of poor health are more common among women and men who are HIV positive (17% and 

15%, respectively) than among women and men who are HIV negative (12% and 9%, respectively) 

and those whose HIV status is unknown because they were not tested in the SADHS (10% and 6%, 

respectively). 

Figure 16.2 Self-reported poor health by education

12 8

34

27

39 50

15 15

Women Men

Percent distribution of self-reported health 

status among adults age 15+

Excellent

Good

Average

Poor

30

23 21

10

5

2

25

19

8 8

2 2

No

education

Primary

incomplete

Primary

complete

Secondary

incomplete

Secondary

complete

More than

secondary

Percentage of adults age 15+ with 

self-reported poor health status 

Women Men
Adult Morbidity • 265

16.2 SELF-REPORTED PREVALENCE OF COMMON CHRONIC CONDITIONS

To ascertain the prevalence of chronic conditions, 

respondents were asked if a doctor, nurse, or other 

health worker had informed them that they had

selected conditions. Those who had been diagnosed 

with a specific condition were asked whether they 

received treatment at the time of the diagnosis. 

Figure 16.3 presents the self-reported prevalence of 

nine chronic conditions. It should be noted that 

chronic conditions are frequently under-reported or 

incorrectly reported by patients, and therefore the 

results should be interpreted with caution.

High blood pressure is the most common chronic 

condition reported among both women and men

(23% and 13%, respectively) (Figure 16.3). Most but 

not all respondents (83% of women and 86% of men)

reported that they received treatment for their high 

blood pressure at the time of diagnosis (Table 16.2). 

Other chronic conditions were reported by 6% or 

fewer respondents.

Comparison with the SADHS 1998:

 Self-reported high blood pressure has increased since 1998, from 19% to 23% among women and from 

8% to 13% among men. 

 Self-reported tuberculosis has increased from 2% to 5% among women and from 3% to 6% among 

men. 

 Self-reported high cholesterol among women has increased from 1% to 4%.

 Self-reported bronchitis, emphysema, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) has decreased 

from 5% to 2% among women and from 4% to 1% among men.

16.3 EXPERIENCE WITH PAIN

Limited data about the prevalence of chronic pain experienced by the general population tend to make the 

burden of pain invisible, despite the considerable impact on individuals, their families, health services, and 

the economy. Nonetheless, burden of disease estimates show that lower back pain, neck pain, and 

migraines are among the leading causes of years of life lost due to disability globally (GBD 2016). 

Goldberg and McGee (2011) advocate for the need to consider chronic pain not only as a medical issue, 

but from a public health perspective as well. They describe the multi-faceted nature of chronic pain, which 

often involves interactions among the physical, psychological, and social determinants of health, including 

mental and physical stress at work, socioeconomic status, rurality, occupational status, neighbourhood,

race, and education.

The International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) defines pain as “an unpleasant sensory and 

emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such 

damage” (IASP 1994). Furthermore, pain providing no obvious biological value that has persisted beyond 

the normal tissue healing process (usually taken to be 3 months) is classified as chronic pain. 

Figure 16.3 Chronic conditions based 

on self-reports

23

4

2

4

5

2

4

1

5

13

2

1

3

4

1

3

1

6

High blood pressure

Heart attack

Stroke

High cholesterol

Diabetes

Bronchitis, COPD

Asthma

Cancer

Tuberculosis

Percentage of women and men age 15+ 

with self-reported chronic conditions 

Women

Men
266 • Adult Morbidity

16.3.1 Prevalence of Pain

The SADHS 2016 is the first national survey to gather information on pain for South Africa. Respondents 

were asked if they were troubled by pain or discomfort all of the time or on and off. Those who responded 

in the affirmative were asked if they had experienced the pain or discomfort for more than 3 months and 

the site of the pain or discomfort.

Pain prevalence

Experience pain or discomfort all of the time or on and off

Chronic pain prevalence

Experience pain or discomfort all of the time or on and off for more than 3 

months 

Sample: Women and men age 15+

Over a quarter of adults (29% of women and 26% of 

men) report being troubled by pain either all of the 

time or on and off; 20% of women and 16% of men 

report experiencing chronic pain (Table 16.3).

Chronic pain is most commonly experienced in either 

the arms, hands, hips, legs, or feet (46% of women 

and 40% of men) or the back (31% of women and 

30% of men) (Figure 16.4).

Patterns by background characteristics

 As expected, the prevalence of chronic pain

increases with age (Figure 16.5). One in 10 

(11%) respondents age 15-24 experience chronic 

pain, as compared with one in three (31%-36%)

respondents age 65 and older. The most common 

site of pain among the youngest women (age 

15-24) is the stomach or abdomen (41%), while 

the most common site among the youngest men

is the back (31%). The most common sites of 

pain among those age 65 and older are the arms, 

hands, hips, legs, and/or feet (68% of women

and 51% of men) (Table 16.4). 

 The prevalence of chronic pain varies by 

province. The highest prevalence is in Northern 

Cape (27%), followed by Eastern Cape (24%) 

and Mpumalanga (24%). The lowest prevalence 

is in Free State (12%) and KwaZulu-Natal (13%)

(Table 16.3).

 The prevalence of pain decreases steadily with 

increasing education. The percentage of 

respondents experiencing pain or discomfort all of the time or on and off drops from 43% among those 

with no education to 21% among those with more than a secondary education. Similarly, the 

prevalence of chronic pain falls steadily from 31% among respondents with no education to 12% 

among those with more than a secondary education. 

Figure 16.4 Site of chronic pain

Figure 16.5 Chronic pain by age

3

8

15

11

12

30

40

3

12

11

18

23

31

46

Other

Head, face, or

teeth

Chest

Neck or

shoulder

Stomach or

abdomen

Back

Arms, hands, hips,

 legs, or feet

Percentage of women and men age 15+ 

Women

Men

Arms, hands, hips, 

legs, or feet

Back

Stomach or 

abdomen

Neck or 

shoulder

Chest

Head, face, or 

teeth

Other

11 14 17

25

32 36

11 12 15 17

25

31

15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

Age

Percentage of women and men 

Women Men
Adult Morbidity • 267

16.3.2 Tooth and Mouth Pain

Tooth and mouth pain prevalence

Experience tooth or mouth pain or discomfort in the past 12 months

Sample: Women and men age 15+ 

Respondents were asked whether their teeth or mouth had caused pain or discomfort in the past 12 months 

and, if so, whether they got treatment the last time they had the problem and from whom.

The prevalence of tooth or mouth pain in the past 12 months was 11%, and 57% of those with pain 

received treatment the last time they had a problem. Two-thirds of respondents who received treatment 

received it from a dentist, oral hygienist, or dental therapist (Table 16.5). The main reason cited for not 

seeking treatment was that the problem went away (57% of women and 69% of men). However, 11% of 

women and 7% of men who did not receive treatment reported that treatment was too expensive, and 7% 

of women and men reported that no service was available or that it was too far (Table 16.6). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 The prevalence of tooth or mouth pain ranges from 9% to 15% across all background characteristics 

shown in Table 16.5.

 People experiencing teeth or mouth pain are more likely to seek treatment if they have health

insurance (76%) than if they do not (53%).

 White respondents (89%) are more likely than Coloured (52%) and Black African (54%) respondents 

to receive treatment for their tooth or mouth pain.

16.4 HYPERTENSION

Elevated blood pressure is a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases such as stroke and ischaemic 

heart disease, which were the second and fourth leading causes of mortality, respectively, in South Africa 

in 2012 (Pillay-van Wyk et al. 2016). Hypertension frequently goes undiagnosed due to an absence of 

symptoms, particularly in the early stages of the disease (WHO 2013). Furthermore, it is often poorly 

controlled despite the availability of cost-effective and efficacious blood pressure lowering medications. 

Among respondents who were interviewed with the adult health module, 82% of women and 77% of men 

had their blood pressure measured as part of the SADHS 2016. By province, this percentage ranged from 

63% in Western Cape to 92% in North West among women and from 54% in Western Cape to 87% in 

North West among men (data not shown).
268 • Adult Morbidity

Hypertension 

Three blood pressure measurements were taken, and the average* of the 

second and third measurements was used to classify respondents

according to internationally recommended categories (WHO 1999). 

Respondents were classified as having hypertension if they had a systolic 

blood pressure level of 140 mmHg or above or a diastolic blood pressure 

level of 90 mmHg or above at the time of the survey or were currently taking 

antihypertensive medication to control their blood pressure.

Blood pressure category

Systolic 

(mmHg)

Diastolic 

(mmHg)

Optimal <120 AND <80

Normal 120-129 OR 80-84

High normal 130-139 OR 85-89

Level of hypertension 

Grade 1, mildly elevated 140-159 OR 90-99

Grade 2, moderately elevated 160-179 OR 100-109

Grade 3, severely elevated 180+ OR 110+

Note: Respondents whose blood pressure would fall in two different rows based on their 

systolic and diastolic levels are classified according to the highest blood pressure row 

they fall in on either of the two measures. 

*If only two measurements were available, the second measurement was used to classify 

the respondent as having hypertension; if only one measurement was available, it was 

used to classify the respondent.

The SADHS 2016 measurements show that 46% of 

women and 44% of men have hypertension. These 

findings include 9% of women and 6% of men who 

have blood pressure in the normal range but are 

taking medication to control their blood pressure 

(Figure 16.6). The prevalence of combined moderate 

and severe hypertension (systolic ≥160 mmHg or 

diastolic >100 mmHg) is substantial among both 

women (15%) and men (14%). Mean systolic and 

diastolic blood pressures are similar among women 

(systolic, 129 mmHg; diastolic, 84 mmHg) and men 

(systolic, 132 mmHg; diastolic, 85 mmHg) (Table 

16.7.1 and Table 16.7.2).

The percentage of respondents who self-reported that 

they have been diagnosed with high blood pressure 

(23% of women and 13% of men) (Table 16.2) is much lower than the hypertension prevalence as 

measured in the survey. Among those with hypertension, only 20% of women and 13% of men have it 

under control (Table 16.7.1 and Table 16.7.2).

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: Since 1998, national mean systolic and diastolic blood pressure

levels among women and men have risen by 4-11 mmHg across all ages. Over the same period, the 

prevalence of hypertension has nearly doubled, from 25% to 46% among women and from 23% to 44% 

among men. It should be noted, however, that different instruments were used to measure blood pressure 

in the two surveys (Omron M1 in 1998 and Omron 1300 in 2016).

Figure 16.6 Blood pressure status

6 5

8 9

22 24

9 6

55 56

Women Men

Percent distribution of women and men 

age 15+

Normal blood

pressure

Normal on medication

Mildly

elevated

Moderately

elevated

Severely

elevated
Adult Morbidity • 269

Patterns by background characteristics

 The prevalence of hypertension rises steadily 

with increasing age, peaking at 84% among 

women and men age 65 and older (Figure 16.7). 

 White women and men have the highest 

prevalence of hypertension (60% and 66%, 

respectively), and Black African women and 

men have the lowest (44% and 41%, 

respectively). 

 By province, the prevalence of hypertension

among women is highest in Free State (54%),

while the prevalence among men is highest in 

Western Cape (59%). The prevalence among 

both women (34%) and men (29%) is lowest in 

Limpopo. 

 The prevalence of hypertension falls from a high of 76% among women and 66% among men with no 

education to a low of 35% among women with a secondary complete education and to 37% among 

men with a secondary incomplete education. There is no clear trend according to wealth, and the 

prevalence does not vary to the extent it does by education, especially among women.

 Data on the prevalence of hypertension by health status measures are presented in Table 16.8.1 and

Table 16.8.2. Twenty-nine percent of women and 34% of men have hypertension but were never told 

by a doctor or a nurse that they had hypertension.

Tables 16.9.1 and 16.9.2 present information on 

blood pressure status and treatment. Twenty-two 

percent of women and 15% of men report that they 

are taking medication to lower their blood pressure. 

Overall, 9% of women are taking medication to 

control their blood pressure and have a normal blood 

pressure level, while 13% of women are taking 

medication to control their blood pressure but are 

still hypertensive. Among men, 6% are taking 

medication to control their blood pressure and have 

normal blood pressure, and 9% are taking medication 

to control their blood pressure but are still 

hypertensive. In total, among those with

hypertension, 80% of women and 87% of men have 

uncontrolled hypertension. Among both women and 

men, levels of uncontrolled hypertension are high 

across all ages (Figure 16.8) but generally decrease 

with increasing household wealth.

16.5 CHRONIC RESPIRATORY DISEASE

Chronic respiratory diseases are diseases of the airways and other structures of the lung that affect the 

essential functions of breathing. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), a preventable but 

incurable disorder of the airways, was a leading cause of global mortality in 2015 (WHO 2017). The main 

cause of COPD is tobacco smoking, but in South Africa additional risk factors include biomass fuel 

exposure/household pollution, tuberculosis, HIV, and mining exposure (Viviers and van-Zyl Smit 2015). 

Figure 16.7 Hypertension by age

Figure 16.8 Uncontrolled hypertension

by age

17

27

43

63

78 84

20

33

51 55

74

84

15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

Age

Percentage of women and men with 

hypertension

Women Men

83 81 84 80 78 76

85

94 95

87 83 79

15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

Age

Women Men

Among women and men with hypertension, 

percentage with uncontrolled hypertension
270 • Adult Morbidity

Asthma, which results from inflammation and narrowing of the air passages of the lungs and leads to 

attacks of breathlessness and wheezing, is also a common chronic respiratory disease.

A diagnosis of COPD is not straightforward, and the disease may be misdiagnosed as asthma. 

Furthermore, a correct clinical diagnosis requires the use of spirometry (Viviers and van-Zyl Smit 2015), 

which is generally not available in local clinic settings and was not undertaken in the SADHS 2016. 

Instead, a series of questions related to difficulties with breathing were used to identify the prevalence of 

COPD and asthma symptoms. 

Shortness of breath

 Respondents have less breath when exerting themselves compared with 

others their age.

 In the past 12 months, respondents have woken up with a feeling of 

tightness in their chest, an attack of shortness of breath, or an attack of 

coughing.

Asthma symptoms

In the past 12 months, respondents have experienced wheezing and 

shortness of breath.

COPD symptoms

Respondents have experienced coughing with phlegm on most days for 

≥3 months.

Sample: Women and men age 15+

Seventeen percent of women and 

14% of men report experiencing 

less breath compared with others 

their age. The proportions of 

women and men who woke up with 

breathing difficulties and/or a 

coughing attack in the 12 months 

before the survey are 22% and 27%, 

respectively. The proportions of 

respondents with asthma symptoms 

are lower (3% among women and 

4% among men). Less than 2% of 

women and men have symptoms of 

COPD (Figure 16.9).

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The prevalence of asthma symptoms and the prevalence of COPD 

symptoms were both estimated in 1998; however, the questions used to produce the estimates were not the 

same as in 2016. Still, the prevalence of asthma symptoms appears to have declined from 9% to 3% among 

women and from 7% to 4% among men. The prevalence of COPD symptoms continues to be low among 

both women (3% in 1998 and 2% in 2016) and men (2% in both years). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 The prevalence of all breathing difficulties generally increases with age (Tables 16.10.1 and 16.10.2).

 By population group, the percentage of respondents who report having less breath when exerting 

themselves compared with others their age is highest among Indian/Asian women (25%) and men 

(27%). Black African women (23%) and men (29%) are most likely to wake up with breathing 

difficulties and/or a coughing attack.

Figure 16.9 Self-reported symptoms 

of respiratory disease

17 22

3 2

14

27

4 2

Less breath

compared with

others their age

Wake up with

breathing

problem/cough

attack

Asthma

symptoms

COPD

symptoms

Percentage of women and men age 15+ 

Women Men
Adult Morbidity • 271

 The prevalence of COPD symptoms among men declines with increasing education, from 4% among 

those with no education or a primary incomplete education to 0.2% among those with more than a 

secondary education. 

16.6 DIABETES

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterised by chronic hyperglycaemia (raised blood sugar 

levels) that occurs because of defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both (Expert Committee on the 

Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus 1997). Prolonged elevated blood sugar levels, found in 

poorly controlled diabetes, can result in damage to the nerves, eyes, kidneys, and heart. According to 

WHO (2011b), different tests can be used for diagnosing diabetes: a fasting plasma glucose test, a 2-hour 

glucose tolerance test, and the glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) test. An advantage of HbA1c testing is that 

it does not require fasting. It should be noted that these tests do not necessarily result in the same 

individuals being classified as diabetic (ADA 2018).

Diabetes measurement using adjusted HbA1c

An HbA1c value of ≥6.5% is used to classify an individual as having impaired 

glucose homeostasis, an indicator of diabetes (International Expert Committee

2009). An HbA1c value between 5.7% and 6.4% classifies an individual as 

being pre-diabetic, as defined by the American Diabetes Association (ADA 

2010). 

Calibration

HbA1c is usually measured using venous or capillary blood samples. In the 

SADHS 2016, HbA1c was measured using dried blood spot (DBS) specimens. 

To adjust HbA1c measurements for this difference in specimen type, the

following equation was used: venous = (DBS-0.228)/0.9866. This equation 

was developed by Affan et al. 2014 and is based on a review and metaanalysis of immunoturbidimetry studies.

Cautions: 

 There is no validated calibration factor for adjusting HbA1c results based 

on DBS specimen test results.

 The calibration equation used for the SADHS was not developed

specifically for the South African population.

 Some diabetics who have good glucose control could have HbA1c values 

below 6.5%. 

In the SADHS 2016, HbA1c testing of dried blood spot (DBS) specimens was used to estimate diabetes 

prevalence. Among respondents who were interviewed with the adult health module, 66% of women and 

59% of men age 15 and older successfully had their HbA1c measured (data not shown). The methodology 

used to conduct HbA1c testing is described in Chapter 1.

Standard HbA1c measurement is usually based on blood samples rather than DBS specimens. To account 

for this difference in specimen type, a calibration factor was applied (see box above). However, the 

calibration factor used has not been validated, and therefore caution must be applied in interpreting the 

results of the HbA1c testing. Unadjusted HbA1c results are presented in Table 16.11.1 and Table 16.11.2

but are not described in the text.

Adjusted HbA1c results are presented in Table 16.12.1 and Table 16.12.2. Thirteen percent of women and 

8% of men have an adjusted HbA1c level of 6.5% or above, indicating that they are diabetic. Most women 

(64%) and men (66%) have an adjusted HbA1c measurement between 5.7% and 6.4% and are therefore 

classified as pre-diabetic.

The prevalence of diabetes in women and men based on self-reports (5% and 4%, respectively) presented 

in Table 16.2 is lower than the prevalence indicated by HbA1c testing. Among those who have never been 
272 • Adult Morbidity

diagnosed with diabetes, 10% of women and 6% of men have adjusted HbA1c levels indicating that they 

are diabetic; 67% of both women and men who reported that they were never diagnosed with diabetes have 

adjusted HbA1c levels indicating that they are pre-diabetic. Thus, a large proportion of adults are either not 

aware of their condition or not aware that they are at risk for diabetes.

Patterns by background characteristics

 The prevalence of diabetes (adjusted HbA1c 

level ≥6.5%) generally increases with age

(Figure 16.10), reaching a peak of 30% among 

women age 65 or older and 23% among men age 

55-64.

 The prevalence of diabetes (adjusted HbA1c 

level ≥6.5%) increases with increasing body 

mass index (BMI) (Figure 16.11), peaking at 

23% among obese women and 24% among 

obese men. 

 Among women who reported that they were on 

diabetes medication, 85% have an adjusted

HbA1c level of 6.5% or above, indicating that 

their diabetes is not controlled. Similar results 

are observed for men.

 By province, women in Eastern Cape have the 

highest prevalence (18%) of diabetes (adjusted 

HbA1c level ≥6.5%) and women in North West 

and Gauteng have the lowest (9%). Among men, 

the prevalence is highest in Western Cape (13%) 

and lowest in North West (4%).

 Women with no education (29%) have a higher

prevalence of diabetes (adjusted HbA1c level ≥6.5%) than women in the other education categories 

(9%-21%). Among men, the prevalence of diabetes displays a U-shaped pattern: the prevalence is 

higher among men with no education or a primary incomplete education (11%-12%) and those with 

more than a secondary education (16%) than among men in the other education categories (6%-7%).

 While there is no discernible pattern among women, the prevalence of diabetes (adjusted HbA1c level 

≥6.5%) generally increases with increasing wealth among men.

16.7 ANAEMIA 

Anaemia prevalence 

Anaemia is defined as a blood haemoglobin level of less than 11.0 g/dl in 

pregnant women, less than 12.0 g/dl in non-pregnant women, and less than 

13.0 g/dl in men. Haemoglobin levels are adjusted for altitude in primary 

sampling units (PSUs) above 1,000 metres and for cigarette smoking among 

women and men. 

Sample: Women and men age 15+

Anaemia is a condition that is marked by low levels of haemoglobin in the blood. It may arise from iron 

deficiency, malaria, chronic infections, hookworm and other helminths, other nutritional deficiencies, and 

genetic conditions. Haemoglobin levels were measured for 72% of women and 66% of men who were 

Figure 16.10 Diabetes by age

Figure 16.11 Diabetes by nutritional 

status

1 5

12

21

29 30

2 3

7

12

23 21

15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

Age

Percentage of women and men with 

diabetes (adjusted HbA1c >6.5%)

Women Men

3

5

10

23

4 4

14

24

Underweight Normal Overweight Obese

Percentage of women and men age 15+ 

with diabetes (adjusted HbA1c >6.5%)

Women Men
Adult Morbidity • 273

interviewed with the adult health module and were eligible for biomarkers. Observed haemoglobin levels, 

adjusted for altitude and smoking status, indicate that the prevalence of anaemia is 31% among women and 

17% among men age 15 and older (Table 16.13.1 and Table 16.13.2). Most women who are anaemic are 

mildly anaemic.

Patterns by background characteristics

 The proportion of women with any anaemia is 

higher in the reproductive age group than among 

older women; specifically, 33% of women age 

15-49 are anaemic, as compared with 25% of 

women age 55 or older.

 In contrast with women, older men are more 

likely to be anaemic than younger men; 26% of 

men age 45-54, 22% of men age 55-64, and 30% 

of men age 65 and older are anaemic, compared 

with 10%-15% of men age 15-44 (Figure 

16.12). 

 By population group, the prevalence of anaemia 

is highest among Black African women (32%) 

and lowest among White women (11%) (Table 

16.13.1)

 Twenty-two percent of pregnant women are moderately anaemic.

 Anaemia prevalence generally declines with increasing education among men but not women.

LIST OF TABLES 

For more information on adult morbidity, see the following tables:

 Table 16.1.1 Self-assessment of health: Women

 Table 16.1.2 Self-assessment of health: Men

 Table 16.2 Diagnosis and treatment of various health conditions and diseases

 Table 16.3 Experience with pain

 Table 16.4 Experience with pain by age and sex

 Table 16.5 Experience with tooth or mouth pain

 Table 16.6 Main reason treatment for tooth or mouth pain was not sought

 Table 16.7.1 Blood pressure status: Women

 Table 16.7.2 Blood pressure status: Men

 Table 16.8.1 Blood pressure status by health status measures: Women

 Table 16.8.2 Blood pressure status by health status measures: Men

 Table 16.9.1 Blood pressure status and treatment: Women

 Table 16.9.2 Blood pressure status and treatment: Men

 Table 16.10.1 Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease symptoms: Women

 Table 16.10.2 Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease symptoms: Men

 Table 16.11.1 Unadjusted glycated haemoglobin levels: Women

 Table 16.11.2 Unadjusted glycated haemoglobin levels: Men

 Table 16.12.1 Adjusted glycated haemoglobin levels: Women

 Table 16.12.2 Adjusted glycated haemoglobin levels: Men

 Table 16.13.1 Prevalence of anaemia in women

 Table 16.13.2 Prevalence of anaemia in men

Figure 16.12 Prevalence of anaemia 

in adults by age

33 33 34 29 25 25

13 10 15

26 22

30

15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

Age

Percentage of women and men 

with any anaemia

Women Men
274 • Adult Morbidity

Table 16.1.1 Self-assessment of health: Women

Percent distribution of women age 15 and older by their self-assessment of their health status, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Health status self-assessment

Total

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic Poor Average Good Excellent

Age

15-24 3.9 24.5 44.5 27.0 100.0 1,429

25-34 5.3 28.5 49.5 16.7 100.0 1,391

35-44 11.4 34.7 38.9 15.0 100.0 1,022

45-54 14.5 37.2 37.7 10.6 100.0 866

55-64 21.9 45.6 26.0 6.5 100.0 701

65+ 27.7 43.4 24.3 4.6 100.0 719

Population group

Black African 12.8 34.0 37.8 15.4 100.0 5,170

White 3.4 22.9 54.1 19.6 100.0 320

Coloured 8.0 32.5 47.1 12.3 100.0 516

Indian/Asian 7.0 48.0 26.0 18.9 100.0 114

Other * * * * 100.0 6

HIV status

HIV positive 16.5 37.6 34.2 11.7 100.0 898

HIV negative1 11.7 34.4 38.6 15.3 100.0 2,894

Not tested in survey 10.1 31.0 42.0 16.9 100.0 2,334

Residence

Urban 10.4 32.6 39.9 17.2 100.0 3,996

Non-urban 14.5 35.4 38.0 12.0 100.0 2,130

Province

Western Cape 8.2 29.0 49.5 13.3 100.0 703

Eastern Cape 19.1 37.0 32.9 11.0 100.0 730

Northern Cape 8.1 33.4 46.7 11.8 100.0 127

Free State 14.8 39.3 35.9 10.0 100.0 325

KwaZulu-Natal 14.3 37.8 26.6 21.4 100.0 1,191

North West 7.7 32.5 49.1 10.8 100.0 398

Gauteng 7.5 34.1 39.3 19.2 100.0 1,534

Mpumalanga 19.5 30.6 39.7 10.2 100.0 473

Limpopo 9.6 25.7 52.4 12.4 100.0 646

Education

No education 29.8 46.9 19.7 3.6 100.0 495

Primary incomplete 22.8 42.9 27.2 7.1 100.0 664

Primary complete 21.4 40.0 30.1 8.6 100.0 293

Secondary incomplete 10.3 32.8 40.3 16.6 100.0 2,695

Secondary complete 5.3 27.1 47.0 20.6 100.0 1,328

More than secondary 2.4 27.4 50.4 19.9 100.0 652

Wealth quintile

Lowest 16.2 37.0 34.8 12.0 100.0 1,163

Second 13.9 34.1 40.2 11.9 100.0 1,152

Middle 12.4 34.0 38.7 14.9 100.0 1,242

Fourth 11.6 32.4 35.8 20.2 100.0 1,258

Highest 5.8 30.8 46.2 17.2 100.0 1,311

Total 15+ 11.8 33.6 39.2 15.4 100.0 6,126

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed. 

1

Includes a few cases with inconclusive results as per the SADHS HIV testing algorithm shown in Chapter 1, Figure 1.2
Adult Morbidity • 275

Table 16.1.2 Self-assessment of health: Men

Percent distribution of men age 15 and older by their self-assessment of their health status, according to background characteristics, 

South Africa DHS 2016 

Health status self-assessment

Total

Number of 

men

Background 

characteristic Poor Average Good Excellent

Age

15-24 3.1 21.0 52.2 23.7 100.0 1,241

25-34 4.3 23.5 56.8 15.4 100.0 962

35-44 4.2 27.9 57.0 10.9 100.0 744

45-54 14.6 28.3 46.0 11.1 100.0 492

55-64 18.4 36.9 36.8 7.8 100.0 406

65+ 20.7 38.9 32.7 7.6 100.0 364

Population group

Black African 8.7 26.9 49.6 14.8 100.0 3,534

White 2.1 20.8 58.6 18.5 100.0 257

Coloured 3.4 27.5 54.3 14.8 100.0 335

Indian/Asian 6.8 34.5 36.8 21.9 100.0 82

Other * * * * 100.0 2

HIV status

HIV positive 15.3 33.4 45.0 6.3 100.0 311

HIV negative1 8.8 26.1 50.2 14.9 100.0 2,017

Not tested in survey 5.8 26.3 51.1 16.8 100.0 1,882

Residence

Urban 6.5 27.0 53.1 13.4 100.0 2,874

Non-urban 11.0 26.2 44.0 18.8 100.0 1,336

Province

Western Cape 2.7 22.4 60.5 14.4 100.0 476

Eastern Cape 13.6 16.8 48.0 21.6 100.0 493

Northern Cape 8.2 35.9 44.6 11.3 100.0 84

Free State 5.0 41.5 44.9 8.6 100.0 207

KwaZulu-Natal 10.4 38.8 42.0 8.9 100.0 683

North West 5.9 33.6 46.4 14.1 100.0 310

Gauteng 6.2 25.9 56.4 11.6 100.0 1,245

Mpumalanga 7.7 12.2 60.0 20.2 100.0 326

Limpopo 11.8 23.0 34.1 31.1 100.0 386

Education

No education 24.5 35.7 33.7 6.1 100.0 217

Primary incomplete 19.2 36.0 37.8 7.0 100.0 481

Primary complete 7.6 30.4 52.6 9.4 100.0 212

Secondary incomplete 7.6 23.7 53.1 15.6 100.0 1,930

Secondary complete 1.7 28.4 52.7 17.2 100.0 900

More than secondary 2.0 20.8 53.1 24.1 100.0 470

Wealth quintile

Lowest 13.2 24.5 52.7 9.7 100.0 787

Second 9.3 23.9 49.4 17.3 100.0 839

Middle 8.6 29.3 48.6 13.6 100.0 894

Fourth 6.0 27.1 50.8 16.1 100.0 827

Highest 3.0 28.6 49.8 18.6 100.0 864

Total 15+ 7.9 26.7 50.2 15.1 100.0 4,210

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed. 

1

Includes a few cases with inconclusive results as per the SADHS HIV testing algorithm shown in Chapter 1, Figure 1.2
276 • Adult Morbidity

Table 16.2 Diagnosis and treatment of various health conditions and diseases

Percentage of women and men age 15 and older who have been diagnosed with specific health conditions or diseases, and among those 

diagnosed with each condition, percentage who received treatment at the time of diagnosis, South Africa DHS 2016 

Women Men

Health condition/disease

Percentage who 

have been told 

by a doctor, 

nurse, or health 

worker that they 

had the specific 

condition/

disease

Among those 

diagnosed with 

the condition, 

percentage who 

received 

treatment at time 

of diagnosis

Number of 

women with

diagnosis

Percentage who 

have been told 

by a doctor, 

nurse, or health 

worker that they 

had the specific 

condition/

disease

Among those 

diagnosed with 

the condition, 

percentage who 

received 

treatment at time 

of diagnosis

Number of 

men with 

diagnosis

Tuberculosis 5.4 94.0 330 5.5 95.0 233

High blood pressure 22.9 82.7 1,405 13.0 86.4 547

Heart attack/angina/chest pain 3.8 67.8 234 2.2 69.2 94

Cancer 1.2 90.8 75 1.0 (57.9) 41

Stroke 1.7 78.0 104 1.0 (62.3) 42

High blood cholesterol/fats in blood 4.1 79.9 250 2.9 73.8 123

Diabetes/blood sugar 5.1 86.9 310 3.7 89.9 154

Chronic bronchitis, emphysema, or 

COPD 1.7 76.9 103 1.1 (74.9) 47

Asthma 4.1 87.9 249 3.0 76.8 124

More than one condition 11.9 na na 7.3 na na

Number of respondents 6,126 na na 4,210 na na

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. 

na = Not applicable
Adult Morbidity • 277

Table 16.3 Experience with pain

Percentage of respondents age 15 and older who experience pain or discomfort all of the time or on and off, percentage who have had pain for more 

than 3 months, and among those who have had pain for more than 3 months, percentage who report specific sites where they experience pain, 

according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage 

experiencing 

pain or 

discomfort all 

of the time or 

on and off

Percentage 

experiencing 

pain or 

discomfort all 

of the time or 

on and off for 

more than 

3 months

Number 

of 

respondents

Among respondents who have had pain or discomfort for 3 or more months, 

percentage who report specific sites where they feel pain:

Background 

characteristic Back

Neck or 

shoulder

Head, 

face, or 

teeth 

(dental) 

Stomach 

or 

abdomen

Arms, 

hands, 

hips, 

legs, or 

feet Chest Other

Number of 

respondents

Age

15-24 18.3 11.3 2,670 23.2 10.9 14.2 29.3 20.4 14.3 3.3 303

25-34 22.7 13.2 2,353 28.3 9.4 14.0 22.9 23.6 11.6 7.2 310

35-44 23.3 16.2 1,766 27.0 12.0 10.9 20.6 39.4 16.3 1.3 286

45-54 33.1 22.0 1,358 37.8 13.0 10.9 18.0 49.5 11.5 0.6 299

55-64 41.1 29.2 1,106 30.6 19.2 6.7 16.0 60.3 9.4 1.5 323

65+ 46.5 34.4 1,083 35.1 26.1 8.4 10.9 63.2 13.5 2.0 373

Population group

Black African 28.3 18.5 8,704 29.4 15.6 11.3 20.4 41.4 13.0 2.8 1,613

White 22.0 15.3 577 45.5 8.5 5.5 8.7 49.1 7.2 1.2 88

Coloured 24.7 19.3 851 34.5 18.2 7.8 14.4 60.9 11.7 2.5 164

Indian/Asian 21.8 13.5 196 * * * * * * * 26

Other * * 9 nc nc nc nc nc nc nc 0

Sex

Male 25.5 15.8 4,210 30.0 10.7 7.8 12.4 40.2 15.3 2.8 664

Female 28.8 20.1 6,126 30.8 18.1 12.3 22.9 45.5 11.3 2.6 1,229

Health insurance1

Has insurance 24.3 15.0 1,650 31.2 16.0 9.6 10.6 50.3 10.1 2.9 248

Does not have 

insurance 28.1 18.9 8,686 30.4 15.5 10.9 20.5 42.6 13.1 2.6 1,645

Employment 

(past 12 months)

Not employed 27.6 19.4 6,237 29.7 16.5 11.6 20.1 45.6 13.1 2.8 1,212

Employed for cash 24.4 14.4 3,457 32.1 12.0 10.1 19.1 35.4 14.4 3.3 498

Employed not for 

cash 42.5 28.5 642 31.6 19.0 7.0 14.1 53.2 5.7 0.3 183

Residence

Urban 26.0 17.3 6,870 31.7 14.5 10.1 18.2 41.6 12.5 2.6 1,186

Non-urban 30.4 20.4 3,466 28.6 17.3 11.7 21.0 47.0 13.1 2.8 707

Province

Western Cape 23.2 16.2 1,178 32.2 16.4 13.1 11.3 57.5 11.6 1.4 191

Eastern Cape 36.8 24.2 1,223 28.5 18.7 14.3 12.5 52.9 9.5 5.1 296

Northern Cape 32.3 26.5 212 24.4 22.4 9.3 21.5 43.5 24.0 3.7 56

Free State 19.9 12.2 532 41.1 22.7 8.5 17.8 59.6 25.4 3.6 65

KwaZulu-Natal 20.3 13.1 1,874 32.5 11.7 12.5 19.7 52.4 10.2 1.7 246

North West 32.7 21.5 708 37.1 19.1 4.6 19.4 27.8 19.0 0.7 152

Gauteng 26.2 18.0 2,779 32.7 11.7 8.5 20.9 28.4 11.5 3.5 501

Mpumalanga 37.4 24.1 799 21.0 16.8 12.8 36.2 45.2 13.6 1.4 193

Limpopo 29.8 18.6 1,032 26.2 16.1 10.2 15.4 49.5 11.8 1.2 192

Education

No education 43.0 31.1 712 32.5 25.1 10.6 16.2 62.8 13.3 0.4 221

Primary 

incomplete 39.3 28.5 1,145 26.3 18.2 10.7 17.9 53.3 17.8 2.0 327

Primary complete 32.0 23.0 504 33.1 18.9 17.6 17.4 57.9 10.9 0.6 116

Secondary 

incomplete 25.4 16.5 4,625 27.9 16.1 10.5 21.2 39.3 11.7 3.7 765

Secondary 

complete 22.8 14.7 2,228 37.0 7.7 8.0 15.8 32.6 9.3 3.9 327

More than 

secondary 21.4 12.1 1,122 34.4 6.3 13.0 26.6 28.1 15.2 0.9 136

Wealth quintile

Lowest 29.8 20.9 1,950 25.2 17.1 9.4 19.1 46.5 12.0 3.3 408

Second 30.2 18.9 1,991 32.3 13.6 10.8 22.0 41.7 13.3 1.9 376

Middle 28.1 18.6 2,136 27.5 14.1 9.9 22.9 40.3 14.8 4.7 397

Fourth 26.4 17.7 2,085 31.0 16.3 13.8 16.7 43.2 15.3 1.3 369

Highest 23.4 15.7 2,175 38.0 16.6 9.9 14.9 46.6 7.8 1.9 342

Total 15+ 27.5 18.3 10,336 30.5 15.5 10.7 19.2 43.6 12.7 2.6 1,893

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

nc = No cases

1 Health insurance includes medical aid, a medical benefit scheme, a provident scheme, or a hospital plan that helps pay for health care or drug 

services 
278 • Adult Morbidity

Table 16.4 Experience with pain by age and sex

Percentage of respondents age 15 and older who experience pain or discomfort all of the time or on and off, percentage who have had pain for 

more than 3 months, and among those who have had pain for more than 3 months, percentage who report specific sites they experience pain, 

according to age, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage 

experiencing 

pain or 

discomfort all 

of the time or 

on and off

Percentage 

experiencing 

pain or 

discomfort all 

of the time or 

on and off for 

more than 

3 months

Number 

of 

respondents

Among respondents who have had pain or discomfort for 3 or more months, 

percentage who report specific sites they feel pain:

Age Back

Neck or 

shoulder

Head, 

face, or 

teeth 

(dental)

Stomach 

or 

abdomen

Arms, 

hands, 

hips, legs, 

or feet Chest Other

Number of 

respondents

WOMEN

15-24 17.7 11.4 1,429 17.1 10.7 17.0 40.6 18.4 12.2 3.7 163

25-34 22.7 13.8 1,391 33.0 10.2 14.4 32.9 14.6 9.4 7.0 192

35-44 24.0 17.4 1,022 22.6 16.4 13.4 26.3 40.2 13.7 1.2 178

45-54 35.5 24.7 866 36.7 16.2 13.0 16.5 52.9 12.9 0.4 214

55-64 43.2 31.6 701 32.1 21.3 8.1 18.6 62.4 8.3 1.6 222

65+ 47.7 36.2 719 37.5 28.8 9.9 11.2 68.3 11.8 2.1 260

Total 15+ 28.8 20.1 6,126 30.8 18.1 12.3 22.9 45.5 11.3 2.6 1,229

MEN

15-24 19.1 11.2 1,241 30.5 11.1 11.0 16.0 22.7 16.8 2.9 139

25-34 22.7 12.2 962 20.7 8.1 13.4 6.5 38.2 15.2 7.4 118

35-44 22.4 14.5 744 34.2 4.7 6.8 11.3 38.0 20.6 1.4 108

45-54 28.7 17.3 492 40.6 4.9 5.5 21.7 41.0 7.8 1.0 85

55-64 37.5 25.0 406 27.3 14.7 3.5 10.3 55.9 12.0 1.2 101

65+ 43.9 30.8 364 29.5 19.6 4.8 10.1 51.3 17.4 2.0 112

Total 15+ 25.5 15.8 4,210 30.0 10.7 7.8 12.4 40.2 15.3 2.8 664
Adult Morbidity • 279

Table 16.5 Experience with tooth or mouth pain

Percentage of respondents age 15 and older whose teeth or mouth caused pain or discomfort in the past 12 months; among those who experienced 

tooth or mouth pain, percentage who got treatment the last time they had the problem; and among those who have had pain or discomfort in their teeth 

and mouth and got treatment, percentage who report specific persons they saw for treatment, according to background characteristics, South Africa 

DHS 2016 

Percentage 

experiencing 

pain or 

discomfort 

in their 

teeth or 

mouth 

during the 

past 12 

months

Number of 

respondents

Among respondents 

who experienced 

tooth or mouth pain in 

the past 12 months

Among respondents who have had pain or discomfort in their teeth 

or mouth and got treatment, percentage who report specific 

persons who they saw for treatment:

Percentage who 

got 

treatment 

the last 

time they 

had 

problem

Number of 

respondents

Public sector Private sector Other source

Number of 

respondents

Background 

characteristic

Dentist/

oral 

hygienist/ 

dental 

therapist

Medical 

doctor/ 

nurse

Dentist/

oral 

hygienist/

dental 

therapist

Medical 

doctor/ 

nurse

Traditional 

health 

practitioner Other

Age

15-24 10.2 2,670 50.4 273 45.0 21.5 20.3 9.1 1.5 5.0 138

25-34 10.2 2,353 49.1 240 54.7 12.8 24.9 6.1 0.3 1.2 118

35-44 10.0 1,766 65.5 176 44.2 25.9 21.0 7.0 0.0 5.6 116

45-54 11.7 1,358 65.5 159 39.8 35.6 17.2 5.8 0.6 1.8 104

55-64 13.2 1,106 46.0 146 36.5 29.3 26.1 6.6 0.0 6.7 67

65+ 14.2 1,083 69.0 154 41.7 22.7 27.2 4.2 1.8 4.0 106

Population group

Black African 11.0 8,704 53.9 955 49.3 27.2 15.3 5.2 0.9 4.3 515

White 12.0 577 89.4 69 (15.4) (2.5) (72.6) (9.6) (0.0) (0.0) 62

Coloured 11.3 851 51.6 96 (39.4) (21.2) (24.1) (12.2) (0.0) (5.7) 50

Indian/Asian 13.9 196 * 27 * * * * * * 22

Other * 9 nc 0 nc nc nc nc nc nc 0

Sex

Male 10.9 4,210 57.5 459 50.9 15.3 23.3 7.5 1.1 3.2 264

Female 11.3 6,126 55.8 689 39.9 30.0 21.9 6.0 0.5 4.4 385

Employment 

(past 12 months)

Not employed 10.2 6,237 53.8 634 47.7 24.7 18.2 5.3 1.3 3.9 341

Employed for cash 12.1 3,457 58.9 419 44.6 19.9 26.5 8.5 0.1 2.8 247

Employed not for 

cash 14.8 642 64.4 95 24.7 36.6 30.0 6.0 0.0 8.3 61

Health insurance1

Has insurance 12.0 1,650 75.9 198 23.8 9.2 57.6 10.9 0.0 1.4 150

Does not have 

insurance 10.9 8,686 52.5 950 50.6 28.4 11.9 5.3 1.0 4.6 498

Residence

Urban 10.5 6,870 60.1 718 43.6 19.8 27.7 7.2 0.4 2.9 432

Non-urban 12.4 3,466 50.5 430 45.8 32.4 12.1 5.3 1.4 5.9 217

Province

Western Cape 10.8 1,178 57.9 127 (30.4) (16.5) (45.1) (5.8) (0.0) (3.8) 74

Eastern Cape 12.3 1,223 57.4 151 40.0 30.6 16.8 8.0 0.0 6.4 87

Northern Cape 14.1 212 46.9 30 33.7 31.8 18.8 14.0 0.0 1.7 14

Free State 10.3 532 53.1 55 52.1 16.0 15.1 10.7 0.0 9.3 29

KwaZulu-Natal 10.6 1,874 62.2 198 52.3 23.2 18.3 7.9 2.6 0.0 123

North West 14.0 708 42.8 99 39.9 41.3 13.7 2.5 0.0 5.2 42

Gauteng 9.3 2,779 62.8 258 53.4 17.2 26.8 3.6 0.2 0.0 162

Mpumalanga 11.2 799 55.6 89 45.1 24.9 15.6 5.4 2.6 7.6 50

Limpopo 13.7 1,032 48.3 141 30.3 31.7 16.9 10.7 0.0 11.6 68

Education

No education 14.3 712 50.9 102 51.1 31.6 5.0 4.1 3.6 5.7 52

Primary incomplete 13.6 1,145 54.2 156 60.2 29.3 6.1 2.9 0.0 6.2 85

Primary complete 12.0 504 53.8 60 (58.2) (40.0) (0.0) (2.9) (1.8) (0.0) 32

Secondary 

incomplete 10.4 4,625 53.0 479 41.2 30.2 15.6 8.9 0.8 5.6 254

Secondary complete 10.0 2,228 64.7 222 44.9 11.7 37.2 5.1 0.2 0.8 144

More than secondary 11.5 1,122 63.9 129 27.2 9.7 54.6 8.9 0.0 1.9 82

Wealth quintile

Lowest 11.6 1,950 50.9 226 54.3 29.6 4.4 3.1 2.9 7.0 115

Second 11.9 1,991 49.3 237 42.4 38.9 8.1 7.9 0.0 6.0 117

Middle 10.6 2,136 53.8 226 51.8 26.3 16.4 5.3 1.0 3.3 122

Fourth 10.6 2,085 60.2 220 55.4 22.4 16.9 3.9 0.0 2.4 132

Highest 11.0 2,175 68.0 239 24.2 8.9 54.8 11.2 0.2 1.8 163

Total 15+ 11.1 10,336 56.5 1,148 44.4 24.0 22.5 6.6 0.8 3.9 649

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and 

has been suppressed.

nc = No cases

1 Health insurance includes medical aid, a medical benefit scheme, a provident scheme, or a hospital plan that helps pay for health care or drug services 
280 • Adult Morbidity

Table 16.6 Main reason treatment for tooth or mouth pain was not sought

Among women and men age 15 and older who experienced pain in their teeth or 

mouth in the past 12 months but did not seek treatment, percentage who cited 

specific reasons for not seeking treatment, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage of respondents 

who cited specific reason

Reason treatment not sought Women Men

No oral health service available 2.1 1.6

Oral health services too far 4.9 5.6

Oral health services too expensive/

could not afford 11.3 6.7

Problem went away 57.0 68.8

Other 24.7 17.4

Total 100.0 100.0

Number of respondents 305 195
Table 16.7.1 Blood pressure status: Women

Among women age 15 and older, prevalence of hypertension, percent distribution of blood pressure values, percentage having normal blood pressure and taking medication, and average systolic and diastolic blood pressure, 

and among women with hypertension, percentage with hypertension controlled, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Prevalence of 

hypertension1

Classification of blood pressure

Normal blood 

pressure and 

taking 

medication

Average 

systolic blood 

pressure

Average 

diastolic 

blood 

pressure

Number of 

women

Among 

women with 

hypertension, 

percentage 

with hypertension 

controlled2

Normal Elevated

Total

Background 

characteristic

Optimal 

<120/

<80 mmHg

Normal 

120-129/ 

80-84 mmHg

High normal 

130-139/ 

85-89 mmHg

Mildly 

elevated 

(Grade 1) 

140-159/ 

90-99 mmHg

Moderately 

elevated 

(Grade 2) 

160-179/ 

100-109 

mmHg

Severely 

elevated 

(Grade 3) 

180+/

110+ mmHg

Age

15-24 17.0 54.6 18.9 12.3 10.7 2.7 0.8 100.0 2.8 116.4 77.5 1,080 16.6

25-34 26.6 40.9 22.1 15.5 16.7 3.3 1.5 100.0 5.1 118.7 81.3 1,063 19.3

35-44 42.7 22.9 19.9 21.1 26.0 5.9 4.2 100.0 6.7 126.6 86.5 788 15.6

45-54 62.5 14.9 15.2 19.6 27.0 12.2 11.0 100.0 12.2 137.2 89.5 681 19.6

55-64 77.6 12.3 11.7 15.6 29.8 18.0 12.7 100.0 17.2 143.3 89.7 557 22.1

65+ 84.3 9.3 11.8 14.8 31.9 17.7 14.4 100.0 20.3 148.8 86.2 606 24.0

Population group

Black African 43.8 31.4 17.7 15.8 21.0 8.1 6.0 100.0 8.7 128.0 83.8 4,163 19.8

White 60.4 24.7 12.8 17.8 30.4 7.6 6.7 100.0 15.7 133.4 83.6 194 26.0

Coloured 57.4 19.6 15.3 20.1 25.4 12.0 7.6 100.0 12.3 134.9 86.6 326 21.5

Indian/Asian 46.4 13.6 28.2 19.6 26.1 7.2 5.3 100.0 7.8 134.0 86.2 89 16.9

Other * * * * * * * 100.0 * * * 3 *

Employment 

(past 12 months)

Not employed 46.3 29.8 18.1 15.6 21.7 8.5 6.3 100.0 9.7 129.5 83.6 3,250 21.0

Employed for cash 35.0 35.8 17.4 17.4 20.3 5.8 3.3 100.0 5.6 123.1 83.7 1,102 15.9

Employed not for cash 66.7 16.5 13.4 17.9 26.1 14.4 11.7 100.0 14.5 138.7 88.9 422 21.8

Residence

Urban 46.5 29.0 17.6 16.9 22.8 7.9 5.8 100.0 10.0 128.8 84.4 2,938 21.5

Non-urban 43.9 31.6 17.4 15.1 20.1 9.2 6.6 100.0 7.9 128.9 83.6 1,837 18.1

Province

Western Cape 51.6 25.9 13.7 20.2 23.5 11.3 5.4 100.0 11.4 132.6 84.6 433 22.1

Eastern Cape 49.8 26.4 14.0 17.1 21.4 12.3 8.8 100.0 7.3 133.4 85.6 641 14.7

Northern Cape 52.9 22.9 15.1 16.5 22.6 14.8 8.2 100.0 7.3 133.1 86.0 108 13.8

Free State 54.4 23.9 16.3 17.5 19.4 13.2 9.8 100.0 12.1 132.7 87.1 271 22.2

KwaZulu-Natal 48.1 20.9 20.6 18.4 26.1 7.8 6.2 100.0 7.9 130.6 85.7 960 16.5

North West 40.0 38.5 17.0 16.1 17.8 5.4 5.1 100.0 11.7 125.5 81.6 366 29.2

Gauteng 42.3 37.1 18.6 13.0 20.2 6.2 4.9 100.0 11.1 125.3 83.0 1,073 26.2

Mpumalanga 45.8 23.0 19.6 16.1 26.0 9.1 6.2 100.0 4.5 128.7 86.3 399 9.9

Limpopo 34.1 43.8 17.1 13.7 16.9 4.8 3.7 100.0 8.8 123.4 79.1 524 25.7

Education

No education 75.8 12.0 12.6 12.7 30.2 17.8 14.8 100.0 13.1 145.0 88.5 430 17.3

Primary incomplete 65.6 16.5 14.5 17.2 27.2 13.4 11.3 100.0 13.8 139.1 87.5 582 21.0

Primary complete 53.5 24.0 15.1 21.3 21.0 7.6 11.0 100.0 13.9 132.9 86.3 242 25.9

Secondary incomplete 38.9 34.1 18.1 16.6 19.7 7.1 4.4 100.0 7.6 125.8 83.1 2,092 19.6

Secondary complete 35.2 37.4 20.1 14.8 19.5 4.8 3.3 100.0 7.5 123.0 82.2 974 21.4

More than secondary 39.2 32.8 19.2 16.8 21.7 7.5 2.0 100.0 8.0 124.7 82.7 454 20.4

(Continued...)

Adult Morbidity • 281
Table 16.7.1—Continued

Prevalence of 

hypertension1

Classification of blood pressure

Normal blood 

pressure and 

taking 

medication

Average 

systolic blood 

pressure

Average 

diastolic 

blood 

pressure

Number of 

women

Among 

women with 

hypertension, 

percentage 

with hypertension 

controlled2

Normal Elevated

Total

Background 

characteristic

Optimal 

<120/

<80 mmHg

Normal 

120-129/ 

80-84 mmHg

High normal 

130-139/ 

85-89 mmHg

Mildly 

elevated 

(Grade 1) 

140-159/ 

90-99 mmHg

Moderately 

elevated 

(Grade 2) 

160-179/ 

100-109 

mmHg

Severely 

elevated 

(Grade 3) 

180+/

110+ mmHg

Wealth quintile

Lowest 42.3 30.0 16.1 17.7 21.7 8.1 6.4 100.0 6.1 128.1 84.8 988 14.4

Second 41.1 33.5 18.9 13.8 20.7 7.5 5.6 100.0 7.2 127.4 83.0 923 17.6

Middle 46.1 29.8 18.8 14.4 21.2 8.8 6.9 100.0 9.1 129.1 84.6 1,028 19.8

Fourth 49.6 27.0 15.7 18.8 22.4 9.7 6.4 100.0 11.1 130.4 84.8 954 22.3

Highest 48.6 29.8 18.1 16.3 23.0 7.8 4.9 100.0 12.8 129.1 83.0 881 26.3

Total 15+ 45.5 30.0 17.5 16.2 21.8 8.4 6.1 100.0 9.2 128.8 84.1 4,774 20.2

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1 A respondent was classified as having hypertension if she had a systolic blood pressure level of 140 mmHg or above or a diastolic blood pressure level of 90 mmHg or above at the time of the survey or was currently taking 

antihypertensive medication to control her blood pressure. The term hypertension as used in this table is not meant to represent a clinical diagnosis of the disease; rather, it provides an indication of the disease burden in the 

population at the time of the survey. 

2 Percentage with hypertension controlled = normal blood pressure and taking medication/prevalence of hypertension

282 • Adult Morbidity
Table 16.7.2 Blood pressure status: Men

Among men age 15 and older, prevalence of hypertension, percent distribution of blood pressure values, percentage having normal blood pressure and taking medication, and average systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and 

among men with hypertension, percentage with hypertension controlled, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Prevalence of 

hypertension1

Classification of blood pressure

Normal blood 

pressure and 

taking 

medication

Average 

systolic blood 

pressure

Average 

diastolic blood 

pressure

Number of 

men

Among

men with 

hypertension, 

percentage 

with hypertension 

controlled2

Normal Elevated

Total

Background 

characteristic

Optimal 

<120/

<80 mmHg

Normal 

120-129/ 

80-84 mmHg

High normal 

130-139/ 

85-89 mmHg

Mildly 

elevated 

(Grade 1) 

140-159/ 

90-99 mmHg

Moderately 

elevated 

(Grade 2) 

160-179/

100-109 

mmHg

Severely 

elevated 

(Grade 3) 

180+/ 

110+ mmHg

Age

15-24 20.1 35.2 28.9 18.6 13.5 3.0 0.8 100.0 2.9 123.6 77.0 918 14.6

25-34 33.2 18.7 23.3 26.8 23.7 5.5 2.0 100.0 2.0 128.2 84.3 690 5.9

35-44 50.8 16.8 17.1 17.8 27.8 13.1 7.4 100.0 2.5 131.7 89.3 528 4.9

45-54 55.4 10.4 16.6 24.9 28.6 13.0 6.6 100.0 7.3 135.4 89.9 334 13.2

55-64 73.6 10.2 9.4 19.1 36.5 14.7 10.1 100.0 12.4 141.8 90.5 318 16.8

65+ 83.7 7.0 10.2 16.9 33.5 18.0 14.3 100.0 17.9 149.0 88.1 293 21.4

Population group

Black African 40.9 21.7 21.2 21.0 22.9 8.6 4.7 100.0 4.8 130.7 84.2 2,638 11.7

White 65.9 8.7 18.1 19.7 36.0 14.4 3.2 100.0 12.3 136.4 86.0 176 18.7

Coloured 57.8 16.9 15.4 18.7 28.4 9.3 11.3 100.0 8.8 137.5 87.6 207 15.2

Indian/Asian (52.6) (10.0) (16.0) (27.5) (30.6) (9.2) (6.7) 100.0 (6.1) (136.1) (87.8) 60 (11.6)

Other nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc 0 nc

Employment 

(past 12 months)

Not employed 42.5 24.1 20.3 19.7 21.9 8.6 5.4 100.0 6.6 131.5 83.1 1,650 15.5

Employed for cash 43.1 16.6 21.4 22.4 26.1 9.3 4.3 100.0 3.4 130.9 86.1 1,347 7.9

Employed not for cash 78.0 10.1 10.5 20.0 35.9 13.1 10.4 100.0 18.7 143.4 88.8 84 23.9

Residence

Urban 45.4 18.7 20.1 21.8 24.8 9.5 5.1 100.0 6.0 131.8 85.4 2,002 13.2

Non-urban 40.5 23.6 21.3 19.2 22.9 8.1 5.0 100.0 4.6 131.2 83.1 1,080 11.3

Province

Western Cape 58.7 17.6 15.6 16.0 36.0 8.4 6.5 100.0 7.8 135.5 85.6 259 13.3

Eastern Cape 47.3 16.1 20.4 21.1 27.3 8.7 6.3 100.0 4.9 134.0 84.9 414 10.4

Northern Cape 52.3 16.2 16.7 21.3 27.3 12.5 5.9 100.0 6.5 135.4 85.7 68 12.5

Free State 48.2 17.3 20.1 21.0 25.3 11.0 5.3 100.0 6.6 133.5 85.9 178 13.6

KwaZulu-Natal 47.5 18.4 20.4 19.2 26.4 9.7 5.9 100.0 5.5 131.6 85.5 532 11.5

North West 37.0 26.5 19.8 24.4 19.5 7.1 2.8 100.0 7.6 129.3 81.8 271 20.6

Gauteng 39.5 20.5 22.1 23.0 19.5 9.9 5.0 100.0 5.1 130.4 85.3 830 12.9

Mpumalanga 46.1 16.6 20.0 20.5 28.4 10.6 3.9 100.0 3.2 132.8 86.3 260 7.0

Limpopo 28.8 34.1 23.5 18.6 16.6 4.0 3.3 100.0 4.9 126.6 79.0 269 17.1

Education

No education 65.6 13.8 9.3 22.5 26.2 16.2 11.9 100.0 11.3 140.7 88.6 170 17.2

Primary incomplete 56.6 17.1 16.8 19.5 25.7 11.7 9.2 100.0 10.0 136.8 87.2 401 17.6

Primary complete 40.9 20.2 20.4 21.5 18.5 13.5 5.9 100.0 3.0 133.4 85.0 166 7.2

Secondary incomplete 36.9 24.0 22.6 21.1 21.7 7.0 3.6 100.0 4.6 129.2 82.8 1,420 12.6

Secondary complete 41.8 20.1 20.3 21.1 26.0 9.2 3.3 100.0 3.2 129.8 84.9 614 7.7

More than secondary 51.5 12.7 22.5 19.8 31.6 8.0 5.4 100.0 6.5 133.3 86.4 310 12.7

(Continued...)

Adult Morbidity • 283
Table 16.7.2—Continued

Prevalence of 

hypertension1

Classification of blood pressure

Normal blood 

pressure and 

taking 

medication

Average 

systolic blood 

pressure

Average 

diastolic blood 

pressure

Number of 

men

Among 

men with 

hypertension, 

percentage 

with hypertension 

controlled2

Normal Elevated

Total

Background 

characteristic

Optimal 

<120/

<80 mmHg

Normal 

120-129/ 

80-84 mmHg

High normal 

130-139/ 

85-89 mmHg

Mildly 

elevated 

(Grade 1) 

140-159/ 

90-99 mmHg

Moderately 

elevated 

(Grade 2) 

160-179/

100-109 

mmHg

Severely 

elevated 

(Grade 3) 

180+/ 

110+ mmHg

Wealth quintile

Lowest 43.3 22.1 16.6 21.5 22.5 11.1 6.3 100.0 3.5 132.7 85.4 625 8.1

Second 38.8 21.9 21.2 22.6 22.8 6.8 4.6 100.0 4.6 130.3 83.4 645 11.7

Middle 39.9 19.8 24.7 21.6 22.2 8.4 3.4 100.0 6.0 129.7 83.6 667 15.1

Fourth 42.9 22.8 20.9 18.0 22.9 10.0 5.3 100.0 4.7 131.2 84.9 590 10.9

Highest 55.3 14.9 18.7 20.4 31.2 8.9 6.0 100.0 9.2 134.4 86.0 556 16.6

Total 15+ 43.7 20.4 20.5 20.9 24.1 9.0 5.1 100.0 5.5 131.6 84.6 3,082 12.6

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

nc = No cases

1 A respondent was classified as having hypertension if he had a systolic blood pressure level of 140 mmHg or above or a diastolic blood pressure level of 90 mmHg or above at the time of the survey or was currently taking 

antihypertensive medication to control his blood pressure. The term hypertension as used in this table is not meant to represent a clinical diagnosis of the disease; rather, it provides an indication of the disease burden in the 

population at the time of the survey. 

2 Percentage with hypertension controlled = normal blood pressure and taking medication/prevalence of hypertension

284 • Adult Morbidity
Table 16.8.1 Blood pressure status by health status measures: Women

Among women age 15 and older, prevalence of hypertension, percent distribution of blood pressure values, percentage having normal blood pressure and taking medication, and among women with hypertension, percentage 

with hypertension controlled, according to health status measures, South Africa DHS 2016 

Prevalence of 

hypertension1

Classification of blood pressure

Normal blood 

pressure and 

taking 

medication

Number of 

women

Among 

women with 

hypertension, 

percentage with 

hypertension 

controlled2

Normal Elevated

Health status measure Total

Optimal 

<120/

<80 mmHg

Normal 

120-129/ 

80-84 mmHg

High normal 

130-139/

85-89 mmHg

Mildly 

elevated 

(Grade 1) 

140-159/ 

90-99 mmHg

Moderately 

elevated 

(Grade 2) 

160-179/ 

100-109 mmHg

Severely 

elevated 

(Grade 3) 

180+/ 

110+ mmHg

Use of tobacco products

Uses tobacco products 59.1 20.0 17.4 16.1 25.7 9.0 11.8 100.0 12.7 491 21.4

Does not use tobacco 

products 43.9 31.1 17.5 16.2 21.3 8.3 5.4 100.0 8.8 4,284 20.0

Use of alcohol

Drank alcohol in last 

12 months 41.7 33.7 16.7 15.0 20.1 7.8 6.7 100.0 7.1 835 17.0

Drank alcohol in last 7 days 45.7 29.4 15.6 16.5 20.4 9.6 8.5 100.0 7.3 444 15.9

Did not drink alcohol in last 

7 days 37.2 38.5 17.9 13.3 19.8 5.7 4.7 100.0 6.9 391 18.5

Did not drink alcohol in last 

12 months 51.4 29.0 15.7 14.6 23.9 8.6 8.1 100.0 10.8 336 21.0

Has never drunk alcohol 45.8 29.2 17.9 16.6 22.0 8.5 5.7 100.0 9.5 3,603 20.8

Consumption of salty 

snacks

Every day 32.0 44.8 16.2 12.8 16.1 6.3 3.8 100.0 5.9 654 18.4

At least once a week 38.1 32.8 18.6 17.1 19.1 8.2 4.2 100.0 6.6 1,410 17.2

Occasionally 49.9 26.1 18.0 16.8 24.4 7.6 7.0 100.0 10.9 2,293 21.7

Never 66.9 18.7 13.4 15.1 25.4 16.4 10.9 100.0 14.2 417 21.2

History of hypertension

Told had high blood pressure 

by a doctor or a nurse 86.8 13.4 12.2 15.6 29.0 15.8 14.1 100.0 28.0 1,368 32.2

Never told had high blood 

pressure 28.9 36.7 19.7 16.4 18.9 5.5 2.9 100.0 1.6 3,407 5.7

Nutritional status

Underweight (BMI <18.5) 32.8 46.6 15.5 12.1 18.6 4.9 2.3 100.0 7.1 116 21.6

Normal (BMI 18.5-24.9) 33.1 41.4 18.0 13.9 16.5 5.6 4.7 100.0 6.3 1,349 19.1

Overweight (BMI 25.0-29.9) 42.7 31.8 17.4 14.9 19.9 9.5 6.6 100.0 6.7 1,210 15.8

Obese (BMI ≥30.0) 58.4 18.0 17.1 19.5 27.7 10.1 7.5 100.0 13.0 1,871 22.2

Not eligible (pregnant or 

recent birth) 24.0 52.4 18.8 12.2 11.0 4.3 1.3 100.0 7.5 169 31.1

Total 15+ 45.5 30.0 17.5 16.2 21.8 8.4 6.1 100.0 9.2 4,774 20.2

Note: Total includes 59 women for whom nutritional status information was out of range or missing.

BMI = Body mass index

1 A respondent was classified as having hypertension if she had a systolic blood pressure level of 140 mmHg or above or a diastolic blood pressure level of 90 mmHg or above at the time of the survey or was currently taking 

antihypertensive medication to control her blood pressure. The term hypertension as used in this table is not meant to represent a clinical diagnosis of the disease; rather, it provides an indication of the disease burden in the 

population at the time of the survey. 

2 Percentage with hypertension controlled = normal blood pressure and taking medication/prevalence of hypertension

Adult Morbidity • 285
Table 16.8.2 Blood pressure status by health status measures: Men

Among men age 15 and older, prevalence of hypertension, percent distribution of blood pressure values, percentage having normal blood pressure and taking medication, and percentage with hypertension controlled, 

according to health status measures, South Africa DHS 2016 

Prevalence of 

hypertension1

Classification of blood pressure

Normal blood 

pressure and 

taking 

medication Number of men

Among 

men with 

hypertension, 

percentage with 

hypertension 

controlled2

Normal Elevated

Health status measure Total

Optimal 

<120/

<80 mmHg

Normal 

120-129/

80-84 mmHg

High normal 

130-139/ 

85-89 mmHg

Mildly 

elevated 

(Grade 1) 

140-159/ 

90-99 mmHg

Moderately 

elevated 

(Grade 2) 

160-179/ 

100-109 mmHg

Severely 

elevated 

(Grade 3) 

180+/ 

110+ mmHg

Use of tobacco products

Uses tobacco products 45.4 18.6 18.0 23.7 22.8 10.0 6.9 100.0 5.8 961 12.8

Does not use tobacco 

products 42.9 21.2 21.7 19.6 24.8 8.5 4.2 100.0 5.4 2,120 12.6

Use of alcohol

Drank alcohol in last 

12 months 43.5 18.3 19.8 23.0 23.3 9.5 6.0 100.0 4.6 1,693 10.7

Drank alcohol in last 7 days 49.9 14.9 17.8 22.7 25.5 11.7 7.5 100.0 5.2 1,157 10.5

Did not drink alcohol in last 

7 days 29.8 25.8 24.1 23.7 18.7 4.9 2.8 100.0 3.4 536 11.3

Did not drink alcohol in last 

12 months 41.8 26.9 18.8 19.5 22.6 8.6 3.5 100.0 7.0 240 16.8

Has never drunk alcohol 44.4 22.1 21.9 18.0 25.7 8.3 4.0 100.0 6.5 1,149 14.6

Consumption of salty 

snacks

Every day 26.7 32.7 25.6 18.1 18.0 4.7 0.9 100.0 3.1 318 11.8

At least once a week 38.6 24.4 21.8 20.0 23.8 8.1 1.9 100.0 4.8 794 12.5

Occasionally 45.1 17.1 20.5 23.0 23.9 8.7 6.8 100.0 5.7 1,595 12.7

Never 63.1 15.6 13.4 16.0 31.1 16.0 7.8 100.0 8.2 375 12.9

History of hypertension

Told had high blood pressure 

by a doctor or a nurse 87.0 7.5 11.3 17.7 34.0 17.2 12.3 100.0 23.4 588 26.9

Never told had high blood 

pressure 33.5 23.5 22.7 21.6 21.8 7.1 3.3 100.0 1.3 2,494 3.9

Nutritional status

Underweight (BMI <18.5) 32.4 37.8 19.9 15.6 17.2 6.9 2.6 100.0 5.8 289 17.8

Normal (BMI 18.5-24.9) 35.3 23.2 24.2 20.8 20.7 7.6 3.6 100.0 3.4 1,804 9.7

Overweight (BMI 25.0-29.9) 59.8 11.8 14.0 21.6 32.8 11.0 8.8 100.0 7.2 619 12.0

Obese (BMI ≥30.0) 67.8 5.4 15.2 24.6 32.3 14.5 8.0 100.0 13.0 327 19.2

Total 15+ 43.7 20.4 20.5 20.9 24.1 9.0 5.1 100.0 5.5 3,082 12.6

Note: Total includes 43 men for whom nutritional status information was out of range or missing.

BMI = Body mass index

1 A respondent was classified as having hypertension if he had a systolic blood pressure level of 140 mmHg or above or a diastolic blood pressure level of 90 mmHg or above at the time of the survey or was currently taking 

antihypertensive medication to control his blood pressure. The term hypertension as used in this table is not meant to represent a clinical diagnosis of the disease; rather, it provides an indication of the disease burden in the 

population at the time of the survey. 

2 Percentage with hypertension controlled = normal blood pressure and taking medication/prevalence of hypertension

286 • Adult Morbidity
Adult Morbidity • 287

Table 16.9.1 Blood pressure status and treatment: Women

Among women age 15 and older, prevalence of hypertension, prevalence of elevated blood pressure, percentage taking 

medication to lower blood pressure, percentage having normal blood pressure and taking medication, percentage hypertensive 

and taking medication, and among women with hypertension, percentage with uncontrolled hypertension, according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Prevalence of 

hypertension1

Prevalence of

elevated 

blood 

pressure 

(≥140/

≥90 mmHg)

Percentage 

taking 

medication to 

lower blood 

pressure

Percentage 

with normal 

blood 

pressure and 

taking 

medication

Percentage 

hypertensive 

and taking 

medication

Number of 

women

Among 

women with 

hypertension, 

percentage 

with 

uncontrolled 

hypertension2

Age

15-24 17.0 14.2 3.9 2.8 1.1 1,080 83.4

25-34 26.6 21.4 7.1 5.1 2.0 1,063 80.7

35-44 42.7 36.1 15.1 6.7 8.5 788 84.4

45-54 62.5 50.2 31.8 12.2 19.5 681 80.4

55-64 77.6 60.5 46.5 17.2 29.3 557 77.9

65+ 84.3 64.0 58.0 20.3 37.7 606 76.0

Population group

Black African 43.8 35.1 20.6 8.7 11.9 4,163 80.2

White 60.4 44.7 36.5 15.7 20.8 194 74.0

Coloured 57.4 45.0 33.7 12.3 21.3 326 78.5

Indian/Asian 46.4 38.6 25.6 7.8 17.8 89 83.1

Other * * * * * 3 *

Residence

Urban 46.5 36.5 23.3 10.0 13.3 2,938 78.5

Non-urban 43.9 35.9 20.7 7.9 12.8 1,837 81.9

Province

Western Cape 51.6 40.2 32.1 11.4 20.6 433 77.9

Eastern Cape 49.8 42.5 24.4 7.3 17.1 641 85.3

Northern Cape 52.9 45.6 22.5 7.3 15.2 108 86.2

Free State 54.4 42.3 27.7 12.1 15.6 271 77.8

KwaZulu-Natal 48.1 40.1 22.8 7.9 14.8 960 83.5

North West 40.0 28.4 23.7 11.7 12.0 366 70.8

Gauteng 42.3 31.2 21.8 11.1 10.8 1,073 73.8

Mpumalanga 45.8 41.3 13.7 4.5 9.1 399 90.1

Limpopo 34.1 25.3 14.2 8.8 5.4 524 74.3

Education

No education 75.8 62.7 45.9 13.1 32.8 430 82.7

Primary incomplete 65.6 51.8 37.5 13.8 23.7 582 79.0

Primary complete 53.5 39.6 33.1 13.9 19.3 242 74.1

Secondary incomplete 38.9 31.3 17.3 7.6 9.7 2,092 80.4

Secondary complete 35.2 27.7 13.7 7.5 6.1 974 78.6

More than secondary 39.2 31.2 15.8 8.0 7.8 454 79.6

Wealth quintile

Lowest 42.3 36.2 17.2 6.1 11.1 988 85.6

Second 41.1 33.8 18.9 7.2 11.7 923 82.4

Middle 46.1 36.9 23.0 9.1 13.8 1,028 80.2

Fourth 49.6 38.5 25.1 11.1 14.0 954 77.7

Highest 48.6 35.8 27.6 12.8 14.8 881 73.7

Total 15+ 45.5 36.3 22.3 9.2 13.1 4,774 79.8

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1 A respondent was classified as having hypertension if she had a systolic blood pressure level of 140 mmHg or above or a 

diastolic blood pressure level of 90 mmHg or above at the time of the survey or was currently taking antihypertensive medication 

to control her blood pressure. The term hypertension as used in this table is not meant to represent a clinical diagnosis of the 

disease; rather, it provides an indication of the disease burden in the population at the time of the survey. 

2 Percentage with hypertension uncontrolled = prevalence of elevated blood pressure/prevalence of hypertension
288 • Adult Morbidity

Table 16.9.2 Blood pressure status and treatment: Men

Among men age 15 and older, prevalence of hypertension, prevalence of elevated blood pressure, percentage taking medication 

to lower blood pressure, percentage having normal blood pressure and taking medication, percentage hypertensive and taking 

medication, and among men with hypertension, percentage with uncontrolled hypertension, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Prevalence of 

hypertension1

Prevalence of 

elevated 

blood 

pressure 

(≥140/ 

≥90 mmHg)

Percentage 

taking 

prescribed 

medicine to 

lower blood 

pressure

Percentage 

with normal 

blood 

pressure and 

taking 

medication

Percentage 

hypertensive 

and taking 

medication

Number of 

men

Among 

men with 

hypertension, 

percentage 

with 

uncontrolled 

hypertension2

Age

15-24 20.1 17.2 3.8 2.9 0.9 918 85.4

25-34 33.2 31.2 3.5 2.0 1.6 690 94.1

35-44 50.8 48.3 10.9 2.5 8.4 528 95.1

45-54 55.4 48.1 21.4 7.3 14.1 334 86.8

55-64 73.6 61.3 37.4 12.4 25.1 318 83.2

65+ 83.7 65.8 50.0 17.9 32.1 293 78.6

Population group

Black African 40.9 36.1 11.9 4.8 7.1 2,638 88.3

White 65.9 53.6 38.9 12.3 26.6 176 81.3

Coloured 57.8 49.0 28.1 8.8 19.4 207 84.8

Indian/Asian (52.6) (46.4) (24.0) (6.1) (17.9) 60 (88.4)

Other nc nc nc nc nc 0 nc

Residence

Urban 45.4 39.4 16.6 6.0 10.6 2,002 86.8

Non-urban 40.5 35.9 11.3 4.6 6.7 1,080 88.7

Province

Western Cape 58.7 50.9 28.3 7.8 20.5 259 86.7

Eastern Cape 47.3 42.4 13.2 4.9 8.3 414 89.6

Northern Cape 52.3 45.8 16.0 6.5 9.5 68 87.5

Free State 48.2 41.6 14.9 6.6 8.3 178 86.4

KwaZulu-Natal 47.5 42.0 15.1 5.5 9.7 532 88.5

North West 37.0 29.4 14.6 7.6 7.0 271 79.4

Gauteng 39.5 34.4 14.8 5.1 9.7 830 87.1

Mpumalanga 46.1 42.9 8.5 3.2 5.3 260 93.0

Limpopo 28.8 23.9 8.9 4.9 3.9 269 82.9

Education

No education 65.6 54.4 25.9 11.3 14.6 170 82.8

Primary incomplete 56.6 46.6 24.0 10.0 14.0 401 82.4

Primary complete 40.9 37.9 15.7 3.0 12.8 166 92.8

Secondary 

incomplete 36.9 32.3 10.6 4.6 6.0 1,420 87.4

Secondary complete 41.8 38.6 11.6 3.2 8.4 614 92.3

More than secondary 51.5 44.9 21.1 6.5 14.5 310 87.3

Wealth quintile

Lowest 43.3 39.8 9.3 3.5 5.8 625 91.9

Second 38.8 34.3 10.2 4.6 5.7 645 88.3

Middle 39.9 33.9 13.9 6.0 7.9 667 84.9

Fourth 42.9 38.2 15.9 4.7 11.2 590 89.1

Highest 55.3 46.1 25.9 9.2 16.7 556 83.4

Total 15+ 43.7 38.2 14.7 5.5 9.2 3,082 87.4

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.

nc = No cases

1 A respondent was classified as having hypertension if he had a systolic blood pressure level of 140 mmHg or above or a 

diastolic blood pressure level of 90 mmHg or above at the time of the survey or was currently taking antihypertensive medication 

to control his blood pressure. The term hypertension as used in this table is not meant to represent a clinical diagnosis of the 

disease; rather, it provides an indication of the disease burden in the population at the time of the survey. 

2 Percentage with hypertension uncontrolled = prevalence of elevated blood pressure/prevalence of hypertension
Adult Morbidity • 289

Table 16.10.1 Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease symptoms: Women

Percentage of women age 15 and older with less breath when exerting themselves compared with others their age; percentage who 

have woken with breathing difficulties, shortness of breath, and/or a coughing attack in the past 12 months; percentage with symptoms 

of asthma (wheezing and shortness of breath) in the past 12 months; and percentage who have symptoms of chronic obstructive 

pulmonary disease (COPD), according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage of women

Background 

characteristic

With less breath 

when exerting 

themselves 

compared with 

others their age

Who have woken up 

with breathing 

difficulties, 

shortness of breath, 

and/or a coughing 

attack in past 

12 months1

With symptoms of 

asthma (wheezing 

and shortness of 

breath) in the past 

12 months

With symptoms of 

COPD2

Number of 

women

Age

15-24 9.5 18.6 1.6 1.0 1,429

25-34 11.5 18.9 2.2 0.6 1,391

35-44 13.8 19.9 3.3 2.1 1,022

45-54 18.8 24.1 3.5 2.4 866

55-64 27.3 27.2 6.5 3.3 701

65+ 31.1 28.6 5.5 4.2 719

Population group

Black African 16.0 22.7 3.2 1.7 5,170

White 14.1 12.6 2.5 2.0 320

Coloured 21.6 19.8 4.5 4.1 516

Indian/Asian 24.5 16.2 6.9 1.3 114

Other * * * * 6

Tobacco smoking

Daily smoker 20.9 23.3 5.0 5.2 387

Occasional smoker 20.7 32.2 2.3 7.5 94

Ex-smoker 31.6 36.4 7.7 0.7 111

Never smoked 15.9 21.2 3.1 1.6 5,534

Residence

Urban 16.4 22.3 3.6 2.1 3,996

Non-urban 16.9 20.9 2.8 1.6 2,130

Province

Western Cape 20.3 17.6 4.2 4.4 703

Eastern Cape 22.5 24.1 3.5 3.4 730

Northern Cape 21.3 19.0 6.1 3.4 127

Free State 19.2 23.1 3.3 0.8 325

KwaZulu-Natal 16.7 15.2 5.4 1.1 1,191

North West 13.7 30.9 2.5 1.5 398

Gauteng 13.5 26.4 1.7 1.3 1,534

Mpumalanga 18.5 22.6 4.1 2.5 473

Limpopo 10.9 18.8 1.5 0.8 646

Education

No education 29.4 25.2 5.0 4.6 495

Primary incomplete 23.6 26.8 5.6 2.7 664

Primary complete 22.9 27.3 5.5 4.1 293

Secondary incomplete 14.9 21.4 3.1 1.8 2,695

Secondary complete 10.6 19.5 2.2 0.7 1,328

More than secondary 15.7 18.2 1.9 1.2 652

Wealth quintile

Lowest 16.1 19.1 3.1 2.1 1,163

Second 16.2 25.4 2.8 2.0 1,152

Middle 15.0 21.0 3.1 1.5 1,242

Fourth 18.1 22.8 5.4 2.4 1,258

Highest 17.1 20.8 2.2 1.7 1,311

Total 15+ 16.6 21.8 3.3 1.9 6,126

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1 Difficulty breathing refers to tightness of chest and/or shortness of breath

2 Coughing with phlegm on most days for ≥3 months 
290 • Adult Morbidity

Table 16.10.2 Asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease symptoms: Men

Percentage of men age 15 and older with less breath when exerting themselves compared with others their age; percentage who have 

woken with breathing difficulties, shortness of breath, and/or a coughing attack in the past 12 months; percentage with symptoms of 

asthma (wheezing and shortness of breath) in the past 12 months; and percentage who have symptoms of chronic obstructive 

pulmonary disease (COPD), according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage of men

Background 

characteristic

With less breath 

when exerting 

themselves 

compared with 

others their age

Who have woken up 

with breathing 

difficulties, 

shortness of breath, 

and/or a coughing 

attack in past 

12 months1

With symptoms of 

asthma (wheezing 

and shortness of 

breath) in the past 

12 months

With symptoms of 

COPD2

Number of 

men

Age

15-24 11.9 27.7 2.8 1.6 1,241

25-34 12.4 24.3 3.3 0.3 962

35-44 11.7 24.1 2.8 1.3 744

45-54 16.3 27.6 3.2 2.2 492

55-64 21.9 31.2 5.4 2.1 406

65+ 21.7 33.0 5.7 5.1 364

Population group

Black African 13.0 28.5 3.4 1.7 3,534

White 22.0 14.7 3.1 0.0 257

Coloured 18.6 22.9 4.6 2.2 335

Indian/Asian 27.0 19.7 3.2 2.9 82

Other * * * * 2

Tobacco smoking

Daily smoker 16.8 31.1 5.0 2.6 1,281

Occasional smoker 13.6 29.7 7.1 0.9 290

Ex-smoker 18.9 30.0 2.2 0.8 324

Never smoked 12.3 24.1 2.3 1.4 2,315

Residence

Urban 13.5 25.2 2.6 1.2 2,874

Non-urban 16.0 31.0 5.3 2.7 1,336

Province

Western Cape 19.2 19.8 4.3 1.3 476

Eastern Cape 14.3 33.6 3.2 1.6 493

Northern Cape 21.2 31.1 5.3 3.0 84

Free State 9.8 30.6 0.9 3.0 207

KwaZulu-Natal 19.9 23.2 4.0 1.7 683

North West 6.5 16.4 3.6 3.1 310

Gauteng 9.4 26.0 0.5 0.9 1,245

Mpumalanga 16.5 40.0 14.2 2.7 326

Limpopo 19.2 32.8 3.1 1.7 386

Education

No education 21.2 33.9 11.5 4.0 217

Primary incomplete 15.6 34.2 4.9 3.8 481

Primary complete 11.7 29.4 2.9 3.0 212

Secondary incomplete 13.2 28.3 3.2 1.3 1,930

Secondary complete 15.1 21.0 2.2 1.2 900

More than secondary 13.9 22.4 2.2 0.2 470

Wealth quintile

Lowest 15.8 35.5 7.5 2.7 787

Second 13.1 28.2 2.3 2.0 839

Middle 12.0 30.7 4.4 2.3 894

Fourth 15.6 23.3 1.2 1.1 827

Highest 15.2 18.0 2.1 0.4 864

Total 15+ 14.3 27.1 3.5 1.7 4,210

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1 Difficulty breathing refers to tightness of chest and/or shortness of breath

2 Coughing with phlegm on most days for ≥3 months 
Adult Morbidity • 291

Table 16.11.1 Unadjusted glycated haemoglobin levels: Women

Percentage of women age 15 and older by unadjusted glycated haemoglobin level (HbA1c), according 

to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Unadjusted HbA1c level Number of 

Background characteristic <5.7% 5.7-6.4% ≥6.5% women

Age

15-24 16.9 75.9 7.2 885

25-34 15.9 73.5 10.6 846

35-44 9.6 66.5 23.9 613

45-54 6.9 58.1 35.0 529

55-64 4.6 53.7 41.7 457

65+ 1.8 50.3 47.9 474

Currently pregnant1

Pregnant 31.4 61.7 6.9 100

Not pregnant or not sure 13.4 71.6 15.0 2,517

HIV status

HIV positive 10.8 70.5 18.6 873

HIV negative2 10.8 64.4 24.8 2,807

Not tested in survey 9.3 55.5 35.1 124

Anaemia status

Anaemic3 9.7 67.6 22.7 1,136

Not anaemic 11.3 64.6 24.1 2,632

Nutritional status

Underweight (BMI <18.5) 18.3 68.2 13.5 97

Normal (BMI 18.5-24.9) 14.4 71.7 13.9 1,062

Overweight (BMI 25.0-29.9) 9.7 70.7 19.6 981

Obese (BMI ≥30.0) 6.6 57.8 35.6 1,483

Not eligible (pregnant or recent birth) 29.5 64.8 5.7 142

Past diabetes diagnosis

Diabetes diagnosed 0.6 17.5 82.0 202

Treatment received 0.7 12.3 87.0 173

No treatment received (0.0) (48.1) (51.9) 28

Diabetes not diagnosed 11.4 68.3 20.4 3,590

Don’t know * * * 11

Current medication

On diabetes medication 0.0 10.8 89.2 90

On undisclosed medication 7.3 60.1 32.6 817

Not on medication 12.1 68.7 19.2 2,896

Population group

Black African 10.4 65.9 23.7 3,351

White 16.1 69.1 14.8 142

Coloured 13.9 60.7 25.4 263

Indian/Asian (0.0) (56.5) (43.5) 44

Other * * * 3

Residence

Urban 12.1 67.1 20.8 2,252

Non-urban 8.8 63.2 28.0 1,551

Province

Western Cape 12.3 63.9 23.8 370

Eastern Cape 8.8 60.4 30.8 504

Northern Cape 18.9 61.6 19.6 70

Free State 3.4 69.5 27.2 250

KwaZulu-Natal 6.8 67.0 26.2 729

North West 12.0 69.3 18.7 332

Gauteng 15.6 68.2 16.2 810

Mpumalanga 11.4 64.4 24.2 357

Limpopo 10.9 61.3 27.9 381

Education

No education 5.0 50.5 44.5 347

Primary incomplete 7.1 56.0 36.9 491

Primary complete 8.0 59.6 32.4 214

Secondary incomplete 11.0 70.1 18.9 1,680

Secondary complete 15.5 68.3 16.2 741

More than secondary 12.0 69.8 18.2 330

Wealth quintile

Lowest 10.3 66.8 22.9 849

Second 11.5 65.8 22.7 744

Middle 9.7 65.2 25.1 849

Fourth 9.9 65.2 25.0 736

Highest 13.0 64.4 22.6 624

Total 15+ 10.8 65.5 23.7 3,803

Notes: Excludes cases in which DBS specimens took 60 or more days to get from the field to the 

laboratory freezer. An HbA1c level of 6.5% or above is classified as diabetes; an HbA1c level between 

5.7% and 6.4% is considered pre-diabetic (ADA 2010). Total includes 38 women for whom information 

on nutritional status is missing and 25 women for whom information on anaemia is missing. Figures in 

parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on 

fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed. 

BMI = Body mass index

1 Restricted to women age 15-49 

2

Includes a few cases with inconclusive results as per the SADHS HIV testing algorithm shown in 

Chapter 1, Figure 1.2 

3 Haemoglobin level <12.0 g/dl among non-pregnant women and <11.0 g/dl among pregnant women
292 • Adult Morbidity

Table 16.11.2 Unadjusted glycated haemoglobin levels: Men

Percentage of men age 15 and older by unadjusted glycated haemoglobin level (HbA1c), according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Unadjusted HbA1c level Number of 

Background characteristic <5.7% 5.7-6.4% ≥6.5% men

Age

15-24 16.1 74.6 8.4 735

25-34 15.6 73.5 10.7 480

35-44 13.0 70.7 15.9 378

45-54 6.5 70.4 22.7 248

55-64 7.6 57.9 34.3 259

65+ 2.6 65.6 31.2 219

HIV status

HIV positive 9.1 72.7 18.0 305

HIV negative1 12.8 70.9 15.9 1,938

Not tested in survey 11.5 54.1 31.3 76

Anaemia status

Anaemic2 8.6 72.2 19.2 184

Not anaemic 12.5 70.6 16.3 2,115

Nutritional status

Underweight (BMI <18.5) 19.6 70.3 9.6 220

Normal (BMI 18.5-24.9) 13.6 74.9 10.8 1,341

Overweight (BMI 25.0-29.9) 9.9 65.6 24.5 461

Obese (BMI ≥30.0) 3.8 57.8 38.4 263

Past diabetes diagnosis

Diabetes diagnosed 0.0 19.4 80.6 84

Treatment received 0.0 19.1 80.9 75

No treatment received * * * 8

Diabetes not diagnosed 12.8 72.4 14.3 2,212

Don’t know * * * 23

Current medication

On diabetes medication (0.0) (10.0) (90.0) 46

On undisclosed medication 5.5 71.1 23.0 333

Not on medication 13.7 71.9 13.9 1,939

Population group

Black African 12.0 71.7 15.9 1,998

White 18.5 61.4 19.2 140

Coloured 11.2 65.7 22.7 150

Indian/Asian * * * 31

Other nc nc nc 0

Residence

Urban 12.3 71.1 15.9 1,430

Non-urban 12.1 69.8 17.9 889

Province

Western Cape 17.2 63.3 19.5 206

Eastern Cape 7.7 73.7 18.0 300

Northern Cape 26.5 58.8 14.7 37

Free State 4.3 78.4 16.9 160

KwaZulu-Natal 9.2 72.2 18.0 393

North West 17.2 70.3 12.5 230

Gauteng 12.8 70.6 15.6 576

Mpumalanga 17.5 69.6 12.4 216

Limpopo 10.5 67.8 21.8 202

Education

No education 8.9 68.2 22.9 146

Primary incomplete 8.5 66.7 24.3 321

Primary complete 7.4 78.4 14.1 133

Secondary incomplete 12.1 73.1 14.2 1,062

Secondary complete 16.6 70.3 13.0 430

More than secondary 14.9 62.1 21.9 227

Wealth quintile

Lowest 11.7 71.4 15.5 481

Second 10.8 73.5 15.4 483

Middle 12.2 72.7 15.0 504

Fourth 14.2 72.3 13.2 441

Highest 12.6 61.7 25.4 410

Total 15+ 12.2 70.6 16.7 2,319

Notes: Excludes cases in which DBS specimens took 60 or more days to get from the field to the 

laboratory freezer. An HbA1c level of 6.5% or above is classified as diabetes; an HbA1c level between 

5.7% and 6.4% is considered pre-diabetic (ADA 2010). Total includes 33 men for whom information on 

nutritional status is missing and 20 men for whom information on anaemia is missing. Figures in 

parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on 

fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed. 

BMI = Body mass index

nc = No cases

1

Includes a few cases with inconclusive results as per the SADHS HIV testing algorithm shown in 

Chapter 1, Figure 1.2

2 Haemoglobin level <13.0 g/dl
Adult Morbidity • 293

Table 16.12.1 Adjusted glycated haemoglobin levels: Women

Percentage of women age 15 and older by adjusted glycated haemoglobin level (HbA1c), according 

to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Adjusted HbA1c level Number of 

Background characteristic <5.7% 5.7-6.4% ≥6.5% women

Age

15-24 36.1 63.0 0.9 885

25-34 31.3 64.2 4.5 846

35-44 21.3 66.9 11.8 613

45-54 14.4 64.9 20.8 529

55-64 8.1 63.2 28.7 457

65+ 5.9 64.0 30.1 474

Currently pregnant1

Pregnant 46.6 50.0 3.4 100

Not pregnant or not sure 28.6 65.0 6.4 2,517

HIV status

HIV positive 22.5 69.1 8.4 873

HIV negative2 22.8 63.1 14.1 2,807

Not tested in survey 14.9 58.4 26.7 124

Anaemia status

Anaemic3 21.0 67.3 11.7 1,136

Not anaemic 23.3 62.9 13.8 2,632

Nutritional status

Underweight (BMI <18.5) 35.8 61.6 2.6 97

Normal (BMI 18.5-24.9) 31.0 64.1 4.9 1,062

Overweight (BMI 25.0-29.9) 20.7 69.6 9.7 981

Obese (BMI ≥30.0) 14.0 63.1 22.9 1,483

Not eligible (pregnant or recent birth) 48.4 49.0 2.6 142

Past diabetes diagnosis

Diabetes diagnosed 1.7 25.0 73.4 202

Treatment received 1.6 20.8 77.5 173

No treatment received (1.9) (49.5) (48.6) 28

Diabetes not diagnosed 23.7 66.5 9.8 3,590

Don’t know * * * 11

Current medication

On diabetes medication 1.4 13.6 85.0 90

On undisclosed medication 14.5 67.1 18.4 817

Not on medication 25.4 65.1 9.5 2,896

Population group

Black African 22.0 65.0 13.1 3,351

White 31.0 63.4 5.6 142

Coloured 28.3 56.9 14.9 263

Indian/Asian (0.0) (64.0) (36.0) 44

Other * * * 3

Residence

Urban 24.8 63.7 11.5 2,252

Non-urban 19.1 65.2 15.7 1,551

Province

Western Cape 24.1 63.7 12.2 370

Eastern Cape 17.2 65.3 17.5 504

Northern Cape 35.7 52.7 11.7 70

Free State 11.4 74.9 13.8 250

KwaZulu-Natal 17.8 65.1 17.1 729

North West 26.5 64.8 8.6 332

Gauteng 28.6 62.1 9.3 810

Mpumalanga 27.2 61.3 11.5 357

Limpopo 20.8 64.4 14.8 381

Education

No education 10.3 60.4 29.4 347

Primary incomplete 11.9 66.6 21.4 491

Primary complete 16.5 62.3 21.1 214

Secondary incomplete 23.8 67.5 8.6 1,680

Secondary complete 31.1 59.6 9.3 741

More than secondary 28.8 60.6 10.6 330

Wealth quintile

Lowest 22.6 64.8 12.5 849

Second 21.2 65.6 3.2 744

Middle 21.9 65.4 12.7 849

Fourth 22.4 64.3 13.2 736

Highest 24.6 60.6 14.8 624

Total 15+ 22.5 64.3 13.2 3,803

Notes: Excludes cases in which DBS specimens took 60 or more days to get from the field to the 

laboratory freezer. Results were adjusted based on Affan et al. 2014. An HbA1c level of 6.5% or 

above is classified as diabetes; an HbA1c level between 5.7% and 6.4% is considered pre-diabetic

(ADA 2010). Total includes 38 women for whom information on nutritional status is missing and 25 

women for whom information on anaemia is missing. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 

unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases 

and has been suppressed. 

BMI= Body mass index

1 Restricted to women age 15-49 

2

Includes a few cases with inconclusive results as per the SADHS HIV testing algorithm shown in 

Chapter 1, Figure 1.2

3 Haemoglobin level <12.0 g/dl among non-pregnant women and <11.0 g/dl among pregnant women
294 • Adult Morbidity

Table 16.12.2 Adjusted glycated haemoglobin levels: Men

Percentage of men age 15 and older by adjusted glycated haemoglobin level (HbA1c), 

according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Adjusted HbA1c level Number of 

Background characteristic <5.7% 5.7-6.4% ≥6.5% men

Age

15-24 32.0 65.1 2.0 735

25-34 31.9 64.6 3.4 480

35-44 26.1 66.9 6.6 378

45-54 13.7 74.2 11.7 248

55-64 15.4 61.4 23.0 259

65+ 14.7 63.6 21.1 219

HIV status

HIV positive 18.6 74.2 6.9 305

HIV negative1 27.0 64.5 8.0 1,938

Not tested in survey 15.8 62.9 18.2 76

Anaemia status

Anaemic2 15.9 76.0 8.1 184

Not anaemic 26.4 64.9 8.2 2,115

Nutritional status

Underweight (BMI <18.5) 33.8 61.9 3.7 220

Normal (BMI 18.5-24.9) 28.5 67.1 3.8 1,341

Overweight (BMI 25.0-29.9) 20.6 65.6 13.8 461

Obese (BMI ≥30.0) 14.0 61.9 24.1 263

Past diabetes diagnosis

Diabetes diagnosed 1.6 20.2 78.2 84

Treatment received 0.9 20.8 78.3 75

No treatment received * * * 8

Diabetes not diagnosed 26.5 67.3 5.6 2,212

Don’t know * * * 23

Current medication

On diabetes medication (0.0) (11.4) (88.6) 46

On undisclosed medication 18.0 70.7 11.0 333

Not on medication 27.5 66.2 5.8 1,939

Population group

Black African 25.6 67.0 7.0 1,998

White 36.8 47.3 15.1 140

Coloured 19.3 64.5 15.8 150

Indian/Asian * * * 31

Other nc nc nc 0

Residence

Urban 25.9 65.3 8.1 1,430

Non-urban 25.0 66.4 8.4 889

Province

Western Cape 27.3 59.6 13.2 206

Eastern Cape 18.4 71.2 9.8 300

Northern Cape 43.7 49.1 7.2 37

Free State 16.6 74.7 8.3 160

KwaZulu-Natal 20.2 69.8 9.4 393

North West 39.8 56.1 4.1 230

Gauteng 27.2 65.2 6.6 576

Mpumalanga 31.6 61.3 6.5 216

Limpopo 21.2 69.1 9.7 202

Education

No education 15.2 72.6 12.3 146

Primary incomplete 19.6 68.6 11.3 321

Primary complete 22.8 71.3 5.9 133

Secondary incomplete 24.9 68.7 5.8 1,062

Secondary complete 31.0 61.5 7.3 430

More than secondary 35.2 48.1 15.6 227

Wealth quintile

Lowest 24.7 69.8 4.1 481

Second 23.2 68.8 7.6 483

Middle 25.1 68.2 6.6 504

Fourth 26.5 66.5 6.5 441

Highest 28.7 53.3 17.6 410

Total 15+ 25.6 65.7 8.2 2,319

Notes: Excludes cases in which DBS specimens took 60 or more days to get from the field to 

the laboratory freezer. Results were adjusted based on Affan et al. 2014. An HbA1c level of 

6.5% or above is classified as diabetes; an HbA1c level between 5.7% and 6.4% is considered 

pre-diabetic (ADA 2010). Total includes 33 men for whom information on nutritional status is 

missing and 20 men for whom information on anaemia is missing. Figures in parentheses are 

based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 

unweighted cases and has been suppressed. 

BMI= Body mass index

nc = No cases

1

Includes a few cases with inconclusive results as per the SADHS HIV testing algorithm shown 

in Chapter 1, Figure 1.2

2 Haemoglobin level <13.0 g/dl
Adult Morbidity • 295

Table 16.13.1 Prevalence of anaemia in women

Percentage of women age 15 and older with anaemia, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 

2016 

Anaemia status by haemoglobin level

Any Mild Moderate Severe

Number of 

women

Non-pregnant <12.0 g/dl 10.0-11.9 g/dl 7.0-9.9 g/dl <7.0 g/dl

Background 

characteristic Pregnant <11.0 g/dl 10.0-10.9 g/dl 7.0-9.9 g/dl <7.0 g/dl

Age

15-24 33.0 24.2 8.4 0.5 975

15-19 34.0 24.1 9.7 0.2 475

20-24 32.1 24.2 7.1 0.8 500

25-34 33.0 24.3 8.1 0.7 946

35-44 33.8 24.1 8.4 1.4 702

45-54 29.0 19.4 8.6 1.0 588

55-64 24.9 20.5 4.3 0.2 497

65+ 24.9 20.5 4.1 0.3 536

Population group

Black African 32.2 23.6 7.8 0.7 3,753

White 10.8 10.5 0.3 0.0 157

Coloured 21.6 16.6 5.0 0.0 288

Indian/Asian (29.2) (22.3) (7.0) (0.0) 44

Other * * * * 3

Number of children ever born1

0 35.5 25.0 9.8 0.7 734

1 33.8 25.3 7.5 1.0 771

2-3 31.7 23.0 7.9 0.8 1,066

4-5 33.3 24.0 8.6 0.7 285

6+ 28.2 18.9 9.3 0.0 71

Maternity status1

Pregnant 39.1 16.9 22.2 0.0 109

Breastfeeding 28.9 24.8 3.8 0.4 241

Neither 33.4 24.4 8.2 0.9 2,576

Cigarette use2

Smokes cigarettes 19.4 15.4 4.0 0.0 261

Does not smoke cigarettes 31.4 23.1 7.5 0.7 3,983

Residence

Urban 29.8 23.0 6.2 0.5 2,584

Non-urban 32.0 22.1 9.0 0.9 1,660

Province

Western Cape 23.9 18.6 5.3 0.0 421

Eastern Cape 29.7 22.1 7.1 0.6 598

Northern Cape 25.7 21.4 4.3 0.0 78

Free State 27.7 21.2 5.6 1.0 261

KwaZulu-Natal 28.9 22.5 5.1 1.2 747

North West 38.3 25.8 12.6 0.0 342

Gauteng 31.6 24.7 6.2 0.7 968

Mpumalanga 38.5 22.6 14.9 1.0 383

Limpopo 29.0 21.7 6.7 0.6 445

Education

No education 29.6 24.5 4.6 0.5 371

Primary incomplete 28.0 18.6 9.1 0.3 539

Primary complete 31.2 22.9 6.8 1.4 229

Secondary incomplete 31.9 23.7 7.4 0.8 1,890

Secondary complete 31.3 23.2 7.7 0.4 838

More than secondary 26.9 19.7 6.5 0.7 377

Wealth quintile

Lowest 28.5 19.9 7.6 0.9 935

Second 35.1 24.8 9.2 1.1 816

Middle 32.8 23.8 8.1 0.9 918

Fourth 31.3 24.9 6.2 0.2 834

Highest 24.9 19.7 5.1 0.1 741

Total 15+ 30.6 22.6 7.3 0.7 4,244

Total 15-49 33.3 24.1 8.4 0.8 2,927

Notes: Prevalence is adjusted for altitude and for smoking status, if known, using formulas in CDC 1998. Figures in 

parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 

unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1 Restricted to women age 15-49 

2

Includes manufactured cigarettes and hand-rolled cigarettes
296 • Adult Morbidity

Table 16.13.2 Prevalence of anaemia in men

Percentage of men age 15 and older with anaemia, according to 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Any 

anaemia 

<13.0 g/dl

Number of 

men

Age

15-24 13.3 796

15-19 17.2 438

20-24 8.4 357

25-34 10.4 557

35-44 14.6 434

45-54 25.6 288

55-64 22.4 285

65+ 29.7 246

Population group

Black African 18.0 2,240

White 7.8 151

Coloured 12.0 184

Indian/Asian * 31

Other nc 0

Cigarette use1

Smokes cigarettes 13.6 937

Does not smoke cigarettes 18.6 1,669

Residence

Urban 16.2 1,661

Non-urban 17.9 945

Province

Western Cape 8.9 238

Eastern Cape 18.2 372

Northern Cape 19.8 46

Free State 25.6 168

KwaZulu-Natal 15.9 395

North West 17.5 242

Gauteng 17.2 683

Mpumalanga 18.1 233

Limpopo 13.9 226

Education

No education 25.3 154

Primary incomplete 26.6 359

Primary complete 18.3 142

Secondary incomplete 15.8 1,189

Secondary complete 13.4 499

More than secondary 8.5 264

Wealth quintile

Lowest 17.9 550

Second 19.0 537

Middle 19.1 558

Fourth 17.0 495

Highest 9.9 466

Total 15+ 16.8 2,606

Total 15-49 13.7 1,941

Note: Prevalence is adjusted for altitude and for smoking status, if 

known, using formulas in CDC 1998. An asterisk indicates that a 

figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been 

suppressed.

nc = No cases 

1

Includes manufactured cigarettes and hand-rolled cigarettes
Adult Nutrition • 297

ADULT NUTRITION 17

Key Findings

 Nutritional status of women: Approximately one-third 

(30%) of women have a BMI in the normal range, 3% are 

underweight, 27% are overweight (BMI of 25.0-29.9), and 

41% are obese (BMI of 30 or above). Twenty percent of 

women are severely obese (BMI of 35 or above), a 

subgroup of the obese category.

 Nutritional status of men: The majority of men (59%) 

have a BMI in the normal range; 10% are underweight,

20% are overweight (BMI of 25.0-29.9), and 11% are 

obese (BMI of 30 or above). Three percent of men are 

severely obese (BMI of 35 or above). 

 Consumption of fruit and vegetables: 59% of adults 

reported that they consumed vegetables (excluding 

potatoes) during the day or night before the survey; 49% 

reported that they consumed fruit.

 Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages: 36% of 

adults indicated that they consumed sugar-sweetened 

beverages during the day or night before the survey; the 

average quantity consumed was 607 ml.

 Consumption of fried foods, fast foods, salty snacks,

and processed meats: On a daily basis, 10% of 

respondents eat fried foods, 2% eat fast food, 13% eat

salty snacks, and 14% consume processed meats. Daily 

consumption of each of the specified foods decreases with

age, is higher among respondents in urban than non-urban 

areas, and generally increases with increasing household 

wealth.

 Interest in lowering salt consumption: One in three 

adults (32%) are not interested in lowering their salt 

consumption, 9% are interested in lowering their salt 

consumption within the next 6 months, 6% are interested 

in lowering their salt consumption within the next month, 

and 48% indicate that they have started lowering their salt 

consumption.

he Strategic Plan for the Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases 2013-2017 was 

developed by the NDoH to guide initiatives to control risk factors for selected chronic conditions

(NDoH 2013b). One of the objectives of the strategic plan is to reduce the prevalence of obesity in 

the country. Obese (BMI ≥30 kg/m2) and severely obese (BMI ≥35 kg/m2) persons are at elevated risk for 

heart disease, diabetes, and other conditions relative to those who are not overweight or obese. The plan 

promotes physical activity and consumption of a balanced diet and highlights the need to reduce sugar intake. 

During 2016, the National Treasury released a policy paper recommending that a sugar tax be implemented 

(National Treasury 2016).

T
298 • Adult Nutrition

In terms of unhealthy diets, another specific objective outlined in the plan is to reduce salt intake. Regulations 

to reduce the sodium content of selected processed foods using a population-wide approach have been 

published, and these regulations outline a phased introduction of lower salt content in selected foods (NDoH 

2016). Aimed at reducing the prevalence of hypertension and anticipating an impact on cardiovascular 

disease and stroke, such an approach has been recommended by WHO as cost-effective. The Salt Watch, a

multisectoral coalition led by the Heart and Stroke Foundation of South Africa and supported by the NDoH, 

implemented a national awareness campaign during 2016 to increase knowledge about salt intake and 

address people’s salt-related behaviours (Webster et al. 2016). Results from the SADHS 2016 provide 

baseline information about individuals’ intention to change their salt-related behaviours and basic dietary 

information about salt intake that can be used for monitoring and evaluation. 

This chapter reports on anthropometric measurements, including height, weight, body mass index (BMI), 

waist circumference, and the waist-to-height ratio (WtHR), as well as consumption of various foods and 

drinks and interest in lowering salt consumption among respondents age 15 and older who completed the 

adult health module.

17.1 BODY MASS INDEX OF ADULTS AND SHORT STATURE OF WOMEN

Body mass index (BMI) 

BMI is calculated by dividing weight in kilograms by height in metres squared 

(kg/m2). 

Sample: Women age 15+ who are not pregnant and who have not had a birth 

in the 2 months before the survey and men age 15+

Status BMI

Underweight <18.5

Normal 18.5-24.9

Overweight 25.0-29.9

Obese ≥30.0

Severely obese ≥35.0

Anthropometric data on height and weight were 

collected for all women and men age 15 and older who 

consented to measurements (82% of women and 78% 

of men). These data were used to calculate the body 

mass index (BMI). 

The mean BMI is 29.2 for women and 23.6 for men. 

Based on BMI cutoffs, two-thirds (68%) of women are 

overweight or obese, 3% are underweight, and 30% 

are in the normal range (Table 17.1.1 and Figure 

17.1). In contrast, just under one-third of men (31%) 

are overweight or obese, 10% are underweight, and 

the majority (59%) have a BMI in the normal range 

(Table 17.1.2 and Figure 17.1).

Among women age 15-49, 2% were of short stature 

(height below 145 cm), which could put them at risk 

of difficult deliveries and poor birth outcomes.

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The mean BMI among women age 15 and older increased from 27.3 

in 1998 to 29.2 in 2016. Over the same period, the prevalence of overweight or obesity among women rose 

from 56% to 68%, while the prevalence of underweight decreased from 6% to 3%. There was little change 

Figure 17.1 Nutritional status of women 

and men

3

10

30

59

27

41 20

11

Women Men

Percent distribution of women and men 

age 15+

Obese

Overweight

Normal weight

Underweight

Note: Due to rounding, percentages may not sum to 

100%.
Adult Nutrition • 299

in the mean BMI among men age 15 and older (23.4 

in 1998 and 23.6 in 2016). The prevalence of 

overweight or obesity among men was 29% in 1998 

and 31% in 2016, while the prevalence of underweight 

was 13% and 10%, respectively.

Patterns by background characteristics

 The prevalence of overweight or obesity was 

highest among women age 45-64 (81%-82%) and 

men age 65 or older (54%). 

 There was little variation by population group in 

the prevalence of overweight or obesity among 

women (67%-70%). Among men, the prevalence 

of overweight or obesity was highest among 

Whites (75%) and lowest among Black Africans

(27%).

 Among women who perceive themselves as 

underweight or normal, 44% and 65%, 

respectively, are overweight or obese. Among 

men who perceive themselves as underweight or 

normal, 10% and 29%, respectively, are 

overweight or obese. 

 While the prevalence of overweight or obesity is 

similar among urban and non-urban women (68% 

and 66%, respectively), the prevalence is 

modestly higher among men in urban areas than 

among those in non-urban areas (34% and 26%, 

respectively). 

 Among both women and men, the prevalence of 

overweight or obesity is highest in Western Cape 

(73% and 44%, respectively) (Figure 17.2 and

Figure 17.3).

 One in five women (20%) are in the severely 

obese category; only 3% of men are severely 

obese (Table 17.2).

 Severe obesity increases with increasing wealth 

among both men and women (Figure 17.4).

 Indian/Asian women are more likely to be of short 

stature (12%) than women in the other population 

groups (0%-4%) (Table 17.1.1).

Figure 17.2 Overweight or obesity 

by province: Women

Percentage of women age 15+ with a BMI ≥25

Figure 17.3 Overweight or obesity

by province: Men

Percentage of men age 15+ with a BMI ≥25

Figure 17.4 Severe obesity in adults 

by household wealth

12 16

21 24

29

<1 1 3 3

10

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Percentage of women and men age 15+ 

who have a BMI ≥35 

Women Men

Poorest Wealthiest
300 • Adult Nutrition

17.2 WAIST CIRCUMFERENCE AND WAIST-TO-HEIGHT RATIO 

Waist circumference 

Cut-off values for assessing risk of metabolic complications are based on waist circumference.

Waist-to-height ratio (WtHR)

WtHR is calculated by dividing waist circumference by height. Women and men with a WtHR 

≥0.5 are at risk for metabolic complications.

Sample: Women and men age 15+; excludes pregnant women and women with a birth in the 

2 months preceding the survey

Respondents

Risk category

Increased risk of metabolic 

complications

Substantially increased risk of 

metabolic complications

Women ≥80 cm and <88 cm ≥88 cm

Men ≥94 cm and <102 cm ≥102 cm

The presence of excess fat in the abdomen, irrespective of total body fat, is an independent predictor of 

cardiovascular risk and morbidity. Waist circumference provides an estimate of abdominal or visceral 

obesity, and both waist circumference and the waist-to-height ratio (WtHR) can be used to assess the risk of 

cardiovascular and coronary heart disease (Ashwell et al. 2012).

The mean waist circumference among women age 15 and older is 87.4 cm. Thirty-five percent of women 

have a waist circumference below 80 cm, 19% have a waist circumference between 80 cm and less than 88 

cm, and 45% have a waist circumference of 88 cm or above. The mean WtHR among women is 0.55; 67% 

of women have a WtHR greater than or equal to 0.50 (Table 17.3.1). By either measure, a majority of women 

in South Africa are at elevated risk for metabolic complications.

The mean waist circumference among men age 15 and older is 82.4 cm. Eighty-one percent of men have a 

waist circumference below 94 cm, 9% have a waist circumference between 94 cm and less than 102 cm, and 

10% have a waist circumference of 102 cm or above. The mean WtHR among men is 0.49, and 35% of men 

have a WtHR greater than or equal to 0.50 (Table 17.3.2). 

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: Mean waist circumference among women has increased since 1998, 

from 85.8 cm to 87.4 cm; in accordance with this change, the proportion of women with a waist 

circumference of 88 cm or above has increased from 41% to 45%. There has been little or no change in mean 

waist circumference among men (82.1 cm in 1998 versus 82.4 cm in 2016). The percentage of men with a 

waist circumference of 102 cm or above has also held steady (9% versus 10%). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 The proportion of both women and men with a 

WtHR of 0.50 or above increases with age 

(Figure 17.5).

 By population group, Coloured women and White 

men are most likely to have a WtHR of 0.50 or 

above (76% and 74%, respectively) (Table 17.3.1

and Table 17.3.2).

 The percentage of women with a waist 

circumference of 88 cm or above is higher in 

Western Cape (59%) than in other provinces 

(34%-55%). Similarly, although the proportions

Figure 17.5 Waist-to-height ratio (WtHR) 

among adults by age

33

63

74 83 84 88

8

25

43

54

69 70

15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65+

Percentage of women and men 

with a WtHR ≥0.50

Women Men

Age group
Adult Nutrition • 301

are much lower overall, men in Western Cape (17%) are more likely than those in other provinces (6%-

14%) to have a waist circumference of 102 cm or above.

 The proportion of women with a waist circumference of 88 cm or above and the proportion of men with 

a waist circumference of 102 cm or above increase with increasing household wealth. The proportion of 

women and men with a WtHR of 0.50 or above also generally rises with household wealth, with the 

increase more marked among men.

17.3 CONSUMPTION OF FRUIT, VEGETABLES, SUGAR-SWEETENED BEVERAGES, AND 

FRUIT JUICE

Respondents were asked about their previous day’s intake of fruit, vegetables, sugar-sweetened beverages, 

and fruit juice using show-cards to clarify types of fruit and vegetables and types and standard quantities of 

drinks. For each type of drink consumed, the respondent was asked to specify the number of standard units 

consumed. Five in 10 respondents (49%) consumed fruit and 6 in 10 (59%) consumed vegetables (excluding 

potatoes) during the day or night before the survey (Table 17.4). Thirty-six percent of respondents reported

drinking any sugar-sweetened beverage, and 14% reported drinking fruit juice (Table 17.5). Among 

respondents who drank sugar-sweetened beverages or fruit juice, the average quantities consumed were 607

ml and 304 ml, respectively.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Fruit, vegetable, and fruit juice intake was similar across all age groups. However, the proportion of 

respondents who consumed sugar-sweetened beverages peaks among those age 20-24 (44%) and 

gradually declines to 19% among those age 65 and older.

 By population group, fruit and vegetable consumption was highest among Whites (71% and 84%, 

respectively) and lowest among Black Africans (46% and 57%, respectively). Whites (24%) were more 

likely to drink fruit juice than those in other groups (13%-20%); Coloured women and men were most 

likely to consume sugar-sweetened beverages (38%), closely followed by Black Africans (36%).

 Women were more likely than men to consume fruit (51% versus 45%), vegetables (64% versus 52%),

and fruit juice (15% versus 13%), while men were more likely to consume sugar-sweetened beverages 

(40% versus 33%).

 The proportion of respondents consuming fruit, vegetables, sugar-sweetened beverages, and fruit juice 

is higher in urban areas than non-urban areas.

 Fruit and vegetable consumption is highest in Western Cape (64% and 69%, respectively) and lowest in 

Northern Cape (32% and 46%, respectively). Respondents in North West were most likely to drink 

sugar-sweetened beverages (45%), and those in Eastern Cape were least likely to do so (29%). Among 

respondents who consumed sugar-sweetened beverages, those in Free State consumed much larger 

quantities (1,360 ml on average) than those in other provinces (391-700 ml). The proportion of 

respondents who consumed fruit juice was highest in Western Cape (19%) and lowest in Limpopo and 

Free State (11% each).
302 • Adult Nutrition

 The proportion of respondents 

who consumed fruit, vegetables, 

sugar-sweetened beverages, and 

fruit juice generally increases 

with increasing household 

wealth (Figure 17.6). A similar 

trend is observed with respect to 

education.

17.4 CONSUMPTION OF FRIED FOODS, FAST FOODS, SALTY SNACKS, AND PROCESSED 

MEATS

Respondents were asked how often they eat fried foods, fast foods, salty snacks, and processed meats. As 

shown in Table 17.6, 10% of respondents eat fried foods on a daily basis, and 37% consume them at least 

once a week (but not daily); 2% of respondents eat fast food on a daily basis, and 18% do so at least once a 

week (but not daily); 13% of respondents eat salty snacks on a daily basis, with 29% consuming them at 

least once a week (but not daily); and 14% of respondents consume processed meats on a daily basis, with 

29% consuming them at least once a week (but not daily).

Patterns by background characteristics

 Daily consumption of each of the specified foods generally decreases with age. For example, 32% of 

respondents age 15-19 consume salty snacks on a daily basis, as compared with 4% of those age 65 and 

older.

 Daily consumption of each of the specified foods is higher among respondents in urban than non-urban

areas. For example, 17% of respondents in urban areas consume processed meats on a daily basis,

compared with 9% in non-urban areas.

 Consumption of the specified foods varies by province, especially with regard to salty snacks and 

processed meats. For example, 20% of respondents in Western Cape and 9% in KwaZulu-Natal consume 

salty snacks on a daily basis, while 20% of respondents in Gauteng and 6% in Northern Cape consume 

processed meats daily.

 Daily consumption of each of the specified foods generally increases with increasing education. Daily 

consumption also generally rises with increasing wealth with the exception of the highest wealth 

quintile. 

17.5 INTEREST IN LOWERING SALT CONSUMPTION

Reducing salt consumption is recommended to reduce deaths from hypertension and cardiovascular diseases, 

particularly stroke. Respondents were asked which of five statements best described their approach towards 

salt consumption. As shown in Table 17.7, one in three adults (32%) are not interested in lowering their salt 

consumption, 9% are interested in lowering their salt consumption within the next 6 months, 6% are 

interested in lowering their salt consumption within the next month, and 48% indicate that they have started 

lowering their salt consumption (10% within the last 6 months and 38% for 6 months or longer). 

Figure 17.6 Consumption of various foods and 

beverages by household wealth

37

45 48 52

60

50 54 56 61

72

28

36 38 37 39

9 11 13 15

23

Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest

Percentage of women and men age 15+ 

who consumed the item in the day or night before 

the survey

Fruit Vegetables Sugar-sweetened beverages Fruit juice

Poorest Wealthiest
Adult Nutrition • 303

Patterns by background characteristics

 The proportion of respondents who have already lowered their salt consumption for 6 months or longer 

increases with increasing age, from 28% among those age 15-24 to 58% among those age 65 or older. 

Conversely, the proportion of respondents who are not interested in lowering their salt consumption 

decreases with age, from 40% among those age 15-24 to 21% among those age 65 and older. 

 By population group, Indians/Asians are least interested in lowering their salt consumption (45% versus 

24%-33% in other groups).

 A greater proportion of men than women are not interested in lowering their salt consumption (43% 

versus 25%), and a smaller proportion of men than women have lowered their salt consumption for 

longer than 6 months (30% versus 45%). 

 Respondents with elevated blood pressure as measured in the SADHS (see Chapter 16) are more likely 

than others to indicate that they have already lowered their salt consumption for longer than 6 months 

(45% versus 35%-37%).

LIST OF TABLES

For more information on adult nutritional status and dietary intake, see the following tables:

 Table 17.1.1 Body mass index and short stature of women

 Table 17.1.2 Body mass index of men

 Table 17.2 Severe obesity among women and men

 Table 17.3.1 Waist circumference: Women

 Table 17.3.2 Waist circumference: Men

 Table 17.4 Consumption of fruit and vegetables

 Table 17.5 Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and fruit juice

 Table 17.6 Consumption of fried and processed foods

 Table 17.7 Approach to salt consumption
304 • Adult Nutrition

Table 17.1.1 Body mass index and short stature of women

Among women age 15 and older, percentage with height under 145 cm, mean body mass index (BMI), and percentage with specific BMI levels, according 

to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Height Body mass index1

Percentage below 

145 cm

Number 

of women

Mean 

body 

mass 

index 

(BMI)

Normal Underweight Obese

Number 

of women

Background 

characteristic

18.5-24.9 

(total 

normal)

<18.5 

(total 

underweight)

17.0-18.4 

(mild 

thinness)

<17 

(moderate 

and severe 

thinness)

≥25.0 

(total overweight or 

obese)

25.0-29.9 

(overweight)≥30.0 

(obese)

Age

15-24 1.6 1,111 24.8 54.3 5.9 4.9 0.9 39.8 24.4 15.5 1,032

15-19 2.1 544 23.7 66.5 6.7 5.6 1.2 26.8 15.8 11.0 517

20-24 1.1 567 25.9 42.1 5.0 4.3 0.6 52.9 32.9 20.0 515

25-34 1.5 1,081 29.0 31.4 2.1 1.8 0.4 66.4 29.1 37.3 1,009

35-44 1.5 802 30.8 20.8 1.8 1.4 0.4 77.4 24.8 52.6 780

45-54 2.4 678 31.7 17.4 0.7 0.7 0.0 81.9 24.9 57.0 676

55-64 1.6 553 31.5 16.5 2.2 1.0 1.2 81.3 26.7 54.5 553

65+ 7.9 594 30.4 23.1 1.5 1.2 0.3 75.4 29.6 45.8 592

Population group

Black African 2.3 4,209 29.2 30.0 2.6 2.1 0.5 67.4 26.4 40.9 4,047

White 0.0 193 28.3 28.9 1.7 1.7 0.0 69.4 38.8 30.6 188

Coloured 3.5 327 30.1 27.9 4.3 3.2 1.1 67.8 21.8 46.0 317

Indian/Asian 11.8 87 29.7 30.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 70.0 20.8 49.2 87

Other * 3 * * * * * * * * 3

Perceived weight

Underweight 3.4 429 25.7 47.0 9.2 7.2 2.0 43.9 20.3 23.5 419

Normal 2.6 3,680 28.3 32.8 2.3 1.9 0.4 64.9 29.6 35.3 3,532

Overweight 1.0 633 36.6 2.8 0.3 0.2 0.1 96.9 14.6 82.4 615

Obese (1.6) 34 (38.9) (1.7) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (98.3) (13.2) (85.1) 34

Don’t know 0.5 43 31.1 25.6 2.9 1.4 1.5 71.4 13.3 58.2 43

Waist circumference

<80 cm 2.8 1,646 22.8 69.7 7.0 5.6 1.4 23.3 19.9 3.4 1,646

80-<88 cm 2.1 891 27.6 21.1 0.4 0.4 0.0 78.4 56.4 22.0 891

≥88 cm 2.5 2,095 35.0 2.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 97.9 19.1 78.8 2,091

Residence

Urban 2.2 2,988 29.6 29.4 2.2 1.9 0.3 68.4 26.3 42.2 2,869

Non-urban 2.9 1,831 28.6 30.5 3.3 2.4 0.9 66.1 26.9 39.2 1,773

Province

Western Cape 3.1 435 30.6 24.3 2.3 1.9 0.4 73.3 25.9 47.5 415

Eastern Cape 2.5 646 29.5 28.5 2.3 2.0 0.3 69.2 28.5 40.6 623

Northern Cape 5.4 109 27.9 30.0 8.2 5.6 2.6 61.8 26.8 35.0 106

Free State 2.4 271 29.4 28.1 3.4 2.6 0.8 68.5 24.0 44.5 265

KwaZulu-Natal 3.2 948 29.9 28.0 1.3 1.2 0.1 70.6 24.9 45.7 919

North West 2.6 367 28.6 27.7 4.6 3.1 1.4 67.8 24.8 43.0 353

Gauteng 1.8 1,116 29.2 33.0 1.5 1.5 0.0 65.6 26.7 38.9 1,065

Mpumalanga 1.0 411 28.0 34.2 3.8 3.1 0.7 62.0 28.5 33.5 393

Limpopo 2.3 518 28.1 31.6 4.2 2.9 1.3 64.2 28.0 36.1 503

Education

No education 5.6 421 29.7 28.7 2.5 1.6 0.9 68.8 25.3 43.5 417

Primary incomplete 4.6 580 30.0 21.8 2.5 1.9 0.7 75.6 26.9 48.7 571

Primary complete 1.8 245 29.3 29.8 3.3 2.8 0.5 66.9 26.7 40.2 229

Secondary 

incomplete 2.5 2,125 28.9 33.4 2.8 2.2 0.6 63.8 24.8 39.0 2,046

Secondary complete 1.0 987 29.1 29.0 2.3 2.0 0.3 68.7 28.9 39.8 937

More than secondary 0.3 460 29.4 26.6 2.3 2.1 0.2 71.1 29.8 41.3 443

Wealth quintile

Lowest 3.1 987 27.4 39.7 3.0 2.4 0.6 57.3 27.6 29.7 946

Second 2.4 942 28.5 30.9 3.0 2.1 0.9 66.0 28.3 37.8 908

Middle 1.6 1,035 29.6 26.4 3.5 2.8 0.7 70.1 26.2 43.9 997

Fourth 2.8 970 30.1 27.0 1.9 1.5 0.4 71.1 25.8 45.3 931

Highest 2.5 885 30.7 24.9 1.6 1.5 0.0 73.5 24.6 48.9 861

Total 15+ 2.5 4,819 29.2 29.8 2.6 2.1 0.5 67.5 26.5 41.0 4,642

Total 15-49 1.5 3,334 28.3 34.8 3.1 2.6 0.5 62.1 26.3 35.9 3,159

Notes: The body mass index (BMI) is expressed as the ratio of weight in kilograms to the square of height in metres (kg/m2). Total includes 14 women for 

whom information on waist circumference is missing. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is 

based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1 Excludes pregnant women and women with a birth in the preceding 2 months 
Adult Nutrition • 305

Table 17.1.2 Body mass index of men

Among men age 15 and older, mean body mass index (BMI) and the percentage with specific BMI levels, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Body mass index

Mean body 

mass index 

(BMI)

Normal Underweight Obese

Number 

of men

Background 

characteristic

18.5-24.9 

(total 

normal)

<18.5 

(total underweight)

17.0-18.4 

(mild 

thinness)

<17 

(moderate 

and severe 

thinness)

≥25.0 

(total overweight or 

obese)

25.0-29.9 

(overweight)≥30.0 

(obese)

Age

15-24 21.3 73.0 15.8 12.0 3.8 11.2 8.9 2.3 927

15-19 20.9 70.7 20.7 14.9 5.8 8.6 6.1 2.5 499

20-24 21.8 75.7 10.2 8.6 1.6 14.2 12.2 2.0 428

25-34 23.3 66.0 5.9 4.7 1.2 28.1 20.5 7.7 700

35-44 24.6 56.5 5.4 4.2 1.1 38.1 23.3 14.8 540

45-54 25.0 49.7 7.6 6.0 1.5 42.8 25.7 17.0 340

55-64 25.8 36.7 10.1 8.9 1.2 53.2 34.2 19.0 313

65+ 26.0 38.7 6.9 4.9 2.0 54.4 29.8 24.5 286

Population group

Black African 23.2 62.8 9.8 7.8 2.0 27.4 18.7 8.7 2,663

White 29.1 24.1 1.2 0.3 0.9 74.7 35.3 39.3 175

Coloured 24.2 48.0 11.6 8.3 3.3 40.4 26.7 13.7 207

Indian/Asian (25.9) (41.8) (9.7) (4.5) (5.2) (48.5) (26.5) (22.0) 60

Other nc nc nc nc nc nc nc nc 0

Perceived weight

Underweight 21.2 70.2 19.7 15.0 4.7 10.1 6.8 3.2 310

Normal 23.2 61.7 9.1 7.1 2.0 29.3 21.5 7.8 2,528

Overweight 30.9 17.8 0.2 0.2 0.0 82.0 27.9 54.1 225

Obese * * * * * * * * 10

Don’t know (24.3) (63.1) (4.2) (4.2) (0.0) (32.7) (14.9) (17.8) 32

Waist circumference

<94 cm 22.0 71.8 10.9 8.6 2.3 17.2 15.7 1.6 2,471

94-<102 cm 28.2 8.7 1.0 1.0 0.0 90.3 66.4 23.9 284

≥102 cm 33.2 1.6 1.1 0.5 0.6 97.3 18.5 78.8 297

Residence

Urban 23.9 56.7 9.1 7.2 1.9 34.2 20.9 13.3 2,025

Non-urban 23.0 63.8 10.1 7.7 2.5 26.1 19.3 6.8 1,080

Province

Western Cape 24.8 49.3 7.0 5.8 1.2 43.7 29.8 13.9 261

Eastern Cape 23.3 67.6 6.8 4.6 2.1 25.6 15.8 9.9 413

Northern Cape 23.3 49.2 19.2 13.2 6.0 31.5 16.7 14.8 68

Free State 22.7 57.8 14.7 11.9 2.8 27.5 18.5 9.0 177

KwaZulu-Natal 24.2 57.3 7.5 5.8 1.7 35.2 22.6 12.6 520

North West 23.2 56.7 13.3 9.1 4.2 30.0 22.3 7.8 271

Gauteng 23.8 58.1 8.4 7.3 1.1 33.5 20.7 12.8 848

Mpumalanga 23.0 65.2 10.7 9.2 1.5 24.1 14.6 9.5 273

Limpopo 22.8 62.8 12.1 8.3 3.8 25.1 18.7 6.5 276

Education

No education 23.7 54.8 12.2 9.4 2.8 33.0 17.3 15.7 169

Primary incomplete 23.3 62.7 10.8 8.7 2.1 26.6 18.4 8.1 398

Primary complete 22.8 63.4 10.2 7.5 2.7 26.4 18.9 7.5 163

Secondary 

incomplete 22.7 64.8 11.5 9.2 2.4 23.7 17.3 6.4 1,437

Secondary complete 24.6 54.7 6.1 4.0 2.1 39.2 23.8 15.5 624

More than secondary 26.8 38.1 3.1 3.0 0.1 58.8 32.3 26.4 313

Wealth quintile

Lowest 22.1 72.7 9.9 7.0 2.9 17.4 14.1 3.3 630

Second 22.6 65.8 10.1 7.9 2.2 24.1 18.8 5.3 649

Middle 23.5 59.6 9.3 7.5 1.7 31.2 21.8 9.3 677

Fourth 23.7 57.7 10.9 8.6 2.3 31.4 19.3 12.1 595

Highest 26.7 37.3 6.9 5.6 1.3 55.8 28.4 27.4 554

Total 15+ 23.6 59.2 9.5 7.4 2.1 31.3 20.3 11.0 3,105

Total 15-49 23.0 65.3 9.6 7.4 2.2 25.1 17.2 7.9 2,353

Notes: The body mass index (BMI) is expressed as the ratio of weight in kilograms to the square of height in metres (kg/m2). Total includes 52 

men for whom information on waist circumference is missing. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk 

indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

nc = No cases 
306 • Adult Nutrition

Table 17.2 Severe obesity among women and men

Percentage of women and men age 15 and older with a body mass index (BMI) ≥35 (Class 

II and III obesity), according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Women Men

Background 

characteristic

Body mass 

index (BMI) 

≥35.0 Number

Body mass 

index (BMI) 

≥35.0 Number

Age

15-24 5.8 1,032 0.7 927

15-19 4.5 517 1.0 499

20-24 7.1 515 0.3 428

25-34 17.4 1,009 2.3 700

35-44 26.5 780 5.0 540

45-54 29.0 676 4.8 340

55-64 29.9 553 6.2 313

65+ 23.8 592 4.0 286

Population group

Black African 20.3 4,047 2.1 2,663

White 14.5 188 14.1 175

Coloured 25.7 317 6.6 207

Indian/Asian 18.0 87 (5.4) 60

Other * 3 nc 0

Perceived weight

Underweight 9.5 419 0.1 310

Normal 15.0 3,532 1.6 2,528

Overweight 54.4 615 21.5 225

Obese (71.8) 34 * 10

Don’t know 39.3 43 (8.1) 32

Waist circumference

Women: <80 cm; men: <94 cm 0.4 1,646 0.4 2,471

Women: 80-<88 cm; men:

94-<102 cm 3.3 891 0.8 284

Women: ≥88 cm; men: ≥102 cm 43.3 2,091 28.0 297

Residence

Urban 22.4 2,869 3.6 2,025

Non-urban 17.0 1,773 2.2 1,080

Province

Western Cape 26.3 415 4.7 261

Eastern Cape 20.1 623 2.3 413

Northern Cape 15.4 106 4.5 68

Free State 21.3 265 2.0 177

KwaZulu-Natal 22.6 919 5.0 520

North West 14.4 353 1.9 271

Gauteng 22.2 1,065 3.4 848

Mpumalanga 15.3 393 0.8 273

Limpopo 16.3 503 2.2 276

Education

No education 22.8 417 3.8 169

Primary incomplete 21.3 571 1.1 398

Primary complete 18.1 229 3.2 163

Secondary incomplete 20.6 2,046 1.7 1,437

Secondary complete 18.1 937 4.8 624

More than secondary 21.6 443 8.3 313

Wealth quintile

Lowest 12.1 946 0.4 630

Second 16.1 908 1.2 649

Middle 21.4 997 2.6 677

Fourth 24.2 931 2.6 595

Highest 28.6 861 9.5 554

Total 15+ 20.4 4,642 3.1 3,105

Total 15-49 16.8 3,159 2.4 2,353

Notes: Table excludes pregnant women and women with a birth in the preceding 2 

months. Total includes 14 women and 52 men for whom information on waist 

circumference is missing. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. 

An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has 

been suppressed. 

nc = No cases
Adult Nutrition • 307

Table 17.3.1 Waist circumference: Women

Among women age 15 and older, mean waist circumference, percentage with a waist circumference less than 80 centimetres (cm), 

percentage with a waist circumference between 80 cm and 88 cm, percentage with a waist circumference greater than or equal to 88 cm, 

mean waist-to-height ratio, and percentage with a waist-to-height ratio greater than or equal to 0.50, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Waist circumference1 Waist-to-height ratio (WtHR)

Background 

characteristic Mean (cm) <80 cm 80-<88 ≥88 cm

Number of 

women

Mean 

WtHR

Percentage 

with a WtHR 

≥0.50

Number of 

women

Age

15-24 75.8 70.5 14.9 14.6 1,033 0.48 33.4 1,033

25-34 85.6 39.0 21.8 39.1 1,011 0.54 62.8 1,010

35-44 90.5 26.9 20.9 52.2 784 0.57 74.1 784

45-54 93.1 17.1 21.3 61.6 681 0.59 83.4 680

55-64 93.9 18.4 18.7 62.9 557 0.60 83.9 557

65+ 93.9 16.7 18.5 64.8 598 0.61 87.9 597

Population group

Black African 87.2 36.1 19.3 44.6 4,067 0.55 66.4 4,062

White 87.3 33.8 20.6 45.6 189 0.54 62.9 189

Coloured 91.4 26.9 16.2 56.8 316 0.58 75.5 316

Indian/Asian 83.7 39.2 26.0 34.8 90 0.54 69.9 90

Other * * * * 3 * * 3

Perceived weight

Underweight 82.1 51.0 16.4 32.5 418 0.52 51.3 418

Normal 85.4 38.7 21.6 39.6 3,546 0.54 64.0 3,543

Overweight 101.3 8.5 8.6 82.9 624 0.64 91.6 624

Obese (105.5) (1.7) (11.6) (86.7) 34 (0.65) (98.3) 34

Don’t know 91.2 28.2 12.1 59.7 43 0.58 78.8 41

Residence

Urban 87.6 35.9 18.8 45.3 2,873 0.56 66.7 2,872

Non-urban 87.1 34.7 20.0 45.4 1,792 0.55 67.4 1,788

Province

Western Cape 91.2 26.4 14.6 59.0 416 0.58 77.1 416

Eastern Cape 90.8 27.6 17.2 55.2 622 0.58 75.3 622

Northern Cape 88.1 33.6 17.7 48.7 101 0.57 70.3 101

Free State 88.7 34.1 14.4 51.5 265 0.57 69.7 265

KwaZulu-Natal 87.2 36.4 21.0 42.6 946 0.55 65.8 945

North West 87.2 32.9 19.3 47.8 353 0.55 70.3 353

Gauteng 86.2 38.8 21.0 40.2 1,065 0.54 63.4 1,065

Mpumalanga 83.2 46.9 18.9 34.2 393 0.53 55.3 392

Limpopo 85.8 37.5 21.8 40.6 502 0.54 62.5 500

Education

No education 91.3 26.4 17.8 55.8 423 0.59 79.0 420

Primary incomplete 91.3 22.6 21.3 56.1 575 0.59 80.2 575

Primary complete 89.8 28.6 23.8 47.6 229 0.57 74.4 228

Secondary incomplete 85.8 40.4 17.8 41.8 2,049 0.54 62.4 2,047

Secondary complete 86.2 39.3 19.3 41.4 946 0.54 61.8 946

More than secondary 87.6 33.0 22.3 44.7 444 0.55 66.4 444

Wealth quintile

Lowest 84.6 43.1 20.9 36.0 960 0.54 60.9 959

Second 86.3 37.3 19.9 42.7 906 0.55 65.6 905

Middle 87.9 33.2 20.2 46.5 1,001 0.56 69.2 999

Fourth 88.9 32.2 18.3 49.5 934 0.56 69.8 934

Highest 89.6 31.0 16.6 52.4 863 0.57 69.4 863

Total 15+ 87.4 35.4 19.2 45.3 4,664 0.55 66.9 4,660

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 

unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1 Excludes pregnant women and women with a birth in the preceding 2 months 
308 • Adult Nutrition

Table 17.3.2 Waist circumference: Men

Among men age 15 and older, mean waist circumference, percentage with a waist circumference less than 94 centimetres (cm), percentage 

with a waist circumference between 94 cm and 102 cm, percentage with a waist circumference greater than or equal to 102 cm, mean 

waist-to-height ratio, and percentage with a waist-to-height ratio greater than or equal to 0.50, according to background characteristics, 

South Africa DHS 2016 

Waist circumference Waist-to-height ratio (WtHR)

Background 

characteristic Mean (cm) <94 cm 94-<102 ≥102 cm

Number of 

men

Mean 

WtHR

Percentage 

with a WtHR 

≥0.50

Number of 

men

Age

15-24 73.8 97.7 0.9 1.4 896 0.44 7.9 895

25-34 80.2 88.2 7.9 3.9 698 0.47 25.2 698

35-44 84.7 78.1 11.1 10.8 542 0.50 42.6 540

45-54 88.0 70.5 13.3 16.1 338 0.52 53.7 338

55-64 91.9 58.9 18.4 22.7 317 0.54 69.3 316

65+ 93.0 51.9 21.2 26.9 286 0.55 69.9 286

Population group

Black African 80.8 84.7 8.1 7.2 2,633 0.48 31.0 2,629

White 99.3 37.8 21.5 40.7 175 0.56 73.6 175

Coloured 86.8 69.0 13.9 17.2 209 0.51 49.5 209

Indian/Asian (85.2) (76.8) (12.0) (11.2) 60 (0.50) (50.0) 60

Other nc nc nc nc 0 nc nc 0

Perceived weight

Underweight 78.0 92.6 4.5 3.0 306 0.46 20.8 305

Normal 81.3 83.5 9.2 7.3 2,504 0.48 32.8 2,502

Overweight 99.7 37.2 15.6 47.2 225 0.58 76.8 224

Obese * * * * 10 * * 10

Don’t know (83.6) (84.0) (12.3) (3.7) 32 (0.50) (42.9) 32

Residence

Urban 83.2 78.7 9.7 11.7 2,012 0.49 36.9 2,011

Non-urban 80.8 85.0 8.7 6.4 1,064 0.48 31.6 1,062

Province

Western Cape 87.4 68.5 14.2 17.4 264 0.51 48.5 264

Eastern Cape 82.1 81.0 8.6 10.4 408 0.49 32.8 408

Northern Cape 82.5 76.0 10.3 13.7 66 0.49 37.3 66

Free State 80.8 81.0 12.3 6.7 174 0.48 32.1 174

KwaZulu-Natal 81.7 83.5 9.1 7.4 529 0.49 37.2 529

North West 81.1 82.6 7.9 9.5 270 0.48 34.5 270

Gauteng 83.3 80.2 9.1 10.7 849 0.49 34.9 848

Mpumalanga 79.1 86.3 5.4 8.3 271 0.47 26.9 270

Limpopo 81.8 83.8 10.2 6.0 247 0.48 31.6 245

Education

No education 85.2 74.7 11.2 14.1 171 0.51 44.9 171

Primary incomplete 83.8 78.5 9.7 11.9 398 0.50 40.1 397

Primary complete 80.3 86.2 8.3 5.5 165 0.48 33.2 164

Secondary incomplete 79.1 88.1 6.4 5.5 1,415 0.47 26.8 1,414

Secondary complete 84.0 76.5 12.6 10.9 615 0.49 38.4 615

More than secondary 91.7 60.2 15.0 24.8 313 0.53 55.3 312

Wealth quintile

Lowest 78.0 92.7 3.9 3.4 628 0.47 24.6 626

Second 79.6 87.8 6.9 5.3 644 0.47 26.3 643

Middle 81.9 83.4 10.8 5.8 660 0.48 36.5 659

Fourth 82.5 79.0 10.3 10.6 594 0.49 33.6 593

Highest 91.1 58.1 15.5 26.4 551 0.53 57.1 551

Total 15+ 82.4 80.8 9.3 9.8 3,076 0.49 35.1 3,073

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 

unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

nc = No cases 
Adult Nutrition • 309

Table 17.4 Consumption of fruit and vegetables 

Percentage of respondents age 15 and older by type of foods consumed the day or night before the 

survey, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Percentage who 

ate any fruit

Percentage who 

ate any 

vegetables1

Number of 

respondents

Age

15-24 47.7 55.0 2,670

 15-19 47.2 53.1 1,371

 20-24 48.2 56.9 1,299

25-34 49.6 60.1 2,353

35-44 50.6 57.7 1,766

45-54 49.1 61.6 1,358

55-64 47.7 62.2 1,106

65+ 47.1 61.1 1,083

Population group

Black African 46.2 56.8 8,704

White 71.4 83.5 577

Coloured 56.4 62.0 851

Indian/Asian 61.6 66.7 196

Other * * 9

Sex

Male 45.2 51.8 4,210

Female 51.2 63.8 6,126

Employment (past 12 months)

Not employed 45.0 57.2 6,237

Employed for cash 54.5 59.9 3,457

Employed not for cash 54.8 69.7 642

Body mass index

Underweight (BMI <18.5) 40.2 44.5 415

Normal (BMI 18.5-24.9) 45.3 55.2 3,223

Overweight (BMI 25.0-29.9) 49.1 59.7 1,862

Obese (BMI ≥30.0) 51.8 66.2 2,247

Not eligible (pregnant or recent birth) 55.6 61.6 215

Not measured in survey 51.3 58.5 2,374

Residence

Urban 50.5 60.8 6,870

Non-urban 45.4 55.0 3,466

Province

Western Cape 63.9 69.2 1,178

Eastern Cape 44.3 62.5 1,223

Northern Cape 32.3 46.4 212

Free State 47.3 56.7 532

KwaZulu-Natal 50.1 58.0 1,874

North West 44.8 51.8 708

Gauteng 44.4 59.7 2,779

Mpumalanga 47.8 52.7 799

Limpopo 53.8 55.6 1,032

Education

No education 34.9 53.7 712

Primary incomplete 35.9 50.7 1,145

Primary complete 44.0 54.4 504

Secondary incomplete 47.4 55.9 4,625

Secondary complete 54.5 63.7 2,228

More than secondary 66.9 75.2 1,122

Wealth quintile

Lowest 37.0 50.4 1,950

Second 45.2 53.9 1,991

Middle 48.4 56.0 2,136

Fourth 52.0 60.6 2,085

Highest 59.8 72.3 2,175

Total 15+ 48.8 58.9 10,336

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been 

suppressed.

1 Excludes potatoes
310 • Adult Nutrition

Table 17.5 Consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and fruit juice 

Percentage of respondents age 15 and older who drank any sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) the day preceding the survey, and among respondents 

who drank any SSB, the average quantity consumed; and percentage of respondents who drank any fruit juice the day preceding the survey, and 

among respondents who drank fruit juice, the average quantity consumed, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage 

who drank 

any SSB1

Number of 

respondents

Among respondents who 

drank any SSB1

Percentage 

who drank 

any fruit juice

Number of 

respondents

Among respondents who 

drank fruit juice

Background 

characteristic

Average 

quantity 

consumed 

(ml)

Number of 

respondents

Average 

quantity 

consumed 

(ml)

Number of 

respondents

Age

15-24 42.1 2,670 581.7 1,124 13.9 2,670 305.8 370

15-19 39.8 1,371 494.5 546 14.0 1,371 328.0 191

20-24 44.4 1,299 664.2 577 13.8 1,299 281.9 179

25-34 42.5 2,353 681.2 1,001 16.4 2,353 311.6 386

35-44 36.5 1,766 668.7 645 12.5 1,766 329.0 221

45-54 31.0 1,358 551.1 421 14.6 1,358 283.0 198

55-64 26.9 1,106 522.8 297 12.3 1,106 285.7 136

65+ 18.8 1,083 428.3 204 13.0 1,083 285.3 141

Population group

Black African 36.1 8,704 607.2 3,142 12.9 8,704 303.5 1,120

White 29.0 577 489.4 167 24.4 577 288.2 141

Coloured 37.7 851 693.0 321 17.7 851 302.9 151

Indian/Asian 30.2 196 (484.0) 59 20.1 196 (377.1) 39

Other * 9 * 3 * 9 * 1

Sex

Male 39.9 4,210 659.1 1,678 12.5 4,210 319.5 527

Female 32.9 6,126 563.8 2,014 15.1 6,126 295.0 925

Employment (past 

12 months)

Not employed 30.9 6,237 579.4 1,928 12.7 6,237 308.3 790

Employed for cash 45.0 3,457 629.7 1,555 16.4 3,457 303.1 566

Employed not for cash 32.6 642 695.8 209 14.9 642 271.5 96

Body mass index

Underweight (BMI

<18.5) 34.9 415 791.7 145 11.9 415 483.6 49

Normal (BMI 18.5-24.9) 36.2 3,223 587.7 1,166 12.9 3,223 286.1 417

Overweight 

(BMI 25.0-29.9) 34.7 1,862 635.9 646 12.9 1,862 302.4 240

Obese (BMI ≥30.0) 33.0 2,247 611.6 740 15.5 2,247 308.7 349

Not eligible (pregnant 

or recent birth) 40.0 215 363.6 86 21.4 215 (276.2) 46

Not measured in 

survey 38.3 2,374 601.7 909 14.8 2,374 299.6 351

Residence

Urban 37.1 6,870 656.6 2,548 15.7 6,870 301.6 1,076

Non-urban 33.0 3,466 497.0 1,144 10.9 3,466 310.2 376

Province

Western Cape 37.0 1,178 646.6 436 18.9 1,178 279.4 222

Eastern Cape 29.1 1,223 622.2 356 14.0 1,223 336.2 172

Northern Cape 37.3 212 700.3 79 13.6 212 344.9 29

Free State 29.8 532 1,359.9 159 11.1 532 379.8 59

KwaZulu-Natal 31.5 1,874 472.7 589 14.0 1,874 319.8 263

North West 45.3 708 573.1 321 12.6 708 301.2 90

Gauteng 36.7 2,779 625.3 1,021 14.3 2,779 294.4 398

Mpumalanga 41.7 799 632.5 333 13.9 799 282.9 111

Limpopo 38.6 1,032 391.2 398 10.5 1,032 270.7 109

Education

No education 20.5 712 502.0 146 4.5 712 (294.1) 32

Primary incomplete 27.0 1,145 555.1 310 9.0 1,145 308.1 103

Primary complete 31.6 504 698.1 160 8.5 504 271.6 43

Secondary incomplete 36.5 4,625 625.4 1,686 13.0 4,625 306.7 599

Secondary complete 40.8 2,228 611.5 909 17.0 2,228 308.3 380

More than secondary 43.0 1,122 570.4 482 26.3 1,122 296.8 295

Wealth quintile

Lowest 28.0 1,950 551.2 545 8.7 1,950 313.4 169

Second 35.5 1,991 642.3 707 10.8 1,991 314.8 215

Middle 38.0 2,136 571.1 812 12.7 2,136 288.4 271

Fourth 37.0 2,085 620.2 772 14.7 2,085 289.8 307

Highest 39.3 2,175 636.3 856 22.5 2,175 313.2 489

Total 15+ 35.7 10,336 607.2 3,692 14.0 10,336 303.9 1,452

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases 

and has been suppressed.

1 Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) include fizzy drinks such as sodas or drinks such as Squash where water is added, but not diet or unsweetened 

cold drinks 
Adult Nutrition • 311

Table 17.6 Consumption of fried and processed foods

Percentage of respondents age 15 and older who consume fried foods, fast foods, salty snacks, or processed meats every day or at least once a 

week, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage who 

consume fried foods:

Percentage who 

consume fast foods:

Percentage who 

consume salty snacks:

Percentage who 

consume processed 

meats:

Number of 

respondents

Background 

characteristic Every day

At least 

once a 

week1 Every day

At least 

once a 

week1 Every day

At least 

once a 

week1 Every day

At least 

once a 

week1

Age

15-24 14.9 39.3 2.9 21.0 25.2 32.7 20.4 30.5 2,670

15-19 15.3 39.3 2.4 18.9 31.6 31.1 22.3 30.0 1,371

20-24 14.5 39.2 3.4 23.3 18.6 34.3 18.3 30.9 1,299

25-34 11.1 41.0 2.9 24.4 14.1 33.6 18.2 32.3 2,353

35-44 9.4 38.3 2.1 20.1 8.7 31.4 14.6 31.3 1,766

45-54 8.7 35.3 2.4 14.8 5.7 25.5 10.2 27.6 1,358

55-64 4.9 28.7 1.7 10.2 4.6 18.5 5.6 23.8 1,106

65+ 4.4 26.8 1.3 8.3 3.5 16.9 5.4 19.1 1,083

Population group

Black African 10.1 35.4 2.3 17.6 12.6 27.9 14.5 28.3 8,704

White 8.0 42.9 3.0 23.1 6.4 33.3 11.5 23.9 577

Coloured 12.6 40.1 3.1 18.9 20.3 29.8 15.8 36.0 851

Indian/Asian 7.2 53.9 2.3 34.8 8.7 39.5 12.4 33.6 196

Other * * * * * * * * 9

Sex

Male 11.9 39.9 2.5 17.7 11.0 26.4 15.3 29.5 4,210

Female 8.9 34.2 2.4 18.8 14.0 30.0 13.7 28.3 6,126

Employment (past 

12 months)

Not employed 9.6 33.3 2.1 16.1 13.6 26.8 13.4 27.4 6,237

Employed for cash 11.9 42.8 3.3 23.4 12.7 32.3 17.4 31.7 3,457

Employed not for cash 5.8 34.8 1.1 12.8 6.0 25.0 8.1 26.2 642

Body mass index

Underweight (BMI <18.5) 11.5 39.5 2.7 11.3 18.5 25.9 12.9 24.4 415

Normal (BMI 18.5-24.9) 10.8 36.2 2.4 16.5 13.6 27.9 12.7 28.6 3,223

Overweight 

(BMI 25.0-29.9) 8.6 33.0 1.9 18.2 10.3 28.4 13.1 28.2 1,862

Obese (BMI ≥30.0) 8.5 36.4 2.6 18.6 10.5 28.9 13.6 28.7 2,247

Not eligible (pregnant or 

recent birth) 6.4 40.1 0.7 23.9 21.9 30.4 18.6 36.3 215

Not measured in survey 12.1 39.1 2.7 21.4 14.1 29.5 18.4 29.5 2,374

Residence

Urban 11.5 38.9 2.9 21.0 14.1 29.4 17.3 30.1 6,870

Non-urban 7.3 31.9 1.5 13.2 10.3 26.9 8.6 26.0 3,466

Province

Western Cape 12.0 39.3 3.1 16.6 20.0 29.7 16.9 32.9 1,178

Eastern Cape 8.8 24.9 1.5 12.2 11.3 23.1 9.6 24.2 1,223

Northern Cape 6.7 38.2 1.3 18.1 13.3 25.0 6.2 35.5 212

Free State 9.6 38.6 2.4 18.5 13.2 30.8 12.8 29.8 532

KwaZulu-Natal 10.6 38.1 2.5 22.0 9.0 29.8 15.4 32.2 1,874

North West 6.8 40.6 1.2 16.0 15.7 35.6 11.5 33.4 708

Gauteng 11.6 38.9 3.6 22.2 13.4 27.7 19.7 26.2 2,779

Mpumalanga 12.4 41.3 2.1 23.0 13.0 34.5 12.5 37.4 799

Limpopo 6.1 30.1 0.5 8.6 9.5 24.0 7.1 18.2 1,032

Education

No education 4.2 22.0 2.3 7.3 4.3 16.0 4.0 17.7 712

Primary incomplete 6.5 26.1 1.5 9.3 4.8 19.0 5.5 20.3 1,145

Primary complete 5.8 35.4 1.4 11.6 9.2 24.4 8.6 25.8 504

Secondary incomplete 11.6 35.7 2.0 17.1 16.0 28.5 15.2 30.1 4,625

Secondary complete 11.5 43.3 3.1 24.5 13.7 33.8 19.4 32.9 2,228

More than secondary 10.9 47.0 4.0 30.7 13.1 38.0 19.3 32.1 1,122

Wealth quintile

Lowest 6.3 26.7 1.0 10.3 8.3 20.9 5.0 20.0 1,950

Second 10.0 32.9 1.8 14.7 11.1 29.0 9.9 29.7 1,991

Middle 11.7 37.5 2.2 18.6 14.6 29.0 16.2 28.4 2,136

Fourth 12.7 39.6 4.1 19.1 18.0 29.1 22.3 32.6 2,085

Highest 9.6 44.9 2.9 28.0 11.7 34.0 17.5 32.3 2,175

Total 15+ 10.1 36.5 2.4 18.3 12.8 28.5 14.4 28.8 10,336

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed. 

1 Excludes respondents who reported daily consumption
312 • Adult Nutrition

Table 17.7 Approach to salt consumption

Percentage of respondents age 15 and older who are not interested in lowering their salt consumption, percentage who are interested in lowering 

their salt consumption in the next 6 months, percentage who are interested in lowering their salt consumption in the next month, percentage who 

started lowering their salt consumption in the last 6 months, and percentage who have already lowered their salt consumption for longer than 6 

months, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Not interested in 

lowering salt 

consumption

Interested in 

lowering salt 

consumption 

within the next 

6 months

Interested in 

lowering salt 

consumption 

within the next 

month

Have started 

lowering salt 

consumption 

within the last 

6 months

Have already 

lowered salt 

consumption for 

longer than 

6 months

Number of 

respondents

Age

15-24 39.6 9.1 6.4 9.0 28.0 2,670

25-34 35.2 10.3 7.2 8.6 34.7 2,353

35-44 30.7 10.9 7.5 9.0 36.3 1,766

45-54 27.9 6.2 5.9 9.4 46.7 1,358

55-64 24.7 7.3 6.1 11.3 46.1 1,106

65+ 20.7 4.9 3.0 11.4 57.7 1,083

Population group

Black African 32.5 8.9 6.2 9.5 37.5 8,704

White 31.1 6.7 4.8 8.3 47.3 577

Coloured 24.3 8.2 8.6 9.9 43.8 851

Indian/Asian 45.2 7.2 4.2 9.6 32.8 196

Other * * * * * 9

Sex

Male 42.8 7.3 5.7 6.8 29.5 4,210

Female 24.5 9.6 6.7 11.3 44.6 6,126

Crisps and salty snacks

Never 28.4 4.2 5.3 7.5 47.5 1,070

Occasionally 30.1 7.8 6.0 10.6 40.6 4,991

Weekly 34.3 10.8 6.3 10.1 34.4 2,950

Daily 36.9 10.9 8.5 5.6 32.0 1,324

Blood pressure status

Optimal 33.0 10.5 6.9 9.2 35.0 2,061

Normal 33.5 9.2 5.5 9.5 37.1 2,886

Elevated 29.2 7.7 5.8 9.0 44.6 2,909

Not measured in survey 32.5 7.6 7.3 10.2 35.6 2,480

Residence

Urban 30.8 10.1 6.7 9.4 37.6 6,870

Non-urban 34.2 5.9 5.4 9.6 40.2 3,466

Province

Western Cape 21.8 5.5 8.4 13.8 48.6 1,178

Eastern Cape 44.3 7.7 5.7 11.8 29.9 1,223

Northern Cape 33.5 6.8 8.7 6.2 24.7 212

Free State 34.8 8.8 9.0 12.3 34.1 532

KwaZulu-Natal 41.8 7.8 4.1 11.2 30.0 1,874

North West 32.2 7.5 8.6 6.4 42.6 708

Gauteng 25.3 13.8 7.0 7.9 36.3 2,779

Mpumalanga 36.6 3.0 4.9 2.4 50.2 799

Limpopo 23.8 6.4 4.5 9.8 51.3 1,032

Education

No education 26.4 4.1 4.5 9.4 49.4 712

Primary incomplete 32.0 6.0 3.6 8.5 44.0 1,145

Primary complete 31.9 5.6 8.4 9.3 39.4 504

Secondary incomplete 32.5 8.8 7.2 9.7 35.8 4,625

Secondary complete 33.3 11.0 6.5 9.7 35.8 2,228

More than secondary 30.7 10.6 5.3 9.1 41.7 1,122

Wealth quintile

Lowest 35.4 5.4 6.0 10.2 36.4 1,950

Second 33.1 9.1 5.4 8.8 39.0 1,991

Middle 34.5 10.0 6.5 6.9 36.0 2,136

Fourth 28.4 8.7 6.9 10.4 40.9 2,085

Highest 28.8 9.9 6.7 11.2 39.9 2,175

Total 15+ 32.0 8.7 6.3 9.5 38.4 10,336

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.
Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults • 313

TOBACCO, ALCOHOL, AND CODEINE USE 

AMONG ADULTS 18

Key Findings

 Tobacco use: Among respondents age 15 and older, 

men are more likely than women to smoke tobacco 

products daily or occasionally (37% versus 8%).

 Smokeless tobacco use: Use of smokeless tobacco 

products is more common among women than men (6% 

versus 1%).

 Alcohol use: Men are much more likely than women to 

have ever consumed alcohol (61% versus 26%). Twentyeight percent of men and 5% of women exhibited risky 

drinking; that is, they consumed five or more drinks on a 

single occasion in the 30 days before the survey.

 Codeine-containing medications: Similar proportions of 

women and men reported using (14% and 13%, 

respectively) and misusing (2% each) codeine-containing 

medications in the past 12 months.

obacco and alcohol use contribute substantially to the burden of disease in South Africa by placing 

people at increased risk for cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, and cancer; also, alcohol

use contributes to the additional burden of accidents and violence. The National Department of 

Health’s National Strategic Plan for Non-Communicable Diseases has set targets to reduce tobacco 

smoking and alcohol use (NDoH 2013b).

The misuse of prescription medications, particularly opioids, is also a growing health concern. Among the 

numerous misused opioids, codeine is most commonly consumed worldwide (Van Hout 2012). In South 

Africa, the use and/or misuse of codeine-containing medications has been understudied, and there is no 

system of recording or monitoring either over-the-counter or prescription medications purchased at 

pharmacies and retail stores (Kramer 2010). The only recorded data come from specialised substance 

abuse treatment centres; however, treatment centre data do not provide information on patterns of use 

and/or misuse of codeine-containing medications in the general population. Therefore, the SADHS 2016 

included questions on the use and misuse of codeine-containing medications in the adult health module 

administered to respondents age 15 and older.

18.1 TOBACCO USE AMONG ADULTS

18.1.1 Prevalence of Tobacco Smoking 

Tobacco smoking is more common among men than women, with 8% of women and 37% of men age 15 

and older currently smoking tobacco products either daily or occasionally (Tables 18.1.1 and 18.1.2). The 

majority of smokers are daily smokers; 6% of women and 30% of men smoke every day, and most smoke 

cigarettes. Among those who smoke cigarettes every day, the majority (75% of women and 64% of men) 

smoke between one and nine cigarettes each day, while a sizeable minority (12% of women and 18% of 

men) smoke 15 or more cigarettes per day (Table 18.2.1 and 18.2.2). 

T
314 • Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The 

prevalence of daily or occasional tobacco smoking 

has decreased since 1998, from 11% to 8% among 

women and from 42% to 37% among men

(Figure 18.1).

Patterns by background characteristics

 The prevalence of daily or occasional smoking 

increases with age, peaking at 11% among 

women age 45-64 and 45% among men age 

45-54 (Table 18.1.1 and Table 18.1.2).

 Forty percent of Coloured women smoke daily 

or occasionally, more than double the prevalence 

of any other population group and higher than 

any other percentage in a background 

characteristic category (Table 18.1.1). One-third 

to one-half of men smoke daily or occasionally 

across all population groups (ranging from 32% 

among White men to 51% among Coloured 

men).

 The prevalence of daily or occasional smoking is 

higher among urban women and men (11% and 

40%, respectively) than among their non-urban

counterparts (2% and 33%, respectively).

 Among women, the prevalence of daily or 

occasional smoking is highest in Northern Cape 

and Western Cape and lowest in Limpopo and 

KwaZulu-Natal. Among men, the prevalence is 

also highest in Northern Cape and Western Cape 

and is lowest in Limpopo (Figure 18.2.1 and

Figure 18.2.2). 

 While the prevalence of daily or occasional 

smoking is much lower among women than men, 

there is a pattern of decreasing prevalence with 

increasing education among women (women 

with a primary complete education are the only 

outlier in terms of this trend). The prevalence 

among men varies from 33% to 40%, with no 

clear pattern across educational levels.

 Among women, the prevalence of daily or 

occasional smoking generally increases with 

increasing wealth, from 5% among those in the 

lowest wealth quintile to 11% among those in 

the highest two quintiles. The prevalence by 

wealth among men varies from 36% to 41% with 

no clear pattern.

Figure 18.1 Comparison of tobacco 

smoking in the SADHS 1998 and 

SADHS 2016

Figure 18.2.1 Prevalence of smoking 

by province: Women

Percentage of women age 15+ who smoke tobacco 

daily or occasionally

Figure 18.2.2 Prevalence of smoking 

by province: Men

Percentage of men age 15+ who smoke tobacco 

daily or occasionally

11

42

8

37

Women Men

Percentage of women and men age 15+ 

who smoke tobacco daily or occasionally

SADHS 1998 SADHS 2016
Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults • 315

18.1.2 Smokeless Tobacco Use and E-cigarette Use

Men rarely use smokeless tobacco products such as snuff, chewing tobacco, or other types of smokeless 

tobacco (1%) (Table 18.3). In contrast, the percentage of women who use smokeless tobacco products 

(6%) approaches that of women who smoke cigarettes (7%). Among women, the most commonly used 

smokeless tobacco product is snuff taken by the nose (5%).

E-cigarette use is uncommon. Two percent of women and 3% of men age 15 and older use e-cigarettes

daily or occasionally (Table 18.4).

18.1.3 Tobacco Use during Pregnancy 

Using tobacco during pregnancy increases the risk of premature birth and delivery of low birth weight

babies. Three percent of women age 15-49 who had a live birth in the past 5 years reported that they 

smoked tobacco during the pregnancy of their last birth, and 1% reported that they had used smokeless 

tobacco (Table 18.5). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 Women in Western Cape were most likely to use tobacco while they were pregnant; 17% smoked 

tobacco and 3% used smokeless tobacco during their last pregnancy. Women in Northern Cape had the 

second highest prevalence (8% and 4%, respectively).

18.2 ALCOHOL USE AMONG ADULTS 

18.2.1 Alcohol Consumption, Risky Drinking, and Problem Drinking

Risky drinking

Drinking 5 or more standard measures of alcohol on a single occasion in the 

30 days prior to the survey.

Sample: Women and men age 15+

CAGE test

The CAGE (Concern/Cut-down, Anger, Guilt, and Eye-Opener) test is used to 

screen for problem drinking and alcoholism. Two “yes” responses to the 

following questions indicate the possibility of problem drinking:

 Have you ever felt you should cut down your drinking?

 Have people annoyed you by criticizing your drinking?

 Have you ever felt bad or guilty about your drinking?

 Have you ever had a drink first thing in the morning to steady your nerves 

or to get rid of a hangover (eye opener)?

Sample: Women and men age 15+

Alcohol consumption is more common among men than women (Table 18.6.1 and Table 18.6.2): 61% of 

men and 26% of women age 15 and older have ever consumed alcohol, and 37% of men and 10% of 

women drank alcohol within the 7 days before the survey. Additionally, men (28%) are more likely than 

women (5%) to engage in risky drinking. One in six men (16%) and 3% of women show signs of problem 

drinking as assessed through the CAGE test.

Comparison with the SADHS 1998: The prevalence of men who have ever consumed alcohol increased 

slightly from 58% in 1998 to 61% in 2016, while the prevalence among women remained unchanged (26%

in both 1998 and 2016).
316 • Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults

Patterns by background characteristics

 By age, the prevalence of risky and problem 

drinking peaks among women age 20-24 (9% 

and 4%, respectively) and men age 25-34 (36% 

and 22%, respectively).

 By population group, the prevalence of alcohol 

use in the past 7 days is highest among White 

women (36%) and White men (58%). However, 

the prevalence of risky and problem drinking is 

highest among Coloured women (10% and 6%, 

respectively) and Black African men (28% and 

17%, respectively). 

 By province, the prevalence of risky drinking 

among women ranges from a high of 11% in 

Northern Cape to a low of 1% in KwaZulu-Natal 

(Figure 18.3.1). Among men, the prevalence of 

risky drinking is substantial across all provinces 

and ranges from a high of 35% in Gauteng to a 

low of 21% in Limpopo (Figure 18.3.2).

 Among women, the prevalence of risky drinking 

and problem drinking ranges from 1% to 8% 

across educational levels and wealth quintiles. 

Among men, the prevalence of risky drinking

(23%-35%) and problem drinking (11%-18%) is 

high across all educational levels and wealth 

quintiles. 

18.2.2 Alcohol Use during Pregnancy

Only 3% of women age 15-49 who had a live birth in 

the past 5 years report that they consumed alcohol 

during the pregnancy of their last birth (Table 18.7). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 Women in Western Cape (7%), Eastern Cape 

(6%), and Northern Cape (6%) were most likely 

to consume alcohol during pregnancy.

18.3 USE AND MISUSE OF CODEINE-CONTAINING MEDICATIONS 

Misuse of codeine-containing medicines

Use of codeine-containing medications in the past 12 months for the 

experience or feeling rather than their medicinal effect

Sample: Women and men age 15+

Similar proportions of women and men age 15 and older reported using (14% and 13%, respectively) and 

misusing (2% each) codeine-containing medications in the 12 months before the survey (Table 18.8.1 and

Table 18.8.2).

Figure 18.3.1 Prevalence of risky 

drinking by province: Women

Percentage of women age 15+ who consumed

5 or more drinks on one occasion in 30 days 

before the survey

Figure 18.3.2 Prevalence of risky 

drinking by province: Men

Percentage of men age 15+ who consumed

5 or more drinks on one occasion in 30 days 

before the survey
Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults • 317

Among women and men who reported misuse of codeine-containing medications in the past 12 months, 

19% and 16%, respectively, received treatment for problems related to use of medicines for non-medical 

purposes.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Indian/Asian women were more likely than women in other population groups to have used (30%

versus 12%-14%) and misused (5% versus 0.3%-4%) codeine-containing medications in the past 12 

months. Coloured men (21%) and Indian/Asian men (20%) were more likely than men in other 

population groups to have used codeine-containing medications, and Coloured men were most likely 

to have misused them (3% versus 0%-1%).

 By residence, the proportion of women who used codeine-containing medications is higher among 

those in urban areas than among those in non-urban areas (17% and 9%, respectively), while the 

proportion among men is similar in urban and non-urban areas (14% and 11%, respectively).

 North West has the highest proportion of women who used and misused codeine-containing 

medications (25% and 5%, respectively), followed by Gauteng (23% and 4%, respectively). While 

only 10% of women in Western Cape report using codeine-containing medications, the level of misuse

among these women is similar to that among women in North West and Gauteng (4%). Among men, 

those from Northern Cape (32%) are most likely to use codeine-containing medications and those from

Mpumalanga are most likely to misuse them (5%).

 Among women, use of codeine-containing medications increases with increasing household wealth, 

from 7% to 19%; misuse of codeine-containing medications generally increases as well, peaking at 4% 

among those in the fourth quintile. Among men, use of codeine-containing medications also generally 

increases with increasing household wealth, peaking at 18% among those in the fourth wealth quintile;

however, there is no clear pattern by wealth in misuse of codeine-containing medications.

LIST OF TABLES 

For more information on tobacco, alcohol, and codeine use, see the following tables:

 Table 18.1.1 Tobacco smoking: Women

 Table 18.1.2 Tobacco smoking: Men

 Table 18.2.1 Average number of cigarettes smoked daily: Women

 Table 18.2.2 Average number of cigarettes smoked daily: Men

 Table 18.3 Smokeless tobacco use and any tobacco use

 Table 18.4 E-cigarette use

 Table 18.5 Tobacco use during pregnancy

 Table 18.6.1 Alcohol consumption and risky drinking: Women

 Table 18.6.2 Alcohol consumption and risky drinking: Men

 Table 18.7 Alcohol consumption during pregnancy

 Table 18.8.1 Use and misuse of codeine-containing medications: Women

 Table 18.8.2 Use and misuse of codeine-containing medications: Men
318 • Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults

Table 18.1.1 Tobacco smoking: Women

Percentage of women age 15 and older who smoke various tobacco products, percent distribution of women by smoking frequency, and percentage 

who smoke daily or occasionally, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage who smoke:1

Smoking frequency

Total

Percentage 

who smoke 

daily or 

occasionally

Number of 

women

Current smoker Non-smoker

Background 

characteristic Cigarettes2

Other 

type of 

tobacco3

Any 

type of 

tobacco

Daily 

smoker

Occasional 

smoker4

ExsmokerNever 

smoked

Age

15-24 4.1 1.0 4.4 2.9 2.1 1.8 93.3 100.0 4.9 1,429

15-19 3.5 1.3 4.0 2.9 1.2 1.2 94.7 100.0 4.1 721

20-24 4.8 0.8 4.9 2.8 3.0 2.4 91.8 100.0 5.8 708

25-34 7.1 1.0 7.1 6.5 1.3 0.9 91.3 100.0 7.8 1,391

35-44 5.8 0.3 5.8 5.9 1.1 1.4 91.6 100.0 7.0 1,022

45-54 8.5 0.7 9.1 9.4 1.6 1.6 87.4 100.0 11.0 866

55-64 9.9 1.2 10.1 10.2 1.1 2.8 85.9 100.0 11.3 701

65+ 6.3 0.2 6.5 5.8 2.0 3.4 88.8 100.0 7.8 719

Population group

Black African 3.0 0.6 3.1 2.9 1.2 1.2 94.7 100.0 4.1 5,170

White 15.0 0.8 15.0 14.4 2.5 6.6 76.5 100.0 16.8 320

Coloured 38.1 2.1 38.7 35.3 4.3 4.8 55.6 100.0 39.6 516

Indian/Asian 3.1 2.6 5.7 5.7 1.3 3.4 89.6 100.0 7.0 114

Other * * * * * * * 100.0 * 6

Residence

Urban 9.3 1.1 9.6 8.7 2.1 2.2 87.0 100.0 10.8 3,996

Non-urban 1.6 0.3 1.7 1.8 0.5 1.1 96.6 100.0 2.3 2,130

Province

Western Cape 25.1 1.1 25.3 23.5 2.9 3.2 70.4 100.0 26.4 703

Eastern Cape 6.8 0.7 6.9 5.6 1.9 2.0 90.4 100.0 7.5 730

Northern Cape 17.8 2.3 19.4 18.1 3.3 3.5 75.1 100.0 21.4 127

Free State 5.5 0.3 5.7 7.0 1.0 1.7 90.3 100.0 8.0 325

KwaZulu-Natal 1.9 0.5 2.1 1.8 0.4 0.5 97.2 100.0 2.3 1,191

North West 3.5 0.4 3.8 3.5 1.2 2.0 93.4 100.0 4.6 398

Gauteng 4.5 1.3 4.8 4.7 1.8 2.0 91.5 100.0 6.5 1,534

Mpumalanga 5.2 0.4 5.2 3.9 2.2 3.0 91.0 100.0 6.0 473

Limpopo 1.3 0.4 1.3 1.3 0.7 0.8 97.2 100.0 2.0 646

Education

No education 7.9 1.4 8.3 9.3 1.3 2.1 87.2 100.0 10.6 495

Primary 

incomplete 7.7 0.3 7.7 6.8 3.0 2.6 87.7 100.0 9.7 664

Primary complete 4.8 0.1 4.9 4.3 0.8 0.1 94.7 100.0 5.1 293

Secondary 

incomplete 6.8 0.9 7.2 6.6 1.6 1.5 90.2 100.0 8.2 2,695

Secondary 

complete 6.2 1.0 6.2 5.7 0.9 1.5 91.9 100.0 6.6 1,328

More than 

secondary 5.3 0.3 5.3 4.5 1.5 3.2 90.7 100.0 6.0 652

Wealth quintile

Lowest 3.3 0.4 3.4 3.0 1.9 0.6 94.6 100.0 4.9 1,163

Second 2.7 0.5 2.7 2.6 1.4 0.9 95.1 100.0 4.1 1,152

Middle 6.7 0.6 6.8 6.1 1.7 1.8 90.4 100.0 7.8 1,242

Fourth 10.0 1.0 10.1 9.3 1.4 2.4 86.9 100.0 10.7 1,258

Highest 9.7 1.4 10.3 9.9 1.2 3.2 85.7 100.0 11.1 1,311

Total 15+ 6.6 0.8 6.8 6.3 1.5 1.8 90.3 100.0 7.8 6,126

Total 15-49 5.7 0.8 5.9 5.2 1.6 1.4 91.9 100.0 6.7 4,300

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1

Includes daily and occasional (less than daily) use

2

Includes manufactured cigarettes and hand-rolled cigarettes

3

Includes pipes, cigars, cigarillos, hookah/hubbly-bubbly/water pipes, and other tobacco products

4 Occasional refers to less often than daily use 
Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults • 319

Table 18.1.2 Tobacco smoking: Men

Percentage of men age 15 and older who smoke various tobacco products, percent distribution of men by smoking frequency, and percentage who 

smoke daily or occasionally, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage who smoke:1

Smoking frequency

Total

Percentage 

who smoke 

daily or 

occasionally

Number of 

men

Current smoker Non-smoker

Background 

characteristic Cigarettes2

Other 

type of 

tobacco3

Any 

type of 

tobacco

Daily 

smoker

Occasional 

smoker4

ExsmokerNever 

smoked

Age

15-24 28.4 6.5 28.7 20.8 8.2 4.1 66.9 100.0 28.9 1,241

15-19 17.7 3.7 18.1 10.7 7.6 4.3 77.5 100.0 18.2 651

20-24 40.1 9.6 40.4 31.8 8.9 4.0 55.3 100.0 40.7 591

25-34 42.8 5.9 43.2 36.8 6.7 5.7 50.8 100.0 43.5 962

35-44 43.3 3.1 43.7 36.1 7.8 6.7 49.3 100.0 43.9 744

45-54 44.2 4.8 44.7 38.7 6.3 9.6 45.4 100.0 45.0 492

55-64 35.9 3.0 37.3 32.8 4.9 15.3 46.9 100.0 37.8 406

65+ 22.9 4.2 24.7 21.0 4.0 16.2 58.9 100.0 24.9 364

Population group

Black African 35.5 4.9 36.1 29.2 7.1 7.5 56.2 100.0 36.3 3,534

White 31.3 2.5 31.8 26.1 6.1 12.2 55.6 100.0 32.2 257

Coloured 49.3 9.4 50.5 45.3 5.5 8.1 41.1 100.0 50.8 335

Indian/Asian 39.0 0.0 39.0 34.6 6.1 2.7 56.7 100.0 40.6 82

Other * * * * * * * 100.0 * 2

Residence

Urban 38.9 4.9 39.2 32.5 7.0 6.8 53.8 100.0 39.5 2,874

Non-urban 31.0 5.4 32.5 26.0 6.6 9.7 57.6 100.0 32.6 1,336

Province

Western Cape 42.5 7.0 42.9 36.0 7.2 9.6 47.3 100.0 43.2 476

Eastern Cape 39.4 3.9 40.1 29.4 11.6 11.1 47.8 100.0 41.0 493

Northern Cape 44.2 3.6 44.9 41.0 3.9 2.4 52.7 100.0 44.9 84

Free State 39.7 11.2 40.4 35.0 5.8 2.2 57.0 100.0 40.9 207

KwaZulu-Natal 34.6 5.1 34.9 29.1 6.1 5.6 59.1 100.0 35.2 683

North West 31.6 3.0 31.7 29.4 2.6 10.0 58.0 100.0 32.0 310

Gauteng 37.6 3.1 37.6 30.8 6.8 6.4 56.0 100.0 37.6 1,245

Mpumalanga 36.3 8.9 39.9 35.0 5.1 3.8 56.1 100.0 40.2 326

Limpopo 25.0 5.4 26.4 18.1 8.3 14.5 59.1 100.0 26.4 386

Education

No education 31.3 6.5 34.7 30.0 5.1 12.3 52.7 100.0 35.0 217

Primary 

incomplete 38.8 5.7 39.9 35.3 4.8 9.5 50.5 100.0 40.0 481

Primary complete 35.6 3.9 36.4 30.8 5.6 12.2 51.4 100.0 36.4 212

Secondary 

incomplete 38.6 5.9 39.0 31.7 7.7 6.3 54.2 100.0 39.4 1,930

Secondary 

complete 34.2 4.0 34.5 27.7 6.9 4.9 60.5 100.0 34.6 900

More than 

secondary 32.0 2.8 32.5 25.4 7.1 12.7 54.8 100.0 32.5 470

Wealth quintile

Lowest 39.5 5.7 40.7 32.6 8.3 6.9 52.2 100.0 40.9 787

Second 35.6 4.8 36.3 30.3 6.5 7.6 55.6 100.0 36.8 839

Middle 35.1 5.7 35.6 28.7 7.1 7.7 56.4 100.0 35.8 894

Fourth 37.0 6.0 37.5 30.8 6.8 6.8 55.6 100.0 37.7 827

Highest 35.1 3.1 35.5 29.9 5.7 9.4 54.9 100.0 35.6 864

Total 15+ 36.4 5.0 37.0 30.4 6.9 7.7 55.0 100.0 37.3 4,210

Total 15-49 37.1 5.4 37.5 30.4 7.4 5.9 56.3 100.0 37.8 3,220

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1

Includes daily and occasional (less than daily) use

2

Includes manufactured cigarettes and hand-rolled cigarettes

3

Includes pipes, cigars, cigarillos, hookah/hubbly-bubbly/water pipes, and other tobacco products

4 Occasional refers to less often than daily use 
320 • Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults

Table 18.2.1 Average number of cigarettes smoked daily: Women

Among women age 15 and older who smoke cigarettes daily, percent distribution by average number of cigarettes smoked per day,

according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Average number of cigarettes smoked per day1

Total

Number of 

women who 

smoke 

cigarettes daily1

Background 

characteristic <5 5-9 10-14 15+

Age

15-24 (39.6) (41.8) (11.5) (7.0) 100.0 35

15-19 * * * * 100.0 17

20-24 * * * * 100.0 18

25-34 51.1 24.1 18.5 6.3 100.0 84

35-44 45.6 29.4 17.7 7.3 100.0 52

45-54 47.1 15.5 15.1 22.3 100.0 66

55-64 57.0 25.6 6.7 10.6 100.0 62

65+ (26.0) (46.9) (9.9) (17.2) 100.0 32

Population group

Black African 58.3 35.6 5.2 0.9 100.0 105

White (29.1) (7.0) (8.9) (55.0) 100.0 42

Coloured 45.7 27.4 19.1 7.8 100.0 178

Indian/Asian * * * * 100.0 4

Other * * * * 100.0 1

Residence

Urban 46.4 27.7 14.6 11.3 100.0 307

Non-urban (52.9) (26.5) (5.5) (15.1) 100.0 24

Wealth quintile

Lowest (42.9) (45.2) (11.9) (0.0) 100.0 23

Second (49.1) (34.5) (9.6) (6.8) 100.0 18

Middle 51.3 31.6 9.9 7.2 100.0 64

Fourth 50.1 25.7 15.0 9.3 100.0 109

Highest 42.1 22.6 16.2 19.2 100.0 117

Total 15+ 46.9 27.6 13.9 11.6 100.0 331

Total 15-49 47.7 26.2 17.3 8.7 100.0 198

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 

unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1

Includes manufactured cigarettes and hand-rolled cigarettes 
Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults • 321

Table 18.2.2 Average number of cigarettes smoked daily: Men

Among men age 15 and older who smoke cigarettes daily, percent distribution by average number of cigarettes smoked per day, 

according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Average number of cigarettes smoked per day1

Total

Number of 

men who 

smoke 

cigarettes 

daily1

Background 

characteristic <5 5-9 10-14 15-24 ≥25

Age

15-24 37.9 40.0 10.6 8.0 3.5 100.0 246

15-19 44.4 34.0 6.7 10.7 4.3 100.0 65

20-24 35.5 42.1 12.0 7.1 3.2 100.0 181

25-34 26.2 37.9 20.1 13.5 2.3 100.0 348

35-44 28.5 28.9 20.1 20.3 2.3 100.0 263

45-54 27.5 34.0 23.1 11.8 3.6 100.0 182

55-64 24.2 34.9 18.3 17.4 5.2 100.0 126

65+ 23.1 29.4 21.4 22.8 3.4 100.0 69

Population group

Black African 30.8 38.5 17.2 11.6 1.9 100.0 993

White (13.5) (7.5) (21.4) (46.9) (10.8) 100.0 65

Coloured 25.6 23.6 25.2 20.6 5.0 100.0 149

Indian/Asian * * * * * 100.0 28

Other nc nc nc nc nc nc 0

Residence

Urban 27.1 32.6 21.0 16.0 3.4 100.0 909

Non-urban 33.7 41.8 11.8 10.6 2.2 100.0 325

Province

Western Cape 23.4 23.2 26.9 21.9 4.6 100.0 167

Eastern Cape 24.4 33.6 19.8 16.4 5.7 100.0 140

Northern Cape 28.3 42.7 16.9 10.3 1.9 100.0 34

Free State 44.7 35.9 9.7 7.2 2.5 100.0 69

KwaZulu-Natal 21.6 46.6 18.3 8.6 5.0 100.0 187

North West 39.8 38.8 10.6 7.5 3.3 100.0 89

Gauteng 26.4 33.6 20.4 18.4 1.2 100.0 380

Mpumalanga 42.9 27.4 19.2 9.9 0.5 100.0 104

Limpopo 32.2 45.7 4.7 13.4 4.0 100.0 65

Education

No education 49.9 31.9 9.6 4.5 4.1 100.0 56

Primary incomplete 39.2 39.0 9.1 10.8 1.9 100.0 161

Primary complete 13.9 25.1 37.7 18.3 5.0 100.0 63

Secondary 

incomplete 26.8 38.7 18.0 13.7 2.8 100.0 596

Secondary complete 28.2 27.4 21.3 19.7 3.3 100.0 239

More than secondary 24.0 33.7 22.3 16.1 3.9 100.0 118

Wealth quintile

Lowest 29.2 38.4 15.4 13.8 3.2 100.0 244

Second 32.3 39.1 14.8 11.3 2.6 100.0 240

Middle 25.6 40.0 20.7 11.9 1.9 100.0 248

Fourth 35.7 30.8 20.5 10.1 3.0 100.0 245

Highest 21.7 27.3 21.1 25.1 4.7 100.0 257

Total 15+ 28.8 35.0 18.5 14.5 3.1 100.0 1,234

Total 15-49 30.4 34.8 18.4 13.6 2.9 100.0 951

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 

unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

nc = No cases

1

Includes manufactured cigarettes and hand-rolled cigarettes 
322 • Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults

Table 18.3 Smokeless tobacco use and any tobacco use

Percentage of women and men age 15 and older who currently 

use smokeless tobacco, according to type of tobacco product, and 

percentage who use any type of tobacco, South Africa DHS 2016 

Women Men

Tobacco product

Snuff, by mouth 2.3 0.7

Snuff, by nose 4.8 1.0

Chewing tobacco 0.3 0.2

Other type of smokeless tobacco 0.0 0.1

Any type of smokeless tobacco1 5.7 1.1

Any type of tobacco2 12.6 38.1

Number 6,126 4,210

Note: Table includes women and men who use smokeless 

tobacco daily or occasionally (less than daily).

1

Includes snuff by mouth, snuff by nose, chewing tobacco, and 

other types of smokeless tobacco

2

Includes all types of smokeless tobacco shown in this table plus 

cigarettes, pipes, cigars, cheroots, cigarillos, hookah/hubblybubbly/water pipes, and other tobacco products 

Table 18.4 E-cigarette use

Percentage of women and men age 15 and older who use e-cigarettes by frequency of use, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Women Men

Background 

characteristic Daily

Occasionally Not at all Number DailyOccasionally Not at all Number

Age

15-24 0.4 2.1 97.5 1,429 0.4 2.4 97.2 1,241

15-19 0.6 2.9 96.5 721 0.0 2.0 98.0 651

20-24 0.1 1.3 98.5 708 0.8 2.9 96.3 591

25-34 1.0 1.5 97.5 1,391 1.5 1.7 96.9 962

35-44 0.2 1.9 97.8 1,022 0.6 1.3 98.1 744

45-54 0.1 0.7 99.2 866 1.9 1.7 96.4 492

55-64 0.9 2.0 97.1 701 0.4 1.6 98.0 406

65+ 0.1 1.9 98.0 719 0.8 1.0 98.2 364

Population group

Black African 0.2 1.8 98.0 5,170 0.5 1.8 97.7 3,534

White 1.5 1.8 96.8 320 2.4 0.3 97.3 257

Coloured 2.4 0.6 97.0 516 4.1 2.1 93.8 335

Indian/Asian 2.6 2.3 95.1 114 0.0 1.6 98.4 82

Other * * * 6 * * * 2

Residence

Urban 0.7 1.7 97.6 3,996 1.1 1.9 97.1 2,874

Non-urban 0.1 1.7 98.2 2,130 0.4 1.6 98.0 1,336

Province

Western Cape 1.9 0.4 97.7 703 4.3 2.4 93.3 476

Eastern Cape 0.0 0.8 99.2 730 0.9 0.7 98.4 493

Northern Cape 0.0 0.7 99.3 127 0.4 0.6 99.1 84

Free State 0.3 2.6 97.1 325 0.0 1.4 98.6 207

KwaZulu-Natal 0.4 2.1 97.5 1,191 0.1 1.5 98.4 683

North West 0.0 0.8 99.2 398 0.6 0.7 98.8 310

Gauteng 0.3 2.2 97.5 1,534 0.2 1.9 97.9 1,245

Mpumalanga 0.8 1.6 97.6 473 0.6 1.7 97.7 326

Limpopo 0.3 2.6 97.2 646 1.3 3.8 94.9 386

Education

No education 0.0 1.6 98.4 495 1.2 2.1 96.7 217

Primary incomplete 0.1 1.4 98.5 664 0.7 1.0 98.3 481

Primary complete 0.0 1.5 98.5 293 1.6 0.6 97.7 212

Secondary incomplete 0.7 1.9 97.4 2,695 0.9 2.1 97.0 1,930

Secondary complete 0.7 2.2 97.1 1,328 0.7 2.3 97.1 900

More than secondary 0.1 0.5 99.4 652 1.0 0.5 98.5 470

Wealth quintile

Lowest 0.0 1.0 99.0 1,163 0.3 1.0 98.8 787

Second 0.0 2.2 97.8 1,152 1.2 2.5 96.3 839

Middle 0.2 1.8 98.0 1,242 0.8 2.0 97.2 894

Fourth 0.8 1.4 97.8 1,258 1.1 2.1 96.8 827

Highest 1.2 2.1 96.7 1,311 1.0 1.2 97.8 864

Total 15+ 0.5 1.7 97.8 6,126 0.9 1.8 97.4 4,210

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed. 
Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults • 323

Table 18.5 Tobacco use during pregnancy

Among women age 15-49 who had a live birth in the past 5 years, percentage who reported that they smoked tobacco 

during their most recent pregnancy and percentage who reported that they used smokeless tobacco during their most 

recent pregnancy, by frequency of use, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage who smoked 

tobacco

Percentage who used 

smokeless tobacco

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic Not at all Daily

Occasionally Not at all DailyOccasionally

Age

15-19 97.7 0.8 1.5 100.0 0.0 0.0 100

20-34 97.8 1.5 0.7 98.9 0.8 0.3 1,151

35-49 96.0 2.1 1.9 97.8 2.0 0.2 323

ANC service1

Asked about smoking tobacco 97.2 1.8 1.0 98.9 1.0 0.1 1,372

Not asked about smoking tobacco 98.0 0.0 2.0 98.9 0.9 0.2 112

Residence

Urban 96.3 2.3 1.4 98.9 0.7 0.4 1,021

Non-urban 99.5 0.3 0.2 98.5 1.5 0.0 552

Province

Western Cape 83.0 10.1 6.9 97.1 2.9 0.0 129

Eastern Cape 95.9 2.9 1.2 98.0 2.0 0.0 165

Northern Cape 92.3 5.2 2.5 95.7 2.1 2.1 31

Free State 97.7 0.0 2.3 97.1 1.5 1.4 69

KwaZulu-Natal 99.5 0.5 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 291

North West 97.3 1.6 1.1 96.8 3.2 0.0 125

Gauteng 100.0 0.0 0.0 99.4 0.0 0.6 453

Mpumalanga 97.6 1.6 0.8 98.3 1.7 0.0 150

Limpopo 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 161

Education

No education * * * * * * 22

Primary incomplete 94.1 3.9 2.0 92.5 6.8 0.7 75

Primary complete 95.4 1.3 3.3 99.6 0.4 0.0 63

Secondary incomplete 96.7 2.1 1.2 98.7 0.9 0.5 778

Secondary complete 98.8 0.9 0.2 99.7 0.3 0.0 474

More than secondary 99.0 0.0 1.0 99.9 0.0 0.1 161

Wealth quintile

Lowest 98.4 1.1 0.4 98.3 1.6 0.1 342

Second 98.7 0.2 1.1 99.2 0.8 0.0 370

Middle 95.7 2.4 1.9 98.4 0.6 1.0 358

Fourth 95.8 3.7 0.5 98.1 1.6 0.3 277

Highest 98.4 0.5 1.1 100.0 0.0 0.0 227

Total 15-49 97.4 1.6 1.0 98.8 1.0 0.3 1,574

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1 Excludes women who did not receive ANC 
324 • Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults

Table 18.6.1 Alcohol consumption and risky drinking: Women

Percentage of women age 15 and older who ever drank alcohol, who drank alcohol in the past 12 months, who drank 

alcohol in the past 7 days, who consumed 5 or more drinks on at least one occasion in the past 30 days, and who show 

signs of problem drinking as assessed by the CAGE test, according to background characteristics, South Africa 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Ever drank 

alcohol

Drank alcohol 

in past 

12 months

Drank alcohol 

in past

7 days

Consumed 5 

or more 

drinks on at 

least one 

occasion in 

past 30 days1

Show signs 

of problem 

drinking by 

the CAGE 

test2

Number of 

women

Age

15-24 29.3 20.9 8.3 5.1 3.1 1,429

 15-19 23.4 16.3 5.3 1.6 2.4 721

 20-24 35.2 25.6 11.3 8.6 3.9 708

25-34 29.2 22.6 11.3 6.1 3.3 1,391

35-44 25.1 17.0 9.5 6.0 3.1 1,022

45-54 22.1 15.5 10.5 4.4 2.2 866

55-64 21.3 16.0 11.2 3.7 2.7 701

65+ 20.8 13.1 9.2 2.0 1.1 719

Population group

Black African 22.2 15.7 7.7 4.5 2.6 5,170

White 58.2 48.9 36.1 4.2 1.6 320

Coloured 42.9 28.6 17.6 10.2 5.6 516

Indian/Asian 13.2 9.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 114

Other * * * * * 6

Employment (past 12 months)

Not employed 22.9 15.9 8.3 4.4 2.9 4,048

Employed for cash 31.5 24.1 12.9 6.0 2.7 1,560

Employed not for cash 29.2 20.9 13.7 4.4 1.3 518

Residence

Urban 30.8 22.4 12.3 6.0 3.2 3,996

Non-urban 16.0 11.0 5.5 2.6 2.0 2,130

Province

Western Cape 38.1 27.3 18.0 9.0 4.8 703

Eastern Cape 27.7 19.9 10.1 4.9 3.3 730

Northern Cape 40.3 27.4 13.6 10.9 6.8 127

Free State 29.3 22.2 12.1 6.0 4.6 325

KwaZulu-Natal 12.8 10.1 4.8 1.4 1.0 1,191

North West 26.9 20.6 12.5 8.7 6.6 398

Gauteng 30.8 22.0 12.0 5.2 2.0 1,534

Mpumalanga 30.7 19.1 7.2 4.7 2.6 473

Limpopo 12.2 8.1 4.0 1.5 1.0 646

Education

No education 19.4 13.5 10.2 6.9 2.7 495

Primary incomplete 16.4 10.3 5.4 2.3 2.6 664

Primary complete 19.1 9.9 6.0 1.7 0.9 293

Secondary incomplete 24.6 17.3 8.2 5.2 3.5 2,695

Secondary complete 28.8 21.7 12.2 5.6 1.8 1,328

More than secondary 40.9 32.3 18.6 4.2 2.4 652

Wealth quintile

Lowest 16.5 11.7 5.2 3.7 1.9 1,163

Second 20.3 14.3 6.9 3.7 3.6 1,152

Middle 24.7 17.6 8.8 5.5 3.5 1,242

Fourth 30.1 21.3 11.9 8.0 3.5 1,258

Highest 35.1 25.9 15.9 3.2 1.3 1,311

Total 15+ 25.7 18.4 9.9 4.8 2.7 6,126

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1 Respondents who consumed 0-1 drinks in the 7 days before the interview and who reported drinking 3 or fewer days per 

month over the past 12 months were assumed not to have consumed 5 or more drinks in the past 30 days

2 The CAGE (Concern/Cut-down, Anger, Guilt, and Eye-Opener) test is used to screen for problem drinking and alcoholism. 

Two "yes" responses indicate the possibility of alcoholism and should be investigated further. 
Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults • 325

Table 18.6.2 Alcohol consumption and risky drinking: Men

Percentage of men age 15 and older who ever drank alcohol, who drank alcohol in the past 12 months, who drank alcohol 

in the past 7 days, who consumed 5 or more drinks on at least one occasion in the past 30 days, and who show signs of 

problem drinking as assessed by the CAGE test, according to background characteristics, South Africa 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Ever drank 

alcohol

Drank alcohol 

in past 

12 months

Drank alcohol 

in past 

7 days

Consumed 5 

or more 

drinks on at 

least one 

occasion in 

past 30 days1

Show signs 

of problem 

drinking by 

the CAGE 

test2

Number of 

men

Age

15-24 56.4 49.3 26.3 20.7 13.0 1,241

15-19 45.6 38.8 16.6 11.8 5.8 651

20-24 68.4 60.8 37.0 30.5 20.8 591

25-34 65.5 60.5 43.4 36.1 21.5 962

35-44 68.3 60.1 40.2 31.8 18.4 744

45-54 53.9 47.5 36.7 27.8 15.5 492

55-64 64.9 54.3 45.1 25.7 14.4 406

65+ 59.0 46.8 39.5 20.9 8.8 364

Population group

Black African 61.5 53.9 36.0 28.3 16.7 3,534

White 77.2 71.0 57.7 25.7 8.2 257

Coloured 52.4 46.0 34.9 25.6 15.9 335

Indian/Asian 39.8 27.0 12.9 6.2 7.8 82

Other * * * * * 2

Employment (past 12 months)

Not employed 57.4 49.9 33.0 23.7 13.6 2,189

Employed for cash 65.7 58.3 40.5 32.1 19.3 1,897

Employed not for cash 65.7 55.5 48.0 23.8 6.7 124

Residence

Urban 59.8 54.1 37.9 29.0 16.0 2,874

Non-urban 64.6 53.2 34.5 24.2 15.8 1,336

Province

Western Cape 53.3 49.1 38.0 22.8 14.2 476

Eastern Cape 61.9 50.8 40.7 23.9 18.5 493

Northern Cape 57.8 47.1 29.0 23.3 10.7 84

Free State 45.5 42.3 30.6 25.4 23.0 207

KwaZulu-Natal 57.5 46.0 28.7 23.8 13.8 683

North West 79.0 64.4 32.1 27.2 13.0 310

Gauteng 63.6 60.9 44.3 35.3 16.8 1,245

Mpumalanga 60.5 55.0 31.1 28.8 17.4 326

Limpopo 65.9 52.4 34.7 20.5 14.5 386

Education

No education 54.0 42.7 30.5 22.7 14.3 217

Primary incomplete 57.8 45.8 35.6 22.9 14.3 481

Primary complete 54.6 45.8 32.8 23.1 10.5 212

Secondary incomplete 60.6 53.1 34.8 27.4 16.7 1,930

Secondary complete 62.3 56.8 38.2 28.5 16.7 900

More than secondary 72.6 67.7 48.5 35.1 16.3 470

Wealth quintile

Lowest 60.1 50.2 37.3 25.8 16.0 787

Second 60.5 51.7 32.0 25.5 14.6 839

Middle 61.3 54.4 35.3 28.6 17.0 894

Fourth 62.2 55.6 38.2 32.0 18.3 827

Highest 62.5 56.8 41.4 25.6 13.9 864

Total 15+ 61.3 53.8 36.8 27.5 15.9 4,210

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1 Respondents who consumed 0-1 drinks in the 7 days before the interview and who reported drinking 3 or fewer days per 

month over the past 12 months were assumed not to have consumed 5 or more drinks in the past 30 days

2 The CAGE (Concern/Cut-down, Anger, Guilt, and Eye-Opener) test is used to screen for problem drinking and alcoholism. 

Two "yes" responses indicate the possibility of alcoholism and should be investigated further. 
326 • Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults

Table 18.7 Alcohol consumption during pregnancy

Percentage of women age 15-49 with a live birth in the past 5 years who 

reported that they drank alcohol every day, some days, or not at all during the 

pregnancy of their last birth, according to background characteristics, South 

Africa DHS 2016 

Alcohol consumption during 

pregnancy of last birth in the 

past 5 years

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic Every day

Some 

days Not at all

Age

15-19 2.3 0.5 97.3 100

20-34 0.1 2.8 97.1 1,151

35-49 0.1 3.8 96.1 323

ANC service1

Asked about use of alcohol 0.2 2.8 97.0 1,376

Not asked about use of alcohol 0.7 5.5 93.8 109

Residence

Urban 0.3 3.5 96.3 1,021

Non-urban 0.2 1.7 98.1 552

Province

Western Cape 0.0 6.7 93.3 129

Eastern Cape 0.5 5.9 93.6 165

Northern Cape 1.3 4.7 94.0 31

Free State 0.0 5.1 94.9 69

KwaZulu-Natal 0.0 1.6 98.4 291

North West 0.4 2.8 96.8 125

Gauteng 0.5 1.9 97.6 453

Mpumalanga 0.0 2.6 97.4 150

Limpopo 0.0 0.4 99.6 161

Education

No education * * * 22

Primary incomplete 1.8 3.8 94.4 75

Primary complete 0.0 0.3 99.7 63

Secondary incomplete 0.3 3.6 96.1 778

Secondary complete 0.0 2.3 97.7 474

More than secondary 0.0 0.8 99.2 161

Wealth quintile

Lowest 0.4 2.1 97.5 342

Second 0.0 2.2 97.8 370

Middle 0.7 3.0 96.3 358

Fourth 0.0 5.2 94.8 277

Highest 0.0 1.9 98.1 227

Total 15-49 0.3 2.8 96.9 1,574

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted 

cases and has been suppressed.

1 Excludes women who did not receive ANC 
Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults • 327

Table 18.8.1 Use and misuse of codeine-containing medications: Women

Percentage of women age 15 and older who used codeine-containing medications in the past 12 months, percentage who 

used codeine-containing medications in the past 12 months for the experience or feeling rather than the medicinal effect, 

and among women who used codeine-containing medications in the past 12 months for the experience or feeling rather 

than the medicinal effect, percentage who received treatment for problems related to their use for non-medical purposes, 

according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage who 

used codeinecontaining 

medications in the 

past 12 months

Percentage who 

used codeinecontaining 

medications in the 

past 12 months for 

the experience or 

feeling rather than 

medicinal effect

Number of 

women

Among women who used codeinecontaining medications in the past 12 

months for the experience or feeling:

Background 

characteristic

Percentage who 

received treatment 

for problems 

related to use of 

medicines for nonmedical purposes

Number of 

women

Age

15-24 10.6 1.7 1,429 * 24

15-19 8.3 1.0 721 * 8

20-24 13.0 2.3 708 * 16

25-34 14.5 2.5 1,391 * 34

35-44 16.3 3.1 1,022 * 32

45-54 15.3 1.9 866 * 16

55-64 17.2 1.8 701 * 12

65+ 12.0 3.0 719 * 22

Population group

Black African 13.9 2.2 5,170 20.6 114

White 11.9 0.3 320 * 1

Coloured 12.4 3.9 516 * 20

Indian/Asian 29.5 4.5 114 * 5

Other * * 6 nc 0

Residence

Urban 16.6 2.9 3,996 14.2 116

Non-urban 9.2 1.2 2,130 (43.0) 25

Province

Western Cape 10.4 4.0 703 * 28

Eastern Cape 10.2 1.0 730 * 8

Northern Cape 10.9 0.6 127 * 1

Free State 8.1 1.1 325 * 4

KwaZulu-Natal 11.0 0.9 1,191 * 11

North West 24.9 4.9 398 (85.6) 20

Gauteng 23.1 4.1 1,534 * 63

Mpumalanga 12.2 0.5 473 * 2

Limpopo 4.5 0.6 646 * 4

Education

No education 9.1 1.1 495 * 5

Primary incomplete 11.5 1.5 664 * 10

Primary complete 8.6 2.7 293 * 8

Secondary 

incomplete 12.9 2.1 2,695 (24.7) 56

Secondary complete 17.2 3.6 1,328 (16.9) 48

More than secondary 21.1 2.0 652 * 13

Wealth quintile

Lowest 7.2 1.1 1,163 * 12

Second 11.3 1.3 1,152 * 15

Middle 13.8 2.0 1,242 * 25

Fourth 17.7 4.2 1,258 (18.9) 53

Highest 19.2 2.7 1,311 * 35

Total 15+ 14.0 2.3 6,126 19.3 140

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer 

than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

nc = No cases
328 • Tobacco, Alcohol and Codeine Use Among Adults

Table 18.8.2 Use and misuse of codeine-containing medications: Men

Percentage of men age 15 and older who used codeine-containing medications in the past 12 months, percentage who used 

codeine-containing medications in the past 12 months for the experience or feeling rather than the medicinal effect, and among 

men who used codeine-containing medications in the past 12 months for the experience or feeling rather than the medicinal effect, 

percentage who received treatment for problems related to their use for non-medical purposes, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage who 

used codeinecontaining 

medications in the 

past 12 months

Percentage who 

used codeinecontaining 

medications in the 

past 12 months for 

the experience or 

feeling rather than 

medicinal effect

Number of 

men

Among men who used codeinecontaining medications in the past 12 

months for the experience or feeling:

Background 

characteristic

Percentage who 

received treatment 

for problems 

related to use of 

medicines for nonmedical purposes

Number of 

men

Age

15-24 12.0 1.9 1,241 * 23

 15-19 11.0 1.6 651 * 10

 20-24 13.1 2.2 591 * 13

25-34 12.6 1.2 962 * 12

35-44 11.8 2.1 744 * 16

45-54 16.0 0.8 492 * 4

55-64 14.4 1.7 406 * 7

65+ 13.2 0.3 364 * 1

Population group

Black African 12.3 1.4 3,534 10.9 50

White 9.1 1.1 257 * 3

Coloured 20.7 2.9 335 * 10

Indian/Asian 19.6 0.0 82 nc 0

Other * * 2 nc 0

Residence

Urban 13.6 1.6 2,874 (18.3) 45

Non-urban 11.4 1.3 1,336 (11.2) 18

Province

Western Cape 17.4 2.7 476 * 13

Eastern Cape 11.4 0.8 493 * 4

Northern Cape 31.8 0.2 84 nc 0

Free State 5.0 0.8 207 * 2

KwaZulu-Natal 15.8 0.8 683 * 6

North West 11.5 1.0 310 * 3

Gauteng 10.8 1.4 1,245 * 18

Mpumalanga 15.8 4.6 326 * 15

Limpopo 9.8 0.6 386 * 2

Education

No education 9.6 0.5 217 * 1

Primary incomplete 12.4 1.1 481 * 5

Primary complete 7.8 1.0 212 * 2

Secondary incomplete 11.1 0.9 1,930 * 18

Secondary complete 16.4 2.7 900 * 24

More than secondary 18.2 2.5 470 * 12

Wealth quintile

Lowest 7.3 0.9 787 * 7

Second 10.9 1.9 839 * 16

Middle 11.6 0.7 894 * 7

Fourth 18.1 2.1 827 * 18

Highest 16.4 1.7 864 * 15

Total 15+ 12.9 1.5 4,210 16.3 62

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 

unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

nc = No cases 
Women’s Empowerment • 329

WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT 19

Key Findings

 Employment and earnings: About half of in-union

women (47%) and 79% of in-union men age 15-49 were 

employed in the 12 months before the survey. Almost all 

employed women (97%) and men (more than 99%) 

received cash earnings. Similar proportions of in-union

women (95%) and men (93%) who had cash earnings 

decided solely or jointly with their spouse on the use of 

their own cash earnings. 

 Ownership of house: 28% of women and 19% of men

age 15-49 own a house. About half of women (56%) and 

men (49%) who own a house have their name on the title 

or deed.

 Other assets: Over half of women (54%) and men (57%) 

have a bank account they use. About 9 in 10 women and 

men own a cellphone. 

 Participation in decision making: 87% of in-union

women participate either alone or jointly with their 

partners in decisions about their own health care, visits to 

their family, and major household purchases. Two in five 

women (41%) make decisions alone about their own 

health care.

 Attitudes towards wife beating: 6% of women and 9% 

of men believe that a husband is justified in beating his 

wife in at least one of five specified circumstances.

 Negotiating sexual relations: 72% of in-union women 

age 15-49 report that they can say no to their partners if 

they do not want to have sexual intercourse, and 77% 

say that they can ask their partners to use a condom.

 Child discipline: About 4 in 10 women (41%) and 1 in 4 

men (26%) with co-resident children physically disciplined

their children with a hand or implement in the 12 months 

preceding the survey.

his chapter explores women’s empowerment in terms of employment, earnings, control over 

earnings, and magnitude of earnings relative to those of their partners. While the chapter focuses on 

women, data on specific indicators are also presented for men. (Note that in-union women and men 

include both those who say they are married and those who say they are living with a partner as if 

married.) Comparisons of indicators among men and women help to identify gender disparities and 

provide a context for women’s empowerment. The chapter also provides information on child discipline.

T
330 • Women’s Empowerment

19.1 IN-UNION WOMEN’S AND MEN’S EMPLOYMENT

Employment

Respondents are considered to be employed if they have done any work other 

than their housework in the 12 months before the survey.

Sample: In-union women and men age 15-49

Earning cash for employment

Respondents are asked if they are paid for their labour in cash or in-kind. Only 

those who receive payment in cash only or in cash and in-kind are considered 

to earn cash for their employment.

Sample: In-union women and men age 15-49 employed in the 12 months 

before the survey

A higher proportion of in-union men (79%) were 

employed than in-union women (47%) (Table 

19.1). In-union women and men who were 

employed predominantly received cash earnings 

(97% of women and more than 99% of men). 

Less than 1% of employed men and 2% of 

employed women were not paid. Among both inunion women and men, the percentage employed 

generally rises with age (Figure 19.1).

19.2 CONTROL OVER WOMEN’S EARNINGS 

Control over one’s own cash earnings

Respondents are considered to have control over their own earnings if they 

participate in decisions alone or jointly with their spouse about how their own 

earnings will be used. 

Sample: In-union women and men age 15-49 who received cash earnings for 

employment during the 12 months before the survey

Figure 19.1 Employment by age

(13)

26

43 48

53 53 54

(60)

77 81 80 79 81

15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49

Percentage of in-union women and men 

who were employed at any time in the 

12 months before the survey

In-union men

In-union women

Age

Notes: In-union women and men include those who are 

currently married or living together with a partner as if married. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 

unweighted cases.
Women’s Empowerment • 331

To assess women’s autonomy, in-union women who 

earned cash for their work in the 12 months before 

the survey were asked who the main decision maker 

was with regard to the use of their earnings. About 

two-thirds (64%) of in-union women who earn cash 

decide with their partners how they use their 

earnings, and about one-third (31%) independently 

make decisions about the use of their earnings. Only 

5% reported that their partners mainly decide on the 

use of their cash earnings (Table 19.2.1 and 

Figure 19.2).

Over half of in-union women who are employed earn 

less than their partners (53%), 20% earn more than 

their partners, and 15% earn about the same as their 

partners. One in 10 (9%) women who have cash 

earnings are in a union with a partner who has no 

earnings.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Women living in urban and non-urban areas were equally likely to have control over the use of their 

own earnings (95% each). However, urban women were less likely than non-urban women to make 

these decisions alone (29% versus 38%). 

 By province, women’s control of their own cash earnings ranged from a low of 89% in Mpumalanga 

to a high of 99% in Northern Cape. 

 There were slight differences in women’s control over their cash earnings by education and household 

wealth. Generally, however, less educated women and women in the lower wealth quintiles reported 

more independent control over the use of their earnings, while better educated women and women in 

the higher quintiles were more likely to report making joint decisions with their partners.

 Women in the lowest wealth quintile (62%) and women in North West, Mpumalanga, and Limpopo 

(65%-68%) were most likely to earn less than their partners, and women with five or more children 

(34%) and those with no children (29%) were most likely to earn more than their partners. 

19.3 CONTROL OVER MEN’S EARNINGS

Overall, 93% of in-union men who receive cash earnings report having decision-making control over the 

use of their earnings; one in five men (21%) said they make independent decisions about the use of their 

cash earnings, while 72% said they make these decisions jointly with their partners. Seven percent of men 

said that their earnings are mainly controlled by their partner (Table 19.2.2). 

In-union women whose partners have earnings were also asked who decides how their partners’ earnings 

are used; the proportion of women who reported that this decision was made jointly was the same as 

among men (72%). However, a smaller proportion of women (13%) than men (21%) reported that it was 

mainly the man who made the decision, and a higher proportion of women (14%) than men (7%) said that 

the woman mainly controlled her partner’s earnings.

Employed women were more likely to control their own earnings independently if they earned more than 

their partner (38%) or their partner did not work or earn cash (40%). Similarly, women who earned more 

than their partner were more likely to control their partner’s earnings without the partner’s involvement. 

Women who earned about the same as their partner were most likely to jointly decide on the use of their 

Figure 19.2 Control over women’s 

earnings

Mainly 

woman

31%

Woman and 

partner jointly

64%

Mainly 

partner

5%

Percent distribution of in-union women 

with cash earnings in the 

12 months before the survey

Note: In-union women include those who are currently married or living together with a partner as if married.
332 • Women’s Empowerment

own earnings and those of their partner. Women who did not work were least likely to have control over 

their partner’s earnings (Table 19.3).

19.4 WOMEN’S AND MEN’S OWNERSHIP OF ASSETS

Ownership of a house

Respondents who own a house, whether alone or jointly with someone else

Sample: Women and men age 15-49

A higher proportion of women age 15-49 (28%) than

men age 15-49 (19%) own a house alone or jointly 

with someone else (Figure 19.3). Sole house 

ownership is also more common among women 

(20%) than among men (14%) (Table 19.4.1 and

Table 19.4.2).

Among those who own a house, whether alone or 

jointly with someone else, 56% of women and 49% 

of men report that their name is on the house title or 

deed, while 5% of women and 2% of men say their 

name is not on the title or deed. A higher proportion 

of men than women who own a house report that 

they do not have a title or deed for the house (46% 

versus 36%) (Table 19.5.1 and Table 19.5.2).

Over half of women (54%) and men (57%) have an 

account in a bank or other financial institution that 

they themselves use. Approximately 9 in 10 women (91%) and men (89%) own a cellphone. About a third 

of women (33%) and men (37%) who own a cellphone use it for financial transactions (Table 19.6.1 and 

Table 19.6.2).

Patterns by background characteristics

 House ownership increases with age, from 5% among women and 2% among men age 15-19 to 63% 

among women and 54% among men age 45-49 (Table 19.4.1 and Table 19.4.2). 

 The relationship of house ownership with education and wealth is nonlinear. For example, women 

with no education (42%), those with a primary incomplete education (46%), and those with more than 

a secondary education (35%) are more likely than women in the other education categories (23-30%)

to own a house. 

 House ownership does not differ by residence among either women or men. However, 60% of women 

in urban areas who own a house report that the house has a title or deed and their name is on it, as

compared with 49% of women in non-urban areas. The opposite is true among men; 44% of men in 

urban areas who own a house report that the house has a title or deed and their name is on it, compared 

with 61% of men in non-urban areas (Table 19.5.1 and Table 19.5.2).

 Although house ownership does not vary greatly according to province, there are variations by 

province in the proportion of women and men who own a house and report that the house has a title or 

deed and their name is on it. For example, the proportion of women who own a house and report that 

the house has a title or deed and their name is on it ranges from 47% each in Limpopo, Eastern Cape,

and North West to 73% in Western Cape. Among men, the proportion ranges from 28% in Eastern 

Cape to 90% in North West.

Figure 19.3 Ownership of assets

28

54

91

19

57

89

Own house

(alone or jointly)

Have and use

bank

account

Own cellphone

Percentage of women and men age 15-49 

by ownership of specific items

Women Men
Women’s Empowerment • 333

 Use of a bank account rises rapidly with age among both women and men, peaking at age 35-39. Only 

17% of women and 15% of men age 15-19 have a bank account they use, as compared with 68% of 

women and 75% of men age 35-39 (Table 19.6.1 and Table 19.6.2).

 Women and men living in urban areas are more likely to have bank accounts (60% and 65%, 

respectively) than those living in non-urban areas (41% and 39%, respectively). 

 Possession and use of a bank account, ownership of a cellphone, and use of a cellphone for financial 

transactions all generally increase with increasing education and wealth.

19.5 PARTICIPATION IN DECISION MAKING

Participation in major household decisions

Women are considered to participate in household decisions if they make 

decisions alone or jointly with their husband/partner in all three of the following 

areas: (1) their own health care, (2) major household purchases, and (3) visits 

to their family or relatives.

Sample: In-union women age 15-49

Men are considered to participate in household decisions if they make 

decisions alone or jointly with their wife/partner in both of the following areas: 

(1) their own health care and (2) major household purchases.

Sample: In-union men age 15-49

A majority (87%) of in-union

women age 15-49 participate in all 

three specified household decisions, 

either alone or jointly with their 

partners. Women are about equally 

likely to participate in each of the 

three decisions (92%-94% each)

(Table 19.7 and Table 19.8.1). 

Forty-one percent of women make 

decisions about their own health 

care alone, 27% make independent 

decisions about visits to family or 

relatives, and 19% make 

independent decisions about major 

household purchases. Only 3% of in-union women do not participate in any of the three decisions (Table 

19.8.1 and Figure 19.4).

Similarly, 85% of in-union men age 15-49 participate in both of the decisions they were asked about; 92% 

participate in decisions about their own health care and 88% in decisions about major household 

purchases. Five percent of in-union men do not participate in either decision (Table 19.8.2).

Patterns by background characteristics

 In-union women’s participation in all three decisions tends to increase with age and number of 

children. For example, 82% of women with no children participate in all three decisions, as compared 

with 87%-90% of women with any children (Table 19.8.1).

 In-union women’s participation in decisions varies by residence; 89% of women in urban areas 

participate in all three decisions, compared with 82% of women in non-urban areas. Similarly, inFigure 19.4 Women’s participation in decision making

94

92

93

87

3

Woman's own health care

Major household purchases

Visits to family or relatives

Participate in all 3 decisions

Participate in none of these

decisions

Percentage of in-union women age 15-49 participating 

in specific decisions

Note: In-union women include those who are currently married or living 

together with a partner as if married.
334 • Women’s Empowerment

union men in urban areas are more likely to participate in both specified decisions than those in nonurban areas (88% and 73%, respectively) (Table 19.8.2).

 Women’s and men’s participation in household decisions varies greatly by province. The proportion of 

women who participate in all three decisions ranges from 72% in Limpopo to 92% each in Free State

and Northern Cape, while the proportion of men participating in both specified decisions ranges from 

75% in Free State to 93% each in Western Cape and Mpumalanga. 

19.6 ATTITUDES TOWARD WIFE BEATING

Attitudes toward wife beating

Respondents are asked if they agree that a husband is justified in hitting or 

beating his wife under each of the following five circumstances: she burns the 

food, she argues with him, she goes out without telling him, she neglects the 

children, and she refuses to have sex with him. If respondents answer “yes” in 

at least one circumstance, they are considered to have attitudes justifying wife 

beating. 

Sample: Women and men age 15-49

The SADHS 2016 collected information on women’s and men’s attitudes toward wife beating in five 

separate circumstances to gain more insight into the extent to which domestic abuse is accepted.

Overall, 6% of women and 9% of men age 15-49 agree that a husband is justified in beating his wife in at 

least one of the five specified circumstances. Among both women and men, neglecting the children is the 

most acceptable reason for wife beating; 4% of women and 6% of men believe that a husband is justified 

in beating his wife if she neglects the children (Table 19.9.1 and Table 19.9.2).

Patterns by background characteristics

 Wife beating is more acceptable in non-urban areas than urban areas; 8% of women and 15% of men 

in non-urban areas agree that wife beating is justified in at least one of the five specified 

circumstances, as compared with 4% of women and 7% of men in urban areas.

 Acceptance of wife beating among women varies widely across provinces. One in 10 women in 

Northern Cape (12%), Eastern Cape (11%), and Limpopo (10%) agree that wife beating is justified in 

at least one of the five specified circumstances, compared with 3% each of women in KwaZulu-Natal 

and Gauteng.

 Acceptance of wife beating generally decreases with increasing wealth; women and men in the highest 

wealth quintile are less likely than those in the other wealth quintiles to agree that a husband is 

justified in beating his wife in at least one of the five specified circumstances.

19.7 NEGOTIATING SEXUAL RELATIONS

To assess women’s ability to negotiate safer sexual relations with their partners, women were asked 

whether they could say no to their partners if they do not want to have sexual intercourse and whether they 

could ask their partners to use a condom.

In South Africa, 72% of in-union women age 15-49 report that they can say no to their partners if they do 

not want to have sexual intercourse, and 77% report that they can ask their partners to use a condom

(Table 19.10).
Women’s Empowerment • 335

19.8 CHILD DISCIPLINE

Child discipline

Respondents living with one or more of their children less than age 18 are 

asked if they have done the following in the past 12 months to discipline or 

punish their children: hit or slapped them with a hand or hit or beat them using 

a belt, spoon, stick, shoe, or any other implement.

Sample: Women and men age 15-49 who have one or more children (age 0-

17) living with them

Corporal punishment is outlawed in public life in South Africa, that is, in schools (South African Schools

Act 84 of 1996); alternative care settings, including foster care settings; and early childhood development 

centres. However, corporal punishment is still not prohibited in the home. Under common law, parents 

have the power “to inflict moderate and reasonable chastisement on a child.”

1

Forty-one percent of women and 26% of men age 15-49 with one or more children less than age 18 living 

with them physically disciplined or punished their children, either with a hand or with another implement, 

during the 12 months preceding the survey (Table 19.11.1 and Table 19.11.2). Women and men were 

slightly more likely to hit or slap their children (32% and 21%, respectively) than to hit or beat them using 

a belt, spoon, stick, shoe, or other implement (30% and 19%, respectively).

Patterns by background characteristics

 Women who reside in non-urban areas are more likely than their urban counterparts to punish their 

children with either a hand or another implement (45% versus 38%). The difference between nonurban and urban men in use of corporal punishment to discipline children is small (28% and 26%,

respectively). 

 The percentage of women who use either a hand or another implement to punish their children ranges

from 29% in Limpopo to 53% in Eastern Cape. 

 There is no clear relationship between corporal punishment and education or wealth among either 

women or men.

 

1 A 2017 High Court decision held that the common law defence of “moderate and reasonable chastisement” was 

unconstitutional; this is still to be confirmed in legislation, however, and the judgment has been appealed (Global 

Initiative to End Corporal Punishment of Children 2017).
336 • Women’s Empowerment

LIST OF TABLES

For more information on women’s empowerment, see the following tables:

 Table 19.1 Employment and cash earnings of in-union women and men

 Table 19.2.1 Control over women’s cash earnings and relative magnitude of women’s cash 

earnings

 Table 19.2.2 Control over men’s cash earnings

 Table 19.3 Women’s control over their own earnings and over those of their partners

 Table 19.4.1 Ownership of assets: Women

 Table 19.4.2 Ownership of assets: Men

 Table 19.5.1 Ownership of title or deed for house: Women

 Table 19.5.2 Ownership of title or deed for house: Men

 Table 19.6.1 Ownership and use of bank accounts and cellphones: Women

 Table 19.6.2 Ownership and use of bank accounts and cellphones: Men

 Table 19.7 Participation in decision making

 Table 19.8.1 Women’s participation in decision making by background characteristics

 Table 19.8.2 Men’s participation in decision making by background characteristics

 Table 19.9.1 Attitude toward wife beating: Women

 Table 19.9.2 Attitude toward wife beating: Men

 Table 19.10 Ability to negotiate sexual relations with partner

 Table 19.11.1 Child discipline: Women

 Table 19.11.2 Child discipline: Men
Women’s Empowerment • 337

Table 19.1 Employment and cash earnings of in-union women and men

Percentage of in-union women and men age 15-49 who were employed at any time in the past 12 months and percent distribution of in-union

women and men employed in the past 12 months by type of earnings, according to age, South Africa DHS 2016 

Among in-union

respondents:

Percent distribution of in-union respondents 

employed in the past 12 months, by type of earnings

Total

Number of 

Age respondents

Percentage 

employed 

in past 

12 months

Number of 

respondents Cash only

Cash and 

in-kind In-kind only Not paid

WOMEN

15-19 (13.1) 44 * * * * 100.0 6

20-24 25.7 271 96.9 0.8 1.4 0.9 100.0 70

25-29 43.2 514 95.6 1.5 0.5 2.4 100.0 222

30-34 47.9 688 96.1 2.3 0.0 1.5 100.0 329

35-39 53.2 575 93.2 3.1 0.2 3.5 100.0 306

40-44 52.6 507 93.6 4.0 0.1 2.3 100.0 267

45-49 53.6 450 94.1 2.8 0.0 3.1 100.0 241

Total 15-49 47.3 3,050 94.7 2.7 0.2 2.4 100.0 1,441

MEN

15-19 * 1 nc nc nc nc nc 0

20-24 (59.8) 42 * * * * 100.0 25

25-29 76.6 127 99.8 0.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 97

30-34 80.8 219 99.6 0.0 0.4 0.0 100.0 177

35-39 79.9 212 98.9 0.9 0.0 0.2 100.0 169

40-44 78.7 215 96.4 3.6 0.0 0.0 100.0 170

45-49 81.1 172 97.1 2.1 0.0 0.8 100.0 140

Total 15-49 78.7 988 97.8 1.9 0.1 0.2 100.0 778

50-59 64.1 288 96.7 1.7 0.2 1.4 100.0 185

Total 15-59 75.4 1,276 97.6 1.9 0.1 0.4 100.0 962

Notes: In-union women and men include those who are currently married or living together with a partner as if married. Figures in parentheses 

are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

nc = No cases
338 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 19.2.1 Control over women’s cash earnings and relative magnitude of women’s cash earnings

Percent distribution of in-union women age 15-49 who received cash earnings for employment in the 12 months preceding the survey by person who 

decides how the woman’s cash earnings are used and by whether she earned more or less than her partner, according to background characteristics, 

South Africa DHS 2016 

Person who decides how the woman’s 

cash earnings are used:

Total

Woman’s cash earnings compared with partner’s 

cash earnings:

Total

Number 

of women

Background 

characteristic

Mainly 

woman

Woman

and 

partner 

jointly

Mainly 

partner

Not 

asked1 More Less

About 

the 

same

Partner 

has no 

earnings

Don’t 

know

Not 

asked1

Age

15-19 * * * * 100.0 * * * * * * 100.0 6

20-24 35.5 59.5 4.6 0.3 100.0 19.3 48.7 20.5 11.1 0.0 0.3 100.0 68

25-29 25.3 68.8 6.0 0.0 100.0 23.4 52.6 13.6 8.7 1.7 0.0 100.0 216

30-34 27.4 66.3 4.7 1.7 100.0 21.6 56.6 14.5 4.4 1.1 1.7 100.0 324

35-39 29.4 66.0 4.4 0.2 100.0 16.3 57.3 14.4 8.6 3.3 0.2 100.0 295

40-44 28.7 66.4 4.9 0.0 100.0 18.6 50.3 18.5 9.9 2.7 0.0 100.0 260

45-49 45.0 52.4 2.3 0.4 100.0 20.8 47.4 13.5 14.0 4.0 0.4 100.0 234

Number of living 

children

0 27.3 60.5 7.0 5.2 100.0 28.9 38.3 18.7 8.9 0.0 5.2 100.0 107

1-2 27.5 68.1 4.3 0.2 100.0 19.5 54.9 14.9 7.9 2.6 0.2 100.0 815

3-4 37.0 58.8 4.2 0.0 100.0 17.9 53.4 16.1 10.2 2.4 0.0 100.0 436

5+ 52.9 40.7 6.4 0.0 100.0 33.9 46.7 1.4 13.8 4.3 0.0 100.0 45

Residence

Urban 29.3 65.7 4.3 0.6 100.0 20.9 52.0 16.2 8.0 2.3 0.6 100.0 1,108

Non-urban 38.3 56.3 5.4 0.0 100.0 17.6 56.2 11.4 12.1 2.8 0.0 100.0 295

Province

Western Cape 21.2 72.6 4.5 1.7 100.0 19.0 48.7 22.1 8.5 0.0 1.7 100.0 280

Eastern Cape 39.0 55.0 5.4 0.5 100.0 20.9 50.3 13.3 11.4 3.5 0.5 100.0 129

Northern Cape 29.6 68.9 0.5 0.9 100.0 12.7 53.3 22.6 6.3 4.2 0.9 100.0 25

Free State 15.5 80.2 4.3 0.0 100.0 10.2 50.0 24.8 13.1 1.8 0.0 100.0 59

KwaZulu-Natal 29.6 61.5 8.9 0.0 100.0 22.4 48.9 17.2 9.6 1.9 0.0 100.0 129

North West 29.0 67.8 2.5 0.7 100.0 10.1 65.4 8.1 13.7 2.1 0.7 100.0 98

Gauteng 34.7 62.9 2.4 0.0 100.0 25.7 48.8 14.7 7.0 3.8 0.0 100.0 485

Mpumalanga 32.8 56.0 11.2 0.0 100.0 16.6 67.5 4.1 8.7 3.0 0.0 100.0 100

Limpopo 44.9 49.3 5.0 0.8 100.0 14.1 68.0 7.9 8.4 0.8 0.8 100.0 99

Education

No education * * * * 100.0 * * * * * * 100.0 19

Primary 

incomplete 54.4 42.6 3.0 0.0 100.0 21.6 53.0 4.5 15.7 5.2 0.0 100.0 57

Primary complete (53.7) (41.7) (4.7) (0.0) 100.0 (14.5) (46.5) (11.2) (14.9) (12.9) (0.0) 100.0 49

Secondary 

incomplete 32.3 62.0 5.6 0.0 100.0 16.5 58.8 10.0 11.6 3.0 0.0 100.0 446

Secondary 

complete 29.6 65.4 4.9 0.0 100.0 21.7 52.9 15.8 8.4 1.2 0.0 100.0 480

More than 

secondary 23.8 71.3 3.0 2.0 100.0 23.7 46.1 23.5 3.3 1.4 2.0 100.0 352

Wealth quintile

Lowest 41.4 52.9 5.8 0.0 100.0 14.8 61.5 6.5 15.2 2.1 0.0 100.0 140

Second 38.4 55.2 6.4 0.0 100.0 19.9 51.5 13.5 11.4 3.6 0.0 100.0 220

Middle 41.9 54.3 3.8 0.0 100.0 20.6 52.0 15.1 9.1 3.2 0.0 100.0 278

Fourth 30.6 64.8 4.1 0.5 100.0 24.2 51.2 13.5 7.7 2.9 0.5 100.0 285

Highest 19.1 75.6 4.0 1.2 100.0 19.2 52.6 19.4 6.4 1.2 1.2 100.0 480

Total 31.2 63.7 4.5 0.5 100.0 20.2 52.9 15.1 8.9 2.4 0.5 100.0 1,403

Notes: In-union women include women who are currently married or living together with a partner as if married. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 

unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1 Question not asked because respondents are in same-sex unions
Women’s Empowerment • 339

Table 19.2.2 Control over men’s cash earnings

Percent distributions of in-union men age 15-49 who receive cash earnings and of in-union women age 15-49 whose partners receive cash earnings, by person 

who decides how the man’s cash earnings are used, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Men Women

Person who decides how the man’s cash 

earnings are used:

Total

Number

of men

Person who decides how the man’s cash 

earnings are used:

Total

Number

of 

women

Background 

characteristic

Mainly 

partner

Man

and 

partner 

jointly

Mainly 

man Other

Not 

asked1

Mainly 

woman

Woman 

and 

partner 

jointly

Mainly 

partner Other

Not 

asked1

Age

15-19 nc nc nc nc nc nc 0 (14.0) (59.9) (26.1) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 41

20-24 * * * * * 100.0 25 14.8 63.8 21.0 0.3 0.1 100.0 252

25-29 4.2 70.3 25.6 0.0 0.0 100.0 97 13.3 74.2 12.5 0.0 0.0 100.0 480

30-34 5.7 76.4 17.7 0.2 0.0 100.0 176 14.3 73.0 11.3 0.0 1.3 100.0 661

35-39 6.2 71.6 22.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 169 12.5 75.0 12.3 0.0 0.3 100.0 542

40-44 8.0 67.9 24.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 170 13.9 74.0 12.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 465

45-49 8.3 73.6 15.8 0.0 2.4 100.0 139 18.4 68.5 12.1 0.6 0.4 100.0 403

Number of living 

children

0 3.2 63.1 30.1 0.0 3.6 100.0 92 13.5 68.7 14.7 0.0 3.1 100.0 243

1-2 4.5 75.5 19.8 0.1 0.0 100.0 374 12.3 73.6 13.7 0.0 0.3 100.0 1,566

3-4 9.7 70.5 19.8 0.0 0.0 100.0 235 17.6 70.3 11.9 0.2 0.0 100.0 877

5+ 11.7 69.7 18.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 75 17.8 72.2 9.4 0.7 0.0 100.0 156

Residence

Urban 6.2 73.1 20.1 0.0 0.5 100.0 597 13.5 74.2 11.5 0.1 0.6 100.0 2,131

Non-urban 7.9 68.1 23.7 0.2 0.0 100.0 179 16.7 65.8 17.4 0.1 0.0 100.0 712

Province

Western Cape 5.2 76.1 15.9 0.0 2.8 100.0 119 12.4 78.2 7.0 0.6 1.7 100.0 421

Eastern Cape 9.7 70.7 19.6 0.0 0.0 100.0 60 23.6 60.7 15.1 0.0 0.6 100.0 253

Northern Cape 4.2 81.0 14.8 0.0 0.0 100.0 15 16.5 73.4 9.8 0.0 0.4 100.0 59

Free State (8.4) (68.6) (23.0) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 22 10.2 84.0 5.8 0.0 0.0 100.0 137

KwaZulu-Natal 14.3 63.5 22.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 74 15.6 71.5 12.9 0.0 0.0 100.0 335

North West 3.6 63.7 32.2 0.5 0.0 100.0 83 9.3 76.8 13.1 0.0 0.8 100.0 197

Gauteng 5.9 75.5 18.6 0.0 0.0 100.0 278 14.2 73.6 12.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 995

Mpumalanga 4.4 76.1 19.5 0.0 0.0 100.0 70 10.8 65.1 24.1 0.0 0.0 100.0 215

Limpopo 7.3 63.7 29.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 54 15.9 63.2 19.9 0.3 0.7 100.0 231

Education

No education (5.7) (67.1) (27.2) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 20 28.3 62.0 9.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 74

Primary 

incomplete 12.5 67.6 19.9 0.0 0.0 100.0 51 20.9 57.3 21.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 165

Primary complete (17.7) (57.1) (25.2) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 35 22.2 64.2 12.6 0.9 0.0 100.0 127

Secondary 

incomplete 6.3 74.5 19.1 0.1 0.0 100.0 293 12.6 72.4 14.6 0.2 0.2 100.0 1,191

Secondary 

complete 4.2 73.4 22.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 242 14.8 75.6 9.5 0.0 0.0 100.0 831

More than 

secondary 6.7 70.3 20.6 0.0 2.4 100.0 135 11.3 74.2 12.6 0.0 2.0 100.0 455

Wealth quintile

Lowest 10.6 69.2 20.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 118 20.8 63.8 15.4 0.0 0.0 100.0 444

Second 7.8 65.8 26.1 0.3 0.0 100.0 159 13.7 69.3 16.9 0.1 0.0 100.0 570

Middle 3.7 77.2 19.2 0.0 0.0 100.0 165 15.6 70.7 13.4 0.2 0.1 100.0 596

Fourth 6.1 70.8 23.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 145 14.8 74.3 10.3 0.2 0.4 100.0 536

Highest 6.1 75.2 16.9 0.0 1.7 100.0 189 9.4 79.3 10.0 0.0 1.3 100.0 697

Total 15-49 6.6 72.0 20.9 0.1 0.4 100.0 775 14.3 72.1 13.0 0.1 0.4 100.0 2,843

50-59 9.0 71.3 19.7 0.0 0.0 100.0 182 na na na na na na na

Total 15-59 7.1 71.8 20.7 0.0 0.3 100.0 957 na na na na na na na

Notes: In-union women and men include those who are currently married or living together with a partner as if married. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-

49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

nc = No cases 

na = Not applicable

1 Question not asked because respondents are in same-sex unions
Table 19.3 Women’s control over their own earnings and over those of their partners

Percent distribution of in-union women age 15-49 with cash earnings in the last 12 months by person who decides how the woman’s cash earnings are used and percent distribution of in-union women age 15-49 

whose partners have cash earnings by person who decides how the man’s cash earnings are used, according to the relation between woman’s and man’s cash earnings, South Africa DHS 2016 

Person who decides how the woman’s 

cash earnings are used:

Total

Number of 

women

Person who decides how the man’s cash earnings are used:

Total

Number of

women

Women’s earnings relative to partner’s 

earnings

Mainly 

woman

Woman and 

partner 

jointly Mainly man Not asked1

Mainly 

woman

Man and 

partner 

jointly Mainly man Other Not asked1

More than partner 38.2 58.6 3.2 0.0 100.0 283 28.6 65.4 6.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 283

Less than partner 31.4 63.8 4.8 0.0 100.0 742 12.4 77.6 10.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 742

Same as partner 14.4 81.1 4.5 0.0 100.0 213 7.9 87.2 4.9 0.0 0.0 100.0 213

Partner has no cash earnings or did not 

work 40.2 56.5 3.3 0.0 100.0 123 na na na na na na 0

Woman worked but has no cash 

earnings na na na na na 0 (25.6) (68.4) (5.9) (0.0) (0.0) 100.0 37

Woman did not work na na na na na 0 12.6 69.9 17.1 0.2 0.3 100.0 1,527

Total2 31.2 63.7 4.5 0.5 100.0 1,403 14.3 72.1 13.0 0.1 0.4 100.0 2,843

Notes: In-union women include women who are currently married or living together with a partner as if married. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. 

na = Not applicable

1 Question not asked because respondents are in same-sex unions

2

Includes cases where a woman does not know whether she earned more or less than her partner and cases where a woman was not asked about her partner’s earnings because she is in a same-sex union

340 • Women’s Empowerment
Women’s Empowerment • 341

Table 19.4.1 Ownership of assets: Women

Percent distribution of women age 15-49 by ownership of housing, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage who own a house:

Total

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic Alone Jointly Alone and jointly

Percentage who 

do not own a 

house

Age

15-19 1.3 1.5 1.8 95.5 100.0 1,427

20-24 3.3 2.1 3.2 91.5 100.0 1,415

25-29 5.1 5.7 5.7 83.5 100.0 1,444

30-34 9.2 9.6 11.6 69.7 100.0 1,333

35-39 15.0 13.8 12.3 58.9 100.0 1,072

40-44 25.0 14.1 17.8 43.2 100.0 941

45-49 28.6 15.8 18.6 37.0 100.0 883

Residence

Urban 10.8 7.9 9.1 72.3 100.0 5,731

Non-urban 10.5 8.2 9.1 72.2 100.0 2,783

Province

Western Cape 10.4 7.7 13.0 68.9 100.0 995

Eastern Cape 8.0 8.2 5.2 78.5 100.0 938

Northern Cape 10.2 12.7 4.3 72.7 100.0 173

Free State 10.3 11.1 9.1 69.5 100.0 442

KwaZulu-Natal 12.9 3.6 11.1 72.4 100.0 1,616

North West 9.5 11.4 4.8 74.3 100.0 570

Gauteng 11.1 9.3 10.3 69.3 100.0 2,284

Mpumalanga 9.8 10.8 5.1 74.2 100.0 671

Limpopo 10.1 5.9 8.4 75.6 100.0 824

Education

No education 21.3 9.3 11.2 58.3 100.0 168

Primary incomplete 20.5 12.1 13.4 54.1 100.0 447

Primary complete 12.6 8.2 9.2 70.0 100.0 327

Secondary incomplete 9.3 6.1 7.4 77.3 100.0 4,195

Secondary complete 10.0 9.2 9.3 71.5 100.0 2,369

More than secondary 11.1 11.1 13.2 64.6 100.0 1,008

Wealth quintile

Lowest 14.3 6.3 7.7 71.7 100.0 1,648

Second 10.1 6.8 8.8 74.3 100.0 1,715

Middle 10.1 7.7 7.2 75.0 100.0 1,805

Fourth 9.9 7.5 7.3 75.3 100.0 1,763

Highest 9.0 12.0 14.8 64.2 100.0 1,583

Total 10.7 8.0 9.1 72.3 100.0 8,514
342 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 19.4.2 Ownership of assets: Men

Percent distribution of men age 15-49 by ownership of housing, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage who own a house:

Total Number of men

Background 

characteristic Alone Jointly Alone and jointly

Percentage who 

do not own a 

house

Age

15-19 0.6 1.2 0.0 98.3 100.0 647

20-24 4.7 1.5 0.8 93.0 100.0 588

25-29 7.8 2.5 1.3 88.4 100.0 506

30-34 13.3 5.6 2.9 78.1 100.0 450

35-39 17.1 10.2 5.5 67.2 100.0 395

40-44 22.5 10.9 6.1 60.5 100.0 345

45-49 33.8 13.2 7.3 45.7 100.0 271

Residence

Urban 11.9 5.0 3.1 80.0 100.0 2,203

Non-urban 10.6 5.7 2.0 81.7 100.0 999

Province

Western Cape 17.3 4.1 2.5 76.1 100.0 328

Eastern Cape 7.6 3.8 1.9 86.7 100.0 362

Northern Cape 13.9 6.9 5.9 73.3 100.0 61

Free State 7.2 3.9 6.3 82.6 100.0 159

KwaZulu-Natal 10.1 2.7 3.4 83.7 100.0 521

North West 12.2 6.7 3.4 77.6 100.0 237

Gauteng 10.8 6.8 2.2 80.3 100.0 984

Mpumalanga 12.4 6.2 2.4 79.0 100.0 263

Limpopo 14.8 5.9 1.8 77.5 100.0 288

Education

No education 25.8 3.0 5.7 65.6 100.0 62

Primary incomplete 11.8 8.4 2.6 77.2 100.0 219

Primary complete 13.2 4.1 1.8 81.0 100.0 166

Secondary incomplete 9.9 3.8 1.7 84.6 100.0 1,637

Secondary complete 12.3 5.7 3.1 78.8 100.0 773

More than secondary 13.4 10.0 6.5 70.1 100.0 345

Wealth quintile

Lowest 13.2 3.7 1.6 81.6 100.0 618

Second 10.0 5.3 2.4 82.3 100.0 682

Middle 13.6 4.6 1.8 80.0 100.0 715

Fourth 9.6 3.9 2.5 84.0 100.0 653

Highest 10.8 9.3 6.0 73.8 100.0 534

Total 15-49 11.5 5.2 2.7 80.6 100.0 3,202

50-59 34.2 19.5 12.6 33.7 100.0 416

Total 15-59 14.1 6.9 3.8 75.2 100.0 3,618
Women’s Empowerment • 343

Table 19.5.1 Ownership of title or deed for house: Women

Among women age 15-49 who own a house, percent distribution by whether the house owned has a title 

or deed and whether or not the woman’s name appears on the title or deed, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

House has a title 

or deed and:

Does not 

have a 

title/deed Don’t know1 Total

Number of 

women who 

own a 

house2

Background 

characteristic

Woman’s 

name is on 

title/deed

Woman’s 

name is not 

on title/deed

Age

15-19 59.5 1.4 37.8 1.3 100.0 64

20-24 53.4 3.0 41.5 2.2 100.0 120

25-29 36.3 4.9 53.5 5.3 100.0 239

30-34 46.8 7.2 42.5 3.5 100.0 404

35-39 53.6 5.8 37.0 3.6 100.0 440

40-44 62.0 3.1 31.3 3.6 100.0 535

45-49 67.2 3.3 27.4 2.1 100.0 556

Residence

Urban 59.5 2.8 35.4 2.3 100.0 1,587

Non-urban 48.6 8.1 38.1 5.2 100.0 772

Province

Western Cape 72.5 1.8 23.4 2.4 100.0 309

Eastern Cape 47.2 3.8 44.0 5.0 100.0 201

Northern Cape 60.3 11.8 25.0 2.8 100.0 47

Free State 57.8 2.9 38.6 0.7 100.0 135

KwaZulu-Natal 51.8 2.3 40.6 5.4 100.0 446

North West 47.4 21.0 28.1 3.5 100.0 146

Gauteng 56.7 2.9 37.9 2.6 100.0 701

Mpumalanga 60.0 6.5 30.6 2.8 100.0 173

Limpopo 46.7 5.5 45.3 2.6 100.0 201

Education

No education 60.7 4.9 32.7 1.7 100.0 70

Primary incomplete 52.8 2.8 38.3 6.1 100.0 205

Primary complete 47.2 2.3 43.3 7.1 100.0 98

Secondary incomplete 54.9 3.9 37.7 3.5 100.0 954

Secondary complete 58.1 5.1 34.3 2.5 100.0 675

More than secondary 58.0 6.4 34.0 1.6 100.0 357

Wealth quintile

Lowest 39.4 3.4 53.6 3.6 100.0 467

Second 51.9 4.7 40.3 3.1 100.0 440

Middle 54.6 7.8 33.4 4.2 100.0 450

Fourth 61.6 4.4 30.4 3.6 100.0 435

Highest 69.5 2.8 25.7 2.1 100.0 567

Total 56.0 4.5 36.3 3.3 100.0 2,359

1 Includes women whose house has a title/deed, but they do not know if their name is on it, and women 

who do not know if the house has a title/deed

2

Includes alone, joint, or alone and joint ownership
344 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 19.5.2 Ownership of title or deed for house: Men

Among men age 15-49 who own a house, percent distribution by whether the house owned has a title or 

deed and whether or not the man’s name appears on the title or deed, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

House has a title 

or deed and:

Does not 

have a 

title/deed Don’t know1 Total

Number of 

men who 

own a 

house2

Background 

characteristic

Man’s name 

is on 

title/deed

Man’s name 

is not on 

title/deed

Age

15-19 * * * * 100.0 11

20-24 (36.7) (9.7) (49.7) (3.9) 100.0 41

25-29 45.3 0.0 52.9 1.8 100.0 58

30-34 55.0 1.7 37.3 6.0 100.0 99

35-39 52.3 0.7 46.4 0.5 100.0 129

40-44 44.1 4.1 51.7 0.1 100.0 136

45-49 54.1 1.8 40.1 4.0 100.0 147

Residence

Urban 44.0 2.7 50.4 2.9 100.0 440

Non-urban 60.9 1.6 36.2 1.4 100.0 182

Province

Western Cape (68.1) (2.2) (25.6) (4.1) 100.0 78

Eastern Cape 27.8 2.1 65.1 5.0 100.0 48

Northern Cape 69.3 4.1 26.7 0.0 100.0 16

Free State 52.5 2.1 43.5 1.9 100.0 28

KwaZulu-Natal 33.9 2.1 63.2 0.8 100.0 85

North West 90.1 0.0 9.9 0.0 100.0 53

Gauteng 30.5 3.3 62.4 3.8 100.0 194

Mpumalanga 86.9 0.0 13.1 0.0 100.0 55

Limpopo 43.9 4.0 50.4 1.6 100.0 65

Education

No education * * * * 100.0 21

Primary incomplete 44.0 1.6 52.8 1.5 100.0 50

Primary complete (33.6) (9.2) (47.6) (9.6) 100.0 32

Secondary incomplete 49.7 0.4 48.0 1.9 100.0 252

Secondary complete 51.1 3.9 41.4 3.7 100.0 163

More than secondary 52.5 3.5 43.3 0.7 100.0 103

Wealth quintile

Lowest 34.1 0.8 62.0 3.2 100.0 114

Second 53.2 0.9 44.2 1.7 100.0 121

Middle 47.0 2.7 47.8 2.5 100.0 143

Fourth 57.1 3.5 33.7 5.7 100.0 105

Highest 53.4 3.8 42.9 0.0 100.0 140

Total 15-49 49.0 2.4 46.2 2.5 100.0 622

50-59 64.1 2.3 31.6 2.0 100.0 276

Total 15-59 53.6 2.4 41.7 2.3 100.0 898

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is 

based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1

Includes men whose house has a title/deed, but they do not know if their name is on it, and men who do 

not know if the house has a title/deed

2

Includes alone, joint, or alone and joint ownership 
Women’s Empowerment • 345

Table 19.6.1 Ownership and use of bank accounts and cellphones: Women

Percentage of women age 15-49 who have and use an account in a bank or other financial institution and percentage who own a 

cellphone, and among women who own a cellphone, percentage who use it for financial transactions, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Have and use a 

bank account

Own a 

cellphone

Number of 

women

Use cellphone 

for financial 

transactions

Number of women 

who own a 

cellphone

Age

15-19 17.3 76.7 1,427 12.2 1,094

20-24 49.7 92.9 1,415 30.9 1,315

25-29 62.2 96.1 1,444 36.9 1,387

30-34 65.3 94.7 1,333 40.4 1,262

35-39 67.8 94.4 1,072 40.8 1,012

40-44 62.2 92.6 941 33.9 871

45-49 63.2 93.5 883 30.6 825

Residence

Urban 60.2 92.3 5,731 35.9 5,289

Non-urban 41.0 89.0 2,783 25.0 2,476

Province

Western Cape 65.9 87.9 995 36.8 875

Eastern Cape 50.3 91.1 938 28.3 854

Northern Cape 47.3 82.7 173 29.3 143

Free State 52.2 90.4 442 33.1 400

KwaZulu-Natal 43.1 89.6 1,616 32.2 1,448

North West 51.7 89.7 570 26.9 512

Gauteng 62.0 94.7 2,284 35.7 2,163

Mpumalanga 52.8 94.4 671 31.6 633

Limpopo 46.8 89.6 824 28.0 739

Education

No education 21.6 79.8 168 11.9 134

Primary incomplete 29.9 80.2 447 10.8 358

Primary complete 25.8 80.4 327 11.6 263

Secondary incomplete 39.1 88.0 4,195 21.1 3,689

Secondary complete 74.3 98.0 2,369 43.8 2,322

More than secondary 92.6 99.0 1,008 64.4 998

Wealth quintile

Lowest 28.8 83.3 1,648 15.3 1,373

Second 45.8 91.6 1,715 25.4 1,572

Middle 54.2 90.8 1,805 32.7 1,639

Fourth 62.0 92.3 1,763 34.5 1,628

Highest 79.6 98.1 1,583 52.5 1,553

Total 53.9 91.2 8,514 32.5 7,765
346 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 19.6.2 Ownership and use of bank accounts and cellphones: Men

Percentage of men age 15-49 who have and use an account in a bank or other financial institution and percentage who own a 

cellphone, and among men who own a cellphone, percentage who use it for financial transactions, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Have and use a 

bank account

Own a 

cellphone

Number of 

men

Use cellphone 

for financial 

transactions

Number of men who 

own a cellphone

Age

15-19 15.1 74.6 647 10.1 483

20-24 53.8 89.1 588 31.6 524

25-29 67.9 91.4 506 46.8 462

30-34 72.0 94.7 450 49.1 426

35-39 75.0 93.4 395 46.9 369

40-44 71.8 92.8 345 42.3 320

45-49 73.0 92.5 271 43.1 251

Residence

Urban 65.0 90.3 2,203 43.0 1,990

Non-urban 39.3 84.6 999 23.8 845

Province

Western Cape 67.5 84.4 328 40.9 277

Eastern Cape 42.4 80.6 362 27.5 292

Northern Cape 59.2 78.5 61 29.8 48

Free State 34.9 86.5 159 23.8 137

KwaZulu-Natal 44.2 84.5 521 26.5 441

North West 65.6 91.7 237 22.3 217

Gauteng 68.3 92.7 984 48.1 912

Mpumalanga 64.2 95.5 263 55.6 251

Limpopo 45.7 90.5 288 28.1 261

Education

No education 55.6 89.5 62 23.4 56

Primary incomplete 30.4 77.9 219 15.0 171

Primary complete 42.7 80.5 166 23.4 134

Secondary incomplete 42.7 84.7 1,637 26.2 1,387

Secondary complete 82.7 96.4 773 53.5 745

More than secondary 91.0 99.4 345 65.5 343

Wealth quintile

Lowest 38.9 84.4 618 26.3 522

Second 50.0 86.6 682 27.6 591

Middle 56.8 86.8 715 38.9 620

Fourth 60.9 89.7 653 42.0 586

Highest 82.2 96.8 534 52.2 517

Total 15-49 57.0 88.5 3,202 37.3 2,835

50-59 61.0 87.9 416 27.5 366

Total 15-59 57.4 88.5 3,618 36.2 3,201

Table 19.7 Participation in decision making

Percent distribution of in-union women and in-union men age 15-49 by person who usually makes decisions about various issues, South Africa 

DHS 2016 

Decision

Mainly 

woman

Woman and 

man jointly Mainly man

Someone 

else Other Not asked1 Total

Number of 

respondents 

WOMEN

Own health care 41.1 52.8 5.4 0.1 0.2 0.4 100.0 3,050

Major household purchases 18.7 73.2 7.4 0.2 0.1 0.4 100.0 3,050

Visits to her family or relatives 26.7 66.7 5.7 0.3 0.2 0.4 100.0 3,050

MEN

Own health care 7.2 64.1 28.0 0.3 0.1 0.3 100.0 988

Major household purchases 11.1 73.3 14.5 0.8 0.0 0.3 100.0 988

Note: In-union women and men include those who are currently married or living together with a partner as if married.

1 Question not asked because respondents are in same-sex unions 
Women’s Empowerment • 347

Table 19.8.1 Women’s participation in decision making by background characteristics

Percentage of in-union women age 15-49 who usually make specific decisions either by themselves or jointly with their partner, by 

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Specific decisions

All three 

decisions

None of the 

three decisions

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic

Woman’s own 

health care

Making major 

household 

purchases

Visits to her 

family or 

relatives

Age

15-19 (86.1) (85.2) (82.7) (80.9) (12.1) 44

20-24 89.1 85.5 90.8 80.2 4.9 271

25-29 94.0 92.0 92.8 86.6 3.2 514

30-34 93.7 91.1 92.4 86.9 4.0 688

35-39 94.0 93.1 94.7 88.1 2.1 575

40-44 96.0 94.2 94.9 90.3 1.8 507

45-49 95.0 93.1 95.3 88.5 1.7 450

Employment (past 12 months)

Not employed 91.9 89.6 91.9 84.3 4.1 1,608

Employed for cash 96.1 94.5 95.5 90.7 1.7 1,403

Employed not for cash (96.4) (91.4) (81.3) (79.4) (2.4) 38

Number of living children

0 89.8 86.5 86.9 82.0 8.5 262

1-2 93.5 91.9 93.2 87.3 3.3 1,667

3-4 95.4 93.0 95.6 88.0 1.2 947

5+ 95.4 93.8 94.1 89.5 1.4 174

Residence

Urban 95.1 92.5 94.1 89.0 3.0 2,259

Non-urban 90.5 90.2 91.4 82.1 3.0 790

Province

Western Cape 95.1 93.3 95.2 90.3 2.5 454

Eastern Cape 91.9 87.4 91.6 80.6 2.9 275

Northern Cape 94.7 95.3 96.2 91.6 1.9 66

Free State 95.8 95.7 95.1 92.2 2.2 146

KwaZulu-Natal 94.7 92.0 92.5 88.0 3.0 361

North West 95.5 95.0 94.9 90.2 2.0 215

Gauteng 96.6 93.6 94.9 90.7 2.4 1,035

Mpumalanga 89.0 87.5 88.6 81.7 6.9 244

Limpopo 83.6 85.6 89.3 72.4 4.0 254

Education

No education 96.8 94.2 96.0 88.9 0.5 83

Primary incomplete 84.8 86.1 88.6 78.0 7.3 185

Primary complete 97.5 93.8 95.9 91.1 1.0 142

Secondary incomplete 93.4 91.8 93.2 86.3 2.7 1,297

Secondary complete 95.1 93.0 94.0 88.9 2.5 875

More than secondary 94.9 91.2 93.7 88.8 4.0 469

Wealth quintile

Lowest 92.5 90.3 93.1 85.2 3.2 505

Second 92.2 90.0 91.8 82.6 2.7 610

Middle 94.3 93.6 93.9 89.5 2.9 637

Fourth 95.0 92.9 94.9 89.1 2.4 569

Highest 94.9 92.3 93.5 89.0 3.6 729

Total 93.9 91.9 93.4 87.2 3.0 3,050

Notes: In-union women include women who are currently married or living together with a partner as if married. Figures in parentheses 

are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. 
348 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 19.8.2 Men’s participation in decision making by background characteristics

Percentage of in-union men age 15-49 who usually make specific decisions either alone or jointly with their partner, 

by background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Specific decisions

Both decisions

Neither of the 

two decisions

Number of 

men

Background 

characteristic

Man’s own 

health

Making major 

household 

purchases

Age

15-19 * * * * 1

20-24 (82.1) (75.0) (73.3) (16.2) 42

25-29 86.8 85.0 78.9 7.1 127

30-34 93.3 91.6 89.4 4.5 219

35-39 96.3 89.5 87.0 1.2 212

40-44 92.7 88.1 84.7 3.8 215

45-49 91.7 85.7 83.8 6.4 172

Employment (past 12 months)

Not employed 90.3 89.9 87.2 7.0 210

Employed for cash 92.6 87.2 84.1 4.2 775

Employed not for cash * * * * 2

Number of living children

0 92.8 86.5 85.1 5.7 112

1-2 91.8 87.4 84.5 5.3 493

3-4 91.3 89.7 85.4 4.4 286

5+ 95.5 85.9 84.1 2.6 96

Residence

Urban 93.3 91.1 88.1 3.7 765

Non-urban 88.2 76.6 73.4 8.6 223

Province

Western Cape 94.5 94.6 93.3 4.1 136

Eastern Cape 90.7 79.1 78.4 8.7 69

Northern Cape 98.8 80.0 80.0 1.2 19

Free State 81.1 79.1 74.8 14.5 35

KwaZulu-Natal 89.7 87.1 83.7 6.9 96

North West 87.7 68.4 62.4 6.4 91

Gauteng 92.7 93.1 89.1 3.4 395

Mpumalanga 94.1 94.3 92.8 4.4 84

Limpopo 97.0 77.5 76.3 1.9 62

Education

No education (82.7) (93.4) (81.6) (5.6) 36

Primary incomplete 77.8 73.7 73.1 21.6 86

Primary complete 94.3 81.0 77.7 2.4 50

Secondary incomplete 94.0 88.6 86.2 3.5 387

Secondary complete 94.8 90.3 87.2 2.1 282

More than secondary 92.1 90.2 86.5 4.2 146

Wealth quintile

Lowest 84.7 84.5 80.1 10.8 175

Second 89.6 86.0 80.7 5.1 204

Middle 95.8 85.5 84.7 3.3 215

Fourth 96.9 90.5 90.2 2.8 177

Highest 92.8 92.4 88.1 2.9 217

Total 15-49 92.1 87.8 84.8 4.8 988

50-59 86.3 81.2 78.0 10.6 288

Total 15-59 90.8 86.3 83.3 6.1 1,276

Notes: In-union men include men who are currently married or living together with a partner as if married. Figures in 

parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 

unweighted cases and has been suppressed. 
Women’s Empowerment • 349

Table 19.9.1 Attitude toward wife beating: Women

Percentage of all women age 15-49 who agree that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife for specific reasons, according to

background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife if she: Percentage 

who agree 

with at least 

one specified 

reason

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic

Burns the 

food

Argues with 

him

Goes out 

without telling 

him

Neglects the 

children

Refuses to 

have sexual 

intercourse 

with him

Age

15-19 1.4 2.8 2.6 5.2 0.7 7.2 1,427

20-24 0.9 2.5 1.8 4.2 1.4 5.6 1,415

25-29 1.4 2.5 2.4 3.8 1.0 6.0 1,444

30-34 0.6 1.6 1.7 3.0 0.5 4.1 1,333

35-39 0.5 1.5 1.6 2.9 0.5 4.2 1,072

40-44 0.7 2.2 2.7 4.1 1.7 6.5 941

45-49 0.9 1.9 1.8 3.3 1.1 4.6 883

Employment (past 12 months)

Not employed 1.2 2.4 2.1 4.2 1.1 5.8 5,233

Employed for cash 0.6 1.9 2.1 3.1 0.8 5.0 3,183

Employed not for cash 1.1 2.1 2.7 8.6 0.7 8.8 98

Number of living children

0 1.0 2.2 2.2 4.0 0.9 5.7 2,436

1-2 0.9 2.3 2.2 3.8 0.9 5.5 4,155

3-4 0.9 2.0 1.8 3.4 0.9 4.8 1,629

5+ 1.6 2.5 2.2 5.4 2.5 8.1 294

Marital status

Never married 1.0 2.2 1.8 4.0 0.8 5.6 4,992

Married or living together 0.9 2.0 2.4 3.3 1.0 5.2 3,050

Divorced/separated/widowed 0.9 3.1 2.8 5.7 1.9 6.8 472

Residence

Urban 0.7 1.4 1.6 3.0 0.7 4.2 5,731

Non-urban 1.4 3.9 3.2 5.5 1.5 8.2 2,783

Province

Western Cape 0.9 1.9 2.3 3.8 1.2 5.7 995

Eastern Cape 2.4 4.9 5.3 9.0 1.9 11.1 938

Northern Cape 1.6 3.6 3.4 8.7 2.3 11.6 173

Free State 0.9 1.7 2.2 3.9 0.6 5.5 442

KwaZulu-Natal 0.5 1.7 1.5 1.8 0.6 3.0 1,616

North West 0.5 2.6 1.6 4.4 1.5 6.2 570

Gauteng 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.7 0.4 2.6 2,284

Mpumalanga 0.4 2.1 1.8 4.2 0.3 5.8 671

Limpopo 1.3 4.1 3.1 6.3 2.2 10.0 824

Education

No education 1.6 2.9 2.2 2.8 2.2 6.8 168

Primary incomplete 2.4 4.4 4.9 6.9 1.9 11.1 447

Primary complete 2.4 4.0 4.7 6.9 1.9 8.2 327

Secondary incomplete 1.0 2.7 2.8 4.9 1.2 6.7 4,195

Secondary complete 0.7 1.4 0.7 2.5 0.6 3.7 2,369

More than secondary 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.6 0.1 1.1 1,008

Wealth quintile

Lowest 1.9 4.0 3.2 5.6 1.9 8.0 1,648

Second 1.0 2.5 2.8 4.8 0.9 6.9 1,715

Middle 0.6 1.8 1.7 3.4 0.4 4.9 1,805

Fourth 0.6 1.9 1.8 3.9 1.1 4.9 1,763

Highest 0.7 0.7 1.0 1.6 0.5 2.8 1,583

Total 1.0 2.2 2.1 3.8 1.0 5.5 8,514
350 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 19.9.2 Attitude toward wife beating: Men

Percentage of all men age 15-49 who agree that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife for specific reasons, according to background 

characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife if she: Percentage 

who agree 

with at least 

one specified 

reason

Number of 

men

Background 

characteristic

Burns the 

food

Argues with 

him

Goes out 

without telling 

him

Neglects the 

children

Refuses to 

have sexual 

intercourse 

with him

Age

15-19 2.2 6.6 3.2 8.9 1.5 14.0 647

20-24 2.4 4.2 3.2 11.0 2.7 12.9 588

25-29 1.3 3.3 4.0 5.9 1.0 8.7 506

30-34 1.1 3.1 2.9 2.9 0.7 6.1 450

35-39 2.2 3.3 6.3 2.8 2.6 8.1 395

40-44 1.4 1.9 4.4 3.4 1.6 5.1 345

45-49 0.4 0.5 2.2 2.2 0.4 3.1 271

Employment (past 12 months)

Not employed 1.7 5.1 4.4 7.9 1.6 11.4 1,541

Employed for cash 1.7 2.4 3.1 4.3 1.6 7.2 1,652

Employed not for cash * * * * * * 8

Number of living children

0 2.4 5.0 3.5 8.0 1.8 11.9 1,644

1-2 1.2 2.4 3.7 4.9 1.3 7.2 1,017

3-4 0.2 2.9 4.0 2.4 1.6 4.7 414

5+ 1.3 0.9 5.8 2.6 0.9 5.8 127

Marital status

Never married 2.2 4.6 3.9 7.5 2.0 11.4 2,073

Married or living together 0.8 2.0 3.4 2.8 0.8 4.7 988

Divorced/separated/widowed 1.2 3.5 4.0 6.7 0.7 8.8 141

Residence

Urban 1.2 2.2 2.7 4.2 1.1 6.6 2,203

Non-urban 2.7 7.1 6.0 10.1 2.6 14.9 999

Province

Western Cape 0.5 0.6 1.4 2.9 1.4 5.0 328

Eastern Cape 0.9 4.6 5.5 7.2 1.2 10.6 362

Northern Cape 0.7 2.6 2.6 7.6 0.9 9.8 61

Free State 1.4 3.7 3.2 10.3 1.0 13.0 159

KwaZulu-Natal 3.6 7.7 5.2 7.4 2.2 13.3 521

North West 2.6 5.4 5.8 8.3 3.0 11.4 237

Gauteng 0.8 1.5 2.9 3.4 1.0 5.7 984

Mpumalanga 0.7 0.9 1.6 0.9 0.1 2.8 263

Limpopo 3.9 7.9 4.8 14.9 3.7 19.0 288

Education

No education 3.8 6.3 4.5 8.2 1.1 10.6 62

Primary incomplete 3.3 7.1 6.9 9.1 3.6 12.1 219

Primary complete 3.0 5.4 4.0 5.4 1.0 9.6 166

Secondary incomplete 1.8 4.7 4.6 7.5 2.1 11.6 1,637

Secondary complete 0.8 1.6 1.8 3.3 0.5 4.8 773

More than secondary 1.2 0.7 1.7 3.2 0.7 5.8 345

Wealth quintile

Lowest 2.3 7.5 6.4 9.7 1.8 14.6 618

Second 3.5 5.0 5.8 8.4 3.3 12.7 682

Middle 1.1 2.4 2.0 4.6 0.7 7.6 715

Fourth 0.9 2.8 2.8 6.0 1.6 7.7 653

Highest 0.3 0.5 1.4 0.8 0.4 2.5 534

Total 15-49 1.7 3.7 3.7 6.1 1.6 9.2 3,202

50-59 0.1 2.7 3.1 3.4 0.5 6.0 416

Total 15-59 1.5 3.6 3.6 5.7 1.5 8.9 3,618

Note: An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed. 
Women’s Empowerment • 351

Table 19.10 Ability to negotiate sexual relations with partner

Percentage of in-union women age 15-49 who can say no to their partner if they do 

not want to have sexual intercourse, and percentage who can ask their partner to use 

a condom, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Percentage who 

can say no to their 

partner if they do 

not want to have 

sexual intercourse

Percentage who 

can ask their 

partner to use 

a condom

Number

of women

Age

15-24 76.5 80.0 315

 15-19 (71.4) (74.0) 44

 20-24 77.3 81.0 271

25-29 69.1 77.8 514

30-39 72.4 76.4 1,263

40-49 72.6 75.2 957

Residence

Urban 72.7 78.0 2,259

Non-urban 71.1 72.8 790

Province

Western Cape 78.3 80.7 454

Eastern Cape 80.5 79.2 275

Northern Cape 78.4 80.7 66

Free State 76.4 83.2 146

KwaZulu-Natal 73.9 74.9 361

North West 77.2 74.1 215

Gauteng 65.1 73.6 1,035

Mpumalanga 76.2 78.3 244

Limpopo 68.4 77.0 254

Education

No education 60.8 66.6 83

Primary incomplete 69.3 66.3 185

Primary complete 75.0 78.7 142

Secondary incomplete 73.4 75.7 1,297

Secondary complete 73.4 79.6 875

More than secondary 69.9 78.9 469

Wealth quintile

Lowest 69.0 71.3 505

Second 72.1 75.5 610

Middle 73.2 78.7 637

Fourth 75.9 79.3 569

Highest 71.2 77.4 729

Total 72.3 76.6 3,050

Notes: In-union women include women who are currently married or living together 

with a partner as if married. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted 

cases. 
352 • Women’s Empowerment

Table 19.11.1 Child discipline: Women

Percentage of women age 15-49 with one or more children less than age 18 living with them who have 

physically disciplined or punished their children, according to background characteristics, South Africa 

DHS 2016 

In the past 12 months: Number of 

women with one 

or more children 

less than age 18 

living with them 

Background 

characteristic

Hit or slapped 

child with hand

Hit or beat child 

with an 

implement1

Hit, slapped, or 

beat child with 

either a hand or 

an implement1

Age

15-19 20.6 16.1 26.4 148

20-24 28.8 25.2 37.0 647

25-29 36.6 34.5 45.9 963

30-34 35.9 33.8 45.1 937

35-39 32.5 30.0 41.9 802

40-44 29.7 27.5 36.2 664

45-49 24.2 26.3 34.2 452

Employment (past 12 months)

Not employed 31.1 30.7 39.7 2,636

Employed for cash 33.0 28.4 41.6 1,922

Employed not for cash 33.6 41.1 47.6 55

Number of living children

1-2 31.0 26.9 38.8 3,017

3-4 34.7 35.6 44.5 1,346

5+ 28.5 35.4 41.5 250

Residence

Urban 31.0 25.9 38.4 2,994

Non-urban 33.7 37.2 44.6 1,619

Province

Western Cape 40.3 16.9 42.6 541

Eastern Cape 44.1 33.6 53.4 512

Northern Cape 26.5 25.7 36.6 105

Free State 30.3 26.4 33.9 248

KwaZulu-Natal 30.7 47.3 51.0 801

North West 36.8 30.8 41.5 335

Gauteng 27.1 22.7 31.5 1,207

Mpumalanga 34.8 42.7 47.1 384

Limpopo 20.3 21.4 28.8 482

Education

No education 39.1 41.1 49.3 94

Primary incomplete 35.3 38.6 44.5 282

Primary complete 31.0 35.9 46.4 172

Secondary incomplete 29.8 29.1 38.8 2,128

Secondary complete 32.2 28.8 39.7 1,355

More than secondary 36.6 27.3 44.2 582

Wealth quintile

Lowest 32.8 35.9 43.8 887

Second 31.8 33.2 41.4 948

Middle 29.2 31.1 38.7 1,012

Fourth 35.9 28.9 45.4 942

Highest 30.0 19.3 33.2 824

Total 31.9 29.9 40.6 4,613

1

Implements include belt, spoon, stick, or shoe
Women’s Empowerment • 353

Table 19.11.2 Child discipline: Men

Percentage of men age 15-49 with one or more children less than age 18 living with them who have 

physically disciplined or punished their children, according to background characteristics, South Africa 

DHS 2016 

In the past 12 months: Number of men 

with one or more 

children less 

than 18 living 

with them 

Background 

characteristic

Hit or slapped 

child with hand

Hit or beat child 

with an 

implement1

Hit, slapped, or 

beat child with 

either a hand or 

an implement1

Age

15-19 * * * 3

20-24 * * * 17

25-29 26.5 17.6 30.3 79

30-34 17.5 16.2 19.5 142

35-39 17.9 17.0 25.3 133

40-44 24.9 23.7 29.8 123

45-49 17.7 19.1 27.0 100

Employment (past 12 months)

Not employed 22.8 12.9 24.6 133

Employed for cash 20.1 20.3 26.7 463

Employed not for cash * * * 1

Number of living children

1-2 22.0 18.8 28.2 325

3-4 18.4 15.4 21.1 210

5+ 21.4 28.2 32.9 63

Residence

Urban 21.9 17.4 25.5 446

Non-urban 17.1 22.3 28.1 152

Province

Western Cape 31.2 21.0 34.9 102

Eastern Cape 13.1 21.1 31.4 48

Northern Cape 10.6 8.3 14.1 13

Free State (10.7) (6.7) (15.4) 25

KwaZulu-Natal 21.7 21.4 26.5 80

North West 12.1 11.7 22.6 45

Gauteng 20.1 16.1 22.8 195

Mpumalanga 17.1 20.0 20.0 56

Limpopo (29.0) (35.5) (39.1) 33

Education

No education * * * 21

Primary incomplete (23.9) (12.0) (30.0) 50

Primary complete (29.8) (28.9) (29.8) 27

Secondary incomplete 11.0 13.5 18.4 221

Secondary complete 24.5 23.6 30.8 187

More than secondary 28.6 19.1 30.7 91

Wealth quintile

Lowest 20.9 26.6 29.0 100

Second 20.4 16.8 28.1 117

Middle 13.8 14.0 20.5 116

Fourth 23.1 13.9 26.5 109

Highest 24.1 21.6 27.1 157

Total 15-49 20.7 18.6 26.2 598

50-59 18.8 18.5 23.6 109

Total 15-59 20.4 18.6 25.8 707

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is 

based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases and has been suppressed.

1

Implements include belt, spoon, stick, or shoe

Domestic Violence • 355

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE 20

Key Findings

 Partner violence: One in four (26%) ever-partnered 

women age 18 or older have experienced physical, 

sexual, or emotional violence committed by a partner in 

their lifetime. The most common form of violence 

experienced by women is physical violence (21%); 17% 

of women have experienced emotional violence, and 6% 

have experienced sexual violence.

 Controlling behaviours: 19% of ever-partnered women 

report that their current or most recent partner has 

displayed three or more controlling behaviours.

 Injuries due to partner violence: 37% of ever-partnered 

women who have experienced physical or sexual 

violence by their current or most recent partner have had 

injuries as a result.

ender-based violence, defined by the United Nations as any act of violence that results in physical, 

sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women, girls, men, and boys, as well as threats of 

such acts, coercion, or the arbitrary deprivation of liberty, is acknowledged worldwide as a

violation of basic human rights. Increasing research has highlighted the health burdens, intergenerational 

effects, and demographic consequences of such violence (United Nations 2006). Despite many 

constitutional protections, gender-based violence remains persistent and widespread in South Africa 

(DWCPD 2014). Violence against women occurs across groups defined by socioeconomic status, race, 

age, and religion. In South Africa, research on this pandemic by academia, government, and 

nongovernmental organisations continues to provide substantive information about the nature, scope, and 

dimensions of the problem. Data on violence against women in South Africa are generally based on police 

reports or obtained through victimisation surveys, both of which are often considered to be under-reported.

This chapter focuses on domestic or intimate partner violence, a form of gender-based violence. In South 

Africa, intimate partner violence is a persistent societal problem that has its roots in a highly patriarchal 

culture that asserts male dominance. Additional factors shown to be associated with the experience and/or 

perpetration of domestic violence include witnessing of parental violence, experiences of child abuse, 

poverty, and relationship-level factors such as conflicts. Among women, the health effects of experiences 

of intimate partner violence include increased risk of HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections, 

injuries, depression, suicidality, and posttraumatic stress disorder.

Prevention of and reductions in levels of domestic violence have been placed on the national 

transformation agenda as one of the country’s priorities. Legal frameworks such as the 1998 Domestic 

Violence Act No. 116 were formulated to curb the problem. This legislation protects women from 

domestic violence by providing accessible legal instruments aiming to prevent further incidents of abuse 

within domestic relationships.

G
356 • Domestic Violence

The SADHS implemented the domestic violence module1in all households. One woman age 18 or older 

per household was selected at random to be eligible for the module. If the selected woman was age 18-49, 

the module was implemented as part of the full Woman’s Questionnaire or the full Woman’s 

Questionnaire and the adult health module. If the selected woman was age 50 or older, the module was 

implemented in conjunction with background sections of the Woman’s Questionnaire and the adult health 

module; for these older women, some information (e.g., birth history, information on sexual activity, and 

information on women’s empowerment) was not collected. In estimating indicators, specially constructed 

weights were applied to adjust for the selection of only one woman per household. The use of these 

weights ensures that the subsample of women who were interviewed with the domestic violence module is 

representative nationally, for urban and non-urban areas, and at the provincial level.

Overall, 8,720 women age 18 and older were selected for the domestic violence module. Of these women, 

7,759 were interviewed with the Woman’s Questionnaire and/or the adult health module. Privacy must be 

obtained before the domestic violence module can be administered. Overall, privacy was obtained and the 

interview with the module was completed for 6,620 women, including 5,865 (weighted) ever-partnered 

women. The overall response rate for the domestic violence module was 76% (data not shown). Among 

women who agreed to be interviewed, 85% completed the module.

20.1 MEASUREMENT OF INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE

Violence committed by a current partner (among currently partnered women) or the most recent partner

(among formerly partnered women) was measured by asking all ever-partnered women if their partner ever 

did the following to them2:

Physical violence: push you, shake you, or throw something at you; kick you, drag you, or beat you up; try 

to choke you or burn you on purpose; or threaten or attack you with a knife, gun, or any other weapon

Sexual violence: physically force you to have sexual intercourse with him even when you did not want to,

physically force you to perform any other sexual acts you did not want to, or force you with threats or in 

any other way to perform sexual acts you did not want to

Emotional violence: say or do something to humiliate you in front of others, threaten to hurt or harm you 

or someone close to you, or insult you or make you feel bad about yourself

In this chapter, partnered women include women who are in a union (those who are married or living with 

a man as if married) and women who said they have a boyfriend, partner, or fiancé.

20.2 WOMEN’S EXPERIENCE OF PHYSICAL, SEXUAL, OR EMOTIONAL VIOLENCE BY ANY 

PARTNER

Physical violence by any partner

Percentage of women who have ever experienced any physical violence 

(committed by any partner).

Sample: Ever-partnered women age 18 and older

 

1 The domestic violence module was referred to as the household relations module in the SADHS Woman’s 

Questionnaire.

2 The domestic violence module was designed with the intention of capturing violence against women by current and 

past partners and persons other than partners. However, due to a skip error in the CAPI program, data on non-partner 

violence are not available.
Domestic Violence • 357

Sexual violence by any partner

Percentage of women who have ever experienced any sexual violence 

(committed by any partner).

Sample: Ever-partnered women age 18 and older

Emotional violence by any partner

Percentage of women who have ever experienced any emotional violence 

(committed by any partner).

Sample: Ever-partnered women age 18 and older

One in five (21%) ever-partnered women age 18 and older have ever experienced physical violence by any

partner, 6% have ever experienced sexual violence by any partner, and 17% have ever experienced 

emotional violence by any partner (Table 20.1). Overall, 26% of ever-partnered women have experienced 

physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a partner.

Patterns by background characteristics

 Women age 25-64 are more 

likely to have experienced 

physical, sexual, or emotional

violence from any partner than 

younger women (age 18-24) or 

women age 65 and older.

 Women who are divorced or 

separated (45%) are more likely 

than women in any other 

marital status group (21%-35%) 

to have experienced any form 

of violence by a partner (Figure 

20.1). Notably, however, 

women who are living together 

with a partner are more than twice as likely as married women to have ever experienced physical

violence (31% versus 14%) or sexual violence (10% versus 4%).

 The percentage of women who have experienced physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a partner 

does not vary by residence but does vary by province, from 19% in KwaZulu-Natal to 38% in 

Eastern Cape.

 Although the relationship is not linear, women’s likelihood of having experienced physical, sexual, or 

emotional violence by any partner tends to decline with increasing education and household wealth. 

Information on experiences with physical violence only and sexual violence only is presented in 

Table 20.2.

20.2.1 Age at first experience of sexual violence by any partner

Among ever-partnered women age 18 and older, 0.3% experienced sexual violence from a partner by age 

15, 1% by age 18, and 3% by age 22. Ninety-four percent of ever-partnered women have not experienced 

sexual violence by a partner (Table 20.3).

Figure 20.1 Experience of physical, sexual, or 

emotional violence among ever-partnered women age 

18+ by marital status

25 21

35

45

29

Percentage who have ever experienced physical, sexual, or

emotional violence by any partner

Never married Married Living together Divorced/separated Widowed
358 • Domestic Violence

20.3 WOMEN’S EXPERIENCE OF VIOLENCE BY ANY PARTNER IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS

In the 12 months before the survey, 9% of everpartnered women age 18 and older experienced 

emotional violence, 8% experienced physical 

violence, and 2% experienced sexual violence. 

Overall, 13% of women experienced emotional, 

physical, or sexual violence by a partner in the past 

year (Table 20.4). 

Patterns by background characteristics

 Women’s recent experience of physical, sexual, 

or emotional violence tends to decline with age,

from 15%-17% among women age 18-44 to 4%

among women age 65 and over.

 By province, the proportion of women recently

experiencing physical, sexual, or emotional 

violence by a partner ranged from 7% in 

Limpopo to 18% in North West (Figure 20.2).

20.4 CONTROLLING BEHAVIOURS BY MOST RECENT PARTNER

Controlling behaviours

Percentage of women whose current partner (if currently partnered) or most 

recent partner (if formerly partnered) demonstrates at least one of the following 

controlling behaviours: is jealous or angry if she talks to other men, frequently 

accuses her of being unfaithful, does not permit her to meet her female friends,

tries to limit her contact with her family, and insists on knowing where she is at 

all times.

Sample: Ever-partnered women age 18 and older

Attempts by male partners to closely control and monitor their female partners’ behaviour are important 

warning signs and correlates of violence in a relationship. A series of questions were included in the 

SADHS 2016 to elicit the degree of controlling behaviours exercised by respondents’ partners. Because the 

concentration of behaviours is more significant than the display of any single behaviour, the proportion of 

women whose partners display at least three of the specified behaviours is also discussed.

Forty percent of ever-partnered women age 18 and older report that their current (or most recent) partner is 

jealous or angry if they talk to other men, and 31% report that he insists on knowing where they are at all 

times. Twenty-one percent report that their partners frequently accuse them of being unfaithful, 15% say 

that he does not permit them to meet their female friends, and 8% report that he tries to limit their contact 

with their families. Overall, 19% of ever-partnered women report that their current (or most recent) partner 

has displayed three or more of the behaviours described above, while half (51%) report that their partner

has not displayed any controlling behaviours (Table 20.5).

Patterns by background characteristics

 Controlling behaviours are more common in the youngest age group: 24% of women age 18-24 report 

that their partners demonstrate three or more controlling behaviours, as compared with 15%-16% of 

women age 45-64 and 11% of women age 65 and older.

Figure 20.2 Partner violence by province

Percentage of ever-partnered women age 18 and 

older who have experienced physical, sexual, or 

emotional violence committed by any partner

in the past 12 months
Domestic Violence • 359

 Women’s reports of their partners’ controlling behaviours vary by province. Overall, the percentage of 

ever-partnered women whose partner displays at least three of the specified behaviours ranges from 

15% each in Limpopo and Western Cape to 28% in Free State. 

 Married women (12%) are much less likely than never-married women (23%), women who are living 

together with their partner (25%), and divorced or separated women (28%) to report that their current 

or most recent partner displays at least three of the specified behaviours.

 The percentage of women with a partner who displays three or more controlling behaviours declines 

with increasing wealth, from 22% each among those in the lowest and second wealth quintiles to 12% 

among those in the highest wealth quintile. 

 Women’s reports of controlling behaviours by their partner vary greatly by whether or not they are

afraid of their partner. Fourteen percent of women who say that they are never afraid of their partner 

report at least three controlling behaviours, as compared with 60% of women who say that they are 

afraid of their partner most of the time.

20.5 PREVALENCE OF VIOLENCE BY MOST RECENT PARTNER

Violence by current or most recent partner

Percentage of women who have experienced any of the specified acts of 

physical, sexual, or emotional violence committed by their current partner (if 

currently partnered) or most recent partner (if formerly partnered), ever and in 

the 12 months preceding the survey.

Sample: Ever-partnered women age 18 and older

One in five (21%) ever-partnered 

women have experienced physical, 

sexual, or emotional violence 

committed by their current or most 

recent partner (Table 20.6). 

Thirteen percent of women reported 

experiencing physical, sexual, or 

emotional violence in the 12 months 

preceding the survey. 

Fourteen percent of ever-partnered 

women reported physical violence 

by their current (or most recent)

partner, and a similar proportion 

reported emotional violence. Sexual 

violence was reported by 4% of 

women. Data on specific acts of 

physical and sexual violence 

experienced by women ever and in 

the past 12 months are shown in 

Figure 20.3.

Figure 20.3 Forms of violence

13

8

2

3

4

2

2

7

4

1

1

2

1

1

Pushed her, shook her, or threw

something at her

Kicked her, dragged her, or beat

her up

Tried to choke her or burn her on

purpose

Threatened her or attacked her

with a knife, gun, or other weapon

Physically forced her to have

sexual intercourse with him when

she did not want to

Physically forced her to perform

any other sexual acts she did not

want to

Forced her with threats or in any

other way to perform sexual acts

she did not want to

Percentage of ever-partnered women age 18 and older 

who have ever experienced specfic acts of violence by 

their partner

Ever

Past 12 months
360 • Domestic Violence

Patterns by background characteristics of ever-partnered women

 Women age 55-64 (24%) were somewhat more likely than women in the other age groups (17%-22%)

to report having ever experienced physical, sexual, or emotional violence by their current or most 

recent partner (Table 20.7).

 The prevalence of physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a current or most recent partner increases 

with number of living children, from 15% among women with no children to 32% among women with 

five or more children.

 The percentage of women who have ever experienced physical, sexual, or emotional violence by their 

current or most recent partner increases from 24% among those with no education to 31% among those 

with a primary complete education before declining sharply to 13% among those with more than a 

secondary education.

 Experience of physical, sexual, or emotional violence is most common among women in the lowest 

wealth quintile (27%) and least common among women in the highest quintile (14%).

Patterns by partner’s characteristics and empowerment indicators of ever-in-union women

 In-union women whose 

husbands/partners had more 

than a secondary education 

were less likely to report 

physical, sexual, or emotional 

violence than in-union women 

whose husbands had less or no 

education (10% versus 

15%-25%) (Table 20.8).

 Ever-in-union women’s 

experience of physical, sexual,

or emotional violence varies 

greatly with their husbands’/

partners’ alcohol consumption,

from 13% among women 

whose husbands/partners do not drink alcohol to 25% among women whose husbands/partners 

sometimes drink alcohol and 65% among those whose husbands/partners are often drunk

(Figure 20.4). 

 The prevalence of physical, sexual, or emotional violence increases with the number of controlling 

behaviours displayed by a woman’s husband/partner, from 7% among women whose husband/partner 

displays no controlling behaviours to 78% among those whose husband/partner displays all five

controlling behaviours.

 Women who said that their mother was abused by their father or their mother’s boyfriend (39%) were 

more likely than those who said that their mother did not suffer such abuse (18%) to report physical, 

sexual, or emotional violence committed by their own husband/partner.

 Women’s experience of physical, sexual, or emotional violence by their husband/partner varies greatly 

according to their fear of their husband/partner, from 14% among those who are never afraid of their 

husband/partner to 77% among those who are afraid of him most of the time.

Figure 20.4 Violence by partner’s alcohol 

consumption

13 (14)

25

65

Does not drink Drinks/never

gets drunk

Gets drunk

sometimes

Gets drunk very

often

Percentage of ever-in-union women age 18 and older 

who have ever experienced physical, sexual, or 

emotional violence by their current or most recent 

husband/partner

Note: Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases.
Domestic Violence • 361

20.6 INJURIES TO WOMEN DUE TO PARTNER VIOLENCE

Injuries due to partner violence

Percentage of women who have the following types of injuries from partner

violence: cuts, bruises, or aches; eye injuries, sprains, dislocations, or burns; or 

deep wounds, broken bones, broken teeth, or any other serious injury

Sample: Ever-partnered women age 18 and older who have experienced 

physical or sexual violence committed by their current partner (if currently 

partnered) or most recent partner (if formerly partnered)

Women who experience violence perpetrated by partners suffer different physical health effects that 

include injuries. Thirty-seven percent of ever-partnered women who have ever experienced physical or 

sexual violence by their current or most recent partner reported having had injuries as a result

(Table 20.9).

Cuts, bruises, or aches are the most common types of injuries (34%) reported by women who have ever 

experienced spousal physical or sexual violence. Nonetheless, a significant proportion of women who have 

experienced partner violence also report having eye injuries, sprains, dislocations, or burns (18%) and 

injuries such as deep wounds, broken bones, and broken teeth (11%).

20.7 VIOLENCE INITIATED BY WOMEN AGAINST PARTNERS

Initiation of physical violence by women

Percentage of women who have ever hit, slapped, kicked, or done anything 

else to physically hurt their current (if currently partnered) or most recent (if 

formerly partnered) partner at times when he was not already beating or 

physically hurting them.

Sample: Ever-partnered women age 18 and older

Four percent of ever-partnered women age 18 and older reported that they hit, slapped, kicked, or did 

something else to physically hurt their current or most recent partner when he was not already beating or 

physically hurting them. Three percent of women had engaged in such violence in the 12 months before 

the survey (Table 20.10). Findings are comparable among ever-in-union women (Table 20.11).

Patterns by background characteristics of ever-partnered women

 Women’s perpetration of violence is closely associated with their own experience of physical violence 

by their partner: 20% of women who had ever experienced violence by their partner and 23% who 

experienced violence in the past 12 months had initiated violence against their current (or most recent) 

partner, as compared with 2% of women who had not experienced physical violence by their partner 

(Table 20.10).

 Women from Western Cape (8%) were more likely to have ever initiated physical violence against 

their current or most recent partner than women from other provinces (2%-6%).

 Women living together with their partner were more likely than women in the other marital status 

categories to have ever initiated physical violence against their partner (9% versus 3%-5%).

Patterns by partner’s characteristics and empowerment indicators of ever-in-union women

 Women whose husband/partner is often drunk are more likely than those whose husband/partner does 

not drink to have initiated physical violence (Table 20.11).
362 • Domestic Violence

 The percentage of women who initiate violence against their husband/partner varies with the number 

of controlling behaviours he displays; 1% of women whose husband/partner displays no controlling 

behaviours have ever initiated physical violence, as compared with 19% of women whose 

husband/partner displays all five controlling behaviours.

 Initiation of violence is more common among women who report that their father or mother’s 

boyfriend beat their mother (10%) than among those with no such history (3%).

 Women who are afraid of their husband/partner most of the time are much more likely than those who 

are never afraid of their husband/partner to have ever initiated physical violence.

LIST OF TABLES

For more information on domestic violence, see the following tables:

 Table 20.1 Experience of physical, sexual, or emotional violence by any partner

 Table 20.2 Experience of different forms of violence

 Table 20.3 Age at first experience of sexual violence

 Table 20.4 Violence by any partner in the last 12 months

 Table 20.5 Control exercised by partners

 Table 20.6 Forms of partner violence

 Table 20.7 Partner violence by background characteristics

 Table 20.8 Spousal violence by husband’s characteristics and empowerment indicators

 Table 20.9 Injuries to women due to violence by partner

 Table 20.10 Violence by women against their partner by women’s background 

characteristics

 Table 20.11 Violence by women against their husband/partner by husband’s/partner’s 

characteristics and empowerment indicators
Domestic Violence • 363

Table 20.1 Experience of physical, sexual, or emotional violence by any partner

Percentage of ever-partnered women age 18 and older who have ever experienced any physical, sexual, or emotional violence committed by any 

partner, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Percentage who 

have ever 

experienced 

physical violence 

by any partner

Percentage who 

have experienced 

sexual violence by 

any partner

Percentage who 

have experienced 

emotional violence 

by any partner

Percentage who 

have experienced 

physical or sexual 

violence by any 

partner

Percentage who 

have experienced 

emotional, 

physical, or sexual 

violence by any 

partner

Number of everpartnered women

Age

18-24 17.6 5.2 14.1 18.3 23.4 1,041

25-34 22.2 6.7 19.2 23.3 29.3 1,569

35-44 21.7 7.0 17.6 22.8 27.2 1,116

45-54 21.4 5.6 18.3 22.1 27.4 771

55-64 21.8 6.8 19.3 22.5 27.1 667

65+ 16.7 5.6 13.0 16.9 20.0 701

Residence

Urban 20.2 6.3 16.4 20.9 25.5 3,829

Non-urban 20.9 6.1 18.5 22.0 27.7 2,035

Province

Western Cape 21.3 4.0 19.6 21.3 26.0 671

Eastern Cape 31.4 6.5 24.0 31.8 37.9 743

Northern Cape 18.7 4.5 16.0 19.8 23.3 126

Free State 21.4 7.5 20.7 22.0 28.0 326

KwaZulu-Natal 13.7 3.1 13.0 14.1 19.3 1,078

North West 29.5 11.8 27.5 31.5 37.3 409

Gauteng 17.7 8.0 12.5 18.8 22.6 1,464

Mpumalanga 26.4 7.0 21.3 27.9 33.4 443

Limpopo 14.2 5.1 12.8 15.3 20.3 605

Marital status

Never married 18.4 4.8 15.8 19.1 24.7 2,243

Married 14.3 4.1 13.7 15.5 20.7 1,894

Living together 31.3 10.1 22.8 32.1 34.8 689

Divorced/separated 39.7 16.4 34.4 40.3 45.1 338

Widowed 23.8 8.0 16.7 24.3 28.8 701

Number of living children1

0 15.7 4.0 10.9 16.7 20.1 771

1-2 21.4 6.7 18.4 22.2 28.0 2,339

3-4 20.2 6.2 18.3 21.5 27.2 911

5+ 35.0 9.7 21.0 35.7 38.5 149

Employment

Employed for cash 22.1 7.4 17.5 23.2 27.0 1,798

Employed not for cash 17.8 12.9 18.2 22.9 29.4 61

Not employed 19.8 5.6 17.0 20.4 25.8 4,005

Education

No education 21.4 4.7 15.3 21.9 26.0 497

Primary incomplete 23.8 7.3 18.2 24.7 28.5 614

Primary complete 30.8 5.2 23.8 32.0 37.2 256

Secondary incomplete 23.0 7.5 19.8 24.0 29.7 2,289

Secondary complete 17.3 6.1 14.1 18.0 22.3 1,464

More than secondary 12.1 3.2 13.1 12.4 17.7 745

Wealth quintile

Lowest 26.4 7.4 21.1 27.7 32.2 1,096

Second 21.2 6.0 17.4 22.1 27.9 1,202

Middle 21.1 6.3 18.4 21.9 26.8 1,181

Fourth 21.5 6.0 16.5 21.8 26.8 1,162

Highest 12.8 5.7 12.8 13.7 18.3 1,223

Total 18+ 20.5 6.2 17.1 21.3 26.2 5,865

Total 18-49 20.6 6.2 17.1 21.5 26.8 4,169

1 Available for women age 18-49 only 
364 • Domestic Violence

Table 20.2 Experience of different forms of violence

Percentage of women age 18 and older who have ever experienced different forms of violence by any partner 

according to current age, South Africa DHS 2016 

Age

Physical 

violence only

Sexual 

violence only

Physical and 

sexual 

violence

Physical or 

sexual 

violence

Number of 

women

18-24 13.0 0.7 4.6 18.3 1,041

25-34 16.6 1.1 5.6 23.3 1,569

35-44 15.8 1.0 5.9 22.8 1,116

45-54 16.6 0.8 4.8 22.1 771

55-64 15.6 0.7 6.2 22.5 667

65+ 11.3 0.2 5.4 16.9 701

Total 18+ 15.0 0.8 5.4 21.3 5,865

Table 20.3 Age at first experience of sexual violence

Percentage of women age 18 and older who experienced sexual violence by any partner by specific exact ages, according to current age and 

current marital status, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage who first experienced sexual violence 

by any partner by exact age:

Percentage 

who have not 

experienced 

sexual 

violence

Number of 

women

Background 

characteristic 10 12 15 18 22

Age

18-24 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.6 na 94.8 1,041

25-34 0.7 0.7 1.1 2.0 3.0 93.3 1,569

35-44 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.8 2.0 93.0 1,116

45-54 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 1.4 94.4 771

55-64 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.9 93.2 667

65+ 0.0 0.0 0.1 1.1 1.6 94.4 701

Marital status

Never married 0.4 0.4 0.4 1.2 2.3 95.2 2,243

Married 0.1 0.1 0.3 1.0 1.8 95.9 1,894

Living together 0.1 0.2 0.7 2.1 4.9 89.9 689

Divorced/separated 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.5 4.8 83.6 338

Widowed 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.7 2.0 92.0 701

Total 18+ 0.2 0.2 0.3 1.1 2.5 93.8 5,865

na = Not applicable 
Domestic Violence • 365

Table 20.4 Violence by any partner in the last 12 months

Percentage of ever-partnered women age 18 and older who have experienced emotional, physical, or sexual violence by any partner in the past 12 months, 

according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Emotional 

violence

Physical 

violence

Sexual 

violence

Physical and 

sexual

Physical and 

sexual and 

emotional

Physical or 

sexual

Physical or 

sexual or 

emotional

Number of 

ever-partnered

women

Age

18-24 8.8 10.3 3.2 2.0 0.9 11.6 15.1 1,041

25-34 11.7 9.8 3.1 2.1 1.7 10.8 16.7 1,569

35-44 10.4 8.6 2.7 0.9 0.9 10.4 15.0 1,116

45-54 9.7 5.8 1.9 1.4 1.3 6.3 11.6 771

55-64 7.2 6.1 1.0 0.7 0.6 6.4 8.8 667

65+ 3.1 1.6 0.3 0.2 0.1 1.6 4.3 701

Residence

Urban 8.9 8.0 2.2 1.4 1.1 8.8 12.9 3,829

Non-urban 9.5 7.3 2.5 1.4 1.0 8.5 13.3 2,035

Province

Western Cape 10.7 8.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 8.6 13.6 671

Eastern Cape 11.6 12.6 2.2 1.9 0.9 13.0 17.2 743

Northern Cape 7.3 5.1 1.9 1.1 0.7 5.8 10.2 126

Free State 11.1 9.1 1.9 1.4 1.2 9.6 14.5 326

KwaZulu-Natal 7.4 5.7 1.9 1.1 0.8 6.5 10.0 1,078

North West 12.8 7.3 4.9 1.3 1.3 10.9 18.3 409

Gauteng 8.2 8.2 3.0 1.9 1.5 9.3 13.2 1,464

Mpumalanga 10.2 7.8 2.7 1.2 1.0 9.3 15.0 443

Limpopo 5.5 3.5 1.5 0.8 0.7 4.1 7.1 605

Marital status

Never married 9.4 8.9 2.2 1.5 1.0 9.6 14.1 2,243

Married 8.6 5.3 1.9 0.8 0.7 6.5 11.4 1,894

Living together 15.5 15.3 4.8 3.3 2.4 16.8 21.5 689

Divorced/separated 8.2 7.7 3.6 1.6 1.3 9.7 12.9 338

Widowed 3.8 3.0 0.8 0.5 0.5 3.3 5.6 701

Education

No education 5.5 4.5 1.1 0.6 0.6 4.9 8.2 497

Primary incomplete 8.9 8.1 2.8 1.3 1.0 9.5 12.1 614

Primary complete 12.2 12.2 1.1 0.5 0.3 12.7 16.8 256

Secondary incomplete 11.1 9.6 3.0 1.8 1.3 10.7 16.1 2,289

Secondary complete 8.6 7.7 2.7 1.7 1.3 8.7 12.8 1,464

More than secondary 5.7 2.5 0.4 0.2 0.2 2.7 6.7 745

Wealth quintile

Lowest 12.9 13.4 3.5 2.8 2.1 14.0 18.7 1,096

Second 9.7 7.8 2.9 1.4 0.9 9.3 14.3 1,202

Middle 9.6 8.0 2.3 1.6 1.3 8.8 12.6 1,181

Fourth 6.2 6.7 1.7 0.8 0.6 7.6 10.7 1,162

Highest 7.5 3.3 1.3 0.4 0.4 4.2 9.4 1,223

Total 18+ 9.1 7.7 2.3 1.4 1.0 8.7 13.0 5,865

Total 18-49 10.2 9.1 2.9 1.7 1.2 10.3 15.0 4,169

Note: Any partner includes all current, most recent, and former partners.
366 • Domestic Violence

Table 20.5 Control exercised by partners

Percentage of ever-partnered women age 18 and older whose partners have ever demonstrated specific types of controlling behaviours, 

according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage of women whose partner:

Background 

characteristic

Is jealous or 

angry if she 

talks to other 

men

Frequently 

accuses her 

of being 

unfaithful

Does not 

permit her to 

meet her 

female 

friends

Tries to limit 

her contact 

with her 

family

Insists on 

knowing 

where she is 

at all times

Displays 3 or 

more of the 

specific 

behaviours

Displays 

none of the 

specific 

behaviours

Number of 

everpartnered 

women

Age

18-24 52.5 27.8 15.8 6.9 38.3 23.9 38.9 1,041

25-34 43.4 23.0 16.6 6.6 34.4 21.7 45.6 1,569

35-44 44.5 21.6 17.7 9.3 32.7 22.0 46.4 1,116

45-54 31.2 18.6 11.9 8.2 26.4 15.6 58.8 771

55-64 32.3 17.3 13.0 8.6 26.6 15.4 59.6 667

65+ 21.9 13.7 8.5 6.1 18.5 11.0 70.9 701

Residence

Urban 38.9 21.3 14.6 7.4 30.2 19.3 52.6 3,829

Non-urban 41.4 21.2 14.8 7.8 32.3 19.5 47.8 2,035

Province

Western Cape 26.5 17.2 10.4 8.8 20.9 15.2 65.4 671

Eastern Cape 44.7 31.7 15.0 8.9 35.5 23.7 44.0 743

Northern Cape 24.5 17.7 13.1 9.4 23.6 16.5 65.9 126

Free State 42.1 30.3 20.1 12.2 38.1 27.7 48.6 326

KwaZulu-Natal 43.3 15.6 16.7 5.3 33.0 17.8 48.2 1,078

North West 45.0 23.5 17.3 5.8 39.7 20.3 40.0 409

Gauteng 39.7 20.6 14.7 6.7 29.3 19.9 52.5 1,464

Mpumalanga 45.5 23.4 15.0 8.5 32.1 19.4 45.9 443

Limpopo 36.6 17.5 10.4 7.9 27.5 15.2 53.5 605

Marital status

Never married 46.8 26.5 15.3 6.7 35.0 22.6 43.9 2,243

Married 29.9 13.2 10.8 6.0 23.7 12.3 60.5 1,894

Living together 50.1 22.8 20.1 9.1 36.9 24.8 40.5 689

Divorced/separated 46.0 30.1 21.8 15.5 38.0 27.8 45.7 338

Widowed 30.7 20.4 14.1 9.0 28.1 18.4 60.1 701

Number of living children1

0 46.0 25.4 13.3 6.8 31.2 18.9 45.5 771

1-2 45.1 23.1 16.7 6.6 35.4 22.2 44.7 2,339

3-4 43.4 23.4 16.7 9.9 34.1 22.9 47.1 911

5+ 48.0 24.7 15.9 11.8 30.4 21.6 45.1 149

Employment

Employed for cash 43.3 22.4 15.5 6.9 33.0 21.2 47.9 1,798

Employed not for cash 51.3 32.4 28.5 15.6 50.5 36.7 25.2 61

Not employed 38.0 20.5 14.1 7.7 29.7 18.2 52.6 4,005

Education

No education 26.3 12.9 10.1 6.8 20.4 12.2 65.0 497

Primary incomplete 36.3 19.6 13.2 8.7 27.2 17.4 55.3 614

Primary complete 45.1 28.9 19.2 9.7 35.0 25.0 47.0 256

Secondary incomplete 43.8 24.9 16.5 9.0 35.8 22.8 46.2 2,289

Secondary complete 42.6 22.5 14.9 5.9 31.8 20.6 48.5 1,464

More than secondary 31.9 11.9 11.1 4.8 22.8 10.6 58.4 745

Wealth quintile

Lowest 45.3 26.7 16.7 11.1 32.7 22.2 45.3 1,096

Second 42.7 22.1 16.3 8.1 33.2 22.4 47.9 1,202

Middle 43.6 22.8 15.3 6.3 33.5 20.3 46.2 1,181

Fourth 42.2 23.5 14.1 6.9 32.8 19.7 48.4 1,162

Highest 25.9 11.9 11.0 5.6 22.8 12.4 65.8 1,223

Woman afraid of 

husband/partner

Afraid most of the time 77.4 62.8 46.6 30.9 72.1 60.2 10.2 298

Sometimes afraid 57.0 35.5 26.7 16.5 45.4 35.1 35.1 826

Never afraid 34.4 16.2 10.5 4.5 25.8 14.0 56.2 4,741

Total 18+ 39.8 21.3 14.7 7.5 30.9 19.3 50.9 5,865

Total 18-49 45.0 23.6 16.0 7.5 34.2 21.7 45.4 4,169

Note: Partner refers to the current partner for currently partnered women and the most recent partner for previously partnered women.

1 Available for ever-partnered women age 18-49 only
Domestic Violence • 367

Table 20.6 Forms of partner violence

Percentage of ever-partnered women age 18 and older who have experienced various forms of violence ever or in the 

12 months preceding the survey committed by their current or most recent partners, South Africa DHS 2016 

Ever 

experienced

Experienced in the 

past 12 months

Frequency in the past 12 months

Type of violence experienced Often Sometimes

Physical violence

Any physical violence 13.9 7.6 1.6 5.9

Pushed her, shook her, or threw something 

at her 13.0 6.9 1.4 5.6

Kicked her, dragged her, or beat her up 7.9 4.2 1.1 3.0

Tried to choke her or burn her on purpose 2.4 1.1 0.4 0.7

Threatened her or attacked her with a knife, 

gun, or other weapon 2.5 0.9 0.2 0.7

Sexual violence

Any sexual violence 4.0 2.3 0.6 1.7

Physically forced her to have sexual 

intercourse with him when she did not 

want to 3.5 2.0 0.5 1.5

Physically forced her to perform any other 

sexual acts she did not want to 1.7 0.7 0.3 0.5

Forced her with threats or in any other way 

to perform sexual acts she did not want to 1.7 0.8 0.3 0.6

Emotional violence

Any emotional violence 14.1 9.1 2.1 7.0

Said or did something to humiliate her in 

front of others 8.6 5.5 1.3 4.2

Threatened to hurt or harm her or someone 

she cared about 5.7 3.3 0.8 2.5

Insulted her or made her feel bad about 

herself 9.5 6.3 1.4 5.0

Any form of physical and/or sexual violence 14.9 8.5 1.9 6.6

Any form of emotional or physical or sexual 

violence 20.5 12.9 3.1 9.8

Number of ever-partnered women age 18+ 5,865 5,865 5,865 5,865

Note: Includes current partner for currently partnered women and most recent partner for previously partnered women.
368 • Domestic Violence

Table 20.7 Partner violence by background characteristics

Percentage of ever-partnered women age 18 and older who have ever experienced emotional, physical, or sexual violence committed by their current or most 

recent partner, according to background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background

characteristic

Emotional 

violence

Physical 

violence

Sexual 

violence

Physical and 

sexual

Physical and 

sexual and 

emotional

Physical or 

sexual

Physical or 

sexual or 

emotional

Number of 

ever-partnered 

women

Age

18-24 10.6 12.3 3.2 2.5 1.3 13.1 17.4 1,041

25-34 14.4 13.2 3.9 2.9 2.3 14.2 21.5 1,569

35-44 14.4 13.1 3.7 2.0 1.9 14.7 20.1 1,116

45-54 16.0 14.4 3.7 3.0 2.8 15.1 21.4 771

55-64 17.9 18.6 4.9 4.0 3.0 19.5 24.4 667

65+ 12.2 14.2 4.9 4.6 3.6 14.5 18.5 701

Residence

Urban 13.7 13.8 3.8 3.0 2.3 14.6 20.1 3,829

Non-urban 14.8 14.2 4.3 3.1 2.4 15.4 21.2 2,035

Province

Western Cape 17.6 15.5 2.5 2.5 2.1 15.5 22.4 671

Eastern Cape 21.4 24.2 4.5 4.0 3.1 24.7 31.4 743

Northern Cape 12.1 13.2 3.7 2.7 1.8 14.3 18.2 126

Free State 17.4 15.2 4.4 3.5 3.0 16.1 22.6 326

KwaZulu-Natal 10.7 9.3 2.3 1.9 1.1 9.8 15.0 1,078

North West 18.0 14.5 7.2 4.4 4.3 17.4 24.6 409

Gauteng 10.5 12.8 4.8 3.7 2.6 13.9 18.3 1,464

Mpumalanga 15.4 15.0 3.9 2.3 2.2 16.5 22.9 443

Limpopo 10.7 8.8 3.5 2.3 1.9 10.0 14.9 605

Marital status

Never married 12.6 12.0 3.0 2.3 1.6 12.6 18.6 2,243

Married 12.0 10.3 2.7 1.6 1.5 11.4 16.9 1,894

Living together 17.5 20.6 5.4 4.6 3.6 21.4 25.9 689

Divorced/separated 26.3 24.0 10.2 7.5 6.8 26.7 32.8 338

Widowed 15.2 18.6 6.1 5.3 3.6 19.4 24.9 701

Number of living children1

0 8.6 10.7 2.6 1.5 0.3 11.7 15.4 771

1-2 13.5 13.1 3.3 2.3 1.7 14.1 20.0 2,339

3-4 16.1 12.5 4.3 3.2 3.1 13.6 21.4 911

5+ 19.4 26.4 8.0 5.8 5.7 28.6 32.3 149

Employment

Employed for cash 12.6 12.2 4.0 2.5 1.8 13.7 18.5 1,798

Employed not for cash 4.5 14.7 7.4 2.3 2.3 19.8 21.2 61

Not employed 14.9 14.7 3.9 3.3 2.6 15.3 21.3 4,005

Education

No education 14.3 17.6 3.5 2.9 2.5 18.2 23.6 497

Primary incomplete 16.2 19.7 5.8 4.6 4.0 20.8 24.6 614

Primary complete 20.8 24.3 3.9 2.6 1.6 25.7 31.4 256

Secondary incomplete 15.6 14.6 4.9 3.7 2.8 15.8 22.2 2,289

Secondary complete 11.7 11.0 3.4 2.6 2.1 11.8 16.6 1,464

More than secondary 10.0 6.8 1.0 0.6 0.2 7.2 13.4 745

Wealth quintile

Lowest 18.4 20.5 5.5 4.4 3.7 21.6 26.5 1,096

Second 13.2 13.6 3.9 2.9 1.9 14.7 20.3 1,202

Middle 14.8 14.0 4.2 3.3 2.9 14.9 20.6 1,181

Fourth 13.7 14.4 2.9 2.2 1.8 15.1 21.3 1,162

Highest 10.7 7.8 3.4 2.4 1.6 8.8 14.4 1,223

Total 18+ 14.1 13.9 4.0 3.0 2.3 14.9 20.5 5,865

Total 18-49 13.4 13.0 3.6 2.5 1.9 14.1 19.9 4,169

Note: Partner refers to the current partner for currently partnered women and the most recent partner for previously partnered women.

1 Available for ever-partnered women age 18-49 only
Domestic Violence • 369

Table 20.8 Spousal violence by husband’s characteristics and empowerment indicators

Percentage of ever-in-union women age 18 and older who have ever experienced emotional, physical, or sexual violence committed by their current or most 

recent husband/partner, according to the husband/partner’s characteristics and women’s empowerment indicators, South Africa DHS 2016 

Background 

characteristic

Emotional 

violence

Physical 

violence

Sexual 

violence

Physical and 

sexual

Physical and 

sexual and 

emotional

Physical or 

sexual

Physical or 

sexual or 

emotional

Number of 

ever-in-union

women

Husband’s/partner’s 

education1

No education 17.3 13.5 3.0 2.5 2.3 14.0 20.1 244

Primary incomplete 16.9 16.4 2.3 2.3 2.1 16.4 22.7 276

Primary complete 8.8 10.3 0.9 0.5 0.5 10.8 14.8 107

Secondary incomplete 16.9 18.1 6.1 4.7 3.8 19.5 25.0 866

Secondary complete 10.2 9.5 2.5 0.8 0.8 11.3 15.7 622

More than secondary 7.9 4.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 4.5 9.7 395

Don’t know 13.3 19.6 5.2 4.5 4.0 20.3 24.7 72

Husband’s/partner’s 

alcohol consumption

Does not drink alcohol 9.1 8.3 2.2 1.5 1.4 9.1 13.2 2,154

Drinks alcohol but is never 

drunk (13.9) (3.1) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (3.1) (13.9) 37

Is sometimes drunk 16.7 16.5 4.4 2.9 2.6 17.9 24.7 1,072

Is often drunk 45.9 53.8 20.0 17.3 12.4 56.6 64.9 354

Don’t know * * * * * * * 5

Husband’s/partner’s drug 

usage

Does not use drugs 13.9 13.9 4.0 2.8 2.3 15.0 20.3 3,502

Sometimes uses drugs (21.1) (23.9) (9.3) (9.3) (3.7) (23.9) (29.8) 42

Often uses drugs 58.5 68.1 23.9 23.2 17.2 68.9 76.1 53

Don’t know (77.0) (66.3) (44.1) (40.1) (40.1) (70.3) (82.0) 24

Spousal education 

difference1

Husband better educated 12.7 12.6 2.9 2.1 1.9 13.5 18.1 783

Wife better educated 14.7 16.2 4.3 3.4 2.5 17.1 22.0 858

Both equally educated 12.1 9.1 2.6 1.3 1.2 10.5 16.5 755

Neither educated 19.0 13.6 3.9 3.6 3.6 13.8 22.6 116

Don’t know 13.3 19.6 5.2 4.5 4.0 20.3 24.7 72

Spousal age difference1

Wife older 12.4 16.5 3.4 3.1 3.1 16.7 19.2 294

Wife is same age 13.7 18.2 3.3 1.6 0.2 19.8 24.1 168

Wife 1-4 years younger 12.8 12.5 3.7 2.7 2.1 13.6 19.0 934

Wife 5-9 years younger 12.2 10.0 3.0 1.4 1.3 11.6 16.9 729

Wife 10 or more years 

younger 17.4 14.8 3.6 3.3 3.2 15.1 22.0 456

Number of marital control 

behaviours displayed by 

husband/partner2

0 3.8 4.4 1.1 0.5 0.3 5.0 6.8 2,001

1-2 16.0 17.8 2.4 1.6 1.4 18.7 25.5 993

3-4 43.8 39.0 14.9 11.0 8.6 42.9 58.1 477

5 66.5 64.9 32.7 31.4 26.4 66.2 77.9 151

Number of decisions in 

which women 

participate3

0 7.1 7.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.4 8.4 46

1-2 21.4 20.4 7.3 6.5 3.2 21.2 29.4 174

3 12.2 12.9 3.2 1.9 1.8 14.2 19.3 1,589

Number of reasons for 

which wife beating is 

justified4

0 13.2 13.1 3.5 2.5 2.1 14.0 19.3 1,981

1-2 35.5 36.5 13.5 4.5 4.5 45.4 59.8 85

3-4 (32.0) (16.6) (25.0) (0.0) (0.0) (41.6) (59.8) 24

5 * * * * * * * 12

Father/mother’s boyfriend 

beat mother

Yes 27.4 29.4 9.7 8.0 5.4 31.1 39.3 507

No 12.6 12.1 3.8 2.7 2.4 13.2 18.1 2,929

Don’t know 19.5 23.3 3.2 2.4 1.9 24.1 29.9 186

Woman afraid of 

husband/partner

Afraid most of the time 58.5 66.2 31.7 27.5 24.4 70.4 77.0 205

Sometimes afraid 31.6 31.5 11.9 8.2 6.2 35.2 43.7 526

Never afraid 8.9 8.5 1.3 0.9 0.6 9.0 13.7 2,891

Total 18+ 15.0 15.1 4.6 3.4 2.8 16.3 21.7 3,622

Note: Husband/partner refers to the current husband/partner for women currently in a union and the most recent husband/partner for divorced, separated, or 

widowed women. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases 

and has been suppressed.

1

Includes only women who are currently in a union

2 According to the wife’s report. See Table 20.5 for list of behaviours

3 According to the wife’s report. Restricted to women age 18-49 who are currently in a union. See Table 19.8.1 for list of decisions.

4 According to the wife’s report. Restricted to women age 18-49. See Table 19.9.1 for list of reasons.
370 • Domestic Violence

Table 20.9 Injuries to women due to violence by partner

Percentage of ever-partnered women age 18 and older who have experienced specific types of violence committed by their current or most recent partner by 

types of injuries resulting from the violence, according to the type of violence, South Africa DHS 2016

Type of violence experienced

Cuts, bruises, or 

aches

Eye injuries, sprains, 

dislocations, or burns

Deep wounds, broken 

bones, broken teeth, 

or any other serious 

injury Any of these injuries

Number of everpartnered women who 

have experienced 

physical or sexual 

violence

Physical violence1

Ever2 35.9 19.3 11.7 39.4 816

Past 12 months 35.2 16.2 9.4 38.2 443

Sexual violence

Ever2 44.1 28.2 15.2 47.2 232

Past 12 months 28.4 17.7 8.8 29.7 136

Physical or sexual violence1

Ever2 33.7 18.1 11.1 37.1 872

Past 12 months 31.7 14.7 9.0 34.5 500

Note: Partner refers to the current partner for currently partnered women and the most recent partner for previously partnered women.

1 Excludes women who reported violence only in response to a direct question on violence during pregnancy

2

Includes in the past 12 months 
Domestic Violence • 371

Table 20.10 Violence by women against their partner by women’s background 

characteristics

Percentage of ever-partnered women who have committed physical violence against their 

current or most recent partner when he was not already beating or physically hurting them, 

ever and in the past 12 months, according to women’s own experience of spousal violence 

and background characteristics, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage who committed 

physical violence against 

their partner Number of 

ever-partnered 

women

Background 

characteristic Ever1 Past 12 months

Woman’s experience of partner 

physical violence

Ever 19.6 14.4 816

In the past 12 months 23.1 21.2 443

Never 1.8 1.4 5,048

Age

18-24 4.6 4.6 1,041

25-34 5.6 4.1 1,569

35-44 5.3 3.7 1,116

45-54 2.4 1.7 771

55-64 3.1 2.1 667

65+ 2.2 0.8 701

Residence

Urban 5.0 3.7 3,829

Non-urban 2.9 2.1 2,035

Province

Western Cape 7.5 5.7 671

Eastern Cape 4.4 2.9 743

Northern Cape 3.9 3.4 126

Free State 4.2 2.7 326

KwaZulu-Natal 2.8 2.0 1,078

North West 5.8 4.2 409

Gauteng 4.3 3.3 1,464

Mpumalanga 4.3 3.5 443

Limpopo 1.9 1.8 605

Marital status

Never married 4.5 3.5 2,243

Married 2.7 1.9 1,894

Living together 8.5 7.1 689

Divorced/separated 5.2 3.9 338

Widowed 2.9 1.4 701

Number of living children2

0 4.8 3.8 771

1-2 5.2 4.2 2,339

3-4 4.2 3.0 911

5+ 4.4 3.5 149

Employment

Employed for cash 4.7 3.3 1,798

Employed not for cash 14.3 8.9 61

Not employed 3.9 3.0 4,005

Education

No education 3.2 2.3 497

Primary incomplete 3.8 3.0 614

Primary complete 4.6 2.7 256

Secondary incomplete 4.7 3.9 2,289

Secondary complete 5.1 3.6 1,464

More than secondary 2.3 0.9 745

Wealth quintile

Lowest 3.4 2.6 1,096

Second 5.4 3.9 1,202

Middle 3.8 2.6 1,181

Fourth 3.9 3.1 1,162

Highest 4.6 3.5 1,223

Total 18+ 4.2 3.2 5,865

Total 18-49 4.9 3.8 4,169

Note: Partner refers to the current partner for currently partnered women and the most 

recent partner for previously partnered women.

1

Includes in the past 12 months

2 Available for ever-partnered women age 18-49 only
372 • Domestic Violence

Table 20.11 Violence by women against their husband/partner by husband’s/partner’s

characteristics and empowerment indicators

Percentage of ever-in-union women who have committed physical violence against their current or most 

recent husband/partner when he was not already beating or physically hurting them, ever and in the 

past 12 months, according to husband’s/partner’s characteristics and women’s empowerment 

indicators, South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage who committed 

physical violence against 

their husband/partner Number of 

ever-in-union

women

Background 

characteristic Ever1 Past 12 months

Husband’s/partner’s education2

No education 6.2 5.4 244

Primary incomplete 2.8 2.0 276

Primary complete 1.3 1.3 107

Secondary incomplete 5.9 4.7 866

Secondary complete 4.8 3.5 622

More than secondary 1.1 0.3 395

Don’t know 0.6 0.6 72

Husband’s/partner’s alcohol consumption

Does not drink alcohol 2.0 1.3 2,154

Drinks alcohol but is never drunk (0.0) (0.0) 37

Is sometimes drunk 5.4 4.4 1,072

Is often drunk 13.2 8.8 354

Don’t know * * 5

Husband’s/partner’s drug usage

Does not use drugs 3.9 2.8 3,502

Sometimes uses drugs (2.7) (2.7) 42

Often uses drugs 17.3 11.1 53

Don’t know (3.5) (3.5) 24

Spousal education difference2

Husband better educated 4.1 3.5 783

Wife better educated 5.0 3.8 858

Both equally educated 4.0 2.8 755

Neither educated 3.7 2.1 116

Don’t know 0.6 0.6 72

Spousal age difference2

Wife older 5.2 4.3 294

Wife is same age 2.6 2.3 168

Wife 1-4 years younger 5.1 4.5 934

Wife 5-9 years younger 3.5 2.0 729

Wife 10 or more years younger 3.7 2.4 456

Number of controlling behaviours displayed by 

husband/partner3

0 1.3 1.2 2,001

1-2 4.3 3.0 993

3-4 10.4 6.9 477

5 18.5 14.1 151

Number of decisions in which women participate4

0 1.6 1.6 46

1-2 9.9 7.8 174

3 4.6 3.4 1,589

Number of reasons for which wife beating is 

justified5

0 4.6 3.5 1,981

1-2 13.0 12.4 85

3-4 (5.0) (5.0) 24

5 * * 12

Father/mother’s boyfriend beat mother

Yes 10.1 6.0 507

No 3.1 2.5 2,929

Don’t know 2.9 1.5 186

Woman afraid of husband/partner

Afraid most of the time 15.8 13.4 205

Sometimes afraid 8.5 7.3 526

Never afraid 2.4 1.4 2,891

Total 18+ 4.1 3.0 3,622

Note: Husband/partner refers to the current husband/partner for in-union women and the most recent 

husband/partner for divorced, separated, or widowed women. Figures in parentheses are based on 25-

49 unweighted cases. An asterisk indicates that a figure is based on fewer than 25 unweighted cases 

and has been suppressed.

1

Includes in the past 12 months 

2

Includes only women who are currently in a union

3 According to the wife’s report. See Table 20.5 for list of behaviours.

4 According to the wife’s report. Restricted to women age 18-49 who are currently in a union. See Table 

19.8.1 for list of decisions.

5 According to the wife’s report. Restricted to women age 18-49. See Table 19.9.1 for list of reasons. 
References • 373

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Appendix A • 377

SAMPLE DESIGN AppendixA

A.1 INTRODUCTION

he South Africa Demographic and Health Survey 2016 (SADHS 2016) is the third DHS conducted 

in South Africa and follows surveys carried out in 1998 and 2003. The SADHS 2016 was designed 

to provide up-to-date information on key indicators needed to track progress in South Africa’s 

health programmes. These indicators include fertility and childhood mortality levels, pregnancy-related

mortality, fertility preferences and contraceptive use, utilisation of maternal and child health services, 

children’s nutritional status and child feeding practices, behaviour towards the risk of HIV infection, and 

measures of physical and sexual violence against women. In addition, among adults age 15 and older, use 

of tobacco and alcohol; the prevalence of malnutrition, hypertension, anaemia, diabetes, and HIV; and 

other indicators relevant to adult health were assessed.

To obtain these data, a nationally representative sample of 15,000 dwelling units (DUs) was selected; all 

residential households in the selected DUs were eligible to be included in the survey. In all sampled 

households, all women age 15-49 who are usual members of the households or who stayed in the 

households on the night before the interview were eligible for interviews. In addition, in a subsample of the 

DUs (every second DU), all men age 15-59 who are usual members of the households or who stayed in the 

households on the night before the interview were eligible for interviews. In this same subsample, all 

women and men age 15 and older who are usual members of the selected households and those who spent 

the night before the survey in the selected households were eligible to complete a module on adult health

and to have biomarker measurements and tests. Finally, in all households in selected DUs, one woman age 

18 or older was randomly selected for a module on domestic violence. Also, for each child age 0-5 whose 

biological mother did not live in the household, a guardian was eligible to complete the Caregiver’s 

Questionnaire.

The survey was designed to provide representative estimates for main demographic and health indicators 

for the country as a whole, for urban and non-urban areas separately, and for each of the nine provinces in 

South Africa: Western Cape, Eastern Cape, Northern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, North West, 

Gauteng, Mpumalanga, and Limpopo.

A.2 SAMPLE FRAME

The sampling frame used for the SADHS 2016 is the Master Sample Frame (MSF) prepared by Statistics 

South Africa (Stats SA); the MSF was compiled from the Census 2011 frame. The latter is a list of 103,576 

enumeration areas (EAs) that cover the whole country. An EA is a geographic area consisting of a 

convenient number of DUs that serve as counting units for the census. The MSF is a list of 71,241 primary 

sampling units (PSUs). For each PSU, the MSF contains information about location (province, district, and 

municipality), type of residence (urban, traditional, or farm), and estimated number of residential 

households. 

An MSF PSU can be an EA, a group of small EAs, or part of an EA. In preparation for the MSF, out-ofscope EAs were removed from the frame. These out-of-scope areas were defined as institutional EAs and 

EAs that had zero DU counts at the time of the Census 2011. Furthermore, EAs with a very small number 

of households were excluded from the frame, which has been adjusted for during the sampling weight 

adjustment for under-coverage. Households in the excluded EAs accounted for less than 1% of households 

in the population. Moreover, all of the identified large EAs were conceptually split into one or more PSUs 

of equal size depending on the number of DUs in the EA. Finally, small EAs with DU counts of between 

T
378 • Appendix A

20 and 99 were pooled with neighbouring EAs that had the same geographical characteristics to form a 

new PSU. 

Administratively, South Africa is divided into nine provinces; each province is subdivided into districts,

and each district is subdivided into municipalities. Based on the MSF, Table A.1 shows the household 

distribution by province and by type of residence. In South Africa, about 68.3% of households are in urban 

areas and 31.7% in non-urban areas. Provinces such as Western Cape and Gauteng are predominantly 

urban (92.9% and 97.6% of households in these provinces, respectively, are in urban areas). The 

percentage of urban households declines to 20.1% in Limpopo. The share of households in a province 

relative to the overall number of households in South Africa varies from 2.1% in Northern Cape to 27.7% 

in Gauteng.

Table A.1 Household distribution

Distribution of residential households in the master sample frame (MSF) by province and type of residence, percentage that 

each province contributes to the total household number, and percentage of each province that is urban, South Africa 

DHS 2016

Household distribution

Percentage province 

contributes to the 

total number of 

households

Percentage of 

province that is 

Province Urban Traditional Farm Total urban

Western Cape 1,573,327 0 121,125 1,694,452 11.3 92.9

Eastern Cape 898,926 787,414 46,669 1,733,009 11.6 51.9

Northern Cape 221,798 51,190 36,417 309,405 2.1 71.7

Free State 706,846 74,017 55,377 836,240 5.6 84.5

KwaZulu-Natal 1,462,527 965,339 193,573 2,621,439 17.5 55.8

North West 507,582 485,114 99,404 1,092,100 7.3 46.5

Gauteng 4,052,302 38,851 61,416 4,152,569 27.7 97.6

Mpumalanga 509,360 494,865 93,350 1,097,575 7.3 46.4

Limpopo 289,194 1,058,781 91,998 1,439,973 9.6 20.1

South Africa 10,221,862 3,955,571 799,329 14,976,762 100.0 68.3

Source: MSF list prepared by Stats SA.

Table A.2 indicates the distribution of the MSF PSUs and their average size (number of households) by 

province and by type of residence. There are a total of 71,241 PSUs in the MSF, 45,651 in urban areas, 

22,214 in traditional areas, and 3,376 in farms. The average PSU size is 210 households; urban and farm 

PSUs are larger in size (averages of 224 and 237 households, respectively), whereas traditional PSUs have 

a smaller size (an average of 178 households). 

Table A.2 PSUs and households

Distribution of primary sampling units (PSUs) and households in the master sample frame (MSF) by province and 

residence, South Africa DHS 2016

Number of PSUs Average number of households per PSU

Province Urban Traditional Farm Total Urban Traditional Farm Total

Western Cape 7,251 0 368 7,619 217 na 329 222

Eastern Cape 4,626 4,636 247 9,509 194 170 189 182

Northern Cape 1,209 283 284 1,776 183 181 128 174

Free State 3,707 453 361 4,521 191 163 153 185

KwaZulu-Natal 6,482 4,917 760 12,159 226 196 255 216

North West 2,434 2,471 305 5,210 209 196 326 210

Gauteng 16,177 220 234 16,631 250 177 262 250

Mpumalanga 2,451 2,849 385 5,685 208 174 242 193

Limpopo 1,314 6,385 432 8,131 220 166 213 177

South Africa 45,651 22,214 3,376 71,241 224 178 237 210

Source: The MSF list, prepared by Stats SA.

na = Not applicable

A.3 SAMPLE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

The sample for the SADHS 2016 is a stratified sample selected in two stages from the MSF. Stratification 

was achieved by separating each province into urban, traditional, and farm areas. In total, 26 sampling 
Appendix A • 379

strata were created (since there are no traditional areas in Western Cape). Samples were selected 

independently in each sampling stratum by a two-stage selection. Implicit stratification and proportional 

allocation were achieved at each of the lower administrative levels within a given sampling stratum by 

sorting the sampling frame according to administrative units at different levels in each stratum and using 

probability proportional to size selection at the first stage of sampling.

In the first stage, 750 PSUs were selected (468 in urban areas, 224 in traditional areas, and 58 in farm 

areas) with probability proportional to PSU size and with independent selection in each sampling stratum;

the sample allocation is shown in Table A.3. A listing operation was carried out in all of the selected 

PSUs, and the resulting lists of DUs served as a sampling frame for the selection of DUs in the second 

stage. Before the listing activities, informal or congested PSUs were identified so that a segmentation 

process could be administered. These PSUs were divided into segments of about 20 DUs each, with only 

one segment selected at random for the survey. Therefore, a cluster in the SADHS 2016 was either a PSU 

or a segment of a PSU.

In the second stage of selection, a fixed number of 20 DUs per cluster was selected with an equal 

probability systematic selection from the newly created household listing. In segmented PSUs, if the 

segment contained 20 DUs or fewer, all DUs in the selected segment were eligible for the survey. In 

segments with more than 20 DUs, 20 DUs were randomly selected and were eligible for the survey. The 

survey interviewer interviewed only the households in the pre-selected DUs. No replacements and no 

changes of the pre-selected DUs were allowed in the implementing stages in order to prevent bias. 

Table A.3 shows the allocation of clusters and households according to province and place of residence, 

and Table A.4 shows the expected number of completed women’s and men’s interviews according to 

province and place of residence. To ensure that the survey precision is comparable across provinces, a 

power allocation was used to allocate between provinces and between different types of residence within 

each province. The survey was expected to be conducted in about 15,000 residential households, 9,360 in 

urban areas, 4,480 in traditional areas, and 1,160 in farms. The sample was expected to result in about 

10,335 completed interviews with women age 15-49 and about 4,573 completed interviews with men 

age 15-59.

Table A.3 Sample allocation of clusters and households

Sample allocation of clusters and households by province, according to residence, South Africa DHS 2016

Allocation of clusters Allocation of households

Province Urban Traditional Farm Total Urban Traditional Farm Total

Western Cape 78 0 6 84 1,560 0 120 1,680

Eastern Cape 42 38 4 84 840 760 80 1,680

Northern Cape 50 12 8 70 1,000 240 160 1,400

Free State 68 6 6 80 1,360 120 120 1,600

KwaZulu-Natal 52 34 8 94 1,040 680 160 1,880

North West 36 36 8 80 720 720 160 1,600

Gauteng 90 4 4 98 1,800 80 80 1,960

Mpumalanga 36 36 8 80 720 720 160 1,600

Limpopo 16 58 6 80 320 1,160 120 1,600

South Africa 468 224 58 750 9,360 4,480 1,160 15,000
380 • Appendix A

Table A.4 Sample allocation of completed interviews with women and men

Sample allocation of expected number of completed interviews with women and men by province, according to residence, 

South Africa DHS 2016

Women age 15-49 Men age 15-59

Province Urban Traditional Farm Total Urban Traditional Farm Total

Western Cape 1,075 0 82 1,157 476 0 36 512

Eastern Cape 579 524 56 1,159 256 232 25 513

Northern Cape 690 165 110 965 305 73 48 426

Free State 937 82 82 1,101 415 36 36 487

KwaZulu-Natal 716 469 110 1,295 317 207 48 572

North West 496 496 110 1,102 220 220 48 488

Gauteng 1,240 56 56 1,352 549 25 25 599

Mpumalanga 496 496 110 1,102 220 220 48 488

Limpopo 221 799 82 1,102 98 354 36 488

South Africa 6,450 3,087 798 10,335 2,856 1,367 350 4,573

The sample allocations in Table A.4 were derived using information obtained from the SADHS 2003; the 

average number of women age 15-49 per household was 1.03, the average number of men age 15-59 per 

household was 1.01, the household completion rate was 75.9%, the women’s individual completion rate 

was 88.4%, and the men’s individual completion rate was 79.3%.

Table A.5 and Table A.6 present the interview response rates in the SADHS 2016 for women and men, 

respectively, by urban and non-urban residence and province. Overall, the number of completed interviews 

was lower than the expected number for both women and men. Tables A.7, A.8, A.9, and A.10 present 

response rates for HIV testing by background characteristics.

A.4 SAMPLE PROBABILITIES AND SAMPLING WEIGHTS

Due to the nonproportional allocation of the sample to the different survey domains and to their urban and 

non-urban areas, sampling weights will be required for any analysis using the SADHS 2016 data to ensure 

the actual representativeness of the survey results at the national level and as well as the domain level. 

Since the SADHS 2016 sample is a two-stage stratified cluster sample, sampling weights were based on 

sampling probabilities calculated separately for each sampling stage and for each cluster, where:

P1hi: first-stage sampling probability of the i

th cluster in stratum h

P2hi: second-stage sampling probability within the i

th cluster (household selection)

The following describes the calculation of these probabilities:

Let ah be the number of clusters selected in stratum h, Mhi the number of households according to the MSF 

in the i

th cluster, and 

hi h M

the total number of households in stratum h. The probability of selecting 

the i

th cluster in stratum h in the SADHS 2016 sample is calculated as follows:

h hi

hi h

a M

 M

If the PSU is segmented, let 

1 hi hi b S 

where 

Shi

is the number of created segments in PSU i; otherwise,

bhi  1

. Then the probability of selecting cluster i in the sample is: 

hi

hi

h hi

1hi b

M

 a M

P = 


Appendix A • 381

Let 

Lhi

be the number of households listed in the household listing operation in cluster i in stratum h, and 

let 

ghi

be the number of households selected in that cluster. The second stage’s selection probability for 

each household in the cluster is calculated as follows:

hi

hi

hi L

g

P2 

The overall selection probability for each household in cluster i of stratum h in the SADHS 2016 is 

therefore the product of the two stages’ selection probabilities: 

 PPP 21 hihihi

The design weight for each household in cluster i of stratum h is the inverse of its overall selection 

probability: 

hi PW hi  /1

Since the men’s survey was conducted in half of the households, the design weight for the men’s survey 

was calculated by multiplying the full sample design weight Whi by 2. Design weights were adjusted for 

household nonresponse and individual nonresponse to obtain the sampling weights for households and for 

women age 15-49 and men age 15-59, respectively. The nonresponse adjustment was done using stratumlevel adjustment factors. The differences of the household sampling weight and the individual sampling 

weights are introduced by individual nonresponse. For the household sampling weight, the household 

design weight is multiplied by the inverse of the household response rate by stratum. For the women’s 

individual sampling weight, the household sampling weight is multiplied by the inverse of the women’s 

individual response rate by stratum. Finally, for the men’s individual sampling weight, the household 

sampling weight for the male subsample is multiplied by the inverse of the men’s individual response rate 

by stratum. 

In addition to the standard weights for women age 15-49 and men age 15-59, separate weights were 

calculated for the adult health module that accounted for nonresponse among women age 15 and older and 

men age 15 and older. Moreover, a special weight was calculated for the domestic violence module to 

account for within-household selection and for nonresponse to the module. Special weights were also 

calculated for HIV and HbA1c tests to account for nonresponse with respect to these tests. The final 

sampling weights are normalised in order to give a total number of weighted cases that equals the total 

number of unweighted cases at the national level. Normalisation is done by multiplying the sampling 

weight by the estimated total sampling fraction obtained from the survey for the household weight, the 

individual woman’s weight, the individual man’s weight, and the other weights mentioned above except 

for the sampling weights for HIV testing. In the case of the latter, the weights are normalised at the 

national level for women and men together so that HIV prevalence estimates calculated for women and 

men together are valid. The normalised weights are relative weights that are valid for estimating means, 

proportions, and ratios but not valid for estimating population totals or pooled data. 
382 • Appendix A

Table A.5 Sample implementation: Women

Percent distribution of households and eligible women age 15-49 by results of the household and individual interviews, and household, eligible women, and overall women 

response rates, according to residence and province (unweighted), South Africa DHS 2016 

Residence Province

Result Urban Non-urban Total

Western 

Cape

Eastern 

Cape

Northern 

Cape Free State

KwaZuluNatal North West GautengMpumalanga Limpopo

Selected 

households

Completed (C) 68.7 78.8 56.9 80.7 65.4 70.2 78.9 75.4 64.3 76.1 83.6 72.5

Household present 

but no competent 

respondent at 

home (HP) 8.7 2.5 12.9 2.7 5.7 11.1 5.4 2.3 9.5 4.5 3.2 6.4

Postponed (P) 0.8 0.2 1.9 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.6

Refused (R) 9.3 2.5 13.0 3.4 8.0 6.5 6.9 4.0 10.2 5.2 2.7 6.7

Dwelling not found 

(DNF) 0.5 1.1 1.0 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.7 1.4 1.2 0.4 0.7

Household absent 

(HA) 3.8 4.0 2.2 4.6 7.7 2.4 3.1 6.4 3.6 4.2 1.5 3.9

Dwelling 

vacant/address 

not a dwelling 

(DV) 5.9 8.7 8.4 6.8 10.0 6.4 3.3 8.3 6.7 6.5 7.3 6.9

Dwelling destroyed 

(DD) 0.4 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.9 0.5 0.9 1.1 0.7 0.1 0.1 0.6

Other (O) 1.9 1.3 3.2 0.2 1.6 2.2 0.6 1.2 3.4 1.6 0.9 1.7

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of sampled 

households 9,547 5,745 1,703 1,747 1,396 1,606 1,968 1,631 1,947 1,652 1,642 15,292

Household response 

rate (HRR)1 78.1 92.6 66.4 92.0 81.9 79.2 85.6 90.9 75.1 87.0 92.7 83.4

Eligible women

Completed (EWC) 82.0 92.3 69.9 87.8 82.2 85.5 91.8 90.6 78.7 90.6 93.0 86.2

Not at home 

(EWNH) 9.8 4.1 18.2 8.0 5.0 10.3 5.2 3.5 10.8 4.6 3.9 7.5

Postponed (EWP) 0.8 0.2 1.9 0.5 0.1 0.6 0.2 0.8 0.3 0.1 0.7 0.5

Refused (EWR) 6.1 2.5 8.8 2.1 10.3 2.0 2.0 4.4 9.6 3.6 1.9 4.6

Partly completed 

(EWPC) 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1

Incapacitated 

(EWI) 0.9 0.6 0.7 1.3 1.8 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.8

Other (EWO) 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.3 0.1 0.2

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of women 5,858 4,020 939 1,185 873 999 1,482 953 1,096 1,163 1,188 9,878

Eligible women 

response rate 

(EWRR)2 82.0 92.3 69.9 87.8 82.2 85.5 91.8 90.6 78.7 90.6 93.0 86.2

Overall women 

response rate 

(OWRR)3 64.0 85.4 46.4 80.8 67.3 67.7 78.6 82.3 59.1 78.8 86.2 71.9

1 Using the number of households falling into specific response categories, the household response rate (HRR) is calculated as:

100 * C

_______________________________

C + HP + P + R + DNF

2 The eligible women response rate (EWRR) is equivalent to the percentage of interviews completed (EWC)

3 The overall women response rate (OWRR) is calculated as:

OWRR = HRR * EWRR/100
Appendix A • 383

Table A.6 Sample implementation: Men

Percent distribution of households and eligible men age 15-59 by results of the household and individual interviews, and household, eligible men, and overall men response 

rates, according to residence and province (unweighted), South Africa DHS 2016 

Residence Province

Result Urban Non-urban Total

Western 

Cape

Eastern 

Cape

Northern 

Cape Free State

KwaZuluNatalNorth 

West Gauteng

Mpumalanga Limpopo

Selected 

households

Completed (C) 68.2 77.9 56.5 79.8 64.7 68.4 77.0 73.7 64.7 76.6 84.3 71.8

Household present 

but no competent 

respondent at 

home (HP) 8.6 2.6 11.7 2.8 6.4 11.1 5.7 2.6 9.2 5.0 2.7 6.4

Postponed (P) 0.8 0.2 2.2 0.9 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.6

Refused (R) 9.5 2.5 14.8 2.8 7.9 6.8 7.3 3.7 9.9 4.5 3.5 6.9

Dwelling not found 

(DNF) 0.5 1.3 1.1 0.0 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.6 1.2 1.3 0.4 0.8

Household absent 

(HA) 4.0 3.9 1.9 5.1 6.9 2.4 3.5 7.1 3.9 3.9 1.5 4.0

Dwelling 

vacant/address 

not a dwelling 

(DV) 6.1 9.2 8.5 7.8 11.0 7.2 3.4 9.1 6.8 6.9 6.4 7.3

Dwelling destroyed 

(DD) 0.4 1.0 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.7 1.1 1.1 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.6

Other (O) 1.9 1.4 2.8 0.2 1.7 2.4 0.9 1.2 3.2 1.6 1.0 1.7

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of sampled 

households 4,751 2,872 849 863 692 803 988 814 969 828 817 7,623

Household response 

rate (HRR)1 77.8 92.2 65.5 92.5 80.9 78.3 84.6 90.5 75.9 87.4 92.6 83.1

Eligible men

Completed (EMC) 67.5 81.6 49.5 74.7 69.9 68.3 80.7 85.1 67.8 76.6 78.6 73.1

Not at home 

(EMNH) 19.0 10.8 31.1 16.5 10.3 23.4 14.3 6.8 17.4 11.4 13.1 15.8

Postponed (EMP) 1.2 0.5 3.6 1.6 0.0 0.8 0.3 1.8 0.0 0.2 0.9 0.9

Refused (EMR) 10.2 4.9 15.1 4.1 17.8 3.7 3.4 5.2 12.5 10.0 4.8 8.1

Partly completed 

(EMPC) 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.1

Incapacitated (EMI) 1.6 1.6 0.7 3.0 1.9 2.4 0.9 1.0 1.6 1.3 1.7 1.6

Other (EMO) 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.2 0.2 1.4 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.4

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Number of men 2,996 1,956 444 636 428 492 649 503 614 607 579 4,952

Eligible men response 

rate (EMRR)2 67.5 81.6 49.5 74.7 69.9 68.3 80.7 85.1 67.8 76.6 78.6 73.1

Overall men response 

rate (OMRR)3 52.5 75.3 32.4 69.1 56.5 53.5 68.3 77.0 51.4 67.0 72.8 60.7

1 Using the number of households falling into specific response categories, the household response rate (HRR) is calculated as:

100 * C

_______________________________

C + HP + P + R + DNF

2 The eligible men response rate (EMRR) is equivalent to the percentage of interviews completed (EMC)

3 The overall men response rate (OMRR) is calculated as:

OMRR = HRR * EMRR/100
384 • Appendix A

Table A.7 Coverage of HIV testing by social and demographic characteristics: Women

Percent distribution of interviewed women age 15-49 by HIV testing status, according to social and demographic characteristics (unweighted), South 

Africa DHS 2016 

HIV test status

Total

Number of 

Characteristic DBS tested women 1

Refused to 

provide blood

Absent at the 

time of blood 

collection Other/missing2

Marital status

Never married 66.1 22.0 8.9 2.9 100.0 2,573

 Ever had sexual intercourse 67.9 21.0 8.3 2.7 100.0 2,081

 Never had sexual intercourse 58.5 26.2 11.6 3.7 100.0 492

Married/living together 63.3 25.1 7.5 4.2 100.0 1,361

Divorced or separated 66.9 16.6 9.8 6.7 100.0 163

Widowed 56.3 31.3 10.4 2.1 100.0 96

Type of union

In polygynous union 70.3 24.3 0.0 5.4 100.0 37

In non-polygynous union 62.3 25.6 7.8 4.2 100.0 1,264

Not currently in union 65.9 22.0 9.0 3.1 100.0 2,832

Don’t know 78.3 13.3 5.0 3.3 100.0 60

Ever had sexual intercourse

Yes 65.9 22.6 8.1 3.4 100.0 3,699

No 58.5 26.3 11.5 3.6 100.0 494

Currently pregnant

Pregnant 71.9 20.9 4.3 2.9 100.0 139

Not pregnant or not sure 64.8 23.1 8.7 3.5 100.0 4,054

Times slept away from home in past 

12 months

None 66.2 22.0 8.0 3.8 100.0 2,232

1-2 65.6 23.4 7.8 3.2 100.0 895

3-4 62.6 23.6 10.2 3.6 100.0 420

5+ 61.8 25.5 10.2 2.5 100.0 646

Time away in past 12 months

Away for more than 1 month at a time 62.4 25.4 8.9 3.2 100.0 503

Away only for less than 1 month at a 

time 64.1 23.7 9.2 3.0 100.0 1,458

Not away 66.2 22.0 8.0 3.8 100.0 2,232

Population group

Black African 67.9 21.0 8.1 3.1 100.0 3,651

White 43.1 38.2 11.8 6.9 100.0 102

Coloured 48.2 33.5 11.9 6.3 100.0 394

Indian/Asian 31.8 59.1 6.8 2.3 100.0 44

Total 15-49 65.0 23.0 8.5 3.5 100.0 4,193

1

Includes all dried blood spot (DBS) specimens tested at the lab and for which there is a final result, i.e., positive, negative, or inconclusive

2

Includes (1) other results of blood collection (e.g., technical problem in the field), (2) lost specimens, (3) non-corresponding bar codes, and (4) other 

lab results such as blood not tested for technical reason, not enough blood to complete the algorithm, etc.
Appendix A • 385

Table A.8 Coverage of HIV testing by social and demographic characteristics: Men

Percent distribution of interviewed men age 15-49 by HIV testing status, according to social and demographic characteristics (unweighted), South 

Africa DHS 2016 

HIV test status

Characteristic DBS tested Total Number of men 1

Refused to 

provide blood

Absent at the 

time of blood 

collection Other/missing2

Marital status

Never married 60.3 25.5 10.4 3.8 100.0 2,161

Ever had sexual intercourse 60.1 25.1 11.0 3.7 100.0 1,736

Never had sexual intercourse 61.2 26.8 8.0 4.0 100.0 425

Married/living together 53.6 30.1 9.7 6.6 100.0 890

Divorced or separated 65.7 23.2 6.1 5.1 100.0 99

Widowed 58.6 27.6 3.4 10.3 100.0 29

Type of union

In polygynous union 70.6 11.8 5.9 11.8 100.0 17

In non-polygynous union 53.2 30.5 9.8 6.5 100.0 871

Not currently in union 60.6 25.4 10.1 3.9 100.0 2,289

Don’t know 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 2

Ever had sexual intercourse

Yes 58.2 26.7 10.3 4.8 100.0 2,753

No 61.3 26.8 8.0 4.0 100.0 426

Circumcised

Yes 58.5 25.7 11.1 4.6 100.0 1,787

No 58.8 27.9 8.6 4.8 100.0 1,385

Don’t know 42.9 42.9 14.3 0.0 100.0 7

Times slept away from home in 

past 12 months

None 56.7 28.0 10.3 5.0 100.0 1,853

1-2 60.4 22.1 12.3 5.2 100.0 439

3-4 60.7 26.6 9.5 3.2 100.0 252

5+ 62.0 26.1 7.7 4.1 100.0 635

Time away in past 12 months

Away for more than 1 month at a 

time 59.1 29.0 7.3 4.6 100.0 411

Away only for less than 1 month at 

a time 62.2 23.1 10.6 4.2 100.0 915

Not away 56.7 28.0 10.3 5.0 100.0 1,853

Population group

Black African 60.3 25.2 9.8 4.7 100.0 2,807

White 60.5 29.6 7.4 2.5 100.0 81

Coloured 41.0 39.0 13.9 6.0 100.0 251

Indian/Asian 42.1 50.0 7.9 0.0 100.0 38

Total 15-49 58.6 26.7 10.0 4.7 100.0 3,178

50-59 62.2 24.6 8.4 4.8 100.0 439

Total 15-59 59.0 26.5 9.8 4.7 100.0 3,618

1

Includes all dried blood spot (DBS) specimens tested at the lab and for which there is a final result, i.e., positive, negative, or inconclusive

2

Includes (1) other results of blood collection (e.g., technical problem in the field), (2) lost specimens, (3) non-corresponding bar codes, and (4) 

other lab results such as blood not tested for technical reason, not enough blood to complete the algorithm, etc.
386 • Appendix A

Table A.9 Coverage of HIV testing by sexual behaviour characteristics: Women

Percent distribution of interviewed women age 15-49 who ever had sexual intercourse by HIV test status, according to sexual behaviour characteristics 

(unweighted), South Africa DHS 2016 

HIV test status

Total

Number of 

women

Sexual behaviour 

characteristic DBS tested1

Refused to 

provide blood

Absent at the 

time of blood 

collection Other/missing2

Age at first sexual intercourse

<14 66.4 20.8 8.8 4.0 100.0 125

14-15 68.1 20.1 8.3 3.4 100.0 551

16-17 66.6 22.4 7.9 3.1 100.0 1,308

18-19 64.7 23.5 8.2 3.6 100.0 974

20+ 64.4 24.9 7.3 3.3 100.0 627

Missing 64.9 17.5 12.3 5.3 100.0 114

Number of lifetime partners

1 63.7 24.8 8.2 3.3 100.0 947

2 65.5 23.5 8.4 2.7 100.0 754

3-4 68.1 21.1 7.8 3.0 100.0 1,187

5-9 66.4 20.3 8.6 4.8 100.0 547

10+ 74.8 18.3 3.8 3.1 100.0 131

Don't know 53.4 28.6 10.5 7.5 100.0 133

Multiple sexual partners in past 

12 months

0 63.9 24.4 8.0 3.7 100.0 488

1 66.0 22.5 8.0 3.5 100.0 3,018

2+ 68.4 18.7 10.9 2.1 100.0 193

Non-marital, non-cohabiting partners 

in past 12 months3

0 62.9 25.4 7.5 4.2 100.0 1,749

1 68.7 20.1 8.4 2.8 100.0 1,792

2+ 67.1 19.0 11.4 2.5 100.0 158

Condom use at last sexual 

intercourse in past 12 months

Used condom 66.3 21.2 9.4 3.0 100.0 1,453

Did not use condom 66.0 23.2 7.1 3.7 100.0 1,758

No sexual intercourse in past 

12 months 63.9 24.4 8.0 3.7 100.0 488

Condom use at last sexual 

intercourse with a non-marital, noncohabiting partner in past 12 

months3

Used condom 67.1 20.5 9.6 2.8 100.0 1,133

Did not use condom 70.6 19.5 7.2 2.7 100.0 817

No sexual intercourse with any nonmarital, non-cohabiting partners in 

past 12 months 62.9 25.4 7.5 4.2 100.0 1,749

Prior HIV testing

Ever tested 66.4 22.0 8.2 3.4 100.0 3,327

Received results 66.4 21.9 8.2 3.5 100.0 3,269

Did not receive results 67.2 25.9 6.9 0.0 100.0 58

Never tested 61.3 27.7 7.3 3.8 100.0 372

Total 15-49 65.9 22.6 8.1 3.4 100.0 3,699

1

Includes all dried blood spot (DBS) specimens tested at the lab and for which there is a result, i.e., positive, negative, or inconclusive. 

2

Includes (1) other results of blood collection (e.g., technical problem in the field), (2) lost specimens, (3) non-corresponding bar codes, and (4) other 

lab results such as blood not tested for technical reason, not enough blood to complete the algorithm, etc.

3 Any partner who was not a spouse and did not live with the respondent
Appendix A • 387

Table A.10 Coverage of HIV testing by sexual behaviour characteristics: Men

Percent distribution of interviewed men age 15-49 who ever had sexual intercourse by HIV test status, according to sexual behaviour characteristics 

(unweighted), South Africa DHS 2016 

HIV test status

Total Number of men

Sexual behaviour 

characteristic DBS tested1

Refused to 

provide blood

Absent at the 

time of blood 

collection Other/missing2

Age at first sexual intercourse

<14 61.3 27.9 7.9 2.9 100.0 240

14-15 58.7 26.9 10.0 4.4 100.0 588

16-17 57.5 26.7 10.6 5.1 100.0 972

18-19 59.1 25.4 10.2 5.3 100.0 599

20+ 55.5 27.8 11.6 5.1 100.0 335

Missing 57.9 26.3 15.8 0.0 100.0 19

Number of lifetime partners

1 62.7 24.1 8.5 4.7 100.0 212

2 56.4 28.9 8.8 5.9 100.0 273

3-4 62.2 23.2 11.3 3.2 100.0 564

5-9 56.7 26.3 11.2 5.8 100.0 654

10+ 60.7 24.6 9.8 4.8 100.0 764

Don’t know 45.1 39.9 10.5 4.5 100.0 286

Multiple sexual partners in past 

12 months

0 58.8 28.5 7.2 5.4 100.0 221

1 56.3 27.8 10.8 5.0 100.0 1,997

2+ 65.0 21.5 9.7 3.7 100.0 534

Don’t know 0.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 1

Non-marital, non-cohabiting partners 

in past 12 months3

0 54.4 30.0 9.3 6.3 100.0 967

1 58.9 25.8 11.1 4.2 100.0 1,329

2+ 64.1 22.3 10.3 3.3 100.0 457

Condom use at last sexual 

intercourse in past 12 months

Used condom 60.0 25.2 10.8 4.0 100.0 1,422

Did not use condom 55.8 28.3 10.3 5.7 100.0 1,110

No sexual intercourse in past 

12 months 58.8 28.5 7.2 5.4 100.0 221

Condom use at last sexual 

intercourse with a non-marital, 

non-cohabiting partner in past 

12 months3

Used condom 61.0 24.6 10.5 3.8 100.0 1,247

Did not use condom 58.4 25.6 11.7 4.3 100.0 539

No sexual intercourse with any nonmarital, non-cohabiting partners in 

past 12 months 54.4 30.0 9.3 6.3 100.0 967

Paid for sexual intercourse in past 

12 months

Yes 58.8 35.0 3.8 2.5 100.0 80

 Used condom 57.4 35.3 4.4 2.9 100.0 68

 Did not use condom 66.7 33.3 0.0 0.0 100.0 12

No (no paid sexual intercourse/no 

sexual intercourse in last 12 months) 58.2 26.4 10.5 4.9 100.0 2,673

Prior HIV testing

Ever tested 58.9 25.5 10.9 4.7 100.0 2,086

Received results 58.8 25.6 10.9 4.6 100.0 2,029

Did not receive results 61.4 19.3 8.8 10.5 100.0 57

Never tested 55.9 30.6 8.5 4.9 100.0 667

Total 15-49 58.2 26.7 10.3 4.8 100.0 2,752

50-59 62.3 24.8 8.3 4.6 100.0 432

Total 15-59 58.7 26.4 10.0 4.8 100.0 3,185

1

Includes all dried blood spot (DBS) specimens tested at the lab and for which there is a result, i.e., positive, negative, or inconclusive

2

Includes (1) other results of blood collection (e.g., technical problem in the field), (2) lost specimens, (3) non-corresponding bar codes, and (4) other 

lab results such as blood not tested for technical reason, not enough blood to complete the algorithm, etc.

3 Any partner who was not a spouse and did not live with the respondent

Appendix B • 389

ESTIMATES OF SAMPLING ERRORS AppendixB

he estimates from a sample survey are affected by two types of errors: nonsampling errors and 

sampling errors. Nonsampling errors are the results of mistakes made in implementing data collection 

and data processing, such as failure to locate and interview the correct household, misunderstanding 

of the questions on the part of either the interviewer or the respondent, and data entry errors. Although 

numerous efforts were made during the implementation of the SADHS 2016 to minimize this type of error, 

nonsampling errors are impossible to avoid and difficult to evaluate statistically.

Sampling errors, on the other hand, can be evaluated statistically. The sample of respondents selected in the 

SADHS 2016 is only one of many samples that could have been selected from the same population, using 

the same design and expected size. Each of these samples would yield results that differ somewhat from the 

results of the actual sample selected. Sampling errors are a measure of the variability among all possible 

samples. Although the degree of variability is not known exactly, it can be estimated from the survey results. 

Sampling error is usually measured in terms of the standard error for a particular statistic (mean, percentage, 

etc.), which is the square root of the variance. The standard error can be used to calculate confidence intervals 

within which the true value for the population can reasonably be assumed to fall. For example, for any given 

statistic calculated from a sample survey, the value of that statistic will fall within a range of plus or minus 

two times the standard error of that statistic in 95% of all possible samples of identical size and design. 

If the sample of respondents had been selected as a simple random sample, it would have been possible to 

use straightforward formulas for calculating sampling errors. However, the SADHS 2016 sample is the result 

of a multi-stage stratified design, and, consequently, it was necessary to use more complex formulas. 

Sampling errors are computed in SAS, using programs developed by ICF. These programs use the Taylor 

linearization method to estimate variances for survey estimates that are means, proportions, or ratios. The 

Jackknife repeated replication method is used for variance estimation of more complex statistics such as 

fertility and mortality rates.

The Taylor linearization method treats any percentage or average as a ratio estimate, r = y/x, where y

represents the total sample value for variable y, and x represents the total number of cases in the group or 

subgroup under consideration. The variance of r is computed using the formula given below, with the 

standard error being the square root of the variance:

   





































H

h h

h

m

i

hi

h

h

m

z

z

m

m

x

f

SE rvarr

h

1

2

1

2

2

2

1

1

)()(

in which

hihihi

yz  rx

, and 

hhh

yz  rx

where h represents the stratum which varies from 1 to H,

mh is the total number of clusters selected in the h

th stratum,

yhi is the sum of the weighted values of variable y in the i

th cluster in the hth stratum,

xhi is the sum of the weighted number of cases in the i

th cluster in the hth stratum, and

f is the overall sampling fraction, which is so small that it is ignored.

T
390 • Appendix B

The Jackknife repeated replication method derives estimates of complex rates from each of several 

replications of the parent sample, and calculates standard errors for these estimates using simple formulae. 

Each replication considers all but one cluster in the calculation of the estimates. Pseudo-independent 

replications are thus created. In the SADHS 2016 there were 746 non-empty clusters. Hence, 746 replications 

were created. The variance of a rate r is calculated as follows:

SE r var r

k k

r r

i

k

i

2

1

2

1

1

( ) ( ) ( )

  ( )









in which

)(

)1(

i i

r kr  rk

where r is the estimate computed from the full sample of 746 clusters,

r(i) is the estimate computed from the reduced sample of 745 clusters (i

th cluster excluded), and

k is the total number of clusters.

In addition to the standard error, the design effect (DEFT) for each estimate is also calculated. The design 

effect is defined as the ratio between the standard error using the given sample design and the standard error 

that would result if a simple random sample had been used. A DEFT value of 1.0 indicates that the sample 

design is as efficient as a simple random sample, while a value greater than 1.0 indicates the increase in the 

sampling error due to the use of a more complex and less statistically efficient design. Relative standard 

errors and confidence limits for the estimates are also calculated.

Sampling errors for the SADHS 2016 are calculated for selected variables considered to be of primary 

interest. The results are presented in this appendix for the country as a whole, for urban and non-urban areas, 

and for each of the 9 provinces. For each variable, the type of statistic (mean, proportion, or rate) and the 

base population are given in Table B.1. Tables B.2 through B.14 present the value of the statistic (R), its 

standard error (SE), the number of unweighted (N) and weighted (WN) cases, the design effect (DEFT), the 

relative standard error (SE/R), and the 95% confidence limits (R±2SE), for each selected variable. The DEFT 

is considered undefined when the standard error considering a simple random sample is zero (when the 

estimate is close to 0 or 1).

The confidence interval (e.g., as calculated for ideal number of children) can be interpreted as follows: the 

overall average from the national sample is 2.596 and its standard error is 0.024. Therefore, to obtain the 

95% confidence limits, one adds and subtracts twice the standard error to the sample estimate, i.e., 2.596 ±

2 × 0.024. There is a high probability (95%) that the true ideal number of children is between 2.548 

and 2.644.

For the total sample, the value of the DEFT, averaged over all variables, is 1.56. This means that, due to 

multi-stage clustering of the sample, the average standard error is increased by a factor of 1.56 over that in 

an equivalent simple random sample.
Appendix B • 391

 

Table B.1 List of selected variables for sampling errors, South Africa DHS 2016

Variable Estimate Base population

POPULATION

Population using safely managed drinking water services Proportion de jure population

Population using safely managed sanitation services Proportion de jure population

Population with access to electricity Proportion de jure population

Population with primary reliance on clean fuels Proportion de jure population

WOMEN

Urban residence Proportion Women 15-49

Literacy Proportion Women 15-49

No education Proportion Women 15-49

Secondary or higher education Proportion Women 15-49

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) Proportion Women 15-49

In-union (married or living with a partner) Proportion Women 15-49

In a union before age 15 (women 20-24) Proportion Women 20-24

In a union before age 18 (women 20-24) Proportion Women 20-24

In a union before age 18 (women 20-49) Proportion Women 20-49

Had sexual intercourse before age 18 Proportion Women 20-49

Currently pregnant Proportion Women 15-49

Currently using any method Proportion Sexually active women 15-49

Currently using a modern method Proportion Sexually active women 15-49

Currently using pill Proportion Sexually active women 15-49

Currently using condoms Proportion Sexually active women 15-49

Currently using injectables - 3 months Proportion Sexually active women 15-49

Currently using injectables - 2 months Proportion Sexually active women 15-49

Currently using implants Proportion Sexually active women 15-49

Currently using female sterilisation Proportion Sexually active women 15-49

Currently using withdrawal Proportion Sexually active women 15-49

Currently using IUD Proportion Sexually active women 15-49

Using public sector source Proportion Current users of modern method

Demand satisfied by modern methods Proportion In-union women 15-49 

Want no more children Proportion In-union women 15-49

Want to delay next birth at least 2 years Proportion In-union women 15-49

Ideal number of children Mean Women 15-49

Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth Proportion Women with a live birth in last 5 years

Births with skilled attendant at delivery Proportion Births occurring 1-59 months before survey

Had diarrhoea in the last 2 weeks Proportion Children under 5

Treated with ORS Proportion Children under 5 with diarrhoea in past 2 weeks

Treated with clinic-recommended homemade fluid (RHF) Proportion Children under 5 with diarrhoea in past 2 weeks

Sought treatment for diarrhoea Proportion Children under 5 with diarrhoea in past 2 weeks

Ever had vaccination card Proportion Children 12-23 months

Vaccination card seen Proportion Children 12-23 months

Received BCG vaccination Proportion Children 12-23 months

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination (3 doses) Proportion Children 12-23 months

Received HepB vaccination (3 doses) Proportion Children 12-23 months

Received birth dose polio 0 vaccination Proportion Children 12-23 months

Received oral polio vaccination (non-birth dose) Proportion Children 12-23 months

Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) Proportion Children 12-23 months

Received rotavirus vaccination (2 doses) Proportion Children 12-23 months

Received measles vaccination Proportion Children 12-23 months

Received all basic vaccinations Proportion Children 12-23 months

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (12-23 months) Proportion Children 12-23 months

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination 4 (children 24-35) Proportion Children 24-35 months

Received measles 2 vaccination (children 24-35) Proportion Children 24-35 months

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (24-35 months) Proportion Children 24-35 months

Height-for-age (-2SD) Proportion Children under 5 who are measured

Weight-for-height (-2SD) Proportion Children under 5 who are measured

Weight-for-age (+2SD) Proportion Children under 5 who are measured

Weight-for-age (-2SD) Proportion Children under 5 who are measured

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 Proportion Women 15+ who were measured

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 Proportion Women 15+ who were measured

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 Proportion Women 15+ who were measured

Waist ≥88 cm Proportion Women 15+ who were measured

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 Proportion Women 15+ who were measured

Prevalence of anaemia (children 6-59 months) Proportion Children 6-59 months who were tested

Prevalence of anaemia (women 15+) Proportion Women 15+ who were measured

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months Proportion Women 15-49

Condom use at last sex Proportion Women 15-49 with non-marital, non-cohabiting partner in past 12 months

Abstinence among never-in-union youth (never had sex) Proportion Never-in-union women 15-24

Had an HIV test and received results in past 12 months Proportion Women 15-49

Cervical cancer screening Proportion Women 30-59 years 

Asthma symptoms Proportion Women 15+ 

COPD symptoms Proportion Women 15+

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) Proportion Women 15+ who were measured

Current smoking (daily or occassional) Proportion Women 15+

Drank alcohol in past 12 months Proportion Women 15+

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) Proportion Women 15+

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test Proportion Women 15+

Codeine-containing medication misuse Proportion Women 15+

(Continued...)
392 • Appendix B

 

Table B.1—Continued

Variable Estimate Base population

WOMEN

Physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a partner in the previous 

12 months Proportion Ever-partnered women 18+ 

Physical violence by a current or former partner in the previous 

12 months Proportion Ever-partnered women 18+ 

Sexual violence by a current or former partner in the previous 

12 months Proportion Ever-partnered women 18+ 

Emotional violence by a current or former partner in the previous 

12 months Proportion Ever-partnered women 18+ 

Mobile phone ownership Proportion Women 15-49

Bank account ownership Proportion Women 15-49

Internet use in past 12 months Proportion Women 15-49

Total fertility rate (last 3 years) Rate Women-years of exposure to childbearing

Neonatal mortality rate1 Rate Children exposed to the risk of mortality

Post-neonatal mortality rate1 Rate Children exposed to the risk of mortality

Infant mortality rate1 Rate Children exposed to the risk of mortality

Child mortality rate1 Rate Children exposed to the risk of mortality

Under-5 mortality rate1 Rate Children exposed to the risk of mortality

HIV prevalence among women 15-49 Proportion Interviewed women with Dried Blood Spot (DBS) specimen tested at the lab

HIV prevalence among pregnant women 15-49 Proportion Interviewed pregnant women 15-49 with DBS tested at the lab

HIV prevalence among young women 15-24 Proportion Interviewed women 15-24 with DBS tested at the lab

HIV prevalence among women 15+ Proportion Interviewed women 15+ with DBS tested at the lab

MEN

Urban residence Proportion Men 15-49

Literacy Proportion Men 15-49

No education Proportion Men 15-49

Secondary or higher education Proportion Men 15-49

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) Proportion Men 15-49

In-union (married or living with a partner) Proportion Men 15-49

Had first sexual intercourse before age 18 Proportion Men 20-49

Want no more children Proportion In-union men 15-49

Want to delay birth at least 2 years Proportion In-union men 15-49

Ideal number of children Mean Men 15-49

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 Proportion Men 15+ who were measured

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 Proportion Men 15+ who were measured

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥30 Proportion Men 15+ who were measured

Waist ≥102 cm Proportion Men 15+ who were measured

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 Proportion Men 15+ who were measured

Current smoking (daily or occassional) Proportion Men 15+

Drank alcohol in past 12 months Proportion Men 15+

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) Proportion Men 15+

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test Proportion Men 15+

Codeine-containing medication misuse Proportion Men 15+

Prevalence of anaemia Proportion Men 15+ who were measured

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months Proportion Men 15-49

Condom use at last sex Proportion Men 15-49 with non-marital, non-cohabiting partners in past 12 months

Abstinence among never-in-union youth (never had sex) Proportion Never-in-union men 15-24

Had paid sex in past 12 months Proportion Men 15-49

Had HIV test and received results in past 12 months Proportion Men 15-49

Circumcised Proportion Men 15-49

Asthma symptoms Proportion Men 15+

COPD symptoms Proportion Men 15+

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) Proportion Men 15+ who were measured

Mobile phone ownership Proportion Men 15-49

Bank account ownership Proportion Men 15-49

Internet use in past 12 months Proportion Men 15-49

HIV prevalence among men 15-49 Proportion Interviewed men with Dried Blood Spot (DBS) specimen tested at the lab

HIV prevalence among young men 15-24 Proportion Interviewed men 15-24 with DBS tested at the lab

HIV prevalence among men 15+ Proportion Interviewed men 15+ with DBS tested at the lab

WOMEN and MEN

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-49 Proportion Interviewed women and men 15-49 with DBS tested at the lab

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-24 Proportion Interviewed women and men 15-24 with DBS tested at the lab

HIV prevalence among respondents 15+ Proportion Interviewed women and men 15+ with DBS tested at the lab

1 The mortality rates are calculated for 5 years before the survey for the national, urban, and non-urban samples and for 10 years before the survey for the 

provincial samples
Appendix B • 393

Table B.2 Sampling errors: National sample, South Africa DHS 2016

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

POPULATION

Population using safely managed drinking water services 0.904 0.008 37925 37205 2.274 0.009 0.888 0.921

Population using safely managed sanitation services 0.810 0.011 37925 37205 2.617 0.013 0.789 0.831

Population with access to electricity 0.908 0.011 37925 37205 3.379 0.013 0.885 0.931

Population with primary reliance on clean fuels 0.785 0.012 37925 37205 2.429 0.016 0.760 0.810

WOMEN

Urban residence 0.673 0.011 8514 8514 2.261 0.017 0.650 0.696

Literacy 0.963 0.003 8514 8514 1.612 0.003 0.957 0.970

No education 0.020 0.002 8514 8514 1.383 0.106 0.016 0.024

Secondary or higher education 0.889 0.006 8514 8514 1.707 0.007 0.878 0.901

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.586 0.008 8514 8514 1.542 0.014 0.570 0.603

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.358 0.008 8514 8514 1.560 0.023 0.342 0.374

In a union before age 15 (women 20-24) 0.009 0.004 1408 1415 1.520 0.416 0.002 0.017

In a union before age 18 (women 20-24) 0.036 0.007 1408 1415 1.473 0.204 0.021 0.050

In a union before age 18 (women 20-49) 0.065 0.004 7009 7087 1.396 0.063 0.056 0.073

Had sexual intercourse before age 18 0.488 0.009 7009 7087 1.548 0.019 0.469 0.506

Currently pregnant 0.039 0.003 8514 8514 1.457 0.078 0.033 0.045

Currently using any method 0.596 0.010 4116 4364 1.317 0.017 0.576 0.617

Currently using a modern method 0.593 0.010 4116 4364 1.307 0.017 0.573 0.613

Currently using pill 0.073 0.006 4116 4364 1.482 0.083 0.061 0.085

Currently using condoms 0.156 0.009 4116 4364 1.562 0.057 0.138 0.173

Currently using injectables - 3 months 0.175 0.008 4116 4364 1.290 0.044 0.160 0.191

Currently using injectables - 2 months 0.073 0.005 4116 4364 1.330 0.074 0.062 0.083

Currently using implants 0.041 0.004 4116 4364 1.290 0.098 0.033 0.049

Currently using female sterilisation 0.057 0.005 4116 4364 1.481 0.094 0.046 0.068

Currently using withdrawal 0.003 0.001 4116 4364 1.417 0.377 0.001 0.006

Currently using IUD 0.012 0.002 4116 4364 1.495 0.216 0.007 0.016

Using public sector source 0.803 0.011 4004 4076 1.749 0.014 0.781 0.825

Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.797 0.008 5033 5115 1.438 0.010 0.781 0.813

Want no more children 0.580 0.013 2841 3050 1.367 0.022 0.554 0.605

Want to delay next birth at least 2 years 0.092 0.007 2841 3050 1.303 0.077 0.078 0.106

Ideal number of children 2.596 0.024 8485 8493 1.562 0.009 2.548 2.644

Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.352 0.014 3036 3036 1.579 0.039 0.324 0.379

Births with skilled attendant at delivery 0.967 0.004 3548 3572 1.193 0.004 0.959 0.975

Had diarrhoea in the last 2 weeks 0.103 0.007 3413 3444 1.374 0.069 0.089 0.118

Treated with ORS 0.514 0.034 350 356 1.263 0.066 0.446 0.582

Treated with clinic-recommended homemade fluid (RHF) 0.725 0.030 350 356 1.280 0.042 0.665 0.786

Sought treatment for diarrhoea 0.630 0.034 350 356 1.287 0.053 0.563 0.698

Ever had vaccination card 0.981 0.006 670 677 1.013 0.006 0.969 0.992

Vaccination card seen 0.663 0.026 670 677 1.400 0.039 0.612 0.715

Received BCG vaccination 0.925 0.012 670 677 1.219 0.013 0.900 0.950

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.649 0.025 670 677 1.360 0.039 0.598 0.700

Received HepB vaccination (3 doses) 0.650 0.024 670 677 1.295 0.037 0.602 0.698

Received birth dose polio 0 vaccination 0.923 0.014 670 677 1.320 0.015 0.896 0.950

Received oral polio vaccination (non-birth dose) 0.776 0.022 670 677 1.324 0.028 0.733 0.819

Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.619 0.027 670 677 1.433 0.044 0.565 0.673

Received rotavirus vaccination (2 doses) 0.701 0.024 670 677 1.362 0.035 0.653 0.750

Received measles vaccination 0.861 0.017 670 677 1.246 0.019 0.828 0.895

Received all basic vaccinations 0.612 0.025 670 677 1.315 0.041 0.562 0.662

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (12-23 months) 0.526 0.027 670 677 1.359 0.050 0.473 0.579

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination 4 (children 24-35) 0.481 0.027 676 660 1.355 0.055 0.428 0.534

Received measles 2 vaccination (children 24-35) 0.592 0.026 676 660 1.331 0.043 0.541 0.644

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (24-35 months) 0.418 0.027 676 660 1.371 0.063 0.365 0.471

Height-for-age (-2SD) 0.274 0.016 1468 1404 1.280 0.059 0.242 0.307

Weight-for-height (-2SD) 0.025 0.005 1449 1384 1.154 0.197 0.015 0.034

Weight-for-height (+2SD) 0.133 0.011 1449 1384 1.160 0.082 0.111 0.155

Weight-for-age (-2SD) 0.059 0.009 1479 1416 1.393 0.147 0.042 0.076

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.026 0.003 4844 4642 1.075 0.096 0.021 0.031

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.675 0.010 4844 4642 1.391 0.014 0.656 0.695

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.204 0.009 4844 4642 1.501 0.044 0.186 0.221

Waist ≥88 cm 0.453 0.011 4852 4664 1.522 0.024 0.431 0.475

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.669 0.010 4846 4660 1.484 0.015 0.649 0.689

Prevalence of anaemia (children 6-59 months) 0.613 0.021 1137 1094 1.365 0.035 0.570 0.656

Prevalence of anaemia (women 15+) 0.306 0.011 4431 4244 1.513 0.035 0.285 0.328

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.045 0.003 8514 8514 1.229 0.061 0.040 0.051

Condom use at last sex 0.576 0.032 394 387 1.279 0.055 0.513 0.640

Abstinence among never-in-union youth (never had sex) 0.374 0.012 2621 2508 1.300 0.033 0.349 0.398

Had an HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.585 0.008 8514 8514 1.469 0.013 0.570 0.601

Cervical cancer screening 0.522 0.015 2880 2918 1.568 0.028 0.493 0.551

Asthma symptoms 0.033 0.003 6126 6126 1.418 0.098 0.027 0.040

COPD symptoms 0.019 0.002 6126 6126 1.305 0.119 0.015 0.024

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.455 0.011 5003 4774 1.530 0.024 0.433 0.476

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.078 0.006 6126 6126 1.655 0.073 0.067 0.090

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.184 0.007 6126 6126 1.459 0.039 0.170 0.199

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.048 0.004 6126 6126 1.412 0.080 0.041 0.056

(Continued...)
394 • Appendix B

Table B.2—Continued

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

WOMEN

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.027 0.002 6126 6126 1.176 0.089 0.023 0.032

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.023 0.003 6126 6126 1.723 0.144 0.016 0.030

Physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a partner in the previous 

12 months 0.130 0.007 5925 5865 1.683 0.057 0.115 0.145

Physical violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.077 0.005 5925 5865 1.554 0.070 0.067 0.088

Sexual violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.023 0.003 5925 5865 1.479 0.125 0.017 0.029

Emotional violence by a current or former partner in the previous 

12 months 0.091 0.005 5925 5865 1.436 0.059 0.080 0.102

Mobile phone ownership 0.912 0.005 8514 8514 1.530 0.005 0.903 0.921

Bank account ownership 0.539 0.010 8514 8514 1.872 0.019 0.519 0.559

Internet use in past 12 months 0.474 0.011 8514 8514 2.035 0.023 0.452 0.496

Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.643 0.067 24188 24284 1.227 0.025 2.509 2.777

Neonatal mortality (last 0-4 years) 21.029 3.808 3552 3577 1.443 0.181 13.412 28.645

Post-neonatal mortality (last 0-4 years) 14.443 2.538 3542 3580 1.284 0.176 9.366 19.520

Infant mortality (last 0-4 years) 35.472 4.506 3558 3584 1.381 0.127 26.459 44.484

Child mortality (last 0-4 years) 6.827 1.421 3572 3587 1.087 0.208 3.986 9.669

Under-five mortality (last 0-4 years) 42.057 4.645 3571 3596 1.313 0.110 32.766 51.347

HIV prevalence among women 15-49 0.273 0.013 2726 2485 1.488 0.047 0.248 0.299

HIV prevalence among pregnant women 15-49 0.280 0.069 100 97 1.526 0.248 0.141 0.419

HIV prevalence among young women 15-24 0.116 0.015 935 832 1.407 0.127 0.087 0.146

HIV prevalence among women 15+ 0.233 0.010 4067 3600 1.515 0.043 0.212 0.253

MEN

Urban residence 0.688 0.013 3179 3202 1.599 0.019 0.662 0.714

Literacy 0.949 0.006 3179 3202 1.469 0.006 0.938 0.961

No education 0.019 0.003 3179 3202 1.276 0.161 0.013 0.026

Secondary or higher education 0.860 0.008 3179 3202 1.378 0.010 0.843 0.877

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.647 0.013 3179 3202 1.591 0.021 0.620 0.674

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.309 0.013 3179 3202 1.533 0.041 0.283 0.334

Had first sexual intercourse before age 18 0.579 0.015 2474 2555 1.557 0.027 0.548 0.610

Want no more children 0.452 0.024 890 988 1.456 0.054 0.404 0.501

Want to delay birth at least 2 years 0.106 0.014 890 988 1.390 0.135 0.078 0.135

Ideal number of children 3.165 0.053 3145 3162 1.527 0.017 3.059 3.270

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.095 0.007 3275 3105 1.244 0.069 0.082 0.108

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.313 0.013 3275 3105 1.555 0.041 0.288 0.339

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.031 0.005 3275 3105 1.522 0.153 0.022 0.040

Waist ≥102 cm 0.098 0.008 3224 3076 1.547 0.083 0.082 0.115

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.351 0.013 3219 3073 1.538 0.037 0.325 0.377

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.373 0.011 4210 4210 1.414 0.028 0.352 0.394

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.538 0.012 4210 4210 1.556 0.022 0.514 0.562

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.275 0.011 4210 4210 1.599 0.040 0.253 0.297

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.159 0.009 4210 4210 1.581 0.056 0.142 0.177

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.015 0.003 4210 4210 1.392 0.175 0.010 0.020

Prevalence of anaemia 0.168 0.010 2769 2606 1.297 0.057 0.149 0.187

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.170 0.010 3179 3202 1.466 0.058 0.150 0.189

Condom use at last sex 0.653 0.027 535 544 1.310 0.041 0.599 0.707

Abstinence among never-in-union youth (never had sex) 0.307 0.019 1268 1191 1.432 0.060 0.270 0.344

Had paid sex in past 12 months 0.029 0.004 3179 3202 1.303 0.134 0.021 0.037

Had HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.446 0.014 3179 3202 1.610 0.032 0.417 0.474

Circumcised 0.570 0.015 3179 3202 1.722 0.027 0.539 0.600

Asthma symptoms 0.035 0.004 4210 4210 1.257 0.102 0.028 0.042

COPD symptoms 0.017 0.003 4210 4210 1.263 0.149 0.012 0.022

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.437 0.013 3253 3082 1.461 0.029 0.412 0.463

Mobile phone ownership 0.885 0.008 3179 3202 1.497 0.010 0.868 0.902

Bank account ownership 0.570 0.013 3179 3202 1.529 0.024 0.543 0.596

Internet use in past 12 months 0.520 0.015 3179 3202 1.692 0.029 0.490 0.550

HIV prevalence among men 15-49 0.144 0.014 1863 2199 1.777 0.101 0.115 0.173

HIV prevalence among young men 15-24 0.034 0.010 852 924 1.608 0.292 0.014 0.055

HIV prevalence among men 15+ 0.133 0.011 2517 2984 1.669 0.085 0.110 0.155

WOMEN and MEN

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-49 0.212 0.010 4589 4685 1.685 0.048 0.192 0.233

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-24 0.073 0.009 1787 1755 1.435 0.121 0.055 0.091

HIV prevalence among respondents 15+ 0.187 0.008 6584 6584 1.709 0.044 0.171 0.204
Appendix B • 395

Table B.3 Sampling errors: Urban sample, South Africa DHS 2017

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

POPULATION

Population using safely managed drinking water services 0.985 0.004 21206 23656 2.701 0.004 0.977 0.994

Population using safely managed sanitation services 0.778 0.016 21206 23656 2.811 0.020 0.747 0.810

Population with access to electricity 0.936 0.013 21206 23656 3.970 0.014 0.910 0.963

Population with primary reliance on clean fuels 0.913 0.013 21206 23656 3.025 0.014 0.887 0.939

WOMEN

Urban residence 1 0 4805 5731 na 0 1 1

Literacy 0.972 0.004 4805 5731 1.816 0.004 0.963 0.981

No education 0.016 0.002 4805 5731 1.371 0.155 0.011 0.021

Secondary or higher education 0.912 0.007 4805 5731 1.826 0.008 0.897 0.927

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.553 0.011 4805 5731 1.510 0.020 0.531 0.574

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.394 0.011 4805 5731 1.545 0.028 0.372 0.416

In a union before age 15 (women 20-24) 0.012 0.006 801 951 1.483 0.478 0.001 0.023

In a union before age 18 (women 20-24) 0.032 0.009 801 951 1.505 0.292 0.013 0.051

In a union before age 18 (women 20-49) 0.058 0.005 4036 4856 1.389 0.088 0.048 0.068

Had sexual intercourse before age 18 0.476 0.012 4036 4856 1.525 0.025 0.452 0.500

Currently pregnant 0.041 0.004 4805 5731 1.471 0.103 0.032 0.049

Currently using any method 0.596 0.013 2464 3137 1.319 0.022 0.570 0.622

Currently using a modern method 0.591 0.013 2464 3137 1.307 0.022 0.566 0.617

Currently using pill 0.078 0.008 2464 3137 1.407 0.098 0.063 0.093

Currently using condoms 0.155 0.012 2464 3137 1.577 0.074 0.132 0.178

Currently using injectables - 3 months 0.161 0.009 2464 3137 1.264 0.058 0.142 0.179

Currently using injectables - 2 months 0.067 0.007 2464 3137 1.337 0.101 0.053 0.080

Currently using implants 0.041 0.005 2464 3137 1.263 0.123 0.031 0.051

Currently using female sterilisation 0.068 0.007 2464 3137 1.408 0.105 0.053 0.082

Currently using withdrawal 0.004 0.002 2464 3137 1.363 0.426 0.001 0.008

Currently using IUD 0.014 0.003 2464 3137 1.429 0.245 0.007 0.020

Using public sector source 0.766 0.016 2270 2761 1.777 0.021 0.735 0.798

Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.800 0.011 2826 3450 1.446 0.014 0.779 0.822

Want no more children 0.578 0.016 1774 2259 1.360 0.028 0.546 0.610

Want to delay next birth at least 2 years 0.097 0.009 1774 2259 1.268 0.092 0.079 0.115

Ideal number of children 2.480 0.032 4791 5720 1.590 0.013 2.416 2.543

Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.346 0.020 1607 1942 1.667 0.057 0.306 0.385

Births with skilled attendant at delivery 0.979 0.005 1863 2281 1.282 0.005 0.970 0.988

Had diarrhoea in the last 2 weeks 0.090 0.009 1797 2204 1.352 0.100 0.072 0.109

Treated with ORS 0.534 0.051 156 199 1.286 0.095 0.433 0.636

Treated with clinic-recommended homemade fluid (RHF) 0.730 0.042 156 199 1.228 0.057 0.646 0.813

Sought treatment for diarrhoea 0.655 0.049 156 199 1.287 0.074 0.557 0.752

Ever had vaccination card 0.991 0.005 344 416 0.944 0.005 0.982 1.001

Vaccination card seen 0.639 0.036 344 416 1.369 0.056 0.568 0.711

Received BCG vaccination 0.927 0.018 344 416 1.285 0.019 0.892 0.963

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.627 0.034 344 416 1.308 0.055 0.558 0.696

Received HepB vaccination (3 doses) 0.629 0.033 344 416 1.243 0.052 0.563 0.694

Received birth dose polio 0 vaccination 0.933 0.019 344 416 1.388 0.020 0.896 0.971

Received oral polio vaccination (non-birth dose) 0.769 0.029 344 416 1.264 0.038 0.711 0.827

Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.605 0.035 344 416 1.335 0.059 0.534 0.676

Received rotavirus vaccination (2 doses) 0.689 0.034 344 416 1.363 0.050 0.620 0.757

Received measles vaccination 0.861 0.024 344 416 1.251 0.027 0.814 0.909

Received all basic vaccinations 0.590 0.034 344 416 1.272 0.058 0.522 0.658

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (12-23 months) 0.515 0.035 344 416 1.296 0.069 0.445 0.586

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination 4 (children 24-35) 0.455 0.038 345 414 1.420 0.084 0.378 0.532

Received measles 2 vaccination (children 24-35) 0.577 0.036 345 414 1.358 0.063 0.505 0.650

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (24-35 months) 0.393 0.037 345 414 1.411 0.095 0.319 0.468

Height-for-age (-2SD) 0.257 0.027 642 713 1.480 0.105 0.203 0.312

Weight-for-height (-2SD) 0.024 0.007 626 698 1.100 0.286 0.010 0.037

Weight-for-height (+2SD) 0.132 0.017 626 698 1.181 0.128 0.098 0.166

Weight-for-age (-2SD) 0.058 0.012 652 721 1.254 0.200 0.035 0.081

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.022 0.003 2536 2869 1.093 0.149 0.015 0.028

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.684 0.013 2536 2869 1.359 0.019 0.658 0.710

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.224 0.013 2536 2869 1.482 0.056 0.199 0.249

Waist ≥88 cm 0.453 0.015 2525 2873 1.535 0.034 0.422 0.483

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.667 0.014 2524 2872 1.492 0.021 0.639 0.695

Prevalence of anaemia (children 6-59 months) 0.622 0.036 464 539 1.534 0.059 0.549 0.695

Prevalence of anaemia (women 15+) 0.298 0.014 2240 2584 1.421 0.047 0.270 0.325

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.046 0.004 4805 5731 1.174 0.077 0.039 0.053

Condom use at last sex 0.612 0.041 229 263 1.283 0.068 0.529 0.694

Abstinence among never-in-union youth (never had sex) 0.384 0.017 1393 1579 1.293 0.044 0.350 0.418

Had an HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.571 0.010 4805 5731 1.468 0.018 0.550 0.592

Cervical cancer screening 0.577 0.020 1665 1973 1.655 0.035 0.537 0.617

Asthma symptoms 0.036 0.005 3361 3996 1.407 0.126 0.027 0.045

COPD symptoms 0.021 0.003 3361 3996 1.313 0.155 0.014 0.027

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.465 0.015 2601 2938 1.513 0.032 0.435 0.494

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.108 0.008 3361 3996 1.581 0.078 0.091 0.125

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.224 0.010 3361 3996 1.432 0.046 0.203 0.244

(Continued...)
396 • Appendix B

Table B.3—Continued

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

WOMEN

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.060 0.005 3361 3996 1.327 0.090 0.049 0.071

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.032 0.003 3361 3996 1.138 0.109 0.025 0.038

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.029 0.005 3361 3996 1.671 0.167 0.019 0.039

Physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a partner in the previous 

12 months 0.129 0.010 3302 3829 1.648 0.075 0.109 0.148

Physical violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.080 0.007 3302 3829 1.585 0.094 0.065 0.095

Sexual violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.022 0.004 3302 3829 1.383 0.161 0.015 0.029

Emotional violence by a current or former partner in the previous 

12 months 0.089 0.007 3302 3829 1.409 0.078 0.075 0.103

Mobile phone ownership 0.923 0.006 4805 5731 1.586 0.007 0.911 0.935

Bank account ownership 0.602 0.014 4805 5731 1.932 0.023 0.575 0.629

Internet use in past 12 months 0.560 0.015 4805 5731 2.064 0.026 0.531 0.590

Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.432 0.084 13745 16446 1.213 0.034 2.264 2.600

Neonatal mortality (last 0-4 years) 18.780 5.397 1871 2289 1.528 0.287 7.986 29.574

Post-neonatal mortality (last 0-4 years) 14.941 3.638 1865 2295 1.323 0.243 7.665 22.216

Infant mortality (last 0-4 years) 33.720 6.460 1873 2294 1.464 0.192 20.801 46.640

Child mortality (last 0-4 years) 4.520 1.475 1879 2301 1.223 0.326 1.571 7.469

Under-five mortality (last 0-4 years) 38.088 6.462 1878 2301 1.404 0.170 25.164 51.011

HIV prevalence among women 15-49 0.274 0.018 1390 1667 1.496 0.065 0.238 0.309

HIV prevalence among young women 15-24 0.116 0.021 449 530 1.406 0.183 0.074 0.159

HIV prevalence among women 15+ 0.238 0.014 2029 2353 1.516 0.060 0.209 0.266

MEN

Urban residence 1 0 1768 2203 na 0 1 1

Literacy 0.964 0.007 1768 2203 1.544 0.007 0.951 0.978

No education 0.017 0.004 1768 2203 1.327 0.244 0.008 0.025

Secondary or higher education 0.894 0.010 1768 2203 1.403 0.012 0.873 0.914

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.603 0.018 1768 2203 1.561 0.030 0.567 0.639

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.347 0.017 1768 2203 1.481 0.048 0.314 0.381

Had first sexual intercourse before age 18 0.581 0.020 1464 1854 1.566 0.035 0.540 0.621

Want no more children 0.454 0.029 564 765 1.388 0.064 0.395 0.512

Want to delay birth at least 2 years 0.094 0.017 564 765 1.395 0.183 0.060 0.128

Ideal number of children 3.084 0.071 1742 2168 1.559 0.023 2.942 3.226

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.091 0.009 1742 2025 1.257 0.098 0.073 0.109

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.342 0.018 1742 2025 1.567 0.054 0.305 0.378

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.036 0.007 1742 2025 1.437 0.184 0.023 0.049

Waist ≥102 cm 0.117 0.012 1718 2012 1.531 0.102 0.093 0.140

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.369 0.018 1716 2011 1.576 0.050 0.332 0.406

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.395 0.014 2324 2874 1.373 0.035 0.367 0.423

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.541 0.015 2324 2874 1.421 0.027 0.511 0.570

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.290 0.015 2324 2874 1.569 0.051 0.261 0.320

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.160 0.012 2324 2874 1.562 0.074 0.136 0.184

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.016 0.004 2324 2874 1.363 0.225 0.009 0.023

Prevalence of anaemia 0.162 0.013 1426 1661 1.318 0.082 0.135 0.188

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.160 0.013 1768 2203 1.443 0.079 0.135 0.185

Condom use at last sex 0.670 0.036 268 353 1.266 0.054 0.597 0.743

Abstinence among never-in-union youth (never had sex) 0.282 0.028 594 694 1.504 0.099 0.226 0.338

Had paid sex in past 12 months 0.033 0.005 1768 2203 1.251 0.162 0.022 0.043

Had HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.466 0.019 1768 2203 1.614 0.041 0.427 0.504

Circumcised 0.571 0.020 1768 2203 1.688 0.035 0.531 0.611

Asthma symptoms 0.026 0.004 2324 2874 1.196 0.151 0.018 0.034

COPD symptoms 0.012 0.003 2324 2874 1.147 0.214 0.007 0.017

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.454 0.017 1728 2002 1.456 0.038 0.419 0.489

Mobile phone ownership 0.903 0.011 1768 2203 1.563 0.012 0.882 0.925

Bank account ownership 0.650 0.018 1768 2203 1.614 0.028 0.613 0.686

Internet use in past 12 months 0.580 0.020 1768 2203 1.700 0.034 0.541 0.620

HIV prevalence among men 15-49 0.154 0.020 953 1508 1.728 0.132 0.113 0.194

HIV prevalence among young men 15-24 0.047 0.017 358 530 1.511 0.362 0.013 0.080

HIV prevalence among men 15+ 0.139 0.016 1276 2042 1.619 0.113 0.108 0.171

WOMEN and MEN

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-49 0.217 0.014 2343 3176 1.681 0.066 0.188 0.245

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-24 0.081 0.014 807 1060 1.419 0.168 0.054 0.109

HIV prevalence among respondents 15+ 0.192 0.012 3305 4395 1.710 0.061 0.168 0.215

na = Not applicable
Appendix B • 397

Table B.4 Sampling errors: Non-urban sample, South Africa DHS 2017

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

POPULATION

Population using safely managed drinking water services 0.763 0.021 16719 13549 2.628 0.027 0.721 0.805

Population using safely managed sanitation services 0.866 0.010 16719 13549 1.760 0.011 0.846 0.885

Population with access to electricity 0.859 0.021 16719 13549 3.257 0.025 0.816 0.901

Population with primary reliance on clean fuels 0.561 0.023 16719 13549 2.534 0.041 0.515 0.608

WOMEN

Urban residence 0 0 3709 2783 na na 0 0

Literacy 0.945 0.005 3709 2783 1.248 0.005 0.936 0.954

No education 0.028 0.004 3709 2783 1.434 0.140 0.020 0.035

Secondary or higher education 0.842 0.009 3709 2783 1.483 0.011 0.824 0.860

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.656 0.013 3709 2783 1.642 0.020 0.630 0.681

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.284 0.012 3709 2783 1.614 0.042 0.260 0.308

In a union before age 15 (women 20-24) 0.004 0.003 607 464 0.948 0.582 0 0.009

In a union before age 18 (women 20-24) 0.043 0.011 607 464 1.323 0.255 0.021 0.064

In a union before age 18 (women 20-49) 0.079 0.007 2973 2231 1.320 0.083 0.066 0.092

Had sexual intercourse before age 18 0.514 0.014 2973 2231 1.476 0.026 0.487 0.541

Currently pregnant 0.036 0.004 3709 2783 1.183 0.101 0.028 0.043

Currently using any method 0.599 0.013 1652 1227 1.086 0.022 0.572 0.625

Currently using a modern method 0.596 0.013 1652 1227 1.080 0.022 0.570 0.622

Currently using pill 0.060 0.009 1652 1227 1.599 0.156 0.041 0.078

Currently using condoms 0.156 0.011 1652 1227 1.220 0.070 0.134 0.178

Currently using injectables - 3 months 0.214 0.013 1652 1227 1.267 0.060 0.188 0.239

Currently using injectables - 2 months 0.087 0.009 1652 1227 1.246 0.099 0.070 0.104

Currently using implants 0.040 0.006 1652 1227 1.192 0.144 0.028 0.051

Currently using female sterilisation 0.030 0.005 1652 1227 1.181 0.165 0.020 0.040

Currently using withdrawal 0.002 0.001 1652 1227 0.830 0.510 0 0.003

Currently using IUD 0.006 0.002 1652 1227 1.216 0.381 0.001 0.011

Using public sector source 0.880 0.011 1734 1315 1.399 0.012 0.858 0.902

Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.790 0.011 2207 1665 1.278 0.014 0.767 0.812

Want no more children 0.586 0.018 1067 790 1.160 0.030 0.551 0.621

Want to delay next birth at least 2 years 0.079 0.010 1067 790 1.265 0.132 0.058 0.100

Ideal number of children 2.836 0.035 3694 2772 1.453 0.012 2.766 2.907

Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.362 0.015 1429 1094 1.178 0.041 0.333 0.392

Births with skilled attendant at delivery 0.946 0.006 1685 1291 1.118 0.007 0.933 0.959

Had diarrhoea in the last 2 weeks 0.127 0.011 1616 1240 1.336 0.086 0.105 0.149

Treated with ORS 0.489 0.042 194 157 1.194 0.085 0.405 0.572

Treated with clinic-recommended homemade fluid (RHF) 0.720 0.044 194 157 1.393 0.062 0.631 0.809

Sought treatment for diarrhoea 0.600 0.043 194 157 1.249 0.072 0.514 0.686

Ever had vaccination card 0.963 0.013 326 261 1.176 0.013 0.938 0.988

Vaccination card seen 0.702 0.035 326 261 1.420 0.051 0.631 0.773

Received BCG vaccination 0.921 0.015 326 261 1.009 0.016 0.892 0.950

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.684 0.036 326 261 1.424 0.053 0.612 0.756

Received HepB vaccination (3 doses) 0.684 0.035 326 261 1.371 0.051 0.614 0.754

Received birth dose polio 0 vaccination 0.906 0.019 326 261 1.220 0.021 0.868 0.945

Received oral polio vaccination (non-birth dose) 0.787 0.032 326 261 1.419 0.040 0.724 0.851

Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.642 0.042 326 261 1.622 0.066 0.557 0.726

Received rotavirus vaccination (2 doses) 0.721 0.032 326 261 1.297 0.044 0.658 0.785

Received measles vaccination 0.861 0.022 326 261 1.170 0.025 0.818 0.905

Received all basic vaccinations 0.646 0.035 326 261 1.360 0.055 0.575 0.717

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (12-23 months) 0.544 0.040 326 261 1.469 0.073 0.464 0.624

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination 4 (children 24-35) 0.525 0.029 331 246 1.055 0.056 0.466 0.584

Received measles 2 vaccination (children 24-35) 0.617 0.031 331 246 1.150 0.050 0.555 0.679

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (24-35 months) 0.460 0.033 331 246 1.202 0.072 0.394 0.527

Height-for-age (-2SD) 0.292 0.018 826 691 1.068 0.061 0.256 0.327

Weight-for-height (-2SD) 0.025 0.007 823 686 1.272 0.271 0.012 0.039

Weight-for-height (+2SD) 0.134 0.014 823 686 1.176 0.104 0.106 0.161

Weight-for-age (-2SD) 0.060 0.013 827 695 1.622 0.214 0.034 0.086

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.033 0.004 2308 1773 1.076 0.121 0.025 0.041

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.661 0.014 2308 1773 1.426 0.021 0.633 0.689

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.170 0.011 2308 1773 1.358 0.063 0.149 0.192

Waist ≥88 cm 0.454 0.014 2327 1792 1.391 0.032 0.425 0.482

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.674 0.013 2322 1788 1.360 0.020 0.648 0.700

Prevalence of anaemia (children 6-59 months) 0.604 0.023 673 555 1.161 0.037 0.559 0.649

Prevalence of anaemia (women 15+) 0.320 0.016 2191 1660 1.639 0.052 0.287 0.353

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.044 0.004 3709 2783 1.283 0.098 0.036 0.053

Condom use at last sex 0.501 0.046 165 123 1.167 0.091 0.410 0.592

Abstinence among never-in-union youth (never had sex) 0.356 0.017 1228 929 1.242 0.048 0.322 0.390

Had an HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.615 0.010 3709 2783 1.307 0.017 0.594 0.636

Cervical cancer screening 0.408 0.018 1215 945 1.249 0.043 0.373 0.443

Asthma symptoms 0.028 0.004 2765 2130 1.244 0.139 0.020 0.036

COPD symptoms 0.016 0.003 2765 2130 1.063 0.156 0.011 0.022

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.439 0.015 2402 1837 1.459 0.034 0.409 0.468

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.023 0.003 2765 2130 1.071 0.133 0.017 0.029

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.110 0.007 2765 2130 1.253 0.068 0.095 0.125

(Continued...)
398 • Appendix B

Table B.4—Continued

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

WOMEN

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.026 0.005 2765 2130 1.494 0.173 0.017 0.035

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.020 0.003 2765 2130 1.107 0.148 0.014 0.026

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.012 0.002 2765 2130 1.176 0.206 0.007 0.017

Physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a partner in the previous 

12 months 0.133 0.011 2623 2035 1.663 0.083 0.111 0.155

Physical violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.073 0.007 2623 2035 1.298 0.090 0.060 0.086

Sexual violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.025 0.005 2623 2035 1.622 0.196 0.015 0.035

Emotional violence by a current or former partner in the previous 

12 months 0.095 0.008 2623 2035 1.415 0.085 0.079 0.111

Mobile phone ownership 0.890 0.007 3709 2783 1.374 0.008 0.876 0.904

Bank account ownership 0.410 0.013 3709 2783 1.625 0.032 0.383 0.436

Internet use in past 12 months 0.298 0.012 3709 2783 1.608 0.041 0.273 0.322

Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 3.098 0.101 10443 7838 1.123 0.033 2.896 3.300

Neonatal mortality (last 0-4 years) 25.034 4.531 1681 1288 1.126 0.181 15.973 34.096

Post-neonatal mortality (last 0-4 years) 13.571 2.854 1677 1285 1.025 0.210 7.864 19.279

Infant mortality (last 0-4 years) 38.606 5.097 1685 1290 1.045 0.132 28.412 48.799

Child mortality (last 0-4 years) 11.123 2.988 1693 1286 0.982 0.269 5.147 17.100

Under-five mortality (last 0-4 years) 49.300 5.989 1693 1296 1.040 0.121 37.321 61.278

HIV prevalence among women 15-49 0.272 0.013 1336 818 1.033 0.046 0.247 0.297

HIV prevalence among young women 15-24 0.116 0.016 486 301 1.094 0.137 0.084 0.148

HIV prevalence among women 15+ 0.223 0.010 2038 1247 1.101 0.046 0.203 0.243

MEN

Urban residence 0 0 1411 999 na na 0 0

Literacy 0.916 0.011 1411 999 1.435 0.012 0.895 0.938

No education 0.026 0.005 1411 999 1.104 0.180 0.017 0.035

Secondary or higher education 0.786 0.015 1411 999 1.388 0.019 0.756 0.817

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.746 0.018 1411 999 1.561 0.024 0.709 0.782

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.223 0.018 1411 999 1.638 0.081 0.187 0.259

Had first sexual intercourse before age 18 0.575 0.018 1010 701 1.147 0.031 0.540 0.611

Want no more children 0.447 0.040 326 223 1.449 0.090 0.367 0.527

Want to delay birth at least 2 years 0.149 0.026 326 223 1.296 0.172 0.098 0.200

Ideal number of children 3.340 0.062 1403 994 1.172 0.019 3.216 3.465

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.101 0.009 1533 1080 1.106 0.084 0.084 0.118

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.261 0.015 1533 1080 1.374 0.059 0.230 0.292

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.022 0.006 1533 1080 1.495 0.257 0.011 0.033

Waist ≥102 cm 0.064 0.008 1506 1064 1.209 0.120 0.048 0.079

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.316 0.015 1503 1062 1.269 0.048 0.286 0.347

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.326 0.014 1886 1336 1.313 0.043 0.298 0.355

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.532 0.021 1886 1336 1.790 0.039 0.491 0.573

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.242 0.013 1886 1336 1.313 0.054 0.216 0.268

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.158 0.012 1886 1336 1.391 0.074 0.135 0.181

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.013 0.003 1886 1336 1.203 0.240 0.007 0.019

Prevalence of anaemia 0.179 0.012 1343 945 1.150 0.067 0.155 0.203

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.191 0.014 1411 999 1.339 0.073 0.163 0.219

Condom use at last sex 0.621 0.036 267 190 1.200 0.058 0.549 0.692

Abstinence among never-in-union youth (never had sex) 0.342 0.021 674 497 1.139 0.061 0.300 0.384

Had paid sex in past 12 months 0.020 0.004 1411 999 1.073 0.199 0.012 0.028

Had HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.402 0.017 1411 999 1.302 0.042 0.368 0.436

Circumcised 0.567 0.021 1411 999 1.558 0.036 0.525 0.608

Asthma symptoms 0.053 0.007 1886 1336 1.403 0.137 0.038 0.067

COPD symptoms 0.027 0.005 1886 1336 1.456 0.202 0.016 0.038

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.405 0.016 1525 1080 1.302 0.040 0.372 0.438

Mobile phone ownership 0.846 0.013 1411 999 1.298 0.015 0.821 0.871

Bank account ownership 0.393 0.017 1411 999 1.273 0.042 0.360 0.426

Internet use in past 12 months 0.387 0.024 1411 999 1.849 0.062 0.339 0.435

HIV prevalence among men 15-49 0.123 0.012 910 691 1.149 0.102 0.098 0.148

HIV prevalence among young men 15-24 0.018 0.006 494 394 1.044 0.347 0.006 0.031

HIV prevalence among men 15+ 0.119 0.011 1241 943 1.176 0.091 0.098 0.141

WOMEN and MEN

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-49 0.204 0.009 2246 1509 1.091 0.046 0.185 0.222

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-24 0.061 0.008 980 696 1.070 0.135 0.044 0.077

HIV prevalence among respondents 15+ 0.178 0.007 3279 2189 1.102 0.041 0.163 0.193

na = Not applicable
Appendix B • 399

Table B.5 Sampling errors: Western Cape sample, South Africa DHS 2017

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

POPULATION

Population using safely managed drinking water services 0.993 0.003 3294 4071 1.146 0.003 0.987 1

Population using safely managed sanitation services 0.824 0.026 3294 4071 1.999 0.032 0.772 0.877

Population with access to electricity 0.991 0.004 3294 4071 1.141 0.004 0.984 0.999

Population with primary reliance on clean fuels 0.989 0.004 3294 4071 1.057 0.004 0.982 0.996

WOMEN

Urban residence 0.978 0.006 656 995 1.125 0.007 0.965 0.991

Literacy 0.991 0.003 656 995 0.910 0.003 0.984 0.998

No education 0.015 0.005 656 995 1.072 0.341 0.005 0.025

Secondary or higher education 0.924 0.014 656 995 1.356 0.015 0.896 0.952

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.491 0.022 656 995 1.141 0.045 0.446 0.536

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.456 0.022 656 995 1.142 0.049 0.412 0.501

In a union before age 15 (women 20-24) 0.009 0.009 91 136 0.906 0.978 0 0.028

In a union before age 18 (women 20-24) 0.046 0.022 91 136 0.999 0.479 0.002 0.090

In a union before age 18 (women 20-49) 0.041 0.009 550 835 1.103 0.229 0.022 0.059

Had sexual intercourse before age 18 0.389 0.026 550 835 1.270 0.068 0.336 0.441

Currently pregnant 0.033 0.008 656 995 1.095 0.232 0.018 0.048

Currently using any method 0.627 0.030 342 525 1.162 0.049 0.566 0.688

Currently using a modern method 0.624 0.030 342 525 1.153 0.048 0.564 0.685

Currently using pill 0.044 0.010 342 525 0.943 0.238 0.023 0.065

Currently using condoms 0.138 0.021 342 525 1.150 0.156 0.095 0.181

Currently using injectables - 3 months 0.154 0.023 342 525 1.173 0.149 0.108 0.200

Currently using injectables - 2 months 0.056 0.015 342 525 1.219 0.271 0.026 0.087

Currently using implants 0.070 0.014 342 525 0.998 0.198 0.042 0.097

Currently using female sterilisation 0.113 0.016 342 525 0.946 0.143 0.081 0.146

Currently using withdrawal 0.003 0.003 342 525 1.026 0.999 0 0.009

Currently using IUD 0.025 0.010 342 525 1.164 0.397 0.005 0.044

Using public sector source 0.780 0.037 321 499 1.575 0.047 0.707 0.853

Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.853 0.019 379 584 1.045 0.022 0.815 0.891

Want no more children 0.642 0.029 295 454 1.043 0.045 0.583 0.700

Want to delay next birth at least 2 years 0.118 0.019 295 454 1.001 0.159 0.081 0.156

Ideal number of children 2.322 0.069 656 995 1.314 0.030 2.184 2.460

Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.061 0.018 182 276 1.006 0.292 0.025 0.096

Births with skilled attendant at delivery 0.992 0.006 206 313 0.929 0.006 0.980 1.003

Had diarrhoea in the last 2 weeks 0.054 0.016 202 306 1.032 0.301 0.021 0.086

Ever had vaccination card 1 0 36 54 na 0 1 1

Vaccination card seen 0.760 0.067 36 54 0.943 0.088 0.626 0.894

Received BCG vaccination 0.914 0.044 36 54 0.942 0.048 0.826 1.002

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.700 0.077 36 54 1.012 0.110 0.545 0.854

Received HepB vaccination (3 doses) 0.643 0.081 36 54 1.019 0.126 0.480 0.805

Received birth dose polio 0 vaccination 0.881 0.065 36 54 1.210 0.074 0.750 1.011

Received oral polio vaccination (non-birth dose) 0.914 0.044 36 54 0.942 0.048 0.826 1.002

Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.604 0.076 36 54 0.937 0.126 0.451 0.756

Received rotavirus vaccination (2 doses) 0.666 0.082 36 54 1.048 0.124 0.501 0.830

Received measles vaccination 0.776 0.058 36 54 0.841 0.075 0.660 0.893

Received all basic vaccinations 0.677 0.079 36 54 1.018 0.117 0.518 0.835

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (12-23 months) 0.490 0.080 36 54 0.957 0.162 0.331 0.649

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination 4 (children 24-35) 0.544 0.087 37 57 1.078 0.161 0.369 0.718

Received measles 2 vaccination (children 24-35) 0.705 0.079 37 57 1.071 0.113 0.547 0.864

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (24-35 months) 0.435 0.095 37 57 1.184 0.219 0.244 0.626

Height-for-age (-2SD) 0.229 0.062 50 64 0.946 0.272 0.104 0.354

Weight-for-height (-2SD) 0.017 0.017 49 63 0.927 0.991 0 0.051

Weight-for-height (+2SD) 0.143 0.047 49 63 0.974 0.331 0.049 0.238

Weight-for-age (-2SD) 0.119 0.042 50 64 0.951 0.355 0.035 0.204

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.023 0.008 284 415 0.901 0.351 0.007 0.039

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.733 0.029 284 415 1.082 0.039 0.676 0.791

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.263 0.025 284 415 0.936 0.094 0.213 0.312

Waist ≥88 cm 0.590 0.033 285 416 1.115 0.055 0.525 0.655

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.771 0.026 285 416 1.045 0.034 0.719 0.823

Prevalence of anaemia (children 6-59 months) 0.613 0.069 42 53 0.937 0.112 0.476 0.750

Prevalence of anaemia (women 15+) 0.239 0.030 288 421 1.180 0.125 0.179 0.299

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.025 0.005 656 995 0.905 0.222 0.014 0.036

Had an HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.620 0.018 656 995 0.963 0.029 0.584 0.657

Cervical cancer screening 0.828 0.029 246 359 1.203 0.035 0.770 0.886

Asthma symptoms 0.042 0.011 474 703 1.167 0.257 0.020 0.063

COPD symptoms 0.044 0.010 474 703 1.034 0.222 0.024 0.063

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.516 0.035 297 433 1.195 0.067 0.447 0.586

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.264 0.029 474 703 1.453 0.112 0.205 0.323

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.273 0.023 474 703 1.113 0.084 0.227 0.318

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.090 0.014 474 703 1.077 0.157 0.062 0.118

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.048 0.010 474 703 1.022 0.210 0.028 0.068

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.040 0.010 474 703 1.060 0.238 0.021 0.059

Physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a partner in the previous 

12 months 0.136 0.019 475 671 1.221 0.142 0.097 0.174

(Continued...)
400 • Appendix B

Table B.5—Continued

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

WOMEN

Physical violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.086 0.017 475 671 1.294 0.194 0.052 0.119

Sexual violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.007 0.004 475 671 0.903 0.480 0 0.015

Emotional violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.107 0.016 475 671 1.121 0.149 0.075 0.139

Mobile phone ownership 0.879 0.020 656 995 1.576 0.023 0.839 0.919

Bank account ownership 0.659 0.024 656 995 1.283 0.036 0.612 0.707

Internet use in past 12 months 0.626 0.030 656 995 1.563 0.047 0.567 0.685

Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.088 0.191 1874 2848 1.088 0.091 1.706 2.469

Infant mortality (last 0-9 years) 38.956 18.716 432 649 1.349 0.480 1.524 76.387

Child mortality (last 0-9 years) 4.190 2.937 426 643 0.920 0.701 0 10.065

Under-five mortality (last 0-9 years) 42.983 18.570 432 649 1.314 0.432 5.842 80.124

HIV prevalence among women 15-49 0.182 0.038 150 249 1.192 0.207 0.107 0.258

HIV prevalence among young women 15-24 0.067 0.046 31 51 1.015 0.694 0 0.159

HIV prevalence among women 15+ 0.131 0.028 249 413 1.299 0.212 0.076 0.187

MEN

Urban residence 0.946 0.022 186 328 1.306 0.023 0.903 0.990

Literacy 0.969 0.014 186 328 1.087 0.014 0.942 0.997

No education 0.006 0.006 186 328 1.020 0.996 0 0.017

Secondary or higher education 0.925 0.021 186 328 1.088 0.023 0.883 0.967

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.533 0.035 186 328 0.968 0.067 0.462 0.603

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.415 0.034 186 328 0.937 0.082 0.348 0.483

Had first sexual intercourse before age 18 0.542 0.039 159 279 0.976 0.071 0.464 0.619

Want no more children 0.575 0.065 76 136 1.134 0.113 0.445 0.705

Want to delay birth at least 2 years 0.023 0.016 76 136 0.941 0.711 0 0.055

Ideal number of children 2.610 0.135 185 327 1.284 0.052 2.340 2.880

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.070 0.031 152 261 1.501 0.443 0.008 0.132

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.437 0.056 152 261 1.395 0.128 0.325 0.549

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.047 0.021 152 261 1.238 0.452 0.005 0.089

Waist ≥102 cm 0.174 0.040 154 264 1.291 0.228 0.094 0.253

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.485 0.056 154 264 1.379 0.115 0.373 0.597

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.432 0.035 280 476 1.177 0.081 0.362 0.502

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.491 0.042 280 476 1.393 0.085 0.408 0.575

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.228 0.030 280 476 1.177 0.130 0.169 0.287

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.142 0.024 280 476 1.127 0.166 0.095 0.189

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.027 0.012 280 476 1.226 0.441 0.003 0.051

Prevalence of anaemia 0.089 0.025 140 238 1.053 0.284 0.039 0.140

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.113 0.031 186 328 1.346 0.278 0.050 0.176

Had paid sex in past 12 months 0.004 0.004 186 328 0.896 0.997 0 0.013

Had HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.557 0.046 186 328 1.266 0.083 0.464 0.649

Circumcised 0.442 0.050 186 328 1.378 0.114 0.342 0.543

Asthma symptoms 0.043 0.013 280 476 1.056 0.299 0.017 0.069

COPD symptoms 0.013 0.006 280 476 0.918 0.471 0.001 0.026

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.587 0.053 151 259 1.321 0.091 0.481 0.694

Mobile phone ownership 0.844 0.032 186 328 1.196 0.038 0.780 0.908

Bank account ownership 0.675 0.045 186 328 1.295 0.066 0.585 0.764

Internet use in past 12 months 0.617 0.049 186 328 1.358 0.079 0.520 0.715

HIV prevalence among men 15-49 0.173 0.070 74 206 1.574 0.407 0.032 0.314

HIV prevalence among young men 15-24 0 0 32 86 na na 0 0

HIV prevalence among men 15+ 0.112 0.045 121 340 1.549 0.400 0.023 0.202

WOMEN and MEN

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-49 0.178 0.042 224 454 1.648 0.238 0.094 0.263

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-24 0.025 0.017 63 137 0.885 0.704 0 0.060

HIV prevalence among respondents 15+ 0.123 0.029 370 754 1.718 0.240 0.064 0.182

na = Not applicable
Appendix B • 401

Table B.6 Sampling errors: Eastern Cape sample, South Africa DHS 2017

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

POPULATION

Population using safely managed drinking water services 0.713 0.040 5108 4728 2.640 0.056 0.633 0.792

Population using safely managed sanitation services 0.850 0.022 5108 4728 2.215 0.026 0.806 0.895

Population with access to electricity 0.800 0.045 5108 4728 3.336 0.056 0.711 0.889

Population with primary reliance on clean fuels 0.677 0.036 5108 4728 2.316 0.053 0.605 0.749

WOMEN

Urban residence 0.519 0.027 1041 938 1.715 0.051 0.466 0.572

Literacy 0.951 0.009 1041 938 1.303 0.009 0.933 0.968

No education 0.015 0.004 1041 938 1.038 0.264 0.007 0.022

Secondary or higher education 0.837 0.019 1041 938 1.653 0.023 0.799 0.875

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.636 0.019 1041 938 1.250 0.029 0.599 0.673

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.293 0.017 1041 938 1.185 0.057 0.259 0.326

In a union before age 15 (women 20-24) 0.003 0.003 180 161 0.786 1.007 0 0.010

In a union before age 18 (women 20-24) 0.034 0.014 180 161 1.052 0.422 0.005 0.062

In a union before age 18 (women 20-49) 0.057 0.008 839 754 1.013 0.143 0.040 0.073

Had sexual intercourse before age 18 0.586 0.020 839 754 1.146 0.033 0.547 0.625

Currently pregnant 0.033 0.008 1041 938 1.476 0.246 0.017 0.050

Currently using any method 0.610 0.022 461 410 0.955 0.036 0.567 0.654

Currently using a modern method 0.610 0.022 461 410 0.955 0.036 0.567 0.654

Currently using pill 0.034 0.008 461 410 0.890 0.220 0.019 0.050

Currently using condoms 0.115 0.017 461 410 1.158 0.150 0.081 0.150

Currently using injectables - 3 months 0.228 0.019 461 410 0.953 0.082 0.191 0.266

Currently using injectables - 2 months 0.104 0.014 461 410 0.960 0.131 0.077 0.131

Currently using implants 0.049 0.011 461 410 1.075 0.222 0.027 0.070

Currently using female sterilisation 0.064 0.012 461 410 1.023 0.182 0.041 0.088

Currently using withdrawal 0 0 461 410 na na 0 0

Currently using IUD 0.010 0.004 461 410 0.935 0.430 0.001 0.019

Using public sector source 0.876 0.018 560 501 1.260 0.020 0.841 0.911

Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.813 0.017 687 616 1.121 0.021 0.780 0.847

Want no more children 0.605 0.029 309 275 1.042 0.048 0.547 0.663

Want to delay next birth at least 2 years 0.070 0.016 309 275 1.069 0.222 0.039 0.101

Ideal number of children 2.288 0.052 1037 934 1.217 0.023 2.183 2.392

Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.292 0.024 377 335 1.029 0.083 0.243 0.340

Births with skilled attendant at delivery 0.927 0.014 450 398 1.163 0.016 0.899 0.956

Had diarrhoea in the last 2 weeks 0.094 0.014 432 382 1.012 0.151 0.065 0.122

Sought treatment for diarrhoea 0.638 0.080 40 36 1.046 0.125 0.479 0.798

Ever had vaccination card 1 0 90 81 na 0 1 1

Vaccination card seen 0.798 0.054 90 81 1.267 0.068 0.690 0.905

Received BCG vaccination 0.962 0.019 90 81 0.928 0.019 0.925 0.999

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.743 0.057 90 81 1.221 0.076 0.630 0.856

Received HepB vaccination (3 doses) 0.722 0.061 90 81 1.274 0.084 0.601 0.843

Received birth dose polio 0 vaccination 0.942 0.026 90 81 1.069 0.028 0.889 0.995

Received oral polio vaccination (non-birth dose) 0.910 0.029 90 81 0.972 0.032 0.851 0.969

Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.687 0.057 90 81 1.152 0.082 0.574 0.801

Received rotavirus vaccination (2 doses) 0.837 0.037 90 81 0.943 0.044 0.763 0.911

Received measles vaccination 0.886 0.037 90 81 1.102 0.042 0.812 0.960

Received all basic vaccinations 0.709 0.054 90 81 1.117 0.076 0.602 0.817

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (12-23 months) 0.573 0.054 90 81 1.020 0.094 0.466 0.681

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination 4 (children 24-35) 0.468 0.058 86 74 1.061 0.125 0.351 0.584

Received measles 2 vaccination (children 24-35) 0.562 0.057 86 74 1.041 0.101 0.449 0.676

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (24-35 months) 0.447 0.058 86 74 1.065 0.130 0.331 0.564

Height-for-age (-2SD) 0.248 0.036 225 210 1.119 0.146 0.175 0.320

Weight-for-height (-2SD) 0.015 0.007 225 210 0.925 0.497 0 0.030

Weight-for-height (+2SD) 0.204 0.026 225 210 0.961 0.128 0.152 0.256

Weight-for-age (-2SD) 0.034 0.016 226 211 1.239 0.483 0.001 0.066

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.023 0.006 682 623 1.033 0.256 0.011 0.035

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.692 0.025 682 623 1.409 0.036 0.642 0.742

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.201 0.020 682 623 1.315 0.100 0.161 0.242

Waist ≥88 cm 0.552 0.025 681 622 1.298 0.045 0.502 0.601

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.753 0.021 681 622 1.254 0.028 0.711 0.794

Prevalence of anaemia (children 6-59 months) 0.591 0.045 179 168 1.091 0.076 0.502 0.681

Prevalence of anaemia (women 15+) 0.297 0.021 653 598 1.191 0.072 0.254 0.339

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.062 0.010 1041 938 1.289 0.156 0.042 0.081

Condom use at last sex 0.546 0.075 65 58 1.199 0.137 0.396 0.695

Had an HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.593 0.017 1041 938 1.142 0.029 0.558 0.628

Cervical cancer screening 0.522 0.031 367 333 1.169 0.058 0.461 0.584

Asthma symptoms 0.035 0.007 798 730 1.009 0.187 0.022 0.048

COPD symptoms 0.034 0.007 798 730 1.064 0.202 0.020 0.047

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.498 0.022 701 641 1.143 0.043 0.455 0.542

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.075 0.015 798 730 1.558 0.194 0.046 0.104

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.199 0.020 798 730 1.439 0.102 0.158 0.240

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.049 0.007 798 730 0.948 0.148 0.034 0.063

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.033 0.007 798 730 1.163 0.221 0.019 0.048

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.010 0.003 798 730 0.970 0.337 0.003 0.017

(Continued...)
402 • Appendix B

Table B.6—Continued

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

WOMEN

Physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a partner in the previous 

12 months 0.172 0.019 803 743 1.440 0.112 0.134 0.211

Physical violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.126 0.016 803 743 1.326 0.123 0.095 0.157

Sexual violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.022 0.008 803 743 1.499 0.353 0.007 0.038

Emotional violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.116 0.015 803 743 1.367 0.133 0.085 0.147

Mobile phone ownership 0.911 0.012 1041 938 1.331 0.013 0.887 0.934

Bank account ownership 0.503 0.021 1041 938 1.348 0.042 0.461 0.545

Internet use in past 12 months 0.405 0.024 1041 938 1.605 0.060 0.356 0.454

Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.916 0.164 2958 2664 0.978 0.056 2.588 3.244

Infant mortality (last 0-9 years) 50.251 7.410 896 796 0.980 0.147 35.430 65.072

Child mortality (last 0-9 years) 14.076 4.230 881 781 0.974 0.301 5.615 22.537

Under-five mortality (last 0-9 years) 63.620 8.965 898 797 1.039 0.141 45.689 81.550

HIV prevalence among women 15-49 0.302 0.027 384 264 1.129 0.088 0.249 0.355

HIV prevalence among young women 15-24 0.156 0.036 139 96 1.166 0.231 0.084 0.228

HIV prevalence among women 15+ 0.226 0.020 621 429 1.192 0.089 0.186 0.266

MEN

Urban residence 0.471 0.026 411 362 1.043 0.055 0.419 0.522

Literacy 0.939 0.017 411 362 1.402 0.018 0.906 0.972

No education 0.019 0.008 411 362 1.226 0.439 0.002 0.035

Secondary or higher education 0.801 0.027 411 362 1.353 0.033 0.747 0.854

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.789 0.021 411 362 1.050 0.027 0.747 0.831

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.192 0.021 411 362 1.057 0.107 0.151 0.233

Had first sexual intercourse before age 18 0.626 0.029 289 255 1.022 0.047 0.568 0.685

Want no more children 0.524 0.054 77 69 0.938 0.102 0.417 0.631

Want to delay birth at least 2 years 0.108 0.035 77 69 0.981 0.324 0.038 0.177

Ideal number of children 3.119 0.092 410 361 1.102 0.029 2.936 3.303

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.068 0.014 466 413 1.217 0.210 0.039 0.096

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.256 0.024 466 413 1.158 0.092 0.209 0.303

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.023 0.007 466 413 1.029 0.314 0.008 0.037

Waist ≥102 cm 0.104 0.015 462 408 1.028 0.140 0.075 0.133

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.328 0.024 462 408 1.088 0.072 0.281 0.376

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.410 0.021 554 493 1.027 0.052 0.367 0.453

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.508 0.027 554 493 1.281 0.054 0.454 0.563

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.239 0.022 554 493 1.216 0.092 0.195 0.283

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.185 0.026 554 493 1.584 0.142 0.132 0.237

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.008 0.004 554 493 0.954 0.446 0.001 0.016

Prevalence of anaemia 0.182 0.023 421 372 1.196 0.124 0.136 0.227

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.180 0.021 411 362 1.110 0.117 0.138 0.222

Condom use at last sex 0.604 0.057 76 65 1.001 0.094 0.491 0.717

Had paid sex in past 12 months 0.017 0.006 411 362 1.006 0.373 0.004 0.030

Had HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.456 0.030 411 362 1.210 0.065 0.397 0.516

Circumcised 0.727 0.029 411 362 1.312 0.040 0.669 0.785

Asthma symptoms 0.032 0.006 554 493 0.857 0.199 0.020 0.045

COPD symptoms 0.016 0.005 554 493 0.969 0.320 0.006 0.027

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.473 0.031 467 414 1.352 0.066 0.410 0.535

Mobile phone ownership 0.806 0.021 411 362 1.058 0.026 0.765 0.847

Bank account ownership 0.424 0.027 411 362 1.095 0.063 0.370 0.477

Internet use in past 12 months 0.376 0.032 411 362 1.333 0.085 0.312 0.439

HIV prevalence among men 15-49 0.082 0.018 274 247 1.061 0.215 0.047 0.117

HIV prevalence among young men 15-24 0.037 0.016 146 130 1.019 0.431 0.005 0.069

HIV prevalence among men 15+ 0.087 0.015 389 350 1.030 0.170 0.057 0.116

WOMEN and MEN

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-49 0.196 0.018 658 512 1.147 0.091 0.160 0.231

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-24 0.088 0.017 285 226 1.037 0.198 0.053 0.123

HIV prevalence among respondents 15+ 0.163 0.014 1010 779 1.203 0.086 0.135 0.191

na = Not applicable
Appendix B • 403

Table B.7 Sampling errors: Northern Cape sample, South Africa DHS 2017

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

POPULATION

Population using safely managed drinking water services 0.995 0.002 3346 784 0.931 0.002 0.991 0.999

Population using safely managed sanitation services 0.880 0.026 3346 784 2.219 0.029 0.828 0.931

Population with access to electricity 0.928 0.018 3346 784 2.057 0.020 0.892 0.965

Population with primary reliance on clean fuels 0.874 0.026 3346 784 1.952 0.030 0.821 0.926

WOMEN

Urban residence 0.718 0.026 718 173 1.557 0.037 0.665 0.770

Literacy 0.964 0.007 718 173 1.038 0.007 0.950 0.979

No education 0.027 0.007 718 173 1.077 0.241 0.014 0.040

Secondary or higher education 0.858 0.020 718 173 1.500 0.023 0.819 0.897

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.554 0.026 718 173 1.422 0.048 0.502 0.607

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.379 0.026 718 173 1.458 0.070 0.326 0.432

In a union before age 15 (women 20-24) 0 0 99 23 na na 0 0

In a union before age 18 (women 20-24) 0.029 0.016 99 23 0.920 0.535 0 0.061

In a union before age 18 (women 20-49) 0.073 0.012 591 142 1.108 0.163 0.049 0.096

Had sexual intercourse before age 18 0.416 0.024 591 142 1.202 0.059 0.367 0.464

Currently pregnant 0.031 0.006 718 173 0.971 0.204 0.018 0.043

Currently using any method 0.549 0.030 339 82 1.110 0.055 0.489 0.609

Currently using a modern method 0.546 0.030 339 82 1.112 0.055 0.486 0.606

Currently using pill 0.054 0.014 339 82 1.119 0.254 0.027 0.082

Currently using condoms 0.115 0.019 339 82 1.102 0.167 0.076 0.153

Currently using injectables - 3 months 0.217 0.021 339 82 0.956 0.099 0.174 0.260

Currently using injectables - 2 months 0.056 0.013 339 82 1.052 0.235 0.030 0.082

Currently using implants 0.049 0.011 339 82 0.941 0.226 0.027 0.071

Currently using female sterilisation 0.050 0.013 339 82 1.077 0.256 0.024 0.075

Currently using withdrawal 0.003 0.003 339 82 0.946 1.005 0 0.008

Currently using IUD 0.003 0.003 339 82 1.043 1.003 0 0.010

Using public sector source 0.879 0.018 331 81 0.985 0.020 0.844 0.915

Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.790 0.021 422 103 1.077 0.027 0.747 0.833

Want no more children 0.681 0.031 268 66 1.073 0.045 0.620 0.743

Want to delay next birth at least 2 years 0.067 0.016 268 66 1.027 0.235 0.035 0.098

Ideal number of children 2.423 0.075 714 172 1.316 0.031 2.273 2.572

Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.303 0.033 253 61 1.150 0.110 0.237 0.370

Births with skilled attendant at delivery 0.976 0.009 286 69 1.003 0.009 0.958 0.994

Had diarrhoea in the last 2 weeks 0.081 0.019 278 67 1.130 0.235 0.043 0.119

Ever had vaccination card 1 0 51 12 na 0 1 1

Vaccination card seen 0.754 0.067 51 12 1.110 0.089 0.619 0.888

Received BCG vaccination 0.958 0.029 51 12 1.040 0.031 0.899 1.017

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.806 0.062 51 12 1.111 0.077 0.683 0.930

Received HepB vaccination (3 doses) 0.783 0.061 51 12 1.051 0.078 0.661 0.905

Received birth dose polio 0 vaccination 0.903 0.040 51 12 0.971 0.045 0.823 0.984

Received oral polio vaccination (non-birth dose) 0.845 0.057 51 12 1.127 0.068 0.730 0.960

Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.757 0.062 51 12 1.020 0.081 0.633 0.880

Received rotavirus vaccination (2 doses) 0.770 0.063 51 12 1.064 0.082 0.644 0.896

Received measles vaccination 0.849 0.051 51 12 1.021 0.061 0.746 0.952

Received all basic vaccinations 0.754 0.066 51 12 1.085 0.087 0.622 0.885

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (12-23 months) 0.649 0.073 51 12 1.088 0.113 0.502 0.795

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination 4 (children 24-35) 0.561 0.060 53 12 0.850 0.108 0.440 0.682

Received measles 2 vaccination (children 24-35) 0.628 0.056 53 12 0.809 0.090 0.515 0.741

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (24-35 months) 0.464 0.072 53 12 1.009 0.155 0.320 0.607

Height-for-age (-2SD) 0.214 0.042 104 25 1.063 0.195 0.131 0.298

Weight-for-height (-2SD) 0.021 0.014 100 24 1.021 0.689 0 0.050

Weight-for-height (+2SD) 0.046 0.021 100 24 1.019 0.455 0.004 0.088

Weight-for-age (-2SD) 0.084 0.032 104 25 1.210 0.380 0.020 0.147

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.082 0.012 435 106 0.939 0.151 0.057 0.106

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.618 0.024 435 106 1.015 0.038 0.571 0.666

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.154 0.017 435 106 0.993 0.111 0.120 0.189

Waist ≥88 cm 0.487 0.026 417 101 1.075 0.054 0.435 0.540

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.703 0.021 417 101 0.934 0.030 0.662 0.745

Prevalence of anaemia (children 6-59 months) 0.484 0.082 51 13 1.229 0.169 0.321 0.647

Prevalence of anaemia (women 15+) 0.257 0.038 312 78 1.572 0.149 0.181 0.334

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.018 0.005 718 173 1.064 0.293 0.008 0.029

Had an HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.523 0.025 718 173 1.361 0.049 0.473 0.574

Cervical cancer screening 0.539 0.033 263 62 1.073 0.061 0.473 0.605

Asthma symptoms 0.061 0.011 529 127 1.061 0.181 0.039 0.083

COPD symptoms 0.034 0.008 529 127 1.052 0.245 0.017 0.050

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.529 0.028 444 108 1.197 0.054 0.472 0.585

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.214 0.025 529 127 1.422 0.119 0.163 0.265

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.274 0.028 529 127 1.428 0.101 0.219 0.330

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.109 0.016 529 127 1.190 0.148 0.077 0.141

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.068 0.012 529 127 1.135 0.183 0.043 0.093

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.006 0.003 529 127 0.993 0.541 0 0.013

Physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a partner in the previous 

12 months 0.102 0.014 552 126 1.058 0.134 0.075 0.129

Physical violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.051 0.011 552 126 1.223 0.226 0.028 0.073

(Continued...)
404 • Appendix B

Table B.7—Continued

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

WOMEN

Sexual violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.019 0.011 552 126 1.841 0.572 0 0.040

Emotional violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.073 0.011 552 126 0.988 0.149 0.052 0.095

Mobile phone ownership 0.827 0.021 718 173 1.492 0.026 0.784 0.869

Bank account ownership 0.473 0.028 718 173 1.514 0.060 0.416 0.529

Internet use in past 12 months 0.409 0.030 718 173 1.636 0.073 0.349 0.469

Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.656 0.199 2030 488 1.107 0.075 2.258 3.054

Infant mortality (last 0-9 years) 43.194 10.459 593 144 1.100 0.242 22.275 64.112

Child mortality (last 0-9 years) 8.032 3.554 574 140 0.931 0.442 0.924 15.139

Under-five mortality (last 0-9 years) 50.879 11.513 595 145 1.085 0.226 27.852 73.905

HIV prevalence among women 15-49 0.135 0.026 183 49 1.023 0.192 0.083 0.187

HIV prevalence among young women 15-24 0.057 0.033 61 17 1.106 0.584 0 0.123

HIV prevalence among women 15+ 0.126 0.022 278 75 1.084 0.172 0.083 0.169

MEN

Urban residence 0.729 0.032 251 61 1.128 0.043 0.666 0.793

Literacy 0.963 0.011 251 61 0.899 0.011 0.941 0.984

No education 0.038 0.012 251 61 1.023 0.327 0.013 0.062

Secondary or higher education 0.805 0.032 251 61 1.291 0.040 0.740 0.869

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.663 0.037 251 61 1.223 0.055 0.590 0.736

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.316 0.035 251 61 1.193 0.111 0.245 0.386

Had first sexual intercourse before age 18 0.585 0.042 207 50 1.219 0.072 0.501 0.669

Want no more children 0.404 0.062 79 19 1.113 0.153 0.280 0.528

Want to delay birth at least 2 years 0.097 0.038 79 19 1.118 0.386 0.022 0.172

Ideal number of children 2.831 0.090 245 59 0.951 0.032 2.652 3.011

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.192 0.027 284 68 1.148 0.140 0.139 0.246

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.315 0.027 284 68 0.983 0.086 0.261 0.370

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.045 0.013 284 68 1.080 0.295 0.019 0.072

Waist ≥102 cm 0.137 0.026 274 66 1.239 0.188 0.086 0.189

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.373 0.036 274 66 1.222 0.096 0.301 0.444

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.449 0.031 353 84 1.177 0.070 0.387 0.511

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.471 0.036 353 84 1.347 0.076 0.399 0.542

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.233 0.031 353 84 1.377 0.133 0.171 0.295

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.107 0.024 353 84 1.464 0.226 0.059 0.155

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.002 0.002 353 84 0.870 1.006 0 0.006

Prevalence of anaemia 0.198 0.032 187 46 1.115 0.161 0.134 0.262

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.085 0.017 251 61 0.977 0.203 0.050 0.119

Had paid sex in past 12 months 0.031 0.012 251 61 1.132 0.400 0.006 0.056

Had HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.376 0.047 251 61 1.542 0.126 0.281 0.471

Circumcised 0.349 0.047 251 61 1.557 0.135 0.254 0.443

Asthma symptoms 0.053 0.013 353 84 1.125 0.254 0.026 0.080

COPD symptoms 0.030 0.009 353 84 1.046 0.318 0.011 0.049

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.523 0.040 287 68 1.344 0.076 0.444 0.603

Mobile phone ownership 0.785 0.026 251 61 0.989 0.033 0.733 0.836

Bank account ownership 0.592 0.037 251 61 1.174 0.062 0.519 0.665

Internet use in past 12 months 0.503 0.042 251 61 1.320 0.083 0.419 0.586

HIV prevalence among men 15-49 0.104 0.033 108 42 1.110 0.316 0.038 0.169

HIV prevalence among young men 15-24 0.018 0.019 46 18 0.954 1.055 0 0.055

HIV prevalence among men 15+ 0.098 0.031 152 60 1.269 0.313 0.037 0.160

WOMEN and MEN

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-49 0.121 0.026 291 92 1.351 0.214 0.069 0.172

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-24 0.036 0.022 107 35 1.185 0.595 0 0.079

HIV prevalence among respondents 15+ 0.114 0.022 430 135 1.465 0.198 0.069 0.159

na = Not applicable
Appendix B • 405

Table B.8 Sampling errors: Free State sample, South Africa DHS 2017

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

POPULATION

Population using safely managed drinking water services 0.972 0.012 3813 1967 2.040 0.012 0.948 0.996

Population using safely managed sanitation services 0.864 0.021 3813 1967 1.836 0.024 0.822 0.907

Population with access to electricity 0.943 0.018 3813 1967 2.229 0.019 0.907 0.978

Population with primary reliance on clean fuels 0.916 0.017 3813 1967 1.682 0.018 0.883 0.949

WOMEN

Urban residence 0.863 0.015 854 442 1.283 0.018 0.833 0.893

Literacy 0.986 0.005 854 442 1.204 0.005 0.976 0.996

No education 0.011 0.005 854 442 1.343 0.443 0.001 0.020

Secondary or higher education 0.901 0.016 854 442 1.592 0.018 0.868 0.933

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.565 0.019 854 442 1.137 0.034 0.527 0.604

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.330 0.018 854 442 1.148 0.056 0.293 0.367

In a union before age 15 (women 20-24) 0.010 0.009 147 76 1.173 0.992 0 0.028

In a union before age 18 (women 20-24) 0.010 0.009 147 76 1.173 0.992 0 0.028

In a union before age 18 (women 20-49) 0.068 0.011 715 371 1.142 0.159 0.046 0.089

Had sexual intercourse before age 18 0.474 0.024 715 371 1.258 0.050 0.427 0.521

Currently pregnant 0.025 0.006 854 442 1.156 0.248 0.013 0.037

Currently using any method 0.511 0.035 384 200 1.368 0.068 0.441 0.581

Currently using a modern method 0.511 0.035 384 200 1.368 0.068 0.441 0.581

Currently using pill 0.032 0.009 384 200 0.973 0.273 0.015 0.050

Currently using condoms 0.118 0.021 384 200 1.263 0.176 0.076 0.160

Currently using injectables - 3 months 0.242 0.024 384 200 1.086 0.098 0.195 0.290

Currently using injectables - 2 months 0.027 0.008 384 200 0.933 0.285 0.012 0.043

Currently using implants 0.042 0.010 384 200 0.971 0.236 0.022 0.062

Currently using female sterilisation 0.039 0.011 384 200 1.148 0.291 0.016 0.062

Currently using withdrawal 0 0 384 200 na na 0 0

Currently using IUD 0 0 384 200 na na 0 0

Using public sector source 0.867 0.019 351 184 1.042 0.022 0.829 0.904

Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.784 0.023 449 234 1.175 0.029 0.739 0.830

Want no more children 0.594 0.030 278 146 1.019 0.051 0.534 0.654

Want to delay next birth at least 2 years 0.062 0.017 278 146 1.153 0.270 0.028 0.095

Ideal number of children 2.202 0.047 850 440 1.043 0.022 2.108 2.297

Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.407 0.036 279 145 1.229 0.089 0.335 0.480

Births with skilled attendant at delivery 0.963 0.013 318 164 1.072 0.013 0.937 0.988

Had diarrhoea in the last 2 weeks 0.058 0.014 303 156 1.045 0.242 0.030 0.086

Ever had vaccination card 0.989 0.011 49 25 0.736 0.011 0.967 1.011

Vaccination card seen 0.813 0.056 49 25 1.008 0.069 0.701 0.925

Received BCG vaccination 0.978 0.022 49 25 1.053 0.023 0.934 1.022

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.848 0.052 49 25 1.021 0.062 0.743 0.953

Received HepB vaccination (3 doses) 0.876 0.048 49 25 1.017 0.055 0.780 0.972

Received birth dose polio 0 vaccination 0.978 0.022 49 25 1.053 0.023 0.934 1.022

Received oral polio vaccination (non-birth dose) 0.958 0.030 49 25 1.039 0.031 0.898 1.018

Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.772 0.057 49 25 0.946 0.074 0.658 0.885

Received rotavirus vaccination (2 doses) 0.893 0.043 49 25 0.979 0.049 0.806 0.980

Received measles vaccination 0.907 0.041 49 25 0.988 0.045 0.824 0.989

Received all basic vaccinations 0.795 0.058 49 25 1.006 0.073 0.679 0.911

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (12-23 months) 0.713 0.063 49 25 0.975 0.088 0.587 0.839

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination 4 (children 24-35) 0.578 0.073 59 30 1.102 0.127 0.431 0.724

Received measles 2 vaccination (children 24-35) 0.734 0.064 59 30 1.060 0.087 0.606 0.863

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (24-35 months) 0.545 0.075 59 30 1.114 0.137 0.396 0.695

Height-for-age (-2SD) 0.335 0.039 142 72 0.955 0.116 0.257 0.413

Weight-for-height (-2SD) 0.046 0.018 137 70 1.009 0.393 0.010 0.081

Weight-for-height (+2SD) 0.170 0.034 137 70 1.043 0.200 0.102 0.238

Weight-for-age (-2SD) 0.080 0.025 145 74 1.132 0.317 0.029 0.131

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.034 0.008 523 265 0.963 0.224 0.019 0.049

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.685 0.023 523 265 1.144 0.034 0.639 0.732

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.213 0.018 523 265 1.017 0.085 0.177 0.249

Waist ≥88 cm 0.515 0.025 524 265 1.131 0.048 0.465 0.564

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.697 0.023 523 265 1.144 0.033 0.651 0.743

Prevalence of anaemia (children 6-59 months) 0.536 0.054 130 66 1.210 0.101 0.427 0.644

Prevalence of anaemia (women 15+) 0.277 0.021 515 261 1.056 0.075 0.236 0.318

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.042 0.007 854 442 1.052 0.173 0.027 0.056

Condom use at last sex 0.474 0.082 34 18 0.945 0.173 0.310 0.638

Had an HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.583 0.019 854 442 1.118 0.032 0.545 0.621

Cervical cancer screening 0.511 0.031 320 161 1.094 0.060 0.449 0.572

Asthma symptoms 0.033 0.010 647 325 1.362 0.291 0.014 0.052

COPD symptoms 0.008 0.003 647 325 0.918 0.402 0.002 0.014

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.544 0.019 536 271 0.901 0.036 0.506 0.583

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.080 0.015 647 325 1.389 0.185 0.050 0.110

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.222 0.021 647 325 1.275 0.094 0.180 0.264

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.060 0.010 647 325 1.097 0.171 0.040 0.081

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.046 0.009 647 325 1.080 0.194 0.028 0.063

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.011 0.004 647 325 1.039 0.383 0.003 0.020

Physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a partner in the previous 

12 months 0.145 0.017 616 326 1.165 0.114 0.112 0.178

(Continued...)
406 • Appendix B

Table B.8—Continued

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

WOMEN

Physical violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.091 0.012 616 326 1.044 0.133 0.067 0.115

Sexual violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.019 0.005 616 326 0.977 0.280 0.009 0.030

Emotional violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.111 0.014 616 326 1.075 0.123 0.084 0.138

Mobile phone ownership 0.904 0.012 854 442 1.227 0.014 0.879 0.929

Bank account ownership 0.522 0.025 854 442 1.443 0.047 0.473 0.571

Internet use in past 12 months 0.453 0.023 854 442 1.323 0.050 0.408 0.498

Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.375 0.191 2423 1255 1.095 0.080 1.994 2.757

Infant mortality (last 0-9 years) 52.649 10.125 623 327 1.066 0.192 32.398 72.900

Child mortality (last 0-9 years) 11.338 4.869 629 330 1.124 0.429 1.601 21.075

Under-five mortality (last 0-9 years) 63.390 10.614 626 329 1.047 0.167 42.161 84.619

HIV prevalence among women 15-49 0.281 0.029 315 123 1.128 0.102 0.224 0.339

HIV prevalence among young women 15-24 0.133 0.033 103 42 0.979 0.248 0.067 0.198

HIV prevalence among women 15+ 0.241 0.022 491 191 1.124 0.090 0.197 0.284

MEN

Urban residence 0.885 0.020 295 159 1.085 0.023 0.845 0.926

Literacy 0.959 0.013 295 159 1.127 0.014 0.933 0.985

No education 0.012 0.006 295 159 0.956 0.511 0 0.024

Secondary or higher education 0.838 0.025 295 159 1.144 0.029 0.789 0.887

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.720 0.026 295 159 0.979 0.036 0.669 0.771

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.220 0.024 295 159 0.986 0.108 0.172 0.267

Had first sexual intercourse before age 18 0.640 0.037 210 112 1.108 0.057 0.567 0.714

Want no more children 0.448 0.059 68 35 0.972 0.132 0.329 0.566

Want to delay birth at least 2 years 0.063 0.038 68 35 1.273 0.602 0 0.139

Ideal number of children 2.637 0.084 294 158 1.040 0.032 2.468 2.806

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.147 0.020 328 177 1.018 0.135 0.107 0.187

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.275 0.026 328 177 1.057 0.095 0.223 0.327

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.020 0.009 328 177 1.105 0.429 0.003 0.037

Waist ≥102 cm 0.067 0.016 322 174 1.110 0.231 0.036 0.098

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.321 0.029 321 174 1.097 0.089 0.264 0.378

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.409 0.033 384 207 1.294 0.080 0.344 0.474

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.423 0.038 384 207 1.510 0.090 0.347 0.499

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.254 0.024 384 207 1.065 0.093 0.207 0.302

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.230 0.025 384 207 1.141 0.107 0.181 0.279

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.008 0.004 384 207 0.972 0.565 0 0.016

Prevalence of anaemia 0.256 0.034 311 168 1.357 0.131 0.188 0.323

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.226 0.037 295 159 1.529 0.166 0.151 0.301

Condom use at last sex 0.714 0.061 65 36 1.082 0.086 0.592 0.837

Had paid sex in past 12 months 0.049 0.013 295 159 1.054 0.272 0.022 0.075

Had HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.521 0.031 295 159 1.077 0.060 0.458 0.584

Circumcised 0.558 0.030 295 159 1.025 0.053 0.499 0.618

Asthma symptoms 0.009 0.005 384 207 1.041 0.574 0 0.018

COPD symptoms 0.030 0.009 384 207 1.027 0.300 0.012 0.047

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.482 0.030 330 178 1.086 0.062 0.422 0.542

Mobile phone ownership 0.865 0.017 295 159 0.864 0.02 0.831 0.900

Bank account ownership 0.349 0.032 295 159 1.139 0.091 0.286 0.413

Internet use in past 12 months 0.551 0.034 295 159 1.181 0.062 0.482 0.619

HIV prevalence among men 15-49 0.172 0.030 216 109 1.149 0.172 0.113 0.232

HIV prevalence among young men 15-24 0.059 0.023 98 51 0.963 0.392 0.013 0.105

HIV prevalence among men 15+ 0.172 0.024 290 147 1.090 0.141 0.124 0.221

WOMEN and MEN

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-49 0.230 0.022 531 232 1.222 0.097 0.185 0.275

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-24 0.092 0.020 201 92 0.976 0.217 0.052 0.132

HIV prevalence among respondents 15+ 0.211 0.017 781 338 1.195 0.083 0.176 0.246

na = Not applicable
Appendix B • 407

Table B.9 Sampling errors: KwaZulu-Natal sample, South Africa DHS 2017

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

POPULATION

Population using safely managed drinking water services 0.860 0.025 5476 6939 1.984 0.029 0.811 0.909

Population using safely managed sanitation services 0.856 0.022 5476 6939 2.210 0.025 0.812 0.899

Population with access to electricity 0.893 0.028 5476 6939 2.619 0.031 0.837 0.948

Population with primary reliance on clean fuels 0.762 0.032 5476 6939 2.106 0.042 0.698 0.827

WOMEN

Urban residence 0.520 0.029 1360 1616 2.125 0.055 0.462 0.578

Literacy 0.965 0.006 1360 1616 1.149 0.006 0.954 0.976

No education 0.031 0.006 1360 1616 1.363 0.208 0.018 0.043

Secondary or higher education 0.878 0.012 1360 1616 1.376 0.014 0.854 0.903

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.757 0.020 1360 1616 1.677 0.026 0.718 0.796

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.223 0.019 1360 1616 1.705 0.086 0.185 0.262

In a union before age 15 (women 20-24) 0 0 260 306 na na 0 0

In a union before age 18 (women 20-24) 0.004 0.004 260 306 1.051 0.980 0 0.013

In a union before age 18 (women 20-49) 0.031 0.006 1088 1313 1.224 0.206 0.018 0.044

Had sexual intercourse before age 18 0.384 0.021 1088 1313 1.435 0.055 0.342 0.427

Currently pregnant 0.035 0.005 1360 1616 1.022 0.146 0.025 0.045

Currently using any method 0.650 0.020 552 685 0.967 0.030 0.610 0.689

Currently using a modern method 0.647 0.020 552 685 0.974 0.031 0.607 0.687

Currently using pill 0.063 0.012 552 685 1.112 0.182 0.040 0.087

Currently using condoms 0.221 0.030 552 685 1.683 0.135 0.161 0.280

Currently using injectables - 3 months 0.198 0.023 552 685 1.361 0.117 0.152 0.244

Currently using injectables - 2 months 0.034 0.008 552 685 1.031 0.235 0.018 0.050

Currently using implants 0.048 0.009 552 685 0.957 0.182 0.030 0.065

Currently using female sterilisation 0.062 0.016 552 685 1.542 0.255 0.031 0.094

Currently using withdrawal 0.003 0.003 552 685 1.226 0.980 0 0.008

Currently using IUD 0.013 0.005 552 685 0.998 0.374 0.003 0.022

Using public sector source 0.802 0.023 615 755 1.405 0.028 0.757 0.848

Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.804 0.014 772 940 0.951 0.017 0.777 0.831

Want no more children 0.608 0.035 288 361 1.211 0.058 0.538 0.677

Want to delay next birth at least 2 years 0.057 0.015 288 361 1.078 0.258 0.028 0.087

Ideal number of children 2.474 0.051 1357 1612 1.252 0.021 2.371 2.576

Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.411 0.026 467 555 1.129 0.063 0.359 0.463

Births with skilled attendant at delivery 0.964 0.009 555 654 1.007 0.009 0.947 0.982

Had diarrhoea in the last 2 weeks 0.137 0.018 538 636 1.188 0.132 0.101 0.173

Sought treatment for diarrhoea 0.564 0.064 67 87 1.053 0.113 0.436 0.692

Ever had vaccination card 0.947 0.021 117 135 0.996 0.022 0.905 0.989

Vaccination card seen 0.638 0.058 117 135 1.261 0.091 0.522 0.754

Received BCG vaccination 0.913 0.026 117 135 0.972 0.028 0.861 0.965

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.653 0.059 117 135 1.298 0.090 0.535 0.771

Received HepB vaccination (3 doses) 0.625 0.059 117 135 1.263 0.094 0.507 0.742

Received birth dose polio 0 vaccination 0.922 0.025 117 135 0.998 0.028 0.871 0.973

Received oral polio vaccination (non-birth dose) 0.716 0.051 117 135 1.186 0.071 0.614 0.818

Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.638 0.058 117 135 1.261 0.091 0.522 0.754

Received rotavirus vaccination (2 doses) 0.686 0.052 117 135 1.163 0.075 0.582 0.789

Received measles vaccination 0.894 0.033 117 135 1.118 0.036 0.829 0.960

Received all basic vaccinations 0.624 0.060 117 135 1.292 0.096 0.505 0.744

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (12-23 months) 0.601 0.060 117 135 1.280 0.101 0.480 0.721

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination 4 (children 24-35) 0.472 0.051 91 106 0.955 0.109 0.370 0.575

Received measles 2 vaccination (children 24-35) 0.591 0.055 91 106 1.034 0.092 0.482 0.701

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (24-35 months) 0.460 0.053 91 106 0.979 0.114 0.355 0.565

Height-for-age (-2SD) 0.285 0.031 227 283 0.917 0.107 0.224 0.346

Weight-for-height (-2SD) 0.025 0.011 208 266 1.003 0.431 0.003 0.047

Weight-for-height (+2SD) 0.183 0.028 208 266 1.029 0.154 0.126 0.239

Weight-for-age (-2SD) 0.038 0.016 219 281 1.269 0.418 0.006 0.070

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.013 0.004 749 919 0.921 0.291 0.006 0.021

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.706 0.021 749 919 1.264 0.030 0.664 0.749

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.226 0.017 749 919 1.113 0.075 0.192 0.260

Waist ≥88 cm 0.426 0.025 778 946 1.404 0.058 0.376 0.476

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.658 0.022 777 945 1.277 0.033 0.614 0.701

Prevalence of anaemia (children 6-59 months) 0.417 0.052 161 189 1.159 0.125 0.312 0.521

Prevalence of anaemia (women 15+) 0.289 0.020 637 747 1.109 0.071 0.248 0.329

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.052 0.007 1360 1616 1.198 0.139 0.038 0.067

Condom use at last sex 0.578 0.068 67 84 1.109 0.117 0.443 0.713

Had an HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.583 0.016 1360 1616 1.229 0.028 0.550 0.616

Cervical cancer screening 0.477 0.028 450 565 1.193 0.059 0.421 0.533

Asthma symptoms 0.054 0.011 968 1191 1.573 0.212 0.031 0.077

COPD symptoms 0.011 0.004 968 1191 1.220 0.378 0.003 0.019

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.481 0.019 794 960 1.044 0.039 0.444 0.518

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.023 0.006 968 1191 1.308 0.277 0.010 0.035

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.101 0.013 968 1191 1.318 0.126 0.076 0.127

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.014 0.004 968 1191 1.086 0.288 0.006 0.023

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.010 0.003 968 1191 0.966 0.315 0.004 0.016

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.009 0.004 968 1191 1.147 0.379 0.002 0.017

(Continued...)
408 • Appendix B

Table B.9—Continued

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

WOMEN

Physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a partner in the previous 

12 months 0.100 0.013 786 1078 1.210 0.130 0.074 0.126

Physical violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.057 0.010 786 1078 1.219 0.177 0.037 0.077

Sexual violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.019 0.005 786 1078 1.014 0.259 0.009 0.029

Emotional violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.074 0.011 786 1078 1.149 0.145 0.053 0.096

Mobile phone ownership 0.896 0.010 1360 1616 1.198 0.011 0.876 0.915

Bank account ownership 0.431 0.024 1360 1616 1.792 0.056 0.383 0.479

Internet use in past 12 months 0.415 0.029 1360 1616 2.175 0.070 0.357 0.474

Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.484 0.154 3844 4587 1.065 0.062 2.175 2.793

Infant mortality (last 0-9 years) 40.331 7.039 1085 1293 1.080 0.175 26.252 54.409

Child mortality (last 0-9 years) 3.660 1.906 1068 1270 0.978 0.521 0 7.472

Under-five mortality (last 0-9 years) 43.843 6.960 1086 1294 1.037 0.159 29.922 57.764

HIV prevalence among women 15-49 0.373 0.032 428 486 1.354 0.085 0.310 0.437

HIV prevalence among young women 15-24 0.219 0.035 159 181 1.069 0.161 0.149 0.290

HIV prevalence among women 15+ 0.314 0.025 615 700 1.347 0.080 0.264 0.365

MEN

Urban residence 0.524 0.035 471 521 1.523 0.067 0.453 0.594

Literacy 0.970 0.008 471 521 1.026 0.008 0.953 0.986

No education 0.034 0.009 471 521 1.092 0.267 0.016 0.053

Secondary or higher education 0.834 0.023 471 521 1.315 0.027 0.788 0.879

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.794 0.021 471 521 1.120 0.026 0.752 0.836

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.185 0.021 471 521 1.157 0.112 0.143 0.226

Had first sexual intercourse before age 18 0.578 0.031 353 389 1.161 0.053 0.517 0.639

Want no more children 0.454 0.059 93 96 1.126 0.129 0.337 0.571

Want to delay birth at least 2 years 0.149 0.038 93 96 1.033 0.258 0.072 0.225

Ideal number of children 3.602 0.132 456 505 1.234 0.037 3.338 3.866

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.075 0.012 464 520 0.956 0.157 0.051 0.098

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.352 0.031 464 520 1.404 0.089 0.289 0.415

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.050 0.015 464 520 1.452 0.297 0.020 0.079

Waist ≥102 cm 0.074 0.015 475 529 1.258 0.204 0.044 0.105

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.372 0.030 475 529 1.334 0.080 0.313 0.431

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.352 0.026 603 683 1.349 0.075 0.300 0.405

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.460 0.028 603 683 1.363 0.060 0.404 0.515

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.238 0.019 603 683 1.113 0.081 0.200 0.277

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.138 0.019 603 683 1.379 0.140 0.100 0.177

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.008 0.004 603 683 0.997 0.444 0.001 0.016

Prevalence of anaemia 0.159 0.020 371 395 1.026 0.127 0.119 0.199

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.136 0.019 471 521 1.208 0.140 0.098 0.175

Condom use at last sex 0.735 0.065 66 71 1.190 0.089 0.604 0.866

Had paid sex in past 12 months 0.022 0.006 471 521 0.955 0.293 0.009 0.035

Had HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.449 0.029 471 521 1.251 0.064 0.391 0.506

Circumcised 0.428 0.035 471 521 1.512 0.081 0.359 0.497

Asthma symptoms 0.040 0.009 603 683 1.092 0.217 0.023 0.058

COPD symptoms 0.017 0.008 603 683 1.452 0.456 0.001 0.032

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.475 0.025 479 532 1.076 0.052 0.426 0.524

Mobile phone ownership 0.845 0.021 471 521 1.257 0.025 0.803 0.887

Bank account ownership 0.442 0.029 471 521 1.250 0.065 0.384 0.499

Internet use in past 12 months 0.408 0.032 471 521 1.407 0.078 0.344 0.472

HIV prevalence among men 15-49 0.192 0.025 274 363 1.057 0.131 0.142 0.243

HIV prevalence among young men 15-24 0.037 0.016 141 191 1.021 0.439 0.005 0.070

HIV prevalence among men 15+ 0.175 0.021 359 485 1.050 0.121 0.133 0.217

WOMEN and MEN

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-49 0.296 0.026 702 850 1.514 0.088 0.244 0.348

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-24 0.126 0.021 300 372 1.088 0.166 0.084 0.168

HIV prevalence among respondents 15+ 0.257 0.021 974 1186 1.470 0.080 0.216 0.298

na = Not applicable
Appendix B • 409

Table B.10 Sampling errors: North West sample, South Africa DHS 2017

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

POPULATION

Population using safely managed drinking water services 0.959 0.010 3712 2534 1.525 0.010 0.940 0.978

Population using safely managed sanitation services 0.771 0.029 3712 2534 2.091 0.037 0.713 0.828

Population with access to electricity 0.926 0.017 3712 2534 1.925 0.018 0.893 0.960

Population with primary reliance on clean fuels 0.816 0.037 3712 2534 2.471 0.046 0.742 0.891

WOMEN

Urban residence 0.443 0.063 863 570 3.716 0.143 0.317 0.570

Literacy 0.938 0.008 863 570 0.981 0.009 0.922 0.955

No education 0.027 0.007 863 570 1.272 0.261 0.013 0.041

Secondary or higher education 0.846 0.019 863 570 1.527 0.022 0.808 0.883

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.552 0.030 863 570 1.754 0.054 0.493 0.612

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.377 0.032 863 570 1.931 0.085 0.313 0.441

In a union before age 15 (women 20-24) 0.008 0.008 119 83 1.013 1.025 0 0.025

In a union before age 18 (women 20-24) 0.110 0.041 119 83 1.429 0.377 0.027 0.192

In a union before age 18 (women 20-49) 0.078 0.016 730 489 1.624 0.207 0.045 0.110

Had sexual intercourse before age 18 0.512 0.025 730 489 1.373 0.050 0.461 0.563

Currently pregnant 0.037 0.008 863 570 1.284 0.223 0.020 0.053

Currently using any method 0.589 0.024 466 325 1.073 0.042 0.540 0.638

Currently using a modern method 0.588 0.024 466 325 1.070 0.042 0.539 0.636

Currently using pill 0.119 0.020 466 325 1.362 0.172 0.078 0.160

Currently using condoms 0.163 0.019 466 325 1.086 0.114 0.126 0.200

Currently using injectables - 3 months 0.169 0.018 466 325 1.024 0.105 0.133 0.204

Currently using injectables - 2 months 0.064 0.016 466 325 1.429 0.253 0.032 0.097

Currently using implants 0.027 0.008 466 325 1.104 0.308 0.010 0.043

Currently using female sterilisation 0.037 0.012 466 325 1.356 0.323 0.013 0.060

Currently using withdrawal 0.002 0.002 466 325 0.905 1.015 0 0.005

Currently using IUD 0.008 0.004 466 325 1.045 0.534 0 0.017

Using public sector source 0.778 0.023 423 292 1.140 0.030 0.732 0.824

Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.805 0.030 528 363 1.731 0.037 0.745 0.865

Want no more children 0.568 0.031 307 215 1.083 0.054 0.507 0.629

Want to delay next birth at least 2 years 0.092 0.025 307 215 1.535 0.276 0.041 0.143

Ideal number of children 2.700 0.058 858 567 1.253 0.022 2.583 2.816

Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.406 0.028 344 244 1.103 0.070 0.349 0.463

Births with skilled attendant at delivery 0.960 0.011 395 282 1.108 0.011 0.939 0.981

Had diarrhoea in the last 2 weeks 0.164 0.023 378 269 1.247 0.138 0.119 0.209

Sought treatment for diarrhoea 0.579 0.089 56 44 1.446 0.154 0.401 0.758

Ever had vaccination card 1 0 73 59 na 0 1 1

Vaccination card seen 0.657 0.067 73 59 1.314 0.102 0.522 0.791

Received BCG vaccination 0.945 0.032 73 59 1.297 0.034 0.881 1.009

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.650 0.066 73 59 1.286 0.101 0.518 0.782

Received HepB vaccination (3 doses) 0.640 0.065 73 59 1.252 0.101 0.511 0.769

Received birth dose polio 0 vaccination 0.986 0.015 73 59 1.144 0.015 0.956 1.015

Received oral polio vaccination (non-birth dose) 0.744 0.079 73 59 1.680 0.106 0.586 0.902

Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.517 0.092 73 59 1.716 0.179 0.332 0.701

Received rotavirus vaccination (2 doses) 0.654 0.066 73 59 1.288 0.101 0.522 0.786

Received measles vaccination 0.850 0.039 73 59 1.013 0.046 0.773 0.928

Received all basic vaccinations 0.557 0.047 73 59 0.873 0.084 0.464 0.650

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (12-23 months) 0.437 0.070 73 59 1.317 0.161 0.297 0.578

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination 4 (children 24-35) 0.461 0.057 85 58 1.057 0.125 0.346 0.576

Received measles 2 vaccination (children 24-35) 0.681 0.068 85 58 1.337 0.099 0.546 0.816

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (24-35 months) 0.319 0.070 85 58 1.369 0.220 0.179 0.459

Height-for-age (-2SD) 0.274 0.029 165 128 0.809 0.105 0.217 0.332

Weight-for-height (-2SD) 0.059 0.022 166 128 1.273 0.381 0.014 0.103

Weight-for-height (+2SD) 0.079 0.025 166 128 1.299 0.316 0.029 0.129

Weight-for-age (-2SD) 0.126 0.039 169 130 1.728 0.308 0.048 0.204

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.046 0.012 517 353 1.320 0.266 0.021 0.070

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.678 0.030 517 353 1.460 0.044 0.617 0.738

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.144 0.027 517 353 1.711 0.184 0.091 0.197

Waist ≥88 cm 0.478 0.030 516 353 1.353 0.062 0.418 0.538

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.703 0.026 516 353 1.276 0.037 0.652 0.755

Prevalence of anaemia (children 6-59 months) 0.684 0.036 141 114 1.014 0.052 0.612 0.755

Prevalence of anaemia (women 15+) 0.383 0.055 499 342 2.518 0.144 0.273 0.494

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.077 0.009 863 570 1.042 0.123 0.058 0.096

Condom use at last sex 0.570 0.066 59 44 1.020 0.116 0.437 0.702

Had an HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.614 0.015 863 570 0.932 0.025 0.583 0.645

Cervical cancer screening 0.507 0.037 283 198 1.238 0.073 0.433 0.581

Asthma symptoms 0.025 0.009 581 398 1.315 0.338 0.008 0.043

COPD symptoms 0.015 0.006 581 398 1.234 0.414 0.003 0.028

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.400 0.049 537 366 2.322 0.123 0.302 0.499

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.046 0.011 581 398 1.301 0.245 0.024 0.069

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.206 0.017 581 398 1.014 0.083 0.172 0.240

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.087 0.014 581 398 1.209 0.163 0.058 0.115

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.066 0.009 581 398 0.916 0.143 0.047 0.085

(Continued...)
410 • Appendix B

Table B.10—Continued

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

WOMEN

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.049 0.012 581 398 1.349 0.246 0.025 0.073

Physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a partner in the previous 

12 months 0.183 0.034 589 409 2.099 0.184 0.116 0.250

Physical violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.073 0.010 589 409 0.938 0.138 0.053 0.093

Sexual violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.049 0.017 589 409 1.916 0.349 0.015 0.083

Emotional violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.128 0.021 589 409 1.521 0.164 0.086 0.170

Mobile phone ownership 0.897 0.020 863 570 1.955 0.023 0.857 0.938

Bank account ownership 0.517 0.027 863 570 1.601 0.053 0.462 0.572

Internet use in past 12 months 0.414 0.026 863 570 1.545 0.063 0.362 0.466

Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 3.069 0.238 2473 1643 1.402 0.078 2.592 3.545

Infant mortality (last 0-9 years) 55.010 7.887 789 530 0.904 0.143 39.237 70.784

Child mortality (last 0-9 years) 11.042 4.069 791 533 1.080 0.369 2.904 19.181

Under-five mortality (last 0-9 years) 65.445 8.142 790 531 0.880 0.124 49.161 81.729

HIV prevalence among women 15-49 0.296 0.029 339 161 1.167 0.098 0.238 0.354

HIV prevalence among young women 15-24 0.089 0.030 104 48 1.086 0.343 0.028 0.150

HIV prevalence among women 15+ 0.252 0.026 504 228 1.351 0.104 0.200 0.305

MEN

Urban residence 0.416 0.063 379 237 2.458 0.151 0.290 0.541

Literacy 0.946 0.017 379 237 1.422 0.018 0.913 0.979

No education 0.027 0.010 379 237 1.196 0.369 0.007 0.047

Secondary or higher education 0.782 0.028 379 237 1.304 0.035 0.726 0.837

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.540 0.036 379 237 1.410 0.067 0.467 0.612

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.385 0.047 379 237 1.879 0.123 0.291 0.479

Had first sexual intercourse before age 18 0.626 0.026 322 201 0.974 0.042 0.573 0.678

Want no more children 0.362 0.055 133 91 1.316 0.152 0.252 0.472

Want to delay birth at least 2 years 0.078 0.030 133 91 1.270 0.380 0.019 0.138

Ideal number of children 3.262 0.111 378 237 1.524 0.034 3.041 3.483

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.133 0.017 435 271 1.042 0.127 0.099 0.167

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.300 0.024 435 271 1.086 0.079 0.253 0.348

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.019 0.006 435 271 0.976 0.336 0.006 0.032

Waist ≥102 cm 0.095 0.014 434 270 0.975 0.145 0.067 0.122

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.345 0.029 434 270 1.288 0.085 0.286 0.404

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.320 0.026 504 310 1.266 0.082 0.267 0.372

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.644 0.054 504 310 2.532 0.084 0.535 0.753

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.272 0.025 504 310 1.244 0.091 0.223 0.321

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.130 0.019 504 310 1.258 0.145 0.092 0.168

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.010 0.008 504 310 1.841 0.830 0 0.026

Prevalence of anaemia 0.175 0.020 385 242 1.047 0.115 0.135 0.215

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.184 0.037 379 237 1.870 0.203 0.109 0.259

Condom use at last sex 0.529 0.080 55 44 1.169 0.151 0.370 0.688

Had paid sex in past 12 months 0.011 0.006 379 237 1.135 0.553 0 0.023

Had HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.443 0.033 379 237 1.309 0.075 0.376 0.510

Circumcised 0.489 0.047 379 237 1.835 0.097 0.394 0.583

Asthma symptoms 0.036 0.011 504 310 1.343 0.310 0.014 0.058

COPD symptoms 0.031 0.013 504 310 1.650 0.412 0.005 0.057

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.370 0.029 436 271 1.257 0.079 0.312 0.429

Mobile phone ownership 0.917 0.014 379 237 0.954 0.015 0.890 0.944

Bank account ownership 0.656 0.028 379 237 1.158 0.043 0.599 0.712

Internet use in past 12 months 0.500 0.063 379 237 2.443 0.126 0.374 0.627

HIV prevalence among men 15-49 0.155 0.028 290 165 1.324 0.182 0.098 0.211

HIV prevalence among young men 15-24 0.011 0.008 107 61 0.788 0.724 0 0.027

HIV prevalence among men 15+ 0.155 0.026 383 212 1.416 0.169 0.103 0.208

WOMEN and MEN

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-49 0.225 0.017 629 326 1.022 0.076 0.191 0.259

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-24 0.045 0.015 211 109 1.041 0.330 0.015 0.075

HIV prevalence among respondents 15+ 0.205 0.015 887 440 1.117 0.074 0.175 0.236

na = Not applicable
Appendix B • 411

Table B.11 Sampling errors: Gauteng sample, South Africa DHS 2017

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

POPULATION

Population using safely managed drinking water services 0.988 0.009 3791 9293 2.999 0.009 0.971 1.005

Population using safely managed sanitation services 0.714 0.033 3791 9293 2.339 0.046 0.647 0.780

Population with access to electricity 0.917 0.029 3791 9293 3.556 0.032 0.859 0.975

Population with primary reliance on clean fuels 0.913 0.026 3791 9293 3.076 0.028 0.862 0.965

WOMEN

Urban residence 0.979 0.005 863 2284 0.930 0.005 0.970 0.988

Literacy 0.96 0.010 863 2284 1.508 0.011 0.940 0.980

No education 0.016 0.005 863 2284 1.158 0.314 0.006 0.025

Secondary or higher education 0.912 0.015 863 2284 1.551 0.016 0.883 0.942

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.499 0.020 863 2284 1.155 0.039 0.460 0.539

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.453 0.020 863 2284 1.204 0.045 0.412 0.494

In a union before age 15 (women 20-24) 0.019 0.013 151 377 1.199 0.706 0 0.046

In a union before age 18 (women 20-24) 0.041 0.021 151 377 1.311 0.520 0 0.083

In a union before age 18 (women 20-49) 0.074 0.011 754 1973 1.133 0.146 0.052 0.096

Had sexual intercourse before age 18 0.537 0.023 754 1973 1.240 0.042 0.492 0.582

Currently pregnant 0.055 0.009 863 2284 1.182 0.167 0.036 0.073

Currently using any method 0.580 0.023 553 1430 1.097 0.040 0.534 0.626

Currently using a modern method 0.575 0.023 553 1430 1.085 0.040 0.529 0.620

Currently using pill 0.097 0.015 553 1430 1.177 0.153 0.067 0.127

Currently using condoms 0.149 0.019 553 1430 1.244 0.127 0.111 0.186

Currently using injectables - 3 months 0.160 0.016 553 1430 1.027 0.100 0.128 0.192

Currently using injectables - 2 months 0.071 0.012 553 1430 1.144 0.177 0.046 0.096

Currently using implants 0.031 0.009 553 1430 1.165 0.276 0.014 0.049

Currently using female sterilisation 0.053 0.012 553 1430 1.215 0.219 0.030 0.076

Currently using withdrawal 0.005 0.003 553 1430 1.080 0.634 0 0.012

Currently using IUD 0.011 0.006 553 1430 1.316 0.523 0 0.023

Using public sector source 0.750 0.032 409 1085 1.486 0.043 0.686 0.814

Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.774 0.023 532 1400 1.266 0.030 0.729 0.820

Want no more children 0.549 0.029 395 1035 1.164 0.053 0.491 0.608

Want to delay next birth at least 2 years 0.098 0.016 395 1035 1.064 0.162 0.066 0.130

Ideal number of children 2.642 0.064 861 2281 1.414 0.024 2.514 2.770

Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.405 0.041 310 842 1.472 0.101 0.324 0.487

Births with skilled attendant at delivery 0.976 0.009 370 1013 0.992 0.009 0.958 0.994

Had diarrhoea in the last 2 weeks 0.086 0.016 358 980 1.128 0.188 0.054 0.119

Sought treatment for diarrhoea 0.732 0.087 34 85 1.107 0.119 0.557 0.906

Ever had vaccination card 0.995 0.005 66 180 0.560 0.005 0.986 1.005

Vaccination card seen 0.551 0.069 66 180 1.119 0.125 0.414 0.689

Received BCG vaccination 0.926 0.034 66 180 1.053 0.036 0.859 0.993

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.536 0.064 66 180 1.043 0.120 0.407 0.665

Received HepB vaccination (3 doses) 0.587 0.058 66 180 0.958 0.099 0.471 0.704

Received birth dose polio 0 vaccination 0.915 0.037 66 180 1.088 0.041 0.841 0.989

Received oral polio vaccination (non-birth dose) 0.685 0.057 66 180 0.990 0.082 0.572 0.798

Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.574 0.068 66 180 1.116 0.119 0.437 0.710

Received rotavirus vaccination (2 doses) 0.671 0.065 66 180 1.132 0.098 0.540 0.801

Received measles vaccination 0.877 0.043 66 180 1.069 0.049 0.792 0.963

Received all basic vaccinations 0.519 0.065 66 180 1.042 0.124 0.390 0.649

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (12-23 months) 0.457 0.068 66 180 1.087 0.148 0.322 0.592

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination 4 (children 24-35) 0.448 0.072 69 185 1.204 0.161 0.304 0.592

Received measles 2 vaccination (children 24-35) 0.501 0.068 69 185 1.128 0.136 0.365 0.637

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (24-35 months) 0.363 0.069 69 185 1.197 0.191 0.225 0.502

Height-for-age (-2SD) 0.342 0.056 114 303 1.331 0.165 0.229 0.455

Weight-for-height (-2SD) 0.013 0.011 114 297 1.100 0.862 0 0.035

Weight-for-height (+2SD) 0.112 0.032 114 297 1.022 0.284 0.049 0.176

Weight-for-age (-2SD) 0.058 0.023 115 304 1.102 0.391 0.013 0.104

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.015 0.006 397 1065 1.048 0.435 0.002 0.027

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.656 0.026 397 1065 1.090 0.040 0.603 0.708

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.222 0.028 397 1065 1.333 0.127 0.166 0.278

Waist ≥88 cm 0.402 0.032 397 1065 1.314 0.081 0.338 0.467

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.634 0.030 397 1065 1.244 0.048 0.573 0.694

Prevalence of anaemia (children 6-59 months) 0.740 0.062 93 249 1.419 0.084 0.616 0.864

Prevalence of anaemia (women 15+) 0.316 0.029 364 968 1.159 0.091 0.258 0.373

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.036 0.006 863 2284 0.955 0.168 0.024 0.048

Condom use at last sex 0.616 0.098 31 83 1.102 0.159 0.420 0.812

Had an HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.541 0.022 863 2284 1.289 0.040 0.497 0.585

Cervical cancer screening 0.438 0.043 277 748 1.437 0.098 0.352 0.524

Asthma symptoms 0.017 0.005 561 1534 0.963 0.308 0.007 0.028

COPD symptoms 0.013 0.006 561 1534 1.197 0.437 0.002 0.025

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.423 0.032 402 1073 1.283 0.075 0.360 0.487

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.065 0.012 561 1534 1.190 0.191 0.040 0.090

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.220 0.021 561 1534 1.183 0.094 0.179 0.262

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.052 0.011 561 1534 1.181 0.212 0.030 0.075

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.020 0.006 561 1534 1.025 0.306 0.008 0.032

(Continued...)
412 • Appendix B

Table B.11 —Continued

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

WOMEN

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.041 0.011 561 1534 1.326 0.271 0.019 0.063

Physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a partner in the previous 

12 months 0.132 0.020 574 1464 1.431 0.154 0.091 0.172

Physical violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.082 0.015 574 1464 1.348 0.189 0.051 0.112

Sexual violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.03 0.008 574 1464 1.077 0.255 0.015 0.046

Emotional violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.082 0.014 574 1464 1.210 0.169 0.054 0.110

Mobile phone ownership 0.947 0.010 863 2284 1.301 0.011 0.927 0.967

Bank account ownership 0.620 0.028 863 2284 1.684 0.045 0.565 0.676

Internet use in past 12 months 0.571 0.028 863 2284 1.678 0.050 0.515 0.628

Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.584 0.167 2491 6574 0.989 0.065 2.250 2.919

Infant mortality (last 0-9 years) 41.661 2.489 677 1847 0.993 0.275 18.787 64.535

Child mortality (last 0-9 years) 4.078 11.561 693 1884 1.279 0.610 0 9.055

Under-five mortality (last 0-9 years) 45.569 5.571 694 1886 1.025 0.254 22.448 68.691

HIV prevalence among women 15-49 0.253 0.030 217 690 1.019 0.119 0.193 0.313

HIV prevalence among young women 15-24 0.042 0.028 66 222 1.120 0.661 0 0.098

HIV prevalence among women 15+ 0.244 0.026 292 905 1.022 0.106 0.192 0.295

MEN

Urban residence 0.983 0.004 371 984 0.594 0.004 0.974 0.991

Literacy 0.963 0.013 371 984 1.309 0.013 0.938 0.989

No education 0.013 0.007 371 984 1.149 0.529 0 0.026

Secondary or higher education 0.902 0.019 371 984 1.223 0.021 0.864 0.940

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.541 0.035 371 984 1.363 0.065 0.470 0.612

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.402 0.032 371 984 1.247 0.079 0.338 0.466

Had first sexual intercourse before age 18 0.559 0.039 321 851 1.399 0.070 0.482 0.637

Want no more children 0.434 0.049 150 395 1.215 0.114 0.335 0.532

Want to delay birth at least 2 years 0.112 0.031 150 395 1.199 0.277 0.050 0.174

Ideal number of children 3.198 0.130 365 967 1.316 0.041 2.937 3.459

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.084 0.016 329 848 1.042 0.193 0.051 0.116

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.335 0.035 329 848 1.339 0.106 0.265 0.406

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.034 0.012 329 848 1.199 0.357 0.010 0.059

Waist ≥102 cm 0.107 0.022 330 849 1.308 0.208 0.063 0.152

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.349 0.034 329 848 1.305 0.099 0.280 0.417

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.376 0.025 470 1245 1.107 0.066 0.326 0.425

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.609 0.023 470 1245 1.043 0.039 0.563 0.656

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.353 0.028 470 1245 1.284 0.080 0.296 0.410

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.168 0.022 470 1245 1.295 0.133 0.123 0.212

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.014 0.006 470 1245 1.058 0.406 0.003 0.026

Prevalence of anaemia 0.172 0.026 267 683 1.122 0.153 0.119 0.225

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.173 0.023 371 984 1.151 0.131 0.128 0.218

Condom use at last sex 0.678 0.063 67 170 1.088 0.093 0.552 0.803

Had paid sex in past 12 months 0.046 0.011 371 984 0.974 0.232 0.024 0.067

Had HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.410 0.036 371 984 1.415 0.088 0.338 0.483

Circumcised 0.598 0.036 371 984 1.415 0.060 0.526 0.670

Asthma symptoms 0.005 0.003 470 1245 0.901 0.591 0 0.011

COPD symptoms 0.009 0.005 470 1245 1.050 0.503 0 0.018

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.395 0.033 319 830 1.196 0.083 0.329 0.460

Mobile phone ownership 0.927 0.020 371 984 1.483 0.022 0.887 0.967

Bank account ownership 0.683 0.035 371 984 1.438 0.051 0.613 0.753

Internet use in past 12 months 0.609 0.036 371 984 1.435 0.060 0.536 0.682

HIV prevalence among men 15-49 0.149 0.037 163 675 1.304 0.245 0.076 0.223

HIV prevalence among young men 15-24 0.063 0.043 48 188 1.218 0.687 0 0.150

HIV prevalence among men 15+ 0.142 0.029 219 883 1.225 0.204 0.084 0.201

WOMEN and MEN

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-49 0.202 0.024 380 1365 1.151 0.118 0.154 0.249

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-24 0.052 0.025 114 410 1.181 0.475 0.003 0.101

HIV prevalence among respondents 15+ 0.194 0.020 511 1788 1.167 0.105 0.153 0.235
Appendix B • 413

Table B.12 Sampling errors: Mpumalanga sample, South Africa DHS 2017

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

POPULATION

Population using safely managed drinking water services 0.901 0.026 4509 3011 2.516 0.029 0.848 0.954

Population using safely managed sanitation services 0.790 0.022 4509 3011 1.764 0.028 0.747 0.834

Population with access to electricity 0.834 0.043 4509 3011 3.360 0.052 0.748 0.920

Population with primary reliance on clean fuels 0.642 0.049 4509 3011 2.846 0.076 0.545 0.740

WOMEN

Urban residence 0.422 0.038 1054 671 2.508 0.091 0.345 0.498

Literacy 0.948 0.008 1054 671 1.105 0.008 0.933 0.963

No education 0.030 0.006 1054 671 1.171 0.204 0.018 0.043

Secondary or higher education 0.867 0.015 1054 671 1.471 0.018 0.836 0.897

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.565 0.020 1054 671 1.315 0.036 0.525 0.605

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.364 0.022 1054 671 1.474 0.060 0.320 0.408

In a union before age 15 (women 20-24) 0.019 0.011 178 114 1.107 0.592 0 0.042

In a union before age 18 (women 20-24) 0.048 0.016 178 114 1.003 0.336 0.016 0.080

In a union before age 18 (women 20-49) 0.095 0.010 861 553 1.016 0.107 0.075 0.115

Had sexual intercourse before age 18 0.556 0.019 861 553 1.144 0.035 0.517 0.594

Currently pregnant 0.041 0.006 1054 671 1.059 0.158 0.028 0.054

Currently using any method 0.621 0.031 553 356 1.505 0.050 0.559 0.684

Currently using a modern method 0.619 0.031 553 356 1.496 0.050 0.558 0.681

Currently using pill 0.061 0.011 553 356 1.112 0.185 0.039 0.084

Currently using condoms 0.198 0.023 553 356 1.338 0.114 0.153 0.244

Currently using injectables - 3 months 0.170 0.019 553 356 1.206 0.113 0.132 0.209

Currently using injectables - 2 months 0.105 0.017 553 356 1.273 0.158 0.072 0.138

Currently using implants 0.035 0.010 553 356 1.233 0.275 0.016 0.054

Currently using female sterilisation 0.034 0.010 553 356 1.341 0.304 0.013 0.055

Currently using withdrawal 0.002 0.002 553 356 1.050 1.007 0 0.006

Currently using IUD 0.006 0.003 553 356 0.976 0.550 0 0.012

Using public sector source 0.793 0.021 546 346 1.234 0.027 0.751 0.836

Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.815 0.017 666 424 1.158 0.021 0.781 0.850

Want no more children 0.555 0.027 366 244 1.045 0.049 0.501 0.609

Want to delay next birth at least 2 years 0.097 0.017 366 244 1.066 0.170 0.064 0.130

Ideal number of children 2.921 0.053 1049 668 1.208 0.018 2.814 3.028

Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.404 0.029 421 278 1.228 0.072 0.346 0.462

Births with skilled attendant at delivery 0.964 0.010 501 332 1.096 0.010 0.945 0.984

Had diarrhoea in the last 2 weeks 0.107 0.018 469 309 1.258 0.168 0.071 0.142

Sought treatment for diarrhoea 0.693 0.065 47 33 0.998 0.095 0.562 0.824

Ever had vaccination card 0.981 0.014 94 61 0.967 0.014 0.954 1.008

Vaccination card seen 0.635 0.063 94 61 1.238 0.099 0.510 0.761

Received BCG vaccination 0.857 0.037 94 61 1.027 0.043 0.783 0.931

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.619 0.062 94 61 1.223 0.101 0.494 0.744

Received HepB vaccination (3 doses) 0.676 0.061 94 61 1.229 0.090 0.554 0.798

Received birth dose polio 0 vaccination 0.871 0.036 94 61 1.041 0.041 0.799 0.943

Received oral polio vaccination (non-birth dose) 0.797 0.047 94 61 1.073 0.059 0.704 0.891

Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.588 0.068 94 61 1.312 0.115 0.453 0.724

Received rotavirus vaccination (2 doses) 0.656 0.061 94 61 1.210 0.092 0.535 0.778

Received measles vaccination 0.750 0.052 94 61 1.111 0.069 0.647 0.853

Received all basic vaccinations 0.555 0.065 94 61 1.258 0.118 0.424 0.686

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (12-23 months) 0.495 0.067 94 61 1.293 0.136 0.361 0.630

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination 4 (children 24-35) 0.474 0.073 96 63 1.420 0.155 0.327 0.620

Received measles 2 vaccination (children 24-35) 0.579 0.060 96 63 1.174 0.103 0.460 0.699

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (24-35 months) 0.425 0.070 96 63 1.375 0.165 0.285 0.566

Height-for-age (-2SD) 0.215 0.028 232 151 0.927 0.128 0.160 0.270

Weight-for-height (-2SD) 0.005 0.005 235 152 0.930 0.837 0 0.015

Weight-for-height (+2SD) 0.085 0.015 235 152 0.848 0.182 0.054 0.116

Weight-for-age (-2SD) 0.047 0.014 237 154 1.022 0.299 0.019 0.075

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.038 0.008 587 393 1.050 0.218 0.021 0.055

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.620 0.026 587 393 1.297 0.042 0.568 0.672

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.153 0.015 587 393 0.986 0.096 0.124 0.183

Waist ≥88 cm 0.342 0.019 586 393 0.965 0.055 0.304 0.380

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.553 0.025 585 392 1.195 0.045 0.503 0.602

Prevalence of anaemia (children 6-59 months) 0.701 0.045 180 115 1.139 0.064 0.611 0.791

Prevalence of anaemia (women 15+) 0.385 0.027 571 383 1.345 0.071 0.330 0.440

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.066 0.009 1054 671 1.129 0.131 0.049 0.083

Condom use at last sex 0.530 0.056 72 44 0.951 0.106 0.418 0.643

Had an HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.616 0.018 1054 671 1.191 0.029 0.580 0.652

Cervical cancer screening 0.560 0.032 307 212 1.128 0.057 0.496 0.624

Asthma symptoms 0.041 0.010 705 473 1.336 0.244 0.021 0.061

COPD symptoms 0.025 0.007 705 473 1.125 0.266 0.012 0.038

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.458 0.031 594 399 1.537 0.069 0.395 0.521

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.060 0.015 705 473 1.709 0.255 0.030 0.091

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.191 0.017 705 473 1.133 0.088 0.158 0.225

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.047 0.010 705 473 1.233 0.208 0.028 0.067

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.026 0.006 705 473 1.013 0.233 0.014 0.038

(Continued...)
414 • Appendix B

Table B.12—Continued

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

WOMEN

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.005 0.003 705 473 0.926 0.484 0 0.010

Physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a partner in the previous 

12 months 0.150 0.017 649 443 1.241 0.116 0.115 0.185

Physical violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.078 0.014 649 443 1.364 0.184 0.050 0.107

Sexual violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.027 0.007 649 443 1.061 0.251 0.013 0.040

Emotional violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.102 0.013 649 443 1.103 0.128 0.076 0.129

Mobile phone ownership 0.944 0.008 1054 671 1.173 0.009 0.927 0.960

Bank account ownership 0.528 0.023 1054 671 1.502 0.044 0.482 0.575

Internet use in past 12 months 0.391 0.027 1054 671 1.764 0.068 0.338 0.445

Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 2.979 0.170 2986 1910 0.952 0.057 2.640 3.318

Infant mortality (last 0-9 years) 53.473 8.093 948 620 1.014 0.151 37.287 69.659

Child mortality (last 0-9 years) 17.790 5.163 925 606 0.933 0.290 7.465 28.116

Under-five mortality (last 0-9 years) 70.312 9.399 951 622 1.016 0.134 51.514 89.111

HIV prevalence among women 15-49 0.340 0.035 383 211 1.431 0.102 0.271 0.410

HIV prevalence among young women 15-24 0.199 0.062 147 79 1.863 0.312 0.075 0.323

HIV prevalence among women 15+ 0.300 0.030 517 278 1.480 0.100 0.240 0.360

MEN

Urban residence 0.521 0.037 413 263 1.519 0.072 0.446 0.596

Literacy 0.925 0.017 413 263 1.318 0.019 0.891 0.959

No education 0.041 0.013 413 263 1.345 0.320 0.015 0.068

Secondary or higher education 0.835 0.021 413 263 1.127 0.025 0.793 0.876

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.638 0.029 413 263 1.215 0.045 0.581 0.696

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.319 0.030 413 263 1.300 0.094 0.259 0.379

Had first sexual intercourse before age 18 0.614 0.034 325 211 1.248 0.055 0.546 0.681

Want no more children 0.459 0.037 125 84 0.837 0.082 0.384 0.534

Want to delay birth at least 2 years 0.124 0.028 125 84 0.959 0.229 0.067 0.180

Ideal number of children 2.754 0.155 413 263 1.433 0.056 2.444 3.065

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.107 0.016 429 273 1.044 0.146 0.076 0.138

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.241 0.022 429 273 1.051 0.090 0.198 0.284

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.008 0.004 429 273 0.894 0.490 0 0.015

Waist ≥102 cm 0.083 0.019 425 271 1.388 0.224 0.046 0.120

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.269 0.026 424 270 1.225 0.098 0.216 0.321

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.402 0.028 515 326 1.301 0.070 0.345 0.458

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.550 0.034 515 326 1.534 0.061 0.482 0.617

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.288 0.029 515 326 1.450 0.101 0.230 0.346

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.174 0.022 515 326 1.339 0.129 0.129 0.219

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.046 0.012 515 326 1.313 0.265 0.021 0.070

Prevalence of anaemia 0.181 0.026 368 233 1.279 0.142 0.130 0.233

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.181 0.028 413 263 1.498 0.157 0.124 0.238

Condom use at last sex 0.678 0.076 70 48 1.349 0.113 0.526 0.831

Had paid sex in past 12 months 0.027 0.009 413 263 1.063 0.312 0.010 0.045

Had HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.497 0.029 413 263 1.166 0.058 0.440 0.555

Circumcised 0.499 0.038 413 263 1.530 0.076 0.424 0.575

Asthma symptoms 0.142 0.028 515 326 1.819 0.198 0.086 0.198

COPD symptoms 0.027 0.008 515 326 1.116 0.295 0.011 0.043

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.461 0.033 405 260 1.326 0.071 0.395 0.527

Mobile phone ownership 0.955 0.012 413 263 1.204 0.013 0.930 0.979

Bank account ownership 0.642 0.026 413 263 1.113 0.041 0.589 0.694

Internet use in past 12 months 0.472 0.036 413 263 1.444 0.075 0.401 0.543

HIV prevalence among men 15-49 0.157 0.026 263 193 1.176 0.169 0.104 0.210

HIV prevalence among young men 15-24 0.036 0.017 116 79 1.000 0.480 0.001 0.071

HIV prevalence among men 15+ 0.165 0.024 325 232 1.154 0.144 0.117 0.212

WOMEN and MEN

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-49 0.253 0.021 646 404 1.247 0.084 0.210 0.295

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-24 0.117 0.038 263 158 1.901 0.324 0.041 0.193

HIV prevalence among respondents 15+ 0.238 0.018 842 510 1.253 0.077 0.202 0.275
Appendix B • 415

Table B.13 Sampling errors: Limpopo sample, South Africa DHS 2017

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

POPULATION

Population using safely managed drinking water services 0.838 0.030 4876 3880 2.417 0.036 0.777 0.899

Population using safely managed sanitation services 0.895 0.013 4876 3880 1.568 0.015 0.868 0.922

Population with access to electricity 0.982 0.005 4876 3880 1.163 0.005 0.973 0.992

Population with primary reliance on clean fuels 0.440 0.033 4876 3880 2.087 0.075 0.374 0.506

WOMEN

Urban residence 0.183 0.027 1105 824 2.309 0.147 0.129 0.237

Literacy 0.968 0.006 1105 824 1.055 0.006 0.957 0.979

No education 0.012 0.004 1105 824 1.094 0.304 0.005 0.019

Secondary or higher education 0.913 0.012 1105 824 1.458 0.014 0.889 0.938

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.610 0.022 1105 824 1.488 0.036 0.566 0.653

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.309 0.017 1105 824 1.188 0.054 0.276 0.342

In a union before age 15 (women 20-24) 0.005 0.005 183 137 0.992 0.997 0 0.016

In a union before age 18 (women 20-24) 0.043 0.016 183 137 1.085 0.378 0.011 0.076

In a union before age 18 (women 20-49) 0.105 0.013 881 657 1.233 0.122 0.079 0.130

Had sexual intercourse before age 18 0.509 0.019 881 657 1.146 0.038 0.471 0.548

Currently pregnant 0.026 0.005 1105 824 0.987 0.181 0.017 0.036

Currently using any method 0.539 0.027 466 351 1.168 0.050 0.485 0.593

Currently using a modern method 0.530 0.027 466 351 1.152 0.050 0.476 0.583

Currently using pill 0.076 0.014 466 351 1.125 0.182 0.048 0.103

Currently using condoms 0.111 0.017 466 351 1.157 0.152 0.077 0.145

Currently using injectables - 3 months 0.129 0.019 466 351 1.190 0.144 0.092 0.166

Currently using injectables - 2 months 0.147 0.016 466 351 0.998 0.111 0.115 0.180

Currently using implants 0.028 0.009 466 351 1.232 0.338 0.009 0.047

Currently using female sterilisation 0.026 0.008 466 351 1.098 0.314 0.010 0.042

Currently using withdrawal 0.007 0.004 466 351 1.034 0.575 0 0.015

Currently using IUD 0.009 0.005 466 351 1.034 0.496 0 0.018

Using public sector source 0.879 0.019 448 333 1.252 0.022 0.841 0.918

Demand satisfied by modern methods 0.741 0.022 598 450 1.223 0.030 0.697 0.785

Want no more children 0.524 0.033 335 254 1.193 0.062 0.459 0.589

Want to delay next birth at least 2 years 0.115 0.020 335 254 1.172 0.178 0.074 0.156

Ideal number of children 3.300 0.050 1103 822 1.220 0.015 3.200 3.401

Mothers protected against tetanus for last birth 0.315 0.026 403 301 1.140 0.084 0.263 0.368

Births with skilled attendant at delivery 0.978 0.007 467 347 0.978 0.007 0.963 0.992

Had diarrhoea in the last 2 weeks 0.120 0.017 455 338 1.117 0.144 0.086 0.155

Sought treatment for diarrhoea 0.571 0.070 56 41 1.014 0.122 0.431 0.710

Ever had vaccination card 0.945 0.031 94 69 1.135 0.033 0.883 1.007

Vaccination card seen 0.732 0.054 94 69 1.127 0.074 0.624 0.841

Received BCG vaccination 0.929 0.025 94 69 0.952 0.027 0.878 0.980

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination (3 doses) 0.711 0.061 94 69 1.236 0.085 0.589 0.832

Received HepB vaccination (3 doses) 0.663 0.061 94 69 1.204 0.092 0.540 0.785

Received birth dose polio 0 vaccination 0.934 0.025 94 69 0.955 0.026 0.885 0.984

Received oral polio vaccination (non-birth dose) 0.795 0.046 94 69 1.025 0.058 0.704 0.887

Received pneumococcal vaccination (3 doses) 0.669 0.063 94 69 1.239 0.094 0.543 0.794

Received rotavirus vaccination (2 doses) 0.677 0.059 94 69 1.179 0.088 0.559 0.796

Received measles vaccination 0.887 0.044 94 69 1.338 0.049 0.799 0.974

Received all basic vaccinations 0.667 0.060 94 69 1.184 0.090 0.547 0.787

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (12-23 months) 0.549 0.064 94 69 1.214 0.117 0.420 0.677

Received DTaP-IPV-Hib vaccination 4 (children 24-35) 0.510 0.055 100 74 1.103 0.108 0.400 0.621

Received measles 2 vaccination (children 24-35) 0.641 0.053 100 74 1.101 0.083 0.535 0.747

Received all age appropriate vaccinations (24-35 months) 0.465 0.054 100 74 1.083 0.116 0.357 0.573

Height-for-age (-2SD) 0.219 0.034 209 168 1.123 0.153 0.152 0.287

Weight-for-height (-2SD) 0.041 0.014 215 173 1.063 0.340 0.013 0.069

Weight-for-height (+2SD) 0.079 0.019 215 173 0.984 0.239 0.041 0.117

Weight-for-age (-2SD) 0.049 0.016 214 173 1.116 0.320 0.018 0.080

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.042 0.009 670 503 1.121 0.207 0.024 0.059

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.642 0.022 670 503 1.184 0.034 0.598 0.686

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.163 0.017 670 503 1.159 0.101 0.130 0.196

Waist ≥88 cm 0.406 0.020 668 502 1.045 0.049 0.366 0.446

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.625 0.021 665 500 1.093 0.033 0.584 0.666

Prevalence of anaemia (children 6-59 months) 0.594 0.042 160 128 1.097 0.071 0.509 0.679

Prevalence of anaemia (women 15+) 0.290 0.021 592 445 1.143 0.073 0.247 0.332

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.033 0.006 1105 824 1.058 0.171 0.022 0.045

Condom use at last sex 0.608 0.102 35 27 1.206 0.167 0.404 0.811

Had an HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.632 0.019 1105 824 1.332 0.031 0.593 0.670

Cervical cancer screening 0.433 0.030 367 279 1.158 0.069 0.373 0.493

Asthma symptoms 0.015 0.005 863 646 1.128 0.311 0.006 0.024

COPD symptoms 0.008 0.003 863 646 1.007 0.373 0.002 0.015

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.341 0.020 698 524 1.129 0.059 0.300 0.381

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.020 0.006 863 646 1.206 0.286 0.009 0.032

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.081 0.013 863 646 1.362 0.156 0.056 0.106

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.015 0.006 863 646 1.372 0.382 0.003 0.026

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.010 0.004 863 646 1.082 0.372 0.002 0.017

(Continued...)
416 • Appendix B

Table B.13—Continued

Value (R)

Standard 

error 

(SE)

Number of cases

Design 

effect 

(DEFT)

Relative 

error 

(SE/R)

Unweighted 

(N)

Weighted (WN)

Confidence limits

Variable R-2SE R+2SE

WOMEN

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.006 0.003 863 646 0.980 0.432 0.001 0.011

Physical, sexual, or emotional violence by a partner in the previous 

12 months 0.071 0.010 881 605 1.102 0.134 0.052 0.090

Physical violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.035 0.007 881 605 1.180 0.209 0.020 0.049

Sexual violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.015 0.004 881 605 0.965 0.268 0.007 0.022

Emotional violence by a current or former partner in the previous 12 months 0.055 0.009 881 605 1.110 0.155 0.038 0.072

Mobile phone ownership 0.896 0.010 1105 824 1.065 0.011 0.877 0.916

Bank account ownership 0.468 0.024 1105 824 1.564 0.050 0.421 0.515

Internet use in past 12 months 0.352 0.018 1105 824 1.271 0.052 0.316 0.389

Total fertility rate (last 3 years) 3.099 0.133 3108 2314 0.841 0.043 2.833 3.364

Infant mortality (last 0-9 years) 23.678 5.051 928 684 0.996 0.213 13.575 33.781

Child mortality (last 0-9 years) 10.462 4.005 904 669 1.017 0.383 2.452 18.471

Under-five mortality (last 0-9 years) 33.892 7.356 930 685 1.103 0.217 19.180 48.603

HIV prevalence among women 15-49 0.145 0.021 327 250 1.102 0.148 0.102 0.188

HIV prevalence among young women 15-24 0.028 0.015 125 96 0.988 0.522 0 0.057

HIV prevalence among women 15+ 0.129 0.016 500 380 1.078 0.125 0.097 0.161

MEN

Urban residence 0.218 0.034 402 288 1.665 0.158 0.149 0.286

Literacy 0.874 0.026 402 288 1.560 0.030 0.822 0.926

No education 0.007 0.004 402 288 0.972 0.575 0 0.015

Secondary or higher education 0.879 0.018 402 288 1.082 0.020 0.843 0.914

Never-in-union (never married or lived with a partner) 0.753 0.023 402 288 1.064 0.030 0.707 0.799

In-union (married or living with a partner) 0.214 0.020 402 288 0.978 0.094 0.174 0.254

Had first sexual intercourse before age 18 0.540 0.036 288 207 1.210 0.066 0.469 0.611

Want no more children 0.357 0.053 89 62 1.030 0.147 0.252 0.462

Want to delay birth at least 2 years 0.230 0.048 89 62 1.069 0.208 0.134 0.326

Ideal number of children 3.631 0.113 399 286 0.987 0.031 3.404 3.857

Body Mass Index (BMI) <18.5 0.121 0.021 388 276 1.257 0.172 0.079 0.163

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25 0.251 0.021 388 276 0.970 0.085 0.209 0.294

Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥35 0.022 0.009 388 276 1.172 0.398 0.004 0.039

Waist ≥102 cm 0.060 0.013 348 247 1.058 0.225 0.033 0.087

Waist for height ratio ≥0.5 0.316 0.026 346 245 1.023 0.081 0.265 0.367

Current smoking (daily or occassional) 0.264 0.023 547 386 1.198 0.086 0.219 0.309

Drank alcohol in past 12 months 0.524 0.023 547 386 1.076 0.044 0.478 0.570

Risky alcohol intake (>5 or more drinks) 0.205 0.021 547 386 1.240 0.105 0.162 0.248

Show signs of problem drinking by the CAGE test 0.145 0.019 547 386 1.232 0.128 0.108 0.182

Codeine-containing medication misuse 0.006 0.003 547 386 0.901 0.496 0 0.012

Prevalence of anaemia 0.139 0.019 319 226 0.966 0.134 0.102 0.177

Had 2+ sexual partners in past 12 months 0.237 0.022 402 288 1.053 0.095 0.192 0.281

Condom use at last sex 0.574 0.048 94 68 0.929 0.083 0.478 0.669

Had paid sex in past 12 months 0.030 0.011 402 288 1.278 0.362 0.008 0.052

Had HIV test and received results in past 12 months 0.350 0.026 402 288 1.085 0.074 0.298 0.402

Circumcised 0.858 0.019 402 288 1.085 0.022 0.821 0.896

Asthma symptoms 0.031 0.008 547 386 1.091 0.260 0.015 0.048

COPD symptoms 0.017 0.006 547 386 1.162 0.376 0.004 0.030

Hypertension (>140/90 or taking hypertensive medication) 0.288 0.024 379 269 1.017 0.082 0.240 0.335

Mobile phone ownership 0.905 0.017 402 288 1.143 0.018 0.872 0.939

Bank account ownership 0.457 0.027 402 288 1.068 0.058 0.404 0.510

Internet use in past 12 months 0.537 0.034 402 288 1.348 0.063 0.470 0.604

HIV prevalence among men 15-49 0.053 0.022 201 199 1.352 0.404 0.010 0.096

HIV prevalence among young men 15-24 0.009 0.009 118 120 1.012 0.973 0 0.027

HIV prevalence among men 15+ 0.054 0.018 279 274 1.340 0.336 0.018 0.091

WOMEN and MEN

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-49 0.104 0.015 528 450 1.095 0.140 0.075 0.133

HIV prevalence among respondents 15-24 0.018 0.008 243 216 0.918 0.441 0.002 0.033

HIV prevalence among respondents 15+ 0.098 0.012 779 654 1.115 0.121 0.074 0.121
Appendix B • 417

Table B.14 Sampling errors for adult and pregnancy-related mortality rates, South Africa DHS 2016

Number of cases Confidence limits

Value

Standard 

Error

Unweighted WeightedDesign 

Effect

Relative 

Error Lower Upper

Variable (R) (SE) (N) (NW) (DEFT) (SE/R) (R-2SE) (R+2SE)

WOMEN

Adult mortality rates

15-19 1.02 0.40 9284 9179 1.19 0.39 0.23 1.81

20-24 3.65 0.94 11882 11875 1.66 0.26 1.78 5.52

25-29 4.48 0.77 12466 12297 1.25 0.17 2.93 6.03

30-34 9.82 1.37 10962 11034 1.44 0.14 7.08 12.55

35-39 9.13 1.42 8749 8555 1.34 0.16 6.30 11.96

40-44 11.39 1.92 6121 5930 1.37 0.17 7.55 15.23

45-49 8.32 1.70 4060 3899 1.17 0.20 4.92 11.72

15-49 (age-adjusted) 6.34 0.46 63523 62768 1.35 0.07 5.42 7.27

Adult mortality probabilities

35q15 2016 212.79 14.29 63523 62768 1.79 0.07 184.21 241.37

35q15 1998 102.93 7.24 123738 122701 1.54 0.07 88.45 117.40

Pregnancy-related mortality 

rates

15-19 0.00 0.00 9284 9179 na na 0.00 0.00

20-24 0.36 0.19 11882 11875 1.09 0.53 0.00 0.74

25-29 0.58 0.29 12466 12297 1.33 0.50 0.00 1.16

30-34 0.46 0.21 10962 11034 1.01 0.45 0.05 0.88

35-39 0.76 0.46 8749 8555 1.54 0.61 0.00 1.67

40-44 1.22 0.71 6121 5930 1.56 0.58 0.00 2.63

45-49 0.11 0.11 4060 3899 0.66 1.00 0.00 0.33

15-49 (age-adjusted) 0.47 0.12 63523 62768 1.37 0.25 0.24 0.71

Pregnancy-related mortality 

ratio (PRMR) 2016 536.29 133.08 63523 62768 1.37 0.25 270.12 802.46

Pregnancy-related mortality 

ratio (PRMR) 1998 150.34 36.55 123738 122701 1.03 0.24 77.24 223.45

MEN

Adult mortality rates

15-19 1.60 0.46 8991 8774 1.07 0.29 0.69 2.52

20-24 2.46 0.53 11469 11306 1.15 0.22 1.39 3.53

25-29 6.24 1.02 12044 11814 1.34 0.16 4.20 8.29

30-34 7.60 1.13 10689 10305 1.31 0.15 5.33 9.86

35-39 9.49 1.43 8280 8277 1.33 0.15 6.63 12.35

40-44 13.64 1.94 5601 5616 1.21 0.14 9.75 17.52

45-49 12.23 2.13 3768 3580 1.16 0.17 7.98 16.49

15-49 (age-adjusted) 6.90 0.51 60841 59673 1.24 0.08 5.87 7.92

Adult mortality probabilities

35q15 2016 234.04 15.92 60841 59673 1.49 0.07 202.21 265.87

35q15 1998 212.56 11.70 118032 116590 1.75 0.06 189.17 235.95

na = Not applicable

Appendix C • 419

DATA QUALITY TABLES Appendix C

Table C.1 Household age distribution

Single-year age distribution of the de facto household population by sex (weighted), South Africa DHS 2016 

Female Male Female Male

Age Number Percent Number Percent Age Number Percent Number Percent

0 351 1.8 356 2.0 37 228 1.2 236 1.3

1 375 1.9 419 2.4 38 233 1.2 232 1.3

2 355 1.8 410 2.3 39 234 1.2 193 1.1

3 435 2.2 401 2.3 40 223 1.2 237 1.3

4 423 2.2 448 2.5 41 270 1.4 236 1.3

5 370 1.9 391 2.2 42 221 1.1 190 1.1

6 399 2.1 422 2.4 43 230 1.2 197 1.1

7 339 1.7 398 2.2 44 187 1.0 202 1.1

8 360 1.9 408 2.3 45 181 0.9 196 1.1

9 370 1.9 405 2.3 46 224 1.2 186 1.0

10 343 1.8 397 2.2 47 221 1.1 131 0.7

11 354 1.8 386 2.2 48 208 1.1 169 1.0

12 353 1.8 348 2.0 49 181 0.9 132 0.7

13 329 1.7 296 1.7 50 195 1.0 137 0.8

14 322 1.7 328 1.8 51 156 0.8 153 0.9

15 293 1.5 303 1.7 52 194 1.0 120 0.7

16 357 1.8 368 2.1 53 164 0.8 152 0.9

17 333 1.7 345 1.9 54 164 0.8 100 0.6

18 331 1.7 350 2.0 55 157 0.8 122 0.7

19 345 1.8 329 1.9 56 177 0.9 133 0.8

20 316 1.6 332 1.9 57 178 0.9 113 0.6

21 322 1.7 291 1.6 58 156 0.8 112 0.6

22 342 1.8 367 2.1 59 143 0.7 100 0.6

23 309 1.6 300 1.7 60 120 0.6 114 0.6

24 343 1.8 270 1.5 61 155 0.8 101 0.6

25 326 1.7 303 1.7 62 132 0.7 105 0.6

26 358 1.8 273 1.5 63 137 0.7 96 0.5

27 340 1.8 260 1.5 64 134 0.7 94 0.5

28 318 1.6 296 1.7 65 100 0.5 66 0.4

29 357 1.8 302 1.7 66 126 0.7 81 0.5

30 303 1.6 321 1.8 67 95 0.5 75 0.4

31 310 1.6 276 1.6 68 99 0.5 72 0.4

32 306 1.6 301 1.7 69 83 0.4 59 0.3

33 310 1.6 282 1.6 70+ 1,060 5.5 528 3.0

34 308 1.6 218 1.2 Don’t know 92 0.5 172 1.0

35 279 1.4 236 1.3

36 264 1.4 246 1.4 Total 19,407 100.0 17,721 100.0

Note: The de facto population includes all residents and nonresidents who stayed in the household the night before the interview. 
420 • Appendix C

Table C.2.1 Age distribution of eligible and interviewed women

De facto household population of women age 10-54, number and percent distribution of interviewed women age 15-49, 

and percentage of eligible women who were interviewed (weighted), by 5-year age groups, South Africa DHS 2016 

Household 

population of 

women age 10-54

Interviewed women age 15-49 Percentage of 

eligible women 

Age group Number Percentage interviewed

10-14 1,701 na na na

15-19 1,659 1,429 17.1 86.1

20-24 1,631 1,390 16.6 85.2

25-29 1,699 1,428 17.1 84.0

30-34 1,538 1,297 15.5 84.3

35-39 1,237 1,037 12.4 83.8

40-44 1,131 919 11.0 81.3

45-49 1,015 861 10.3 84.9

50-54 873 na na na

15-49 9,911 8,362 100.0 84.4

Note: The de facto population includes all residents and nonresidents who stayed in the household the night before the 

interview. Weights for both the household population of women and interviewed women are household weights. Age is 

based on the Household Questionnaire.

na = Not applicable 

Table C.2.2 Age distribution of eligible and interviewed men

De facto household population of men age 10-64, number and percent distribution of interviewed men age 15-59, and 

percentage of eligible men who were interviewed (weighted), by 5-year age groups, South Africa DHS 2016 

Household 

population of men 

age 10-64

Interviewed men age 15-59 Percentage of 

eligible men 

Age group Number Percentage interviewed

10-14 902 na na na

15-19 834 669 18.6 80.3

20-24 789 590 16.4 74.7

25-29 732 500 13.9 68.3

30-34 678 449 12.5 66.3

35-39 549 379 10.5 69.0

40-44 496 347 9.6 70.0

45-49 369 260 7.2 70.4

50-54 306 212 5.9 69.3

55-59 294 199 5.5 67.6

60-64 262 na na na

15-59 5,047 3,605 100.0 71.4

Note: The de facto population includes all residents and nonresidents who stayed in the household the night before the 

interview. Weights for both the household population of men and interviewed men are household weights. Age is based on 

the Household Questionnaire.

na = Not applicable 
Appendix C • 421

Table C.3 Completeness of reporting

Percentage of observations missing information for selected demographic and health questions (weighted), South Africa DHS 2016

Subject Reference group

Percentage 

with 

information 

missing

Number 

of cases

Birth date Births in the 15 years preceding the survey

Day only 0.37 9,577

Day and month 0.82 9,577

Day, month, and year 0.29 9,577

Age at death Deceased children born in the 15 years preceding the survey 0.00 489

Age/date at first union1 Ever-in-union women age 15-49 0.03 3,522

Ever-in-union men age 15-59 0.07 1,475

Respondent’s education Women age 15-49 0.00 8,514

Men age 15-59 0.00 3,618

Diarrhoea in past 2 weeks Living children age 0-59 months 6.02 3,444

Anthropometry of 

children

Living children age 0-59 months (from the Biomarker Questionnaire)

Height 28.48 2,007

Weight 28.44 2,007

Height or weight 29.04 2,007

Anthropometry of women Women age 15+ (from the Biomarker Questionnaire)

Height 30.58 6,986

Weight 30.90 6,986

Height or weight 31.03 6,986

Anthropometry of men Men age 15+ (from the Biomarker Questionnaire)

Height 43.08 5,791

Weight 43.43 5,791

Height or weight 43.46 5,791

Anaemia

Children Living children age 6-59 months (from the Biomarker Questionnaire) 40.8 1,848

Women Women age 15+ (from the Biomarker Questionnaire) 39.33 6,986

Men Men age 15+ (from the Biomarker Questionnaire) 52.84 5,791

1 Both year and age missing

Table C.4 Births by calendar years

Number of births, percentage with complete birth date, sex ratio at birth, and calendar year ratio by calendar year, according to living, dead, and total children 

(weighted), South Africa DHS 2016 

Number of births

Percentage with year and month 

of birth given Sex ratio at birth1 Calendar year ratio2

Calendar 

year Living Dead Total Living Dead Total Living Dead Total Living Dead Total

2016 462 16 478 100.0 100.0 100.0 108.1 84.8 107.2 na na na

2015 688 27 714 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.8 80.1 99.9 na na na

2014 666 18 683 100.0 93.9 99.8 111.7 268.8 114.1 97.4 63.4 96.1

2013 679 29 708 99.4 94.0 99.2 96.8 216.7 99.9 99.4 115.1 100.0

2012 700 33 733 100.0 91.0 99.6 109.8 186.1 112.4 103.0 112.3 103.4

2011 681 29 711 99.8 96.1 99.6 110.0 210.6 112.9 100.4 83.0 99.5

2010 657 38 695 99.2 80.6 98.2 124.7 86.3 122.2 101.2 100.0 101.1

2009 618 47 664 99.8 87.1 98.9 108.3 210.2 113.2 96.5 112.3 97.5

2008 623 45 668 99.1 81.2 97.9 125.9 174.2 128.6 105.8 115.0 106.4

2007 560 32 591 99.3 79.1 98.2 101.9 118.7 102.7 89.9 66.1 88.2

2012-2016 3,195 122 3,316 99.9 95.2 99.7 105.1 150.2 106.5 na na na

2007-2011 3,138 191 3,329 99.4 84.5 98.6 114.0 151.6 115.9 na na na

2002-2006 2,606 167 2,774 99.2 84.8 98.4 110.1 114.7 110.3 na na na

1997-2001 1,926 102 2,028 99.3 80.1 98.3 109.0 166.6 111.3 na na na

<1997 2,297 193 2,489 96.6 82.1 95.5 103.1 120.4 104.3 na na na

All 13,162 775 13,936 99.0 85.1 98.2 108.4 136.1 109.7 na na na

na = Not applicable

1

(Bm/Bf)x100, where Bm and Bf are the numbers of male and female births, respectively

2

[2Bx/(Bx-1+Bx+1)]x100, where Bx is the number of births in calendar year x 
422 • Appendix C

Table C.5 Reporting of age at death in days

Distribution of reported deaths under age 1 month by age at death in days and 

percentage of neonatal deaths reported to occur at age 0-6 days, for 5-year 

periods of birth preceding the survey (weighted), South Africa DHS 2016 

Number of years preceding 

the survey Total 

Age at death (days) 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 0-19

<1 47 54 46 13 159

1 11 5 5 3 24

2 3 2 0 2 7

3 4 3 0 3 10

4 1 6 1 0 8

5 1 4 0 3 8

6 0 3 0 0 3

7 3 1 0 1 5

8 0 0 0 1 1

9 0 0 0 0 0

10 0 2 0 0 2

11 0 1 0 0 1

12 0 0 0 0 0

13 0 0 0 0 0

14 6 5 4 1 17

15 0 1 0 4 5

16 0 0 0 0 0

17 0 0 0 0 0

18 0 1 1 0 2

19 1 0 0 1 1

20 0 2 0 0 2

21 1 3 1 0 5

22 0 0 0 0 0

23 0 0 0 0 0

24 0 0 0 0 0

25 0 0 0 0 0

26 0 0 0 0 0

27 0 0 0 0 0

28 0 0 0 0 0

29 0 0 0 0 0

30 0 0 0 0 0

Total 0-30 78 92 59 31 261

Percentage early neonatal1 85.4 82.5 89.3 75.3 84.1

1 ≤6 days/≤30 days 
Appendix C • 423

Table C.6 Reporting of age at death in months

Distribution of reported deaths under age 2 years by age at death in months 

and percentage of infant deaths reported to occur at less than age 1 month, for 

5-year periods of birth preceding the survey (weighted), South Africa 

DHS 2016 

Number of years preceding 

the survey Total 

Age at death (months) 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 0-19

<1a 78 92 59 31 261

1 2 8 8 4 23

2 6 4 4 6 20

3 12 9 13 1 36

4 9 3 10 2 23

5 3 6 6 3 18

6 2 18 5 3 27

7 0 7 3 3 13

8 3 13 3 4 23

9 2 7 4 2 14

10 1 1 1 1 4

11 2 2 0 1 6

12 4 8 8 8 27

13 0 0 2 0 2

14 1 2 0 0 3

15 0 1 0 0 1

16 1 0 0 0 1

17 0 0 1 0 1

18 1 1 1 3 6

19 0 0 0 0 0

20 0 0 0 1 1

21 0 0 0 0 0

22 0 0 0 0 0

23 0 4 0 0 4

Total 0-11 121 171 117 59 468

Percentage neonatal1 64.5 54.2 50.8 52.0 55.7

a

Includes deaths under 1 month reported in days

1 <1 month/<1 year 
424 • Appendix C

Table C.7 Height and weight data completeness and quality for children

Among children under age 5 (age 0-59 months) who were eligible for anthropometry, percentage with incomplete or missing height and/or weight measurements 

and/or date of birth; percentage with out-of-range height-for-age, and/or weight-for-height, and/or weight-for-age data; and percentage with valid data, according to 

background characteristics (unweighted), South Africa DHS 2016 

Percentage with data missing or 

incomplete:

Percentage with out-of-range 

data for4:

Percentage with 

valid data for8: Number 

of 

children

Background 

characteristic Height1 Weight2

Age in 

months3

Height-forage5Weight-forheight6Weight-forage7Height-forageWeight-forheightWeight-forage

Age in months

<6 23.3 22.7 0.0 2.8 5.1 2.3 73.9 71.0 75.0 176

6-8 35.2 34.1 0.0 4.4 4.4 2.2 60.4 60.4 63.7 91

9-11 21.3 21.3 2.2 1.1 1.1 0.0 76.4 76.4 77.5 89

12-17 23.6 25.0 0.5 1.0 3.8 1.0 75.0 70.7 73.6 208

18-23 26.1 26.7 0.0 1.1 3.3 1.1 72.8 69.4 72.2 180

24-35 27.1 25.9 1.5 1.2 1.0 0.2 71.2 71.5 73.4 410

36-47 26.8 27.2 2.3 0.2 0.5 0.0 71.4 72.1 71.2 437

48-59 23.3 23.8 1.6 0.7 1.8 0.0 74.8 74.1 75.1 433

Sex

Male 26.5 26.5 1.2 1.5 2.1 0.7 71.4 70.5 72.2 1,027

Female 24.6 24.7 1.4 0.8 2.0 0.4 73.7 72.7 74.0 997

Mother’s interview status

Interviewed 22.5 22.7 0.1 1.1 2.4 0.5 76.3 74.2 76.7 1,447

Not interviewed but in 

household 60.4 59.0 2.8 0.5 1.4 0.5 38.2 38.2 39.6 217

Not interviewed and not in the 

household9 16.7 16.9 5.3 1.7 1.1 0.8 78.1 81.4 78.6 360

Residence

Urban 35.2 34.6 0.4 1.0 2.5 0.6 63.8 62.2 64.8 1,006

Non-urban 16.0 16.7 2.2 1.3 1.7 0.5 81.1 80.8 81.2 1,018

Province

Western Cape 56.1 56.1 0.9 0.0 0.9 0.0 43.9 43.0 43.9 114

Eastern Cape 18.6 18.9 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.0 80.4 80.4 80.7 280

Northern Cape 30.7 30.1 0.0 1.3 3.9 2.0 68.0 65.4 68.0 153

Free State 22.0 22.0 0.5 1.6 4.3 0.0 76.3 73.7 78.0 186

KwaZulu-Natal 19.2 23.4 1.7 2.4 4.5 1.0 78.0 71.5 75.3 291

North West 18.0 17.1 0.5 1.5 1.0 0.5 80.5 81.0 82.4 205

Gauteng 41.5 41.0 1.0 0.5 1.5 0.5 57.0 57.0 57.5 200

Mpumalanga 20.1 18.7 1.7 1.0 1.3 0.7 77.6 78.6 79.3 299

Limpopo 26.0 24.7 3.0 0.7 1.0 0.3 70.6 72.6 72.3 296

Mother’s education

No education 12.1 12.1 3.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 81.8 87.9 84.8 33

Primary incomplete 14.3 14.3 1.1 1.1 3.3 2.2 84.6 82.4 83.5 91

Primary complete 22.7 22.7 0.0 0.0 3.0 0.0 77.3 74.2 77.3 66

Secondary incomplete 25.2 25.5 0.5 1.2 1.9 0.1 73.5 71.8 74.3 844

Secondary complete 30.3 29.6 0.2 0.9 3.2 0.9 68.6 66.1 69.2 439

More than secondary 41.1 41.6 0.0 0.5 1.6 0.5 58.4 56.3 57.9 190

Missing 100.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1

Total 25.5 25.6 1.3 1.1 2.1 0.5 72.5 71.6 73.1 2,024

1 Child’s height in centimetres is missing, child was not present, child refused, and “other” result codes

2 Child’s weight in kilograms is missing, child was not present, child refused, and “other” result codes

3

Incomplete date of birth; a complete date of birth is month/day/year or month/year

4 Cases with missing or incomplete data are not considered to be out-of-range cases

5 Out-of-range cases for height-for-age are defined as more than 6 standard deviations (SD) above or below the standard population median (Z-scores) based on the 

WHO Child Growth Standards

6 Out-of-range cases for weight-for-height are defined as more than 5 SD above or below the standard population median (Z-scores) based on the WHO Child 

Growth Standards

7 Out-of-range cases for weight-for-age are defined as more than 6 SD below or 5 SD above the standard population median (Z-scores) based on the WHO Child 

Growth Standards

8 No missing data, incomplete data, or out of range data

9

Includes children whose mothers are deceased
Appendix C • 425

Table C.8 Completeness of information on siblings

Completeness of data on survival status of sisters and brothers reported by interviewed women, age of living 

siblings, and age at death (AD) and years since death (YSD) of dead siblings (unweighted), South Africa DHS 2016 

Sisters Brothers All siblings

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent

All siblings 13,135 100.0 12,929 100.0 26,064 100.0

 Living 11,585 88.2 11,033 85.3 22,618 86.8

 Dead 1,486 11.3 1,814 14.0 3,300 12.7

 Survival status unknown 64 0.5 82 0.6 146 0.6

Living siblings 11,585 100.0 11,033 100.0 22,618 100.0

 Age reported 11,581 100.0 11,028 100.0 22,609 100.0

 Age missing 4 0.0 5 0.0 9 0.0

Dead siblings 1,486 100.0 1,814 100.0 3,300 100.0

 AD and YSD reported 1,486 100.0 1,813 99.9 3,299 100.0

 Missing only AD 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

 Missing only YSD 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0

 Missing AD and YSD 0 0.0 1 0.1 1 0.0

Table C.9 Sibship size and sex ratio of siblings

Mean sibship size and sex ratio of siblings at birth, South 

Africa DHS 2016 

Age of respondents

Mean sibship 

size1

Sex ratio of 

siblings at 

birth2

15-19 3.5 104.6

20-24 3.7 94.7

25-29 4.0 92.9

30-34 4.1 96.5

35-39 4.2 100.3

40-44 4.1 105.5

45-49 4.4 97.4

Total 4.0 98.3

1

Includes the respondent

2 Excludes the respondent 

Appendix D • 427

PERSONS INVOLVED IN THE SOUTH 

AFRICA DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH 

SURVEY 2016 AppendixD

SURVEY DESIGN, MANAGEMENT, AND TECHNICAL INPUT

NDoH

Gail Andrews

Lesley Bamford

Nonhlanhla Dlamini

Melvyn Freeman

Howard Kgoa

Nombulelo Leburu

Tebello Liphaphang

Popo Maja

Elias Makonko

Manala Makua

Ronald Maluleke

Precious Matsoso

Getrude Mawela

Eunice Misiani

Lynn Moeng

Yvonne Mokgalagadi

Tshilidzi Muthivhi

Rebone Ntsie

Nhlanhla Ntuli

Yogan Pillay

Zukiswa Pinini

Bilqees Sayed

Keabetswe Silomba

Gavin Steel

Jacques van der Westhuizen

Andre Venter

Thulile Zondi

SAMRC

Sulaiman Abrahams

Debbie Bradshaw

Siphokazi Dada

Ali Dhansay

Jean Fourie

Noluntu Funani

Glenda Gray

Debbie Jonathan

Andre Kengne

Ria Laubscher

Carl Lombard

Mercilene Machisa

Nadine Nannan

Charles Parry

Nasheeta Peer

Lize van Stuijvenberg

Victoria Pillay van Wyk

Rifqah Roomaney

Emmerentia Strydom

Stats SA

Adriana Balducci

Multon Chueu

Sinethemba Dladla

Rika du Plessis

Lanie Hollier

Aneen Jordaan

James Kamyi

Zanele Kgoadi

Azam Khan

Sibusiso Langatshe

Gwen Lehloenya

Segametsi Letlape

Seretloane Mabitsela

Nchimane Mahladisa

Nthabiseng Makhatha

Kwena Manaka

Olga Masebe

Caiphus Mashaba

Veronica Mashapha

Kefiloe Masiteng

Herman Matlala

Sthembiso Mkhize

Ngoako Mokgerepi

Thabo Molebatsi (previously 

NDOH)

Paddy Motlolane

Sello Motsamai

Letjeka Mphela

Zanele Mtsweni

Antoine Muanza

Stephen Mudau

Maemu Netshidzate

Mosidi Nhlapo

Babalwa Nyangintsimbi

Letia Poto

Michael Segage

Sibongile Segeri

Enos Sello

Nthabiseng Selomo

Mercy Shoko

Moses Sidindi

Mirriam Sikhosana

Maletela Tuoane-Nkhasi

ICF

Peter Aka

Sarah Balian

Jean de Dieu Bizimana

Trevor Croft

Trinadh Dontamsetti

Greg Edmonson

Mahmoud Elkasabi

Tom Fish

Joy Fishel

Julia Fleuret

Dean Garrett

Chris Gramer

Girum Haile

Nancy Johnson

Sunita Kishor

Joanna Lowell

Sorrel Namaste

Erica Nybro

Tom Pullum

Keith Purvis

Christian Reed

Kia Reinis

Ruilin Ren

Guillermo Rojas

Gulnara Semenov

Natalie Shattuck

Joan Wardell

Bridgette Wellington
428 • Appendix D

Advisors

Naeemah Abrahams

Mags Beksinska

Rob Dorrington

Dinky Levitt

Tom Moultrie

Catriona Towriss

Eric Udjo

FIELDWORK

Western Cape Eastern Cape Northern Cape

Mzoxolo Soyikwa 

(Coordinator)

Obed Shigadhla

(Coordinator)

Ronald Kemsley

(Coordinator)

Mogammad Abass Christina Dintsi Mariana Andreas

Cherelene Alexander Pumla Dunjua Andre Balie

Johanna Bantom Kholeka Fana Dorcas Beregho

Yumna Beukes Nosiphelo Fihlani Olorato Bosiame

Zimkhitha Bistoli Andiswa Keti Tshadinyana Bosiame

Eric Buso Nosiphiwo Khakhalala John Farao

Hakeem Fakier Yongama Lutye Neoetsile Mabihi

Ncumisa Gamadala Makaziwe Maposa Dolly Majola

Phillip Henecke Andiswa Mashalaba Betty Manong

Noluvo Hlwele Tandiswa Matetu Kabelo Mogodie

Ayanda Kuka Kholekile Maweni Mmabatho Molema

Juleiga Larney-Abrahams Pumla Mdane Iris Mpata

Roseanne Love Zimkita Mrawuli Thembeka Ndimba

Christelene Matiwane Batandwa Ncombo Lemogang Ngcobo

Nokuthula Mayila Sinegugu Ngamnteni Bernardus Philipo

Unathi Mpila Vuyani Ngqoleka Tshepo Seonyane

Wendy Neer Nomakorinte Ngwentle Mallita Simon

Nonhlanhla Silindana Nwabisa Nombekela Asavela Tayi

Lebogang Sizani Noxolo Nombewu Lillian Titus

Clive Sprout Phatheka Nonyongo Caroline Tlaki

Thembisile Zuma Bongani Rwairwai Afikile Twenani

Nozuko Scott

Shirley Sigabi

Tembukazi Siganga

Zolisa Sigangala

Zwelinjani Siyali

Asiphe Siyotula

Prudence Sohuma

Dalikhaya Zilimbola
Appendix D • 429

Free State KwaZulu-Natal North West

Olvin Chakela 

(Coorindator)

Nomthandazo Madonsela 

(Coordinator)

Shirley Rhenoster 

(Coordinator)

Nomhle Adoons Nosipho Dlamini Dithaga Dikoko

Kehilwe Balada (Deceased) Yolene Govender Kristina Eilers

Patrick Fobo Gugu Gumede Evodia Legalammitlwa

Puleng Legoana Sibusiso Hadebe Trevor Maditsi

Nthabeleng Lekhethe Nomthandazo Khanyile Phemelo Makaba

Pheello Mabaso Ndumiso Khumalo Tshepo Maroga

Mmateboho Mabesele Thembela Kubheka Nomathemba Mdane

Amanda Makhasane Busisiwe Kunene Stophel Metsing

Ruth Marumo Lindiwe Mabizela Ntsikelelo Mhlongo

Motshabi Mlozana Zakithi Majola Esther Modiselle

Jonas Mokoena Vusumuzi Malunga Bolelang Mokonyane

Sarah Mokoena Phumzile Mayisela Thalitha Moroane

Thonkha Mophuleng Prudence Mchunu Mosimane Mosebetsi

Manthiuoa Morobane Idah Mvelase Rekaone Motshwariemang

Ntlenyana Motaung Cindy Ndlovu Puleng Ntokoane

Belina Motlatla Linda Ngcobo Mamasedi Phera

Phathutshedzo Nemukula Khanyisani Ngobese Gladys Rammekwa

Khoboso Pitso Nomvula Ngwenya Olefile Rapoo

Nthabiseng Sere Lungile Nkosi Desmond Seleka

Thamsanqa Solange Mandlenkosi Ntanzi Matsiliso Sontaha

Lydia Tsobo Thembela Ntlauzana Fikile Thongwane

Stanley Nzama

Dimakatso Phoswa

Zanele Shamase

Mandlenkosi Shozi

Sbongile Sithole

Bongani Sithole

Sandile Zungu

Gauteng Mpumalanga Limpopo

Tshwarelo Mokoena 

(Coordinator)

Louis Masilela

(Coordinator)

Fulufhelo Mabannda 

(Coordinator)

Sekobetlane Lethuba Samkele Fakude Boitumelo Mailula

Given Mabunda Nqobile Langa Elsie Maponya

Motlagomang Malebo Dimakatso Mabena Lethabo Matlou

Ricks Maripanye Phumzile Mahamba Isaiah Mkhavele

Julia Mmeseletsi Bonginkosi Mahlangu Moloko Mohale

Julia Mohlala Sihle Mahlangu Neria Mothoa

Jynet Mohlala Thabo Mahlangu Lucy Muditambi

Anna Mokoena Sesi Mako Pfanani Mulamuli

Moratehi Mokone Confidence Matea Phillip Phasha

Codlycia Mokwele Lungisani Mbatha Margaret Phohu

Dorah Mokwena Vuyisile Mokoena Happiness Sambo

Fundiswa Mokwena Ntombimpela Mthembu Lerato Seloana

Portia Mokwena Fortunate Ndlakude

Zanele Molife Xolile Ngomane

Paseka Molo Noxolo Ngwenyama

Lufuno Mudau Lucky Nkosi

Tshifaro Netshivhera Evah Nonyane

David Ngwenya Victoria Phahlamohlaka

Sylvia Ntshingila Cindy Shongwe

Khutso Phaladi Thembisa Sibanyoni

Ritah Phiri Lazaruse Thankge

Magdeline Phuthi
430 • Appendix D

Gauteng (continued)

Tsholofelo Raphala

Kabelo Sefoka

Thapelo Sekabate

Stephen Shabe

Mathilda Tladi

Prudence Tshukudu
Appendix E • 431

QUESTIONNAIRES AppendixE

FORMATTING DATE:

ENGLISH LANGUAGE:

PLACE NAME

NAME OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD

CLUSTER NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

PSU NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DWELLING UNIT NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

HOUSEHOLD NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

HOUSEHOLD SELECTED FOR MALE SURVEY AND BIOMARKERS? (YES = 1; NO = 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

HOUSEHOLD SELECTED FOR SALT SAMPLE COLLECTION? (YES = 1; NO = 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DATE DAY

MONTH

YEAR

INTERVIEWER'S

NAME INT. NO.

RESULT* RESULT*

NEXT VISIT: DATE

TOTAL NUMBER

TIME OF VISITS

*RESULT CODES: TOTAL PERSONS

IN HOUSEHOLD

1 COMPLETED

2 NO HOUSEHOLD MEMBER AT HOME OR NO COMPETENT RESPONDENT

AT HOME AT TIME OF VISIT TOTAL ELIGIBLE

3 ENTIRE HOUSEHOLD ABSENT FOR EXTENDED PERIOD OF TIME WOMEN

4 POSTPONED

5 REFUSED

6 DWELLING VACANT OR ADDRESS NOT A DWELLING TOTAL ELIGIBLE

7 DWELLING DESTROYED MEN

8 DWELLING NOT FOUND

9 OTHER TOTAL CHILDREN

ELIGIBLE FOR

CAREGIVER'S

QUEST.

LINE NO. OF

RESPONDENT 

TO HOUSEHOLD

QUESTIONNAIRE

LANGUAGE OF LANGUAGE OF HOME LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR USED

QUESTIONNAIRE** INTERVIEW** OF RESPONDENT** (YES = 1, NO = 2)

LANGUAGE OF **LANGUAGE CODES:

QUESTIONNAIRE** 01 ENGLISH 05 seSOTHO 09 tshiVENDA

02 AFRIKAANS 06 seTSWANA 10 xiTSONGA

03 isiXHOSA 07 sePEDI 11 isiNDEBELE

04 isiZULU 08 siSWATI 12 OTHER

0 1

23 March 2016

10 May 2016

NAME NUMBER

SUPERVISOR

2016 SOUTH AFRICA DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY

FINAL VISIT

INTERVIEWER VISITS

(SPECIFY)

1 2 3

IDENTIFICATION

 HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE

ENGLISH

2 0 1

Appendix E • 433
THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY BLANK
SIGNATURE OF INTERVIEWER DATE

RESPONDENT AGREES RESPONDENT DOES NOT AGREE

TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 1 TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 2 END

100

HOURS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

MINUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

INTRODUCTION

Hello. My name is _______________________________________. I am working with Statistics South Africa. We are 

conducting a survey about health and other topics all over South Africa. The information we collect will help the government to 

plan health services. Your household was selected for the survey. I would like to ask you some questions about your 

household. The questions usually take about 20 minutes. All of the answers you give will be confidential and will not be shared 

with anyone other than members of our survey team. In case you need more information about the survey, you may contact the 

person listed on this card. 

GIVE CARD WITH CONTACT INFORMATION

Do you have any questions?

May I begin the interview now?

RECORD THE TIME.

Appendix E • 435
LINE RELATIONSHIP

NO. TO HEAD OF

HOUSEHOLD

1

AFTER LISTING THE 1 = MARRIED

NAMES AND RECORDING IF DON'T KNOW DAY, RECORD '98'. IF 95 OR LIVING

THE RELATIONSHIP, SEX IF DON'T KNOW MONTH, RECORD '98'. OR MORE, TOGETHER

RESIDENCE AND AGE FOR IF DON'T KNOW YEAR, RECORD '9998.' RECORD 2 = DIVORCED/

EACH PERSON, ASK '95'. SEPARATED

QUESTIONS 2A-2C 3 = WIDOWED

TO BE SURE THAT THE COMPARE 4 = NEVERLISTING IS COMPLETE. AND MARRIED

CORRECT AND

THEN ASK APPROPRIATE 6A AND/OR 7 NEVER

QUESTIONS IN COLUMNS SEE CODES IF INCON- LIVED

8-27 FOR EACH PERSON. BELOW. SISTENT. TOGETHER

M F Y N Y N

01 1 2 1 2 1 2

1 2 1 2 1 2

02

1 2 1 2 1 2

03

1 2 1 2 1 2

04

1 2 1 2 1 2

05

1 2 1 2 1 2

06

1 2 1 2 1 2

07

TICK HERE IF CONTINUATION SHEET USED CODES FOR Q. 3: RELATIONSHIP TO HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD

7A) 01 = HEAD 07 = PARENT-IN-LAW

ADD TO 02 = WIFE/HUSBAND/PARTNER 08 = BROTHER OR SISTER

TABLE 03 = SON OR DAUGHTER 09 = OTHER RELATIVE

7B) 04 = SON-IN-LAW OR 10 = ADOPTED

ADD TO DAUGHTER-IN-LAW 11 = FOSTER

TABLE 05 = GRANDCHILD 12 = STEPCHILD

7C) 06 = PARENT 13 = NOT RELATED

ADD TO 98 = DON'T KNOW

TABLE

Is 

(NAME) 

male or 

female?

MARITAL

STATUS

IF AGE 15 

OR OLDER

HOUSEHOLD SCHEDULE

IN YEARS

6A 8

What is (NAME)'s date of birth? 

On what day, month, and year was (NAME) born?

What is (NAME)'s 

current marital 

status?

How old is 

(NAME)?

7

DAY MONTH YEAR

DATE OF BIRTH AGE

YES

Just to make sure that I have a complete listing: are there 

any other people such as small children or infants that we 

have not listed?

Are there any other people who may not be members of your 

family, such as domestic workers, lodgers, or friends who 

usually live here?

Are there any guests or temporary visitors staying here, or 

anyone else who stayed here last night, who have not been 

listed?

YES

YES

NO

NO

NO

SEX

AND VISITORS

USUAL RESIDENTS

Please give me the names of 

the persons who usually live 

in your household and guests 

of the household who stayed 

here last night, starting with 

the head of the household.

RESIDENCE

2 3 4 5 6

Does 

(NAME) 

usually 

live 

here?

What is the 

relationship of 

(NAME) to the 

head of the 

household?

Did 

(NAME) 

stay 

here last 

night?

436 • Appendix E
LINE

NO.

CIRCLE CIRCLE CHECK 13:

LINE LINE

NUMBER NUMBER IF MOTHER

OF ALL OF ALL LIVES IN

WOMEN WOMEN HOUSEAGE AGE HOLD,

15-49 18 AND SKIP TO 16.

OR, IF OLDER

HOUSE- IF MOTHER

HOLD HAS

SELEC- DIED OR

TED FOR CIRCLE CIRCLE DOES

MALE LINE LINE NOT RECORD

SURVEY NUMBER NUMBER LIVE IN CAREBIO- OF ALL OF ALL RECORD THE GIVER'S

MARKERS, MEN CHILDREN MOTHER'S HOUSE- LINE

CIRCLE AGE AGE 0-5 LINE RECORD HOLD, NUMBER.

LINE 15 AND NUMBER. FATHER'S CIRCLE

NUMBER OLDER LINE LINE

OF ALL NUMBER. NUMBER

WOMEN IF NO, IF NO, OF CHILD.

AGE RECORD RECORD SEE CODES SEE CODES

15 AND '00'. '00'. BELOW. BELOW.

OLDER

Y N DK Y N DK Y N Y N

01 01 01 01 01 1 2 8 1 2 8 01 1 2 1 2

GO TO 14 GO TO 15A GO TO 20 GO TO 20

1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2

02 02 02 02 02 02

GO TO 14 GO TO 15A GO TO 20 GO TO 20

1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2

03 03 03 03 03 03

GO TO 14 GO TO 15A GO TO 20 GO TO 20

1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2

04 04 04 04 04 04

GO TO 14 GO TO 15A GO TO 20 GO TO 20

1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2

05 05 05 05 05 05

GO TO 14 GO TO 15A GO TO 20 GO TO 20

1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2

06 06 06 05 06 06

GO TO 14 GO TO 15A GO TO 20 GO TO 20

1 2 8 1 2 8 1 2 1 2

07 07 07 07 07 07

GO TO 14 GO TO 15A GO TO 20 GO TO 20

PRE-PRIMARY SCHOOL SECONDARY SCHOOL HIGHER EDUCATION

00 = LESS THAN 1 YEAR PRE-PRIMARY COMPLETED 20=LESS THAN 1 YEAR SECONDARY SCHOOL COMPLETED 30=FURTHER STUDIES INCOMPLETE OR ONGOING

(USE '00' FOR Q. 17 ONLY. THIS CODE IS NOT ALLOWED FOR Q. 19.) (USE '20' FOR Q. 17 ONLY. THIS CODE IS NOT ALLOWED FOR Q. 19.) 31=CERTIFICATE OR DIPLOMA WITH GRADE 12/

01=GRADE R/GRADE 0/RECEPTION 21=GRADE 8/STANDARD 6/FORM 1/NTC 1/N1/NC (V) LEVEL 2 STANDARD 10 COMPLETED

22=GRADE 9/STANDARD 7/FORM 2/AET 4/NTC 2/N2/NC (V) LEVEL 3 32=HIGHER DIPLOMA (TECHNIKON/

PRIMARY SCHOOL 23=GRADE 10/STANDARD 8/FORM 3/NTC 3/N3/NC (V) LEVEL 4 UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY)

10=LESS THAN 1 YEAR PRIMARY SCHOOL COMPLETED 24=GRADE 11/STANDARD 9/FORM 4 33=POST HIGHER DIPLOMA (TECHNIKON/

(USE '10' FOR Q. 17 ONLY. THIS CODE IS NOT ALLOWED FOR Q. 19.) 25=CERTIFICATE OR DIPLOMA WITH LESS THAN GRADE 12/ UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY MASTERS, DOCTORAL)

11=GRADE 1/SUB A/CLASS 1 STANDARD 10 COMPLETED 34=BACHELORS DEGREE/BACHELORS DEGREE

12=GRADE 2/SUB B/CLASS 2 26=GRADE 12/STANDARD 10/FORM 5/MATRIC AND POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA

13=GRADE 3/STANDARD 1/AET 1 (KHA RI GUDE, SANLI) 27=N4/NTC4 35=HONOURS DEGREE

14=GRADE 4/STANDARD 2 28=N5/NTC5 36=HIGHER DEGREE (MASTERS, DOCTORATE)

15=GRADE 5/STANDARD 3/AET 2 29=N6/NTC6

16=GRADE 6 /STANDARD 4 98 = DON'T KNOW

17=GRADE 7/STANDARD 5/AET 3

EVER ATTENDED 

Did (NAME) 

attend an 

educational 

institution at 

any time 

during the 

2016 

academic 

year?

What is the 

highest level of 

education that 

(NAME) has 

attended?

What is the 

highest grade 

(NAME) 

completed at 

that level?

Who is the 

primary 

caregiver of 

(NAME)?

11 16 17 18 19

SURVIVORSHIP AND RESIDENCE OF

IF AGE 0-17 YEARS

SCHOOL

Has 

(NAME) 

ever 

attended an 

educational 

institution?

During 

[this/that] 

academic year, 

what level and 

grade [is/was] 

(NAME) 

attending?

13 14 15

Is (NAME)'s 

biological 

father alive?

SCHOOL ATTENDANCE

IF AGE 5-24 YEARS IF AGE 5 YEARS OR 

OLDER

CURRENT/RECENT

15A

ELIGIBILITY

IF AGE 0-5

9

ELIGIBILITY

12 15B

BIOLOGICAL PARENTS

LINE NO.

9A 10

CODES FOR Qs. 17 AND 19: EDUCATION 

Is (NAME)'s 

biological 

mother 

alive?

IF HOUSEHOLD 

SELECTED 

FOR MALE 

SURVEY 

AND BIOMARKERS

IF HOUSEHOLD 

SELECTED 

FOR MALE 

SURVEY 

AND BIOMARKERS

Does (NAME)'s 

biological 

mother usually 

live in this 

household or 

was she a 

guest last 

night?

IF YES: What is 

her name?

Does (NAME)'s 

biological father 

usually live in 

this household 

or was he a 

guest last 

night?

IF YES: What is 

his name?

Appendix E • 437
LINE

NO.

N YS YA YT DK N YS YA YT DK N YS YA YT DK N YS YA YT DK N YS YA YT DK N YS YA YT DK Y N

01 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 1 2

NEXT LINE

0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 1 2

02

NEXT LINE

0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 1 2

03

NEXT LINE

0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 1 2

04

NEXT LINE

0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 1 2

05

NEXT LINE

0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 1 2

06

NEXT LINE

0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 0 1 2 3 8 1 2

07

NEXT LINE

01 = OLD AGE (60-74; R1500; 75+; R1520)

02 = DISABILITY (18-59; R1500)

03 = CHILD SUPPORT (0-17; R350)

04 = CARE DEPENDENCY (0-17; R1500)

05 = FOSTER CHILD (<22; R890) 

06 = WAR VETERAN (60+; R1520)

07 = IN-AID + OLD AGE 

(60-74; R1850; 75+; R1870)

08 = IN-AID + DISABILITY (18-59; R1850)

09 = IN-AID + WAR VETERAN (60+; R1870)

10 = SOCIAL RELIEF OF DISTRESS

98 = DON'T KNOW

CODES FOR Q. 27 : GOVT GRANTS 

27

What type of 

government 

grant does 

(NAME) 

receive?

26

Does 

(NAME) 

receive any 

social grant, 

old age 

grant, or 

social relief 

assistance 

from the 

government

?

GOVERNMENT

 GRANTS

25

Does (NAME) have difficulty 

with self-care such as 

washing all over or 

dressing?

IF NO, CIRCLE "0".

IF YES, PROBE: With some 

difficulty, with a lot of 

difficulty, or cannot do at all?

IF WITH SOME 

DIFFICULTY, CIRCLE "1". 

IF WITH A LOT OF 

DIFFICULTY, CIRCLE "2". 

IF CANNOT DO AT ALL, 

CIRCLE "3". IF DON'T 

KNOW CIRCLE "8".

21

Does (NAME) have difficulty 

communicating in (his/her) 

usual language? For 

example, understanding 

others or others 

understanding (him/her)?

IF NO, CIRCLE "0".

IF YES, PROBE: With some 

difficulty, with a lot of 

difficulty, or cannot 

communicate at all?

IF WITH SOME 

DIFFICULTY, CIRCLE "1". 

IF WITH A LOT OF 

DIFFICULTY, CIRCLE "2". 

IF CANNOT 

COMMUNICATE AT ALL, 

CIRCLE "3". IF DON'T 

KNOW CIRCLE "8".

24

Does (NAME) have difficulty 

hearing, even if wearing a 

hearing aid?

IF NO, CIRCLE "0".

IF YES, PROBE: With some 

difficulty, with a lot of 

difficulty, or cannot hear at 

all?

IF WITH SOME 

DIFFICULTY, CIRCLE "1". 

IF WITH A LOT OF 

DIFFICULTY, CIRCLE "2". 

IF CANNOT HEAR AT ALL, 

CIRCLE "3". IF DON'T 

KNOW CIRCLE "8".

22 23

Does (NAME) have difficulty 

walking a kilometre or 

climbing a flight of steps?

IF NO, CIRCLE "0".

IF YES, PROBE: With some 

difficulty, with a lot of 

difficulty, or cannot walk or 

climb steps at all?

IF WITH SOME 

DIFFICULTY, CIRCLE "1". 

IF WITH A LOT OF 

DIFFICULTY, CIRCLE "2". 

IF CANNOT WALK OR 

CLIMB AT ALL, CIRCLE "3". 

IF DON'T KNOW CIRCLE 

"8".

Does (NAME) have difficulty 

remembering or 

concentrating?

IF NO, CIRCLE "0".

IF YES, PROBE: With some 

difficulty, with a lot of 

difficulty, or cannot 

remember or concentrate at 

all?

IF WITH SOME 

DIFFICULTY, CIRCLE "1". 

IF WITH A LOT OF 

DIFFICULTY, CIRCLE "2". 

IF CANNOT REMEMBER 

OR CONCENTRATE AT 

ALL, CIRCLE "3". IF DON'T 

KNOW CIRCLE "8".

20

DISABILITY

IF AGE 5 YEARS OR OLDER

PROBLEM OF

VISION

PROBLEM OF

HEARING

PROBLEM OF

WALKING

PROBLEM OF

REMEMBERING

PROBLEM WITH

SELF-CARE

PROBLEM OF

COMMUNICATING

Does (NAME) have difficulty 

seeing, even if wearing 

glasses?

IF NO, CIRCLE "0".

IF YES, PROBE: With some 

difficulty, with a lot of 

difficulty, or cannot see at 

all?

IF WITH SOME 

DIFFICULTY, CIRCLE "1". 

IF WITH A LOT OF 

DIFFICULTY, CIRCLE "2". 

IF CANNOT SEE AT ALL, 

CIRCLE "3". IF DON'T 

KNOW CIRCLE "8".

438 • Appendix E
NAME OF SELECTED WOMAN

HOUSEHOLD LINE NUMBER OF SELECTED WOMAN . . 

7 5

2 6 4

9 1 1 2 1 2 3

8 1 2 1 4 1

7 1 1 3 3 5 1 5 3

6 1 2 2 2 4 6 4 2

4 2 8

5 1 1 1 1 3 5

4 1 2 3 4 2

3 1

3 1 1 2 3 1 3 1 7

2 1 2 1 2 5 2 7 6

1 1 1 3 1 4 1 6 5

0 1 2 2 4 3 6 5 4

TABLE FOR SELECTION OF WOMEN FOR THE HOUSEHOLD RELATIONS QUESTIONS 

LOOK AT THE LAST DIGIT OF THE HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE SERIAL NUMBER ON THE COVER PAGE. 

THIS IS THE ROW NUMBER YOU SHOULD GO TO. CHECK THE TOTAL NUMBER OF ELIGIBLE WOMEN IN 

COLUMN 9A OF THE HOUSEHOLD SCHEDULE. THIS IS THE COLUMN NUMBER YOU SHOULD GO TO. 

FOLLOW THE SELECTED ROW AND COLUMN TO THE CELL WHERE THEY MEET AND CIRCLE THE NUMBER 

IN THE CELL. THIS IS THE NUMBER OF THE WOMAN SELECTED FOR THE HOUSEHOLD RELATIONS 

QUESTIONS FROM THE LIST OF ELIGIBLE WOMEN IN COLUMN 9A OF THE HOUSEHOLD SCHEDULE. WRITE 

THE NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF THE SELECTED WOMAN IN THE SPACE BELOW THE TABLE. 

EXAMPLE: THE HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE SERIAL NUMBER IS ‘716’ AND THE HOUSEHOLD SCHEDULE 

COLUMN 9A SHOWS THAT THERE ARE THREE ELIGIBLE WOMEN IN THE HOUSEHOLD (LINE NUMBERS 02, 

04, AND 05). SINCE THE LAST DIGIT OF THE HOUSEHOLD SERIAL NUMBER IS '6' GO TO ROW '6' AND SINCE 

THERE ARE THREE ELIGIBLE WOMEN IN THE HOUSEHOLD, GO TO COLUMN '3’. FOLLOW THE ROW AND 

COLUMN AND FIND THE NUMBER IN THE CELL WHERE THEY MEET (‘2') AND CIRCLE THE NUMBER. NOW GO 

TO THE HOUSEHOLD SCHEDULE AND FIND THE SECOND WOMAN WHO IS ELIGIBLE FOR THE WOMAN'S 

INTERVIEW (LINE NUMBER '04' IN THIS EXAMPLE). WRITE HER NAME AND LINE NUMBER IN THE SPACE 

BELOW THE TABLE. 

LAST DIGIT OF THE 

HOUSEHOLD 

QUESTIONNAIRE 

SERIAL NUMBER

TOTAL NUMBER OF ELIGIBLE WOMEN IN HOUSEHOLD SCHEDULE COLUMN 9A

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Appendix E • 439
NO.

101 PIPED WATER

PIPED INTO DWELLING/HOUSE . . . . . . . . . . 11

PIPED TO YARD/PLOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 106

PIPED TO NEIGHBOUR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

PUBLIC/COMMUNAL TAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

BOREHOLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

DUG WELL

PROTECTED WELL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

UNPROTECTED WELL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

WATER FROM SPRING

PROTECTED SPRING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 103

UNPROTECTED SPRING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

RAINWATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

WATER-CARRIER/TANKER TRUCK . . . . . . . 61

CART WITH SMALL TANK/WATER VENDOR . . 71

SURFACE WATER (RIVER/DAM/

LAKE/POND/STREAM/CANAL/

IRRIGATION CHANNEL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

BOTTLED WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

OTHER 96 103

102 PIPED WATER

PIPED INTO DWELLING/HOUSE . . . . . . . . . . 11

PIPED TO YARD/PLOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 106

PIPED TO NEIGHBOUR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

PUBLIC/COMMUNAL TAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

BOREHOLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

DUG WELL

PROTECTED WELL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

UNPROTECTED WELL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

WATER FROM SPRING

PROTECTED SPRING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

UNPROTECTED SPRING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

RAINWATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

WATER-CARRIER/TANKER TRUCK . . . . . . . 61

CART WITH SMALL TANK/WATER VENDOR . . 71

SURFACE WATER (RIVER/DAM/

LAKE/POND/STREAM/CANAL/

IRRIGATION CHANNEL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

OTHER 96

103 IN OWN DWELLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

IN OWN YARD/PLOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

ELSEWHERE/OUTSIDE YARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

104

MINUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

105

YES NO

106 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

107 YES, ALWAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

YES, SOMETIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

In the past two weeks, was the water from this source 

not available for at least one full day?

HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

107

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

What is the main source of water used by your 

household for other purposes such as cooking and 

handwashing?

105

How long does it take to go there, get water, and come 

back?

CHECK 101 AND 102: CODE '14' OR '21' CIRCLED?

What is the main source of drinking water for members 

of your household?

Where is that water source located?

109

Do you do anything to the water to make it safer to 

drink?

440 • Appendix E
NO.

HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

108 BOIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

ADD BLEACH/CHLORINE/JIK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

STRAIN THROUGH A CLOTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

USE WATER FILTER (CERAMIC/

SAND/COMPOSITE/ETC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

SOLAR DISINFECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

LET IT STAND AND SETTLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

OTHER X

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z

109 FLUSH OR POUR FLUSH TOILET

FLUSH TO PIPED SEWER SYSTEM . . . . . . . 11

FLUSH TO SEPTIC TANK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

FLUSH TO PIT LATRINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

FLUSH TO SOMEWHERE ELSE . . . . . . . . . . 14

FLUSH, DON'T KNOW WHERE . . . . . . . . . . 15

PIT LATRINE

VENTILATED IMPROVED PIT LATRINE . . . . . 21

PIT LATRINE WTH VENTILATION PIPE

BUT NO GAUZE MESH/NETTING . . . . . . . 22

PIT LATRINE WTHOUT VENTILATION PIPE 23

COMPOSTING TOILET/ECOLOGICAL

SANITATION SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

CHEMICAL TOILET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

BUCKET TOILET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

NO FACILITY/BUSH/FIELD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 113

OTHER 96

110 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 112

111 NO. OF HOUSEHOLDS

IF LESS THAN 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

10 OR MORE HOUSEHOLDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

112 IN OWN DWELLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

IN OWN YARD/PLOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

ELSEWHERE/OUTSIDE YARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

113 ELECTRICITY FROM MAINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

ELECTRICITY FROM GENERATOR . . . . . . . . . . 02

ELECTRICITY FROM OTHER SOURCE . . . . . . . 03

SOLAR ENERGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04

GAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05

PARAFFIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06

COAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

WOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08

STRAW/SHRUBS/GRASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

AGRICULTURAL CROP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

ANIMAL DUNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

NO FOOD COOKED IN HOUSEHOLD . . . . . . . 95 116

OTHER 96

114 IN THE HOUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

IN A SEPARATE BUILDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

OUTDOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

OTHER 6

115 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

116

ROOMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Do you have a separate room which is used as a 

kitchen?

Is the cooking usually done in the house, in a separate 

building, or outdoors?

What do you usually do to make the water safer to 

drink?

Anything else?

(SPECIFY)

IF NOT POSSIBLE TO DETERMINE, ASK 

PERMISSION TO OBSERVE THE FACILITY.

RECORD ALL MENTIONED.

What kind of toilet facility do members of your 

household usually use?

(SPECIFY)

Including your own household, how many households 

use this toilet facility?

Do you share this toilet facility with other households?

(SPECIFY)

Where is this toilet facility located?

0

What type of energy/fuel does your household mainly 

use for cooking?

116

How many rooms in this household are used for 

sleeping?

(SPECIFY)

Appendix E • 441
NO.

HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

116A ELECTRICITY FROM MAINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

ELECTRICITY FROM GENERATOR . . . . . . . . . . 02

ELECTRICITY FROM OTHER SOURCE . . . . . . . 03

SOLAR ENERGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04

GAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05

PARAFFIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06

COAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

WOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08

STRAW/SHRUBS/GRASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

AGRICULTURAL CROP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

ANIMAL DUNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

NO HEATING/WARMING IN HOUSEHOLD . . . . . 95

OTHER 96

117 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 120

118

a) a) CATTLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

b) b) HORSES/DONKEYS/MULES . . . . . 

c) c) GOATS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

d) d) SHEEP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

e) e) PIGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

f) f) CHICKENS/POULTRY . . . . . . . . . . 

120

NO YES 121

121A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

121 YES NO

b) b) RADIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

c) c) TELEVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

d) d) LANDLINE TELEPHONE . . 1 2

e) e) COMPUTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

f) f) REFRIGERATOR . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

g) g) VACUUM CLEANER . . . . . . . 1 2

h) h) MICROWAVE OVEN . . . . . . . 1 2

i) i) STOVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

j) k) WASHING MACHINE . . . . . . . 1 2

122 YES NO

a) a) WATCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

b) b) CELL PHONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

c) c) BICYCLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

d) d) MOTORCYCLE/SCOOTER . . . . . 1 2

e) e) ANIMAL-DRAWN CART . . . . . 1 2

f) f) CAR/BAKKIE/VAN/TRUCK . . 1 2

g) g) BOAT WITH MOTOR . . . . . . . 1 2

124 DAILY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

WEEKLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

MONTHLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

LESS OFTEN THAN ONCE A MONTH . . . . . . . 4

NEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Does your household have any of the following in 

working condition:

Does your household have electricity that is connected 

to the mains?

A vacuum cleaner or floor polisher?

A refrigerator?

An electric or gas stove?

How often does anyone smoke inside your house? 

Would you say daily, weekly, monthly, less often than 

once a month, or never?

A car, bakkie, van or truck?

Does any member of this household own any of the 

following in working condition:

How many of the following animals does this household 

own?

IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

IF 95 OR MORE, RECORD '95'.

IF UNKNOWN, RECORD '98'.

Does this household own any livestock, herds, other 

farm animals, or poultry?

A boat with a motor?

A microwave oven?

A landline telephone?

A desktop or laptop computer?

A television?

A radio?

Pigs?

A washing machine?

What type of energy/fuel does your household mainly 

use for heating/warming?

(SPECIFY)

CHECK 113 AND 116A: CODE '01' CIRCLED IN EITHER?

A watch?

Chickens or other poultry?

Sheep?

Goats?

Horses, donkeys, or mules?

A cell phone?

Cattle?

A motorcycle or motor scooter?

A bicycle?

An animal-drawn cart?

442 • Appendix E
NO.

HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

124A REMOVED BY LOCAL AUTHORITY/PRIVATE 

COMPANY AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . 01

REMOVED BY LOCAL AUTHORITY/PRIVATE

COMPANY LESS OFTEN THAN ONCE A WEEK 02

REMOVED BY COMMUNITY MEMBERS,

CONTRACTED BY THE MUNICIPALITY

AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03

REMOVED BY COMMUNITY MEMBERS,

CONTRACTED BY THE MUNICIPALITY

LESS OFTEN THAN ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . 04

REMOVED BY COMMUNITY MEMBERS

AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05

REMOVED BY COMMUNITY MEMBERS

LESS OFTEN THAN ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . 06

COMMUNAL REFUSE DUMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

COMMUNAL CONTAINER/CENTRAL

 COLLECTION POINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08

OWN REFUSE DUMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

OWN REFUSE BURNED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

NO RUBBISH DISPOSAL/DUMP OR LEAVE

ANYWHERE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

OTHER 96

124B YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 124D

124C POST OFFICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

BANK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

MAGISTRATE'S COURT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

SASSA/DEPARTMENT OF WELFARE/SOCIAL

DEVELOPMENT OFFICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

PAY POINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

OTHER X

DON'T KNOW/UNSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z

124D NEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SELDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

SOMETIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

OFTEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

ALWAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

NOT APPLICABLE/NO ADULTS IN HOUSEHOLD 6

124E NEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SELDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

SOMETIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

OFTEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

ALWAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

NOT APPLICABLE/NO CHILDREN IN HOUSEHOLD 6

(SPECIFY)

How is the refuse or rubbish in this household mainly 

collected or removed?

PROBE: How often is it removed?

(SPECIFY)

Where can you obtain forms?

RECORD ALL MENTIONED.

Do you know where you can get forms to apply for a 

government grant such as a child or old-age grant?

In the past 12 months, did any child (17 years or 

younger) in this household go hungry because there 

wasn't enough food?

In the past 12 months, did any adult (18 years and 

above) in this household go hungry because there 

wasn't enough food?

Appendix E • 443
NO.

139 OBSERVED, FIXED PLACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

OBSERVED, MOBILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT OBSERVED, NOT IN DWELLING/YARD/PLOT 3

NOT OBSERVED, NO PERMISSION TO SEE . . 4 141A

NOT OBSERVED, OTHER REASON . . . . . . . . . . 5

140 WATER IS AVAILABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

WATER IS NOT AVAILABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

141 SOAP OR DETERGENT

(BAR, LIQUID, POWDER, PASTE) . . . . . . . . A

ASH, MUD, SAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y

141A DWELLING/HOUSE OR BRICK/CONCRETE

BLOCK STRUCTURE ON A SEPARATE STAND/

YARD/FARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

TRADITIONAL DWELLING/HUT STRUCTURE

MADE OF TRADITIONAL MATERIALS . . . . . 02

FLAT OR APARTMENT IN BLOCK OF FLATS . . 03

CLUSTER HOUSE IN COMPLEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04

TOWN HOUSE/SEMI-DETACHED HOUSE

IN COMPLEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05

SEMI-DETACHED HOUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06

DWELLING/HOUSE/FLAT/ROOM IN BACKYARD 07

INFORMAL DWELLING/SHACK IN BACKYARD . . 08

INFORMAL DWELLING/SHACK NOT IN BACKYARD

(E.G., IN AN INFORMAL/SQUATTER 

SETTLEMENT OR ON FARM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

ROOM/FLATLET ON A PROPERTY OR LARGER

 DWELLING/SERVANTS' QUARTERS/

GRANNY FLAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

CARAVAN OR TENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

OTHER 96

142 NATURAL FLOOR

EARTH/SAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

DUNG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

RUDIMENTARY FLOOR

WOOD PLANKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

FINISHED FLOOR

LAMINATED OR POLISHED WOOD . . . . . . . . 31

VINYL/ASPHALT STRIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

CERAMIC TILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

CEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

CARPET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

OTHER 96

143 NATURAL ROOFING

NO ROOF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

THATCHING/GRASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

MUD/SOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

RUDIMENTARY ROOFING

PLASTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

WATTLE AND DAUB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

MUD WITH CEMENT MIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

BRICKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

WOOD PLANKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

CARDBOARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

FINISHED ROOFING

CORRUGATED IRON/ZINC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

WOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

ASBESTOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

TILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

CEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

OTHER 96

OBSERVE PRESENCE OF WATER AT THE PLACE 

FOR HANDWASHING.

RECORD OBSERVATION.

OBSERVE MAIN MATERIAL OF THE FLOOR OF THE 

DWELLING.

RECORD OBSERVATION.

OBSERVE MAIN MATERIAL OF THE ROOF OF THE 

DWELLING.

RECORD OBSERVATION.

OBSERVE TYPE OF DWELLING

RECORD OBSERVATION.

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

OBSERVE PRESENCE OF SOAP, DETERGENT, OR 

OTHER CLEANSING AGENT AT THE PLACE FOR 

HANDWASHING.

RECORD OBSERVATION.

ADDITIONAL HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

We would like to learn about the places that households 

use to wash their hands. Can you please show me 

where members of your household most often wash 

their hands?

444 • Appendix E
NO.

ADDITIONAL HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

144 NATURAL WALLS

NO WALLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

DIRT/MUD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

RUDIMENTARY WALLS

PLASTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

WATTLE AND DAUB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

STONE WITH MUD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

MUD WITH CEMENT MIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

CARDBOARD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

REUSED WOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

FINISHED WALLS

CEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

STONE WITH LIME/CEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

BRICKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

CEMENT BLOCK/CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . 34

WOOD PLANKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

CORRUGATED IRON/ZINC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

OTHER 96

144A

YES NO

145 BARCODE NUMBER

NO SALT IN HOUSEHOLD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996

146

HOURS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

MINUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

146

RECORD THE TIME.

OBSERVE MAIN MATERIAL OF THE EXTERIOR 

WALLS OF THE DWELLING.

RECORD OBSERVATION.

We would like to check whether the salt used in your 

household is adequately iodised. May I have a sample 

of the salt used to cook meals in your household?

RECORD BAR CODE NUMBER FROM FIRST BAR 

CODE LABEL IN BOXES. PLACE THE 1ST BAR CODE 

LABEL ON THE SALT SAMPLE AND THE 2ND ON 

THE TRANSMITTAL FORM.

(SPECIFY)

CHECK COVER PAGE: HOUSEHOLD SELECTED FOR SALT COLLECTION?

Appendix E • 445
COMMENTS ABOUT INTERVIEW:

COMMENTS ON SPECIFIC QUESTIONS:

ANY OTHER COMMENTS:

INTERVIEWER'S OBSERVATIONS

TO BE FILLED IN AFTER COMPLETING INTERVIEW

SUPERVISOR'S OBSERVATIONS

446 • Appendix E
FORMATTING DATE:

ENGLISH LANGUAGE:

PLACE NAME

NAME OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD

CLUSTER NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

HOUSEHOLD NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

HOUSEHOLD SELECTED FOR MALE SURVEY AND BIOMARKERS? (YES = 1; NO = 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

DATE DAY

FIELDWORKER'S MONTH

NAME

YEAR

NEXT VISIT: DATE TOTAL NUMBER

OF VISITS

TIME

NOTES:

TOTAL ELIGIBLE

WOMEN

TOTAL ELIGIBLE

MEN

TOTAL ELIGIBLE

CHILDREN

LANGUAGE OF LANGUAGE OF HOME LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR USED

QUESTIONNAIRE** INTERVIEW** OF RESPONDENT** (YES = 1, NO = 2)

LANGUAGE OF **LANGUAGE CODES:

QUESTIONNAIRE** 01 ENGLISH 05 seSOTHO 09 tshiVENDA

02 AFRIKAANS 06 seTSWANA 10 xiTSONGA

03 isiXHOSA 07 sePEDI 11 isiNDEBELE

04 isiZULU 08 siSWATI 12 OTHER

NAME NUMBER

ENGLISH

SUPERVISOR

0 1

1 May 2016

24 April 2015

2016 SOUTH AFRICA DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY

BIOMARKER QUESTIONNAIRE

IDENTIFICATION

1

2 0 1

FIELDWORKER VISITS

1 2 3 FINAL VISIT

Appendix E • 447
101

102 LINE LINE LINE

NUMBER . . . . . . NUMBER . . . . . . NUMBER . . . . . .

NAME NAME NAME

103

DAY . . . . . . . . . . DAY . . . . . . . . . . DAY . . . . . . . . . .

MONTH . . . . . . . . MONTH . . . . . . . . MONTH . . . . . . . .

YEAR . . . YEAR . . . YEAR . . .

104 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 114) (SKIP TO 114) (SKIP TO 114)

104A

NAME NAME NAME

104B

104C GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . 1

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . 3

105

KG. . . . . KG. . . . . KG. . . . .

NOT PRESENT . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . 9994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . 9995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . 9996

106

CM. . . . . CM. . . . . CM. . . . .

NOT PRESENT . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . 9994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . 9995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . 9996

(SKIP TO 108) (SKIP TO 108) (SKIP TO 108)

107 LYING DOWN . . . . . . 1 LYING DOWN . . . . . . 1 LYING DOWN . . . . . . 1

STANDING UP . . . . . . 2 STANDING UP . . . . . . 2 STANDING UP . . . . . . 2

108

109 0-5 MONTHS . . . . . . . . 1 0-5 MONTHS . . . . . . . . 1 0-5 MONTHS . . . . . . . . 1

(SKIP TO 114) (SKIP TO 114) (SKIP TO 114)

OLDER . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OLDER . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OLDER . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

111

112 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . 1

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . 3

113

G/DL . . . . . G/DL . . . . . G/DL . . . . .

NOT PRESENT 994 NOT PRESENT 994 NOT PRESENT 994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

114

RECORD HAEMOGLOBIN LEVEL

HERE AND IN THE CHILD HEALTH

INFORMATIONAL BROCHURE.

GO BACK TO 103 IN NEXT COLUMN OF THIS QUESTIONNAIRE OR IN THE FIRST COLUMN OF THE NEXT PAGE;

IF NO MORE CHILDREN, GO TO 201.

FIELDWORKER NUMBER

CHECK 103: CHILD AGE 0-5 MONTHS,

I.E., WAS CHILD BORN IN MONTH OF

INTERVIEW OR 5 PREVIOUS

MONTHS?

ASK CONSENT FOR ANAEMIA TEST

FROM PARENT/OTHER ADULT.

PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH PARENTAL CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE AND

SIGN YOUR NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

FIELDWORKER NUMBER

HEIGHT IN CENTIMETRES.

MEASURED LYING DOWN OR

STANDING UP?

MEASURER: ENTER YOUR

FIELDWORKER NUMBER.

FIELDWORKER NUMBER

0

CHECK LIST OF CHILDREN ELIGIBLE

FOR BIOMARKERS:

RECORD LINE NUMBER AND NAME.

CHECK 103: CHILD BORN BETWEEN

2011-2016?

RECORD NAME OF PARENT/OTHER

ADULT RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CHILD.

ASK CONSENT FOR PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH PARENTAL CONSENT FORM.

ANTHROPOMETRY

FROM PARENT/OTHER ADULT.

What is (NAME)’s date of birth?

WEIGHT, HEIGHT AND HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR CHILDREN AGE 0-5

FROM THE LIST OF PERSONS ELIGIBLE FOR BIOMARKERS, RECORD THE LINE NUMBER AND NAME OF ELIGIBLE CHILDREN AGE 0-5

IN THE SAME ORDER THEY APPEAR. IF THERE ARE MORE THAN SIX CHILDREN, USE ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE(S).

CHILD 1 CHILD 2 CHILD 3

0 0

CIRCLE THE CODE AND

SIGN YOUR NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

WEIGHT IN KILOGRAMS.

448 • Appendix E
102 LINE LINE LINE

NUMBER . . . . . . NUMBER . . . . . . NUMBER . . . . . . 

NAME NAME NAME

103

DAY . . . . . . . . . . DAY . . . . . . . . . . DAY . . . . . . . . . . 

MONTH . . . . . . . . MONTH . . . . . . . . MONTH . . . . . . . . 

YEAR . . . YEAR . . . YEAR . . . 

104 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 114) (SKIP TO 114) (SKIP TO 114)

104A

NAME NAME NAME

104B

104C GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . 1

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . 3

105

KG. . . . . KG. . . . . KG. . . . .

NOT PRESENT . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . 9994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . 9995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . 9996

106

CM. . . . . CM. . . . . CM. . . . .

NOT PRESENT . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . 9994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . 9995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . 9996

(SKIP TO 108) (SKIP TO 108) (SKIP TO 108)

107 LYING DOWN . . . . . . 1 LYING DOWN . . . . . . 1 LYING DOWN . . . . . . 1

STANDING UP . . . . . . 2 STANDING UP . . . . . . 2 STANDING UP . . . . . . 2

108

109 0-5 MONTHS . . . . . . . . 1 0-5 MONTHS . . . . . . . . 1 0-5 MONTHS . . . . . . . . 1

(SKIP TO 114) (SKIP TO 114) (SKIP TO 114)

OLDER . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OLDER . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OLDER . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

111

112 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . 1

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . 3

113

G/DL . . . . . G/DL . . . . . G/DL . . . . .

NOT PRESENT 994 NOT PRESENT 994 NOT PRESENT 994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . 995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

114

RECORD HAEMOGLOBIN LEVEL 

HERE AND IN THE CHILD HEALTH 

INFORMATIONAL BROCHURE.

GO BACK TO 103 IN NEXT COLUMN OF THIS QUESTIONNAIRE OR IN THE FIRST COLUMN OF AN ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE;

IF NO MORE CHILDREN, GO TO 201.

FIELDWORKER NUMBER

CHECK 103: CHILD AGE 0-5 MONTHS, 

I.E., WAS CHILD BORN IN MONTH OF

INTERVIEW OR 5 PREVIOUS 

MONTHS?

ASK CONSENT FOR ANAEMIA TEST

FROM PARENT/OTHER ADULT.

PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH PARENTAL CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE AND

SIGN YOUR NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

FIELDWORKER NUMBER

WEIGHT IN KILOGRAMS.

HEIGHT IN CENTIMETRES.

MEASURED LYING DOWN OR 

STANDING UP?

MEASURER: ENTER YOUR 

FIELDWORKER NUMBER.

FIELDWORKER NUMBER

0

What is (NAME)’s date of birth?

0 0

WEIGHT, HEIGHT AND HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT FOR CHILDREN AGE 0-5

CHILD 4 CHILD 5 CHILD 6

CHECK LIST OF CHILDREN ELIGIBLE 

FOR BIOMARKERS:

RECORD LINE NUMBER AND NAME.

CHECK 103: CHILD BORN BETWEEN 

2011-2016?

RECORD NAME OF PARENT/OTHER 

ADULT RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CHILD.

PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH PARENTAL CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE AND

SIGN YOUR NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

ASK CONSENT FOR 

ANTHROPOMETRY

FROM PARENT/OTHER ADULT.

Appendix E • 449
201

202 LINE LINE LINE

NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . 

AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

202A 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 202C) (SKIP TO 202C) (SKIP TO 202C)

202B NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1

(SKIP TO 202E) (SKIP TO 202E) (SKIP TO 202E)

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

202C

202D GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 205) (SKIP TO 205) (SKIP TO 205)

202E

NAME NAME NAME

202F

202G GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER

RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE

ADULT REFUSED . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 205) (SKIP TO 205) (SKIP TO 205)

202H

202I GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

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M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R A N T H R O P O M E T R Y

ASK CONSENT FOR 

ANTHROPOMETRY.

PROVIDE MINOR RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN)

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P A R E N T A L / R E S P O N S I B L E A D U L T C O N S E N T F O R A N T H R O P O M E T R Y

ASK CONSENT FOR 

ANTHROPOMETRY.

PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH PARENTAL CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 205) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 205) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 205)

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ASK CONSENT FOR 

ANTHROPOMETRY.

PROVIDE ADULT RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(SIGN AND SKIP TO 205) (SIGN AND SKIP TO 205) (SIGN AND SKIP TO 205)

RECORD NAME OF 

PARENT/ADULT 

RESPONSIBLE FOR 

MINOR.

NAME

WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, AND 

RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR WOMEN AGE 15-95

FROM THE LIST OF PERSONS ELIGIBLE FOR BIOMARKERS, RECORD THE LINE NUMBER, NAME, AGE, AND MARITAL STATUS FOR 

ALL ELIGIBLE WOMEN IN 202. WRITE THE NAME OF EACH WOMAN AT THE TOP OF THE FOLLOWING PAGES.

IF THERE ARE MORE THAN THREE WOMEN, USE ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE(S).

WOMAN 1 WOMAN 2 WOMAN 3

CHECK LIST OF 

WOMEN ELIGIBLE 

FOR BIOMARKERS:

RECORD LINE 

NUMBER, NAME, 

AND AGE. 

RECORD MARITAL 

STATUS.

NAME NAME

CHECK 202: AGE

CHECK 202: 

MARITAL STATUS

(SIGN)

450 • Appendix E
205

KG. . . . . KG. . . . . KG. . . . .

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 99995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 99995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 99995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996

206

CM. . . . . . . . CM. . . . . . . . CM. . . . . . . .

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 9994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996

206A

CM. . . . . . . . CM. . . . . . . . CM. . . . . . . .

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 9994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996

207

208 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 210) (SKIP TO 210) (SKIP TO 210)

209 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1

(SKIP TO 213) (SKIP TO 213) (SKIP TO 213)

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NAME FROM LIST.

MEASURER: ENTER 

YOUR 

FIELDWORKER 

NUMBER.

FIELDWORKER NUMBER FIELDWORKER NUMBER

NAME

WOMAN 1 WOMAN 2 WOMAN 3

NAME NAME

0 0

WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, AND 

RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR WOMEN AGE 15-95

CHECK 202: 

MARITAL STATUS

CHECK 202: AGE

HEIGHT IN 

CENTIMETRES.

FIELDWORKER NUMBER

WAIST 

CIRCUMFERENCE 

IN CENTIMETRES.

WEIGHT IN 

KILOGRAMS. 0

Appendix E • 451
NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

WOMAN 1 WOMAN 2 WOMAN 3

NAME NAME

WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, AND 

RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR WOMEN AGE 15-95

210

211 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 247) (SKIP TO 247) (SKIP TO 247)

213

214 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER

RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE

ADULT REFUSED . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 255) (SKIP TO 255) (SKIP TO 255)

215

216 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 255) (SKIP TO 255) (SKIP TO 255)

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M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R B L O O D P RE S S U R E M E A S U R E M E N T

ASK CONSENT FOR 

BLOOD PRESSURE 

MEASUREMENT.

PROVIDE MINOR RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 255) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 255) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 255)

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ASK CONSENT FOR 

BLOOD PRESSURE 

MEASUREMENT.

PROVIDE ADULT RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

(IF GRANTED, SKIP TO 217; (IF GRANTED, SKIP TO 217; (IF GRANTED, SKIP TO 217; 

PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH PARENTAL CONSENT FORM.

P A R E N T A L / R E S P O N S I B L E A D U L T C O N S E N T F O R B L O O D P RE S S U R E M E A S U R E M E N T

ASK CONSENT FOR 

BLOOD PRESSURE 

MEASUREMENT.

IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 247) IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 247) IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 247)

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 255) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 255) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 255)

452 • Appendix E
NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

WOMAN 1 WOMAN 2 WOMAN 3

NAME NAME

WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, AND

RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR WOMEN AGE 15-95

217

YES NO YES NO YES NO

a) EATEN . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 EATEN . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 EATEN . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

b) HAD CAFFEINATED HAD CAFFEINATED HAD CAFFEINATED

DRINK . . . . . . . . 1 2 DRINK . . . . . . . . 1 2 DRINK . . . . . . . . 1 2

c) SMOKED . . . . . . 1 2 SMOKED . . . . . . 1 2 SMOKED . . . . . . 1 2

d) OTHER TOBACCO 1 2 OTHER TOBACCO 1 2 OTHER TOBACCO 1 2

218

ARM CIRCUMFERENCE ARM CIRCUMFERENCE ARM CIRCUMFERENCE

(IN CENTIMETRES). (IN CENTIMETRES). (IN CENTIMETRES).

219

SMALL: 17 CM – 22 CM . . . . . 1 SMALL: 17 CM – 22 CM . . . . . 1 SMALL: 17 CM – 22 CM . . . . . 1

MEDIUM: 23 CM – 31 CM . . . . . 2 MEDIUM: 23 CM – 31 CM . . . . . 2 MEDIUM: 23 CM – 31 CM . . . . . 2

LARGE: 32 CM – 42 CM . . . . . 3 LARGE: 32 CM – 42 CM . . . . . 3 LARGE: 32 CM – 42 CM . . . . . 3

EXTRA LARGE: ≥43 CM . . . . . 4 EXTRA LARGE: ≥43 CM . . . . . 4 EXTRA LARGE: ≥43 CM . . . . . 4

220 HOURS HOURS HOURS

221

SYSTOLIC . . . . . . . . SYSTOLIC . . . . . . . . SYSTOLIC . . . . . . . .

DIASTOLIC . . . . . . DIASTOLIC . . . . . . DIASTOLIC . . . . . .

PULSE . . . . . . . . . . PULSE . . . . . . . . . . PULSE . . . . . . . . . .

TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

Smoked any tobacco

product?

Used any other type

of tobacco such as

chewing tobacco or

snuff?

May I begin the

process of measuring

your blood pressure? I 

will begin by 

measuring the

circumference of your

arm to make sure that

I use the right

equipment.

USE THE ARM

CIRCUMFERENCE

MEASUREMENT TO 

SELECT THE

APPROPRIATE

BLOOD PRESSURE

MONITOR CUFF

SIZE. CIRCLE THE

CODE FOR THE

CUFF SIZE.

RECORD TIME OF MINUTES

FIRST BP READING

TAKE THE FIRST

BLOOD PRESSURE

READING. RECORD

THE SYSTOLIC AND

DIASTOLIC

PRESSURE AND

PULSE (HEART

RATE).

FIRST BP MEASURE FIRST BP MEASURE FIRST BP MEASURE

MINUTES

:

Before taking your

blood pressure, I 

would like to ask a

few questions about

things that may affect

these measurements.

Have you done any of

the following within

the past 30 minutes:

Had coffee, tea, cola

or other drink that has

caffeine?

:

MINUTES

:

(IF NOT MEASURED,

GO TO 245)

(IF NOT MEASURED,

GO TO 245)

(IF NOT MEASURED,

GO TO 245)

Eaten anything?

MEASURE THE CIRCUMFERENCE

OF THE RESPONDENT'S ARM

MIDWAY BETWEEN THE ELBOW

AND THE SHOULDER. RECORD

THE MEASUREMENT IN

CENTIMETRES.

MEASURE THE CIRCUMFERENCE

OF THE RESPONDENT'S ARM

MIDWAY BETWEEN THE ELBOW

AND THE SHOULDER. RECORD

THE MEASUREMENT IN

CENTIMETRES.

MEASURE THE CIRCUMFERENCE

OF THE RESPONDENT'S ARM

MIDWAY BETWEEN THE ELBOW

AND THE SHOULDER. RECORD

THE MEASUREMENT IN

CENTIMETRES.

Appendix E • 453
NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

WOMAN 1 WOMAN 2 WOMAN 3

NAME NAME

WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, AND

RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR WOMEN AGE 15-95

222

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

223

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

224

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

225

226

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(GO TO 243) (GO TO 243) (GO TO 243)

227 HOURS HOURS HOURS

228

SYSTOLIC . . . . . . . . SYSTOLIC . . . . . . . . SYSTOLIC . . . . . . . .

DIASTOLIC . . . . . . DIASTOLIC . . . . . . DIASTOLIC . . . . . .

PULSE . . . . . . . . . . PULSE . . . . . . . . . . PULSE . . . . . . . . . .

TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

To lower your blood

pressure, are you now 

taking a prescribed

medicine?

Before this survey,

has your blood

pressure ever been

checked?

Were you told on two

or more different

occasions by a doctor

or other health

professional that you

had hypertension or

high blood pressure?

TAKE THE SECOND

BLOOD PRESSURE

READING. RECORD

THE SYSTOLIC AND

DIASTOLIC

PRESSURE AND

PULSE (HEART

RATE).

SECOND BP MEASURE

RECORD TIME OF

SECOND BP

READING.

CHECK THAT IT HAS BEEN AT LEAST 3 MINUTES BEFORE TAKING THE SECOND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

(IF NOT MEASURED,

GO TO 243)

(IF NOT MEASURED,

GO TO 243)

(IF NOT MEASURED,

GO TO 243)

: : :

SECOND BP MEASURE SECOND BP MEASURE

MINUTES MINUTES MINUTES

May I take your blood

pressure at this time?

454 • Appendix E
NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

WOMAN 1 WOMAN 2 WOMAN 3

NAME NAME

WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, AND 

RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR WOMEN AGE 15-95

229

230

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(GO TO 243) (GO TO 243) (GO TO 243)

231 HOURS HOURS HOURS

232

SYSTOLIC . . . . . . SYSTOLIC . . . . . . SYSTOLIC . . . . . . 

DIASTOLIC . . . . . . DIASTOLIC . . . . . . DIASTOLIC . . . . . . 

PULSE . . . . . . . . . . PULSE . . . . . . . . . . PULSE . . . . . . . . . . 

TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

243

FINAL DIASTOLIC FINAL DIASTOLIC FINAL DIASTOLIC 

FINAL SYSTOLIC

<120 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

<130 2 2 3 4 5 6 2 2 3 4 5 6 2 2 3 4 5 6

130-139 3 3 3 4 5 6 3 3 3 4 5 6 3 3 3 4 5 6

140-159 4 4 4 4 5 6 4 4 4 4 5 6 4 4 4 4 5 6

160-179 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 5 5 5 5 6

≥180 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

244

1 NORMAL (OPTIMAL) 1 YEAR

2 NORMAL (MILDLY HIGH) 1 YEAR

3 NORMAL (MODERATELY HIGH) 2 MONTHS

4 ABNORMAL (MILDLY ELEVATED) 1 MONTH

5 ABNORMAL (MODERATELY ELEVATED) 1 DAY/IMMEDIATELY

6 ABNORMAL (SEVERELY ELEVATED) IMMEDIATELY

245 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 247) (SKIP TO 247) (SKIP TO 247)

246 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1

(SKIP TO 255) (SKIP TO 255) (SKIP TO 255)

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

RECORD TIME OF 

THIRD BP READING

<85

THIRD BP MEASURE

CHECK 202: AGE

CHECK 202: 

MARITAL STATUS

<80 90-99 ≥110 <80 <85 85-89 90-99 100-

109 ≥110 <80 <85 85-89

MINUTES

CHECK THAT IT HAS BEEN AT LEAST 3 MINUTES BEFORE TAKING THE THIRD BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

85-89

:

≥110

:

TAKE THE THIRD 

BLOOD PRESSURE 

READING. RECORD 

THE SYSTOLIC AND 

DIASTOLIC 

PRESSURE AND 

PULSE (HEART 

RATE).

THIRD BP MEASURE THIRD BP MEASURE

NUMBER 

CIRCLED IN 

243

RESPONDENT'S BLOOD PRESSURE 

CATEGORY

CONSULT HEALTH PROVIDER TO 

CHECK BLOOD PRESSURE WITHIN:

LOCATE THE NUMBER YOU CIRCLED IN 243 IN THE CHART BELOW. THEN USE THE INSTRUCTIONS TO THE RIGHT OF THAT 

NUMBER TO COMPLETE A BLOOD PRESSURE REPORT AND REFERRAL FORM FOR THE RESPONDENT. GIVE THE FORM TO 

THE RESPONDENT AND ANSWER ANY QUESTIONS.

100-

109 90-99 100-109

MINUTES MINUTES

:

CIRCLE THE SINGLE 

NUMBER WHERE 

THE FINAL READING 

OF THE DIASTOLIC 

AND SYSTOLIC 

MEASURES MEET.

May I take your blood 

pressure at this time?

Appendix E • 455
NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

WOMAN 1 WOMAN 2 WOMAN 3

NAME NAME

WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, AND

RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR WOMEN AGE 15-95

247

248 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 249) (SKIP TO 249) (SKIP TO 249)

248A 15-49 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15-49 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15-49 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

50-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 50-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 50-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 249) (SKIP TO 249) (SKIP TO 249)

248B YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

249

250 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 271) (SKIP TO 271) (SKIP TO 271)

251

252 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2

253

254 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2

(SIGN) (SIGN)

CIRCLE THE CODE

AND SIGN YOUR

NAME.

SIGN SIGN SIGN

(SIGN AND ENTER YOUR

FIELDWORKER NUMBER)

(SIGN AND ENTER YOUR

FIELDWORKER NUMBER)

CIRCLE THE CODE,

SIGN YOUR NAME,

AND ENTER YOUR

FIELDWORKER

NUMBER.

ASK CONSENT FOR

HBA1C TESTING.

(SIGN)

Are you pregnant?

A

D

U

L

T

R

E

S

P

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 249) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 249)

ASK CONSENT FOR

ANAEMIA TEST.

CIRCLE THE CODE

AND SIGN YOUR

NAME.

A

D

U

L

T

R

E

S

P

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

A

D

U

L

T

R

E

S

P

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

A D U L T R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R A N A E M I A T E S T

PROVIDE ADULT RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

A D U L T R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R H I V T E S T I N G

PROVIDE ADULT RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 249)

PROVIDE ADULT RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 271) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 271) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 271)

(SIGN AND ENTER YOUR

FIELDWORKER NUMBER)

A D U L T R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R H B A 1 C T E S T I N G

ASK CONSENT FOR

HIV TESTING.

A

D

U

L

T

R

E

S

P

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

A D U L T R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R A D D I T I O N A L T E S T I N G

ASK CONSENT FOR

ADDITIONAL

TESTING.

PROVIDE ADULT RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE

AND SIGN YOUR

NAME.

(SIGN AND SKIP TO 271) (SIGN AND SKIP TO 271) (SIGN AND SKIP TO 271)

CHECK 202: AGE

456 • Appendix E
NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

WOMAN 1 WOMAN 2 WOMAN 3

NAME NAME

WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, AND 

RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR WOMEN AGE 15-95

255

256 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER

RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE

ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 259) (SKIP TO 259) (SKIP TO 259)

257

258 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 259) (SKIP TO 259) (SKIP TO 259)

258A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

259

260 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER

RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE

ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 271) (SKIP TO 271) (SKIP TO 271)

261

262 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 271) (SKIP TO 271) (SKIP TO 271)

(SIGN)

M

I

N

O

R

R

E

S

P

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

PROVIDE MINOR RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R A N A E M I A T E S T

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 259)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 259)

(SIGN) (SIGN)

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

ASK CONSENT FOR 

HBA1C TESTING 

FROM MINOR 

RESPONDENT.

P

A

R

E

N

T

—

R

E

S

P

A

D

U

L

T

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

M

I

N

O

R

R

E

S

P

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

PROVIDE MINOR RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R H B A 1 C T E S T I N G

(SIGN)

P A R E N T A L / R E S P O N S I B L E A D U L T C O N S E N T F O R H B A 1 C T E S T I N G

Are you pregnant?

(SIGN)

(SIGN) (SIGN)

ASK CONSENT FOR 

ANAEMIA TEST 

FROM MINOR 

RESPONDENT.

(SIGN)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 259) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 259)

(SIGN)

PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH CONSENT FORM.

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 263)

CIRCLE THE CODE, 

SIGN YOUR NAME, 

AND ENTER YOUR 

FIELDWORKER 

NUMBER.

ASK CONSENT FOR 

HBA1C TESTING 

FROM 

PARENT/ADULT.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

P A R E N T A L / R E S P O N S I B L E A D U L T C O N S E N T F O R A N A E M I A T E S T

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 263) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 263)

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 259) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 259)

ASK CONSENT FOR PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH CONSENT FORM.

ANAEMIA TEST 

FROM 

PARENT/ADULT.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

P

A

R

E

N

T

—

R

E

S

P

A

D

U

L

T

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

Appendix E • 457
NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

WOMAN 1 WOMAN 2 WOMAN 3

NAME NAME

WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, AND

RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR WOMEN AGE 15-95

263

264 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER

RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE

ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2

265

266 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

267

268 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER

RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE

ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2

269

270 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

P A R E N T A L / R E S P O N S I B L E A D U L T C O N S E N T F O R H I V T E S T I N G

ASK CONSENT FOR

HIV TESTING FROM

PARENT/ADULT.

CIRCLE THE CODE

AND SIGN YOUR

NAME.

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 271) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 271)

ASK CONSENT FOR

HIV TESTING FROM

MINOR

RESPONDENT.

CIRCLE THE CODE

AND SIGN YOUR

NAME.

PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH CONSENT FORM.

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 271)

(SIGN)

(SIGN AND ENTER YOUR

FIELDWORKER NUMBER)

(SIGN AND ENTER YOUR

FIELDWORKER NUMBER)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 271) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 271) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 271)

M

I

N

O

R

R

E

S

P

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R A D D I T I O N A L T E S T I N G

ASK CONSENT FOR

ADDITIONAL

TESTING FROM

MINOR

RESPONDENT.

PROVIDE MINOR RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE

AND SIGN YOUR

NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

P

A

R

E

N

T

—

R

E

S

P

A

D

U

L

T

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

P A R E N T A L / R E S P O N S I B L E A D U L T C O N S E N T F O R A D D I T I O N A L T E S T I N G

P

A

R

E

N

T

—

R

E

S

P

A

D

U

L

T

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

M

I

N

O

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PROVIDE MINOR RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R H I V T E S T I N G

(SIGN AND ENTER YOUR

FIELDWORKER NUMBER)

(SIGN)

ASK CONSENT FOR

ADDITIONAL

TESTING FROM

PARENT/ADULT.

(SIGN)

PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE

AND SIGN YOUR

NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 271) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 271) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 271)

458 • Appendix E
NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

WOMAN 1 WOMAN 2 WOMAN 3

NAME NAME

WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, AND

RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR WOMEN AGE 15-95

271

272

273

G/DL . . . . . . . . . G/DL . . . . . . . . . G/DL . . . . . . . . .

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

274

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 99995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 99995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 99995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996

275

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 99995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 99995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . 99995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996

275A TEST KIT ACCEPTED . . . . . 1 TEST KIT ACCEPTED . . . . . 1 TEST KIT ACCEPTED . . . . . 1

TEST KIT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 TEST KIT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 TEST KIT REFUSED . . . . . . 2

TEST KIT NOT OFFERRED 3 TEST KIT NOT OFFERRED 3 TEST KIT NOT OFFERRED 3

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 4 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 3 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 3

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

276

PUT THE 1ST BAR CODE

LABEL HERE.

PREPARE EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES ONLY FOR THE TEST(S) FOR WHICH CONSENT HAS BEEN OBTAINED AND

PROCEED WITH THE TEST(S).

RECORD

HAEMOGLOBIN

LEVEL HERE AND IN

THE ADULT HEALTH

INFORMATIONAL

BROCHURE.

PUT THE 1ST BAR CODE

LABEL HERE.

HBA1C TESTING:

PLACE BAR CODE

LABEL.

ADDITIONAL TESTS. IF ADULT RESPONDENT, CHECK

254; IF MINOR RESPONDENT,

CHECK 268 AND 270.

PUT THE 2ND BAR CODE

LABEL HERE.

PUT THE 2ND BAR CODE

LABEL HERE.

IF ADULT RESPONDENT, CHECK

254; IF MINOR RESPONDENT,

CHECK 268 AND 270.

IF ADULT RESPONDENT, CHECK

254; IF MINOR RESPONDENT,

CHECK 268 AND 270.

IF CONSENT HAS NOT BEEN

GRANTED, WRITE "NO 

ADDITIONAL TESTS" ON THE

FILTER PAPER.

PUT THE 1ST BAR CODE

LABEL HERE.

IF CONSENT HAS NOT BEEN

GRANTED, WRITE "NO 

ADDITIONAL TESTS" ON THE

FILTER PAPER.

OFFER HIV SELFTEST KIT TO 

RESPONDENT WHO 

CONSENTED TO HIV

TESTING.

CHECK 274 AND

275: AT LEAST ONE

BAR CODE LABEL

PRESENT?

IF CONSENT GRANTED FOR

EITHER TEST, PUT 3RD BAR

CODE LABEL ON THE

RESPONDENT'S FILTER PAPER

CARD AND THE 4TH BAR CODE

ON THE TRANSMITTAL FORM.

IF CONSENT GRANTED FOR

EITHER TEST, PUT 3RD BAR

CODE LABEL ON THE

RESPONDENT'S FILTER PAPER

CARD AND THE 4TH BAR CODE

ON THE TRANSMITTAL FORM.

IF CONSENT GRANTED FOR

EITHER TEST, PUT 3RD BAR

CODE LABEL ON THE

RESPONDENT'S FILTER PAPER

CARD AND THE 4TH BAR CODE

ON THE TRANSMITTAL FORM.

IF CONSENT HAS NOT BEEN

GRANTED, WRITE "NO 

ADDITIONAL TESTS" ON THE

FILTER PAPER.

HIV TESTING:

PLACE BAR CODE

LABEL.

PUT THE 2ND BAR CODE

LABEL HERE.

Appendix E • 459
NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

WOMAN 1 WOMAN 2 WOMAN 3

NAME NAME

WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, AND 

RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR WOMEN AGE 15-95

277 MEDICINES SEEN . . . . . . 1 MEDICINES SEEN . . . . . . 1 MEDICINES SEEN . . . . . . 1

NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 3 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 3 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 3

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

278 GO BACK TO 202 IN NEXT COLUMN OF THIS QUESTIONNAIRE OR IN THE FIRST COLUMN OF AN ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE; 

IF NO MORE WOMEN, GO TO 301.

RECORD ALL 

MEDICATION/DRUG 

NAMES.

Please show me all 

the prescribed 

medicines that you 

take regularly or daily. 

460 • Appendix E
301

302 LINE LINE LINE

NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . 

AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

302A 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 1

18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 2 18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 2 18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 302C) (SKIP TO 302C) (SKIP TO 302C)

302B NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1

(SKIP TO 302E) (SKIP TO 302E) (SKIP TO 302E)

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

302C

302D GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 305) (SKIP TO 305) (SKIP TO 305)

302E

NAME NAME NAME

302F

302G GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER

RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE

ADULT REFUSED . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 305) (SKIP TO 305) (SKIP TO 305)

302H

302I GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

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M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R A N T H R O P O M E T R Y

ASK CONSENT FOR 

ANTHROPOMETRY.

PROVIDE MINOR RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

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P A R E N T A L / R E S P O N S I B L E A D U L T C O N S E N T F O R A N T H R O P O M E T R Y

ASK CONSENT FOR 

ANTHROPOMETRY.

PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH PARENTAL CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 305) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 305) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 305)

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

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A D U L T R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R A N T H R O P O M E T R Y

ASK CONSENT FOR 

ANTHROPOMETRY.

PROVIDE ADULT RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(SIGN AND SKIP TO 305) (SIGN AND SKIP TO 305) (SIGN AND SKIP TO 305)

RECORD NAME OF 

PARENT/ADULT 

RESPONSIBLE FOR 

MINOR.

CHECK 302: AGE

CHECK 302: 

MARITAL STATUS

WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, 

AND RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR MEN AGE 15-95

FROM THE LIST OF PERSONS ELIGIBLE FOR BIOMARKERS, RECORD THE LINE NUMBER, NAME, AGE, AND MARITAL STATUS 

FOR ALL ELIGIBLE MEN IN 302. WRITE THE NAME OF EACH MAN AT THE TOP OF THE FOLLOWING PAGES.

IF THERE ARE MORE THAN THREE MEN, USE ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE(S).

MAN 1 MAN 2 MAN 3

CHECK LIST OF 

MEN ELIGIBLE FOR 

BIOMARKERS:

RECORD LINE 

NUMBER, NAME, 

AND AGE. 

RECORD MARITAL 

STATUS.

NAME NAME NAME

Appendix E • 461
305

KG. . . . . KG. . . . . KG. . . . .

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 99995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 99995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 99995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996

306

CM. . . . . . . . CM. . . . . . . . CM. . . . . . . .

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 9994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996

306A

CM. . . . . . . . CM. . . . . . . . CM. . . . . . . .

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 9994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 9994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9996

307

308 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 1

18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 2 18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 2 18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 310) (SKIP TO 310) (SKIP TO 310)

309 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1

(SKIP TO 313) (SKIP TO 313) (SKIP TO 313)

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

FIELDWORKER NUMBER

CHECK 302: AGE

CHECK 302:

MARITAL STATUS

WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING,

AND RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR MEN AGE 15-95

MAN 1 MAN 2 MAN 3

NAME NAME

NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

WEIGHT IN

KILOGRAMS.

HEIGHT IN

CENTIMETRES.

WAIST

CIRCUMFERENCE

IN CENTIMETRES.

MEASURER: ENTER

YOUR

FIELDWORKER

NUMBER.

FIELDWORKER NUMBER FIELDWORKER NUMBER

0 0 0

462 • Appendix E
WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, 

AND RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR MEN AGE 15-95

MAN 1 MAN 2 MAN 3

NAME NAME

NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

310

311 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 347) (SKIP TO 347) (SKIP TO 347)

313

314 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER

RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE

ADULT REFUSED . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 355) (SKIP TO 355) (SKIP TO 355)

315

316 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 3 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 3 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 3

(SKIP TO 355) (SKIP TO 355) (SKIP TO 355)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 355) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 355) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 355)

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M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R B L O O D P RE S S U R E M E A S U R E M E N T

ASK CONSENT FOR 

BLOOD PRESSURE 

MEASUREMENT.

PROVIDE MINOR RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

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A D U L T R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R B L O O D P RE S S U R E M E A S U R E M E N T

ASK CONSENT FOR 

BLOOD PRESSURE 

MEASUREMENT.

PROVIDE ADULT RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(IF GRANTED, SKIP TO 317; (IF GRANTED, SKIP TO 317; (IF GRANTED, SKIP TO 317; 

IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 347) IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 347) IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 347)

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ASK CONSENT FOR 

BLOOD PRESSURE 

MEASUREMENT.

PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH PARENTAL CONSENT FORM.

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 355) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 355) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 355)

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

Appendix E • 463
WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING,

AND RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR MEN AGE 15-95

MAN 1 MAN 2 MAN 3

NAME NAME

NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

317

YES NO YES NO YES NO

a) EATEN . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 EATEN . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 EATEN . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

b) HAD CAFFEINATED HAD CAFFEINATED HAD CAFFEINATED

DRINK . . . . . . . . 1 2 DRINK . . . . . . . . 1 2 DRINK . . . . . . . . 1 2

c) SMOKED . . . . . . 1 2 SMOKED . . . . . . 1 2 SMOKED . . . . . . 1 2

d) OTHER TOBACCO 1 2 OTHER TOBACCO 1 2 OTHER TOBACCO 1 2

318

ARM CIRCUMFERENCE ARM CIRCUMFERENCE ARM CIRCUMFERENCE

(IN CENTIMETRES). (IN CENTIMETRES). (IN CENTIMETRES).

319

SMALL: 17 CM – 22 CM . . . . . 1 SMALL: 17 CM – 22 CM . . . . 1 SMALL: 17 CM – 22 CM . . . . 1

MEDIUM: 23 CM – 31 CM . . . . . 2 MEDIUM: 23 CM – 31 CM . . . . 2 MEDIUM: 23 CM – 31 CM . . . . 2

LARGE: 32 CM – 42 CM . . . . . 3 LARGE: 32 CM – 42 CM . . . . 3 LARGE: 32 CM – 42 CM . . . . 3

EXTRA LARGE: ≥43 CM . . . . . 4 EXTRA LARGE: ≥43 CM . . . . 4 EXTRA LARGE: ≥43 CM . . . . 4

320 HOURS HOURS HOURS

321

SYSTOLIC. . . . . . . . SYSTOLIC. . . . . . . . SYSTOLIC. . . . . . . .

DIASTOLIC . . . . . . DIASTOLIC . . . . . . DIASTOLIC . . . . . .

PULSE . . . . . . . . . . PULSE . . . . . . . . . . PULSE . . . . . . . . . .

TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

TAKE THE FIRST

BLOOD PRESSURE

READING. RECORD

THE SYSTOLIC AND

DIASTOLIC

PRESSURE AND

PULSE (HEART

RATE).

FIRST BP MEASURE FIRST BP MEASURE FIRST BP MEASURE

(IF NOT MEASURED,

GO TO 345)

(IF NOT MEASURED,

GO TO 345)

(IF NOT MEASURED,

GO TO 345)

USE THE ARM

CIRCUMFERENCE

MEASUREMENT TO

SELECT THE

APPROPRIATE

BLOOD PRESSURE

MONITOR CUFF

SIZE. CIRCLE THE

CODE FOR THE

CUFF SIZE.

RECORD TIME OF

FIRST BP READING

MINUTES MINUTES MINUTES

: : :

Used any other type

of tobacco such as

chewing tobacco or

snuff?

May I begin the

process of measuring

your blood pressure?

I will begin by

measuring the

circumference of your

arm to make sure

that I use the right

equipment.

Before taking your

blood pressure, I

would like to ask a

few questions about

things that may affect

these measurements.

Have you done any of

the following within

the past 30 minutes:

Had coffee, tea, cola

or other drink that

has caffeine?

MEASURE THE CIRCUMFERENCE

OF THE RESPONDENT'S ARM

MIDWAY BETWEEN THE ELBOW

AND THE SHOULDER. RECORD

THE MEASUREMENT IN

CENTIMETRES.

MEASURE THE CIRCUMFERENCE

OF THE RESPONDENT'S ARM

MIDWAY BETWEEN THE ELBOW

AND THE SHOULDER. RECORD

THE MEASUREMENT IN

CENTIMETRES.

MEASURE THE CIRCUMFERENCE

OF THE RESPONDENT'S ARM

MIDWAY BETWEEN THE ELBOW

AND THE SHOULDER. RECORD

THE MEASUREMENT IN

CENTIMETRES.

Smoked any tobacco

product?

Eaten anything?

464 • Appendix E
WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING,

AND RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR MEN AGE 15-95

MAN 1 MAN 2 MAN 3

NAME NAME

NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

322

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

323

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

324

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

325

326

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(GO TO 343) (GO TO 343) (GO TO 343)

327 HOURS HOURS HOURS

328

SYSTOLIC. . . . . . . . SYSTOLIC. . . . . . . . SYSTOLIC. . . . . . . .

DIASTOLIC . . . . . . DIASTOLIC . . . . . . DIASTOLIC . . . . . .

PULSE . . . . . . . . . . PULSE . . . . . . . . . . PULSE . . . . . . . . . .

TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

TAKE THE SECOND

BLOOD PRESSURE

READING. RECORD

THE SYSTOLIC AND

DIASTOLIC

PRESSURE AND

PULSE (HEART

RATE).

SECOND BP MEASURE SECOND BP MEASURE SECOND BP MEASURE

(IF NOT MEASURED,

GO TO 343)

(IF NOT MEASURED,

GO TO 343)

(IF NOT MEASURED,

GO TO 343)

Before this survey,

has your blood

pressure ever been

checked?

To lower your blood

pressure, are you

now taking a

prescribed medicine?

CHECK THAT IT HAS BEEN AT LEAST 3 MINUTES BEFORE TAKING THE SECOND BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

RECORD TIME OF

SECOND BP

READING.

MINUTES MINUTES MINUTES

: : :

Were you told on two

or more different

occasions by a doctor

or other health

professional that you

had hypertension or

high blood pressure?

May I take your blood

pressure at this time?

Appendix E • 465
WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, 

AND RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR MEN AGE 15-95

MAN 1 MAN 2 MAN 3

NAME NAME

NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

329

330

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(GO TO 343) (GO TO 343) (GO TO 343)

331 HOURS HOURS HOURS

332

SYSTOLIC . . . . . . SYSTOLIC . . . . . . SYSTOLIC . . . . . . 

DIASTOLIC . . . . . . DIASTOLIC . . . . . . DIASTOLIC . . . . . . 

PULSE . . . . . . . . . . PULSE . . . . . . . . . . PULSE . . . . . . . . . . 

TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994 TECHNICAL PROBLEMS . 994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

343

FINAL DIASTOLIC FINAL DIASTOLIC FINAL DIASTOLIC 

FINAL SYSTOLIC

<120 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

<130 2 2 3 4 5 6 2 2 3 4 5 6 2 2 3 4 5 6

130-139 3 3 3 4 5 6 3 3 3 4 5 6 3 3 3 4 5 6

140-159 4 4 4 4 5 6 4 4 4 4 5 6 4 4 4 4 5 6

160-179 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 5 5 5 5 6

≥180 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

344

1 NORMAL (OPTIMAL) 1 YEAR

2 NORMAL (MILDLY HIGH) 1 YEAR

3 NORMAL (MODERATELY HIGH) 2 MONTHS

4 ABNORMAL (MILDLY ELEVATED) 1 MONTH

5 ABNORMAL (MODERATELY ELEVATED) 1 DAY/IMMEDIATELY

6 ABNORMAL (SEVERELY ELEVATED) IMMEDIATELY

345 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 1 15-17 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 1

18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 2 18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 2 18-95 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 347) (SKIP TO 347) (SKIP TO 347)

346 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1 NEVER IN UNION . . . . . . . . 1

(SKIP TO 355) (SKIP TO 355) (SKIP TO 355)

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

CHECK 302: 

MARITAL STATUS

CIRCLE THE 

SINGLE NUMBER 

WHERE THE FINAL 

READING OF THE 

DIASTOLIC AND 

SYSTOLIC 

MEASURES MEET.

CHECK 302: AGE

≥110 <80 <85 85-89 90-99 100-

109 ≥110 <80 <85 85-89 90-99 100-109 <80 <85 85-89 90-99 100-109 ≥110

LOCATE THE NUMBER YOU CIRCLED IN 343 IN THE CHART BELOW. THEN USE THE INSTRUCTIONS TO THE RIGHT OF THAT 

NUMBER TO COMPLETE A BLOOD PRESSURE REPORT AND REFERRAL FORM FOR THE RESPONDENT. GIVE THE FORM TO 

THE RESPONDENT AND ANSWER ANY QUESTIONS.

NUMBER 

CIRCLED IN 

343

RESPONDENT'S BLOOD PRESSURE 

CATEGORY

CONSULT HEALTH PROVIDER TO 

CHECK BLOOD PRESSURE WITHIN:

RECORD TIME OF 

THIRD BP READING

MINUTES MINUTES MINUTES

: : :

TAKE THE THIRD 

BLOOD PRESSURE 

READING. RECORD 

THE SYSTOLIC AND 

DIASTOLIC 

PRESSURE AND 

PULSE (HEART 

RATE).

THIRD BP MEASURE THIRD BP MEASURE THIRD BP MEASURE

CHECK THAT IT HAS BEEN AT LEAST 3 MINUTES BEFORE TAKING THE THIRD BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

May I take your blood 

pressure at this time?

466 • Appendix E
WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, 

AND RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR MEN AGE 15-95

MAN 1 MAN 2 MAN 3

NAME NAME

NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

347

348 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

349

350 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 371) (SKIP TO 371) (SKIP TO 371)

351

352 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2

353

354 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2 RESPONDENT REFUSED . . . 2

A

D

U

L

T

R

E

S

P

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

A D U L T R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R A D D I T I O N A L T E S T I N G

ASK CONSENT FOR 

ADDITIONAL 

TESTING.

PROVIDE ADULT RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(SIGN AND SKIP TO 371) (SIGN AND SKIP TO 371) (SIGN AND SKIP TO 371)

A

D

U

L

T

R

E

S

P

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

A D U L T R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R H B A 1 C T E S T I N G

ASK CONSENT FOR 

HBA1C TESTING.

PROVIDE ADULT RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE, 

SIGN YOUR NAME, 

AND ENTER YOUR 

FIELDWORKER 

NUMBER. SIGN SIGN SIGN

A

D

U

L

T

R

E

S

P

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

A D U L T R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R H I V T E S T I N G

ASK CONSENT FOR 

HIV TESTING.

PROVIDE ADULT RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(SIGN AND ENTER YOUR 

FIELDWORKER NUMBER)

(SIGN AND ENTER YOUR 

FIELDWORKER NUMBER)

(SIGN AND ENTER YOUR 

FIELDWORKER NUMBER)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 371) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 371) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 371)

A

D

U

L

T

R

E

S

P

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

A D U L T R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R A N A E M I A T E S T

ASK CONSENT FOR 

ANAEMIA TEST.

PROVIDE ADULT RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 349) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 349) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 349)

Appendix E • 467
WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING,

AND RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR MEN AGE 15-95

MAN 1 MAN 2 MAN 3

NAME NAME

NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

355

356 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER

RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE

ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 359) (SKIP TO 359) (SKIP TO 359)

357

358 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

359

360 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER

RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE

ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 371) (SKIP TO 371) (SKIP TO 371)

361

362 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3 NOT PRESENT/OTHER . . . 3

(SKIP TO 371) (SKIP TO 371) (SKIP TO 371)

M

I

N

O

R

R

E

S

P

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R H B A 1 C T E S T I N G

ASK CONSENT FOR

HBA1C TESTING

FROM MINOR

RESPONDENT.

PROVIDE MINOR RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE,

SIGN YOUR NAME,

AND ENTER YOUR

FIELDWORKER

NUMBER.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

P

A

R

E

N

T

—

R

E

S

P

A

D

U

L

T

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

P A R E N T A L / R E S P O N S I B L E A D U L T C O N S E N T F O R H B A 1 C T E S T I N G

ASK CONSENT FOR

HBA1C TESTING

FROM

PARENT/ADULT.

PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE

AND SIGN YOUR

NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 363) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 363) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 363)

M

I

N

O

R

R

E

S

P

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R A N A E M I A T E S T

ASK CONSENT FOR

ANAEMIA TEST

FROM MINOR

RESPONDENT.

PROVIDE MINOR RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE

AND SIGN YOUR

NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 359) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 359) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 359)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 359)

P

A

R

E

N

T

—

R

E

S

P

A

D

U

L

T

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

P A R E N T A L / R E S P O N S I B L E A D U L T C O N S E N T F O R A N A E M I A T E S T

ASK CONSENT FOR

ANAEMIA TEST

FROM

PARENT/ADULT.

PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE

AND SIGN YOUR

NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 359) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 359)

468 • Appendix E
WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, 

AND RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR MEN AGE 15-95

MAN 1 MAN 2 MAN 3

NAME NAME

NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

363

364 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER

RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE

ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2

365

366 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2

367

368 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER PARENT/OTHER

RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE RESPONSIBLE

ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 ADULT REFUSED . . . . . . 2

369

370 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GRANTED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT MINOR RESPONDENT

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

M

I

N

O

R

R

E

S

P

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R A D D I T I O N A L T E S T I N G

ASK CONSENT FOR 

ADDITIONAL 

TESTING FROM 

MINOR 

RESPONDENT.

PROVIDE MINOR RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

P

A

R

E

N

T

—

R

E

S

P

A

D

U

L

T

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

P A R E N T A L / R E S P O N S I B L E A D U L T C O N S E N T F O R A D D I T I O N A L T E S T I N G

ASK CONSENT FOR 

ADDITIONAL 

TESTING FROM 

PARENT/ADULT.

PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 371) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 371) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 371)

M

I

N

O

R

R

E

S

P

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

M I N O R R E S P O N D E N T C O N S E N T F O R H I V T E S T I N G

ASK CONSENT FOR 

HIV TESTING FROM 

MINOR 

RESPONDENT.

PROVIDE MINOR RESPONDENT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 371) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 371) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 371)

(SIGN) (SIGN) (SIGN)

P

A

R

E

N

T

—

R

E

S

P

A

D

U

L

T

C

O

N

S

E

N

T

P A R E N T A L / R E S P O N S I B L E A D U L T C O N S E N T F O R H I V T E S T I N G

ASK CONSENT FOR 

HIV TESTING FROM 

PARENT/ADULT.

PROVIDE PARENT/RESPONSIBLE ADULT WITH CONSENT FORM.

CIRCLE THE CODE 

AND SIGN YOUR 

NAME.

(IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 371) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 371) (IF REFUSED, SKIP TO 371)

(SIGN AND ENTER YOUR 

FIELDWORKER NUMBER)

(SIGN AND ENTER YOUR 

FIELDWORKER NUMBER)

(SIGN AND ENTER YOUR 

FIELDWORKER NUMBER)

Appendix E • 469
WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING, 

AND RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR MEN AGE 15-95

MAN 1 MAN 2 MAN 3

NAME NAME

NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

371

372

373

G/DL . . . . . . . . . G/DL . . . . . . . . . G/DL . . . . . . . . .

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . 994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

374

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 99995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 99995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 99995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996

375

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . 99994

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 99995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 99995 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . 99995

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99996

375A TEST KIT ACCEPTED . . . . 1 TEST KIT ACCEPTED . . . . 1 TEST KIT ACCEPTED . . . . 1

TEST KIT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 TEST KIT REFUSED . . . . . . 2 TEST KIT REFUSED . . . . . . 2

TEST KIT NOT OFFERRED 3 TEST KIT NOT OFFERRED 3 TEST KIT NOT OFFERRED 3

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 4 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 3 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 3

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

376

HIV TESTING: 

PLACE BAR CODE 

LABEL.

PUT THE 2ND BAR CODE 

LABEL HERE.

PUT THE 2ND BAR CODE 

LABEL HERE.

PUT THE 2ND BAR CODE 

LABEL HERE.

CHECK 374 AND 

375: AT LEAST ONE 

BAR CODE LABEL 

PRESENT?

IF CONSENT GRANTED FOR 

EITHER TEST, PUT 3RD BAR 

CODE LABEL ON THE 

RESPONDENT'S FILTER PAPER 

CARD AND THE 4TH BAR CODE 

ON THE TRANSMITTAL FORM.

IF CONSENT GRANTED FOR 

EITHER TEST, PUT 3RD BAR 

CODE LABEL ON THE 

RESPONDENT'S FILTER PAPER 

CARD AND THE 4TH BAR CODE 

ON THE TRANSMITTAL FORM.

IF CONSENT GRANTED FOR 

EITHER TEST, PUT 3RD BAR 

CODE LABEL ON THE 

RESPONDENT'S FILTER PAPER 

CARD AND THE 4TH BAR CODE 

ON THE TRANSMITTAL FORM.

OFFER HIV SELFTEST KIT TO 

RESPONDENT WHO 

CONSENTED TO 

HIV TESTING.

HBA1C TESTING: 

PLACE BAR CODE 

LABEL.

PUT THE 1ST BAR CODE 

LABEL HERE.

PUT THE 1ST BAR CODE 

LABEL HERE.

PUT THE 1ST BAR CODE 

LABEL HERE.

PREPARE EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES ONLY FOR THE TEST(S) FOR WHICH CONSENT HAS BEEN OBTAINED AND 

PROCEED WITH THE TEST(S).

ADDITIONAL TESTS. IF ADULT RESPONDENT, CHECK 

354; IF MINOR RESPONDENT, 

CHECK 368 AND 370.

IF ADULT RESPONDENT, CHECK 

354; IF MINOR RESPONDENT, 

CHECK 368 AND 370.

IF ADULT RESPONDENT, CHECK 

354; IF MINOR RESPONDENT, 

CHECK 368 AND 370.

IF CONSENT HAS NOT BEEN 

GRANTED, WRITE "NO 

ADDITIONAL TESTS" ON THE 

FILTER PAPER.

IF CONSENT HAS NOT BEEN 

GRANTED, WRITE "NO 

ADDITIONAL TESTS" ON THE 

FILTER PAPER.

IF CONSENT HAS NOT BEEN 

GRANTED, WRITE "NO 

ADDITIONAL TESTS" ON THE 

FILTER PAPER.

RECORD 

HAEMOGLOBIN 

LEVEL HERE AND 

IN THE ADULT 

HEALTH 

INFORMATIONAL 

BROCHURE.

470 • Appendix E
WEIGHT, HEIGHT, WAIST, BLOOD PRESSURE, HAEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT, BLOOD COLLECTION FOR HBA1C AND HIV TESTING,

AND RECORDING OF MEDICINES FOR MEN AGE 15-95

MAN 1 MAN 2 MAN 3

NAME NAME

NAME FROM LIST.

NAME

377 MEDICINES SEEN . . . . . . 1 MEDICINES SEEN . . . . . . 1 MEDICINES SEEN . . . . . . 1

NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 3 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 3 NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . 3

REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 REFUSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

DRUG DRUG DRUG

NAME NAME NAME

378

RECORD ALL

MEDICATION/DRUG

NAMES.

GO BACK TO 302 IN NEXT COLUMN OF THIS QUESTIONNAIRE OR IN THE FIRST COLUMN OF AN ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE;

IF NO MORE MEN, END INTERVIEW.

Please show me all

the prescribed

medicines that you

take regularly or

daily.

Appendix E • 471
FIELDWORKER'S OBSERVATIONS

TO BE FILLED IN AFTER COMPLETING BIOMARKERS

SUPERVISOR'S OBSERVATIONS

472 • Appendix E
FORMATTING DATE:

ENGLISH LANGUAGE:

PLACE NAME

NAME OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD

CLUSTER NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

HOUSEHOLD NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF WOMAN

HOUSEHOLD SELECTED FOR MALE SURVEY AND FULL BIOMARKERS? (YES = 1; NO = 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

RESPONDENT SELECTED FOR THE HOUSEHOLD RELATIONS MODULE? (YES = 1; NO = 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

.

DATE DAY

MONTH

YEAR

INTERVIEWER'S

NAME INT. NO.

RESULT* RESULT*

NEXT VISIT: DATE

TOTAL NUMBER

TIME OF VISITS

*RESULT CODES: 1 COMPLETED 4 REFUSED

2 NOT AT HOME 5 PARTLY COMPLETED 7 OTHER

3 POSTPONED 6 INCAPACITATED

LANGUAGE OF LANGUAGE OF HOME LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR USED

QUESTIONNAIRE** INTERVIEW** OF RESPONDENT** (YES = 1, NO = 2)

LANGUAGE OF **LANGUAGE CODES:

QUESTIONNAIRE** 01 ENGLISH 05 seSOTHO 09 tshiVENDA

02 AFRIKAANS 06 seTSWANA 10 xiTSONGA

03 isiXHOSA 07 sePEDI 11 isiNDEBELE

04 isiZULU 08 siSWATI 12 OTHER

SPECIFY

5 June 2016

22 April 2016

2016 SOUTH AFRICA DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY

 WOMAN'S QUESTIONNAIRE

IDENTIFICATION

INTERVIEWER VISITS

1 2 3 FINAL VISIT

2 0 1

0 1

NAME

ENGLISH

SUPERVISOR

NUMBER

Appendix E • 473
100A

AGE 18 AND ABOVE

AGE 15-17 OR 100C

AND NEVER IN UNION AGE 15-17 AND EVER IN UNION

100B

PARENT/GUARDIAN AGREES PARENT/GUARDIAN DOES NOT AGREE

MINOR MAY BE INTERVIEWED . . 1 TO ALLOW MINOR TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 2 END

100C

RESPONDENT AGREES RESPONDENT DOES NOT AGREE

TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 1 TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 2 END

NO.

101

HOURS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

MINUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

102

YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

ALWAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

VISITOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

103 CITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

TOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

RURAL AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

FARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

TRIBAL AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

INFORMAL SETTLEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

104 WESTERN CAPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

EASTERN CAPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02

NORTHERN CAPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03

FREE STATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04

KWAZULU-NATAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05

NORTH WEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06

GAUTENG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

MPUMALANGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08

LIMPOPO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

SADC COUNTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

OTHER COUNTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

CHECK RESPONDENT'S AGE AND MARITAL STATUS IN HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE.

INTRODUCTION AND CONSENT (PARENT/GUARDIAN)

SECTION 1. RESPONDENT'S BACKGROUND

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

DATE

Hello. My name is _______________________________________. I am working with Statistics South Africa. We are conducting a survey 

about health and other topics all over South Africa. The information we collect will help the government to plan health services. Your 

household was selected for the survey. I would like to talk to (NAME OF MINOR) about her health and well-being. The questions usually take 

about 45 to 60 minutes. All of the answers (NAME OF MINOR) gives will be confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than 

members of our survey team. (NAME OF MINOR) doesn't have to be in the survey, but we hope you will agree to allow (NAME OF MINOR) 

to answer the questions since (NAME OF MINOR)'s views are important.

In case you need more information about the survey, you may contact the person listed on the card that has already been given to your 

household.

Do you have any questions?

May I begin the interview with (NAME OF MINOR) now?

SIGNATURE OF INTERVIEWER

Hello. My name is _______________________________________. I am working with Statistics South Africa. We are conducting a survey 

about health and other topics all over South Africa. The information we collect will help the government to plan health services. Your 

household was selected for the survey. The questions usually take about 45 to 60 minutes. All of the answers you give will be confidential 

and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team. You don't have to be in the survey, but we hope you will agree to 

answer the questions since your views are important. If I ask you any question you don't want to answer, just let me know and I will go on to 

the next question or you can stop the interview at any time.

In case you need more information about the survey, you may contact the person listed on this information sheet.

GIVE INFORMATION SHEET.

Do you have any questions?

May I begin the interview now?

SIGNATURE OF INTERVIEWER DATE

INTRODUCTION AND CONSENT (RESPONDENT)

105 IF LESS THAN ONE YEAR, RECORD ‘00’ YEARS.

RECORD THE TIME.

How long have you been living continuously in (NAME 

OF CURRENT CITY, TOWN OR VILLAGE OF 

RESIDENCE)?

Before you moved here, which province did you live in?

Just before you moved here, where did you live?

PROBE: Is that a city, a town, a rural area, a farm, a 

tribal area, or an informal settlement?

474 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 1. RESPONDENT'S BACKGROUND

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

105

DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9998

106

AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS . . . . . . . . 

106A BLACK/AFRICAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

WHITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

COLOURED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

INDIAN/ASIAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER 6

107 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 111

108 PRIMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SECONDARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

HIGHER THAN SECONDARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

109 PRIMARY SCHOOL

LESS THAN 1 YEAR COMPLETED . . . . . . . . 00

GRADE 1/SUB A/CLASS 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

GRADE 2/SUB B/CLASS 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

GRADE 3/STANDARD 1/

AET 1 (KHA RI GUDE, SANLI) . . . . . . . . . . . 13

GRADE 4/STANDARD 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

GRADE 5/STANDARD 3/AET 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 15

GRADE 6 /STANDARD 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

GRADE 7/STANDARD 5/AET 3 . . . . . . . . . . . 17

SECONDARY SCHOOL

LESS THAN 1 YEAR COMPLETED . . . . . . . . 20

GRADE 8/STANDARD 6/FORM 1/NTC 1/

N1/NC (V) LEVEL 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

GRADE 9/STANDARD 7/FORM 2/AET 4/NTC 2/

N2/NC (V) LEVEL 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

GRADE 10/STANDARD 8/FORM 3/NTC 3/

N3/NC (V) LEVEL 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

GRADE 11/STANDARD 9/FORM 4 . . . . . . . . 24

CERTIFICATE OR DIPLOMA WITH LESS THAN 

GRADE 12/STANDARD 10 COMPLETED . . 25

GRADE 12/STANDARD 10/FORM 5/MATRIC . . 26

N4/NTC4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

N5/NTC5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

N6/NTC6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

HIGHER EDUCATION

FURTHER STUDIES INCOMPLETE OR ONGOING30

CERTIFICATE OR DIPLOMA WITH GRADE 12/

STANDARD 10 COMPLETED . . . . . . . . . . . 31

HIGHER DIPLOMA (TECHNIKON/

U. OF TECHNOLOGY) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

POST HIGHER DIPLOMA (TECHNIKON/

U. TECHNOLOGY MASTERS, DOCTORAL) 33

BACHELORS DEGREE/BACHELORS DEGREE

 AND POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA . . . . . 34

HONOURS DEGREE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

HIGHER DEGREE (MASTERS, DOCTORATE). . 36

110

PRIMARY OR HIGHER

SECONDARY 113

How old were you at your last birthday?

CHECK 108:

What is the highest grade or form you completed at that 

level?

What is the highest level you attended: primary, 

secondary, or higher than secondary?

(SPECIFY)

Which population group do you consider yourself: 

black, white, coloured, Indian or something else?

Have you ever attended an educational institution?

COMPARE AND CORRECT 105 AND/OR 106

IF INCONSISTENT. IF AGE 95 OR OLDER, RECORD 

95. 

On what day, month, and year were you born?

Appendix E • 475
NO.

SECTION 1. RESPONDENT'S BACKGROUND

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

111 CANNOT READ AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

ABLE TO READ ONLY PART OF

THE SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

ABLE TO READ WHOLE SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NO CARD WITH REQUIRED

LANGUAGE 4

BLIND/VISUALLY IMPAIRED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

112

CODE '2', '3' CODE '1' OR '5'

OR '4' CIRCLED 114

CIRCLED

113 AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

114 AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

115 AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

116 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 118

117 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

118 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

119 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 124

120

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 124

121 ALMOST EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

124

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 126

125 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

126

AGE 50

AGE 15-49 AND ABOVE 701

Do you own a cell phone?

Do you use your cell phone for any financial 

transactions?

Do you listen to the radio at least once a week, less 

than once a week or not at all?

Do you watch television at least once a week, less than 

once a week or not at all?

(SPECIFY LANGUAGE)

Do you read a newspaper or magazine at least once a 

week, less than once a week or not at all?

CHECK 111:

CHECK 106: AGE OF RESPONDENT

In the last 12 months, how many times have you been 

away from home for one or more nights?

In the last 12 months, have you been away from home 

for more than one month at a time?

Now I would like you to read this sentence to me.

SHOW CARD TO RESPONDENT.

IF RESPONDENT CANNOT READ WHOLE 

SENTENCE, PROBE: Can you read any part of the 

sentence to me?

Have you ever used the internet?

In the last 12 months, have you used the internet?

During the last one month, how often did you use the 

internet: almost every day, at least once a week, less 

than once a week, or not at all?

IF NECESSARY, PROBE FOR USE FROM ANY 

LOCATION, WITH ANY DEVICE.

Do you have an account in a bank or other financial 

institution that you yourself use?

476 • Appendix E
NO.

201 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 206

202 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 204

203 a)

a) SONS AT HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

b)

b) DAUGHTERS AT HOME . . . . . . . . 

204 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 206

205 a)

a) SONS ELSEWHERE . . . . . . . . . . . 

b)

b) DAUGHTERS ELSEWHERE . . . . . 

206

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 208

207 a)

a) BOYS DEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

b)

b) GIRLS DEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

208

TOTAL BIRTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

209

YES NO

210

ONE OR MORE NO BIRTHS 226

BIRTHS

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

SECTION 2. REPRODUCTION

CHECK 208:

CHECK 208:

SUM ANSWERS TO 203, 205, AND 207, AND ENTER 

TOTAL. IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

And how many girls have died?

How many boys have died?

PROBE AND 

CORRECT 201-208 

AS NECESSARY.

Just to make sure that I have this right: you have had in TOTAL _____ births during your life. Is that correct?

How many sons live with you? 

Have you ever given birth to a boy or girl who was born 

alive but later died?

IF NO, PROBE: Any baby who cried, who made any 

movement, sound, or effort to breathe, or who showed 

any other signs of life even if for a very short time?

Now I would like to ask about all the births you have had 

during your life. Have you ever given birth?

Do you have any sons or daughters to whom you have 

given birth who are now living with you?

Do you have any sons or daughters to whom you have 

given birth who are alive but do not live with you?

And how many daughters live with you?

IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

And how many daughters are alive but do not live 

with you?

How many sons are alive but do not live with you?

IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

Appendix E • 477
IF ALIVE:

01 HEALTH

BOY 1 SING 1 YES 1 YES 1 FACILITY . . . 1

HOME . . . . . . . 2

GIRL 2 MULT 2 NO 2 NO 2

ELSEWHERE . 3

02 HOUSEHOLD HEALTH YES 1

BOY 1 SING 1 YES 1 YES 1 LINE NUMBER FACILITY . . . 1

NO 2 HOME . . . . . . . 2

GIRL 2 MULT 2 NO 2

ELSEWHERE . 3 NO 2

(SKIP TO 221)

03 HOUSEHOLD HEALTH YES 1

BOY 1 SING 1 YES 1 YES 1 LINE NUMBER FACILITY . . . 1

NO 2 HOME . . . . . . . 2

GIRL 2 MULT 2 NO 2

ELSEWHERE . 3 NO 2

(SKIP TO 221)

04 HOUSEHOLD HEALTH YES 1

BOY 1 SING 1 YES 1 YES 1 LINE NUMBER FACILITY . . . 1

NO 2 HOME . . . . . . . 2

GIRL 2 MULT 2 NO 2

ELSEWHERE . 3 NO 2

(SKIP TO 221)

05 HOUSEHOLD HEALTH YES 1

BOY 1 SING 1 YES 1 YES 1 LINE NUMBER FACILITY . . . 1

NO 2 HOME . . . . . . . 2

GIRL 2 MULT 2 NO 2

ELSEWHERE . 3 NO 2

(SKIP TO 221)

06 HOUSEHOLD HEALTH YES 1

BOY 1 SING 1 YES 1 YES 1 LINE NUMBER FACILITY . . . 1

NO 2 HOME . . . . . . . 2

GIRL 2 MULT 2 NO 2

ELSEWHERE . 3 NO 2

(SKIP TO 221)

(NEXT 

YEAR BIRTH)

(ADD 

BIRTH)

(NEXT 

BIRTH)

DAY AGE IN

(SKIP 

TO 220) YEARS 3

(NEXT 

YEAR BIRTH)

DAY AGE IN DAYS 1

MONTHS YEARS (ADD 

BIRTH)

MONTH MONTHS 2

(ADD 

BIRTH)

MONTH

DAYS

What 

name was 

given to 

your (first/ 

next) 

baby?

RECORD 

NAME.

BIRTH 

HISTORY 

NUMBER.

On what day, 

month, and year 

was (NAME) 

born?

Is 

(NAME) 

a boy or 

a girl?

Were 

any of 

these 

births 

twins?

(NEXT BIRTH)

YEAR

(SKIP 

TO 220)

AGE IN

MONTH

DAY MONTHS YEARS

How old 

was 

(NAME) at 

(NAME)'s 

last 

birthday?

C

How many 

months were 

you pregnant 

before the birth 

of (NAME)?

ENTER 'B' IN THE 

MONTH OF BIRTH IN 

THE CALENDAR. 

WRITE THE NAME 

OF THE CHILD TO 

THE LEFT OF THE 'B' 

CODE. PLACE A 'P' 

IN EACH OF THE 

PRECEDING 

MONTHS 

ACCORDING TO THE 

DURATION OF THE 

PREGNANCY. 

(NOTE: THE 

NUMBER OF 'P's 

MUST BE ONE LESS 

THAN THE NUMBER 

OF MONTHS THAT 

THE PREGNANCY 

LASTED.)

SECTION 2. REPRODUCTION

RECORD 

AGE IN 

COMPLETED 

YEARS.

RECORD 

HOUSEHOLD 

LINE NUMBER 

OF CHILD. 

RECORD '00' 

IF CHILD NOT 

LISTED IN 

HOUSEHOLD.

Were there 

any other 

live births 

between 

(NAME OF 

PREVIOUS 

BIRTH) and 

(NAME), 

including any 

children who 

died after 

birth?

LINE NUMBER

HOUSEHOLD

211 Now I would like to record the names of all your births, whether still alive or not, starting with the first one you had.

RECORD NAMES OF ALL THE BIRTHS IN 212. RECORD TWINS AND TRIPLETS ON SEPARATE ROWS. IF THERE ARE MORE THAN 6 BIRTHS, USE AN ADDITIONAL 

QUESTIONNAIRE, STARTING WITH THE SECOND ROW.

IF ALIVE: IF ALIVE: IF DEAD:

Where did (NAME) 

die? 

At a health facility, 

at home, or 

somewhere else?

212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220A 221

Is 

(NAME) 

still 

alive?

1

YEAR

AGE IN

YEARS

(SKIP 

TO 220)

DAY

MONTH MONTHS 2

YEARS 3

(ADD 

BIRTH)

MONTH

(SKIP 

TO 220) (NEXT 

YEAR BIRTH)

DAY AGE IN

YEARS DAYS 1

MONTHS 2

YEARS 3

MONTHS

(ADD 

BIRTH)

MONTH

(SKIP 

TO 220) (NEXT 

YEAR BIRTH)

DAY AGE IN

YEARS DAYS 1

MONTHS 2

YEARS 3

MONTHS

IF BIRTH SINCE 

JANUARY 2011:

IF BIRTH SINCE 

JANUARY 2011:

2

YEARS 3

220

IF DEAD:

How old was (NAME) 

when (he/she) died?

IF '12 MONTHS' OR 

'1 YR', ASK: Did 

(NAME) have (his/her) 

first birthday?

THEN ASK: Exactly 

how many months old 

was (NAME) when 

(he/she) died?

RECORD DAYS IF 

LESS THAN 1 

MONTH; MONTHS IF 

LESS THAN TWO 

YEARS; OR YEARS.

DAYS 1

MONTHS 2

YEARS 3

Is 

(NAME) 

living 

with 

you?

MONTHS

215A

MONTHS

(SKIP 

TO 220)

YEARS DAYS 1

MONTHS

478 • Appendix E
NO.

222 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

(RECORD BIRTH(S) IN TABLE)

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

223

NUMBERS NUMBERS ARE

ARE SAME DIFFERENT

(PROBE AND RECONCILE)

224

NUMBER OF BIRTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

226 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

UNSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

227

MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

228 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 230

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

229

ONE OR MORE NONE

a) b)

LATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO MORE/NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

230 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 239

231

MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

232

233A

239

230

C

When you got pregnant, did you want to get pregnant at 

that time?

Are you pregnant now?

CHECK 231:

When did the last such pregnancy end?

Have you ever had a pregnancy that miscarried, was 

terminated, or ended in a stillbirth?

LAST PREGNANCY 

ENDED IN 2011-2016

LAST PREGNANCY 

ENDED IN 2010 OR 

EARLIER

SECTION 2. REPRODUCTION

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

CHECK 208: TOTAL NUMBER OF BIRTHS

Did you want to have a 

baby later on or did you 

not want any more 

children?

Did you want to have a 

baby later on or did you 

not want any children?

COMPARE 208 WITH NUMBER OF BIRTHS IN BIRTH HISTORY

RECORD NUMBER OF COMPLETED MONTHS.

Have you had any live births since the birth of (NAME 

OF LAST BIRTH)?

CHECK 215: ENTER THE NUMBER OF BIRTHS IN 

2011-2016

How many months pregnant are you?

ENTER 'P's IN THE CALENDAR, 

BEGINNING WITH THE MONTH OF 

INTERVIEW AND FOR THE TOTAL 

NUMBER OF COMPLETED MONTHS.

Appendix E • 479
NO.

SECTION 2. REPRODUCTION

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

LINE

NO.

01 MISCARRIAGE 1 YES 1

ABORTION 2

STILLBIRTH 3 NO 2 236

02 MISCARRIAGE 1 YES 1

ABORTION 2

STILLBIRTH 3 NO 2 236

03 MISCARRIAGE 1 YES 1

ABORTION 2

STILLBIRTH 3 NO 2 236

04 MISCARRIAGE 1 YES 1

ABORTION 2 236

STILLBIRTH 3 NO 2

236

236A

YES NO 237

236B SURGICAL ABORTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

MEDICAL ABORTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 236D

SURGICAL AND MEDICAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

SELF-INDUCED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

236E

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

236C PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVT. HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

GOVT. CLINIC/COMMUNITY HEALTH CENTRE 12

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

16

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

MARIE STOPES CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 236E

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

26

OTHER SOURCE

BACKSTREET ABORTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

OTHER 96

MONTH YEAR MONTHS

MONTH YEAR

MONTHS

Since January 

2011, have you 

had any other 

pregnancies 

that did not 

result in a live 

birth?

MONTHS

MONTHS

Did that pregnancy 

end in a spontaneous 

miscarriage, an 

induced abortion, or 

a stillbirth?

How many months 

pregnant were you 

when that 

pregnancy ended?

FOR EACH PREGNANCY THAT DID NOT END IN A LIVE BIRTH IN 2011-2016 OR LATER, ENTER 'C' 

FOR MISCARRIAGE, 'A' FOR INDUCED ABORTION, OR 'S' FOR STILLBIRTH IN THE CALENDAR IN 

THE MONTH THAT THE PREGNANCY TERMINATED AND 'P' FOR THE REMAINING NUMBER OF 

COMPLETED MONTHS OF PREGNANCY.IF THERE ARE MORE THAN FOUR PREGNANCIES THAT 

DID NOT END IN A LIVE BIRTH, USE AN ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE STARTING ON THE SECOND 

LINE.

Where was the procedure done?

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

 IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 96 AND WRITE THE NAME OF 

THE PLACE.

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

CHECK 233A: HAD INDUCED ABORTION SINCE JANUARY 2011?

C

The most recent time you had an induced abortion, 

what method was used?

NEXT 

LINE

NEXT 

LINE

NEXT 

LINE

In what month and year did the preceding 

such pregnancy end?

MONTH YEAR

233 233A 234 235

480 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 2. REPRODUCTION

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

236D PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVT. HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

GOVT. CLINIC/COMMUNITY HEALTH CENTRE 12

COMMUNITY HEALTH WORKER . . . . . . . . . . 13

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

16

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

26

OTHER SOURCE

BACKSTREET ABORTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

TRADITIONAL HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

OTHER 96

236E YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 238

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 239

237 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 239

238

MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

239

DAYS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

WEEKS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

MONTHS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

YEARS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

IN MENOPAUSE/

HAS HAD HYSTERECTOMY . . . . . . . . . . 994

BEFORE LAST BIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995

NEVER MENSTRUATED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996

240 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

241 JUST BEFORE HER PERIOD

BEGINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

DURING HER PERIOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

RIGHT AFTER HER

PERIOD HAS ENDED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

HALFWAY BETWEEN

TWO PERIODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER 6

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

242 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

(SPECIFY)

After the birth of a child, can a woman become pregnant 

before her menstrual period has returned?

Is this time just before her period begins, during her 

period, right after her period has ended, or halfway 

between two periods?

We have spoken about pregnancy losses that occurred 

since 2011. Did you have any miscarriages, 

terminations, or stillbirths that ended before 2011?

242

When did your last menstrual period start?

When did the last such pregnancy that terminated 

before 2011 end?

(DATE, IF GIVEN)

From one menstrual period to the next, are there certain 

days when a woman is more likely to become pregnant?

Did you have any miscarriages, terminations or 

stillbirths that ended before 2011?

Where did you get the drug?

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 96 AND WRITE THE NAME OF 

THE PLACE.

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

Appendix E • 481
301

01 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

02 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

03 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

04 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

05 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

06 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

07 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

08 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

09 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

10 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

11 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

12 YES, MODERN METHOD

A

YES, TRADITIONAL METHOD

B

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y

IUD.

PROBE: Women can have a loop or coil placed inside them by a 

doctor or a nurse which can prevent pregnancy for one or more years.

SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

Now I would like to talk about family planning - the various ways or methods that a couple can use to delay or avoid a pregnancy. 

Which ways or methods have you heard about? MARK ALL METHODS DECLARED BY THE RESPONDENT.

FOR METHODS NOT MENTIONED SPONTANEOUSLY, ASK: Have you ever heard of (METHOD)?

Female Sterilisation/Tubal Ligation/Tubes Cut/Tubes Binded.

PROBE: Women can have an operation to avoid having any more 

children.

Injectables/Depo.

PROBE: Women can have an injection by a health provider that stops 

them from becoming pregnant for one or more months.

Male Sterilisation/Vasectomy/Tubes Cut/Tubes Binded.

PROBE: Men can have an operation to avoid having any more 

children.

Have you heard of any other ways or methods that women or men can 

use to avoid pregnancy?

Emergency Contraception.

PROBE: As an emergency measure, within three days after they have 

unprotected sexual intercourse, women can take special pills to 

prevent pregnancy.

Withdrawal.

PROBE: Men can be careful and pull out before climax.

Rhythm Method.

PROBE: To avoid pregnancy, women do not have sexual intercourse 

on the days of the month they think they can get pregnant.

Female Condom.

PROBE: Women can place a sheath in their vagina before sexual 

intercourse.

Male Condom.

PROBE: Men can put a rubber sheath on their penis before sexual 

intercourse.

Pill.

PROBE: Women can take a pill every day to avoid becoming 

pregnant. 

Implants/Norplant/Jadelle.

PROBE: Women can have one or more small rods placed in their 

upper arm by a doctor or nurse which can prevent pregnancy for one 

or more years.

482 • Appendix E
NO.

302

NOT PREGNANT PREGNANT

OR UNSURE

303 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 312

304 FEMALE STERILISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

MALE STERILISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

IUD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

INJECTABLES - 3 MONTH DEPO . . . . . . . . . . . D

INJECTABLES - 2 MONTH NUR-ISTERATE . . E

IMPLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

PILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

MALE CONDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

FEMALE CONDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J

RHYTHM METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K

WITHDRAWAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L

OTHER MODERN METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X

OTHER TRADITIONAL METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y

307 PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVT. HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

GOVT. HEALTH CLINIC/COMMUNITY

HEALTH CENTRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

16

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

PRIVATE DOCTOR'S ROOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

26

OTHER 96

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

308

MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

309

MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

310

NO YES

GO BACK TO 308 OR 309, PROBE AND RECORD MONTH AND 

YEAR AT START OF CONTINUOUS USE OF CURRENT METHOD 

(MUST BE AFTER LAST BIRTH OR PREGNANCY TERMINATION).

In what month and year was the sterilisation performed?

312

(SPECIFY)

Are you or your partner currently doing something or 

using any method to delay or avoid getting pregnant?

Which method are you using?

RECORD ALL MENTIONED.

IF MORE THAN ONE METHOD MENTIONED, 

FOLLOW SKIP INSTRUCTION FOR HIGHEST 

METHOD IN LIST.

310

Since what month and year have you been using 

(CURRENT METHOD) without stopping?

PROBE: For how long have you been using (CURRENT 

METHOD) now without stopping?

(SPECIFY)

CHECK 308 AND 309, 215 AND 231: ANY BIRTH OR PREGNANCY TERMINATION AFTER MONTH AND YEAR OF 

START OF USE OF CONTRACEPTION IN 308 OR 309

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 96 AND WRITE THE NAME OF 

THE PLACE.

(SPECIFY)

In what facility did the sterilisation take place?

309

SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

CHECK 226:

Appendix E • 483
311

THEN CONTINUE THEN

(SKIP TO 324)

312

312A

MONTH MONTH MONTH

312B

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 312I) (SKIP TO 312I) (SKIP TO 312I)

312C

METHOD CODE . . METHOD CODE . . METHOD CODE . . 

312D IMMEDIATELY . . . . . 00 IMMEDIATELY . . . . . 00 IMMEDIATELY . . . . . 00

MONTHS . . MONTHS . . MONTHS . . 

DATE GIVEN . . . . . . . . 95 DATE GIVEN . . . . . . . . 95 DATE GIVEN . . . . . . . . 95

312E

MONTH MONTH MONTH

312F

MONTHS . . MONTHS . . MONTHS . . 

DATE GIVEN . . . . . . . . 95 DATE GIVEN . . . . . . . . 95 DATE GIVEN . . . . . . . . 95

312G

MONTH MONTH MONTH

312H REASON REASON REASON

STOPPED . . . . . STOPPED . . . . . STOPPED . . . . . 

312I

SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

ENTER CODE FOR METHOD USED IN MONTH OF 

INTERVIEW IN THE CALENDAR AND EACH 

MONTH BACK TO JANUARY 2011.

CHECK 308 AND 309:

ENTER CODE FOR METHOD USED IN MONTH OF 

INTERVIEW IN THE CALENDAR AND IN EACH 

MONTH BACK TO THE DATE STARTED USING.

I would like to ask you some questions about the times you or your partner may have used a method to avoid getting pregnant during the last 

few years.

C C

YEAR IS 2011-2016 YEAR IS 2010 OR EARLIER

USE CALENDAR TO PROBE FOR EARLIER PERIODS OF USE AND NONUSE, STARTING WITH MOST RECENT USE, BACK 

TO JANUARY 2011. USE NAMES OF CHILDREN, DATES OF BIRTH, AND PERIODS OF PREGNANCY AS REFERENCE 

POINTS.

COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2 COLUMN 3

C

Why did you stop using 

(METHOD)?

For how many months did you 

use (METHOD)?

How many months after 

(EVENT) in (MONTH/YEAR) 

did you start to use 

(METHOD)?

RECORD MONTH AND YEAR 

RESPONDENT STARTED 

USING METHOD.

CIRCLE '95' IF RESPONDENT 

GIVES THE DATE OF 

STARTING TO USE THE 

METHOD.

CIRCLE '95' IF RESPONDENT 

GIVES THE DATE OF 

TERMINATION OF USE.

YEAR

YEAR

YEAR

YEAR

RECORD MONTH AND YEAR 

RESPONDENT STOPPED 

USING METHOD.

MONTH AND YEAR OF 

START OF INTERVAL OF 

USE OR NON-USE.

Which method was that?

Between (EVENT) in 

(MONTH/YEAR) and (EVENT) 

in (MONTH/YEAR), did you or 

your partner use any method of 

contraception?

YEAR

YEAR

(SKIP TO 312F) (SKIP TO 312F) (SKIP TO 312F)

GO BACK TO 312A IN NEXT 

COLUMN; OR, IF NO MORE 

GAPS, GO TO 313.

GO BACK TO 312A IN NEXT 

COLUMN; OR, IF NO MORE 

GAPS, GO TO 313.

GO BACK TO 312A IN NEW 

QUESTIONNAIRE; OR, IF NO 

MORE GAPS, GO TO 313.

YEAR

YEAR

YEAR

(SKIP TO 312H) (SKIP TO 312H) (SKIP TO 312H)

484 • Appendix E
NO.

313

NO METHOD USED ANY METHOD USED

314 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

315 NO CODE CIRCLED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 326

FEMALE STERILISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01 319

MALE STERILISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02 329

IUD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03

INJECTABLES - 3 MONTH DEPO . . . . . . . . . . . 04

INJECTABLES - 2 MONTH NUR-ISTERATE . . 05

IMPLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06

PILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

MALE CONDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08

FEMALE CONDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

RHYTHM METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

WITHDRAWAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

OTHER MODERN METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

OTHER TRADITIONAL METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

316 PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVT. HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

GOVT. CLINIC/COMMUNITY HEALTH CENTRE 12

MOBILE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

COMMUNITY HEALTH WORKER . . . . . . . . . . . 14

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

16

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

26

OTHER SOURCE

WORKPLACE/WORKPLACE CLINIC . . . . . . . . 31

COMMUNITY CENTER, LIBRARY OR

OTHER PUBLIC PLACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

SHOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

CHURCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

FRIEND/RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

OTHER 96

317 IUD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03

INJECTABLES - 3 MONTH DEPO . . . . . . . . . . . 04

INJECTABLES - 2 MONTH NUR-ISTERATE . . 05

IMPLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06

PILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

MALE CONDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08 323

FEMALE CONDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 322

OTHER MODERN METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

OTHER TRADITIONAL METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 323

Have you ever used anything or tried in any way to delay 

or avoid getting pregnant?

CHECK 304:

CIRCLE METHOD CODE:

IF MORE THAN ONE METHOD CODE CIRCLED IN 

304, CIRCLE CODE FOR HIGHEST METHOD IN LIST.

You first started using (CURRENT METHOD) in (DATE 

FROM 309). Where did you get it at that time?

CHECK 304: 

CIRCLE METHOD CODE:

IF MORE THAN ONE METHOD CODE CIRCLED IN 

304, CIRCLE CODE FOR HIGHEST METHOD IN LIST.

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

323

SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

326

315

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 96 AND WRITE THE NAME OF 

THE PLACE.

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS

(SPECIFY)

CHECK THE CALENDAR FOR USE OF ANY CONTRACEPTIVE METHOD IN ANY MONTH

Appendix E • 485
NO.

SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

318 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 321

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 320

319 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 321

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

320 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 322

321 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

322

ANY OTHER

YES'

a) b)

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 324

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

323 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

324 FEMALE STERILISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

MALE STERILISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02

IUD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03

INJECTABLES - 3 MONTH DEPO . . . . . . . . . . . 04

INJECTABLES - 2 MONTH NUR-ISTERATE . . 05

IMPLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06

PILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

MALE CONDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08

FEMALE CONDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

RHYTHM METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

WITHDRAWAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

OTHER MODERN METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

OTHER TRADITIONAL METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 329

Were you told what to do if you experienced side effects 

or problems?

When you got sterilized, were you told about side effects 

or problems you might have with the method?

At that time, were you told about side effects or 

problems you might have with the method?

CHECK 318 AND 319:

CHECK 304: 

CIRCLE METHOD CODE:

IF MORE THAN ONE METHOD CODE CIRCLED IN 

304, CIRCLE CODE FOR HIGHEST METHOD IN LIST.

Were you ever told by a nurse or health care worker 

about other methods of family planning that you could 

use?

When you obtained 

(CURRENT METHOD 

FROM 315) from 

(SOURCE OF 

METHOD FROM 307 

OR 316), were you told 

about other methods of 

family planning that you 

could use?

329

329

Were you ever told by a nurse or health care worker 

about side effects or problems you might have with the 

method?

At that time, were you 

told about other 

methods of family 

planning that you could 

use?

486 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

325 PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVT. HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

GOVT. HEALTH CLINIC/COMMUNITY

HEALTH CENTRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

MOBILE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

CHW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

16

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 329

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

26

OTHER SOURCE

WORKPLACE/WORKPLACE CLINIC . . . . . . . . 31

COMMUNITY CENTER, LIBRARY OR

OTHER PUBLIC PLACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

SHOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

CHURCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

FRIEND/RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

OTHER 96

326 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

329

YES NO

a) b)

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 401

330 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SPECIFY)

Where did you obtain (CURRENT METHOD) the last 

time?

(SPECIFY)

Do you know of a place where you can obtain a method 

of family planning?

Did any staff member at the health facility speak to you 

about family planning methods?

CHECK 202: LIVING CHILDREN

In the last 12 months, 

have you visited a 

health facility for care 

for yourself?

In the last 12 months, 

have you visited a 

health facility for care 

for yourself or your 

children?

(SPECIFY)

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 96 AND WRITE THE NAME OF 

THE PLACE.

Appendix E • 487
401

402

403

BIRTH BIRTH

HISTORY HISTORY

NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . 

404

LIVING DEAD LIVING DEAD

405 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

(SKIP TO 408) (SKIP TO 426)

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

406 CHECK 208:

a) b)

LATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 LATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO MORE/NONE . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO MORE/NONE . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 408) (SKIP TO 426)

407

MONTHS . . . . . . . 1 MONTHS . . . . . . . 1

YEARS . . . . . . . 2 YEARS . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

408 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 414)

409 HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR/GYNAECOLOGIST A

NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . B

OTHER PERSON

TRADITIONAL BIRTH

ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . . . C

COMMUNITY HEALTH

WORKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

OTHER X

How much longer did you want to wait?

SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

Now I would like to ask some questions about your children born in the last five years. (We will talk about each separately.)

When you got pregnant with (NAME), did 

you want to get pregnant at that time?

CHECK 224:

NAME NAME

648

LAST BIRTH NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

(SPECIFY)

CHECK 215: RECORD THE BIRTH HISTORY NUMBER IN 403 AND THE NAME AND SURVIVAL STATUS IN 404 FOR EACH 

BIRTH IN 2011-2016. ASK THE QUESTIONS ABOUT ALL OF THESE BIRTHS. BEGIN WITH THE LAST BIRTH. IF THERE 

ARE MORE THAN 2 BIRTHS, USE LAST COLUMN OF ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE(S).

ONLY 

ONE 

BIRTH

MORE 

THAN ONE 

BIRTH

BIRTH HISTORY NUMBER FROM 212 

IN BIRTH HISTORY.

FROM 212 AND 216:

PROBE TO IDENTIFY EACH TYPE OF 

PERSON AND RECORD ALL 

MENTIONED.

Whom did you see?

Anyone else?

ONE OR MORE BIRTHS 

IN 2011-2016

NO BIRTHS IN 

2011-2016

Did you see anyone for antenatal care for 

this pregnancy?

Did you want to 

have a baby 

later on, or did 

you not want any 

more children?

Did you want to 

have a baby 

later on, or did 

you not want any 

children?

488 • Appendix E
NO.

410 HOME

HER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

OTHER HOME . . . . . . . . . . B

PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . C

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/

COMM. HEALTH CENTRE D

MOBILE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . E

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

F

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/DOCTOR G

OTHER PRIVATE

MEDICAL SECTOR

H

OTHER X

411

MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

412 NUMBER

OF TIMES . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

413

YES NO

a) a) BP . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

b) b) URINE . . . . . . . 1 2

c) c) BLOOD . . . . . . . 1 2

d)

d) ALCOHOL . . . . . 1 2

e)

e) SMOKING . . . . . 1 2

414

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 417)

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

415

TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

416 2 OR MORE OTHER

TIMES

(SKIP TO 420)

Did you give a blood sample?

NAME NAME

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF 

SOURCE.

LAST BIRTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS

Where did you receive antenatal care for 

this pregnancy?

Anywhere else?

SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

 IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC 

OR PRIVATE SECTOR, RECORD 'X' 

AND WRITE THE NAME OF THE 

PLACE(S).

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

Were you asked about smoking 

tobacco?

Were you asked about the use of 

alcohol?

(SPECIFY)

How many months pregnant were you 

when you first received antenatal care for 

this pregnancy?

How many times did you receive 

antenatal care during this pregnancy?

As part of your antenatal care during this 

pregnancy, were any of the following 

done at least once:

CHECK 415: TETANUS INJECTIONS

Was your blood pressure measured?

Did you give a urine sample?

During this pregnancy, were you given an 

injection in the arm to prevent the baby 

from getting tetanus, that is, convulsions 

after birth or lockjaw?

During this pregnancy, how many times 

did you get a tetanus injection?

Appendix E • 489
NO. NAME NAME

LAST BIRTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS

SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

417 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 420)

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

418

TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

419

a) b)

YEARS AGO . . . . . 

420

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 426)

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

421

DAYS . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

426 VERY LARGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 VERY LARGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LARGER THAN LARGER THAN

AVERAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 AVERAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

AVERAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 AVERAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

SMALLER THAN SMALLER THAN

AVERAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 AVERAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

VERY SMALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 VERY SMALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

427 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 429) (SKIP TO 429)

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

CHECK 418:

MORE 

THAN ONE 

TIME

ONLY ONE 

TIME

How many years 

ago did you 

receive that 

tetanus 

injection?

How many years 

ago did you 

receive the last 

tetanus injection 

prior to this 

pregnancy?

IF ANSWER IS NOT NUMERIC, PROBE 

FOR APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF 

DAYS.

SHOW TABLETS.

During this pregnancy, were you given or 

did you buy any iron tablets?

During the whole pregnancy, for how 

many days did you take the tablets?

IF 7 OR MORE TIMES, RECORD '7'.

At any time before this pregnancy, did 

you receive any tetanus injections?

Before this pregnancy, how many times 

did you receive a tetanus injection? 

When (NAME) was born, was (NAME) 

very large, larger than average, average, 

smaller than average, or very small?

Was (NAME) weighed at birth?

490 • Appendix E
NO. NAME NAME

LAST BIRTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS

SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

428 KG FROM BOOKLET/CARD KG FROM BOOKLET/CARD

1 . 1 .

KG FROM RECALL KG FROM RECALL

2 . 2 .

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . 99998 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . 99998

429 HEALTH PERSONNEL HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR/GYNAECOLOGIST A DOCTOR/GYNAECOLOGIST A

NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . B NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . B

OTHER PERSON OTHER PERSON

TRADITIONAL BIRTH TRADITIONAL BIRTH

ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . . . C ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . . . C

RELATIVE/FRIEND . . . . . . . D RELATIVE/FRIEND . . . . . . . D

OTHER OTHER

X X

NO ONE ASSISTED . . . . . . . . . . Y NO ONE ASSISTED . . . . . . . . . . Y

430 HOME HOME

HER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 HER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

(SKIP TO 434) (SKIP TO 434)

OTHER HOME . . . . . . . . . . 12 OTHER HOME . . . . . . . . . . 12

PUBLIC SECTOR PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . 21 GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . 21

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/ GOVERNMENT CLINIC/

COMM. HEALTH CENTRE 22 COMM. HEALTH CENTRE 22

MOBILE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . 23 MOBILE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . 23

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

26 26

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/DOCTOR 31 PRIVATE HOSPITAL/DOCTOR 31

OTHER PRIVATE OTHER PRIVATE

MEDICAL SECTOR MEDICAL SECTOR

36 36

OTHER 96 OTHER 96

(SKIP TO 434) (SKIP TO 434)

431

HOURS . . . . . . . 1

DAYS . . . . . . . 2

WEEKS . . . . . . . 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

431A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

(SKIP TO 432)

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SPECIFY)

How long after (NAME) was delivered did 

you stay there?

IF LESS THAN ONE DAY,

RECORD HOURS;

IF LESS THAN ONE WEEK,

RECORD DAYS.

(SPECIFY)

RECORD WEIGHT IN KILOGRAMS 

FROM ROAD TO HEALTH BOOKLET 

OR OTHER HEALTH CARD, IF 

AVAILABLE.

(SPECIFY)

Who assisted with the delivery of 

(NAME)?

(SPECIFY)

How much did (NAME) weigh?

PROBE FOR THE TYPE(S) OF 

PERSON(S) AND RECORD ALL 

MENTIONED.

IF RESPONDENT SAYS NO ONE 

ASSISTED, PROBE TO DETERMINE 

WHETHER ANY ADULTS WERE 

PRESENT AT THE DELIVERY.

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF 

SOURCE.

 IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC 

OR PRIVATE SECTOR, RECORD 96 

AND WRITE THE NAME OF THE 

PLACE.

Where did you give birth to (NAME)?

(SPECIFY) (SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

Was (NAME) discharged at the same 

time as you?

Appendix E • 491
NO. NAME NAME

LAST BIRTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS

SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

431B

HOURS . . . . . . . 1

DAYS . . . . . . . 2

WEEKS . . . . . . . 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

432 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 434) (SKIP TO 434)

433 BEFORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 BEFORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

AFTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 AFTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

434 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 434B) (SKIP TO 434B)

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

434A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

434B CODE

11, 12, OR 96 OTHER

CIRCLED

(SKIP TO 449)

435

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 438)

436

HOURS . . . . . . . 1

DAYS . . . . . . . . . . 2

WEEKS . . . . . . . 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

437 HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR/GYNAECOLOGIST 11

NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . 12

OTHER PERSON

TRADITIONAL BIRTH

ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . . . 21

COMMUNITY HEALTH

WORKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

OTHER 96

CHECK 430: PLACE OF DELIVERY

How long after delivery did the first check 

take place?

Was (NAME) delivered by caesarean, 

that is, did they cut your belly open to 

take the baby out?

When was the decision made to have the 

caesarean section? Was it before or after 

your labor pains started?

Immediately after the birth, was (NAME) 

put on your chest?

I would like to talk to you about checks on 

your health after delivery, for example, 

someone asking you questions about 

your health or examining you. Did anyone 

check on your health while you were still 

in the facility?

IF LESS THAN ONE DAY,

RECORD HOURS;

IF LESS THAN ONE WEEK,

RECORD DAYS.

PROBE FOR MOST QUALIFIED 

PERSON.

Who checked on your health at that time?

(SPECIFY)

How long after (NAME) was delivered did 

(NAME) stay at the facility?

IF LESS THAN ONE DAY,

RECORD HOURS;

IF LESS THAN ONE WEEK,

RECORD DAYS.

Was (NAME)'s bare skin touching your 

bare skin?

492 • Appendix E
NO. NAME NAME

LAST BIRTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS

SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

438

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 441)

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

439

HOURS . . . . . . . 1

DAYS . . . . . . . . . . 2

WEEKS . . . . . . . 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

440 HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR/PAEDIATRICIAN 11

NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . 12

OTHER PERSON

TRADITIONAL BIRTH

ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . . . 21

COMMUNITY HEALTH

WORKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

OTHER 96

441 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 445)

442

HOURS . . . . . . . 1

DAYS . . . . . . . . . . 2

WEEKS . . . . . . . 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

443 HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR/GYNAECOLOGIST 11

NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . 12

OTHER PERSON

TRADITIONAL BIRTH

ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . . . 21

COMMUNITY HEALTH

WORKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

OTHER 96

PROBE FOR MOST QUALIFIED 

PERSON.

Who checked on your health at that time?

Who checked on (NAME)’s health at that 

time?

IF LESS THAN ONE DAY,

RECORD HOURS;

IF LESS THAN ONE WEEK,

RECORD DAYS.

Now I want to talk to you about what 

happened after you left the facility. Did 

anyone check on your health after you left 

the facility?

(SPECIFY)

How long after delivery was (NAME)’s 

health first checked?

PROBE FOR MOST QUALIFIED 

PERSON.

Now I would like to talk to you about 

checks on (NAME)’s health after delivery 

– for example, someone examining

(NAME), checking the cord, or seeing if 

(NAME) is OK. Did anyone check on 

(NAME)’s health while you were still in the 

facility?

IF LESS THAN ONE DAY,

RECORD HOURS;

IF LESS THAN ONE WEEK,

RECORD DAYS.

(SPECIFY)

How long after delivery did that check 

take place?

Appendix E • 493
NO. NAME NAME

LAST BIRTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS

SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

444 HOME

HER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

OTHER HOME . . . . . . . . . . 12

PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . 21

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/

COMM. HEALTH CENTRE 22

MOBILE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . 23

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

26

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/DOCTOR 31

OTHER PRIVATE

MEDICAL SECTOR

36

OTHER 96

445

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 457)

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

446

HOURS . . . . . . . 1

DAYS . . . . . . . . . . 2

WEEKS . . . . . . . 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

447 HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR/PAEDIATRICIAN 11

NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . 12

OTHER PERSON

TRADITIONAL BIRTH

ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . . . 21

COMMUNITY HEALTH

WORKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

OTHER 96

IF LESS THAN ONE DAY,

RECORD HOURS;

IF LESS THAN ONE WEEK,

RECORD DAYS.

PROBE FOR MOST QUALIFIED 

PERSON.

Who checked on (NAME)’s health at that 

time?

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF 

SOURCE.

 IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC 

OR PRIVATE SECTOR, RECORD 96 

AND WRITE THE NAME OF THE 

PLACE.

Where did the check take place?

(SPECIFY)

I would like to talk to you about checks on 

(NAME)’s health after you left (FACILITY 

IN 430). Did any health care provider 

check on (NAME)’s health in the two 

months after you left (FACILITY IN 430)?

(SPECIFY)

How many hours, days or weeks after the 

birth of (NAME) did that check take 

place?

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

494 • Appendix E
NO. NAME NAME

LAST BIRTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS

SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

448 HOME

HER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

OTHER HOME . . . . . . . . . . 12

PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . 21

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/

COMM. HEALTH CENTRE 22

MOBILE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . 23

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

26

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/DOCTOR 31

OTHER PRIVATE

MEDICAL SECTOR

36

OTHER 96

(SKIP TO 457)

449

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 453)

450

HOURS . . . . . . . 1

DAYS . . . . . . . . . . 2

WEEKS . . . . . . . 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

451 HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR/GYNAECOLOGIST 11

NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . 12

OTHER PERSON

TRADITIONAL BIRTH

ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . . . 21

COMMUNITY HEALTH

WORKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

OTHER 96

 IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC 

OR PRIVATE SECTOR, RECORD 96 

AND WRITE THE NAME OF THE 

PLACE.

(SPECIFY)

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF 

SOURCE.

Who checked on your health at that time?

PROBE FOR MOST QUALIFIED 

PERSON.

Where did this check of (NAME) take 

place?

How long after delivery did the first check 

take place?

IF LESS THAN ONE DAY,

RECORD HOURS;

IF LESS THAN ONE WEEK,

RECORD DAYS.

I would like to talk to you about checks on 

your health after delivery, for example, 

someone asking you questions about 

your health or examining you. Did anyone 

check on your health after you gave birth 

to (NAME)?

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

Appendix E • 495
NO. NAME NAME

LAST BIRTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS

SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

452 HOME

HER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

OTHER HOME . . . . . . . . . . 12

PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . 21

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/

COMM. HEALTH CENTRE 22

MOBILE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . 23

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

26

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/DOCTOR 31

OTHER PRIVATE

MEDICAL SECTOR

36

OTHER 96

453

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 457)

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

454 HOURS AFTER

BIRTH . . . . . 1

DAYS AFTER 

BIRTH . . . . . 2

WEEKS AFTER

BIRTH . . . . . 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

455 HEALTH PERSONNEL

DOCTOR/PAEDIATRICIAN 11

NURSE/MIDWIFE . . . . . . . 12

OTHER PERSON

TRADITIONAL BIRTH

ATTENDANT . . . . . . . . . . 21

COMMUNITY HEALTH

WORKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

OTHER 96

How many hours, days or weeks after the 

birth of (NAME) did the first check take 

place?

Who checked on (NAME)'s health at that 

time?

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF 

SOURCE.

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

PROBE FOR MOST QUALIFIED 

PERSON.

IF LESS THAN ONE DAY,

RECORD HOURS;

IF LESS THAN ONE WEEK,

RECORD DAYS.

I would like to talk to you about checks on 

(NAME)’s health after delivery – for 

example, someone examining (NAME), 

checking the cord, or seeing if (NAME) is 

OK. In the two months after (NAME) was 

born, did any health care provider or a 

traditional birth attendant check on 

(NAME)'s health?

Where did this first check take place?

 IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC 

OR PRIVATE SECTOR, RECORD 96 

AND WRITE THE NAME OF THE 

PLACE.

496 • Appendix E
NO. NAME NAME

LAST BIRTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS

SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

456 HOME

HER HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

OTHER HOME . . . . . . . . . . 12

PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . 21

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/

COMM. HEALTH CENTRE 22

MOBILE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . 23

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

26

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/DOCTOR 31

OTHER PRIVATE

MEDICAL SECTOR

36

OTHER 96

457

YES NO DK

a) a) CORD . . . . . . . 1 2 8

b) b) TEMP. . . . . . 1 2 8

c) c) SIGNS . . . . . 1 2 8

d) d) COUNSEL

BREASTFEED 1 2 8

e) e) OBSERVE

BREASTFEED 1 2 8

458 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

(SKIP TO 460)

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 461)

459 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 463)

460

MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

461 NOT PREGNANT

PREGNANT OR

UNSURE

(SKIP TO 463)

Where did this first check of (NAME) take 

place?

CHECK 226: IS RESPONDENT 

PREGNANT?

 IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC 

OR PRIVATE SECTOR, RECORD 96 

AND WRITE THE NAME OF THE 

PLACE.

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF 

SOURCE.

Has your menstrual period returned since 

the birth of (NAME)?

Did your period return between the birth 

of (NAME) and your next pregnancy?

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

Observe (NAME) breastfeeding?

Counsel you on breastfeeding?

During the first two days after (NAME)’s 

birth, did any health care provider do the 

following:

Examine the cord?

Measure (NAME)’s temperature?

Counsel you on danger signs for 

newborns?

For how many months after the birth of 

(NAME) did you not have a period?

(SPECIFY)

Appendix E • 497
NO. NAME NAME

LAST BIRTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS

SECTION 4. PREGNANCY AND POSTNATAL CARE

NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

462 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 464)

463

MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

464 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

(SKIP TO 466)

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

465 LIVING DEAD

(SKIP TO 470) (SKIP TO 471)

466

IMMEDIATELY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 000

HOURS . . . . . . . 1

DAYS . . . . . . . 2

467 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

468 LIVING DEAD LIVING DEAD

(SKIP TO 471) (SKIP TO 471)

469 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

(SKIP TO 470)

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

469A

MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

470 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

471 GO BACK TO 405 IN NEXT-TO-LAST 

COLUMN OF NEW 

QUESTIONNAIRE; OR, IF NO MORE 

BIRTHS, GO TO 501A.

GO BACK TO 405 IN NEXT 

COLUMN; OR, IF NO MORE 

BIRTHS, GO TO 501A.

IF LESS THAN 1 HOUR,

RECORD ‘00' HOURS;

IF LESS THAN 24 HOURS,

RECORD HOURS;

OTHERWISE, RECORD DAYS.

Did you ever breastfeed (NAME)?

CHECK 404: IS CHILD LIVING?

CHECK 404: IS CHILD LIVING?

For how many months after the birth of 

(NAME) did you not have sexual 

intercourse?

Did (NAME) drink anything from a bottle 

with a teat yesterday or last night?

How long after birth did you first put 

(NAME) to the breast for feeding?

In the first three days after delivery, was 

(NAME) given anything to drink other than 

breast milk?

Are you still breastfeeding (NAME)?

Have you had sexual intercourse since 

the birth of (NAME)?

For how many months did you breastfeed 

(NAME)?

498 • Appendix E
NO.

501A

ONE OR MORE BIRTHS IN 2013-2016 NO BIRTHS IN 2013-2016 601

502A

BIRTH HISTORY NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . 

503A

LIVING DEAD 501B

504A YES, HAS ONLY A BOOKLET . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 507A

YES, HAS ONLY ANOTHER DOCUMENT . . . . . 2

YES, HAS BOOKLET AND OTHER DOCUMENT 3 507A

NO, NO BOOKLET AND NO OTHER DOCUMENT 4

505A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 505A2

505A1 BOOKLET WITH RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

BOOKLET MISPLACED OR LOST . . . . . . . . . . 2

BOOKLET STOLEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

BOOKLET HELD AS COLLATERAL/RANSOM . . 4

BOOKLET DESTROYED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

OTHER 6

(SPECIFY)

505A2 NONE AVAILABLE AT HEALTH FACILITY . . . . . 1

FOREIGNERS NOT GIVEN ONE . . . . . . . . . . 2

REQUIRED TO PAY FOR IT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

TOO BUSY TO GET ONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER 6

(SPECIFY)

506A

CODE '2' CIRCLED CODE '4' CIRCLED 511A

506A1 YES, OTHER DOCUMENT SEEN . . . . . . . . . . 1 508A

 NO DOCUMENT SEEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 511A

507A YES, ONLY BOOKLET SEEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 508A

YES, ONLY OTHER DOCUMENT SEEN . . . . . 2

YES, BOOKLET AND OTHER DOCUMENT SEEN 3 508A

NO BOOKLET AND NO OTHER DOCUMENT SEEN 4

507A1 BOOKLET WITH RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

BOOKLET MISPLACED OR LOST . . . . . . . . . . 2

BOOKLET STOLEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

BOOKLET HELD AS COLLATERAL/RANSOM . . 4

BOOKLET AT HEALTH FACILITY . . . . . . . . . . 5

OTHER 6

(SPECIFY)

507A2

CODE '2' CIRCLED CODE '4' CIRCLED 511A

SECTION 5A. CHILD IMMUNISATION (LAST BIRTH)

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

CHECK 215 IN THE BIRTH HISTORY: ANY BIRTHS IN 2013-2016?

RECORD THE NAME AND BIRTH HISTORY NUMBER FROM 212 OF THE LAST CHILD BORN IN 2013-2016.

NAME OF LAST BIRTH

CHECK 216 FOR CHILD:

Do you have a Road to Health booklet/card or other 

document where (NAME)'s vaccinations are written 

down?

Where is (NAME)'s Road to Health booklet?

CHECK 507A:

Did you ever have a Road to Health booklet for (NAME)?

Why don't you have a Road to Health booklet for 

(NAME)?

CHECK 504A:

506A

What happened to (NAME)'s Road to Health booklet?

May I see the document where (NAME)'s vaccinations 

are written down?

May I see the Road to Health booklet or other document 

where (NAME)'s vaccinations are written down?

Appendix E • 499
508A

509A

NO YES 525A

510A

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

(THEN SKIP TO 525A)

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

RECORD 'YES' ONLY IF THE RESPONDENT 

MENTIONS AT LEAST ONE OF THE VACCINATIONS 

IN 508A THAT ARE NOT RECORDED AS HAVING 

BEEN GIVEN.

COPY DATES FROM THE BOOKLET.

ORAL POLIO VACCINE (OPV) 0 (BIRTH DOSE)

YEAR

WRITE ‘44' IN ‘DAY' COLUMN IF BOOKLET SHOWS THAT A DOSE WAS GIVEN, BUT NO DATE IS RECORDED.

PHOTOGRAPH VACCINATION PAGE OF BOOKLET OR OTHER DOCUMENT WHERE VACCINATIONS ARE 

WRITTEN.

SECTION 5A. CHILD IMMUNISATION (LAST BIRTH)

PNEUMOCOCCAL CONJUGATE VACCINE (PCV) 1

ROTAVIRUS (RV) 1

HEPATITIS B (HEP B) 1

DAY MONTH

BCG

ORAL POLIO VACCINE (OPV) 1

DTAP-IPV-HIB 1

CHECK 508A: 'BCG' TO 'MEASLES 2' ALL RECORDED?

PNEUMOCOCCAL CONJUGATE VACCINE (PCV) 3

DTAP-IPV-HIB 4

HEPATITIS B (HEP B) 2

In addition to what is recorded on (this document/these 

documents), did (NAME) receive any other vaccinations, 

including vaccinations received in immunisation 

campaigns?

(PROBE FOR VACCINATIONS AND WRITE ‘66' IN 

THE CORRESPONDING DAY COLUMN IN 508A 

THEN WRITE '00' IN THE CORRESPONDING DAY 

COLUMN FOR ALL VACCINATIONS NOT GIVEN)

(WRITE '00' IN THE CORRESPONDING DAY 

COLUMN FOR ALL VACCINATIONS NOT GIVEN)

(THEN SKIP TO 525A)

DTAP-IPV-HIB 3

HEPATITIS B (HEP B) 3

PNEUMOCOCCAL CONJUGATE VACCINE (PCV) 2

ROTAVIRUS (RV) 2

MEASLES 1

DTAP-IPV-HIB 2

MEASLES 2

VITAMIN A (MOST RECENT)

500 • Appendix E
NO.

BIRTH HISTORY NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . 

511A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 526A

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 501B

512A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

514A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

515A FIRST TWO WEEKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

516A

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

517A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

518A

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

518A1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

518A2

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

519A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

520A

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

521A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

522A

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

523A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

524A

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

525A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

526A

CHILD RECEIVED CHILD RECEIVED CLINIC OUT OF STOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

 AT LEAST ONE RECEIVED NO NOT AWARE OF NEED FOR A VACCINATION B

VACCINATION VACCINATIONS FEAR OF SIDE EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

DID NOT KNOW WHERE TO GO . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

TOO BUSY TO TAKE CHILD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

a) b) NO MONEY FOR TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

CHILD WAS ILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

RESPONDENT WAS ILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

OTHER X

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z

501B

Has (NAME) ever received a rotavirus vaccination, that 

is, syrup in the mouth to prevent diarrhoea? 523A

525A

How many times did (NAME) receive the measles 

vaccine?

How many times did (NAME) receive the rotavirus 

vaccine?

Has (NAME) ever received a measles vaccination, that 

is, an injection in the left thigh or right arm to prevent 

measles?

517A

Has (NAME) ever received a BCG vaccination against 

tuberculosis, that is, an injection in the arm or shoulder 

that usually causes a scar?

Has (NAME) ever received a pneumococcal vaccination, 

that is, an injection in the right thigh to prevent 

pneumonia?

How many times did (NAME) receive the pneumococcal 

vaccine?

Has (NAME) ever received oral polio vaccine, that is, 

about two drops in the mouth to prevent polio?

How many times did (NAME) receive the DTPcombination vaccine?

Did (NAME) receive the first oral polio vaccine in the first 

two weeks after birth or later?

How many times did (NAME) receive the oral polio 

vaccine?

Has (NAME) ever received a hepatitis B vaccination, that 

is, an injection given in the right thigh to prevent hepatitis 

B? 519A

How many times did (NAME) receive the hepatitis B 

vaccine?

518A1

521A

Has (NAME) ever received a DTP-combination 

vaccination, also known as a pentavalent vaccination? 

That is, an injection given in the left thigh or left arm to 

prevent diphtheria, tetanus, and whooping cough?

SKIP

SECTION 5A. CHILD IMMUNISATION (LAST BIRTH)

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES

Did (NAME) ever receive any vaccinations to prevent 

(NAME) from getting diseases, including vaccinations 

received in immunisation campaigns?

NAME OF LAST BIRTH

(SPECIFY)

What was the reason for 

(NAME) missing the 

vaccination or getting it 

late? 

PROBE: Any other 

reason?

What is the reason 

(NAME) has not 

received any 

vaccinations? 

PROBE: Any other 

reason?

CHECK 508A AND 511A:

Did (NAME) ever miss getting a vaccination or get a 

vaccination late?

Appendix E • 501
NO.

501B

MORE BIRTHS IN 2013-2016 NO MORE BIRTHS IN 2013-2016 601

502B

BIRTH HISTORY NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . 

503B

LIVING DEAD 527B

504B YES, HAS ONLY A BOOKLET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 507B

YES, HAS ONLY ANOTHER DOCUMENT . . . . . 2

YES, HAS BOOKLET AND OTHER DOCUMENT 3 507B

NO, NO BOOKLET AND NO OTHER DOCUMENT 4

505B YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 505B2

505B1 BOOKLET WITH RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

BOOKLET MISPLACED OR LOST . . . . . . . . . . . 2

BOOKLET STOLEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

BOOKLET HELD AS COLLATERAL/RANSOM . . 4

BOOKLET DESTROYED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

OTHER 6

(SPECIFY)

505B2 NONE AVAILABLE AT HEALTH FACILITY . . . . . 1

FOREIGNERS NOT GIVEN ONE . . . . . . . . . . . 2

REQUIRED TO PAY FOR IT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

TOO BUSY TO GET ONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER 6

(SPECIFY)

506B

CODE '2' CIRCLED CODE '4' CIRCLED 511B

506B1 YES, OTHER DOCUMENT SEEN . . . . . . . . . . . 1 508B

 NO DOCUMENT SEEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 511B

507B YES, ONLY BOOKLET SEEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 508B

YES, ONLY OTHER DOCUMENT SEEN . . . . . 2

YES, BOOKLET AND OTHER DOCUMENT SEEN 3 508B

NO BOOKLET AND NO OTHER DOCUMENT SEEN 4

507B1 BOOKLET WITH RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

BOOKLET MISPLACED OR LOST . . . . . . . . . . . 2

BOOKLET STOLEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

BOOKLET HELD AS COLLATERAL/RANSOM . . 4

BOOKLET AT HEALTH FACILITY . . . . . . . . . . . 5

OTHER 6

(SPECIFY)

507B2

CODE '2' CIRCLED CODE '4' CIRCLED 511B

Did you ever have a Road to Health booklet for 

(NAME)?

What happened to (NAME)'s Road to Health booklet?

Where is (NAME)'s Road to Health booklet?

SECTION 5B. CHILD IMMUNISATION (NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH)

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

Do you have a Road to Health booklet/card or other 

document where (NAME)'s vaccinations are written 

down?

CHECK 215 IN THE BIRTH HISTORY: ANY MORE BIRTHS IN 2013-2016?

CHECK 216 FOR CHILD:

NAME OF NEXT-TOLAST BIRTH

RECORD THE NAME AND BIRTH HISTORY NUMBER FROM 212 OF THE NEXT-TO-LAST CHILD BORN IN 2013-

2016.

CHECK 504B:

May I see the Road to Health booklet or other document 

where (NAME)'s vaccinations are written down?

May I see the document where (NAME)'s vaccinations 

are written down?

CHECK 507B:

506B

Why don't you have a Road to Health booklet for 

(NAME)?

502 • Appendix E
508B

509B

NO YES 525B

510B

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

(THEN SKIP TO 525B)

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

In addition to what is recorded on (this document/these 

documents), did (NAME) receive any other vaccinations, 

including vaccinations received in immunisation 

campaigns?

COPY DATES FROM THE BOOKLET.

YEAR

PHOTOGRAPH VACCINATION PAGE OF BOOKLET OR OTHER DOCUMENT WHERE VACCINATIONS ARE 

WRITTEN.

SECTION 5B. CHILD IMMUNISATION (NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH)

WRITE ‘44' IN ‘DAY' COLUMN IF BOOKLET SHOWS THAT A DOSE WAS GIVEN, BUT NO DATE IS RECORDED.

DAY MONTH

ORAL POLIO VACCINE (OPV) 1

ORAL POLIO VACCINE (OPV) 0 (BIRTH DOSE)

MEASLES 1

PNEUMOCOCCAL CONJUGATE VACCINE (PCV) 1

HEPATITIS B (HEP B) 1

VITAMIN A (MOST RECENT)

MEASLES 2

DTAP-IPV-HIB 3

HEPATITIS B (HEP B) 2

(PROBE FOR VACCINATIONS AND WRITE ‘66' IN 

THE CORRESPONDING DAY COLUMN IN 508B 

THEN WRITE '00' IN THE CORRESPONDING DAY 

COLUMN FOR ALL VACCINATIONS NOT GIVEN)

(WRITE '00' IN THE CORRESPONDING DAY 

COLUMN FOR ALL VACCINATIONS NOT GIVEN)

(THEN SKIP TO 525B)

RECORD 'YES' ONLY IF THE RESPONDENT 

MENTIONS AT LEAST ONE OF THE VACCINATIONS 

IN 508B THAT ARE NOT RECORDED AS HAVING 

BEEN GIVEN.

BCG

ROTAVIRUS (RV) 1

ROTAVIRUS (RV) 2

PNEUMOCOCCAL CONJUGATE VACCINE (PCV) 2

HEPATITIS B (HEP B) 3

PNEUMOCOCCAL CONJUGATE VACCINE (PCV) 3

DTAP-IPV-HIB 2

CHECK 508B: 'BCG' TO 'MEASLES 2' ALL RECORDED?

DTAP-IPV-HIB 1

DTAP-IPV-HIB 4

Appendix E • 503
NO.

BIRTH HISTORY NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . 

511B YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 526B

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 527B

512B YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

514B YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

515B FIRST TWO WEEKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

516B

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

517B YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

518B

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

518B1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

518B2

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

519B YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

520B

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

521B YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

522B

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

523B YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

524B

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Has (NAME) ever received a BCG vaccination against 

tuberculosis, that is, an injection in the arm or shoulder 

that usually causes a scar?

How many times did (NAME) receive the measles 

vaccine?

How many times did (NAME) receive the rotavirus 

vaccine?

Has (NAME) ever received a measles vaccination, that 

is, an injection in the left thigh or right arm to prevent 

measles?

Did (NAME) ever receive any vaccinations to prevent 

(NAME) from getting diseases, including vaccinations 

received in immunisation campaigns?

517B

Has (NAME) ever received a pneumococcal 

vaccination, that is, an injection in the right thigh to 

prevent pneumonia?

519B

How many times did (NAME) receive the oral polio 

vaccine?

How many times did (NAME) receive the DTPcombination vaccine?

How many times did (NAME) receive the hepatitis B 

vaccine?

518B1

Did (NAME) receive the first oral polio vaccine in the 

first two weeks after birth or later?

Has (NAME) ever received oral polio vaccine, that is, 

about two drops in the mouth to prevent polio?

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS SKIP

NAME OF NEXT-TOLAST BIRTH

CODING CATEGORIES

Has (NAME) ever received a DTP-combination 

vaccination, also known as a pentavalent vaccination? 

That is, an injection given in the left thigh or left arm to 

prevent diphtheria, tetanus, and whooping cough?

SECTION 5B. CHILD IMMUNISATION (NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH)

How many times did (NAME) receive the pneumococcal 

vaccine?

Has (NAME) ever received a rotavirus vaccination, that 

is, syrup in the mouth to prevent diarrhoea?

521B

Has (NAME) ever received a hepatitis B vaccination, 

that is, an injection given in the right thigh to prevent 

hepatitis B?

525B

523B

504 • Appendix E
NO.

BIRTH HISTORY NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . 

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS SKIP

NAME OF NEXT-TOLAST BIRTH

CODING CATEGORIES

SECTION 5B. CHILD IMMUNISATION (NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH)

525B YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

526B

CHILD RECEIVED CHILD RECEIVED CLINIC OUT OF STOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

 AT LEAST ONE RECEIVED NO NOT AWARE OF NEED FOR A VACCINATION B

VACCINATION VACCINATIONS FEAR OF SIDE EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

DID NOT KNOW WHERE TO GO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

TOO BUSY TO TAKE CHILD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

a) b) NO MONEY FOR TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

CHILD WAS ILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

RESPONDENT WAS ILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

OTHER X

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z

527B

601

NO MORE BIRTHS 

IN 2013-2016

MORE BIRTHS IN 

2013-2016

CHECK 215 IN BIRTH HISTORY: ANY MORE BIRTHS IN 2013-2016?

What was the reason 

for (NAME) missing the 

vaccination or getting it 

late? 

PROBE: Any other 

reason?

What is the reason 

(NAME) has not 

received any 

vaccinations? 

PROBE: Any other 

reason?

Did (NAME) ever miss getting a vaccination or get a 

vaccination late?

(SPECIFY)

(GO TO 502B IN AN 

ADDITIONAL 

QUESTIONNAIRE)

CHECK 508B AND 511B:

526B

Appendix E • 505
601

602

603

BIRTH BIRTH

HISTORY HISTORY

NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . 

604

LIVING DEAD LIVING DEAD

(SKIP TO 646) (SKIP TO 646)

605

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

607 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

608 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 618) (SKIP TO 618)

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

609

YES NO

a) b)

MUCH LESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 MUCH LESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOMEWHAT LESS . . . . . . . . . . 2 SOMEWHAT LESS . . . . . . . . . . 2

ABOUT THE SAME . . . . . . . . . . 3 ABOUT THE SAME . . . . . . . . . . 3

MORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 MORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

NOTHING TO DRINK . . . . . . . . 5 NOTHING TO DRINK . . . . . . . . 5

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

CHECK 224:

Now I would like to ask some questions about your children born in the last five years. (We will talk about each separately.)

BIRTH HISTORY NUMBER FROM 212 

IN BIRTH HISTORY.

FROM 212 AND 216: NAME NAME

CHECK 215: RECORD THE BIRTH HISTORY NUMBER IN 603 AND THE NAME AND SURVIVAL STATUS IN 604 FOR EACH 

BIRTH IN 2011-2016. ASK THE QUESTIONS ABOUT ALL OF THESE BIRTHS. BEGIN WITH THE LAST BIRTH. IF THERE ARE 

MORE THAN 2 BIRTHS, USE LAST COLUMN OF ADDITIONAL QUESTIONNAIRE(S).

LAST BIRTH NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

ONE OR MORE BIRTHS 

IN 2011-2016

NO BIRTHS 

IN 2011-2016 648

Has (NAME) had diarrhoea/loose stools in 

the last 2 weeks?

IF RESPONDENT SAYS NO, CHECK 

ROAD TO HEALTH BOOKLET.

SHOW COMMON TYPES OF 

AMPULES/CAPSULES/SYRUPS.

In the last six months, was (NAME) given 

a vitamin A dose like [this/any of these]?

Now I would like 

to know how 

much (NAME) 

was given to 

drink during the 

diarrhoea 

including 

breastmilk. Was 

(NAME) given 

less than usual 

to drink, about 

the same 

amount, or more 

than usual to 

drink?

IF LESS, 

PROBE: Was 

(NAME) given 

much less than 

usual to drink or 

somewhat less?

Now I would like 

to know how 

much (NAME) 

was given to 

drink during the 

diarrhoea. Was 

(NAME) given 

less than usual 

to drink, about 

the same 

amount, or more 

than usual to 

drink?

IF LESS, 

PROBE: Was 

(NAME) given 

much less than 

usual to drink or 

somewhat less?

CHECK 469: CURRENTLY 

BREASTFEEDING?

Was (NAME) given any drug for intestinal 

worms in the last six months?

506 • Appendix E
NO.

610 MUCH LESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 MUCH LESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOMEWHAT LESS . . . . . . . . . . 2 SOMEWHAT LESS . . . . . . . . . . 2

ABOUT THE SAME . . . . . . . . . . 3 ABOUT THE SAME . . . . . . . . . . 3

MORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 MORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

STOPPED FOOD . . . . . . . . . . 5 STOPPED FOOD . . . . . . . . . . 5

NEVER GAVE FOOD . . . . . . . . 6 NEVER GAVE FOOD . . . . . . . . 6

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

611 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 615) (SKIP TO 615)

612 PUBLIC SECTOR PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . A GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . A

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/ GOVERNMENT CLINIC/

COMM. HEALTH CENTRE B COMM. HEALTH CENTRE B

MOBILE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . C MOBILE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . C

COMM. HEALTH WORKER . . D COMM. HEALTH WORKER . . D

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

E E

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC F PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC F

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . G CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . G

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . H PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . H

OTHER PRIVATE OTHER PRIVATE

MEDICAL SECTOR MEDICAL SECTOR

I I

OTHER SOURCE OTHER SOURCE

SUPERMARKET/SHOP . . . . . J SUPERMARKET/SHOP . . . . . J

TRADITIONAL TRADITIONAL

HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . K HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . K

MARKET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L MARKET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L

OTHER X OTHER X

613 TWO OR ONLY TWO OR ONLY

MORE ONE MORE ONE

CODES CODE CODES CODE

CIRCLED CIRCLED CIRCLED CIRCLED

(SKIP TO 615) (SKIP TO 615)

614

FIRST PLACE . . . . . . . . . . FIRST PLACE . . . . . . . . . . 

When (NAME) had diarrhoea, was 

(NAME) given less than usual to eat, 

about the same amount, more than usual, 

or nothing to eat?

IF LESS, PROBE: Was (NAME) given 

much less than usual to eat or somewhat 

less?

Did you seek advice or treatment for the 

diarrhoea from any source?

Where did you seek advice or treatment?

Anywhere else?

SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

LAST BIRTH NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS NAME NAME

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY) (SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

Where did you first seek advice or 

treatment?

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF 

SOURCE.

 IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC 

OR PRIVATE SECTOR, RECORD 'X' 

AND WRITE THE NAME OF THE 

PLACE(S).

CHECK 612:

USE LETTER CODE FROM 612.

Appendix E • 507
NO.

SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

LAST BIRTH NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS NAME NAME

615

YES NO DK YES NO DK

a) a) FLUID FROM a) FLUID FROM

ORS ORS

PACKET . . 1 2 8 PACKET . . 1 2 8

b) b) HOMEMADE b) HOMEMADE

FLUID . . . . . 1 2 8 FLUID . . . . . 1 2 8

c) c) ZINC . . . . . . . . 1 2 8 c) ZINC . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

616

ANY 'YES' ALL 'NO'

OR 'DK'

a) b) YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 618) (SKIP TO 618)

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

617 PILL OR SYRUP PILL OR SYRUP

ANTIBIOTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . A ANTIBIOTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

ANY 'YES' ALL 'NO' ANTIMOTILITY . . . . . . . . . . B ANTIMOTILITY . . . . . . . . . . B

OR 'DK' OTHER (NOT ANTIBIOTIC OTHER (NOT ANTIBIOTIC

a) b) OR ANTIMOTILITY) . . . . . C OR ANTIMOTILITY) . . . . . C

UNKNOWN PILL UNKNOWN PILL

OR SYRUP . . . . . . . . . . D OR SYRUP . . . . . . . . . . D

INJECTION INJECTION

ANTIBIOTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . E ANTIBIOTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

NON-ANTIBIOTIC . . . . . . . . F NON-ANTIBIOTIC . . . . . . . . F

UNKNOWN UNKNOWN

INJECTION . . . . . . . . . . G INJECTION . . . . . . . . . . G

(IV) INTRAVENOUS . . . . . . . . . . H (IV) INTRAVENOUS . . . . . . . . . . H

HOME REMEDY/ HOME REMEDY/

HERBAL MEDICINE . . . . . . . . I HERBAL MEDICINE . . . . . . . . I

OTHER X OTHER X

618 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

620 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

621 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 623) (SKIP TO 623)

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

622 CHEST ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 CHEST ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NOSE ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NOSE ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

BOTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 BOTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

OTHER 6 OTHER 6

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

(SKIP TO 624) (SKIP TO 624)

623 YES NO OR DK YES NO OR DK

(SKIP TO 646) (SKIP TO 646)

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY) (SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

RECORD ALL TREATMENTS GIVEN.

Was (NAME) given any of the following at 

any time since (NAME) started having the 

diarrhoea:

A fluid made from a special packet 

called Sorol or Rehidrat?

Zinc tablets or syrup?

Was anything 

else given to 

treat the 

diarrhoea?

CHECK 615:

CHECK 615:

What else was 

given to treat the 

diarrhoea?

Anything else?

What was given 

to treat the 

diarrhoea?

Anything else?

Has (NAME) had an illness with a cough 

at any time in the last 2 weeks?

Has (NAME) had fast, short, rapid breaths 

or difficulty breathing at any time in the 

last 2 weeks?

Was the fast or difficult breathing due to a 

problem in the chest or to a blocked or 

runny nose?

A clinic-recommended sugar-salt 

solution?

Was anything 

given to treat the 

diarrhoea?

CHECK 618: HAD FEVER?

Has (NAME) been ill with a fever at any 

time in the last 2 weeks?

508 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

LAST BIRTH NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS NAME NAME

624 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 629) (SKIP TO 629)

625 PUBLIC SECTOR PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . A GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . A

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/ GOVERNMENT CLINIC/

COMM. HEALTH CENTRE B COMM. HEALTH CENTRE B

MOBILE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . C MOBILE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . C

COMM. HEALTH WORKER . . D COMM. HEALTH WORKER . . D

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

E E

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC F PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC F

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . G CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . G

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . H PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . H

OTHER PRIVATE OTHER PRIVATE

MEDICAL SECTOR MEDICAL SECTOR

I I

OTHER SOURCE OTHER SOURCE

SUPERMARKET/SHOP . . . . . J SUPERMARKET/SHOP . . . . . J

TRADITIONAL TRADITIONAL

HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . K HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . K

MARKET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L MARKET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L

OTHER X OTHER X

626 TWO OR ONLY TWO OR ONLY

MORE ONE MORE ONE

CODES CODE CODES CODE

CIRCLED CIRCLED CIRCLED CIRCLED

(SKIP TO 628) (SKIP TO 628)

627

FIRST PLACE . . . . . . . . . . FIRST PLACE . . . . . . . . . . 

628

DAYS . . . . . . . . . . DAYS . . . . . . . . . . 

629 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 646) (SKIP TO 646)

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY) (SPECIFY)

IF THE SAME DAY RECORD ‘00’.

How many days after the illness began 

did you first seek advice or treatment for 

(NAME)?

CHECK 625:

Did you seek advice or treatment for the 

illness from any source?

At any time during the illness, did (NAME) 

take any drugs for the illness?

 IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC 

OR PRIVATE SECTOR, RECORD 'X' 

AND WRITE THE NAME OF THE 

PLACE(S).

Where did you first seek advice or 

treatment?

USE LETTER CODE FROM 625.

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF 

SOURCE.

Where did you seek advice or treatment?

Anywhere else?

Appendix E • 509
NO.

SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

LAST BIRTH NEXT-TO-LAST BIRTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS NAME NAME

630 ANTIMALARIAL DRUGS ANTIMALARIAL DRUGS

COARTEM/ARTEMISININ COARTEM/ARTEMISININ

COMBINATION COMBINATION

THERAPY (ACT) . . . . . A THERAPY (ACT) . . . . . A

OTHER ANTIMALARIAL OTHER ANTIMALARIAL

B B

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS

PILL/SYRUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . C PILL/SYRUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

INJECTION/IV . . . . . . . . . . D INJECTION/IV . . . . . . . . . . D

OTHER DRUGS OTHER DRUGS

ASPIRIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E ASPIRIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

PARACETAMOL/PANADO . . F PARACETAMOL/PANADO . . F

BRUFEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . G BRUFEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

PONSTAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . H PONSTAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

OTHER X OTHER X

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z

646

RECORD ALL MENTIONED.

What drugs did (NAME) take?

Any other drugs?

GO BACK TO 604 IN NEXT 

COLUMN; OR, IF NO MORE 

BIRTHS, GO TO 647.

GO TO 604 IN NEXT-TO-LAST 

COLUMN OF NEW 

QUESTIONNAIRE; OR, IF NO MORE 

BIRTHS, GO TO 647.

(SPECIFY) (SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY) (SPECIFY)

510 • Appendix E
NO.

647

NO CHILD ANY CHILD

RECEIVED FLUID RECEIVED FLUID 648B

FROM ORS PACKET FROM ORS PACKET

648

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

648A

648B

NO CHILD ANY CHILD

RECEIVED RECEIVED 649

CLINIC RECOMMENDED CLINIC RECOMMENDED

 SUGAR-SALT SOLUTION SUGAR-SALT SOLUTION

648C

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

649

ONE OR MORE NONE

(NAME OF YOUNGEST CHILD LIVING WITH HER)

SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

Have you ever heard of a special product called Sorol or 

Rehidrat that you can get for the treatment of diarrhoea?

CHECK 615(a), ALL COLUMNS:

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

701

CHECK 224:

ONE OR MORE BIRTHS 

IN 2011-2016

NO BIRTHS IN 

2011-2016 648C

CHECK 615(b), ALL COLUMNS:

Have you ever heard from a health care worker about a 

sugar-salt solution that can be made at home for the 

treatment of diarrhoea? 

CHECK 215 AND 218, ALL ROWS: NUMBER OF CHILDREN BORN IN 2014-2016 LIVING WITH THE 

RESPONDENT

Appendix E • 511
NO.

SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

650

YES NO DK

a) a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

b) b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

d) d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

e) e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

eb) eb). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

f) f) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

g) g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

h) h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

i) i) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

j) j) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

k) k) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

l) l) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

m) m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

n) n) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

o) o) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

p) p) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

q) q) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

r) r) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

s) s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

t) t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

IF 7 OR MORE TIMES, RECORD '7'.

Any other liquids?

Fruit juice or squashes?

White potatoes, white sweet potatoes, white yams, 

or any other foods made from roots?

Any foods made from beans, peas, lentils, or nuts?

Porridge, pap, bread, rice, noodles, Morvite or other 

foods made from grains?

Infant formula?

IF YES: How many times did (NAME) drink infant 

formula?

Liver, kidney, heart, or other organ meats?

Eggs?

Fresh, dried or tinned fish or shellfish?

Any Purity, Cerelac, Ace or other commercially 

fortified baby cereal or porridge?

Cheese or other food made from milk?

Now I would like to ask you about liquids or foods that 

(NAME FROM 649) had yesterday during the day or at 

night. I am interested in whether your child had the item 

I mention even if it was combined with other foods.

Did (NAME FROM 649) drink or eat:

Plain water?

Any meat, such as beef, pork, lamb, goat, chicken, 

or duck?

Any other fruits or vegetables such as oranges, 

apples, bananas, guava, green melon, pineapples, 

avocados, or mushrooms?

Ripe mangoes, ripe papayas, or orange melon?

Any dark green, leafy vegetables?

Pumpkin, carrots, squash, or sweet potatoes that are 

yellow or orange inside?

NUMBER OF TIMES 

DRANK MILK

NUMBER OF TIMES 

DRANK FORMULA

NUMBER OF TIMES 

ATE YOGURT 

Coke, Stoney, Dixi Cola, Jive or other sugary drinks?

Milk such as tinned, powdered, or fresh animal milk?

IF YES: How many times did (NAME) drink milk?

IF 7 OR MORE TIMES, RECORD '7'.

Yogurt, amasi, maas or custard?

IF YES: How many times did (NAME) eat yogurt, 

amasi, maas or custard?

IF 7 OR MORE TIMES, RECORD '7'.

512 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 6. CHILD HEALTH AND NUTRITION

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

u) u) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

v) v) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

va) va) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

w) w) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

651

NOT A SINGLE 'YES' AT LEAST ONE 'YES' 653

652 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

(THEN CONTINUE TO 653)

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 653A

653

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

653A

YES NO 654

653B YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 654

653C

NUMBER OF TIMES

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

654 CHILD USED TOILET OR LATRINE . . . . . . . . . . . 01

PUT/RINSED

INTO TOILET OR LATRINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02

PUT/RINSED

INTO DRAIN, DITCH, RIVER OR STREAM 03

THROWN INTO GARBAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04

BURIED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05

LEFT IN THE OPEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06

OTHER 96

Any oils, fats, butter, or foods made with any of 

these?

(SPECIFY)

The last time (NAME FROM 649) passed stools, what 

was done to dispose of the stools?

IF 7 OR MORE TIMES, RECORD ‘7'.

How many times did (NAME FROM 649) eat solid, semisolid, or soft foods yesterday during the day or at night?

CHECK 650 (CATEGORIES 'g' THROUGH 'w'): 

(GO BACK TO 650 TO RECORD 

FOOD EATEN YESTERDAY)

In the last four weeks, how many times has (NAME 

FROM 649) eaten liver?

Has (NAME FROM 649) ever eaten liver?

Did (NAME FROM 649) eat any solid, semi-solid, or soft 

foods yesterday during the day or at night?

IF ‘YES’ PROBE: What kind of solid, semi-solid or soft 

foods did (NAME) eat?

Any other solid, semi-solid, or soft food?

Any salty snacks such as Nik Naks, Simba, Flings, or 

Spookies?

Any sugary foods such as chocolates, sweets, 

candies, pastries, cakes or biscuits?

CHECK 215: CHILD AGE 6 MONTHS OR OLDER? 

Appendix E • 513
NO.

701 YES, CURRENTLY MARRIED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

YES, LIVING WITH A PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

701A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 702

701B MAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

WOMAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

INTERSEX OR TRANSGENDERED . . . . . . . . 3

701C

701 = 3 701 = 1 OR 2 703A

702 YES, FORMERLY MARRIED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

YES, LIVED WITH A PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 703A

703 WIDOWED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

DIVORCED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

SEPARATED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

703A

AGE 50

AGE 15-49 AND ABOVE 901

703B

702 = 1 OR 2

701 = 1 OR 2

701 = 3 AND 702 = 3

704 LIVING WITH HER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

STAYING ELSEWHERE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

705 NAME

LINE NO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

705A

SPOUSE/PARTNER IS FEMALE

SPOUSE/PARTNER IS MALE (701B = 1) OR INTERSEX (701B = 2 OR 3)

706 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

707 TOTAL NUMBER OF WIVES 

AND LIVE-IN PARTNERS . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

708

RANK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Are you currently married or living together with 

someone as if married?

709

CHECK 701 AND 702: EVER MARRIED OR LIVED WITH A PARTNER?

SECTION 7. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

What is your marital status now: are you widowed, 

divorced, or separated?

Have you ever been married or lived together with 

someone as if married?

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

701B

713

CHECK 106: AGE OF RESPONDENT

Do you have a regular boyfriend/partner or fiancé?

CHECK 701: RESPONDENT'S CURRENT MARITAL STATUS

RECORD THE SPOUSE'S/PARTNER'S NAME AND 

LINE NUMBER FROM THE HOUSEHOLD 

QUESTIONNAIRE. IF HE/SHE IS NOT LISTED IN THE 

HOUSEHOLD, RECORD '00'.

Is your (spouse/partner) living with you now or is he/she 

staying elsewhere?

Does your (husband/partner) have other wives or does 

he live with other women as if married?

709

Is this person a man or a woman?

Are you the first, second, ... wife?

Including yourself, in total, how many wives or live-in 

partners does he have?

CHECK 701B: SEX OF SPOUSE/PARTNER

709

514 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 7. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

709 ONLY ONCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MORE THAN ONCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

710

MARRIED/

MARRIED/LIVED LIVED WITH A

 WITH A PARTNER PARTNER MORE MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

ONLY ONCE THAN ONCE

a) b) DON'T KNOW MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9998

711

AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

712

713 NEVER HAD SEXUAL

INTERCOURSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 731

AGE IN YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

714

DAYS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

WEEKS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

MONTHS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

YEARS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

712

727

716

I would like to ask you about your recent sexual activity. 

When was the last time you had sexual intercourse?

IF LESS THAN 12 MONTHS, ANSWER MUST BE 

RECORDED IN DAYS, WEEKS OR MONTHS. IF 12 

MONTHS (ONE YEAR) OR MORE, ANSWER MUST 

BE RECORDED IN YEARS.

CHECK 709:

Now I would like to ask 

about your first 

(spouse/partner). In 

what month and year 

did you start living with 

your first 

(spouse/partner)?

In what month and year 

did you start living with 

your (spouse/partner)?

How old were you when you first started living together?

Now I would like to ask some questions about sexual 

activity in order to gain a better understanding of some 

important life issues. Let me assure you again that your 

answers are completely confidential and will not be told 

to anyone. If we should come to any question that you 

don't want to answer, just let me know and we will go to 

the next question. How old were you when you had 

sexual intercourse for the very first time?

CHECK FOR PRESENCE OF OTHERS. BEFORE CONTINUING, MAKE EVERY EFFORT TO ENSURE PRIVACY.

Have you been married or lived with someone only once 

or more than once?

Appendix E • 515
715 DAYS DAYS

AGO . . 1 AGO . . 1

WEEKS WEEKS

AGO . . 2 AGO . . 2

MONTHS MONTHS

AGO . . 3 AGO . . 3

716 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 718) (SKIP TO 718) (SKIP TO 718)

717

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

718 SPOUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 SPOUSE . . . . . . . . . . . 1 SPOUSE . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LIVE-IN PARTNER . . . . . 2 LIVE-IN PARTNER . . . . . 2 LIVE-IN PARTNER . . . . . 2

BOYFRIEND/GIRLFRIEND BOYFRIEND/GIRLFRIEND BOYFRIEND/GIRLFRIEND

NOT LIVING WITH NOT LIVING WITH NOT LIVING WITH

RESPONDENT . . . . . 3 RESPONDENT . . . . . 3 RESPONDENT . . . . . 3

CASUAL CASUAL CASUAL

ACQUAINTANCE . . 4 ACQUAINTANCE . . 4 ACQUAINTANCE . . 4

CLIENT/SEX WORKER . . 5 CLIENT/SEX WORKER . . 5 CLIENT/SEX WORKER . . 5

OTHER 6 OTHER 6 OTHER 6

719 DAYS DAYS DAYS

AGO . . 1 AGO . . 1 AGO . . 1

WEEKS WEEKS WEEKS

AGO . . 2 AGO . . 2 AGO . . 2

MONTHS MONTHS MONTHS

AGO . . 3 AGO . . 3 AGO . . 3

YEARS YEARS YEARS

AGO . . 4 AGO . . 4 AGO . . 4

720

NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF 

TIMES . . . . . TIMES . . . . . TIMES . . . . . 

721 AGE OF AGE OF AGE OF

PARTNER PARTNER PARTNER

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . 98 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . 98 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . 98

722 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 724) (SKIP TO 724)

723

NUMBER OF

PARTNERS

LAST 12 

MONTHS . . 

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . 98

(GO BACK TO 715 

IN NEXT COLUMN)

(GO BACK TO 715 

IN NEXT COLUMN)

IF NON-NUMERIC ANSWER, 

PROBE TO GET AN 

ESTIMATE. IF NUMBER OF 

PARTNERS IS 95 OR MORE, 

RECORD '95'.

In total, with how many 

different people have you had 

sexual intercourse in the last 

12 months? 

(SPECIFY) (SPECIFY)

How many times during the last 

12 months did you have sexual 

intercourse with this person?

IF NON-NUMERIC ANSWER, 

PROBE TO GET AN 

ESTIMATE. IF NUMBER OF 

TIMES IS 95 OR MORE, 

RECORD '95'.

How old is this person?

Apart from this person, have 

you had sexual intercourse 

with any other person in the 

last 12 months?

(SPECIFY)

How long ago did you first 

have sexual intercourse with 

this person?

SECTION 7. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

THIRD-TO-LAST SEXUAL 

PARTNER

SECOND-TO-LAST SEXUAL 

PARTNER LAST SEXUAL PARTNER

When was the last time you 

had sexual intercourse with 

this person?

The last time you had sexual 

intercourse with this person, 

was a condom used?

Was a condom used every 

time you had sexual 

intercourse with this person in 

the last 12 months?

What was your relationship to 

this person with whom you had 

sexual intercourse?

IF BOYFRIEND/GIRLFRIEND: 

Were you living together as if 

married?

IF YES, RECORD '2'.

IF NO, RECORD '3'.

516 • Appendix E
NO.

724

AGE 15-24 AGE 25-49

725

NOT CURRENTLY MARRIED/ CURRENTLY MARRIED/

LIVING WITH A SPOUSE LIVING WITH A SPOUSE

726

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

727

NUMBER OF PARTNERS

IN LIFETIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

731 YES NO

CHILDREN <10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

MALE ADULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

FEMALE ADULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

SECTION 7. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

PRESENCE OF OTHERS DURING THIS SECTION.

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

In total, with how many different people have you had 

sexual intercourse in your lifetime?

IF NON-NUMERIC ANSWER, PROBE TO GET AN 

ESTIMATE. IF NUMBER OF PARTNERS IS 95 OR 

MORE, RECORD '95'.

CHECK 106:

727

CHECK 701: 

727

In the past 12 months have you had sex or been 

sexually involved with anyone because he gave you or 

told you he would give you gifts, cash, or anything else?

Appendix E • 517
NO.

801

NEITHER HE OR SHE

STERILISED STERILISED

802

PREGNANT NOT PREGNANT

OR UNSURE

803 HAVE ANOTHER CHILD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 805

NO MORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

UNDECIDED/DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

804 HAVE (A/ANOTHER) CHILD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO MORE/NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 807

SAYS SHE CAN'T GET PREGNANT . . . . . . . . . . . 3 813

UNDECIDED/DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 811

805

MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NOT PREGNANT PREGNANT

OR UNSURE YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

a) b) SOON/NOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993 811

SAYS SHE CAN'T GET PREGNANT . . . . . . . . . . . 994 813

AFTER MARRIAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995

OTHER 996 811

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

806

NOT PREGNANT PREGNANT

OR UNSURE

807

NOT CURRENTLY

CURRENTLY USING 813

USING

808

'24' OR MORE MONTHS NOT '00-23' MONTHS

OR '02' OR MORE YEARS ASKED OR '00-01' YEAR 812

809

YEARS

DAYS, WEEKS OR AGO

MONTHS AGO NOT

ASKED 811

CHECK 226:

Now I have some questions about the future. Would you 

like to have (a/another) child, or would you prefer not to 

have any (more) children?

After the birth of the 

child you are expecting 

now, how long would 

you like to wait before 

the birth of another 

child?

How long would you like 

to wait from now before 

the birth of (a/another) 

child?

CHECK 303: USING A CONTRACEPTIVE METHOD?

CHECK 226:

804

812

Now I have some questions about the future. After the 

child you are expecting now, would you like to have 

another child, or would you prefer not to have any more 

children?

CHECK 304:

CHECK 226:

SECTION 8. FERTILITY PREFERENCES

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

813

CHECK 714:

812

(SPECIFY)

CHECK 805:

811

518 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 8. FERTILITY PREFERENCES

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

810 CHECK 804: NOT MARRIED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

WANTS TO HAVE WANTS NO MORE/ FERTILITY-RELATED REASONS

A/ANOTHER CHILD NONE NOT HAVING SEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

INFREQUENT SEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

a) b) MENOPAUSAL/HYSTERECTOMY . . . . . . . . . . . D

CAN'T GET PREGNANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

NOT MENSTRUATED SINCE

LAST BIRTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

BREASTFEEDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

UP TO GOD/FATALISTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

OPPOSITION TO USE

RESPONDENT OPPOSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

HUSBAND/PARTNER OPPOSED . . . . . . . . . . . J

OTHERS OPPOSED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K

RELIGIOUS PROHIBITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L

LACK OF KNOWLEDGE

KNOWS NO METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M

KNOWS NO SOURCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N

METHOD-RELATED REASONS

SIDE EFFECTS/HEALTH

CONCERNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O

LACK OF ACCESS/TOO FAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P

COSTS TOO MUCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q

PREFERRED METHOD

NOT AVAILABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R

NO METHOD AVAILABLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S

INCONVENIENT TO USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T

INTERFERES WITH BODY'S

NORMAL PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U

OTHER

PARTNER IS A WOMAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V

OTHER X

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z

811

NOT NO, NOT YES,

ASKED CURRENTLY USING CURRENTLY USING

812 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

813

HAS LIVING NO LIVING

CHILDREN CHILDREN NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 815

a) b)

NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

OTHER 96 815

RECORD ALL REASONS MENTIONED.

CHECK 303: USING A CONTRACEPTIVE METHOD?

Do you think you will use a contraceptive method to 

delay or avoid pregnancy at any time in the future?

PROBE FOR A NUMERIC RESPONSE.

You have said that you 

do not want (a/another) 

child soon. Can you tell 

me why you are not 

using a method to 

prevent pregnancy?

Any other reason?

You have said that you 

do not want any (more) 

children. Can you tell 

me why you are not 

using a method to 

prevent pregnancy?

Any other reason?

CHECK 216:

If you could go back to 

the time you did not 

have any children and 

could choose exactly 

the number of children 

to have in your whole 

life, how many would 

that be?

If you could choose 

exactly the number of 

children to have in your 

whole life, how many 

would that be?

(SPECIFY)

813

(SPECIFY)

Appendix E • 519
NO.

SECTION 8. FERTILITY PREFERENCES

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

814

NUMBER . . 

OTHER 96

815 YES NO

a) a) RADIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

b) b) TELEVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

c) c) NEWSPAPER OR MAGAZINE . . . . . . . . 1 2

d) d) COMMUNITY HEALTH WORKER . . . . . 1 2

815A

YES, CURRENTLY NO, NOT CURRENTLY 

ATTENDING SCHOOL ATTENDING SCHOOL 817

815 YES NO

e) e) SCHOOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

817

YES, YES, YES, NO, NOT IN A UNION

CURRENTLY LIVING HAS REGULAR MALE OR, IN UNION,

MARRIED TO A MAN WITH A MAN PARTNER/BOYFRIEND BUT NOT WITH A MAN

818

NOT

CURRENTLY CURRENTLY

USING USING

NOT

ASKED 822

819 MAINLY RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MAINLY HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

JOINT DECISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 821

OTHER 6

820 MAINLY RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MAINLY HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

JOINT DECISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

OTHER 6

821

NEITHER ARE HE OR SHE ARE

STERILISED STERILISED

822 SAME NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MORE CHILDREN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

FEWER CHILDREN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Heard about family planning at school?

How many of these children would you like to be boys, 

how many would you like to be girls and for how many 

would it not matter if it’s a boy or a girl?

Does your (husband/partner) want the same number of 

children that you want, or does he want more or fewer 

than you want?

Would you say that not using contraception is mainly 

your decision, mainly your (husband's/partner's) 

decision, or did you both decide together?

CHECK 701, 701A AND 701B:

CHECK 303: USING A CONTRACEPTIVE METHOD?

Would you say that using contraception is mainly your 

decision, mainly your (husband's/partner's) decision, or 

did you both decide together?

CHECK 304:

In the last six months have you:

Heard about family planning from a community 

health worker?

Read about family planning in a newspaper or 

magazine?

Seen anything about family planning on the 

television?

Heard about family planning on the radio?

CHECK Q18 IN HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE:

901

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

901

820

BOYS GIRLS EITHER

(SPECIFY)

520 • Appendix E
NO.

901

CURRENTLY MARRIED/ NOT IN UNION

LIVING WITH SOMEONE OR OR NO REGULAR

HAS A REGULAR PARTNER/BOYFRIEND PARTNER/BOYFRIEND

902

AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS . . . . . . . . 

903 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 906

904 PRIMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SECONDARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

HIGHER THAN SECONDARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 906

905 PRIMARY SCHOOL

LESS THAN 1 YEAR COMPLETED . . . . . . . . 00

GRADE 1/SUB A/CLASS 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

GRADE 2/SUB B/CLASS 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

GRADE 3/STANDARD 1/

AET 1 (KHA RI GUDE, SANLI) . . . . . . . . . . . 13

GRADE 4/STANDARD 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

GRADE 5/STANDARD 3/AET 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 15

GRADE 6 /STANDARD 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

GRADE 7/STANDARD 5/AET 3 . . . . . . . . . . . 17

SECONDARY SCHOOL

LESS THAN 1 YEAR COMPLETED . . . . . . . . 20

GRADE 8/STANDARD 6/FORM 1/NTC 1/

N1/NC (V) LEVEL 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

GRADE 9/STANDARD 7/FORM 2/AET 4/NTC 2/

N2/NC (V) LEVEL 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

GRADE 10/STANDARD 8/FORM 3/NTC 3/

N3/NC (V) LEVEL 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

GRADE 11/STANDARD 9/FORM 4 . . . . . . . . 24

CERTIFICATE OR DIPLOMA WITH LESS THAN 

GRADE 12/STANDARD 10 COMPLETED . . 25

GRADE 12/STANDARD 10/FORM 5/MATRIC . . 26

N4/NTC4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

N5/NTC5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

N6/NTC6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

HIGHER EDUCATION

FURTHER STUDIES INCOMPLETE 

OR ONGOING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

CERTIFICATE OR DIPLOMA WITH GRADE 12/

STANDARD 10 COMPLETED . . . . . . . . . . . 31

HIGHER DIPLOMA (TECHNIKON/

U. OF TECHNOLOGY) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

POST HIGHER DIPLOMA (TECHNIKON/

U. TECHNOLOGY MASTERS, DOCTORAL) 33

BACHELORS DEGREE/BACHELORS DEGREE

 AND POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA . . 34

HONOURS DEGREE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

HIGHER DEGREE (MASTERS, DOCTORATE) 36

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

906 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 908

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

907 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

908

909 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 913

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

SECTION 9. SPOUSE'S BACKGROUND AND WOMAN'S WORK

CHECK 701 AND 701A:

How old was your (spouse/partner) on his/her last 

birthday?

Did your (spouse/partner) ever attend an educational 

institution?

What was the highest level he/she attended: primary, 

secondary, or higher than secondary?

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

909

909

Has your (spouse/partner) done any work in the last 12 

months?

What was the highest grade or form he/she completed at 

that level?

What is your (spouse's/partner's) occupation? That is, 

what kind of work does he/she mainly do?

Has your (spouse/partner) done any work in the last 7 

days?

Aside from your own housework, have you done any 

work in the last seven days?

Appendix E • 521
NO.

SECTION 9. SPOUSE'S BACKGROUND AND WOMAN'S WORK

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

910

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 913

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

911

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 913

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

912 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 913A

913

913A

AGE 50

AGE 15-49 AND ABOVE 1202

913B

YES NO 917

914 FOR FAMILY MEMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

FOR SOMEONE ELSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

SELF-EMPLOYED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

915 THROUGHOUT THE YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SEASONALLY/PART OF THE YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . 2

ONCE IN A WHILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

916 CASH ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CASH AND KIND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

IN KIND ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NOT PAID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

917

CURRENTLY MARRIED/ NOT IN UNION

LIVING WITH A MAN, OR HAS OR NOT IN UNION 925

 REGULAR MALE PARTNER/BOYFRIEND WITH A MAN

918

CODE '1' OR '2' OTHER

CIRCLED

919 RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

RESPONDENT AND

HUSBAND/PARTNER JOINTLY . . . . . . . . . . . 3

OTHER 6

920 MORE THAN HIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LESS THAN HIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

ABOUT THE SAME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

HUSBAND/PARTNER HAS

NO EARNINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 922

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

921 RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

RESPONDENT AND

HUSBAND/PARTNER JOINTLY . . . . . . . . . . . 3

HUSBAND/PARTNER HAS

NO EARNINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER 6

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

921

What is your occupation? That is, what kind of work do 

you mainly do?

Although you did not work in the last seven days, do 

you have any job or business from which you were 

absent for leave, illness, vacation, maternity leave, or 

any other such reason?

Are you paid in cash or kind for this work or are you not 

paid at all?

CHECK 701, 701A AND 701B:

CHECK 916:

Do you usually work throughout the year, or do you 

work seasonally, or only once in a while?

CHECK 909, 910, 911, AND 912: ANY YES?

As you know, some women take up jobs for which they 

are paid in cash or kind. Others sell things, have a 

small business or work on the family farm or in the 

family business. In the last seven days, have you done 

any of these things or any other work?

Have you done any work in the last 12 months?

Would you say that the money that you earn is more 

than what your (husband/partner) earns, less than what 

he earns, or about the same?

CHECK 106: AGE OF RESPONDENT

Do you do this work for a member of your family, for 

someone else, or are you self-employed?

Who usually decides how your (husband's/partner's) 

earnings will be used: you, your (husband/partner), or 

you and your (husband/partner) jointly?

Who usually decides how the money you earn will be 

used: you, your (husband/partner), or you and your 

(husband/partner) jointly?

522 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 9. SPOUSE'S BACKGROUND AND WOMAN'S WORK

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

922 RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

RESPONDENT AND

HUSBAND/PARTNER JOINTLY . . . . . . . . . . . 3

SOMEONE ELSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

923 RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

RESPONDENT AND

HUSBAND/PARTNER JOINTLY . . . . . . . . . . . 3

SOMEONE ELSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

924 RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

RESPONDENT AND

HUSBAND/PARTNER JOINTLY . . . . . . . . . . . 3

SOMEONE ELSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

925 ALONE ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

JOINTLY ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

BOTH ALONE AND JOINTLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

DOES NOT OWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 931

926 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

927 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

931 PRES./

PRES./ NOT NOT

LISTEN. LISTEN. PRES.

CHILDREN < 10 . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3

HUSBAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3

OTHER MALES . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3

OTHER FEMALES . . . . . . . . 1 2 3

932

YES NO DK

a) a) GOES OUT . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

b) b) NEGLECTS CHILDREN . . 1 2 8

c) c) ARGUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

d) d) REFUSES SEX . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

e) e) BURNS FOOD . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

933

ONE OR MORE CHILDREN NO CHILDREN OR NO CHILDREN 

 LESS THAN AGE 18 LIVING LESS THAN AGE 18 1001

WITH HER LIVING WITH HER

934

YES NO

a)

a) HIT WITH HAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

b)

b) HIT WITH IMPLEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

931

Now I would like to ask you questions about how you 

discipline or punish your (child/children). In the past 12 

months, have you ever:

Hit or slapped your (child/children) with your hand to 

punish or discipline the child?

Hit or beat your (child/children) using a belt, spoon, 

stick, shoe or any other implement to punish or 

discipline the child? 

Who usually makes decisions about health care for 

yourself: you, your (husband/partner), you and your 

(husband/partner) jointly, or someone else?

In your opinion, is a husband justified in hitting or 

beating his wife in the following situations:

PRESENCE OF OTHERS AT THIS POINT (PRESENT 

AND LISTENING, PRESENT BUT NOT LISTENING, 

OR NOT PRESENT)

If she burns the food?

If she refuses to have sex with him?

If she argues with him?

If she neglects the children?

Do you have a title deed or documents for any house 

you own?

Is your name on the title deed or documents?

CHECK 217 AND 218:

If she goes out without telling him?

Do you own this or any other house either alone or 

jointly with someone else?

Who usually makes decisions about visits to your family 

or relatives?

Who usually makes decisions about making major 

household purchases?

Appendix E • 523
NO.

1001 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1042

1008

YES NO DK

a) a) DURING PREGNANCY . . 1 2 8

b) b) DURING DELIVERY . . . . . 1 2 8

c) c) BREASTFEEDING . . . . . 1 2 8

1009

AT LEAST OTHER

ONE 'YES'

1010 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1011

NO BIRTHS

1027

1012

HAD NO

ANTENATAL ANTENATAL 1020

CARE CARE

1013

1014

YES NO DK

a) a) HIV FROM MOTHER . . 1 2 8

b) b) THINGS TO DO . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

c) c) TESTED FOR HIV . . . . . 1 2 8

1015 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1016 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1020

1027

I don't want to know the results, but were you tested for 

HIV as part of your antenatal care?

By breastfeeding?

During delivery?

During pregnancy?

CHECK 408 FOR LAST BIRTH:

CHECK FOR PRESENCE OF OTHERS. BEFORE CONTINUING, MAKE EVERY EFFORT TO ENSURE PRIVACY. 

LAST BIRTH IN 

2013 OR EARLIER

LAST BIRTH IN 

2014-2016

Are there any special drugs that a doctor or a nurse can 

give to a woman infected with HIV to reduce the risk of 

transmission to the baby?

SECTION 10. HIV/AIDS

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

Now I would like to talk about something else. Have you 

ever heard of HIV or AIDS?

Things that you can do to prevent getting HIV?

Babies getting HIV from their mother?

During any of the antenatal visits for your last birth were 

you given any information about:

Were you offered a test for HIV as part of your antenatal 

care?

1011

CHECK 1008:

CHECK 208 AND 215:

Can HIV be transmitted from a mother to her baby:

Getting tested for HIV?

524 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 10. HIV/AIDS

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1017 PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/COMMUNITY 

HEALTH CENTRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

MOBILE/TEMPORARY HCT SERVICES . . . . . 13

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

16

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC/

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

NEW START TESTING SITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

26

OTHER SOURCE

HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

WORKPLACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

CORRECTIONAL FACILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

OTHER 96

1018 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1020

1019 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1020

ANY CODE OTHER

'21-36' CIRCLED

1021 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1022 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1024

1023 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1024

YES NO OR

NOT ASKED

1025 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1028

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1026

MONTHS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

TWO OR MORE YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

1024

1025

1027

1033

All women are supposed to receive counselling after 

being tested. After you were tested, did you receive 

counselling?

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 96 AND WRITE THE NAME OF 

THE PLACE.

Where was the test done?

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

I don't want to know the results, but did you get the 

results of the test?

I don't want to know the results, but did you get the 

results of the test?

I don't want to know the results, but were you tested for 

HIV at that time?

Between the time you went for delivery but before the 

baby was born, were you offered an HIV test?

How many months ago was your most recent HIV test?

Have you been tested for HIV since that time you were 

tested during your pregnancy?

CHECK 1016:

CHECK 430 FOR LAST BIRTH:

Appendix E • 525
NO.

SECTION 10. HIV/AIDS

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1027 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1031

1028

MONTHS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

TWO OR MORE YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

1029 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1030 PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/COMMUNITY 

HEALTH CENTRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

MOBILE/TEMPORARY HCT SERVICES . . . . . 13

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

16

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC/

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

NEW START TESTING SITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1033

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

26

OTHER SOURCE

HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

WORKPLACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

CORRECTIONAL FACILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

OTHER 96

1031 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1033

1032 PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/COMMUNITY 

HEALTH CENTRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

MOBILE/TEMPORARY HCT SERVICES . . . . . C

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

D

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC/

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

NEW START TESTING SITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

H

OTHER X

(SPECIFY)

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 'X' AND WRITE THE NAME OF 

THE PLACE(S).

Where was the test done?

Do you know of a place where people can go to get an 

HIV test?

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 96 AND WRITE THE NAME OF 

THE PLACE.

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

Where is that?

Any other place?

I don't want to know the results, but did you get the 

results of the test?

How many months ago was your most recent HIV test?

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

I don't want to know the results, but have you ever been 

tested for HIV?

526 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 10. HIV/AIDS

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1033 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1042

1034 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1042

HEARD ABOUT NOT HEARD ABOUT

HIV OR AIDS HIV OR AIDS

a) b)

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1043

HAS HAD SEXUAL NEVER HAD SEXUAL

INTERCOURSE INTERCOURSE

1044

YES NO

1045 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1046 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1047 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1048

HAS HAD AN HAS NOT HAD AN

INFECTION INFECTION OR

(ANY 'YES') DOES NOT KNOW

1049 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1053

CHECK 1001:

Have you heard about 

infections that can be 

transmitted through 

sexual contact?

Apart from HIV, have 

you heard about other 

infections that can be 

transmitted through 

sexual contact?

Have you ever tested yourself for HIV using a self-test 

kit?

Have you heard of test kits people can use to test 

themselves for HIV?

1101

1046

1053

CHECK 1042: HEARD ABOUT OTHER SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS?

CHECK 713:

Now I would like to ask you some questions about your 

health in the last 12 months. During the last 12 months, 

have you had a disease which you got through sexual 

contact?

Sometimes women experience a bad-smelling abnormal 

genital discharge. During the last 12 months, have you 

had a bad-smelling abnormal genital discharge?

CHECK 1045, 1046, AND 1047:

The last time you had (PROBLEM FROM 

1045/1046/1047), did you seek any kind of advice or 

treatment?

Sometimes women have a genital sore or ulcer. During 

the last 12 months, have you had a genital sore or 

ulcer?

Appendix E • 527
NO.

SECTION 10. HIV/AIDS

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1050 PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/COMMUNITY 

HEALTH CENTRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

MOBILE/TEMPORARY HCT SERVICES . . . . . C

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

D

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC/

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

NEW START TESTING SITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

H

OTHER SOURCE

SHOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

TRADITIONAL HERBALIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J

TRADITIONAL HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K

OTHER X

1053 NOT IN UNION OR NO REGULAR

CURRENTLY MARRIED/ PARTNER/BOYFRIEND

LIVING WITH A MAN OR NOT IN UNION/PARTNERED

OR HAS REGULAR PARTNER/BOYFRIEND WITH A MAN

1054 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DEPENDS/NOT SURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1055 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DEPENDS/NOT SURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

1101

(SPECIFY)

Could you ask your (husband/partner) to use a condom 

if you wanted him to?

Can you say no to your (husband/partner) if you do not 

want to have sexual intercourse?

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 'X' AND WRITE THE NAME OF 

THE PLACE(S).

Where did you go?

Any other place?

CHECK 701, 701A AND 701B:

528 • Appendix E
NO. CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1101 NUMBER OF BIRTHS TO

BIOLOGICAL MOTHER . . . . . . 

1102 CHECK 1101:

TWO OR MORE BIRTHS ONLY ONE BIRTH

(RESPONDENT ONLY)

1103 NUMBER OF 

PRECEDING BIRTHS . . . . . . 

1104 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

1105 MALE 1 MALE 1 MALE 1 MALE 1 MALE 1 MALE 1

FEMALE 2 FEMALE 2 FEMALE 2 FEMALE 2 FEMALE 2 FEMALE 2

1106 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1

NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2

GO TO 1108 GO TO 1108 GO TO 1108 GO TO 1108 GO TO 1108 GO TO 1108

DK . . . 8 DK . . . 8 DK . . . 8 DK . . . 8 DK . . . 8 DK . . . 8

GO TO (2) GO TO (3) GO TO (4) GO TO (5) GO TO (6) GO TO (7)

1107

GO TO (2) GO TO (3) GO TO (4) GO TO (5) GO TO (6) GO TO (7)

1108

1109

IF MALE OR IF MALE OR IF MALE OR IF MALE OR IF MALE OR IF MALE OR

DIED BEFORE DIED BEFORE DIED BEFORE DIED BEFORE DIED BEFORE DIED BEFORE

12 YEARS 12 YEARS 12 YEARS 12 YEARS 12 YEARS 12 YEARS

OF AGE OF AGE OF AGE OF AGE OF AGE OF AGE

GO TO 1114 GO TO 1114 GO TO 1114 GO TO 1114 GO TO 1114 GO TO 1114

1110 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1

GO TO 1113 GO TO 1113 GO TO 1113 GO TO 1113 GO TO 1113 GO TO 1113

NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2

1111 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1

GO TO 1113 GO TO 1113 GO TO 1113 GO TO 1113 GO TO 1113 GO TO 1113

NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2

1112 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1

NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2

1113

1114 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1 YES . . . 1

NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2 NO . . . 2

IF NO MORE BROTHERS OR SISTERS, GO TO NEXT SECTION.

SECTION11. MATERNAL MORTALITY

How many births did your mother have before you were born?

What was the 

name given to 

your oldest (next 

oldest) brother 

or sister?

Is (NAME) male 

or female?

Is (NAME) still 

alive?

Was (NAME)'s 

death due to an 

accident or 

violence?

Did (NAME) die 

during 

childbirth?

1201

Now I would like to ask you some questions about your 

brothers and sisters, that is, all of the children born to your 

biological mother, including those who are living with you, 

those living elsewhere and those who have died. How many 

children did your mother give birth to, including you?

How many live 

born children did 

(NAME) give 

birth to during 

her lifetime?

How old is 

(NAME)?

How many 

years ago did 

(NAME) die?

Did (NAME) die 

within two 

months after the 

end of a 

pregnancy or 

childbirth?

Was (NAME) 

pregnant when 

she died?

How old was 

(NAME) when 

he/she died?

IF DON'T 

KNOW, PROBE 

TO GET AN 

ESTIMATE.

Appendix E • 529
NO.

1201

NO

YES 1501

1202 POOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

AVERAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

GOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

EXCELLENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1203 UNDERWEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NORMAL WEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

OVERWEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

OBESE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1204 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1207

SOME DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1206

1205 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1206 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOME DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1209

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1207

a) a) MANUFACT. CIGARETTES

b) b) HAND-ROLLED CIGARETTES

c) c) PIPES FULL OF TOBACCO

d) d) CIGARS OR CIGARILLOS

e) e) WATER PIPE SESSIONS

f)

f) OTHERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

Pipes full of tobacco?

1209

SECTION 12. TOBACCO AND ALCOHOL

Do you currently smoke tobacco every day, some days, 

or not at all?

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

CHECK COVER SHEET: IS HOUSEHOLD SELECTED FOR MALE SURVEY AND BIOMARKERS OR IS 

RESPONDENT AGE 50 OR OLDER AND SELECTED FOR HOUSEHOLD RELATIONS MODULE?

Do you personally think you are underweight, normal 

weight, overweight, or obese?

In the past, have you smoked tobacco every day? 1208

On average, how many of the following products do you 

currently smoke each day? Also, let me know if you use 

the product, but not every day.

IF RESPONDENT REPORTS USING THE PRODUCT 

BUT NOT EVERY DAY, RECORD '888'. IF THE 

PRODUCT IS NOT USED AT ALL, RECORD '000'.

Manufactured cigarettes?

In the past, have you ever smoked tobacco every day, 

some days, or not at all?

Hand-rolled cigarettes?

Would you say your health is poor, average, good, or 

excellent?

NUMBER DAILY

Cigars or cigarillos?

Any others?

(SPECIFY)

Number of hookah, hubbly-bubbly or water pipe 

sessions?

530 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 12. TOBACCO AND ALCOHOL

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1208

a) a) MANUFACT. CIGARETTES

b) b) HAND-ROLLED CIGARETTES

c) c) PIPES FULL OF TOBACCO

d) d) CIGARS OR CIGARILLOS

e) e) WATER PIPE SESSIONS

f)

f) OTHERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

1209 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1211

SOME DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1212

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1210 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOME DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1213

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1211

a) a) SNUFF, BY MOUTH . . . . . 

b) b) SNUFF, BY NOSE . . . . . 

c) c) CHEWING TOBACCO . . . . . 

d)

d) ANY OTHERS . . . . . . . . . . 

1212

a) a) SNUFF, BY MOUTH . . . . . 

b) b) SNUFF, BY NOSE . . . . . 

c) c) CHEWING TOBACCO . . . . . 

d)

d) ANY OTHERS . . . . . . . . 

TIMES WEEKLY

(SPECIFY)

Snuff, by mouth?

Any others?

Snuff, by nose?

Chewing tobacco?

TIMES DAILY

1213

(SPECIFY)

Number of hookah, hubbly-bubbly or water pipe 

sessions?

Snuff, by mouth?

Snuff, by nose?

Manufactured cigarettes?

On average, how many of the following products do you 

currently smoke each week? Also, let me know if you 

use the product, but not every week.

IF RESPONDENT REPORTS USING THE PRODUCT 

BUT NOT EVERY WEEK, RECORD '888'. IF THE 

PRODUCT IS NOT USED AT ALL, RECORD '000'.

NUMBER WEEKLY

(SPECIFY)

On average, how many times a week do you use the 

following products? Also, let me know if you use the 

product, but not every week.

IF RESPONDENT REPORTS USING THE PRODUCT 

BUT NOT EVERY WEEK, RECORD '888'. IF THE 

PRODUCT IS NOT USED AT ALL, RECORD '000'.

Hand-rolled cigarettes?

Pipes full of tobacco?

Cigars or cigarillos?

Any others?

Any others?

On average, how many times a day do you use the 

following products? Also, let me know if you use the 

product, but not every day.

IF RESPONDENT REPORTS USING THE PRODUCT 

BUT NOT EVERY DAY, RECORD '888'. IF THE 

PRODUCT IS NOT USED AT ALL, RECORD '000'.

Do you currently use snuff, chewing tobacco or other 

smokeless tobacco products every day, some days, or 

not at all?

Chewing tobacco?

In the past, have you used snuff, chewing tobacco or 

other smokeless tobacco products every day, some 

days, or not at all?

Appendix E • 531
NO.

SECTION 12. TOBACCO AND ALCOHOL

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1213

AGE 50

AGE 15-49 AND ABOVE 1220

1214

LIVE BIRTH SINCE JANUARY 2011? YES

1215

1216

CURRENTLY SMOKES TOBACCO YES

OR SMOKED IN THE PAST?

1217 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOME DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1218

CURRENTLY USES SMOKELESS YES

TOBACCO OR USED IN THE PAST?

1219 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOME DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1220 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT CURRENTLY WORKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1221 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1223

1222

YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

IF LESS THAN 1 YEAR, RECORD '00'.

1223 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOME DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1224 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1301

1225 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1233

1226 5 OR MORE DAYS A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1-4 DAYS PER WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1-3 DAYS A MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

LESS OFTEN THAN ONCE A MONTH . . . . . . . . 4

1220

1218

1220

NO

NO

CHECK 224:

CHECK 212 AND 215:

NO

CHECK 106: AGE OF RESPONDENT

(NAME OF YOUNGEST CHILD)

CHECK 1204 AND 1206:

Do you currently use e-cigarettes every day, some days, 

or not at all?

During your pregnancy with (NAME) how often did you 

smoke tobacco: every day, some days, or not at all?

During your pregnancy with (NAME) how often did you 

use smokeless tobacco: every day, some days, or not at 

all?

Have you ever worked in a job where you were regularly 

exposed to smoke, dust, fumes or strong smells? 

Do you currently work in a job where other people 

smoke tobacco around you?

How many years did you work at a job where you were 

regularly exposed to smoke, dust, fumes or strong 

smells?

In the last 12 months, how frequently have you had at 

least one drink?

PROBE: Five or more days a week, 1-4 days a week, 1-

3 days a month, or less often than once a month?

CHECK 1209 AND 1210:

Have you ever consumed a drink that contains alcohol 

such as beer, wine, ciders, spirits, or sorghum beer?

PROBE: Even one drink?

Was this within the last 12 months?

532 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 12. TOBACCO AND ALCOHOL

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1227

MONDAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

TUESDAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

WEDNESDAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

THURSDAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

FRIDAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

SATURDAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

SUNDAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

1227H

NUMBER OF HOME-MADE BEERS . . 

USE SHOWCARD.

1227I

1233

1228 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1229 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1230 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1231 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1231A

1233

1232 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1233

AGE 50

AGE 15-49 AND ABOVE 1301

1234

LIVE BIRTH SINCE JANUARY 2011? YES

1235

1236 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOME DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

YES

NO

CHECK 1226 AND 1227: CODE 3 OR 4 RECORDED IN 1226 AND CONSUMED 0-1 DRINKS IN THE LAST 7 DAYS 

IN 1227?

Have you ever felt that you should cut down on your 

drinking?

Have people annoyed you by criticizing your drinking?

Have you ever felt bad or guilty about your drinking?

Have you ever had a drink first thing in the morning to 

steady your nerves or get rid of a hangover?

NO

YES

CHECK 1227: FIVE OR MORE DRINKS IN 

ONE DAY DURING LAST 7 DAYS?

CHECK 212 AND 215:

(NAME OF YOUNGEST CHILD)

During your pregnancy with (NAME) how often did you 

drink alcohol: every day, some days, or not at all?

NO 1301

CHECK 106: AGE OF RESPONDENT

CHECK 224:

In the past 30 days, have you consumed five or more 

standard drinks on at least one occasion?

USE SHOWCARD. RECORD TOTAL NUMBER OF 

DRINKS CONSUMED EACH DAY STARTING WITH 

THE DAY BEFORE THE DAY OF THE INTERVIEW 

AND PROCEEDING BACKWARDS.

During the last 7 days, how many standard home-made 

beers or other homemade alcohol did you have? 

During each of the last 7 days, how many standard 

drinks did you have?

Appendix E • 533
NO.

1301

USE SHOWCARD.

1304 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

OCCASIONALLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1305 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

OCCASIONALLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1306 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

OCCASIONALLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1307 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

OCCASIONALLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1308 NO INTENTION TO LOWER SALT . . . . . . . . . . . 1

INTERESTED WITHIN NEXT SIX MONTHS . . . . . 2

INTERESTED WITHIN NEXT MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . 3

STARTED IN LAST SIX MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

ALREADY LOWERED LONGER THAN SIX MONTHS 5

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1309

TYPES OF FRUIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

USE SHOWCARD. IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

1310

TYPES OF VEGETABLES . . . . . . . . 

USE SHOWCARD. IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

1311 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1312

1311A

200 ML GLASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

330 ML CAN OR BOTTLE . . . . . . . . B

PROBE FOR BEVERAGE NUMBER AND SIZE.

500 ML BOTTLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

1 L BOTTLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

2 L BOTTLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

1312 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1401

1312A

200 ML JUICE CARTON . . . . . . . . A

PROBE FOR BEVERAGE NUMBER AND SIZE. 200 ML GLASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

How many and what size fruit juices did you drink?

Yesterday, did you drink any sugar-sweetened drinks? 

Sugar-sweetened drinks include fizzy drinks like Coke or 

drinks like Squash where water is added, but not diet or 

unsweetened cold drinks.

Which of the following statements best describes your 

approach towards salt consumption:

1) I am not interested in lowering salt in my food.

2) I am interested in lowering salt in my food within the 

next six months.

3) I am interested in lowering salt in my food within the 

next month.

4) I have started lowering salt within the last six months.

5) I have already lowered my salt intake for longer than 

six months.

Yesterday, how many types of fruit did you eat?

Yesterday, how many types of vegetables, excluding 

potatoes, did you eat?

How many and what size sugar-sweetened drinks did 

you drink?

Yesterday, did you drink any fruit juice?

How often do you usually eat fried foods such as hot 

chips, fried fish, fried chicken, fried meat, vetkoek or 

doughnuts?

How often do you eat chips such as a packet of crispy 

chips or similar salty snacks such as Doritos, cheese 

curls, salted nuts, salty biscuits, etc?

How often do you eat processed meat such as polony, 

viennas, meat pies, or sausage rolls?

SECTION 13. FAT, SALT, SUGAR, FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CONSUMPTION

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

Now I would like to ask you some questions about the foods that you eat. There are no right or wrong answers. 

How often do you eat fast-foods or take-away foods from 

places like Chicken Licken, KFC, Captain DoRego's, 

Steers, Nando's, McDonalds, pizza delivery, etc?

534 • Appendix E
NO.

1401

BIG NOT A BIG

PROBLEM PROBLEM

a) a) PERMISSION TO GO . . . . . 1 2

b) b) GETTING MONEY . . . . . . . . 1 2

c) c) DISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

d) d) GO ALONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

1402 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1404 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1406

1405 PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/COMMUNITY 

HEALTH CENTRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

C

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC/

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

DENTIST/ORAL HYGIENIST/

DENTAL THERAPIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

G

OTHER SOURCE

WORKPLACE HEALTH SERVICE . . . . . . . . . . . H

TRADITIONAL HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

TRADITIONAL HERBALIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J

FAITH HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K

OTHER X

1406 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1407 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Many different factors can prevent women from getting 

medical advice or treatment for themselves. When you 

are sick and want to get medical advice or treatment, is 

each of the following a big problem or not a big problem:

The distance to the health facility?

Getting money needed for advice or treatment?

Getting permission to go to the doctor?

Not wanting to go alone?

Where have you received health, medical, or dental 

care?

PROBE: Anywhere else?

During the last month, have you received health, 

medical, or dental care without staying overnight?

SECTION14. HEALTH CARE

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 'X' AND WRITE THE NAME OF 

THE PLACE(S).

(SPECIFY)

Have you ever had a Pap smear? 

PROBE: When visiting a doctor or nurse, have you ever 

been asked to lie on your back with your legs apart so 

they could use a stick to take a sample from your 

vagina? The sample would have been sent to a 

laboratory for testing.

(SPECIFY)

1410

(SPECIFY)

During the last month, have you had any visits by a 

home-based care giver or a community-based care 

giver?

Are you covered by Medical Aid, Medical Benefit 

Scheme, Provident Scheme, or Hospital Plan that helps 

you pay for health care or drug services?

Appendix E • 535
NO.

SECTION14. HEALTH CARE

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1408 WITHIN THE LAST 3 YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

4-5 YEARS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

6-10 YEARS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

MORE THAN 10 YEARS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1409 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1410 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1411 IN THE LAST 12 MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MORE THAN 12 MONTHS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1412 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1413

YES NO DK

a) a) HIGH BLOOD PRESS. 1 2 8

b) b) HEART ATTACK 1 2 8

c) c) CANCER 1 2 8

d) d) STROKE 1 2 8

e) e) HIGH BLOOD CHOLEST 1 2 8

f) f) DIABETES 1 2 8

g) g) CHRONIC BRONCHITIS 1 2 8

h) h) ASTHMA 1 2 8

1414 YES NO

1415 1413a = YES 1413a = 

NO OR DK 1417

1416 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1417 1413b = YES 1413b = 

NO OR DK 1419

1418 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1419 1413c = YES 1413c = 

NO OR DK 1421

1420 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1421 1413d = YES 1413d = 

NO OR DK 1423

1422 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Diabetes or blood sugar?

Asthma?

CHECK 1413a:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE.

Did you receive medical treatment for the cancer at the 

time of the diagnosis?

Heart attack or angina/chest pains?

Chronic bronchitis, emphysema, or COPD?

Cancer?

Stroke?

High blood cholesterol or fats in the blood?

CHECK 1413b:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD HEART ATTACK OR 

ANGINA.

High blood pressure?

The last time you had a Pap smear, did you get the 

result of the test?

How many years ago was your last Pap smear?

1413

When was the last time you were told you had TB?

Did you get medical treatment the last time you had TB?

Has a doctor, nurse or health worker told you that you 

have or have had any of the following conditions:

Has a doctor, nurse or health worker ever told you that 

you have TB?

1432 CHECK 1413:

ANY QUESTION a-h = YES?

CHECK 1413d:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD STROKE.

Did you receive medical treatment for the stroke at the 

time of the diagnosis?

Did you receive medical treatment for high blood 

pressure at the time of the diagnosis?

Did you receive medical treatment for the heart attack, 

angina/chest pains at the time of the diagnosis?

CHECK 1413c:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD CANCER.

536 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION14. HEALTH CARE

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1423 1413e = YES 1413e = 

NO OR DK 1425

1424 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1425 1413f = YES 1413f = 

NO OR DK 1427

1426 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1427 1413g = YES 1413g = 

NO OR DK 1429

1428 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1429 1413h = YES 1413h = 

NO OR DK 1432

1430 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1432 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1433 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1434 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1435 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1436 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1437 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1438 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1439 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Have you been woken by an attack of shortness of 

breath at any time in the last 12 months?

Have you been woken by an attack of coughing at any 

time in the last 12 months?

Were you also short of breath when the wheezing noise 

was present?

Have you had the wheezing when you did not have a 

cold?

Do you usually cough on most days?

1436

1443

Have you woken up with a feeling of tightness in your 

chest at any time in the last 12 months?

During the last 12 months, have you had wheezing 

when you breathe?

Compared with other people your age, do you feel you 

have less breath when exerting yourself?

PROBE: By exercising or moving a lot?

Did you receive medical treatment for asthma at the 

time of the diagnosis?

Did you receive medical treatment for the diabetes or 

blood sugar at the time of the diagnosis?

CHECK 1413g:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD CHRONIC BRONCHITIS.

Did you receive medical treatment for chronic bronchitis, 

emphysema, or COPD at the time of the diagnosis?

CHECK 1413h:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD ASTHMA.

CHECK 1413e:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD HIGH BLOOD 

CHOLESTEROL.

Did you receive medical treatment for high blood 

cholesterol or fats in the blood at the time of the 

diagnosis?

CHECK 1413f:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD DIABETES.

Appendix E • 537
NO.

SECTION14. HEALTH CARE

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1440 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1441 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1442

YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

IF LESS THAN 1 YEAR, RECORD '00'.

1443 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1446

1444 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1446

1445 BACK PAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

NECK OR SHOULDER PAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

HEADACHE, FACIAL OR DENTAL PAIN . . . . . C

STOMACH ACHE OR ABDOMINAL PAIN . . . . . D

PAIN IN ARMS, HANDS, HIPS, LEGS OR FEET E

CHEST PAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

OTHER X

1446 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1450

1447 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1449

1448 PUBLIC SECTOR

DENTIST/ORAL HYGIENIST/DENTAL

THERAPIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

MEDICAL DOCTOR/NURSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

DENTIST/ORAL HYGIENIST/DENTAL

THERAPIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

MEDICAL DOCTOR/NURSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

OTHER SOURCE

TRADITIONAL HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X

1449 NO ORAL HEALTH SERVICE AVAILABLE . . . . . 1

ORAL HEALTH SERVICES TOO FAR . . . . . . . . 2

ORAL HEALTH SERVICES TOO EXPENSIVE/

COULD NOT AFFORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

PROBLEM WENT AWAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1450 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1455

1451

NUMBER OF MEDICINES . . . . . . . . . . . 

Are you currently troubled by pain or discomfort, either 

all the time or on and off?

1443

1443

When you cough, do you usually bring up phlegm from 

your chest?

For how many years have you brought up phlegm in this 

way?

Have you brought up phlegm every day for at least three 

months during the last year?

How many different prescribed medications do you use 

daily or regularly?

Now I would like to ask you about any medication you 

take. Do you use any medication daily or regularly that 

has been prescribed by a doctor or nurse?

(SPECIFY)

RECORD ALL MENTIONED.

Who did you see for treatment?

What was the main reason that you did not get 

treatment?

Have you had this pain or discomfort for more than 3 

months?

Where do you feel this pain or discomfort?

RECORD ALL MENTIONED.

In the last 12 months, did your teeth or your mouth 

cause you any pain or discomfort?

Did you get treatment the last time that you had the 

problem?

1450

538 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION14. HEALTH CARE

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1452 RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

FAMILY/FRIENDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

MEDICAL AID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

EMPLOYER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

PROVIDED BY PUBLIC CLINIC OR HOSPITAL . . 5

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1455

1453 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1455

1454

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

PROBE FOR ESTIMATE OF NUMBER OF TIMES.

1455 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

USE THE SHOWCARD.

1457 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1500

1458 BRONCLEER/LENAZINE FORTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

ACTIFED DRY COUGH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

BENYLIN SYRUP WITH CODEINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

LENADOL/ADCO-DOL PAIN TABLETS . . . . . . . . D

NUROFEN PLUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

MYPRODOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

STILPANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

SYNDOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

RECORD ALL MENTIONED.

OTHER X

1459 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

In the last 12 months, have you ever been sent away 

from the clinic without a medication because they did 

not have stock?

How many times has this happened to you in the last 12 

months?

Who pays for most of these medications?

(SPECIFY)

In the last 12 months, have you received treatment for 

your problems related to the use of codeine-containing 

medications for non-medical purposes?

In the last 12 months, which codeine-containing 

medications have you used for the experience or feeling 

rather than for their medical effect?

In the last 12 months, have you used any medications 

containing codeine to treat a medical condition? 1500

In the last 12 months, have you used any of these 

medications for the experience or feeling it gave you 

rather than for their medicinal effect?

1455

Appendix E • 539
NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1500 CHECK COVER PAGE AND 106:

WOMAN SELECTED WOMAN NOT SELECTED

FOR THIS SECTION AND OR SELECTED 1533

AT LEAST 18 YEARS OLD BUT AGE 15-17

1501 CHECK FOR PRESENCE OF OTHERS: 

DO NOT CONTINUE UNTIL PRIVACY IS ENSURED.

PRIVACY PRIVACY

OBTAINED . . . . . . . 1 NOT POSSIBLE . . . . . . . 2 1532

1501A

1502 CHECK 701, 701A, 701B AND 702: CURRENTLY MARRIED/LIVING WITH A MAN 1503

OR HAS REGULAR MALE PARTNER/BOYFRIEND

NEVER IN UNION FORMERLY MARRIED/LIVED WITH A MAN

WITH A MAN (READ IN PAST TENSE AND 1503

USE 'LAST' WITH 'HUSBAND/PARTNER')

1502A YES, CURRENTLY HAS BOYFRIEND 1

YES, HAD BOYFRIEND IN PAST . . . 2

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1516

1503

YES NO DK

a) JEALOUS . . . . . . . 1 2 8

b) ACCUSES . . . . . . . 1 2 8

c) NOT MEET FRIENDS 1 2 8

d) NO FAMILY . . . . . . . 1 2 8

e) WHERE YOU ARE . 1 2 8

1504

A B

SOME- NOT IN LAST

EVER OFTEN TIMES 12 MONTHS

a) YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

b) YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

c) YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

d) YES 1 1 2 3

NO OR 2

N/A

SECTION 15: HOUSEHOLD RELATIONS

First, I am going to ask you about some situations which happen 

to some women. Please tell me if these apply to your relationship 

with your (last) (husband/partner/boyfriend)?

He (is/was) jealous or angry if you (talk/talked) to other men?

He frequently (accuses/accused) you of being unfaithful?

He (does/did) not permit you to meet your female friends?

Do you have a boyfriend or have you had one in the past?

READ TO THE RESPONDENT:

Now I would like to ask you questions about some other important aspects of a woman's life. You may find some 

of these questions very personal. However, your answers are crucial for helping to understand the condition of 

women in South Africa. Let me assure you that your answers are completely confidential and will not be told to 

anyone and no one else in your household will know that you were asked these questions. If I ask you any 

question you don't want to answer, just let me know and I will go on to the next question.

say or do something to humiliate you in front of 

others?

He (tries/tried) to limit your contact with your family?

He (insists/insisted) on knowing where you (are/were) at all 

times?

Now I need to ask some more questions about your relationship 

with your most recent partner.

Did your (last) partner ever: How often did this happen during the last 

12 months: often, only sometimes, or not 

at all?

threaten to hurt or harm you or someone you 

care about?

insult you or make you feel bad about yourself?

refuse to give you enough money for 

household expenses or contribute towards 

household expenses when he has the money 

to do so?

540 • Appendix E
NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1505 A B

SOME- NOT IN LAST

EVER OFTEN TIMES 12 MONTHS

a) YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

e) YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

f) YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

g) YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

h) YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

i) YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

j) YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

1506 CHECK 1505A (a-j):

AT LEAST ONE NOT A SINGLE

'YES' 'YES' 1511

1508

a) YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

b) YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

c) YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1511 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1512 OFTEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOMETIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1512A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1512B OFTEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOMETIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1512C

1512A

How often does (did) he take drugs: often, only sometimes, or 

never?

physically force you to perform any other 

sexual acts you did not want to?

force you with threats or in any other way to 

perform sexual acts you did not want to?

Did the following ever happen as a result of what your (last) 

partner did to you:

You had cuts, bruises, or aches?

You had eye injuries, sprains, dislocations, or burns?

You had deep wounds, broken bones, broken teeth, or any 

other serious injury?

Does (did) your (last) partner drink alcohol?

How often does (did) he get drunk: often, only sometimes, or 

never?

Does (did) your (last) partner take drugs?

physically force you to have sexual intercourse 

with him when you did not want to?

Did your (last) partner ever do any of the 

following things to you:

How often did this happen during the last 

12 months: often, only sometimes, or not 

at all?

slap you, push you, shake you, or throw 

something at you?

kick you, drag you, or beat you up?

try to choke you or burn you on purpose?

threaten or attack you with a knife, gun, or 

other weapon?

Appendix E • 541
NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1512C YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1513

1512D OFTEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOMETIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1513 MOST OF THE TIME AFRAID . . . . . 1

SOMETIMES AFRAID . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NEVER AFRAID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1514 CHECK 709:

OTHER MARRIED OR LIVED WITH A MAN

OR NOT ASKED MORE THAN ONCE 1515

1514A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1515Aa

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1516A

1515 A B

0 - 11 12+ DON'T 

EVER MONTHS MONTHS REMEMBER

AGO AGO

a) YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

b) YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

c) YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

d) YES 1 1 2 3

NO 2

e) YES 1 1 2 3

NO OR 2

N/A

1516A CHECK 1505A (h-j) and 1515A(b, c)

AT LEAST ONE NOT A 

'YES' SINGLE 'YES' 1516

1516B

AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

1516 CHECK 701, 701A, 701B, 702 AND 1502A: 

EVER IN UNION OR NEVER IN UNION

HAD A BOYFRIEND OR HAD A BOYFRIEND

a) b) YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

REFUSED TO ANSWER/

NO ANSWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1518A

How long ago did this last happen?

Did any previous partner physically force you 

to have sexual intercourse against your will?

From the time you were 15 

years old has anyone other 

than (your/any) partner hit 

you, slapped you, kicked 

you, or done anything else to 

hurt you physically?

From the time you were 15 

years old has anyone hit you, 

slapped you, kicked you, or 

done anything else to hurt 

you physically?

So far we have been talking about the behaviour of your 

(current/last) partner. Now I want to ask you about the 

behaviour of any previous partner.

Did any previous partner ever hit, slap, kick, or 

do anything else to hurt you physically?

How old were you the first time you were forced to have sexual 

intercourse or perform any other sexual acts by (your/any) 

partner?

Did any previous partner refuse to give you 

enough money for household expenses or 

contribute towards household expenses?

Did any previous partner humiliate, threaten, 

belittle, insult or try to exert excessive control 

over you in any way?

Are (Were) you afraid of your (last) partner: most of the time, 

sometimes, or never?

So far we have been talking about the behaviour of your 

(current/last) partner. Now I want to ask you about the behaviour 

of any previous partner. Have you had a previous partner?

Have you ever hit, slapped, kicked, or done anything else to 

physically hurt your (last) partner at times when he was not 

already beating or physically hurting you?

In the last 12 months, how often have you done this to your (last) 

partner: often, only sometimes, or not at all?

Did any previous partner physically force you 

to perform any other sexual acts against your 

will?

542 • Appendix E
NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1517 MOTHER/STEP-MOTHER . . . . . . . . . A

FATHER/STEP-FATHER . . . . . . . . . B

SISTER/BROTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

DAUGHTER/SON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

OTHER RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

MOTHER-IN-LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

RECORD ALL MENTIONED. FATHER-IN-LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

OTHER IN-LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

TEACHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

EMPLOYER/SOMEONE AT WORK . J

POLICE/SOLDIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K

NEIGHBOUR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L

OTHER X

1518 OFTEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOMETIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1518A

AGE 50

AGE 18-49 AND ABOVE 1522

1519 CHECK 201, 226, AND 230:

EVER BEEN NEVER BEEN

PREGNANT PREGNANT 1522

(YES ON 201 

OR 226 OR 230)

1519A CHECK 701, 701A, 701B, 702 AND 15O2A: 

EVER IN UNION OR NEVER IN UNION

HAD A BOYFRIEND OR HAD A BOYFRIEND 1520A

1520 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1520A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1521A

NEITHER 1520

EITHER 1520 NOR 1520A = YES 1522

OR 1520A = YES

1521 CURRENT HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . A

MOTHER/STEP-MOTHER . . . . . . . . . B

FATHER/STEP-FATHER . . . . . . . . . C

SISTER/BROTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

DAUGHTER/SON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

OTHER RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

FORMER HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . G

RECORD ALL MENTIONED. CURRENT BOYFRIEND . . . . . . . . . H

FORMER BOYFRIEND . . . . . . . . . . . I

MOTHER-IN-LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J

FATHER-IN-LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K

OTHER IN-LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L

TEACHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M

EMPLOYER/SOMEONE AT WORK . N

POLICE/SOLDIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O

NEIGHBOUR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P

OTHER X

(SPECIFY)

Who has hurt you in this way?

Anyone else?

(SPECIFY)

In the last 12 months, how often has (this person/have these 

persons) physically hurt you: often, only sometimes, or not at all?

Who has done any of these things to physically hurt you while 

you were pregnant?

Anyone else?

CHECK 106: AGE OF RESPONDENT

Has any one else ever hit, slapped, kicked, or done anything 

else to hurt you physically while you were pregnant?

CHECK 1520 AND 1520A:

Has a partner ever hit, slapped, kicked, or done anything else to 

hurt you physically while you were pregnant?

Appendix E • 543
NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1522 CHECK 701, 701A, 701B, 702 AND 1502A: 

EVER IN UNION OR NEVER IN UNION

HAD A BOYFRIEND OR HAD A BOYFRIEND

a) b)

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

REFUSED TO ANSWER/

NO ANSWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1522C

1522A

AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

1522B FATHER/STEP-FATHER . . . . . . . . . 04

BROTHER/STEP-BROTHER . . . . . 05

OTHER RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06

IN-LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

OWN FRIEND/ACQUAINTANCE . . . 08

FAMILY FRIEND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

TEACHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

EMPLOYER/SOMEONE AT WORK . 11

POLICE/SOLDIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

PRIEST/RELIGIOUS LEADER . . . . . 13

STRANGER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

NEIGHBOUR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

OTHER 96

1522C YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

REFUSED TO ANSWER/

NO ANSWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1526

1522D

AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

1523 FATHER/STEP-FATHER . . . . . . . . . 04

BROTHER/STEP-BROTHER . . . . . 05

OTHER RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06

IN-LAW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

OWN FRIEND/ACQUAINTANCE . . . 08

FAMILY FRIEND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

TEACHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

EMPLOYER/SOMEONE AT WORK . 11

POLICE/SOLDIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

PRIEST/RELIGIOUS LEADER . . . . . 13

STRANGER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

NEIGHBOUR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

OTHER 96

1523A CHECK 1522: EVER FORCED TO HAVE SEXUAL INTERCOURSE?

YES NO

1526

How old were you the first time this happened?

At any time in your life, as a child or as an adult, has anyone 

(other than any partner) ever forced you in any way to perform 

any other sexual acts when you did not want to?

How old were you the first time this happened?

Who was the person who was forcing you the very first time this 

happened?

(SPECIFY)

Who was the person who was forcing you the very first time this 

happened?

(SPECIFY)

At any time in your life, as a 

child or as an adult, has 

anyone ever forced you in 

any way to have sexual 

intercourse when you did not 

want to?

Now I want to ask you about 

things that may have been 

done to you by someone 

other than (your/any) partner.

At any time in your life, as a 

child or as an adult, has 

anyone ever forced you in 

any way to have sexual 

intercourse when you did not 

want to?

544 • Appendix E
NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1524 CHECK 701, 701A, 701B, 702 AND 1502A: 

EVER IN UNION OR NEVER IN UNION

HAD A BOYFRIEND OR HAD A BOYFRIEND

a) b)

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1526 CHECK 1505A (a-j), 1515A (a, b, c), 1516, 1520, 1520A, 1522, 1522C AND 1524:

AT LEAST ONE NOT A SINGLE

'YES' 'YES' 1530

1527 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1529

1528 OWN FAMILY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

HUSBAND'S/PARTNER'S FAMILY . B

CURRENT/FORMER 

HUSBAND/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . C

RECORD ALL MENTIONED. CURRENT/FORMER BOYFRIEND . D

FRIEND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

NEIGHBOUR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

RELIGIOUS LEADER . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

DOCTOR/MEDICAL PERSONNEL . H 1530

POLICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

LAWYER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J

SOCIAL SERVICE ORGANISATION . K

COLLEAGUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L

HELPLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M

OTHER X

1529 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1530 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

THANK THE RESPONDENT FOR HER COOPERATION AND REASSURE HER ABOUT THE CONFIDENTIALITY OF HER

ANSWERS. FILL OUT THE QUESTIONS BELOW WITH REFERENCE TO THE HOUSEHOLD RELATIONS MODULE ONLY.

1531 DID YOU HAVE TO INTERRUPT THE YES YES, MORE

INTERVIEW BECAUSE SOME ADULT WAS ONCE THAN ONCE NO

TRYING TO LISTEN, OR CAME INTO THE HUSBAND/PARTNER . 1 2 3

ROOM, OR INTERFERED IN ANY OTHER OTHER MALE ADULT . 1 2 3

WAY? FEMALE ADULT . . . . . . . 1 2 3

1532 INTERVIEWER'S COMMENTS / EXPLANATION FOR NOT COMPLETING THE HOUSEHOLD RELATIONS MODULE 

RECORD THE TIME.

HOURS . . . . . . . . . . . 

MINUTES . . . . . . . . . 

As far as you know, did your father or any other husband or 

boyfriend your mother had ever hit or beat her?

Thinking about what you yourself have experienced among the 

different things we have been talking about, have you ever tried 

to seek help?

From whom have you sought help?

Anyone else?

(SPECIFY)

Have you ever told any one about this?

In the last 12 months, has 

anyone other than (your/any) 

partner physically forced you 

to have sexual intercourse 

when you did not want to?

In the last 12 months has 

anyone physically forced you 

to have sexual intercourse 

when you did not want to?

1533

Appendix E • 545
COMMENTS ABOUT INTERVIEW:

COMMENTS ON SPECIFIC QUESTIONS:

ANY OTHER COMMENTS:

INTERVIEWER'S OBSERVATIONS

TO BE FILLED IN AFTER COMPLETING INTERVIEW

SUPERVISOR'S OBSERVATIONS

546 • Appendix E
INSTRUCTIONS: COL. 1 COL. 2

ONLY ONE CODE SHOULD APPEAR IN ANY BOX. 12 DEC 01

COLUMN 1 REQUIRES A CODE IN EVERY MONTH. 11 NOV 02

10 OCT 03

INFORMATION TO BE CODED FOR EACH COLUMN 09 SEP 04

08 AUG 05

COLUMN 1: BIRTHS, PREGNANCIES, CONTRACEPTIVE USE 07 JUL 06

06 JUN 07

B BIRTHS 05 MAY 08

P PREGNANCIES 04 APR 09

C MISCARRIAGES 03 MAR 10

A INDUCED ABORTIONS 02 FEB 11

S STILLBIRTHS 01 JAN 12

0 NO METHOD 12 DEC 13

11 NOV 14

1 FEMALE STERILISATION 10 OCT 15

2 MALE STERILISATION 09 SEP 16

3 IUD 08 AUG 17

4 INJECTABLES - 3 MONTH DEPO 07 JUL 18

5 INJECTABLES - 2 MONTH NUR-ISTERATE 06 JUN 19

6 IMPLANTS 05 MAY 20

7 PILL 04 APR 21

8 MALE CONDOM 03 MAR 22

9 FEMALE CONDOM 02 FEB 23

E EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION 01 JAN 24

L RHYTHM METHOD 12 DEC 25

M WITHDRAWAL 11 NOV 26

X OTHER MODERN METHOD 10 OCT 27

Y OTHER TRADITIONAL METHOD 09 SEP 28

08 AUG 29

07 JUL 30

COLUMN 2: DISCONTINUATION OF CONTRACEPTIVE USE 06 JUN 31

05 MAY 32

0 INFREQUENT SEX/HUSBAND AWAY 04 APR 33

1 BECAME PREGNANT WHILE USING 03 MAR 34

2 WANTED TO BECOME PREGNANT 02 FEB 35

3 HUSBAND/PARTNER DISAPPROVED 01 JAN 36

4 WANTED MORE EFFECTIVE METHOD 12 DEC 37

5 SIDE EFFECTS/HEALTH CONCERNS 11 NOV 38

6 LACK OF ACCESS/TOO FAR 10 OCT 39

7 COSTS TOO MUCH 09 SEP 40

8 INCONVENIENT TO USE 08 AUG 41

F UP TO GOD/FATALISTIC 07 JUL 42

A DIFFICULT TO GET PREGNANT/MENOPAUSAL 06 JUN 43

D MARITAL DISSOLUTION/SEPARATION 05 MAY 44

X OTHER 04 APR 45

03 MAR 46

(SPECIFY) 02 FEB 47

Z DON'T KNOW 01 JAN 48

12 DEC 49

11 NOV 50

10 OCT 51

09 SEP 52

08 AUG 53

07 JUL 54

06 JUN 55

05 MAY 56

04 APR 57

03 MAR 58

02 FEB 59

01 JAN 60

12 DEC 61

11 NOV 62

10 OCT 63

09 SEP 64

08 AUG 65

07 JUL 66

06 JUN 67

05 MAY 68

04 APR 69

03 MAR 70

02 FEB 71

01 JAN 72

2

0

1

2

2

0

1

3

2

0

1

3

2

0

1

1

2

0

1

1

2

0

1

2

2

0

1

4

2

0

1

4

2

0

1

5

2

0

1

5

2

0

1

6

2

0

1

6

Appendix E • 547

FORMATTING DATE:

ENGLISH LANGUAGE:

PLACE NAME

NAME OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD

CLUSTER NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

HOUSEHOLD NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF MAN

DATE DAY

MONTH

YEAR

INTERVIEWER'S

NAME INT. NO.

RESULT* RESULT*

NEXT VISIT: DATE

TOTAL NUMBER

TIME OF VISITS

*RESULT CODES: 1 COMPLETED 4 REFUSED

2 NOT AT HOME 5 PARTLY COMPLETED 7 OTHER

3 POSTPONED 6 INCAPACITATED

LANGUAGE OF LANGUAGE OF HOME LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR USED

QUESTIONNAIRE** INTERVIEW** OF RESPONDENT** (YES = 1, NO = 2)

LANGUAGE OF **LANGUAGE CODES:

QUESTIONNAIRE** 01 ENGLISH 05 seSOTHO 09 tshiVENDA

02 AFRIKAANS 06 seTSWANA 10 xiTSONGA

03 isiXHOSA 07 sePEDI 11 isiNDEBELE

04 isiZULU 08 siSWATI 12 OTHER

NAME

INTERVIEWER VISITS

1 2 3 FINAL VISIT

SUPERVISOR

1

SPECIFY

ENGLISH

0

NUMBER

2 0 1

5 June 2016

22 April 2016

2016 SOUTH AFRICA DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY

MAN'S QUESTIONNAIRE

IDENTIFICATION

Appendix E • 549
100A

AGE 18 AND ABOVE

AGE 15-17 OR 100C

AND NEVER IN UNION AGE 15-17 AND EVER IN UNION

100B

PARENT/GUARDIAN AGREES PARENT/GUARDIAN DOES NOT AGREE

MINOR MAY BE INTERVIEWED . . 1 TO ALLOW MINOR TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 2 END

100C

SIGNATURE OF INTERVIEWER DATE

RESPONDENT AGREES RESPONDENT DOES NOT AGREE

TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 1 TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 2 END

NO.

101

HOURS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

MINUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

102

YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

ALWAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

VISITOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

103 CITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

TOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

RURAL AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

FARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

TRIBAL AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

INFORMAL SETTLEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

104 WESTERN CAPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

EASTERN CAPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02

NORTHERN CAPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03

FREE STATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04

KWAZULU-NATAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05

NORTH WEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06

GAUTENG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

MPUMALANGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08

LIMPOPO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

SADC COUNTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

OTHER COUNTRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

CHECK RESPONDENT'S AGE AND MARITAL STATUS IN HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE.

SIGNATURE OF INTERVIEWER DATE

INTRODUCTION AND CONSENT (RESPONDENT)

Hello. My name is _______________________________________. I am working with Statistics South Africa, We are conducting a survey 

about health and other topics all over South Africa. The information we collect will help the government to plan health services. Your household 

was selected for the survey. I would like to talk to (NAME OF MINOR) about his health and well-being. The questions usually take about 30 to 

40 minutes. All of the answers (NAME OF MINOR) gives will be confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our 

survey team. (NAME OF MINOR) doesn't have to be in the survey, but we hope you will agree to allow (NAME OF MINOR) to answer the 

questions since (NAME OF MINOR)'s views are important.

In case you need more information about the survey, you may contact the person listed on the card that has already been given to your 

household.

Do you have any questions?

May I begin the interview with (NAME OF MINOR) now?

INTRODUCTION AND CONSENT (PARENT/GUARDIAN)

105 IF LESS THAN ONE YEAR, RECORD ‘00’ YEARS.

Before you moved here, which province did you live in?

Just before you moved here, where did you live?

PROBE: Is that a city, a town, a rural area, a farm, a 

tribal area, or an informal settlement?

RECORD THE TIME.

How long have you been living continuously in (NAME 

OF CURRENT CITY, TOWN OR VILLAGE OF 

RESIDENCE)?

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

Hello. My name is _______________________________________. I am working with Statistics South Africa. We are conducting a survey 

about health and other topics all over South Africa. The information we collect will help the government to plan health services. Your household 

was selected for the survey. The questions usually take about 30 to 40 minutes. All of the answers you give will be confidential and will not be 

shared with anyone other than members of our survey team. You don't have to be in the survey, but we hope you will agree to answer the 

questions since your views are important. If I ask you any question you don't want to answer, just let me know and I will go on to the next 

question or you can stop the interview at any time.

In case you need more information about the survey, you may contact the person listed on this information sheet.

GIVE INFORMATION SHEET.

Do you have any questions?

May I begin the interview now?

SECTION 1. RESPONDENT'S BACKGROUND

550 • Appendix E
NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

SECTION 1. RESPONDENT'S BACKGROUND

105

DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9998

106

AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS . . . . . . . 

106A BLACK/AFRICAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

WHITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

COLOURED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

INDIAN/ASIAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER 6

107 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 111

108 PRIMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SECONDARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

HIGHER THAN SECONDARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

109 PRIMARY SCHOOL

LESS THAN 1 YEAR COMPLETED . . . . . . . 00

GRADE 1/SUB A/CLASS 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

GRADE 2/SUB B/CLASS 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

GRADE 3/STANDARD 1/

AET 1 (KHA RI GUDE, SANLI) . . . . . . . . . . 13

GRADE 4/STANDARD 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

GRADE 5/STANDARD 3/AET 2 . . . . . . . . . . 15

GRADE 6 /STANDARD 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

GRADE 7/STANDARD 5/AET 3 . . . . . . . . . . 17

SECONDARY SCHOOL

LESS THAN 1 YEAR COMPLETED . . . . . . . 20

GRADE 8/STANDARD 6/FORM 1/NTC 1/

N1/NC (V) LEVEL 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

GRADE 9/STANDARD 7/FORM 2/AET 4/NTC 2/

N2/NC (V) LEVEL 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

GRADE 10/STANDARD 8/FORM 3/NTC 3/

N3/NC (V) LEVEL 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

GRADE 11/STANDARD 9/FORM 4 . . . . . . . 24

CERTIFICATE OR DIPLOMA WITH LESS THAN 

GRADE 12/STANDARD 10 COMPLETED . . 25

GRADE 12/STANDARD 10/FORM 5/MATRIC . . 26

N4/NTC4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

N5/NTC5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

N6/NTC6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

HIGHER EDUCATION

FURTHER STUDIES INCOMPLETE OR ONGOING30

CERTIFICATE OR DIPLOMA WITH GRADE 12/

STANDARD 10 COMPLETED . . . . . . . . . . 31

HIGHER DIPLOMA (TECHNIKON/

U. OF TECHNOLOGY) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

POST HIGHER DIPLOMA (TECHNIKON/

U. TECHNOLOGY MASTERS, DOCTORAL) 33

BACHELORS DEGREE/BACHELORS DEGREE

 AND POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA . . . . . 34

HONOURS DEGREE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

HIGHER DEGREE (MASTERS, DOCTORATE). . 36

110

PRIMARY OR HIGHER

SECONDARY 113

(SPECIFY)

Which population group do you consider yourself: black, 

white, coloured, Indian or something else?

How old were you at your last birthday?

COMPARE AND CORRECT 105 AND/OR 106

IF INCONSISTENT. IF AGE 95 OR OLDER, RECORD 

95. 

Have you ever attended an educational institution?

What is the highest grade or form you completed at that 

level?

What is the highest level you attended: primary, 

secondary, or higher than secondary?

CHECK 108:

On what day, month, and year were you born?

Appendix E • 551
NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

SECTION 1. RESPONDENT'S BACKGROUND

111 CANNOT READ AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

ABLE TO READ ONLY PART OF

THE SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

ABLE TO READ WHOLE SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . 3

NO CARD WITH REQUIRED

LANGUAGE 4

BLIND/VISUALLY IMPAIRED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

112

CODE '2', '3' CODE '1' OR '5'

OR '4' CIRCLED 114

CIRCLED

113 AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

114 AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

115 AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

116 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 118

117 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

118 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

119 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 124

120

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 124

121 ALMOST EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

LESS THAN ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

124

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 126

125 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

126

AGE 60

AGE 15-59 AND ABOVE 401

In the last 12 months, have you used the internet?

IF NECESSARY, PROBE FOR USE FROM ANY 

LOCATION, WITH ANY DEVICE.

During the last one month, how often did you use the 

internet: almost every day, at least once a week, less 

than once a week, or not at all?

Do you own a cell phone?

Do you use your cell phone for any financial 

transactions?

Do you have an account in a bank or other financial 

institution that you yourself use?

Have you ever used the internet?

Now I would like you to read this sentence to me.

SHOW CARD TO RESPONDENT.

IF RESPONDENT CANNOT READ WHOLE 

SENTENCE, PROBE: Can you read any part of the 

sentence to me? (SPECIFY LANGUAGE)

CHECK 111:

Do you read a newspaper or magazine at least once a 

week, less than once a week or not at all?

CHECK 106: AGE OF RESPONDENT

Do you listen to the radio at least once a week, less than 

once a week or not at all?

Do you watch television at least once a week, less than 

once a week or not at all?

In the last 12 months, how many times have you been 

away from home for one or more nights?

In the last 12 months, have you been away from home 

for more than one month at a time?

552 • Appendix E
NO.

201

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

202 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 204

203 a)

a) SONS AT HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

b)

b) DAUGHTERS AT HOME . . . . . . . 

204 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 206

205 a)

a) SONS ELSEWHERE . . . . . . . . . . 

b)

b) DAUGHTERS ELSEWHERE . . . . . 

206

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

207 a)

a) BOYS DEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

b)

b) GIRLS DEAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

208

TOTAL CHILDREN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

209

HAS HAD

HAS HAD ONLY 211

MORE THAN ONE CHILD

ONE CHILD HAS NOT HAD

ANY CHILDREN 301

210 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

211

HAS HAD HAS HAD

MORE THAN ONLY

ONE CHILD ONE CHILD

a) b)

AGE IN YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

212

AT LEAST ONE NO LIVING

LIVING CHILD CHILDREN

Have you ever fathered a son or a daughter who was 

born alive but later died?

IF NO, PROBE: Any baby who cried, who made any 

movement, sound, or effort to breathe, or who showed 

any other signs of life even if for a very short time?

CHECK 208:

SUM ANSWERS TO 203, 205, AND 207, AND ENTER 

TOTAL. IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

Did all of the children you have fathered have the same 

biological mother?

CHECK 203 AND 205:

And how many daughters live with you?

IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

How many sons are alive but do not live with you?

Now I would like to ask about any children you have had 

during your life. I am interested in all of the children that 

are biologically yours, even if they are not legally yours 

or do not have your last name. Have you ever fathered 

any children with any woman? 206

Do you have any sons or daughters that you have 

fathered who are now living with you?

Do you have any sons or daughters that you have 

fathered who are alive but do not live with you?

SECTION 2. REPRODUCTION

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

How many sons live with you? 

IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

And how many daughters are alive but do not live 

with you?

How many boys have died?

And how many girls have died?

IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

How old were you when 

your first child was 

born?

How old were you when 

your child was born?

CHECK 208:

208

301

Appendix E • 553
NO.

SECTION 2. REPRODUCTION

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

213

MORE THAN ONE ONLY ONE

LIVING CHILD LIVING CHILD

a) b)

AGE IN YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

214

(YOUNGEST) CHILD IS (YOUNGEST) CHILD IS

AGE 0-2 YEARS AGE 3 YEARS OR OLDER

215

MORE THAN ONE ONLY ONE

LIVING CHILD LIVING CHILD

a) b)

216 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

217 PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NOT PRESENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

218 HOSPITAL/HEALTH FACILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

219 MORE THAN USUAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

ABOUT THE SAME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

LESS THAN USUAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NOTHING TO DRINK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

220

AT LEAST ONE NO CHILDREN

CHILD LIVING WITH HIM LIVING WITH HIM

221 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

When a child has diarrhea, how much should he or she 

be given to drink: more than usual, about the same as 

usual, less than usual, or nothing to drink at all?

(NAME OF (YOUNGEST) CHILD)

Were you ever present during any of those antenatal 

check-ups?

When (NAME)'s mother was pregnant with (NAME), did 

she have any antenatal check-ups?

How old is your 

youngest child?

How old is your child?

CHECK 203 AND 205:

What is the name of 

your child?

What is the name of 

your youngest child?

220

CHECK 213: 

CHECK 203:

301

Do you have at least one child who is biologically yours 

and is less than age 18 who lives with you?

Was (NAME) born in a hospital or health facility?

CHECK 203 AND 205:

218

554 • Appendix E
301

01 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

02 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

03 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

04 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

05 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

06 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

07 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

08 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

09 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

10 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

11 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

12 YES, MODERN METHOD

A

YES, TRADITIONAL METHOD

B

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y

SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

Now I would like to talk about family planning - the various ways or methods that a couple can use to delay or avoid a pregnancy. 

Which ways or methods have you heard about? MARK ALL METHODS DECLARED BY THE RESPONDENT.

FOR METHODS NOT MENTIONED SPONTANEOUSLY, ASK: Have you ever heard of (METHOD)?

Female Sterilisation/Tubal Ligation/Tubes Cut/Tubes Binded.

PROBE: Women can have an operation to avoid having any more 

children.

Male Sterilisation/Vasectomy/Tubes Cut/Tubes Binded.

PROBE: Men can have an operation to avoid having any more 

children.

IUD.

PROBE: Women can have a loop or coil placed inside them by a 

doctor or a nurse which can prevent pregnancy for one or more years.

Have you heard of any other ways or methods that women or men can 

use to avoid pregnancy?

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

Injectables/Depo.

PROBE: Women can have an injection by a health provider that stops 

them from becoming pregnant for one or more months.

Implants/Norplant/Jadelle.

PROBE: Women can have one or more small rods placed in their 

upper arm by a doctor or nurse which can prevent pregnancy for one 

or more years.

Pill.

PROBE: Women can take a pill every day to avoid becoming 

pregnant. 

Male Condom.

PROBE: Men can put a rubber sheath on their penis before sexual 

intercourse.

Female Condom.

PROBE: Women can place a sheath in their vagina before sexual 

intercourse.

Emergency Contraception.

PROBE: As an emergency measure, within three days after they have 

unprotected sexual intercourse, women can take special pills to 

prevent pregnancy.

Rhythm Method.

PROBE: To avoid pregnancy, women do not have sexual intercourse 

on the days of the month they think they can get pregnant.

Withdrawal.

PROBE: Men can be careful and pull out before climax.

Appendix E • 555
NO.

302 YES NO

a) a) RADIO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

b) b) TELEVISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

c) c) NEWSPAPER OR MAGAZINE . . . . . 1 2

d) d) COMMUNITY HEALTH WORKER . . 1 2

302A

YES, CURRENTLY NO, NOT CURRENTLY 

ATTENDING SCHOOL ATTENDING SCHOOL 303

302 YES NO

e) e) SCHOOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

303 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

304

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

305 JUST BEFORE HER PERIOD BEGINS . . . . . . . . 1

DURING HER PERIOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

RIGHT AFTER HER PERIOD HAS ENDED . . . . . 3

HALFWAY BETWEEN TWO PERIODS . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER 6

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

306 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

307

DISAGREE AGREE DK

a) a) CONTRACEPTION

WOMAN'S CONCERN 1 2 8

b) b) WOMEN MAY BECOME

PROMISCUOUS 1 2 8

Contraception is a woman’s concern and a man 

should not have to worry about it.

Women who use contraception may become 

promiscuous.

(SPECIFY)

Is this time just before her period begins, during her 

period, right after her period has ended, or halfway 

between two periods?

306

I will now read you some statements about 

contraception. Please tell me if you agree or disagree 

with each one.

Read about family planning in a newspaper or 

magazine?

Heard about family planning from a community 

health worker?

After the birth of a child, can a woman become pregnant 

before her menstrual period has returned?

In the last few months, have you discussed family 

planning with a health worker or health professional?

Now I would like to ask you about a woman's risk of 

pregnancy. From one menstrual period to the next, are 

there certain days when a woman is more likely to 

become pregnant when she has sexual relations?

CHECK Q18 IN HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE:

Heard about family planning at school?

SECTION 3. CONTRACEPTION

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

Seen anything about family planning on the 

television?

Heard about family planning on the radio?

In the last six months have you:

556 • Appendix E
NO.

401 YES, CURRENTLY MARRIED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

YES, LIVING WITH A PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

401A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 402

401B WOMAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

INTERSEX OR TRANSGENDERED . . . . . . . . . . . 3

401C

401 = 3 401 = 1 OR 2 403A

402 YES, FORMERLY MARRIED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

YES, LIVED WITH A PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 403A

403 WIDOWED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

DIVORCED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

SEPARATED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

403A

AGE 60

AGE 15-59 AND ABOVE 601

403B

402 = 1 OR 2

401 = 1 OR 2

401 = 3 AND 402 = 3

404 LIVING WITH HIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

STAYING ELSEWHERE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

404A

SPOUSE/PARTNER IS MALE SPOUSE/PARTNER IS FEMALE (401B = 1)

 OR INTERSEX (401b = 2 OR 3)

404B NAME

LINE NO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

405 YES (MORE THAN ONE WIFE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO (ONLY ONE WIFE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 407

406 TOTAL NUMBER OF WIVES

AND LIVE-IN PARTNERS . . . . . . . . 

407

ONE WIFE/ MORE THAN

PARTNER ONE WIFE/

PARTNER

a) b)

408

Do you have other wives or do you live with other 

women as if married?

408

Altogether, how many wives or live-in partners do you 

have?

CHECK 405: 

SECTION 4. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

Are you currently married or living together with 

someone as if married? 401B

405

RECORD THE SPOUSE'S/PARTNER'S NAME AND 

LINE NUMBER FROM THE HOUSEHOLD 

QUESTIONNAIRE. IF HE IS NOT LISTED IN THE 

HOUSEHOLD, RECORD '00'.

410

Have you ever been married or lived together with a 

someone as if married?

What is your marital status now: are you widowed, 

divorced, or separated?

CHECK 106: AGE OF RESPONDENT

410

CHECK 401 AND 402:

413

Is your (spouse/partner) living with you now or is she/he 

staying elsewhere?

Is this person a woman or a man?

Do you have a regular girlfriend/partner or fiancée?

ASK 408 FOR EACH PERSON.

RECORD THE NAME AND THE LINE NUMBER FROM 

THE HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE FOR EACH 

WIFE AND LIVE-IN PARTNER.

IF A WOMAN IS NOT LISTED IN THE HOUSEHOLD, 

RECORD '00'.

Please tell me the 

name of (your wife/the 

woman you are living 

with as if married).

CHECK 401B: SEX OF SPOUSE/PARTNER

CHECK 401: RESPONDENT'S CURRENT MARITAL STATUS

LINE

NAME NUMBER AGE

Please tell me the 

name of each of your 

wives or each woman 

you are living with as if 

married.

How old was 

(NAME) on 

her last 

birthday?

Appendix E • 557
NO.

SECTION 4. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

409

ONE WIFE/ MORE THAN

PARTNER ONE WIFE/ 411b

(405 = 2) PARTNER

(405 = 1)

410 MORE THAN ONCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

ONLY ONCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

411

405 ≠ 1 OTHER MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

and 410 = 2

a) b) DON'T KNOW MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9998

412

AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

413

414 NEVER HAD SEXUAL

INTERCOURSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 501

AGE IN YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

415

DAYS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

WEEKS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

MONTHS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

YEARS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

413

417 IF LESS THAN 12 MONTHS, ANSWER MUST BE 

RECORDED IN DAYS, WEEKS OR MONTHS. IF 12 

MONTHS (ONE YEAR) OR MORE, ANSWER MUST 

BE RECORDED IN YEARS.

427

CHECK 405 AND 410:

I would like to ask you about your recent sexual activity. 

When was the last time you had sexual intercourse?

How old were you when you first started living together?

CHECK FOR PRESENCE OF OTHERS. BEFORE CONTINUING, MAKE EVERY EFFORT TO ENSURE PRIVACY.

Now I would like to ask 

about your first 

(spouse/partner). In 

what month and year 

did you start living with 

your first 

(spouse/partner)?

In what month and year 

did you start living with 

your (spouse/partner)?

Now I would like to ask some questions about sexual 

activity in order to gain a better understanding of some 

important life issues. Let me assure you again that your 

answers are completely confidential and will not be told 

to anyone. If we should come to any question that you 

don't want to answer, just let me know and we will go to 

the next question. How old were you when you had 

sexual intercourse for the very first time?

Have you been married or lived with someone only 

once or more than once?

CHECK 405:

558 • Appendix E
416 DAYS DAYS

AGO . . 1 AGO . . 1

WEEKS WEEKS

AGO . . 2 AGO . . 2

MONTHS MONTHS

AGO . . 3 AGO . . 3

417 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 419) (SKIP TO 419) (SKIP TO 419)

418

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

419 SPOUSE . . . . . . . . . . . 1 SPOUSE . . . . . . . . . . . 1 SPOUSE . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LIVE-IN PARTNER . . . . . 2 LIVE-IN PARTNER . . . . . 2 LIVE-IN PARTNER . . . . . 2

GIRLFRIEND/BOYFRIEND GIRLFRIEND/BOYFRIEND GIRLFRIEND/BOYFRIEND

NOT LIVING WITH NOT LIVING WITH NOT LIVING WITH

RESPONDENT . . . . . 3 RESPONDENT . . . . . 3 RESPONDENT . . . . . 3

CASUAL CASUAL CASUAL

ACQUAINTANCE . . 4 ACQUAINTANCE . . 4 ACQUAINTANCE . . 4

CLIENT/SEX WORKER . . 5 CLIENT/SEX WORKER . . 5 CLIENT/SEX WORKER . . 5

OTHER 6 OTHER 6 OTHER 6

420 DAYS DAYS DAYS

AGO . . 1 AGO . . 1 AGO . . 1

WEEKS WEEKS WEEKS

AGO . . 2 AGO . . 2 AGO . . 2

MONTHS MONTHS MONTHS

AGO . . 3 AGO . . 3 AGO . . 3

YEARS YEARS YEARS

AGO . . 4 AGO . . 4 AGO . . 4

421

NUMBER OF NUMBER OF NUMBER OF 

TIMES . . . . . TIMES . . . . . TIMES . . . . . 

422 AGE OF AGE OF AGE OF

PARTNER PARTNER PARTNER

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . 98 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . 98 DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . 98

423 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

(SKIP TO 425) (SKIP TO 425)

424

NUMBER OF

PARTNERS

LAST 12 

MONTHS . . 

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . 98

(SPECIFY)

The last time you had sexual 

intercourse with this person, 

was a condom used?

What was your relationship to 

this person with whom you had 

sexual intercourse?

IF GIRLFRIEND/BOYFRIEND: 

Were you living together as if 

married?

IF YES, RECORD '2'.

IF NO, RECORD '3'. (SPECIFY) (SPECIFY)

Was a condom used every 

time you had sexual 

intercourse with this person in 

the last 12 months?

SECTION 4. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

LAST SEXUAL PARTNER SECOND-TO-LAST SEXUAL 

PARTNER

THIRD-TO-LAST SEXUAL 

PARTNER

When was the last time you 

had sexual intercourse with 

this person?

(GO BACK TO 416 

IN NEXT COLUMN)

(GO BACK TO 416 

IN NEXT COLUMN)

In total, with how many 

different people have you had 

sexual intercourse in the last 

12 months? 

IF NON-NUMERIC ANSWER, 

PROBE TO GET AN 

ESTIMATE. IF NUMBER OF 

PARTNERS IS 95 OR MORE, 

RECORD '95'.

How long ago did you first 

have sexual intercourse with 

this person?

How many times during the last 

12 months did you have sexual 

intercourse with this person?

IF NON-NUMERIC ANSWER, 

PROBE TO GET AN 

ESTIMATE. IF NUMBER OF 

TIMES IS 95 OR MORE, 

RECORD '95'.

How old is this person?

Apart from this person, have 

you had sexual intercourse 

with any other person in the 

last 12 months?

Appendix E • 559
NO.

425

AT LEAST ONE PARTNER NO PARTNERS

IS A SEX WORKER ARE SEX WORKERS

426

CONDOM USED WITH 430

EVERY SEX WORKER

OTHER 431

427 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 429

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

428 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

429 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 431

430 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

431 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 433

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

432 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

433

NUMBER OF PARTNERS

IN LIFETIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

434

NOT ASKED 438

CONDOM

USED NO CONDOM

USED 438

437 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 439

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

438 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

439 FEMALE STERILISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

MALE STERILISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

IUD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

INJECTABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

IMPLANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

PILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

CONDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G 501

FEMALE CONDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

RHYTHM METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J

WITHDRAWAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K

OTHER MODERN METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X

OTHER TRADITIONAL METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y

440 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

431 Have you ever paid anyone in exchange for having 

sexual intercourse?

In the past 12 months have you given any gifts or other 

goods in order to have sex or to become sexually 

involved with anyone?

SECTION 4. MARRIAGE AND SEXUAL ACTIVITY

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

In the last 12 months, did you pay anyone in exchange 

for having sexual intercourse?

CHECK 419 AND 417 (ALL COLUMNS): 

CHECK 419 (ALL COLUMNS): 

427

IF NON-NUMERIC ANSWER, PROBE TO GET AN 

ESTIMATE. IF NUMBER OF PARTNERS IS 95 OR 

MORE, RECORD '95'.

CHECK 417: MOST RECENT PARTNER (FIRST COLUMN)

Have you ever given any gifts or other goods in order to 

have sex or to become sexually involved with anyone?

The last time you paid someone in exchange for having 

sexual intercourse, was a condom used?

Was a condom used during sexual intercourse every 

time you paid someone in exchange for having sexual 

intercourse in the last 12 months?

In total, with how many different people have you had 

sexual intercourse in your lifetime?

440

The last time you had sex did you or your partner use any 

method to avoid or prevent a pregnancy? 440

Do you know of a place where you can obtain a method 

of family planning?

RECORD ALL MENTIONED.

What method did you or your partner use?

PROBE: Did you or your partner use any other method to 

prevent pregnancy?

The last time you had sex did you or your partner use any 

method other than a condom to avoid or prevent a 

pregnancy?

560 • Appendix E
NO.

501

CURRENTLY MARRIED OR NOT IN UNION WITH A WOMAN

LIVING WITH A WOMAN OR HAS

 REGULAR FEMALE PARTNER/GIRLFRIEND

502

MAN NOT MAN

STERILISED STERILISED

503

ONE WIFE/ MORE THAN

PARTNER ONE WIFE/

PARTNER

504 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

505 HAVE ANOTHER CHILD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO MORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

UNDECIDED/DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

506

MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

SOON/NOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993

OTHER 996

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

507

HAS NOT

HAS FATHERED FATHERED

CHILDREN CHILDREN HAVE (A/ANOTHER) CHILD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

a) b) NO MORE/NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

SAYS COUPLE CAN’T GET PREGNANT 3

WIFE/PARTNER STERILIZED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

UNDECIDED/DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

508

HAS NOT MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

HAS FATHERED FATHERED

CHILDREN CHILDREN YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

a) b) SOON/NOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993

SAYS COUPLE 514

CAN’T GET PREGNANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994

OTHER 996

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

509 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

SECTION 5. FERTILITY PREFERENCES

(SPECIFY)

509

514

507

514

514

514

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

CHECK 401, 401A AND 401B:

CHECK 439:

CHECK 407:

Now I have some questions about the future. After the 

child you and your (wife/partner) are expecting now, 

would you like to have another child, or would you prefer 

not to have any more children?

Is your (wife/partner) currently pregnant?

512

CHECK 208:

How long would you like 

to wait from now before 

the birth of another 

child?

How long would you like 

to wait from now before 

the birth of a child?

CHECK 208:

After the birth of the child you are expecting now, how 

long would you like to wait before the birth of another 

child?

Now I have some 

questions about the 

future. Would you like to 

have a child, or would you 

prefer not to have any 

children?

514

(SPECIFY)

Are any of your (wives/partners) currently pregnant?

Now I have some 

questions about the 

future. Would you like 

to have another child, or 

would you prefer not to 

have any more 

children?

Appendix E • 561
NO.

SECTION 5. FERTILITY PREFERENCES

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

510 HAVE ANOTHER CHILD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO MORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

UNDECIDED/DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

511

MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

SOON/NOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993

OTHER 996

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

512

HAS NOT

HAS FATHERED FATHERED

CHILDREN CHILDREN HAVE (A/ANOTHER) CHILD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

a) b) NO MORE/NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

SAYS COUPLE CAN’T GET PREGNANT . . . . . . . . 3

WIFE (WIVES)/PARTNER(S) STERILIZED . . . . . 4

UNDECIDED/DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

513

HAS NOT MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

HAS FATHERED FATHERED

CHILDREN CHILDREN YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

a) b) SOON/NOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993

SAYS COUPLE

CAN’T GET PREGNANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994

OTHER 996

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

514

HAS LIVING NO LIVING NONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00 601

CHILDREN CHILDREN

a) b)

NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

OTHER 96 601

515

NUMBER . . 

OTHER 96

514

514

514

After the birth of the child you are expecting now, how 

long would you like to wait before the birth of another 

child?

Now I have some questions about the future. After the 

(child/children) you and your (wives/partners) are 

expecting now, would you like to have another child, or 

would you prefer not to have any more children?

(SPECIFY)

CHECK 208:

How many of these children would you like to be boys, 

how many would you like to be girls and for how many 

would it not matter if it’s a boy or a girl?

(SPECIFY)

PROBE FOR A NUMERIC RESPONSE.

How long would you like 

to wait from now before 

the birth of a child?

CHECK 208:

CHECK 203 AND 205:

How long would you like 

to wait from now before 

the birth of another 

child?

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

BOYS GIRLS EITHER

If you could go back to 

the time you did not 

have any children and 

could choose exactly 

the number of children 

to have in your whole 

life, how many would 

that be?

If you could choose 

exactly the number of 

children to have in your 

whole life, how many 

would that be?

Now I have some 

questions about the 

future. Would you like 

to have another child, or 

would you prefer not to 

have any more 

children?

Now I have some 

questions about the 

future. Would you like 

to have a child, or 

would you prefer not to 

have any children?

562 • Appendix E
NO.

601 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 604

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

602

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 604

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

603 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 604A

604

604A

AGE 60

AGE 15-59 AND ABOVE 901

604B

YES NO 607

605 THROUGHOUT THE YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SEASONALLY/PART OF THE YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . 2

ONCE IN A WHILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

606 CASH ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CASH AND KIND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

IN KIND ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NOT PAID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

607

CURRENTLY MARRIED OR NOT IN UNION

LIVING WITH A WOMAN OR HAS OR IN UNION, 612

REGULAR FEMALE PARTNER/GIRLFRIEND BUT NOT WITH A WOMAN

608

CODE '1' OR '2' OTHER

CIRCLED

609 RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

WIFE/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

RESPONDENT AND WIFE/PARTNER JOINTLY . . 3

OTHER 6

610 RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

WIFE/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

RESPONDENT AND WIFE/PARTNER JOINTLY . . 3

SOMEONE ELSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

611 RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

WIFE/PARTNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

RESPONDENT AND WIFE/PARTNER JOINTLY . . 3

SOMEONE ELSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

SECTION 6. EMPLOYMENT AND GENDER ROLES

Who usually makes decisions about health care for 

yourself: you, your (wife/partner), you and your 

(wife/partner) jointly, or someone else?

(SPECIFY)

Who usually decides how the money you earn will be 

used: you, your (wife/partner), or you and your 

(wife/partner) jointly?

Have you done any work in the last seven days?

Who usually makes decisions about making major 

household purchases?

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

610

CHECK 606:

CHECK 401, 401A AND 401B:

What is your occupation? That is, what kind of work do 

you mainly do?

Have you done any work in the last 12 months?

Although you did not work in the last seven days, do you 

have any job or business from which you were absent 

for leave, illness, vacation, or any other such reason?

Are you paid in cash or kind for this work or are you not 

paid at all?

Do you usually work throughout the year, or do you work 

seasonally, or only once in a while?

CHECK 106: AGE OF RESPONDENT

CHECK 601, 602, 603: ANY YES?

Appendix E • 563
NO.

SECTION 6. EMPLOYMENT AND GENDER ROLES

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

612 ALONE ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

JOINTLY ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

BOTH ALONE AND JOINTLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

DOES NOT OWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 618

613 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

614 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

618

YES NO DK

a) a) GOES OUT . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

b) b) NEGLECTS CHILDREN . . 1 2 8

c) c) ARGUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

d) d) REFUSES SEX . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

e) e) BURNS FOOD . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

619

ONE OR MORE CHILDREN NO CHILDREN OR NO CHILDREN 

 LESS THAN AGE 18 LIVING LESS THAN AGE 18 701

WITH HIM LIVING WITH HIM

620

YES NO

a)

a) HIT WITH HAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

b)

b) HIT WITH IMPLEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2

CHECK 203 AND 221:

Now I would like to ask you questions about how you 

discipline or punish your (child/children). In the past 12 

months, have you ever:

Hit or beat your (child/children) using a belt, spoon, 

stick, shoe or any other implement to punish or 

discipline the child? 

618

Is your name on the title deed or documents?

If she refuses to have sex with him?

If she burns the food?

In your opinion, is a husband justified in hitting or 

beating his wife in the following situations:

Hit or slapped your (child/children) with your hand to 

punish or discipline the child?

If she goes out without telling him?

If she neglects the children?

Do you own this or any other house either alone or 

jointly with someone else?

If she argues with him?

Do you have a title deed or documents for any house 

you own?

564 • Appendix E
NO.

701 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 727

708

YES NO DK

a) a) DURING PREGNANCY . . 1 2 8

b) b) DURING DELIVERY . . . . . 1 2 8

c) c) BREASTFEEDING . . . . . 1 2 8

709

AT LEAST OTHER

ONE 'YES'

710 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

711

712 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 716

713

MONTHS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

TWO OR MORE YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

714 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

715 PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/COMMUNITY 

HEALTH CENTRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

MOBILE/TEMPORARY HCT SERVICES . . . . . 13

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

16

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC/

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

NEW START TESTING SITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 718

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

26

OTHER SOURCE

HOME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

WORKPLACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

CORRECTIONAL FACILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

OTHER 96

CHECK FOR PRESENCE OF OTHERS. BEFORE CONTINUING, MAKE EVERY EFFORT TO ENSURE PRIVACY. 

(SPECIFY)

SECTION 7. HIV/AIDS

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

Now I would like to talk about something else. Have you 

ever heard of HIV or AIDS?

Can HIV be transmitted from a mother to her baby:

During pregnancy?

During delivery?

By breastfeeding?

CHECK 708:

711

Are there any special drugs that a doctor or a nurse can 

give to a woman infected with HIV to reduce the risk of 

transmission to the baby?

(SPECIFY)

I don't want to know the results, but have you ever been 

tested for HIV?

How many months ago was your most recent HIV test?

I don't want to know the results, but did you get the 

results of the test?

Where was the test done?

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 96 AND WRITE THE NAME OF 

THE PLACE.

(SPECIFY)

Appendix E • 565
NO.

SECTION 7. HIV/AIDS

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

716 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 718

717 PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/COMMUNITY 

HEALTH CENTRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

MOBILE/TEMPORARY HCT SERVICES . . . . . C

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

D

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC/

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

NEW START TESTING SITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

H

OTHER X

718 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 727

719 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

727

HEARD ABOUT NOT HEARD ABOUT

HIV OR AIDS HIV OR AIDS

a) b)

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

728

HAS HAD SEXUAL NEVER HAD SEXUAL

INTERCOURSE INTERCOURSE

729

YES NO

730 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

731 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

732 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

(SPECIFY)

Have you heard of test kits people can use to test 

themselves for HIV?

Have you ever tested yourself for HIV using a self-test 

kit?

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

Do you know of a place where people can go to get an 

HIV test?

CHECK 701:

Where is that?

Any other place?

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 'X' AND WRITE THE NAME OF 

THE PLACE(S).

Apart from HIV, have 

you heard about other 

infections that can be 

transmitted through 

sexual contact?

Have you heard about 

infections that can be 

transmitted through 

sexual contact?

CHECK 414:

738

CHECK 727: HEARD ABOUT OTHER SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS?

731

Now I would like to ask you some questions about your 

health in the last 12 months. During the last 12 months, 

have you had a disease which you got through sexual 

contact?

Sometimes men experience an abnormal discharge 

from their penis. During the last 12 months, have you 

had an abnormal discharge from your penis?

Sometimes men have a sore or ulcer on or near their 

penis. During the last 12 months, have you had a sore 

or ulcer on or near your penis?

566 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 7. HIV/AIDS

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

733

HAS HAD AN HAS NOT HAD AN

INFECTION INFECTION OR

(ANY 'YES') DOES NOT KNOW

734 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 738

735 PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/COMMUNITY 

HEALTH CENTRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

MOBILE/TEMPORARY HCT SERVICES . . . . . C

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

D

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC/

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

NEW START TESTING SITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

H

OTHER SOURCE

SHOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

TRADITIONAL HERBALIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J

TRADITIONAL HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K

OTHER X

738 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

739

AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS . . . . . . . . 

DURING CHILDHOOD (<5 YEARS) . . . . . . . . . . . 95

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

740 TRADITIONAL PRACTITIONER/FAMILY/FRIEND 1

HEALTH WORKER/PROFESSIONAL . . . . . . . . . . . 2

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 'X' AND WRITE THE NAME OF 

THE PLACE(S).

CHECK 730, 731 AND 732:

738

Where did you go?

Any other place?

The last time you had (PROBLEM FROM 730/731/732), 

did you seek any kind of advice or treatment?

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

Who did the circumcision?

How old were you when you got circumcised?

901

Some men are circumcised, that is, the foreskin is 

completely removed from the penis. Are you 

circumcised?

(SPECIFY)

Appendix E • 567
NO.

901 POOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

AVERAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

GOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

EXCELLENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

902 UNDERWEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NORMAL WEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

OVERWEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

OBESE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

903 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 906

SOME DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 905

904 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

905 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOME DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 908

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

906

NUMBER DAILY

a) a) MANUFACT. CIGARETTES

b) b) HAND-ROLLED CIGARETTES

c) c) PIPES FULL OF TOBACCO

908

d) d) CIGARS OR CIGARILLOS

e) e) WATER PIPE SESSIONS

f)

f) OTHERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

907

NUMBER WEEKLY

a) a) MANUFACT. CIGARETTES

b) b) HAND-ROLLED CIGARETTES

c) c) PIPES FULL OF TOBACCO

d) d) CIGARS OR CIGARILLOS

e) e) WATER PIPE SESSIONS

f)

f) OTHERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

In the past, have you smoked tobacco every day?

Hand-rolled cigarettes?

In the past, have you ever smoked tobacco every day, 

some days, or not at all?

On average, how many of the following products do you 

currently smoke each day? Also, let me know if you use 

the product, but not every day.

Manufactured cigarettes?

Would you say your health is poor, average, good, or 

excellent?

Number of hookah, hubbly-bubbly or water pipe 

sessions?

Any others?

Do you currently smoke tobacco every day, some days, 

or not at all?

Number of hookah, hubbly-bubbly or water pipe 

sessions?

907

Pipes full of tobacco?

SECTION 9. TOBACCO AND ALCOHOL

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

(SPECIFY)

Cigars or cigarillos?

Any others?

On average, how many of the following products do you 

currently smoke each week? Also, let me know if you 

use the product, but not every week.

(SPECIFY)

IF RESPONDENT REPORTS USING THE PRODUCT 

BUT NOT EVERY WEEK, RECORD '888'. IF THE 

PRODUCT IS NOT USED AT ALL, RECORD '000'.

Manufactured cigarettes?

Hand-rolled cigarettes?

Pipes full of tobacco?

Do you personally think you are underweight, normal 

weight, overweight, or obese?

Cigars or cigarillos?

IF RESPONDENT REPORTS USING THE PRODUCT 

BUT NOT EVERY DAY, RECORD '888'. IF THE 

PRODUCT IS NOT USED AT ALL, RECORD '000'.

568 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 9. TOBACCO AND ALCOHOL

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

908 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 910

SOME DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 911

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

909 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOME DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 912

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

910

TIMES DAILY

a) a) SNUFF, BY MOUTH . . . . . 

b) b) SNUFF, BY NOSE . . . . . 

912

c) c) CHEWING TOBACCO . . . . . 

d)

d) ANY OTHERS . . . . . . . . . . 

911

TIMES WEEKLY

a) a) SNUFF, BY MOUTH . . . . . 

b) b) SNUFF, BY NOSE . . . . . 

c) c) CHEWING TOBACCO . . . . . 

d)

d) ANY OTHERS . . . . . . . . . . 

912 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT CURRENTLY WORKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

913 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 915

914

YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

IF LESS THAN 1 YEAR, RECORD '00'.

915 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOME DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NOT AT ALL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

916 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1001

Snuff, by nose?

Chewing tobacco?

Any others?

Do you currently use snuff, chewing tobacco, or other 

smokeless tobacco product every day, some days, or 

not at all?

On average, how many times a day do you use the 

following products? Also, let me know if you use the 

product, but not every day.

Have you ever worked in a job where you were regularly 

exposed to smoke, dust, fumes or strong smells? 

Do you currently work in a job where other people 

smoke around you?

Any others?

On average, how many times a week do you use the 

following products? Also, let me know if you use the 

product, but not every week.

(SPECIFY)

Snuff, by mouth?

(SPECIFY)

In the past, have you used snuff, chewing tobacco or 

other smokeless tobacco products every day, some 

days, or not at all?

IF RESPONDENT REPORTS USING THE PRODUCT 

BUT NOT EVERY DAY, RECORD '888'. IF THE 

PRODUCT IS NOT USED AT ALL, RECORD '000'.

Snuff, by mouth?

Snuff, by nose?

Chewing tobacco?

Do you currently use e-cigarettes every day, some days, 

or not at all?

How many years did you work at a job where you were 

regularly exposed to smoke, dust, fumes or strong 

smells?

Have you ever consumed a drink that contains alcohol 

such as beer, wine, ciders, spirits, or sorghum beer?

PROBE: Even one drink?

IF RESPONDENT REPORTS USING THE PRODUCT 

BUT NOT EVERY WEEK, RECORD '888'. IF THE 

PRODUCT IS NOT USED AT ALL, RECORD '000'.

Appendix E • 569
NO.

SECTION 9. TOBACCO AND ALCOHOL

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

917 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1001

918 5 OR MORE DAYS A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1-4 DAYS PER WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1-3 DAYS A MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

LESS OFTEN THAN ONCE A MONTH . . . . . . . 4

919

MONDAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

TUESDAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

WEDNESDAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

THURSDAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

FRIDAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

SATURDAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

SUNDAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

919H

NUMBER OF HOME-MADE BEERS . . 

USE SHOWCARD.

919I

1001

920 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

921 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

922 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

923 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

923A

1001

924 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Have you ever felt that you should cut down on your 

drinking?

During each of the last 7 days, how many standard 

drinks did you have?

NO YES

CHECK 919: FIVE OR MORE DRINKS IN 

ONE DAY DURING LAST 7 DAYS?

Have you ever had a drink first thing in the morning to 

steady your nerves or get rid of a hangover?

Have you ever felt bad or guilty about your drinking?

Have people annoyed you by criticizing your drinking?

CHECK 918 AND 919: CODE 3 OR 4 RECORDED IN 918 AND CONSUMED 0-1 DRINKS IN THE LAST 7 DAYS IN 

919?

YES

NO

In the past 30 days, have you consumed five or more 

standard drinks on at least one occasion?

USE SHOWCARD. RECORD TOTAL NUMBER OF 

DRINKS CONSUMED EACH DAY STARTING WITH 

THE DAY BEFORE THE DAY OF THE INTERVIEW 

AND PROCEEDING BACKWARDS.

During the last 7 days, how many standard home-made 

beers or other homemade alcohol did you have? 

In the last 12 months, how frequently have you had at 

least one drink?

PROBE: Five or more days a week, 1-4 days a week, 1-

3 days a month, or less often than once a month?

Was this within the last 12 months?

570 • Appendix E
NO.

1001

USE SHOWCARD.

1004 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

OCCASIONALLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1005 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

OCCASIONALLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1006 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

OCCASIONALLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1007 EVERY DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

OCCASIONALLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

NEVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1008 NO INTENTION TO LOWER SALT . . . . . . . . . . 1

INTERESTED WITHIN NEXT SIX MONTHS . . . . . 2

INTERESTED WITHIN NEXT MONTH . . . . . . . . . . 3

STARTED IN LAST SIX MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

ALREADY LOWERED LONGER THAN SIX MONTHS 5

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1009

TYPES OF FRUIT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

USE SHOWCARD. IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

1010

TYPES OF VEGETABLES . . . . . . . 

USE SHOWCARD. IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

1011 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1012

1011A

200 ML GLASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

330 ML CAN OR BOTTLE . . . . . . . B

PROBE FOR BEVERAGE NUMBER AND SIZE.

500 ML BOTTLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

1 L BOTTLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

2 L BOTTLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

1012 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1101

1012A

200 ML JUICE CARTON . . . . . . . A

PROBE FOR BEVERAGE NUMBER AND SIZE. 200 ML GLASS . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

SECTION 10. FAT, SALT, SUGAR, FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CONSUMPTION

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

Yesterday, how many types of fruit did you eat?

Now I would like to ask you some questions about the foods that you eat. There are no right or wrong answers. 

How often do you eat processed meat such as polony, 

viennas, meat pies, or sausage rolls?

How often do you usually eat fried foods such as hot 

chips, fried fish, fried chicken, fried meat, vetkoek or 

doughnuts?

How often do you eat chips such as a packet of crispy 

chips or similar salty snacks such as Doritos, cheese 

curls, salted nuts, salty biscuits, etc?

How often do you eat fast-foods or take-away foods 

from places like Chicken Licken, KFC, Captain 

DoRego's, Steers, Nando's, McDonalds, pizza delivery, 

etc?

How many and what size fruit juices did you drink?

How many and what size sugar-sweetened drinks did 

you drink?

Which of the following statements best describes your 

approach towards salt consumption:

1) I am not interested in lowering salt in my food.

2) I am interested in lowering salt in my food within the 

next six months.

3) I am interested in lowering salt in my food within the 

next month.

4) I have started lowering salt within the last six months.

5) I have already lowered my salt intake for longer than 

six months.

Yesterday, how many types of vegetables, excluding 

potatoes, did you eat?

Yesterday, did you drink any fruit juice?

Yesterday, did you drink any sugar-sweetened drinks? 

Sugar-sweetened drinks include fizzy drinks like Coke or 

drinks like Squash where water is added, but not diet or 

unsweetened cold drinks.

Appendix E • 571
NO.

1101 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1102 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1104

1103 PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/COMMUNITY 

HEALTH CENTRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

C

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC/

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

DENTIST/ORAL HYGIENIST/

DENTAL THERAPIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

G

OTHER SOURCE

WORKPLACE HEALTH SERVICE . . . . . . . . . . H

TRADITIONAL HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

TRADITIONAL HERBALIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J

FAITH HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K

OTHER X

1104 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1105 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1106 IN THE LAST 12 MONTHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MORE THAN 12 MONTHS AGO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1107 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . 8

1108

YES NO DK

a) a) HIGH BLOOD PRESS. 1 2 8

b) b) HEART ATTACK 1 2 8

c) c) CANCER 1 2 8

d) d) STROKE 1 2 8

e) e) HIGH BLOOD CHOLEST 1 2 8

f) f) DIABETES 1 2 8

g) g) CHRONIC BRONCHITIS 1 2 8

h) h) ASTHMA 1 2 8

1109 YES NO

SECTION 11. HEALTH CARE

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1127

Stroke?

1108

Chronic bronchitis, emphysema, or COPD?

Cancer?

Did you get medical treatment the last time you had TB?

Has a doctor, nurse or other health worker told you that 

you have or have had any of the following conditions:

High blood pressure?

Asthma?

CHECK 1108: 

ANY QUESTION a-h = YES?

High blood cholesterol or fats in the blood?

Diabetes or blood sugar?

When was the last time you were told you had TB?

Has a doctor, nurse or other health worker ever told you 

that you have TB?

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 'X' AND WRITE THE NAME OF 

THE PLACE(S).

During the last month, have you had any visits by a 

home-based care giver or a community-based care 

giver?

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

Are you covered by Medical Aid, Medical Benefit 

Scheme, Provident Scheme, or Hospital Plan that helps 

you pay for health care or drug services?

Where have you received health, medical, or dental 

care?

PROBE: Anywhere else?

Heart attack or angina/chest pains?

During the last month, have you received health, 

medical, or dental care without staying overnight?

572 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 11. HEALTH CARE

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1110 1108a = YES 1108a = 

NO OR DK 1112

1111 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . 8

1112 1108b = YES 1108b = 

NO OR DK 1114

1113 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . 8

1114 1108c = YES 1108c = 

NO OR DK 1116

1115 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . 8

1116 1108d = YES 1108d = 

NO OR DK 1118

1117 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . 8

1118 1108e = YES 1108e = 

NO OR DK 1120

1119 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . 8

1120 1108f = YES 1108f = 

NO OR DK 1122

1121 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . 8

1122 1108g = YES 1108g = 

NO OR DK 1124

1123 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . 8

1124 1108h = YES 1108h = 

NO OR DK 1127

1125 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW/DON'T REMEMBER . . . . . . . . . . 8

1127 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1128 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1131

During the last 12 months, have you had wheezing when 

you breathe?

CHECK 1108f:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD DIABETES.

Did you receive medical treatment for the diabetes or 

blood sugar at the time of the diagnosis?

CHECK 1108g:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD CHRONIC BRONCHITIS.

Did you receive medical treatment for chronic bronchitis, 

emphysema, or COPD at the time of the diagnosis?

CHECK 1108h:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD ASTHMA.

Did you receive medical treatment for the heart attack, 

angina/chest pains at the time of the diagnosis?

CHECK 1108c:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD CANCER.

Did you receive medical treatment for the cancer at the 

time of the diagnosis?

CHECK 1108d:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD STROKE.

Did you receive medical treatment for the stroke at the 

time of the diagnosis?

Compared with other people your age, do you feel you 

have less breath when exerting yourself?

PROBE: By exercising or moving a lot?

Did you receive medical treatment for asthma at the time 

of the diagnosis?

CHECK 1108e:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD HIGH BLOOD 

CHOLESTEROL.

Did you receive medical treatment for high blood 

cholesterol or fats in the blood at the time of the 

diagnosis?

CHECK 1108a:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE.

Did you receive medical treatment for high blood 

pressure at the time of the diagnosis?

CHECK 1108b:

RESPONDENT HAS HAD HEART ATTACK OR 

ANGINA.

Appendix E • 573
NO.

SECTION 11. HEALTH CARE

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1129 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1130 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1131 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1132 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1133 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1134 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1135 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1136 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1137

YEARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

IF LESS THAN 1 YEAR, RECORD '00'.

1138 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1141

1139 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1141

1140 BACK PAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

NECK OR SHOULDER PAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

HEADACHE, FACIAL OR DENTAL PAIN . . . . . . . C

STOMACH ACHE OR ABDOMINAL PAIN . . . . . . . D

PAIN IN ARMS, HANDS, HIPS, LEGS OR FEET . . E

CHEST PAIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

OTHER X

1141 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1145

1142 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1144

1143 PUBLIC SECTOR

DENTIST/ORAL HYGIENIST/DENTAL

THERAPIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

MEDICAL DOCTOR/NURSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

DENTIST/ORAL HYGIENIST/DENTAL

THERAPIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C 1145

MEDICAL DOCTOR/NURSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

OTHER SOURCE

TRADITIONAL HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X

Were you also short of breath when the wheezing noise 

was present?

Have you had the wheezing when you did not have a 

cold?

Have you woken up with a feeling of tightness in your 

chest at any time in the last 12 months?

Have you been woken by an attack of coughing at any 

time in the last 12 months?

Have you been woken by an attack of shortness of 

breath at any time in the last 12 months?

(SPECIFY)

Are you currently troubled by pain or discomfort, either 

all the time or on and off?

Do you usually cough on most days?

1138

When you cough, do you usually bring up phlegm from 

your chest? 1138

Have you brought up phlegm every day for at least three 

months during the last year? 1138

Who did you see for treatment?

RECORD ALL MENTIONED.

Did you get treatment the last time that you had the 

problem?

In the last 12 months, did your teeth or your mouth 

cause you any pain or discomfort? 

For how many years have you brought up phlegm in this 

way?

Have you had this pain or discomfort for more than 3 

months?

Where do you feel this pain or discomfort?

RECORD ALL MENTIONED.

574 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 11. HEALTH CARE

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

1144 NO ORAL HEALTH SERVICE AVAILABLE . . . . . 1

ORAL HEALTH SERVICES TOO FAR . . . . . . . . . . 2

ORAL HEALTH SERVICES TOO EXPENSIVE/

COULD NOT AFFORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

PROBLEM WENT AWAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1145 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1150

1146

NUMBER OF MEDICINES . . . . . . . . . . 

1147 RESPONDENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

FAMILY/FRIENDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

MEDICAL AID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

EMPLOYER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

PROVIDED BY PUBLIC CLINIC OR HOSPITAL . . 5

OTHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1150

1148 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1150

1149

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

PROBE FOR ESTIMATE OF NUMBER OF TIMES.

1150 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

USE THE SHOWCARD.

1152 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1155

1153 BRONCLEER/LENAZINE FORTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

ACTIFED DRY COUGH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

BENYLIN SYRUP WITH CODEINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

LENADOL/ADCO-DOL PAIN TABLETS . . . . . . . D

NUROFEN PLUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

RECORD ALL MENTIONED. MYPRODOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

STILPANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

SYNDOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

OTHER X

1154 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1155

HOURS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

MINUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

1155

In the last 12 months, have you used any medications 

containing codeine to treat a medical condition? 

(SPECIFY)

In the last 12 months, which codeine-containing 

medications have you used for the experience or feeling 

rather than for their medical effect?

How many times has this happened to you in the last 12 

months?

In the last 12 months, have you ever been sent away 

from the clinic without a medication because they did not 

have stock?

Now I would like to ask you about any medication you 

take. Do you use any medicine daily or regularly that has 

been prescribed by a doctor or nurse?

How many different prescribed medications do you use 

daily or regularly?

Who pays for most of these medications?

1150

RECORD THE TIME.

In the last 12 months, have you used any of these 

medications for the experience or feeling it gave you 

rather than for their medicinal effect?

In the last 12 months, have you received treatment for 

your problems related to the use of codeine-containing 

medications for non-medical purposes?

What was the main reason that you did not get 

treatment?

Appendix E • 575
COMMENTS ABOUT INTERVIEW:

COMMENTS ON SPECIFIC QUESTIONS:

ANY OTHER COMMENTS:

INTERVIEWER'S OBSERVATIONS

TO BE FILLED IN AFTER COMPLETING INTERVIEW

SUPERVISOR'S OBSERVATIONS

576 • Appendix E
FORMATTING DATE:

ENGLISH LANGUAGE:

PLACE NAME

NAME OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD

CLUSTER NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

HOUSEHOLD NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF CHILD

NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF GUARDIAN/FOSTER PARENT/OTHER

.

DATE DAY

MONTH

YEAR

INTERVIEWER'S

NAME INT. NO.

RESULT* RESULT*

NEXT VISIT: DATE

TOTAL NUMBER

TIME OF VISITS

*RESULT CODES: 1 COMPLETED 4 REFUSED

2 NOT AT HOME 5 PARTLY COMPLETED 7 OTHER

3 POSTPONED 6 INCAPACITATED

LANGUAGE OF LANGUAGE OF HOME LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR USED

QUESTIONNAIRE** INTERVIEW** OF RESPONDENT** (YES = 1, NO = 2)

LANGUAGE OF **LANGUAGE CODES:

QUESTIONNAIRE** 01 ENGLISH 05 seSOTHO 09 tshiVENDA

02 AFRIKAANS 06 seTSWANA 10 xiTSONGA

03 isiXHOSA 07 sePEDI 11 isiNDEBELE

04 isiZULU 08 siSWATI 12 OTHER

ENGLISH

SUPERVISOR

NAME NUMBER

1 2 3 FINAL VISIT

SPECIFY

0 1

2 0 1

INTERVIEWER VISITS

13 June 2016

17 April 2015

2016 SOUTH AFRICA DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY

CAREGIVER'S QUESTIONNAIRE FOR CHILD WHOSE BIOLOGICAL MOTHER DOES NOT LIVE IN THE HOUSEHOLD

IDENTIFICATION

Appendix E • 577
RESPONDENT AGREES RESPONDENT DOES NOT AGREE

TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 1 TO BE INTERVIEWED . . 2 END

NO.

101

HOURS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

MINUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

102

NAME

LINE NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

103 BOY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

GIRL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

104

DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW DAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

DON'T KNOW MONTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

YEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

105

AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS . . . . . . . . 

106 BLACK/AFRICAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

WHITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

COLOURED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

INDIAN/ASIAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER 6

RECORD NAME AND LINE NUMBER OF CHILD.

Is (NAME) a boy or a girl?

On what day, month, and year was (NAME FROM 102) 

born?

PROBE: What is (NAME)'s birthday?

How old was (NAME) at (NAME)'s last birthday?

COMPARE AND CORRECT 104 AND/OR 105

IF INCONSISTENT.

(SPECIFY)

Which population group does (NAME) belong to: black, 

white, coloured, Indian or something else?

RECORD THE TIME.

INTRODUCTION AND CONSENT

Hello. My name is _______________________________________. I am working with Statistics South Africa. We are conducting a survey about health 

and other topics all over South Africa. The information we collect will help the government to plan health services. Your household was selected for the 

survey. I would like to talk to you about (CHILD'S NAME FROM COVERSHEET)'s health and well-being. The questions usually take about 10-15 

minutes. All of the answers you give will be confidential and will not be shared with anyone other than members of our survey team. You don't have to be 

in the survey, but we hope you will agree to answer the questions since your views are important. If I ask you any question you don't want to answer, just 

let me know and I will go on to the next question or you can stop the interview at any time.

In case you need more information about the survey, you may contact the person listed on the card that has already been given to your household.

Do you have any questions?

May I begin the interview now?

SIGNATURE OF INTERVIEWER DATE

SECTION 1.CHILD'S BACKGROUND

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

578 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 1.CHILD'S BACKGROUND

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

107 BIOLOGICAL FATHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

ADOPTIVE PARENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

FOSTER PARENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

STEP PARENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

GRANDPARENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

BROTHER/SISTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

OTHER RELATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

UNRELATED GUARDIAN/CAREGIVER . . . . . . . . 18

OTHER 96

108 MOTHER DIED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

MOTHER WORKS ELSEWHERE/

SEEKS EMPLOYMENT ELSEWHERE . . . . . . . . 2

MOTHER SENT CHILD HERE FOR CARE . . . . . . . . 3

MOTHER IN HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER 6

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

Why is (NAME)'s biological mother not living with (NAME)?

What is your relationship to (NAME)?

Appendix E • 579
NO.

501A

602

504A YES, HAS ONLY A BOOKLET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 507A

YES, HAS ONLY ANOTHER DOCUMENT . . . . . 2

YES, HAS BOOKLET AND OTHER DOCUMENT 3 507A

NO, NO BOOKLET AND NO OTHER DOCUMENT 4

505A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 505A2

505A1 BOOKLET WITH RELATIVE/CHILD'S MOTHER 1

BOOKLET MISPLACED OR LOST . . . . . . . . . . . 2

BOOKLET STOLEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

BOOKLET HELD AS COLLATERAL/RANSOM . . 4

BOOKLET DESTROYED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

OTHER 6

(SPECIFY)

505A2 NONE AVAILABLE AT HEALTH FACILITY . . . . . 1

FOREIGNERS NOT GIVEN ONE . . . . . . . . . . . 2

REQUIRED TO PAY FOR IT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

TOO BUSY TO GET ONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

BOOKLET WITH RELATIVE/CHILD'S MOTHER . . 5

OTHER 6

(SPECIFY)

506A

CODE '2' CIRCLED CODE '4' CIRCLED 511A

506A1 YES, OTHER DOCUMENT SEEN . . . . . . . . . . . 1 508A

 NO DOCUMENT SEEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 511A

507A YES, ONLY BOOKLET SEEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 508A

YES, ONLY OTHER DOCUMENT SEEN . . . . . 2

YES, BOOKLET AND OTHER DOCUMENT SEEN 3 508A

NO BOOKLET AND NO OTHER DOCUMENT SEEN 4

507A1 BOOKLET WITH RELATIVE/CHILD'S MOTHER 1

BOOKLET MISPLACED OR LOST . . . . . . . . . . . 2

BOOKLET STOLEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

BOOKLET HELD AS COLLATERAL/RANSOM . . 4

BOOKLET AT HEALTH FACILITY . . . . . . . . . . . 5

OTHER 6

(SPECIFY)

507A2

CODE '2' CIRCLED CODE '4' CIRCLED 511A

SECTION 2. CHILD IMMUNISATION

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

CHECK 104: BORN IN 2013-2016?

Do you have a Road to Health booklet/card or other 

document where (NAME)'s vaccinations are written down?

Did you ever have a Road to Health booklet for (NAME)?

Why don't you have a Road to Health booklet for (NAME)?

CHECK 504A:

May I see the document where (NAME)'s vaccinations are 

written down?

May I see the Road to Health booklet or other document 

where (NAME)'s vaccinations are written down?

Where is (NAME)'s Road to Health booklet?

CHECK 507A:

What happened to (NAME)'s Road to Health booklet?

506A

YES NO

580 • Appendix E
508A

509A

NO YES 525A

510A

YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

(THEN SKIP TO 525A)

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

DTAP-IPV-HIB 2

PHOTOGRAPH VACCINATION PAGE OF BOOKLET OR OTHER DOCUMENT WHERE VACCINATIONS ARE WRITTEN.

SECTION 2. CHILD IMMUNISATION

HEPATITIS B (HEP B) 1

BCG

ORAL POLIO VACCINE (OPV) 0 (BIRTH DOSE)

ORAL POLIO VACCINE (OPV) 1

ROTAVIRUS (RV) 1

DTAP-IPV-HIB 1

COPY DATES FROM THE BOOKLET.

WRITE ‘44' IN ‘DAY' COLUMN IF BOOKLET SHOWS THAT A DOSE WAS GIVEN, BUT NO DATE IS RECORDED.

DAY MONTH YEAR

HEPATITIS B (HEP B) 2

DTAP-IPV-HIB 3

HEPATITIS B (HEP B) 3

PNEUMOCOCCAL CONJUGATE VACCINE (PCV) 2

ROTAVIRUS (RV) 2

CHECK 508A: 'BCG' TO 'MEASLES 2' ALL RECORDED?

(PROBE FOR VACCINATIONS AND WRITE ‘66' IN 

THE CORRESPONDING DAY COLUMN IN 508A THEN 

WRITE '00' IN THE CORRESPONDING DAY COLUMN 

FOR ALL VACCINATIONS NOT GIVEN)

(WRITE '00' IN THE CORRESPONDING DAY 

COLUMN FOR ALL VACCINATIONS NOT GIVEN)

(THEN SKIP TO 525A)

In addition to what is recorded on (this document/these 

documents), did (NAME) receive any other vaccinations, 

including vaccinations received in immunisation campaigns?

RECORD 'YES' ONLY IF THE RESPONDENT MENTIONS 

AT LEAST ONE OF THE VACCINATIONS IN 508A THAT 

ARE NOT RECORDED AS HAVING BEEN GIVEN.

PNEUMOCOCCAL CONJUGATE VACCINE (PCV) 1

MEASLES 1

PNEUMOCOCCAL CONJUGATE VACCINE (PCV) 3

DTAP-IPV-HIB 4

MEASLES 2

VITAMIN A (MOST RECENT)

Appendix E • 581
NO.

511A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 526A

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 602

512A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

514A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

515A FIRST TWO WEEKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

516A

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

517A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

518A

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

518A1 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

518A2

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

519A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

520A

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

521A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

522A

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

523A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

524A

NUMBER OF TIMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

525A YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

526A

CHILD RECEIVED CHILD RECEIVED CLINIC OUT OF STOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

 AT LEAST ONE RECEIVED NO NOT AWARE OF NEED FOR A VACCINATION B

VACCINATION VACCINATIONS FEAR OF SIDE EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

DID NOT KNOW WHERE TO GO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

TOO BUSY TO TAKE CHILD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

a) b) NO MONEY FOR TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

CHILD WAS ILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

RESPONDENT WAS ILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

OTHER X

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

517A

525A

How many times did (NAME) receive the measles vaccine?

Did (NAME) ever miss getting a vaccination or get a 

vaccination late?

602

How many times did (NAME) receive the hepatitis B 

vaccine?

Has (NAME) ever received a pneumococcal vaccination, that 

is, an injection in the right thigh to prevent pneumonia?

521A

How many times did (NAME) receive the pneumococcal 

vaccine?

Has (NAME) ever received a rotavirus vaccination, that is, 

syrup in the mouth to prevent diarrhoea?

523A

518A1

How many times did (NAME) receive the DTP-combination 

vaccine?

Has (NAME) ever received a hepatitis B vaccination, that is, 

an injection given in the right thigh to prevent hepatitis B?

519A

Did (NAME) receive the first oral polio vaccine in the first two 

weeks after birth or later?

How many times did (NAME) receive the rotavirus vaccine?

How many times did (NAME) receive the oral polio vaccine?

Has (NAME) ever received a DTP-combination vaccination, 

also known as a pentavalent vaccination? That is, an 

injection given in the left thigh or left arm to prevent 

diphtheria, tetanus, and whooping cough?

Did (NAME) ever receive any vaccinations to prevent 

(NAME) from getting diseases, including vaccinations 

received in immunisation campaigns?

Has (NAME) ever received oral polio vaccine, that is, about 

two drops in the mouth to prevent polio?

SECTION 2. CHILD IMMUNISATION

Has (NAME) ever received a BCG vaccination against 

tuberculosis, that is, an injection in the arm or shoulder that 

usually causes a scar?

Has (NAME) ever received a measles vaccination, that is, an 

injection in the left thigh or right arm to prevent measles?

(SPECIFY)

CHECK 508A AND 511A:

What was the reason for 

(NAME) missing the 

vaccination or getting it 

late? 

PROBE: Any other 

reason?

What is the reason 

(NAME) has not received 

any vaccinations? 

PROBE: Any other 

reason?

582 • Appendix E
NO.

602

605 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

607 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

608 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

609 MUCH LESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOMEWHAT LESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

ABOUT THE SAME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

MORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

NOTHING TO DRINK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

610 MUCH LESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SOMEWHAT LESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

ABOUT THE SAME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

MORE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

STOPPED FOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

NEVER GAVE FOOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

611 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 615

SHOW COMMON TYPES OF 

AMPULES/CAPSULES/SYRUPS.

Was (NAME) given any drug for intestinal worms in the last 

six months?

IF RESPONDENT SAYS NO, CHECK ROAD TO HEALTH 

BOOKLET.

In the last six months, was (NAME) given a vitamin A dose 

like [this/any of these]?

Has (NAME) had diarrhoea/loose stools in the last 2 weeks?

SECTION 3. CHILD HEALTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

Now I would like to ask some questions about (NAME)'s health.

Now I would like to know how much (NAME) was given to 

drink during the diarrhoea. Was (NAME) given less than 

usual to drink, about the same amount, or more than usual to 

drink?

IF LESS, PROBE: Was (NAME) given much less than usual 

to drink or somewhat less?

618

When (NAME) had diarrhoea, was (NAME) given less than 

usual to eat, about the same amount, more than usual, or 

nothing to eat?

IF LESS, PROBE: Was (NAME) given much less than usual 

to eat or somewhat less?

Did you seek advice or treatment for the diarrhoea from any 

source?

Appendix E • 583
NO.

SECTION 3. CHILD HEALTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

612 PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/COMM. HEALTH CENTRE B

MOBILE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

COMMUNITY HEALTH WORKER . . . . . . . . . . . D

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

E

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

 OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR 

I

OTHER SOURCE

SUPERMARKET/SHOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J

TRADITIONAL HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K

MARKET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L

OTHER X

613 TWO OR MORE ONLY ONE

CODES CIRCLED CODE CIRCLED 615

614

FIRST PLACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

USE LETTER CODE FROM 612.

615 YES NO DK

a) a) FLUID FROM ORS PACKET . . 1 2 8

b) b) CLINIC RECOMMENDED FLUID 1 2 8

c) c) ZINC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8

616

ALL 'NO'

ANY 'YES' OR 'DK'

a) b) YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

617 PILL OR SYRUP

ALL 'NO' ANTIBIOTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

ANY 'YES' OR 'DK' ANTIMOTILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

OTHER (NOT ANTIBIOTIC OR ANTIMOTILITY) C

a) b) UNKNOWN PILL OR SYRUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

INJECTION

ANTIBIOTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

NON-ANTIBIOTIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

UNKNOWN INJECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

(IV) INTRAVENOUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

HOME REMEDY/HERBAL MEDICINE . . . . . . . . . . . I

OTHER X

618 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

CHECK 615

What else was given to 

treat the diarrhoea?

Anything else?

618

Was (NAME) given any of the following at any time since 

(NAME) started having the diarrhoea:

Has (NAME) been ill with a fever at any time in the last 2 

weeks?

A clinic-recommended sugar-salt solution?

What was given to treat 

the diarrhoea?

Anything else?

CHECK 615

Was anything else given 

to treat the diarrhoea?

Was anything given to 

treat the diarrhoea?

Zinc tablets or syrup?

A fluid made from a special packet called Sorol or 

Rehidrat?

(SPECIFY)

Where did you seek advice or treatment?

Anywhere else?

CHECK 612:

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

 IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 'X' AND WRITE THE NAME OF THE 

PLACE(S).

Where did you first seek advice or treatment?

RECORD ALL TREATMENTS GIVEN.

(SPECIFY)

584 • Appendix E
NO.

SECTION 3. CHILD HEALTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

620 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

621 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

622 CHEST ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NOSE ONLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

BOTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

624

OTHER 6

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

623

YES NO OR

DON'T KNOW 631

624 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 631

625 PUBLIC SECTOR

GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

GOVERNMENT CLINIC/COMM. HEALTH CENTRE B

MOBILE CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

COMMUNITY HEALTH WORKER . . . . . . . . . . . D

OTHER PUBLIC SECTOR

E

PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR

PRIVATE HOSPITAL/CLINIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

CHEMIST/PHARMACY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

PRIVATE DOCTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

 OTHER PRIVATE MEDICAL SECTOR 

I

OTHER SOURCE

SUPERMARKET/SHOP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J

TRADITIONAL HEALER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K

MARKET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L

OTHER X

626 TWO OR MORE ONLY ONE

CODES CIRCLED CODE CIRCLED 628

627

FIRST PLACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

USE LETTER CODE FROM 625.

628

DAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

IF THE SAME DAY RECORD '00'.

CHECK 618: HAD FEVER

CHECK 625:

Where did you first seek advice or treatment?

How many days after the illness began did you first seek 

advice or treatment for (NAME)?

Did you seek advice or treatment for the illness from any 

source?

(SPECIFY)

 IF UNABLE TO DETERMINE IF PUBLIC OR PRIVATE 

SECTOR, RECORD 'X' AND WRITE THE NAME OF THE 

PLACE(S).

Was the fast or difficult breathing due to a problem in the chest 

or to a blocked or runny nose?

SPECIFY

Where did you seek advice or treatment?

Anywhere else?

PROBE TO IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF SOURCE.

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

Has (NAME) had an illness with a cough at any time in the last 

2 weeks?

623

Has (NAME) had fast, short, rapid breaths or difficulty breathing 

at any time in the last 2 weeks?

Appendix E • 585
NO.

SECTION 3. CHILD HEALTH

QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

629 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

630 ANTIMALARIAL DRUGS

COARTEM/ARTEMISININ COMBINATION

THERAPY (ACT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

OTHER ANTIMALARIAL

B

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS

PILL/SYRUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

INJECTION/IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

OTHER DRUGS

ASPIRIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

PARACETAMOL/PANADO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

BRUFEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

PONSTAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

OTHER X

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Z

631

YES NO 655

654 CHILD USED TOILET OR LATRINE . . . . . . . . . . . 01

PUT/RINSED INTO TOILET OR LATRINE . . . . . 02

PUT/RINSED INTO DRAIN, DITCH

RIVER OR STREAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03

THROWN INTO GARBAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04

BURIED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05

LEFT IN THE OPEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06

OTHER 96

655 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DON'T KNOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

656

HOURS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

MINUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

RECORD THE TIME.

The last time (NAME) passed stools, what was done to dispose 

of the stools?

At any time during the illness, did (NAME) take any drugs for 

the illness?

I do not want to know if (NAME) has HIV, I just want to know 

if you know (NAME)’s HIV status. Do you know (NAME)’s 

HIV status?

631

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

What drugs did (NAME) take?

Any other drugs?

RECORD ALL MENTIONED.

(SPECIFY)

CHECK 104: CHILD BORN IN 2014-2016?

586 • Appendix E
INTERVIEWER'S OBSERVATIONS

TO BE FILLED IN AFTER COMPLETING BIOMARKERS

SUPERVISOR'S OBSERVATIONS

Appendix E • 587

STATS SA LANGUAGE OF

SA MRC QUESTIONNAIRE

NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

100

NAME

101

NUMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

INSTRUCTIONS

AGREE . . . . . . . 1 DO NOT AGREE . . . . . . . 2 END

102 WESTERN CAPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

EASTERN CAPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02

NORTHERN CAPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03

FREE STATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04

KWAZULU-NATAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05

NORTH WEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06

GAUTENG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

MPUMALANGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08

LIMPOPO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

103 CITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

TOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

RURAL AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

FARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

TRIBAL AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

INFORMAL SETTLEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

104

AGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

105 MALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

FEMALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

106 CURRENTLY MARRIED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LIVING WITH A MAN/WOMAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

WIDOWED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

DIVORCED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

SEPARATED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

NEVER MARRIED OR LIVED 

WITH A MAN/WOMAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

107

LIVING

CHILDREN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

108 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

13 June 2016

2016 SOUTH AFRICA DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY

FIELDWORKER QUESTIONNAIRE

We are collecting information on the SADHS field staff. Please fill in the information below. The information will be part of the survey data 

files. Your name will not be in the data files; your information will remain anonymous. If there is any question you do not want to answer you 

may skip it and go to the next question.

RECORD FIELDWORKER NUMBER

ENGLISH

What is your name?

Are you male or female?

What is your current marital status? 

Have you ever had a child who died?

How old are you?

Do you live in a city, town, or rural area, a farm, a tribal 

area, or an informal settlement?

RECORD AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS.

How many living children do you have?

INCLUDE ONLY CHILDREN WHO ARE YOUR 

BIOLOGICAL CHILDREN.

In what province do you live? 

Appendix E • 589
NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

109 PRIMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SECONDARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

HIGHER THAN SECONDARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

110 PRIMARY SCHOOL

LESS THAN 1 YEAR COMPLETED . . . . . . . 00

GRADE 1/SUB A/CLASS 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

GRADE 2/SUB B/CLASS 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

GRADE 3/STANDARD 1/

AET 1 (KHA RI GUDE, SANLI) . . . . . . . . . . 13

GRADE 4/STANDARD 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

GRADE 5/STANDARD 3/AET 2 . . . . . . . . . . 15

GRADE 6 /STANDARD 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

GRADE 7/STANDARD 5/AET 3 . . . . . . . . . . 17

SECONDARY SCHOOL

LESS THAN 1 YEAR COMPLETED . . . . . . . 20

GRADE 8/STANDARD 6/FORM 1/NTC 1/

N1/NC (V) LEVEL 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

GRADE 9/STANDARD 7/FORM 2/AET 4/NTC 2/

N2/NC (V) LEVEL 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

GRADE 10/STANDARD 8/FORM 3/NTC 3/

N3/NC (V) LEVEL 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

GRADE 11/STANDARD 9/FORM 4 . . . . . . . 24

CERTIFICATE OR DIPLOMA WITH LESS THAN 

GRADE 12/STANDARD 10 COMPLETED . . 25

GRADE 12/STANDARD 10/FORM 5/MATRIC. . 26

N4/NTC4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

N5/NTC5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

N6/NTC6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

HIGHER EDUCATION

FURTHER STUDIES INCOMPLETE OR ONGOING30

CERTIFICATE OR DIPLOMA WITH GRADE 12/

STANDARD 10 COMPLETED . . . . . . . . . . 31

HIGHER DIPLOMA (TECHNIKON/

U. OF TECHNOLOGY) . . . . . . . 32

POST HIGHER DIPLOMA (TECHNIKON/

U. TECHNOLOGY MASTERS, DOCTORAL) 33

BACHELORS DEGREE/BACHELORS DEGREE

 AND POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA . . . . . 34

HONOURS DEGREE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

HIGHER DEGREE (MASTERS, DOCTORATE) 36

112 BLACK/AFRICAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

WHITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

COLOURED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

INDIAN/ASIAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OTHER

6

113 ENGLISH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A

AFRIKAANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B

ISIXHOSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C

ISIZULU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D

SESOTHO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E

SETSWANA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F

SEPEDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G

SISWATI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H

TSHIVENDA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

XITSONGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J

ISINDEBELE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K

OTHER X

RECORD ALL LANGUAGES YOU CAN SPEAK.

What languages can you speak?

(SPECIFY)

(SPECIFY)

What is the highest level of school you attended: 

primary, secondary, or higher than secondary?

Which population group do you consider yourself: 

black, white, coloured, Indian or something else?

What is the highest grade or form you completed at 

that level?

590 • Appendix E
NO. QUESTIONS AND FILTERS CODING CATEGORIES SKIP

114 ENGLISH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 01

AFRIKAANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02

ISIXHOSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 03

ISIZULU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 04

SESOTHO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05

SETSWANA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 06

SEPEDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07

SISWATI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 08

TSHIVENDA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09

XITSONGA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

ISINDEBELE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

OTHER 96

115 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

116 YES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

117 YES, STATS SA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

YES, SA MRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

NO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 119

118

PERMANENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

TEMPORARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

119

What is your mother tongue/native language (language 

spoken at home growing up)?

Have you ever worked on any other survey prior to this 

one (not a SADHS)? 

Were you already working for STATS SA or SA MRC 

at the time you were employed to work on this SADHS?

If you have comments, please write them here.

Have you ever worked on a SADHS survey prior to this 

one?

Are you a permanent or temporary employee of STATS 

SA or SA MRC?

(SPECIFY)

Appendix E • 591

ADDITIONAL DHS PROGRAM RESOURCES

The DHS Program Website – Download free DHS 

reports, standard documentation, key indicator data, 

and training tools, and view announcements.

DHSprogram.com

STATcompiler – Build custom tables, graphs, and 

maps with data from 90 countries and thousands of 

indicators.

Statcompiler.com

DHS Program Mobile App – Access key DHS 

indicators for 90 countries on your mobile device

(Apple, Android, or Windows).

Search DHS Program in your 

iTunes or Google Play store

DHS Program User Forum – Post questions about 

DHS data, and search our archive of FAQs.

userforum.DHSprogram.com

Tutorial Videos – Watch interviews with experts 

and learn DHS basics, such as sampling and 

weighting, downloading datasets, and how to read 

DHS tables.

www.youtube.com/DHSProgram

Datasets – Download DHS datasets for analysis. DHSprogram.com/Data

Spatial Data Repository – Download 

geographically-linked health and demographic data 

for mapping in a geographic information system 

(GIS).

spatialdata.DHSprogram.com

Social Media – Follow The DHS Program and join the conversation. Stay up to date through: 

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