Responsible 

Fatherhood 

Spotlight 

February 2010 

Take Time to Be a Dad Today 

National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse  20410 Observation Drive Suite 107  Germantown, MD 20876  

Toll-free: 1 (877) 4DAD411  Fax: (301) 948-4325  www.fatherhood.gov 

Father Involvement and Family of Origin 

The characteristics of men’s families of origin—such as the quality of their parents’ relationship and 

whether their father was present in their lives—have important implications for their own marital 

relationships and their involvement with their own children. 

Definitions 

Father involvement refers to the type and level of a father’s involvement with his children. The concept 

encompasses three main dimensions: engagement (a father’s involvement in activities with his child), 

accessibility (a father’s availability to his child), and responsibility (the extent to which a father provides his 

child with resources, including financial support).23, 24

Importance and Implications of Fathers’ Families of Origin for Father Involvement 

Researchers and theorists emphasize that individuals’ relationships in their current families are influenced 

by the experiences and relationships they had in their own families of origin.38 Both the current state of 

men’s marriages and the nature of their involvement in their children’s lives may be shaped to a 

significant degree by the relationship and parenting models fathers experienced in their families of origin.3, 

11

Implications for Fathers, Their Partners, and the Coparental Relationship

 Characteristics of the family of origin have been shown to influence the timing of men’s transitions 

into fatherhood. 

o Several characteristics of men’s families of origin have been found to be related to an 

increased likelihood of experiencing an early transition into fatherhood, including: being 

raised in large families; coming from families considered having low socioeconomic 

status; being raised in single-parent households; being born to an adolescent mother; 

having parents with low levels of education or low educational aspirations for their 

children; having a poor-quality relationship with one’s parents; having a mother who used 

harsh, inconsistent discipline styles; or having parents who engaged in antisocial 

behaviors. 10, 13, 19, 25, 34, 35 

 Research has found that current marital quality is positively related to the quality of one’s parents’ 

marital relationship in the family of origin.5, 14 

o The ways in which spouses behave toward one another and the level of aggression that 

they show in their interactions with each other have been shown to reflect the behavior 

and aggression styles exhibited by their own parents in their families of origin.21, 37 

o Recollections of having positive relationships with one’s own parents have been linked to 

better marital quality in one’s own marriage following the birth of a child. 4, 16, 22

 Studies suggest that fathers’ current coparenting behaviors are related to the quality of 

coparenting in the family of origin. 

o One study showed that fathers exhibit more positive coparenting behaviors when they 

perceive that their own parents had a more positive coparental relationship, whereas 

mothers’ coparenting experiences were found to be unrelated to their families of origin.36 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotli

Father Involvement and Family of

ght 

 Origin 

o Other research found that mothers whose parents had more supportive coparenting 

relationships exhibited more supportive coparenting with their own spouses, compared 

with mothers whose own parents had less positive coparental relationships. However, the 

supportiveness of the coparenting relationship in fathers’ families of origin was not found 

to be related to current coparenting supportiveness.33 

Implications for Father Involvement 

 Fathers’ parenting behaviors and involvement with their children are often associated with one’s 

family of origin.11, 27 Researchers have proposed two possible explanations for how the family of 

origin may influence father involvement: 

o The modeling hypothesis suggests that fathers model the parenting that they 

experienced with their own fathers (whether positive or negative).27

o The compensation hypothesis suggests that fathers who experienced poor parenting as 

children attempt to compensate for that poor parenting by being better parents to their 

children.27 

 Both of these explanations are supported by studies that have examined fathers’ families of origin 

and current involvement with children, acknowledging that fathers may either model their own 

parents’ behaviors or may compensate for a lack of positive parental experiences with their own 

children.15, 27, 29

o Adolescents who report that they experienced good parenting are more likely to exhibit 

more positive parenting (e.g., better monitoring, communication, discipline, involvement, 

and affection) with their own children 20 years later.6

 

o Men are more likely to spend more time living with their own children if they report having 

positive relationships with their parents during childhood, if they experienced low levels of 

conflict in their family of origin, if their parents were not engaged in antisocial behaviors, 

and if they did not experience changes in caretakers as children. In contrast, men who 

report less positive family of origin characteristics are likely to spend less time living with 

their children .19 

o Adolescent fathers may be more likely to take responsibility for and help care for their 

children if they have positive feelings toward their own families of origin and if they 

perceive that their families of origin support them in their father roles.7, 18 

o Fathers may participate in child care more if they remember their own relationships in 

their families of origin as cohesive, expressive, and low in conflict.8

 

o Fathers who report that they had a better relationship with their own father (versus with 

their own mother) also report increased levels of involvement with children over time.31, 32 

o Fathers who report experiencing positive interactions with their own fathers also report 

being more comfortable taking on an active parenting role with their own children. 20 

o Fathers who report that their own fathers exhibited low levels of involvement may be 

more likely to take on the role of primary caregiver for their own children.28 

o Many men report that they do not view their own fathers as positive models but that they 

want to be better fathers to their own children.9, 12 

o Some studies suggest that fathers who had either a very close or a very distant 

relationship with their own parents during childhood have more positive attitudes, 

feelings, and beliefs about father involvement prior to the birth of their first child and at six 

and 12 months after that birth.1, 2 

 However, not all studies have found a relationship between fathers’ families of origin and their 

current levels of involvement with children. 

o Some studies have found that the level of involvement that a father has with his children 

is unrelated to the amount of involvement that his own father had with him.17, 30 

o One study found that although mothers’ relationships with their own parents were related 

to their levels of warmth and investment with their own infants, fathers’ relationships with 

their own parents did not predict their levels of warmth or investment with their own 

children.26 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 2 of 15 www.fatherhood.gov
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Family of Origin 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 3 of 15 www.fatherhood.gov

Family of Origin and Father Involvement in Early Childhood 

The following estimates are for fathers of infants (nine-month-old children). 

Figure 1 and Table 1 show that there were statistically significant differences in fathers’ levels of 

involvement with infants based on whether fathers lived with their own dads at age 16. Men whose 

fathers did not live with them when they were 16 engaged in higher levels of caregiving, physical care, 

and nurturing activities than did men whose fathers lived with them at age 16. 

Figure 1: Differences in Resident Father Involvement by Whether Father Lived With Own Dad at 

Age 16 

12.1

10.2

3.9

9.7 8.9

12.6

11.1

3.9

9.7 9.7

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Caregiving Physical

Care

Cognitive

Stimulation

Warmth Nurturing

Level of Involvement

Type of Involvement

Resident Father Involvement by Whether

Father Lived with Own Dad at Age 16

Lived w/Dad

Did Not Live

w/Dad

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 1: Differences in Resident Father Involvement by Whether Father Lived With Own Dad at 

Age 16 

Type of Lived Did Not Live Possible 

Involvement w/Dad w/Dad Range 

Caregiving 12.1 12.6a

 0-15 

Physical Care 10.2 11.1 a 0-20 

Cognitive 3.9 3.9 0-9 Stimulation 

Warmth 9.7 9.7 0-10 

Nurturing 8.9 9.7 a 0-16 

a = significantly different from fathers who lived w/dad 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Family of Origin 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 4 of 15 www.fatherhood.gov

Differences in Father Involvement With Sons and Daughters by Subgroup 

Differences in Father Involvement by Father Age and Family of Origin 

Figure 2 and Table 2 show that for resident fathers aged 25 to 34 and 45 and older, caregiving 

involvement was higher among men whose fathers did not live with them at age 16, compared with men 

of the same ages who did live with their fathers at age 16. 

Figure 2. Father Caregiving Involvement by Father Age and 

Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 16 

12.7

12.1

11.8 11.6

13

12.6

11.8

13.5

10.5

11

11.5

12

12.5

13

13.5

14

24 and

younger

25‐34 35‐44 45 and older

Level of Involvement

Father Age

Caregiving Involvement by Father Age and

Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 16

Lived w/Dad

Did Not Live

w/Dad

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 2. Father Caregiving Involvement by Father Age and 

Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 16 

Did Not Live Possible Father Age Lived w/Dad w/Dad Range 

24 and younger 12.7 13.0 0-15 

25-34 12.1 12.6 a 0-15 

35-44 11.8 11.8 0-15 

45 and older 11.6 13.5 a 0-15 

a = significantly different from fathers who lived w/dad 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spo

Father Involvement and Family

tlight 

 of Origin 

Figure 3 and Table 3 show that for all fathers under age 45, physical care involvement was higher 

among men who did not live with their own fathers at age 16, compared with men who did live with their 

fathers at 16. There were no significant differences in fathers’ physical care among fathers aged 45 and 

older. 

Figure 3. Father Physical Care Involvement by Father Age and 

Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 16 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 5 of 15 www.fatherhood.gov

11.4

10.3 9.6 10.1

11.8 11 10.4

12.3

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

24 and

younger

25‐34 35‐44 45 and older

Level of Involvement

Father Age

Physical Care Involvement by Father Age

and Whether Lived with Own Dad at Age 16

Lived w/Dad

Did Not Live

w/Dad

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 3. Father Physical Care Involvement by Father Age and 

Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 16 

Did Not Live Father Age Lived w/Dad Possible Range w/Dad 

24 and younger 11.4 11.8 0-20 

25-34 10.3 11.0 a 0-20 

35-44 9.6 10.4 a 0-20 

45 and older 10.1 12.3 a 0-20 

a = significantly different from fathers who lived w/dad 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Family of Origin 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 6 of 15 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 4 and Table 4 show that there were no significant differences in fathers’ levels of cognitive 

stimulation by family of origin for fathers of any age group. 

Figure 4. Father Cognitive Stimulation Involvement by Father Age and Whether Lived With Own 

Dad at Age 16 

3.9

4

3.9

4

4.1

3.9 3.9

4.1

3.8

3.85

3.9

3.95

4

4.05

4.1

4.15

24 and

younger

25‐34 35‐44 45 and older

Level of Involvement

Father Age

Cognitive Stimulation by Father Age and

Whether Lived with Own Dad at Age 16

Lived w/Dad

Did Not Live

w/Dad

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 4. Father Cognitive Stimulation Involvement by Father Age and Whether Lived With Own 

Dad at Age 16 

Did Not Live Possible Father Age Lived w/Dad w/Dad Range 

24 and younger 3.9 4.1 0-9 

25-34 4.0 3.9 0-9 

35-44 3.9 3.9 0-9 

45 and older 4.0 4.1 0-9 

a = significantly different from fathers who lived w/dad 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Sp

Father Involvement and Fami

otlig

ly of 

ht 

Origin 

Figure 5 and Table 5 show that fathers’ levels of warmth did not differ significantly by family of origin for 

resident fathers of any age group. 

Figure 5. Father Warmth Involvement by Father Age and 

Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 16 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 7 of 15 www.fatherhood.gov

9.7 9.7

9.6

9.5

9.8

9.7

9.6

9.7

9.35

9.4

9.45

9.5

9.55

9.6

9.65

9.7

9.75

9.8

9.85

24 and

younger

25‐34 35‐44 45 and older

Level of Involvement

Father Age

Warmth by Father Age and Whether

Lived with Own Dad at Age 16

Lived w/Dad

Did Not Live

w/Dad

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 5. Father Warmth Involvement by Father Age and 

 Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 16 

Did Not Live Father Age Lived w/Dad Possible Range w/Dad 

24 and younger 9.7 9.8 0-10 

25-34 9.7 9.7 0-10 

35-44 9.6 9.6 0-10 

45 and older 9.5 9.7 0-10 

a = significantly different from fathers who lived w/dad 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Family of Origin 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 8 of 15 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 6 and Table 6 show that for fathers of all ages, levels of nurturing infants were higher among 

fathers who did not live with their own fathers at age 16, compared with fathers who did. 

Figure 6. Father Nurturing Involvement by Father Age and 

Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 16 

9.6

8.9 8.7

9.5

10.2 9.6 9.3

10.9

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

24 and

younger

25‐34 35‐44 45 and older

Level of Involvement

Father Age

Nurturing by Father Age and Whether

Lived with Own Dad at Age 16

Lived w/Dad

Did Not Live

w/Dad

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 6. Father Nurturing Involvement by Father Age and Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 16 

Did Not Live Possible Father Age Lived w/Dad w/Dad Range 

24 and younger 9.6 10.2 a 0-16 

25-34 8.9 9.6 a 0-16 

35-44 8.7 9.3 a 0-16 

45 and older 9.5 10.9 a 0-16 

a = significantly different from fathers who lived w/dad 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Family of Origin 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 9 of 15 www.fatherhood.gov

Differences in Father Involvement by Father Race/Ethnicity and Family of Origin 

Figure 7 and Table 7 show that fathers’ levels of caregiving were higher among Hispanic, black, and 

“other” race fathers who did not live with their own fathers at age 16. There were no significant differences 

in levels of caregiving by family of origin for white fathers. 

Figure 7. Father Caregiving Involvement by Father Race and 

Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 16 

12.2

11.5

12.8

11.6

12.4

12.2

13.3

12.5

10.5

11

11.5

12

12.5

13

13.5

White Hispanic Black Other

Level of Involvement

Father Race

Caregiving Involvement by Father Race and

Whether Lived with Own Dad at Age 16

Lived w/Dad

Did Not Live

w/Dad

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 7. Father Caregiving Involvement by Father Race and 

Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 16 

Did Not Live Father Race Lived w/Dad Possible Range w/Dad 

White 12.2 12.4 0-15 

Hispanic 11.5 12.2 a 0-15 

Black 12.8 13.3 a 0-15 

Other 11.6 12.5 a 0-15 

a = significantly different from fathers who lived w/dad 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
 Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Family of Origin 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 10 of 15 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 8 and Table 8 show that fathers’ levels of physical care were higher among white, Hispanic, and 

black fathers who did not live with their own fathers at age 16. There were no significant differences in 

levels of physical care by family of origin for fathers of “other” races. 

Figure 8. Father Physical Care Involvement by Father Race and 

Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 16 

10

10.8 10.7 10.5 10.5

11.4

12.2

10.7

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

White Hispanic Black Other

Level of Involvement

Father Race

Physical Care Involvement by Father Race

and Whether Lived with Own Dad at Age 16

Lived w/Dad

Did Not Live

w/Dad

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 8. Father Physical Care Involvement by Father Race and Whether Lived With Own Dad at 

Age 16 

Did Not Live Father Race Lived w/Dad Possible Range w/Dad 

White 10.0 10.7 a 0-20 

Hispanic 10.8 11.4 a 0-20 

Black 10.5 12.2 a 0-20 

Other 10.5 10.7 0-20 

a = significantly different from fathers who lived w/dad 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Family of Origin 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 11 of 15 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 9 and Table 9 show that among black fathers, levels of cognitive stimulation with infants were 

higher among men who did not live with their own fathers at age 16. There were no significant differences 

in levels of cognitive stimulation by family of origin for fathers of any other racial group. 

Figure 9. Father Cognitive Stimulation Involvement by Father Race and Whether Lived With Own 

Dad at Age 16 

4 4

3.8 3.8

3.9

3.8

4.3

3.7

3.4

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

3.9

4

4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

White Hispanic Black Other

Level of Involvement

Father Race

Cognitive Stimulation by Father Race and

Whether Lived with Own Dad at Age 16

Lived w/Dad

Did Not Live

w/Dad

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 9. Father Cognitive Stimulation Involvement by Father Race and Whether Lived With Own 

Dad at Age 16 

Did Not Live Father Race Lived w/Dad Possible Range w/Dad 

White 4.0 3.9 0-9 

Hispanic 4.0 3.8 0-9 

Black 3.8 4.3 a 0-9 

Other 3.8 3.7 0-9 

a = significantly different from fathers who lived w/dad 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Family of Origin 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 12 of 15 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 10 and Table 10 show among Hispanic fathers, levels of warmth toward infants were higher 

among men who did not live with their own fathers at age 16. There were no significant differences in 

levels of warmth by family of origin for fathers of any other racial group. 

Figure 10. Father Warmth Involvement by Father Race and 

Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 16 

9.7

9.6 9.6

9.5

9.7

9.8 9.8

9.4

9.2

9.3

9.4

9.5

9.6

9.7

9.8

9.9

White Hispanic Black Other

Level of Involvement

Father Race

Warmth by Father Race and Whether

Lived with Own Dad at Age 16

Lived w/Dad

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 10. Father Warmth Involvement by Father Race and Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 16 

Did Not Live Father Race Lived w/Dad Possible Range w/Dad 

White 9.7 9.7 0-10 

Hispanic 9.6 9.8 a 0-10 

Black 9.6 9.8 0-10 

Other 9.5 9.4 0-10 

a = significantly different from fathers who lived w/dad 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Family of Origin 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 13 of 15 www.fatherhood.gov

Figure 11 and Table 11 show that among white and black fathers, levels of nurturing with infants were 

higher among men who did not live with their own fathers at age 16. There were no significant differences 

in levels of nurturing by family of origin for Hispanic fathers or fathers of “other” races. 

Figure 11. Father Nurturing Involvement by Father Race and 

Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 16 

8.1

10.1 9.9 10

9

10.3 10.7

9.9

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

White Hispanic Black Other

Level of Involvement

Father Race

Nurturing by Father Race and Whether

Lived with Own Dad at Age 16

Lived w/Dad

Did Not Live

w/Dad

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Table 11. Father Nurturing Involvement by Father Race and Whether Lived With Own Dad at Age 

16 

Did Not Live Father Race Lived w/Dad Possible Range w/Dad 

White 8.1 9.0 a 0-16 

Hispanic 10.1 10.3 0-16 

Black 9.9 10.7 a 0-16 

Other 10.0 9.9 0-16 

a = significantly different from fathers who lived w/dad 

Source: Child Trends’ analysis of ECLS-B 9-month data 

Definitions and Measurement 

Father involvement was measured by adding together scores from a series of questions about the 

frequency with which fathers take part in various activities with their children. These activities included 

reading books, singing songs, telling stories, going on errands, playing chasing games, preparing meals, 

changing diapers, giving the child a ride on shoulders, playing indoors, putting the child to sleep, bathing 

the child, playing outside, helping the child get dressed, going out to eat, helping the child eat, helping the 

child brush teeth, taking the child to religious services, soothing an upset child, staying home with an ill 

child, or taking the child to day care. 

Data Sources 

The tables and charts in this brief documenting relationship happiness and father involvement among 

resident fathers are based on Child Trends’ analyses of data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study 

– Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) 9-month surveys. The ECLS-B is a nationally representative, longitudinal survey 

of American children born in 2001. The ECLS-B includes 10,688 children and their caregivers, and it 
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Family of Origin 

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 14 of 15 www.fatherhood.gov

follows these children from infancy until the time they enter first grade. Data were collected through 

parent interviews, direct child assessments, birth certificate data, and interviews with children’s caregivers 

and teachers. The National Center for Education Statistics collected the data. 

Data Limitations 

The data presented here were drawn from a sample consisting only of resident fathers and therefore may 

not be representative of the involvement of fathers who do not live with their children. 

Resources 

 The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services funds programs and research about 

fatherhood development and the importance of fathers for children: http://fatherhood.hhs.gov/ 

 The National Center on Fathers and Families provides research-based information about 

father involvement and child well-being aimed at improving children’s lives through the positive 

participation of their fathers: http://www.ncoff.gse.upenn.edu/ 

 The National Center for Fathering conducts research and provides resources to increase 

involvement of fathers in the lives of children: http://www.fathers.com 

References 

1 Beaton, J. M., & Doherty, W. J. (2007). Fathers’ family of origin relationships and attitudes about father involvement from 

pregnancy through first year postpartum. Fathering, 5(3), 236-245. 2 Beaton, J. M., Doherty, W. J., & Rueter, M. A. (2003). Family of origin processes and attitudes of expectant fathers. Fathering, 2, 

35-54. 3 Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55, 83-96. 4 Belsky, J., & Isabella, R.A. (1985). Marital and parent–child relationships in family of origin and marital change following the birth of 

a baby: A retrospective analysis. Child Development, 56, 342–349. 5 Booth, A., & Edwards, J. N. (1989). Transmission of marital and family quality over the generations: The effects of parental divorce 

and unhappiness. Journal of Divorce, 13(2), 41-58. 6 Chen, Z. Y., & Kaplan, H. B. (2001). Intergenerational transmission of constructive parenting. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 

63, 17-31. 7 Christmon, K. (1990). The unwed adolescent father’s perceptions of his family and of himself as a father. Child and Adolescent 

Social Work, 7(4), 275-283. 8 Cowan, C. P., & Cowan, P. (1987). Men's involvement in parenthood: Identifying the antecedents and understanding the barriers. 

In P. W. Berman and F. Pedersen (Eds.), Men's transition to parenthood (pp. 145-171). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 9 Daly, K. (1993). Reshaping fatherhood: Finding the models. Journal of Family Issues, 14, 510-530. 10 Dearden, K. A., Hale, C. B., & Woolley, T. (1995). The antecedents of teen fatherhood: A retrospective case-control study of Great 

Britain youth. American Journal of Public Health, 85, 551-554. 11 Doherty, W. J., Kouneski, E. F., & Erickson, M. F. (1998). Responsible fathering: An overview and conceptual framework. Journal 

of Marriage and the Family, 60, 277-292. 12 Ehrensaft, D. (1987). Parenting together: Men and women sharing the care of their children. New York: Free Press. 13 Fagot, B. I., Pears, K. C., Capaldi, D. M., Crosby, L., & Leve, C. S. (1998). Becoming an adolescent father: Precursors and 

parenting. Developmental Psychology, 34, 1209-1219. 14 Feng, D., Giarrusso, R., Bengston, V. L., & Frye, N. (1999). Intergenerational transmission of marital quality and marital instability. 

Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 451-463. 15 Floyd, K., & Morman, M. T. (2000). Affection received from fathers as a predictor of men’s affection with their own sons: Tests of 

the modeling and compensation hypotheses. Communication Monographs, 67, 347-361. 16 Frosch, C.A., Mangelsdorf, S.C., & McHale, J. L. (1998). Correlates of marital behavior at 6 months postpartum. Developmental 

Psychology, 34, 1438–1449. 17 Gerson, K. (1993). No man’s land: Men’s changing commitments to family and work. New York: Basic Books. 18 Hendricks, L., Howard, C., & Caesar, P. (1981). Black unwed adolescent fathers: A comparative study of their problems and helpseeking behavior. Journal of the National Medical Association, 73(9), 863-868. 19 Jaffee, S. R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., & Dickson, N. (2001). Predicting early fatherhood and whether young fathers live 

with their children: Prospective findings and policy reconsiderations. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(6), 803-815. 20 Jump, T. L., & Haas, L. (1987). Fathers in transition: Dual-career fathers participating in childcare. In M. Kimmel (Ed.), Changing 

men: New research on men and masculinity (pp. 98-114). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. 21 Kalmuss, D. (1984). The intergenerational transmission of marital aggression. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46, 11-19. 22 Lane, A.R., Wilcoxon, S.A., & Cecil, J.H. (1988). Family-of-origin experiences and the transition to parenthood: Considerations for 

marital and family therapists. Family Therapy, 15, 23–29.
Responsible Fatherhood Spotlight 

Father Involvement and Family of Origin 

23 Lamb, M. E., Pleck, J. H., Charnov, E. L., & Levine, J. A. (1985). The role of the father in child development: The effects of 

increased paternal involvement. In B. B. Lahey and 

A. E. Kazdin (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 229-266). New York: Plenum. 24 Lamb, M. E., Pleck, J. H., Charnov, E. L., & Levine, J. A. (1987). A biosocial perspective on paternal behavior and involvement. In 

J. B. Lancaster, J. Altman, S. Rossi, and L. R. Sherrod (Eds.), Parenting across the lifespan: Biosocial dimensions (pp. 111-142). 

New York: Aldine de Gruyter. 25 Lerman, R. I. (1993). A national profile of young unwed fathers. In R. I. Lerman and T. J. Ooms (Eds.), Young unwed fathers: 

Changing roles and emerging policies (pp. 27-51). Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. 26 McHale, J. P. (1995). Coparenting and triadic interactions during infancy: The roles of marital distress and child gender. 

Developmental Psychology, 31, 985-996. 27 Pleck, J. H. (1997). Paternal involvement: Levels, sources, and consequences. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child 

development (3rd ed., pp. 67-103). New York: 

John Wiley & Sons. 

28 Pruett, K. D. (1987). The nurturing father: Journey toward the complete man. New York: Warner Books. 29 Radin, N. (1988). Primary caregiving fathers of long duration. In P. Bronstein and C. P. Cowan (Eds.), Fatherhood today: Men’s 

changing role in the family (pp. 127-143). New 

York: Wiley. 

30 Radin, N. (1994). Primary-caregiving fathers in intact families. In A. E. Gottfried and A. W. Gottfried (Eds.), Redefining families: 

Implications for children’s development (pp. 55-97). New York: Plenum. 31 Radin, N., & Goldsmith, R. (1985). Caregiving fathers of preschoolers: Four years later. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 31, 375-383. 32 Spruijt, E., & Duindam, V. (2002). Was there an increase in caring fatherhood in the 1990s? Two Dutch longitudinal studies. Social 

Behavior and Personality, 30(7), 683-696. 33 Stright, A. D., & Bales, S. S. (2003). Coparenting quality: Contributions of child and parent characteristics. Family Relations, 52, 

232-240. 34 Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Wei, E. H. (1998). The precursors of young fatherhood and its effect on delinquency of teenage males. 

Journal of Adolescent Health, 22, 56-65. 35 Thornberry, T. P., Smith, C. A., & Howard, G. J. (1997). Risk factors for teenage fatherhood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 

59, 505-522. 36 Van Egeren, L. A. (2003). Prebirth predictors of coparenting experiences in early infancy. Infant Mental Health Journal, 24(3), 278-

295. 37 Van Lear, C. (1992). Marital communication across generations: Learning and rebellion, continuity and change. Journal of Social 

and Personal Relationships, 9, 103-123. 38 Vondra. J., & Belsky, J. (1993). Developmental origins of parenting: Personality and relationship factors. In T. Luster and L. 

Okagaki (Eds.), Parenting: An ecological perspective (pp. 1-33). Hillside, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

1 (877)4DAD411 Page 15 of 15 www.fatherhood.gov